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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 8 + "Dubner" to "Dyeing" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 24, 2010 [EBook #34751] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VIII SLICE VIII<br /><br /> +Dubner to Dyeing</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">DÜBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">DUNFERMLINE, JAMES ABERCROMBY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">DUBOIS, FRANÇOIS CLÉMENT THÉODORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">DUNFERMLINE</a> (burgh of Scotland)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">DUBOIS, GUILLAUME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">DUNGANNON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">DUNGARPUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">DUBOIS, PAUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">DUNGARVAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">DUBOIS, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">DUNGENESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">DUBOIS</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">DUNGEON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">DUBOIS-CRANCÉ, EDMOND LOUIS ALEXIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">DUNKELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">DUNKIRK</a> (France)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">DUNKIRK</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">DUBUQUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">DU CAMP, MAXIME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">DUNMORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">DU CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">DUNMOW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">DUCANGE, VICTOR HENRI JOSEPH BRAHAIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">DUNNE, FINLEY PETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">DUCAS</a> (Byzantine family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">DUNNOTTAR CASTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">DUCAS</a> (Byzantine historian)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">DUNOIS, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">DUCASSE, PIERRE EMMANUEL ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">DUNOON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">DUCAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">DUNROBIN CASTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">DUNS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">DUCHENNE, GUILLAUME BENJAMIN AMAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">DUNSINANE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">DU CHESNE, ANDRÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">DUNSTABLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">DUCIS, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">DUNSTAFFNAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">DUCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">DUNSTAN, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">DUCKING and CUCKING STOOLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">DUNSTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">DUCKWEED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">DUNTOCHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">DUNTON, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">DÜNTZER, JOHANN HEINRICH JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">DUCLOS, CHARLES PINOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">DUNWICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">DUOVIRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">DUCTLESS GLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">DUPANLOUP, FÉLIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">DUDERSTADT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">DUPIN, ANDRÉ MARIE JEAN JACQUES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">DUDLEY, EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">DU PIN, LOUIS ELLIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">DUPLEIX, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">DUDLEY, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">DUPONT, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">DUDLEY</a> (English county & town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">DUPONT DE L’ÉTANG, PIERRE ANTOINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">DUDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">DUPONT DE L’EURE, JACQUES CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">DUDWEILER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">DU PONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">DUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">DUPORT, ADRIEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">DUENNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">DUPORT, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">DUET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">DÜPPEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">DU PRAT, ANTOINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">DUFF, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">DUPRÉ, JULES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">DUFFERIN AND AVA, FREDERICK TEMPLE HAMILTON-TEMPLE-BLACKWOOD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">DUFF-GORDON, LUCIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">DUPUY, CHARLES ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">DUFFTOWN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">DUPUY, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">DUPUY DE LÔME, STANISLAS CHARLES HENRI LAURENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">DUFRÉNOY, OURS PIERRE ARMAND PETIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">DUQUE DE ESTRADA, DIEGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">DUFRESNY, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">DUQUESNE, ARRAHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">DUGAZON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">DUQUESNE</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">DURAMEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">DUGONG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">DURAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">DURÁN, AGUSTÍN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">DURANCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">DURAND, ASHER BROWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">DURAND, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">DÜHRING, EUGEN KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">DURAND, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">DUIGENAN, PATRICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">DURANDO, GIACOMO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">DUIKER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">DURANGO</a> (state of Mexico)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">DUILIUS, GAIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">DURANGO</a> (city of Mexico)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">DUISBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">DURANI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">DUK-DUK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">DURANTE, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">DUKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">DURÃO, JOSÉ DE SANTA RITA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">DUKE OF EXETER’S DAUGHTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">DURAZZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">DUKER, CARL ANDREAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">D’URBAN, SIR BENJAMIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">DUKERIES, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">DURBAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">DUKES, LEOPOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">DURBAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">DUKINFIELD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">DÜREN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">DULCIGNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">DURENE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">DULCIMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">DÜRER, ALBRECHT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">DÜLKEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">DURESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">DULONG, PIERRE LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">D’URFEY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">DULSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">DURFORT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">DULUTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">DURGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">DULWICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">DUMAGUETE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">DURHAM</a> (county of England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">DUMANJUG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">DURHAM</a> (city of England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">DU MARSAIS, CÉSAR CHESNEAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">DURHAM</a> (North Carolina, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">DUMAS, ALEXANDRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">DURIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">DUMAS, ALEXANDRE</a> (Fils)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">DURIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">DUMAS, GUILLAUME MATHIEU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">DÜRKHEIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">DURLACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">DUROC, GÉRAUD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">DUMBARTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">DUROCHER, JOSEPH MARIE ELISABETH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">DUMBARTONSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">DURRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">DUMB WAITER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">DURUY, JEAN VICTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">DUM-DUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">DU RYER, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">DUMESNIL, MARIE FRANÇOISE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">DUSE, ELEANORA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">DUMFRIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">DUMFRIESSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">DÜSSELDORF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">DÜMICHEN, JOHANNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">DUSSERAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">DÜMMLER, ERNST LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">DUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">DUMONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">DUMONT, ANDRÉ HUBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">DUTCH LANGUAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">DUMONT, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">DUTCH LITERATURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">DUMONT, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">DUTCH WARS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">DUMONT, PIERRE ÉTIENNE LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">DUMONT D’URVILLE, JULES SÉBASTIEN CÉSAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">DUTENS, LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">DUMORTIERITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">DUTROCHET, RENÉ JOACHIM HENRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">DUMOULIN, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">DUTT, MICHAEL MADHU SUDAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">DUTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">DUMP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">DU VAIR, GUILLAUME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">DUNASH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT PINEUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">DUNBAR, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">DUVAL, CLAUDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">DUVENECK, FRANK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">DUNBAR, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">DUNBAR</a> (seaport of Scotland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">DUVEYRIER, HENRI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">DUNBLANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">DUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">DUNCAN</a> (Scottish kings)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">DUXBURY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">DUNCAN, ADAM DUNCAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">DVINA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">DUNCAN, PETER MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">DVINSK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">DUNCAN, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">DVOŘÁK, ANTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">DUNCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">DWARAKA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">DUNCKER, MAXIMILIAN WOLFGANG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">DWARF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">DUNCKLEY, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">DWARS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">DUNCOMBE, SIR CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">DWIGHT, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">DUNDALK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">DWIGHT, JOHN SULLIVAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">DUNDEE, JOHN GRAHAM OF CLAVERHOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">DUNDEE</a> (city of Scotland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">DWIGHT, TIMOTHY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">DUNDERLANDSDAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">DYAKS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">DYCE, ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">DUNEDIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">DYCE, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">DUNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">DYEING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">DUNFERMLINE, ALEXANDER SETON</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DÜBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1802-1867), German classical scholar +(naturalized a Frenchman), was born in Hör selgau, near Gotha, on the +20th of December 1802. After studying at the university of Göttingen he +returned to Gotha, where from 1827-1832 he held a post (<i>inspector +coenobii</i>) in connexion with the gymnasium. During this period he made +his name known by editions of Justin and Persius (after Casaubon). In +1832 he was invited by the brothers Didot to Paris, to co-operate in a +new edition of H. Etienne’s Greek <i>Thesaurus</i>. He also contributed largely +to the <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> published by the same firm, a series of Greek +classics with Latin translation, critical notes and valuable indexes. +One of Dübner’s most important works was an edition of Caesar +undertaken by command of Napoleon III., which obtained him the cross of +the Legion of Honour. His editions are considered to be models of +literary and philological criticism, and did much to raise the standard +of classical scholarship in France. He violently attacked Burnouf’s +method of teaching Greek, but without result. Dübner may have gone too +far in his zeal for reform, and his opinions may have been too harshly +expressed, but time has shown him to be right. The old text-books have +been discarded, and a great improvement in classical teaching has taken +place in recent years. Dübner died at Montreuil-sous-Bois, near Paris, +on the 13th of December 1867.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Godefroy, <i>Notice sur J.F. Dübner</i> +(1867); Sainte-Beuve, <i>Discours à la mémoire de Dübner</i> (1868); article +in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographic</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOIS, FRANÇOIS CLÉMENT THÉODORE<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1837-  ), French musical composer, was +born at Rosney (Marne) on the 24th of August 1837. He studied at the +Conservatoire under Ambroise Thomas, and won the Grand Prix de Rome in +1861 with his cantata <i>Atala</i>. After the customary sojourn in Rome, Dubois +returned to Paris and devoted himself to teaching. He was appointed +“maitre de Chapelle” at the church of Ste Clotilde, where César Franck +was organist, in 1863, and remained at this post for five years, during +which time he composed a quantity of sacred music, notably <i>Les Sept +Paroles du Christ</i> (1867), a work which has become well known in France. +In 1868 he became “maitre de Chapelle” at the church of the +Madeleine, and nine years later succeeded Camille Saint-Saëns +there as organist. He became professor of harmony at the +Conservatoire in 1871, and was appointed professor of composition +in succession to Léo Delibes in 1891. At the death of +Ambroise Thomas in 1896 he became director of the Conservatoire. +Dubois is an extremely prolific composer and has written +in a variety of forms. His sacred works include four masses, +a requiem, <i>Les Sept Paroles du Christ</i>, a large number of motets +and pieces for organ. For the theatre he has composed <i>La +Guzla de l’Émir</i>, an opéra comique in one act, played at the +Théâtre Lyrique de l’Athénée in 1873; <i>Le Pain bis</i>, an opéra +comique in one act, given at the Opéra Comique in 1879; <i>La +Farandole</i>, a ballet in three acts, produced at the Grand Opéra +in 1883; <i>Aben-Hamet</i>, a four-act opera, heard at the Théâtre +Italien in 1884; <i>Xavière</i>, a dramatic idyll in three acts, played +at the Opéra Comique in 1895. His orchestral works include +two concert overtures, the overture to <i>Frithioff</i> (1880), several +suites, <i>Marche héroïque de Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1888), &c. He is also +the author of <i>Le Paradis perdu</i>, an oratorio which gained for +him the prize offered by the city of Paris in 1878; <i>L’Enlèvement +de Proserpine</i> (1879), a <i>scène lyrique</i>; <i>Délivrance</i> (1887), a +cantata; <i>Hylas</i> (1890), a <i>scène lyrique</i> for soli, chorus and +orchestra; <i>Notre Dame de la mer</i>, a symphonic poem (1897); +and a musical setting of a Latin ode on the baptism of Clovis +(1899). In addition, he composed much for the piano and +voice.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOIS, GUILLAUME<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1656-1723), French cardinal and +statesman, was born at Brive, in Limousin, on the 6th of +September 1656. He was, according to his enemies, the son of +an apothecary, his father being in fact a doctor of medicine +of respectable family, who kept a small drug store as part of +the necessary outfit of a country practitioner. He was educated +at the school of the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine at Brive, +where he received the tonsure at the age of thirteen. In 1672, +having finished his philosophy course, he was given a scholarship +at the college of St Michel at Paris by Jean, marquis de Pompadour, +lieutenant-general of the Limousin. The head of the +college, the abbé Antoine Faure, who was from the same part +of the country as himself, befriended the lad, and continued +to do so for many years after he had finished his course, finding +him pupils and ultimately obtaining for him the post of tutor +to the young duke of Chartres, afterwards the regent duke of +Orleans. Astute, ambitious and unrestrained by conscience, +Dubois ingratiated himself with his pupil, and, while he gave +him formal school lessons, at the same time pandered to his +evil passions and encouraged him in their indulgence. He +gained the favour of Louis XIV. by bringing about the marriage +of his pupil with Mademoiselle de Blois, a natural but legitimated +daughter of the king; and for this service he was rewarded with +the gift of the abbey of St Just in Picardy. He was present +with his pupil at the battle of Steinkirk, and “faced fire,” says +Marshal Luxembourg, “like a grenadier.” Sent to join the +French embassy in London, he made himself so active that he +was recalled by the request of the ambassador, who feared his +intrigues. This, however, tended to raise his credit with the +king. When the duke of Orleans became regent (1715) Dubois, +who had for some years acted as his secretary, was made councillor +of state, and the chief power passed gradually into his hands.</p> + +<p>His policy was steadily directed towards maintaining the +peace of Utrecht, and this made him the main opponent of the +schemes of Cardinal Alberoni for the aggrandizement of Spain. +To counteract Alberoni’s intrigues, he suggested an alliance +with England, and in the face of great difficulties succeeded +in negotiating the Triple Alliance (1717). In 1719 he sent an +army into Spain, and forced Philip V. to dismiss Alberoni. +Otherwise his policy remained that of peace. Dubois’s success +strengthened him against the bitter opposition of a large section +of the court. Political honours did not satisfy him, however. +The church offered the richest field for exploitation, and in +spite of his dissolute life he impudently prayed the regent to +give him the archbishopric of Cambray, the richest in France. +His demand was supported by George I., and the regent yielded. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span> +In one day all the usual orders were conferred on him, and even +the great preacher Massillon consented to take part in the +ceremonies. His next aim was the cardinalate, and, after long +and most profitable negotiations on the part of Pope Clement +XI., the red hat was given to him by Innocent XIII. (1721), +whose election was largely due to the bribes of Dubois. It is +estimated that this cardinalate cost France about eight million +francs. In the following year he was named first minister of +France (August). He was soon after received at the French +Academy; and, to the disgrace of the French clergy, he was +named president of their assembly.</p> + +<p>When Louis XV. attained his majority in 1723 Dubois remained +chief minister. He had accumulated an immense private +fortune, possessing in addition to his see the revenues of seven +abbeys. He was, however, a prey to the most terrible pains of +body and agony of mind. His health was ruined by his debaucheries, +and a surgical operation became necessary. This +was almost immediately followed by his death, at Versailles, +on the 10th of August 1723. His portrait was thus drawn by the +duc de St Simon:—“He was a little, pitiful, wizened, herring-gutted +man, in a flaxen wig, with a weasel’s face, brightened +by some intellect. All the vices—perfidy, avarice, debauchery, +ambition, flattery—fought within him for the mastery. He was +so consummate a liar that, when taken in the fact, he could +brazenly deny it. Even his wit and knowledge of the world +were spoiled, and his affected gaiety was touched with sadness, +by the odour of falsehood which escaped through every pore of +his body.” This famous picture is certainly biassed. Dubois +was unscrupulous, but so were his contemporaries, and whatever +vices he had, he gave France peace after the disastrous wars of +Louis XIV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1789 appeared <i>Vie privée du Cardinal Dubois</i>, attributed to one +of his secretaries, Mongez; and in 1815 his <i>Mémoires secrets et correspondance +inédite</i>, edited by L. de Sevelinges. See also A. Cheruel, +<i>Saint-Simon et l’abbé Dubois</i>; L. Wiesener, <i>Le Régent, l’abbé Dubois +et les Anglais</i> (1891); and memoirs of the time.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1765-1848), French Catholic +missionary in India, was ordained in the diocese of Viviers in +1792, and sailed for India in the same year under the direction +of the Missions Étrangères. He was at first attached to the +Pondicherry mission, and worked in the southern districts of +the present Madras Presidency. On the fall of Seringapatam in +1799 he went to Mysore to reorganize the Christian community +that had been shattered by Tipu Sultan. Among the benefits +which he conferred upon his impoverished flock were the founding +of agricultural colonies and the introduction of vaccination as a +preventive of smallpox. But his great work was his record of +<i>Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies</i>. Immediately on his +arrival in India he saw that the work of a Christian missionary +should be based on a thorough acquaintance with the innermost +life and character of the native population. Accordingly he +abjured European society, adopted the native style of clothing, +and made himself in habit and costume as much like a Hindu as +he could. He gained an extraordinary welcome amongst people +of all castes and conditions, and is still spoken of in many parts +of South India with affection and esteem as “the prince’s +son, the noblest of Europeans.” Although Dubois modestly disclaimed +the rank of an author, his collections were not so much +drawn from the Hindu sacred books as from his own careful +and vivid observations, and it is this, united to a remarkable +prescience, that makes his work so valuable. It is divided into +three parts: (1) a general view of society in India, and especially +of the caste system; (2) the four states of Brahminical life; (3) +religion—feasts, temples, objects of worship. Not only does the +abbé give a shrewd, clear-sighted, candid account of the manners +and customs of the Hindus, but he provides a very sound estimate +of the British position in India, and makes some eminently just +observations on the difficulties of administering the Empire +according to Western notions of civilization and progress with +the limited resources that are available. Dubois’s French MS. +was purchased for eight thousand rupees by Lord William +Bentinck for the East India Company in 1807; in 1816 an +English translation was published, and of this edition about 1864 +a curtailed reprint was issued. The abbé, however, largely recast +his work, and of this revised text (now in the India Office) an +edition with notes was published in 1897 by H.K. Beauchamp. +Dubois left India in January 1823, with a special pension conferred +on him by the East India Company, and on reaching Paris +was appointed director of the Missions Étrangères, of which +he afterwards became superior (1836-1839). He translated into +French the famous book of Hindu fables called <i>Panchatantra</i>, +and also a work called <i>The Exploits of the Guru Paramarta</i>. Of +more interest were his <i>Letters on the State of Christianity in India</i>, +in which he asserted his opinion that under existing circumstances +there was no human possibility of so overcoming the invincible +barrier of Brahminical prejudice as to convert the Hindus as a +nation to any sect of Christianity. He acknowledged that low +castes and outcastes might be converted in large numbers, but +of the higher castes he wrote: “Should the intercourse between +individuals of both nations, by becoming more intimate and +more friendly, produce a change in the religion and usages of +the country, it will not be to turn Christians that they will forsake +their own religion, but rather ... to become mere atheists.” +He died in 1848.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOIS, PAUL<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1829-1905), French sculptor and painter, +was born at Nogent-sur-Seine on the 18th of July 1829. He +studied law to please his family, and art to please himself, +and finally adopted the latter, and placed himself under Toussaint. +After studying at the École des Beaux-Arts, Dubois went +to Rome. His first contributions to the Paris Salon (1860) were +busts of “The Countess de B.” and “A Child.” For his first +statues, “St John the Baptist” and “Narcissus at the Bath” +(1863), he was awarded a medal of the second class. The statue +of “The Infant St John,” which had been modelled in Florence +in 1860, was exhibited in Paris in bronze, and was acquired +by the Luxemburg. “A Florentine Singer of the Fifteenth +Century,” one of the most popular statuettes in Europe, was +shown in 1865; “The Virgin and Child” appeared in the Paris +Universal Exhibition in 1867; “The Birth of Eve” was produced +in 1873, and was followed by striking busts of Henner, +Dr Parrot, Paul Baudry, Pasteur, Gounod and Bonnat, remarkable +alike for life, vivacity, likeness, refinement and subtle +handling. The chief work of Paul Dubois was “The Tomb of +General Lamoricière” in the cathedral of Nantes, a brilliant +masterpiece conceived in the Renaissance spirit, with allegorical +figures and groups representing Warlike Courage, Charity, Faith +and Meditation, as well as bas-reliefs and enrichments; the two +first-named works were separately exhibited in the Salon of +1877. The medallions represent Wisdom, Hope, Justice, Force, +Rhetoric, Prudence and Religion. The statue of the “Constable +Anne de Montmorency” was executed for Chantilly, and that +of “Joan of Arc” (1889) for the town of Reims. The Italian +influence which characterized the earlier work of Dubois disappeared +as his own individuality became clearly asserted. As +a painter he restricted himself mainly to portraiture. “My +Children” (1876) being probably his most noteworthy achievement. +His drawings and copies after the Old Masters are of +peculiar excellence: they include “The Dead Christ” (after +Sebastian del Piombo) and “Adam and Eve” (after Raphael). +In 1873 Dubois was appointed keeper of the Luxemburg Museum. +He succeeded Guillaume as director of the École des Beaux-Arts, +1878, and Perraud as member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. +Twice at the Salon he obtained the medal of honour (1865 and +1876), and once at the Universal Exhibition (1878). He also +won numerous other distinctions, and was appointed grand cross +of the Legion of Honour. He was made a member of several +European orders, and in 1895 was elected an honorary foreign +academician of the Royal Academy of London. He died at +Paris in 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOIS, PIERRE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1250-<i>c.</i> 1312), French publicist in the +reign of Philip the Fair, was the author of a series of political +pamphlets embodying original and daring views. He was +known to Jean du Tillet in the 16th, and to Pierre Dupuy in +the 17th century, but remained practically forgotten until the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span> +middle of the 19th century, when his history was reconstructed +from his works. He was a Norman by birth, probably a native +of Coutances, where he exercised the functions of royal advocate +of the bailliage and procurator of the university. He was +educated at the university of Paris, where he heard St Thomas +Aquinas and Siger of Brabant. He was, nevertheless, no +adherent of the scholastic philosophy, and appears to have been +conversant with the works of Roger Bacon. Although he never +held any important political office, he must have been in the +confidence of the court when, in 1300, he wrote his anonymous +<i>Summaria, brevis et compendiosa doctrina felicis expedicionis et +abbreviationis guerrarum et litium regni Francorum</i>, which is +extant in a unique MS., but is analysed by N. de Wailly in the +<i>Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes</i> (2nd series, vol. iii.). In the +contest between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII. Dubois +identified himself completely with the secularizing policy of +Philip, and poured forth a series of anti-clerical pamphlets, +which did not cease even with the death of Boniface. His +<i>Supplication du pueble de France au roy contre le pape Boniface +le VIII<span class="sp">e</span></i>, printed in 1614 in <i>Acta inter Bonifacium VIII. et +Philippum Pulchrum</i>, dates from 1304, and is a heated indictment +of the temporal power. He represented Coutances in the +states-general of 1302, but in 1306 he was serving Edward I. +as an advocate in Guienne, without apparently abandoning his +Norman practice by which he had become a rich man. The +most important of his works, his treatise <i>De recuperatione terrae +sanctae</i>,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> was written in 1306, and dedicated in its extant form +to Edward I., though it is certainly addressed to Philip. Dubois +outlines the conditions necessary to a successful crusade—the +establishment and enforcement of a state of peace among the +Christian nations of the West by a council of the church; the +reform of the monastic, and especially of the military, orders; +the reduction of their revenues; the instruction of a number of +young men and women in oriental languages and the natural +sciences with a view to the government of Eastern peoples; and +the establishment of Philip of Valois as emperor of the East. +The king of France was in fact, when once the pope was deprived +of the temporal power, to become the suzerain of the Western +nations, and in a later and separate memoir Dubois proposed +that he should cause himself to be made emperor by Clement V. +His zeal for the crusade was probably subordinate to the desire +to secure the wealth of the monastic orders for the royal treasury, +and to transfer the ecclesiastical jurisdiction to the crown. His +ideas on education, on the celibacy of the clergy, and his schemes +for the codification of French law, were far in advance of his +time. He was an early and violent “Gallican,” and the first of +the great French lawyers who occupied themselves with high +politics. In 1308 he attended the states-general at Tours. +He is generally credited with <i>Quaedam proposita papae a rege +super facto Templariorum</i>, a draft epistle supposed to be addressed +to Clement by Philip. This was followed by other pamphlets +in the same tone, in one of which he proposed that a kingdom +founded on the property of the Templars in the East should be +established on behalf of Philip the Tall.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See an article by E. Renan in <i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxvi. +pp. 471-536; P. Dupuy <i>Hist. de la condamnation ... des Templiers</i> +(Brussels, 1713), and <i>Hist. du différend entre le pape Boniface VIII +et Philippe le Bel</i> (Paris 1655); and <i>Notices et extraits de manuscrits</i>, +vol. xx.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Printed in <i>Collections à servir à l’étude de l’histoire</i> (1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOIS,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a borough of Clearfield county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., 129 m. by rail N.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 6149, +(1900) 9375, of whom 1655 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +12,623. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Buffalo, Rochester +& Pittsburg, and the Buffalo & Susquehanna railways. The +borough is built on a small plateau surrounded by hills, on the +west slope of the Alleghany Mountains, nearly 1400 ft. above +sea-level. Its chief importance is as a coal and lumber centre; +among its manufacturing establishments are blast furnaces, +iron works, machine shops, railway repair shops, tanneries, +planing mills, flour mills, locomotive works and a glass factory. +Dubois was first settled in 1872, was named in honour of its +founder, John Dubois, and was incorporated in 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOIS-CRANCÉ, EDMOND LOUIS ALEXIS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1747-1814), +French Revolutionist, born at Charleville, was at first a musketeer, +then a lieutenant of the <i>maréchaux</i>, or guardsmen of the old régime. +He embraced liberal ideas, and in 1789 was elected deputy to +the states-general by the third estate of Vitry-le-François. At +the Constituent Assembly, of which he was named secretary in +November 1789, he busied himself mainly with military reforms. +He wished to see the old military system, with its caste distinctions +and its mercenaries, replaced by an organization of national +guards in which all citizens should be admitted. In his report, +on the 12th of December 1789, he gave utterance for the first +time to the idea of <i>conscription</i>, which he opposed to the recruiting +system of the old régime. His report was not, however, adopted. +He succeeded in securing the Assembly’s vote that any slave who +touched French soil should become free. After the Constituent, +Dubois-Crancé was named <i>maréchal de camp</i>, but he refused to be +placed under the orders of Lafayette and preferred to serve as +a simple grenadier. Elected to the Convention by the department +of the Ardennes, he sat among the <i>Montagnards</i>, but +without following any one leader, either Danton or Robespierre. +In the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for death without delay or +appeal. On the 21st of February 1793 he was named president +of the Convention. Although he was a member of the two +committees of general defence which preceded that of public +safety, he did not belong to the latter at its creation. But he +composed a remarkable report on the army, recommending +two measures which contributed largely to its success, the rapid +advancement of the lower officers, which opened the way for +the most famous generals of the Revolution, and the fusion +of the volunteers with the veteran troops. In August 1793 +Dubois-Crancé was designated “representative on mission” to +the army of the Alps, to direct the siege of Lyons, which had +revolted against the republic. Accused of lack of energy, he +was replaced by G. Couthon. On his return he easily justified +himself, but was excluded from the Jacobin club at the instance +of Robespierre, before whom he refused to bend. Consequently +he was naturally drawn to participate in the revolution of the +9th of Thermidor of the year II., directed against Robespierre. +But he would not join the Royalist reaction which followed, +and was one of the committee of five which had to oppose the +Royalist insurrection of Vendémiaire (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>). +It was also during this period that Dubois-Crancé was named +a member of the committee of public safety, then much reduced +in importance. After the Convention, under the Directory, +Dubois-Crancé was a member of the Council of the Five Hundred, +and was appointed inspector-general of infantry; then, in 1799, +minister of war. Opposed to the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th of +Brumaire, he lived in retirement during the Consulate and the +Empire. He died at Rethel on the 29th of June 1814. His +portrait stands in the foreground in J.L. David’s celebrated +sketch of the “Oath of the Tennis Court.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the numerous writings of Dubois-Crancé may be noticed +his <i>Observations sur la constitution militaire, ou bases du travail +proposé au comité militaire</i>. See H.F.T. Jung, <i>Dubois de Crancé. +L’armée et la Révolution, 1789-1794</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1818-1896), German physiologist, +was born in Berlin on the 7th of November 1818. The Prussian +capital was the place both of his birth and of his life’s work, +and he will always be counted among Germany’s great scientific +men; yet he was not of German blood. His father belonged +to Neuchâtel, his mother was of Huguenot descent, and he spoke +of himself as “being of pure Celtic blood.” Educated first at +the French college in Berlin, then at Neuchâtel, whither his +father had returned, he entered in 1836 the university of Berlin. +He seems to have been uncertain at first as to the bent of his +studies, for he sat at the feet of the great ecclesiastical historian +August Neander, and dallied with geology; but eventually he +threw himself into the study of medicine, with such zeal and +success as to attract the notice of the great teacher of anatomy +and physiology, who was then making Berlin famous as a school +for the sciences ancillary to medicine. Johannes Müller may be +regarded as the central figure in the history of modern physiology. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span> +the physiology of the 19th century. Müller’s earlier studies +had been distinctly physiological; but his inclination, no less +than his position as professor of anatomy as well as of physiology +in the university of Berlin, led him later on into wide studies of +comparative anatomy, and these, aided by the natural bent of +his mind towards problems of general philosophy, gave his views +of physiology a breadth and a depth which profoundly influenced +the progress of that science in his day. He had, about the time +when the young Du Bois-Reymond came to his lectures, published +his great <i>Elements of Physiology</i>, the dominant note of which +may be said to be this:—“Though there appears to be something +in the phenomena of living beings which cannot be explained +by ordinary mechanical, physical or chemical laws, much may be +so explained, and we may without fear push these explanations +as far as we can, so long as we keep to the solid ground of observation +and experiment.” Müller recognized in the Neuchâtel lad +a mind fitted to carry on physical researches into the phenomena +of living things in a legitimate way. He made him in 1840 +his assistant in physiology, and as a starting-point for an inquiry +put into his hands the essay which the Italian, Carlo Matteucci, +had just published on the electric phenomena of animals. This +determined the work of Du Bois-Reymond’s life. He chose as +the subject of his graduation thesis “Electric Fishes,” and so +commenced a long series of investigations on animal electricity, +by which he enriched science and made for himself a name. +The results of these inquiries were made known partly in papers +communicated to scientific journals, but also and chiefly in his +work <i>Researches on Animal Electricity</i>, the first part of which +appeared in 1848, the last in 1884.</p> + +<p>This great work may be regarded under two aspects. On the +one hand, it is a record of the exact determination and approximative +analysis of the electric phenomena presented by living +beings. Viewed from this standpoint, it represents a remarkable +advance of our knowledge. Du Bois-Reymond, beginning with +the imperfect observations of Matteucci, built up, it may be said, +this branch of science. He did so by inventing or improving +methods, by devising new instruments of observation or by +adapting old ones. The debt which science owes to him on this +score is a large one indeed. On the other hand, the volumes in +question contain an exposition of a theory. In them Du Bois-Reymond +put forward a general conception by the help of which +he strove to explain the phenomena which he had observed. +He developed the view that a living tissue, such as muscle, +might be regarded as composed of a number of electric molecules, +of molecules having certain electric properties, and that the +electric behaviour of the muscle as a whole in varying circumstances +was the outcome of the behaviour of these native electric +molecules. It may perhaps be said that this theory has not +stood the test of time so well as have Du Bois-Reymond’s other +more simple deductions from observed facts. It was early +attacked by Ludimar Hermann, who maintained that a living +untouched tissue, such as a muscle, is not the subject of electric +currents so long as it is at rest, is isoelectric in substance, and +therefore need not be supposed to be made up of electric molecules, +all the electric phenomena which it manifests being due to internal +molecular changes associated with activity or injury. Although +most subsequent observers have ranged themselves on Hermann’s +side, it must nevertheless be admitted that Du Bois-Reymond’s +theory was of great value if only as a working hypothesis, and that +as such it greatly helped in the advance of science.</p> + +<p>Du Bois-Reymond’s work lay chiefly in the direction of +animal electricity, yet he carried his inquiries—such as could be +studied by physical methods—into other parts of physiology, +more especially into the phenomena of diffusion, though he published +little or nothing concerning the results at which he arrived. +For many years, too, he exerted a great influence as a teacher. +In 1858, upon the death of Johannes Müller, the chair of anatomy +and physiology, which that great man had held, was divided +into a chair of human and comparative anatomy, which was given +to K.B. Reichert (1811-1883), and a chair of physiology, which +naturally fell to Du Bois-Reymond. This he held to his death, +carrying out his researches for many years under unfavourable +conditions of inadequate accommodation. In 1877, through his +influence, the government provided the university with a proper +physiological laboratory. In 1851 he was admitted into the +Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and in 1867 became its perpetual +secretary. For many years he and his friend H. von Helmholtz, +who like him had been a pupil of Johannes Müller, were prominent +men in the German capital. Acceptable at court, they both used +their position and their influence for the advancement of science. +Both, from time to time as opportunity offered, stepped out of +the narrow limits of the professorial chair and gave the world their +thoughts concerning things on which they could not well dwell +in the lecture room. Du Bois-Reymond, as has been said, had +in his earlier years wandered into fields other than those of +physiology and medicine, and in his later years he went back +to some of these. His occasional discourses, dealing with general +topics and various problems of philosophy, show that to the end +he possessed the historic spirit which had led him as a lad to +listen to Neander; they are marked not only by a charm of style, +but by a breadth of view such as might be expected from Johannes +Müller’s pupil and friend. He died in the city of his birth and +adoption on the 26th of November 1896.</p> +<div class="author">(M. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1670-1742), French author, was +born at Beauvais in December 1670. After studying for the +church, he renounced theology for the study of public law and +politics. He was employed by M. de Torcy, minister of foreign +affairs, and by the regent and Cardinal Dubois in several secret +missions, in which he acquitted himself with great success. +He was rewarded with a pension and several benefices. Having +obtained these, he retired from political life, and devoted himself +to history and literature. He gained such distinction as an +author that in 1720 he was elected a member of the French +Academy, of which, in 1723, he was appointed perpetual secretary +in the room of M. Dacier. He died at Paris on the 23rd of March +1742, repeating as he expired the well-known remark of an +ancient, “Death is a law, not a punishment.” His first work +was <i>L’Histoire des quatre Gordiens prouvée et illustrée par des +médailles</i> (Paris, 1695, 12mo), which, in spite of its ingenuity, +did not succeed in altering the common opinion, which only +admits three emperors of this name. About the commencement +of the war of 1701, being charged with different negotiations +both in Holland and in England, with the design to engage these +powers if possible to adopt a pacific line of policy, he, in order +to promote the objects of his mission, published a work entitled +<i>Les Intérêts de l’Angleterre mal entendus dans la guerre présente</i> +(Amsterdam, 1703, 12mo). But as this work contained indiscreet +disclosures, of which the enemy took advantage, and predictions +which were not fulfilled, a wag took occasion to remark that the +title ought to be read thus: <i>Les Intérêts de l’Angleterre mal +entendus par l’abbé Dubos</i>. It is remarkable as containing a +distinct prophecy of the revolt of the American colonies from +Great Britain. His next work was <i>L’Histoire de la Ligue de +Cambray</i> (Paris, 1709, 1728 and 1785, 2 vols. 12mo), a full, +clear and interesting history, which obtained the commendation +of Voltaire. In 1734 he published his <i>Histoire critique de +l’établissement de la monarchie française dans les Gaules</i> (3 vols. +4to)—a work the object of which was to prove that the Franks +had entered Gaul, not as conquerors, but at the request of the +nation, which, according to him, had called them in to govern it. +But this system, though unfolded with a degree of skill and +ability which at first procured it many zealous partisans, was +victoriously refuted by Montesquieu at the end of the thirtieth +book of the <i>Esprit des lois</i>. His <i>Réflexions critiques sur la poésie +et sur la peinture</i>, published for the first time in 1719 (2 vols. +12mo), but often reprinted in three volumes, constitute one of +the works in which the theory of the arts is explained with the +utmost sagacity and discrimination. Like his history of the +League of Cambray, it was highly praised by Voltaire. The +work was rendered more remarkable by the fact that its author +had no practical acquaintance with any one of the arts whose +principles he discussed. Besides the works above enumerated, +a manifesto of Maximilian, elector of Bavaria, against the +emperor Leopold, relative to the succession in Spain, has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span> +attributed to Dubos, chiefly, it appears, from the excellence of +the style.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUBUQUE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Dubuque county, +Iowa, U.S.A., on the Mississippi river, opposite the boundary line +between Wisconsin and Illinois. Pop. (1890) 30,311; (1900) +36,297; (1905, state census) 41,941 (including 6835 foreign-born, +the majority of whom were German and Irish); (1910 U.S. census) +38,494. Dubuque is served by the Illinois Central, the Chicago, +Milwaukee & Saint Paul (which has repair shops here), the +Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Chicago Great Western +railways; it also has a considerable river traffic. The river is +spanned here by a railway bridge and two wagon bridges. The +business portion of the city lies on the low lands bordering the +river; many of the residences are built on the slopes and summits +of bluffs commanding extensive and picturesque views. Among +the principal buildings are the Carnegie-Stout free public library +(which in 1908 had 23,600 volumes, exclusive of the valuable +Senator Allison collection of public documents), the public high +school, and the house of the Dubuque Club. Dubuque is a Roman +Catholic archiepiscopal see, and is the seat of St Joseph’s College +(1873), a small Roman Catholic institution; of Wartburg +Seminary (1854), a small Evangelical Lutheran theological +school; of the German Presbyterian Theological School of the +North-west (1852); of St Joseph’s Ladies’ Academy; and of +Bayless Business College. Fifteen miles from Dubuque is a +monastery of Trappist monks. Among the city’s charitable +institutions are the Finley and the Mercy hospitals, a home for +the friendless, a rescue home, a House of the Good Shepherd, +and an insane asylum. In 1900 Dubuque ranked fourth and in +1905 fifth among the cities of the state as a manufacturing +centre, the chief products being those of the planing mills and +machine shops, and furniture, sashes and doors, liquors, carriages, +wagons, coffins, clothing, boots and shoes, river steam boats, +barges, torpedo boats, &c., and the value of the factory product +being $9,279,414 in 1905 and $9,651,247 in 1900. The city lies +in a region of lead and zinc mines, quantities of zinc ore in the +form of black-jack being taken from the latter. Dubuque is +important as a distributing centre for lumber, hardware, +groceries and dry-goods.</p> + +<p>As early as 1788 Julien Dubuque (1765-1810), attracted by +the lead deposits in the vicinity, which were then being crudely +worked by the Sauk and Fox Indians, settled here and carried +on the mining industry until his death. In June 1829 miners +from Galena, Illinois, attempted to make a settlement here in +direct violation of Indian treaties, but were driven away by +United States troops under orders from Colonel Zachary Taylor. +Immediately after the Black Hawk War, white settlers began +coming to the mines. Dubuque was laid out under an act of +Congress approved on the 2nd of July 1836, and was incorporated +in 1841.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU CAMP, MAXIME<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1822-1894), French writer, the son of +a successful surgeon, was born in Paris on the 8th of February +1822. He had a strong taste for travel, which his father’s means +enabled him to indulge as soon as his college days were over. +Between 1844 and 1845, and again, in company with Gustave +Flaubert, between 1849 and 1851, he travelled in Europe and +the East, and made excellent use of his experiences in books +published after his return. In 1851 he was one of the founders +of the <i>Revue de Paris</i> (suppressed in 1858), and was a frequent +contributor to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. In 1853 he was made +an officer of the Legion of Honour. He served as a volunteer +with Garibaldi in 1860, and gave an account of his experiences +in his <i>Expédition des deux Siciles</i> (1861). In 1870 he was +nominated for the senate, but his election was frustrated by the +downfall of the Empire. He was elected a member of the French +Academy in 1880, mainly, it is said, on account of his history +of the Commune, published under the title of <i>Les Convulsions +de Paris</i> (1878-1880). His writings include among others the +<i>Chants modernes</i> (1855), <i>Convictions</i> (1858); numerous works on +travel, <i>Souvenirs et paysages d’orient</i> (1848), <i>Égypte, Nubie, +Palestine, Syrie</i> (1852); works of art criticism, <i>Les Salons de +1857, 1859, 1861</i>; novels, <i>L’Homme au bracelet d’or</i> (1862), <i>Une +Histoire d’amour</i> (1889); literary studies, <i>Théophile Gautier</i> +(1890). Du Camp was the author of a valuable book on the daily +life of Paris, <i>Paris, ses organes, ses fonctions, sa vie dans la seconde +moitié du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1869-1875). He published several +works on social questions, one of which, the <i>Mœurs de mon +temps</i>, was to be kept sealed in the Bibliothèque Nationale until +1910. His <i>Souvenirs littéraires</i> (2 vols., 1882-1883) contain much +information about contemporary writers, especially Gustave +Flaubert, of whom Du Camp was an early and intimate friend. +He died on the 9th of February 1894. Du Camp was one of the +earliest amateur photographers, and his books of travel were +among the first to be illustrated by means of what was then a +new art.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur</span> (1610-1688), one +of the lay members of the great 17th century group of French +critics and scholars who laid the foundations of modern historical +criticism, was born at Amiens on the 18th of December 1610. +At an early age his father sent him to the Jesuits’ college at +Amiens, where he greatly distinguished himself. Having completed +the usual course at this seminary, he applied himself +to the study of law at Orleans, and afterwards went to Paris, +where in 1631 he was received as an advocate before the parliament. +Meeting with very slight success in his profession, he +returned to his native city, and in July 1638 married Catherine +Dubois, daughter of a royal official, the treasurer in Amiens; +and in 1647 he purchased the office of treasurer from his father-in-law, +but its duties did not interfere with the literary and +historical work to which he had devoted himself since returning +to Amiens. Forced to leave his native city in 1668 in consequence +of a plague, he settled in Paris, where he resided until his death +on the 23rd of October 1688. In the archives of Paris Du Cange +was able to consult charters, diplomas, manuscripts and a +multitude of printed documents, which were not to be met +with elsewhere. His industry was exemplary and unremitting, +and the number of his literary works would be incredible, if the +originals, all in his own handwriting, were not still extant. He +was distinguished above nearly all the writers of his time by his +linguistic acquirements, his accurate and varied knowledge, +and his critical sagacity. Of his numerous works the most +important are the <i>Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae +latinitatis</i> (Paris, 1678), and the <i>Glossarium ad scriptores mediae +et infimae graecitatis</i> (Lyons, 1688), which are indispensable +aids to the student of the history and literature of the middle +ages. To the three original volumes of the Latin <i>Glossarium</i>, +three supplementary volumes were added by the Benedictines +of St Maur (Paris, 1733-1736), and a further addition of four +volumes (Paris, 1766), by a Benedictine, Pierre Carpentier (1697-1767). +There were other editions, and an abridgment with +some corrections was brought out by J.C. Adelung (Halle, +1772-1784). The edition in seven volumes edited by G.A.L. +Henschel (Paris, 1840-1850) includes these supplements and +also further additions by the editor, and this has been improved +and published in ten volumes by Léopold Favre (Niort, 1883-1887). +An edition of the Greek <i>Glossarium</i> was published at +Breslau in 1889.</p> + +<p>Du Cange took considerable interest in the history of the +later empire, and wrote <i>Historia Byzantina duplici commentario +illustrato</i> (Paris, 1680), and an introduction to his edition and +translation into modern French of Geoffrey de Villehardouin’s +<i>Histoire de l’empire de Constantinople sous les empereurs français</i> +(Paris, 1657). He also brought out editions of the Byzantine +historians, John Cinnamus and John Zonaras, as <i>Joannis Cinnami +historiarum de rebus gestis a Joanne et Manuele Comnenis</i> (Paris, +1670) and <i>Joannis Zonarae Annales ab exordio mundi ad mortem +Alexii Comneni</i> (Paris, 1686). He edited Jean de Joinville’s +<i>Histoire de St Louis, roi de France</i> (Paris, 1668), and his other +works which may be mentioned are <i>Traité historique du chef de +St Jean Baptiste</i> (Paris, 1666); <i>Lettre du Sieur N., conseiller du +roi</i> (Paris, 1682); <i>Cyrilli, Philoxeni, aliorumque veterum glossaria</i>, +and <i>Mémoire sur le projet d’un nouveau recueil des historiens +de France, avec le plan général de ce recueil</i>, which has been +inserted by Jacques Lelong in his <i>Bibliothèque historique de la</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span> +<i>France</i> (Paris, 1768-1778). His last work, <i>Chronicon Paschale +a mundo condito ad Heraclii imperatoris annum vigesimum</i> +(Paris, 1689), was passing through the press when Du Cange +died, and consequently it was edited by Étienne Baluze, and +published with an <i>éloge</i> of the author prefixed.</p> + +<p>His autograph manuscripts and his large and valuable library +passed to his eldest son, Philippe du Fresne, who died unmarried +in 1692. They then came to his second son, François du Fresne, +who sold the collection, the greater part of the manuscripts +being purchased by the abbé du Champs. The abbé handed +them over to a bookseller named Mariette, who resold part of +them to Baron Hohendorf. The remaining part was acquired +by a member of the family of Hozier, the French genealogists. +The French government, however, aware of the importance +of all the writings of Du Cange, succeeded, after much trouble, +in collecting the greater portion of the manuscripts, which were +preserved in the imperial library at Paris. Some of these were +subsequently published, and the manuscripts are now found in +various libraries. The works of Du Cange published after his +death are: an edition of the Byzantine historian, Nicephorus +Gregoras (Paris, 1702); <i>De imperatorum Constantinopolitanorum +seu inferioris aevi vel imperii uti vocant numismatibus dissertatio</i> +(Rome, 1755); <i>Histoire de l’état de la ville d’Amiens et de ses +comtes</i> (Amiens, 1840); and a valuable work <i>Des principautés +d’outre-mer</i>, published by E.G. Rey as <i>Les Familles d’outre-mer</i> +(Paris, 1869).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Hardouin, <i>Essai sur la vie et sur les ouvrages de Ducange</i> +(Amiens, 1849); and L.J. Feugère, in the <i>Journal de l’instruction +publique</i> (Paris, 1852).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCANGE, VICTOR HENRI JOSEPH BRAHAIN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1783-1833), +French novelist and dramatist, was born on the 24th of November +1783 at the Hague, where his father was secretary to the French +embassy. Dismissed from the civil service at the Restoration, +Victor Ducange became one of the favourite authors of the +liberal party, and owed some part of his popularity to the fact +that he was fined and imprisoned more than once for his outspokenness. +He was six months in prison for an article in his +journal <i>Le Diable rose, ou le petit courrier de Lucifer</i> (1822); for +<i>Valentine</i> (1821), in which the royalist excesses in the south of +France were pilloried, he was again imprisoned; and after +the publication of <i>Hélène ou l’amour et la guerre</i> (1823), he took +refuge for some time in Belgium. Ducange wrote numerous +plays and melodramas, among which the most successful were +<i>Marco Loricot, ou le petit Chouan de 1830</i> (1836), and <i>Trente ans, +ou la vie d’un joueur</i> (1827), in which Fréderick Lemaître found +one of his best parts. Many of his books were prohibited, +ostensibly for their coarseness, but perhaps rather for their +political tendencies. He died in Paris on the 15th of October +1833.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCAS,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> <span class="sc">Dukas</span> or <span class="sc">Doukas</span>, the name of a Byzantine family +which supplied several rulers to the Eastern Empire. The +family first came into prominence during the 9th century, but +was ruined when Constantine Ducas, a son of the general Andronicus +Ducas, lost his life in his effort to obtain the imperial crown +in 913. Towards the end of the 10th century there appeared +another family of Ducas, which was perhaps connected with the +earlier family through the female line and was destined to attain +to greater fortune. A member of this family became emperor +as Constantine X. in 1059, and Constantine’s son Michael VII. +ruled, nominally in conjunction with his younger brothers, +Andronicus and Constantine, from 1071 to 1078. Michael left +a son, Constantine, and, says Gibbon, “a daughter of the house +of Ducas illustrated the blood, and confirmed the succession, +of the Comnenian dynasty.” The family was also allied by +marriage with other great Byzantine houses, and after losing +the imperial dignity its members continued to take an active +part in public affairs. In 1204 Alexius Ducas, called Mourzoufle, +deposed the emperor Isaac Angelus and his son Alexius, and +vainly tried to defend Constantinople against the attacks of the +Latin crusaders. Nearly a century and a half later one Michael +Ducas took a leading part in the civil war between the emperors +John V. Palaeologus and John VI. Cantacuzenus, and Michael’s +grandson was the historian Ducas (see below). Many of the +petty sovereigns who arose after the destruction of the Eastern +Empire sought to gain prestige by adding the famous name of +Ducas to their own.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCAS<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (15th cent.), Byzantine historian, flourished under +Constantine XIII. (XI.) Dragases, the last emperor of the East, +about 1450. The dates of his birth and death are unknown. +He was the grandson of Michael Ducas (see above). After the +fall of Constantinople, he was employed in various diplomatic +missions by Dorino and Domenico Gateluzzi, princes of Lesbos, +where he had taken refuge. He was successful in securing a +semi-independence for Lesbos until 1462, when it was taken +and annexed to Turkey by Sultan Mahommed II. It is +known that Ducas survived this event, but there is no record of +his subsequent life. He was the author of a history of the +period 1341-1462; his work thus continues that of Gregoras +and Cantacuzene, and supplements Phrantzes and Chalcondyles. +There is a preliminary chapter of chronology from Adam to +John Palaeologus I. Although barbarous in style, the history +of Ducas is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most +valuable source for the closing years of the Greek empire. The +account of the capture of Constantinople is of special importance. +Ducas was a strong supporter of the union of the Greek and +Latin churches, and is very bitter against those who rejected +even the idea of appealing to the West for assistance against the +Turks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The history, preserved (without a title) in a single Paris MS., was +first edited by I. Bullialdus (Bulliaud) (Paris, 1649); later editions +are in the Bonn <i>Corpus scriptorum Hist. Byz.</i>, by I. Bekker (1834) +and Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, clvii. The Bonn edition contains a +15th century Italian translation by an unknown author, found by +Leopold Ranke in one of the libraries of Venice, and sent by him to +Bekker.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCASSE, PIERRE EMMANUEL ALBERT,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1813-1893), +French historian, was born at Bourges on the 16th of +November 1813. In 1849 he became aide-de-camp to Prince +Jerome Bonaparte, ex-king of Westphalia, then governor of the +Invalides, on whose commission he wrote <i>Mémoires pour servir +à l’histoire de la campagne de 1812 en Russie</i> (1852). Subsequently +he published <i>Mémoires du roi Joseph</i> (1853-1855), and, as a +sequel, <i>Histoire des négociations diplomatiques relatives aux +traités de Morfontaine, de Lunéville et d’Amiens</i>, together with +the unpublished correspondence of the emperor Napoleon I. +with Cardinal Fesch (1855-1856). From papers in the possession +of the imperial family he compiled <i>Mémoires du prince Eugène</i> +(1858-1860) and <i>Réfutation des mémoires du duc de Raguse</i> (1857), +part of which was inserted by authority at the end of volume +ix. of the <i>Mémoires</i>. He was attaché to Jerome’s son, Prince +Napoleon, during the Crimean War, and wrote a <i>Précis historique +des opérations militaires en Orient, de mars 1854 à octobre 1855</i> +(1857), which was completed many years later by a volume +entitled <i>La Crimée et Sébastopol de 1853 à 1856, documents intimes +et inédits</i>, followed by the complete list of the French officers +killed or wounded in that war (1892). He was also employed +by Prince Napoleon on the <i>Correspondance</i> of Napoleon I., +and afterwards published certain letters, purposely omitted +there, in the <i>Revue historique</i>. These documents, subsequently +collected in <i>Les Rois frères de Napoléon</i> (1883), as well as the +<i>Journal de la reine Catherine de Westphalie</i> (1893), were edited +with little care and are not entirely trustworthy, but their +publication threw much light on Napoleon I. and his entourage. +His <i>Souvenirs d’un officier du 2<span class="sp">e</span> Zouaves</i>, and <i>Les Dessous du +coup d’état</i> (1891), contain many piquant anecdotes, but at times +degenerate into mere tittle-tattle. Ducasse was the author of +some slight novels, and from the practice of this form of literature +he acquired that levity which appears even in his most serious +historical publications.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCAT,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the name of a coin, generally of gold, and of varying +value, formerly in use in many European countries. It was +first struck by Roger II. of Sicily as duke of Apulia, and bore an +inscription “<i>Sit tibi, Christe, datus, quem tu regis, iste ducatus</i>” +(Lord, thou rulest this duchy, to thee be it dedicated); hence, +it is said, the name. Between 1280 and 1284 Venice also struck +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span> +a gold coin, known first as the ducat, afterwards as the zecchino +or sequin, the ducat becoming merely a money of account. +The ducat was also current in Holland, Austria, the Netherlands, +Spain and Denmark (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>). A gold coin termed a +ducat was current in Hanover during the reigns of George I. +and George III. A pattern gold coin was also struck by the +English mint in 1887 for a proposed decimal coinage. On the +reverse was the inscription “one ducat” within an oak wreath; +above “one hundred pence,” and below the date between two +small roses. There is a gold coin termed a ducat in the Austria-Hungary +currency, of the value of nine shillings and fourpence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1835-1903), traveller and +anthropologist, was born either at Paris or at New Orleans +(accounts conflict) on the 31st of July 1835. In his youth he +accompanied his father, an African trader in the employment +of a Parisian firm, to the west coast of Africa. Here, at a station +on the Gabun, the boy received some education from missionaries, +and acquired an interest in and knowledge of the country, +its natural history, and its natives, which guided him to his +subsequent career. In 1852 he exhibited this knowledge in the +New York press, and was sent in 1855 by the Academy of Natural +Sciences at Philadelphia on an African expedition. From 1855 +to 1859 he regularly explored the regions of West Africa in the +neighbourhood of the equator, gaining considerable knowledge of +the delta of the Ogowé river and the estuary of the Gabun. +During his travels he saw numbers of the great anthropoid apes +called the gorilla (possibly the great ape described by Carthaginian +navigators), then known to scientists only by a few +skeletons. A subsequent expedition, from 1863 to 1865, enabled +him to confirm the accounts given by the ancients of a pygmy +people inhabiting the African forests. Narratives of both +expeditions were published, in 1861 and 1867 respectively, under +the titles <i>Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa, with +Accounts of the Manners and Customs of the People, and of the +Chace of the Gorilla, Crocodile, and other Animals</i>; and <i>A Journey +to Ashango-land, and further penetration into Equatorial Africa</i>. +The first work excited much controversy on the score of its +veracity, but subsequent investigation proved the correctness +of du Chaillu’s statements as to the facts of natural history; +though possibly some of the adventures he described as happening +to himself were reproductions of the hunting stories of natives +(see <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. i., 1905, p. 66). The map accompanying +<i>Ashango-land</i> was of unique value, but the explorer’s photographs +and collections were lost when he was forced to flee from the +hostility of the natives. After some years’ residence in America, +during which he wrote several books for the young founded +upon his African adventures, du Chaillu turned his attention to +northern Europe, and published in 1881 <i>The Land of the Midnight +Sun</i>, in 1889 <i>The Viking Age</i>, and in 1900 <i>The Land of the Long +Night</i>. He died at St Petersburg on the 29th of April 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCHENNE, GUILLAUME BENJAMIN AMAND<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1806-1875), +French physician, was born on the 17th of September 1806 at +Boulogne, the son of a sea-captain. He was educated at Douai, +and then studied medicine in Paris until the year 1831, when he +returned to his native town to practise his profession. Two +years later he first tried the effect of electro-puncture of the +muscles on a patient under his care, and from this time on +devoted himself more and more to the medical applications of +electricity, thereby laying the foundation of the modern science +of electro-therapeutics. In 1842 he removed to Paris for the +sake of its wider clinical opportunities, and there he worked +until his death over thirty years later. His greatest work, +<i>L’Électrisation localisée</i> (1855), passed through three editions +during his lifetime, though by many his <i>Physiologie des mouvements</i> +(1867) is considered his masterpiece. He published over +fifty volumes containing his researches on muscular and nervous +diseases, and on the applications of electricity both for diagnostic +purposes and for treatment. His name is especially connected +with the first description of locomotor ataxy, progressive +muscular atrophy, pseudo-hypertrophic paralysis, glosso-labio +laryngeal paralysis and other nervous troubles. He died in +Paris on the 17th of September 1875.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a detailed life see <i>Archives générales de médicine</i> (December +1875), and for a complete list of his works the 3rd edition of +<i>L’Électrisation localisée</i> (1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU CHESNE<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> [Latinized <span class="sc">Duchenius</span>, <span class="sc">Querneus</span>, or <span class="sc">Quercetanus</span>], +<b>ANDRÉ</b> (1584-1640), French geographer and historian, +generally styled the father of French history, was born at Ile-Bouchard, +in the province of Touraine, in May 1584. He was +educated at Loudun and afterwards at Paris. From his earliest +years he devoted himself to historical and geographical research, +and his first work, <i>Egregiarum seu selectarum lectionum et +antiquitatum liber</i>, published in his eighteenth year, displayed +great erudition. He enjoyed the patronage of Cardinal Richelieu, +a native of the same district with himself, through whose influence +he was appointed historiographer and geographer to the king. +He died in 1640, in consequence of having been run over by a +carriage when on his way from Paris to his country house at +Verrière. Du Chesne’s works were very numerous and varied, +and in addition to what he published, he left behind him more +than 100 folio volumes of manuscript extracts now preserved +in the Bibliothèque Nationale (L. Delisle, <i>Le Cabinet des manuscrits +de la bibliothèque impériale</i>, t. L, 333-334). Several of his larger +works were continued by his only son François du Chesne (1616-1693), +who succeeded him in the office of historiographer to the +king. The principal works of André du Chesne are—<i>Les Antiquités +et recherches de la grandeur et majesté des rois de France</i> +(Paris, 1609), <i>Les Antiquités et recherches des villes, châteaux, +&c., de toute la France</i> (Paris, 1609), <i>Histoire d’Angleterre, +d’Écosse, et d’Irelande</i> (Paris, 1614), <i>Histoire des Papes jusqu’à +Paul V</i> (Paris, 1619), <i>Histoire des rois, ducs, et comtes de +Bourgogne</i> (1619-1628, 2 vols. fol.), <i>Historiae Normanorum +scriptores antiqui</i> (1619, fol., now the only source for some +of the texts), and his <i>Historiae Francorum scriptores</i> (5 vols. +fol., 1636-1649). This last was intended to comprise 24 volumes, +and to contain all the narrative sources for French history in the +middle ages; only two volumes were published by the author, +his son François published three more, and the work remained +unfinished. Besides these du Chesne published a great number +of genealogical histories of illustrious families, of which the best +is that of the house of Montmorency. His <i>Histoire des cardinaux +français</i> (2 vols. fol. 1660-1666) and <i>Histoire des chanceliers et +gardes des sceaux de France</i> (1630) were published by his son +François. André also published a translation of the <i>Satires</i> of +Juvenal, and editions of the works of Alcuin, Abelard, Alain +Chartier and Étienne Pasquier.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1843-  ), French +scholar and ecclesiastic, was born at Saint Servan in Brittany on +the 13th of September 1843. Two scientific missions—to Mount +Athos in 1874 and to Asia Minor in 1876—appeared at first to +incline him towards the study of the ancient history of the +Christian churches of the East. Afterwards, however, it was +the Western church which absorbed almost his whole attention. +In 1877 he received the degree of <i>docteur ès lettres</i> with two +remarkable theses, a dissertation <i>De Macario magnete</i>, and an +<i>Étude sur le Liber pontificalis</i>, in which he explained with unerring +critical acumen the origin of that celebrated chronicle, +determined the different editions and their interrelation, and +stated precisely the value of his evidence. Immediately afterwards +he was appointed professor at the Catholic Institute in +Paris, and for eight years presented the example and model, +then rare in France, of a priest teaching church history according +to the rules of scientific criticism. His course, bold even to the +point of rashness in the eyes of the traditionalist exegetists, was at +length suspended. In November 1885 he was appointed lecturer +at the École Pratique des Hautes Études. In 1886 he published +volume i. of his learned edition of the <i>Liber pontificalis</i> (completed +in 1892 by volume ii.), in which he resumed and completed the +results he had attained in his French thesis. In 1888 he was +elected member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, +and was afterwards appointed director of the French +school of archaeology at Rome. Much light is thrown upon +the Christian origins, especially those of France, by his <i>Origines +du culte chrétien, étude sur la liturgie latine avant Charlemagne</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span> +(1889; Eng. trans. by M.L. McClure, <i>Christian Worship: its Origin +and Evolution</i>, London, 1902, 2nd ed. 1904); <i>Mémoire sur +l’origine des diocèses épiscopaux dans l’ancienne Gaule</i> (1890), +the preliminary sketch of a more detailed work, <i>Fastes épiscopaux +dans l’ancienne Gaule</i> (vol. i. <i>Les provinces du sud-est</i>, 1894, and +vol. ii. <i>L’Aquitaine et les Lyonnaises</i>, 1899); and <i>Catalogues +épiscopaux de la province de Tours</i> (1898). When a proposal +was set on foot to bring about a reconciliation between the +Roman Church and the Christian Churches of the East, the Abbé +Duchesne endeavoured to show that the union of those churches +was possible under the Roman supremacy, because unity did not +necessarily entail uniformity. His <i>Autonomies ecclésiastiques; +églises séparées</i> (1897), in which he speaks of the origin +of the Anglican Church, but treats especially of the origin +of the Greek Churches of the East, was received with scant +favour in certain narrow circles of the pontifical court. In +1906 he began to publish, under the title of <i>Histoire ancienne de +l’église</i>, a course of lectures which he had already delivered +upon the early ages of the Church, and of which a few +manuscript copies were circulated. The second volume appeared +in 1908. In these lectures Duchesne touches cleverly upon the +most delicate problems, and, without any elaborate display +of erudition, presents conclusions of which account must be +taken. His incisive style, his fearless and often ruthless criticism, +and his wide and penetrating erudition, make him a redoubtable +adversary in the field of polemic. The <i>Bulletin critique</i>, founded +by him, for which he wrote numerous articles, has contributed +powerfully to spread the principles of the historical method +among the French clergy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCIS, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1733-1816), French dramatist and +adapter of Shakespeare, was born at Versailles on the 22nd of +August 1733. His father, originally from Savoy, was a linen-draper +at Versailles; and all through life he retained the simple +tastes and straightforward independence fostered by his bourgeois +education. In 1768 he produced his first tragedy, <i>Amélise</i>. +The failure of this first attempt was fully compensated by the +success of his <i>Hamlet</i> (1769), and <i>Roméo et Juliette</i> (1772). <i>Œdipe +chez Admète</i>, imitated partly from Euripides and partly from +Sophocles, appeared in 1778, and secured him in the following +year the chair in the Academy left vacant by the death of Voltaire. +Equally successful was <i>Le Roi Lear</i> in 1783. <i>Macbeth</i> in 1783 +did not take so well, and <i>Jean sans peur</i> in 1791 was almost a +failure; but <i>Othello</i> in 1792, supported by the acting of Talma, +obtained immense applause. Its vivid picturing of desert life +secured for <i>Abufas, ou la famille arabe</i> (1795), an original drama, +a flattering reception. On the failure of a similar piece, <i>Phédor +et Vladimir ou la famille de Sibérie</i> (1801), Ducis ceased to write +for the stage; and the rest of his life was spent in quiet retirement +at Versailles. He had been named a member of the Council +of the Ancients in 1798, but he never discharged the functions +of the office; and when Napoleon offered him a post of honour +under the empire, he refused. Amiable, religious and bucolic, +he had little sympathy with the fierce, sceptical and tragic times +in which his lot was cast. “Alas!” he said in the midst of the +Revolution, “tragedy is abroad in the streets; if I step outside +of my door, I have blood to my very ankles. I have too often seen +Atreus in clogs, to venture to bring an Atreus on the stage.” +Though actuated by honest admiration of the great English +dramatist, Ducis is not Shakespearian. His ignorance of the +English language left him at the mercy of the translations of +Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788) and of Pierre de la Place (1707-1793); +and even this modified Shakespeare had still to undergo +a process of purification and correction before he could be presented +to the fastidious criticism of French taste. That such was +the case was not, however, the fault of Ducis; and he did good +service in modifying the judgment of his fellow countrymen. +He did not pretend to reproduce, but to excerpt and refashion; +and consequently the French play sometimes differs from its +English namesake in everything almost but the name. The plot +is different, the characters are different, the <i>motif</i> different, and +the scenic arrangement different. To <i>Othello</i>, for instance, he +wrote two endings. In one of them Othello was enlightened in +time and Desdemona escaped her tragic fate. <i>Le Banquet de +l’amitié</i>, a poem in four cantos (1771), <i>Au roi de Sardaigne</i> (1775), +<i>Discours de réception à l’académie française</i> (1779), <i>Épître à +l’amitié</i> (1786), and a <i>Recueil de poésies</i> (1809), complete the +list of Ducis’s publications.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An edition of his works in three volumes appeared in 1813; +<i>Œuvres posthumes</i> were edited by Campenon in 1826; and <i>Hamlet</i>, +<i>Œdipe chez Admète</i>, <i>Macbeth</i> and <i>Abufar</i> are reprinted in vol. ii. of +Didot’s <i>Chefs-d’œuvre tragiques</i>. See Onésime Leroy, <i>Étude sur la +personne et les écrits de Ducis</i> (1832), based on Ducis’s own memoirs +preserved in the library at Versailles; Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du +lundi</i>, t. vi., and <i>Nouveaux lundis</i>, t. iv.; Villemain, <i>Tableau de la +litt. au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCK.<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1) (From the verb “to duck,” to dive, put the head +under water, in reference to the bird’s action, cf. Dutch <i>duiker</i>, +Ger. <i>Taucher</i>, diving-bird, <i>duiken</i>, <i>tauchen</i>, to dip, dive, Dan. +<i>dukand</i>, duck, and Ger. <i>Ente</i>, duck; various familiar and +slang usages are based on analogy with the bird’s action), the +general English name for a large number of birds forming the +greater part of the family <i>Anatidae</i> of modern ornithologists. +Technically the term duck is restricted to the female, the male +being called drake (cognate with the termination of Ger. <i>Enterich</i>), +and in one species mallard (Fr. <i>Malart</i>).</p> + +<p>The <i>Anatidae</i> may be at once divided into six more or less +well marked subfamilies—(1) the <i>Cygninae</i> or swans, (2) the +<i>Anserinae</i> or geese—which are each very distinct, (3) the <i>Anatinae</i> +or freshwater-ducks, (4) those commonly called <i>Fuligulinae</i> or +sea-ducks, (5) the <i>Erismaturinae</i> or spiny-tailed ducks, and (6) +the <i>Merginae</i> or mergansers.</p> + +<p>The <i>Anatinae</i> are the typical group, and it is these only +that are considered here. We start with the <i>Anas boschas</i> of +Linnaeus, the common wild duck, which from every point of view +is by far the most important species, as it is the most plentiful, the +most widely distributed, and the best known—being indeed the +origin of all the British domestic breeds. It inhabits the greater +part of the northern hemisphere, reaching in winter so far as +the Isthmus of Panama in the New World, and in the Old being +abundant at the same season in Egypt and north-western India, +while in summer it ranges throughout the Fur-Countries, Greenland, +Iceland, Lapland and Siberia. Most of those which fill +British markets are no doubt bred in more northern climes, but +a considerable proportion of them are yet produced in the British +Islands, though not in anything like the numbers that used to +be supplied before the draining of the great fen-country and +other marshy places. The wild duck pairs very early in the +year—the period being somewhat delayed by hard weather, and +the ceremonies of courtship, which require some little time. +Soon after these are performed, the respective couples separate +in search of suitable nesting-places, which are generally found, +by those that remain with us, about the middle of March. The +spot chosen is sometimes near a river or pond, but often very +far removed from water, and it may be under a furze-bush, on a +dry heath, at the bottom of a thick hedge-row, or even in any +convenient hole in a tree. A little dry grass is generally collected, +and on it the eggs, from 9 to 11 in number, are laid. So soon as +incubation commences the mother begins to divest herself of the +down which grows thickly beneath her breast-feathers, and adds +it to the nest-furniture, so that the eggs are deeply imbedded +in this heat-retaining substance—a portion of which she is +always careful to pull, as a coverlet, over her treasures when she +quits them for food. She is seldom absent from the nest, however, +but once, or at most twice, a day, and then she dares not +leave it until her mate, after several circling flights of observation, +has assured her she may do so unobserved. Joining him the pair +betake themselves to some quiet spot where she may bathe and +otherwise refresh herself. Then they return to the nest, and after +cautiously reconnoitring the neighbourhood, she loses no time +in reseating herself on her eggs, while he, when she is settled, +repairs again to the waters, and passes his day listlessly in the +company of his brethren, who have the same duties, hopes and +cares. Short and infrequent as are the absences of the duck +when incubation begins, they become shorter and more infrequent +towards its close, and for the last day or two of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span> +28 necessary to develop the young it is probable that she will not +stir from the nest at all. When all the fertile eggs are hatched +her next care is to get the brood safely to the water. This, when +the distance is great, necessarily demands great caution, and so +cunningly is it done that but few persons have encountered the +mother and offspring as they make the dangerous journey.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +If disturbed the young instantly hide as they best can, while the +mother quacks loudly, feigns lameness, and flutters off to divert +the attention of the intruder from her brood, who lie motionless +at her warning notes. Once arrived at the water they are comparatively +free from harm, though other perils present themselves +from its inmates in the form of pike and other voracious fishes, +which seize the ducklings as they disport in quest of insects on +the surface or dive beneath it. Throughout the summer the duck +continues her care unremittingly, until the young are full grown +and feathered; but it is no part of the mallard’s duty to look +after his offspring, and indeed he speedily becomes incapable +of helping them, for towards the end of May he begins to undergo +his extraordinary additional moult, loses the power of flight, and +does not regain his full plumage till autumn. About harvest-time +the young are well able to shift for themselves, and then +resort to the corn-fields at evening, where they fatten on the +scattered grain. Towards the end of September or beginning +of October both old and young unite in large flocks and +betake themselves to the larger waters. If long-continued frost +prevail, most of the ducks resort to the estuaries and tidal +rivers, or even leave these islands almost entirely. Soon after +Christmas the return-flight commences, and then begins anew +the course of life already described.</p> + +<p>For the farmyard varieties, descending from <i>Anas boschas</i>, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poultry</a></span>. The domestication of the duck is very ancient. Several +distinct breeds have been established, of which the most esteemed +from an economical point of view are those known as the Rouen +and Aylesbury; but perhaps the most remarkable deviation +from the normal form is the so-called penguin-duck, in which +the bird assumes an upright attitude and its wings are much +diminished in size. A remarkable breed also is that often named +(though quite fancifully) the “Buenos-Ayres” duck, wherein +the whole plumage is of a deep black, beautifully glossed or +bronzed. But this saturation, so to speak, of colour only lasts +in the individual for a few years, and as the birds grow older they +become mottled with white, though as long as their reproductive +power lasts they “breed true.” The amount of variation in +domestic ducks, however, is not comparable to that found among +pigeons, no doubt from the absence of the competition which +pigeon-fanciers have so long exercised. One of the most curious +effects of domestication in the duck, however, is, that whereas +the wild mallard is not only strictly monogamous, but, as +Waterton believed, a most faithful husband, remaining paired +for life, the civilized drake is notoriously polygamous.</p> + +<p>Very nearly allied to the common wild duck are a considerable +number of species found in various parts of the world in which +there is little difference of plumage between the sexes—both +being of a dusky hue—such as <i>Anas obscura</i>, the commonest +river-duck of America, <i>A. superciliosa</i> of Australia, <i>A. poecilorhyncha</i> +of India, <i>A. melleri</i> of Madagascar, <i>A. xanthorhyncha</i> of +South Africa, and some others.</p> + +<p>Among the other genera of <i>Anatinae</i>, we must content ourselves +by saying that both in Europe and in North America there +are the groups represented by the shoveller, garganey, gadwall, +teal, pintail and widgeon—each of which, according to some +systematists, is the type of a distinct genus. Then there is the +group <i>Aix</i>, with its beautiful representatives the wood-duck +(<i>A. sponsa</i>) in America and the mandarin-duck (<i>A. galericulata</i>) +in Eastern Asia. Besides there are the sheldrakes (<i>Tadorna</i>), +confined to the Old World and remarkably developed in the +Australian Region; the musk-duck (<i>Cairina</i>) of South +America, which is often domesticated and in that condition +will produce hybrids with the common duck; and finally +the tree-ducks (<i>Dendrocygna</i>), which are almost limited to the +tropics. (For duck-shooting, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shooting</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<p>2 (Probably derived from the Dutch <i>doeck</i>, a coarse linen +material, cf. Ger. <i>Tuch</i>, cloth), a plain fabric made originally +from tow yarns. The cloth is lighter than canvas or sailcloth, +and differs from these in that it is almost invariably single in +both warp and weft. The term is also used to indicate the colour +obtained at a certain stage in the bleaching of flax yarns; it is a +colour between half-white and cream, and this fact may have +something to do with the name. Most of the flax ducks (tow +yarns) appear in this colour, although quantities are bleached +or dyed. Some of the ducks are made from long flax, dyed black, +and used for kit-bags, while the dyed tow ducks may be used +for inferior purposes. The fabric, in its various qualities and +colours, is used for an enormous variety of purposes, including +tents, wagon and motor hoods, light sails, clothing, workmen’s +overalls, bicycle tubes, mail and other bags and pocketings. +<i>Russian duck</i> is a fine white linen canvas.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> When ducks breed in trees, the precise way in which the young +get to the ground is still a matter of uncertainty. The mother is +supposed to convey them in her bill, and most likely does so, but +they are often simply allowed to fall.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCKING<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> and <b>CUCKING STOOLS,</b> chairs used for the +punishment of scolds, witches and prostitutes in bygone days. +The two have been generally confused, but are quite distinct. +The earlier, the Cucking-stool<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or Stool of Repentance, is of +very ancient date, and was used by the Saxons, who called it the +<i>Scealding</i> or <i>Scolding Stool</i>. It is mentioned in Domesday Book +as in use at Chester, being called <i>cathedra stercoris</i>, a name which +seems to confirm the first of the derivations suggested in the footnote +below. Seated on this stool the woman, her head and feet +bare, was publicly exposed at her door or paraded through the +streets amidst the jeers of the crowd. The Cucking-stool was used +for both sexes, and was specially the punishment for dishonest +brewers and bakers. Its use in the case of scolding women +declined on the introduction in the middle of the 16th century +of the Scold’s Bridle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Branks</a></span>), and it disappears on the +introduction a little later of the Ducking-stool. The earliest +record of the use of this latter is towards the beginning of the +17th century. It was a strongly made wooden armchair (the +surviving specimens are of oak) in which the culprit was seated, +an iron band being placed around her so that she should not fall +out during her immersion. Usually the chair was fastened to a +long wooden beam fixed as a seesaw on the edge of a pond or +river. Sometimes, however, the Ducking-stool was not a fixture +but was mounted on a pair of wooden wheels so that it could be +wheeled through the streets, and at the river-edge was hung by a +chain from the end of a beam. In sentencing a woman the +magistrates ordered the number of duckings she should have. +Yet another type of Ducking-stool was called a tumbrel. It +was a chair on two wheels with two long shafts fixed to the axles. +This was pushed into the pond and then the shafts released, +thus tipping the chair up backwards. Sometimes the punishment +proved fatal, the unfortunate woman dying of shock. Ducking-stools +were used in England as late as the beginning of the 19th +century. The last recorded cases are those of a Mrs Ganble at +Plymouth (1808); of Jenny Pipes, “a notorious scold” (1809), +and Sarah Leeke (1817), both of Leominster. In the last case +the water in the pond was so low that the victim was merely +wheeled round the town in the chair.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Andrews, <i>Old Time Punishments</i> (Hull, 1890); A.M. +Earle, <i>Curious Punishments of Bygone Days</i> (Chicago, 1896); W.C. +Hazlitt, <i>Faiths and Folklore</i> (London, 1905); Llewellynn Jewitt +in <i>The Reliquary</i>, vols. i. and ii. (1860-1862); <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> +for 1732.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Probably from “cuck,” to void excrement; but variously +connected with Fr. <i>coquin</i>, rascal.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCKWEED,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> the common botanical name for species of +<i>Lemna</i> which form a green coating on fresh-water ponds and +ditches. The plants are of extremely simple structure and are +the smallest and least differentiated of flowering plants. They +consist of a so-called “frond”—a flattened green more or less +oval structure which emits branches similar to itself from +lateral pockets at or near the base. From the under surface a +root with a well-developed sheath grows downwards into the +water. The flowers, which are rarely found in Britain, are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span> +developed in one of the lateral pockets. The inflorescence is a +very simple one, consisting of one or two male flowers each +comprising a single stamen, and a female flower comprising a +flask-shaped pistil. The order Lemnaceae to which they belong +is regarded as representing a very reduced type nearly allied to +the Aroids. It is represented in Britain by four species of <i>Lemna</i>, +and a still smaller and simpler plant, <i>Wolffia</i>, in which the +fronds are only one-twentieth of an inch long and have no +roots.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:259px" src="images/img632.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> +<p>1, <i>Lemna minor</i> (Lesser Duckweed) nat. size.</p> +<p>2, Plant in flower.</p> +<p>3, Inflorescence containing two male flowers each of one +stamen, and a female flower, the whole enclosed in a sheath.</p> +<p>4, <i>Wolffia arrhiza</i>.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>(2, 3, 4 enlarged.)</p></td></tr></table> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1748-1817), British +admiral, was born at Leatherhead, in Surrey, on the 28th of +February 1748. He entered the navy in 1759, and obtained his +commission as lieutenant in June 1770, when he was appointed +to the “Princess Royal,” the flagship of Admiral Byron, in which +he sailed to the West Indies. While serving on board this vessel +he took part in the engagement with the French fleet under +Count D’Estaing. In July 1779 he became commander, and +was appointed to the “Rover” sloop; in June of the following +year he attained the rank of post-captain. Soon afterwards +he returned to England in charge of a convoy. The outbreak of +the war with France gave him his first opportunity of obtaining +marked distinction. Appointed first to the “Orion” and then +to the “Queen” in the Channel Fleet, under the command of +Lord Howe, he took part in the three days’ naval engagement +with the Brest fleet, which terminated in a glorious victory on the +1st of June 1794. For his conduct on this occasion he received a +gold medal and the thanks of parliament. He next proceeded +to the West Indies, where he was stationed for some time at St +Domingo. In 1798 he commanded the “Leviathan” in the +Mediterranean, and had charge of the naval detachment which, +in conjunction with a military force, captured Minorca. Early +in 1799 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral, and sent to +the West Indies to succeed Lord Hugh Seymour. During the +voyage out he captured a valuable Spanish convoy of eleven +merchantmen. In March 1801 he was the naval commander of +the combined force which reduced the islands of St Bartholomew +and St Martin, a service for which he was rewarded with the order +of the Bath and a pension of £1000 a year. Promoted to be vice-admiral +of the blue, he was appointed in 1804 to the Jamaica +station. Two years later, while cruising off Cadiz with Lord +Collingwood, he was detached with his squadron to pursue a +French fleet that had been sent to the relief of St Domingo. +He came up with the enemy on the 6th February 1806, and, after +two hours’ fighting, inflicted a signal defeat upon them, capturing +three of their five vessels and stranding the other two. For this, +the most distinguished service of his life, he received the thanks +of the Jamaica assembly, with a sword of the value of a thousand +guineas, the thanks of the English parliament, and the freedom +of the city of London. In 1807 he was again sent to the Mediterranean +to watch the movements of the Turks. In command of +the “Royal George” he forced the passage of the Dardanelles, +but sustained considerable loss in effecting his return, the Turks +having strengthened their position while he was being kept in +play by their diplomatists and Napoleon’s ambassador General +Sebastiani. He held the command of the Newfoundland fleet +for four years from 1810, and at the close of that period he was +made a baronet. In 1815 he was appointed to the chief command +at Plymouth, which he held until his death on the 14th of April +1817. Sir John Duckworth sat in parliament for some time as +member for New Romney.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Naval Chronicle</i>, xviii.; Ralfe’s <i>Naval Biography</i>, ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F.<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1856-  ), English poet and +critic, who first became known in England under her maiden +name of Mary F. Robinson, was born at Leamington on the +27th of February 1856. She was educated at University College, +London, devoting herself chiefly to the study of Greek literature. +Her first volume of poetry, <i>A Handful of Honeysuckle</i>, was +published in 1879. Her next work was a translation from +Euripides, <i>The Crowned Hippolytus</i> (1881). Monographs on +Emily Brontë (1883) and on Marguerite of Angoulême (1886) +followed; and <i>The New Arcadia and other Poems</i> (1884) and +<i>An Italian Garden</i> (1886) contain some of her best verses. +Her poems attracted the attention of the orientalist, James +Darmesteter (<i>q.v.</i>), then in Peshawur, and he made an admirable +translation of them in French. The acquaintance led to their +marriage in 1888, and from that time a large part of her work +was done in French. Madame Darmesteter translated her husband’s +<i>Études anglaises</i> into English (1896). Her most considerable +prose work is the <i>Life of Ernest Renan</i> (1897). She +also wrote the <i>End of the Middle Ages</i> (1888); the volume on +<i>Froissart</i> (1894) in the <i>Grands écrivains français</i>; essays on the +Brontës, the Brownings and others, entitled <i>Grands écrivains +d’Outre-Manche</i> (1901). After Darmesteter’s death, she married +in 1901 Émile Duclaux, the associate of Pasteur, and director +of the Pasteur institute. He died in 1904. She published +<i>Retrospect and other Poems</i> in 1893, and in 1904 appeared The +<i>Return to Nature, Songs and Symbols</i>. The qualities of Mary +Robinson’s work, its conciseness and purity of expression, +were only gradually recognized. Her <i>Collected Poems, Lyrical +and Narrative</i> were published in 1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCLOS, CHARLES PINOT<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1704-1772), French author, +was born at Dinan, in Brittany, in 1704. At an early age he +was sent to study at Paris. After some time spent in dissipation +he began to cultivate the society of the wits of the time, and +became a member of the club or association of young men who +published their joint efforts in light literature under the titles of +<i>Recueil de ces messieurs</i>, <i>Étrennes de la St-Jean</i>, <i>Œufs de Pâques</i>, +&c. His romance of <i>Acajou and Zirphile</i>, composed to suit a +series of plates which had been engraved for another work, was +one of the fruits of this association, and was produced in consequence +of a sort of wager amongst its members. Duclos had +previously written two other romances, which were more favourably +received—<i>The Baroness de Luz</i> (1741), and the <i>Confessions +of the Count de***</i> (1747). His first serious publication was the +<i>History of Louis XI.</i>, which is dry and epigrammatical in style, +but displays considerable powers of research and impartiality. +The reputation of Duclos as an author was confirmed by the +publication of his <i>Considérations sur les mœurs de ce siècle</i> (1751), +a work justly praised by Laharpe, as containing a great deal +of sound and ingenious reflection. It was translated into English +and German. The <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire du dix-huitième +siècle</i>, intended by the author as a sort of sequel to the +preceding work, are much inferior in style and matter, and are, +in reality, little better than a kind of romance. In consequence +of his <i>History of Louis XI.</i>, he was appointed historiographer of +France, when that place became vacant on Voltaire’s retirement +to Prussia. His <i>Secret Memoirs of the Reigns of Louis XIV. and +Louis XV.</i> (for which he was able to utilize the <i>Mémoires</i> of +Saint Simon, suppressed in 1755), were not published until after +the Revolution.</p> + +<p>Duclos became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in +1739, and of the French Academy in 1747, being appointed +perpetual secretary in 1747. Both academies were indebted to +him not only for many valuable contributions, but also for several +useful regulations and improvements. As a member of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span> +Academy of Inscriptions, he composed several memoirs on trial by combat, +on the origin and revolutions of the Celtic and French languages, and on +scenic representations and the ancient drama. As a member of the French +Academy, he assisted in compiling the new edition of the <i>Dictionary</i>, +which was published in 1762; and he made some just and philosophical +remarks on the <i>Port Royal Grammar</i>. On several occasions he +distinguished himself by vindicating the honour and prerogatives of the +societies to which he belonged, and the dignity of the literary +character in general. He used to say of himself, “I shall leave behind +me a name dear to literary men.” The citizens of Dinan, whose interests +he always supported with zeal, appointed him mayor of their town in +1744, though he was resident at Paris, and in this capacity he took part +in the assembly of the estates of Brittany. Upon the requisition of this +body the king granted him letters of nobility. In 1763 he was advised to +retire from France for some time, having rendered himself obnoxious to +the government by the opinions he had expressed on the dispute between +the duc d’Aiguillon and M. de la Chalotais, the friend and countryman of +Duclos. Accordingly he set out first for England (1763), then for Italy +(1766); and on his return he wrote his <i>Considerations on Italy</i>. He +died at Paris on the 26th of March 1772. The character of Duclos was +singular in its union of impulsiveness and prudence. Rousseau described +him very laconically as a man <i>droit et adroit</i>. In his manners he +displayed a sort of bluntness in society, which frequently rendered him +disagreeable; and his caustic wit on many occasions created enemies. To +those who knew him, however, he was a pleasant companion. A considerable +number of his <i>bons mots</i> have been preserved by his biographers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of the works of Duclos, including an unfinished +autobiography, was published by Auger (1821). See also Saint-Beuve, +<i>Causeries du lundi</i>, t. ix.; René Kerviler, <i>La Bretagne et l’Académie +française du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1889); L. Mandon, <i>De la valeur historique +des mèmoires secrets de Duclos</i> (1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1754-1816), French politician and director, was +born at Dax. He was an advocate when elected deputy to the Convention by +the department of the Landes. He sat in the “Plain,” <i>i.e.</i> in the party +which had no opinion of its own, which always leaned to the stronger +side. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., without appeal or delay, but +played no noticeable part in the Convention. He was a member of the +Council of the Five Hundred, over which he presided on the 18th of +Fructidor in the year V. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>). At the end of his term +he became a judge of the peace, but after the parliamentary <i>coup +d’état</i> of the 30th of Prairial of the year VIII. he was named a member +of the executive Directory, thanks to the influence of Barras, who +counted on using him as a passive instrument. Ducos accepted the <i>coup +d’état</i> of Bonaparte on the 18th of Brumaire, and was one of the three +provisional consuls. He became vice-president of the senate. The Empire +heaped favours upon him, but in 1814 he abandoned Napoleon, and voted +for his deposition. He sought to gain the favour of the government of +the Restoration, but in 1816 was exiled in virtue of the law against the +regicides. He died in March 1816 at Ulm, from a carriage accident. In +spite of his absolute lack of talent, he attained the highest of +positions—an exceptional fact in the history of the French Revolution.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUCTLESS GLANDS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> in anatomy. A certain number of glands in the body, +often of great physiological importance, have no <i>ducts</i> (Lat. <i>ductus</i>, +from <i>ducere</i>, to lead, <i>i.e.</i> vessels, tubes or canals for conveying away +fluid or other substance); and their products, known as internal +secretions, are at once carried away by the veins or lymphatics which +drain them. Among these structures are the <i>spleen</i>, the <i>adrenals</i>, the +<i>thyroid gland</i>, the <i>parathyroids</i>, the <i>thymus</i> and the <i>carotid</i> and +<i>coccygeal</i> bodies. In addition to these the lymphatic glands are +described in the article on the lymphatic system (<i>q.v.</i>), and the pineal +and pituitary bodies in the article on the brain (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:586px; height:520px" src="images/img633.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From D.J. Cunningham, Cunningham’s <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—The Spleen—Visceral Aspect.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Spleen</p> + +<p>The human <i>spleen</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="splen">σπλήν</span>) is an oval, flattened gland, of +a dull purple colour, and about 5 in. long by 3 broad, situated in the +upper and back part of the left side of the abdominal cavity. If the +right hand is passed round the left side of its owner’s body, as far as +it will reach, it approximately covers the spleen. The long axis of the +organ is obliquely placed so that the upper pole is much nearer the +vertebral column than the lower pole. For practical purposes the long +axis of the left tenth rib corresponds with that of the spleen. There is +an external or parietal surface and an internal or visceral, the latter +of which is again subdivided; these surfaces are limited by ventral and +dorsal borders. The external, parietal, or phrenic surface is convex to +adapt it to the concavity of the diaphragm, against the posterior part +of which it lies; external to the diaphragm is the pleural cavity, and +more externally still, the ninth, tenth and eleventh ribs. The internal +or visceral surface is divided by a prominent ridge into a gastric or +anterior and a renal or posterior surface. Sometimes a triangular +impression called the basal surface is formed at the lower part of the +visceral surface by the left end of the transverse colon, though at +other times no such impression is seen. It is probable that the exact +shape of the spleen depends a good deal on the amount of distension of +the surrounding hollow viscera at the time of death. (For details of the +basal surface see D.J. Cunningham, <i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxix. +p. 501.) The gastric surface is concave and adapts itself to the fundus +of the stomach, while just in front of the ridge separating the gastric +and renal surfaces is the hilum, where the vessels enter and leave the +organ; in front of this the tail of the pancreas usually touches the +spleen. The renal surface is as a rule smaller than the gastric and, +like it, is concave; it is moulded on to the upper part of the outer +border of the left kidney and just reaches the left adrenal body. The +anterior or ventral border of the spleen has usually two or more notches +in it, though these are often also seen on the dorsal border. The whole +spleen is surrounded by peritoneum, which is reflected off on to the +stomach as the gastro-splenic omentum, and on to the kidney as the +lieno-renal ligament; occasionally the lesser sac reaches it near its +connexion with the pancreas. Small accessory spleens are fairly often +found in the neighbourhood of the spleen, though it is possible that +some of these may be haemo-lymph glands (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lymphatic System</a></span>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Microscopically the spleen has a fibro-elastic coat in which involuntary +muscle is found (fig. 2). This coat sends multitudes of fine trabeculae +into the interior of the organ, which subdivide it into numbers of +minute compartments, in which the red, highly vascular, spleen pulp is +contained. This pulp contains small spherical masses of adenoid tissue, +forming the Malpighian corpuscles, situated on the terminal branches of +the splenic blood-vessels, together with numerous cells, some of which +are red blood corpuscles, others lymph corpuscles, others contain +pigment granules or fat, while others have in their interior numerous +blood corpuscles. The arteries of the spleen in part end in capillaries +from which the veins arise, but more frequently they open into lacunae +or blood spaces, which give origin to the veins.</p> + +<p><i>Embryology.</i>—The spleen is developed in the dorsal mesogastrium (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coelom and Serous Membranes</a></span>) from the mesenchyme, or that portion of the +mesoderm, the cells of which lie scattered in a matrix. Large lymphoid +cells are early seen among those of the mesenchyme, but whether these +migrate from the coelomic epithelium, or are originally mesenchymal is +doubtful, though the former seems more probable. The network of the +spleen seems certainly to be derived from cells of the mesenchyme which +lose their nuclei.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:309px; height:290px" src="images/img634a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Section of the Spleen +seen under a low power.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, Fibrous capsule.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Trabeculae.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Malpighian corpuscles.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Blood-vessels.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Spleen pulp.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i>—The spleen is regarded as the remains of a mass +of lymphoid tissue which, in a generalized type of vertebrate, stretched +all along the alimentary canal. It is absent as a distinct gland in the +Acrania and Cyclostomata. In the fishes it is closely applied to the +U-shaped stomach, and in some of the Elasmobranchs, <i>e.g.</i> the basking and +porbeagle sharks (Selache and Lamna), it is divided into small lobules. +In Protopterus among the Dipnoi it is enclosed within the walls of the +stomach. In the Anura (frogs and toads) among the Amphibia it is a +spherical mass close to the rectum, and this may be explained by +regarding it as derived from a different part of the original mass, +already mentioned, to that which persists in other vertebrates. In the +Iguana among the reptiles the organ has many notches, and each one +corresponds to the point of entrance of a vessel. In Mammals the +notches, when they are present, so frequently correspond to the points +of entrance of arteries at the hilum that the present writer believes +that the former are determined by the latter in many cases (see F.G. +Parsons on the Notches of the Spleen, <i>J. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. 35, p. +416; also Charnock Bradley, <i>Proceedings of R. Soc. Edin.</i>, vol. 24, pt. +6, p. 521). The Monotremata and Marsupialia have curious Y-shaped +spleens. As a rule flesh-eating animals have larger and more notched +spleens than vegetable feeders, though among the Cetacea the spleen is +relatively very small.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc" style="clear: both;">Adrenal Glands</p> + +<p>The adrenal glands or suprarenal capsules are two conical bodies, +flattened from before backward, resting on the upper poles of the +kidneys close to the sides of the vertebral column; each has an anterior +and posterior surface and a concave base which is in contact with the +kidney. When viewed from in front the right gland is triangular and the +left crescentic. On the anterior surface there is a transverse sulcus or +hilum from which a large vein emerges. The arteries are less constant in +their points of entry, and are derived from three sources, the phrenic, +the abdominal aorta and the renal arteries. The glands are entirely +retro-peritoneal, though the right one, even on its anterior surface, is +very little covered by peritoneum. In a vertical transverse section each +gland is seen to consist of two parts, cortical and medullary. The +cortical substance is composed of bundles of cells, separated by a +stroma, which have a different appearance in different parts. Most +superficially is the zona glomerulosa, then the zona fascicularis, and +most deeply the zona reticularis. These names convey a fair idea of the +appearance of the bundles. To the naked eye the cortical part is yellow +while the medullary is red. The medullary part consists of small islets +of cells, which resemble columnar epithelium lying among venous sinuses; +these cells are said to be in close connexion with the sympathetic nerve +filaments from the great solar plexus.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:646px; height:408px" src="images/img634b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From D.J. Cunningham, Cunningham’s <i>Text-book of Anatomy</i>.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—A, Anterior surface of right suprarenal capsule. +B, Anterior surface of left suprarenal capsule. The upper and inner +parts of each kidney are indicated in outline. On the right capsule the +dotted line indicates the upper limit of the peritoneal covering.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2"><i>Embryology.</i>—The generally accepted opinion at present is that the +cortical substance is derived from the coelomic epithelium covering the +mesoderm of the upper (cephalic) portion of the Wolffian body, and +corresponds to the nephrostomes of mesonephridial tubules (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Urinary +System</a></span>), while the medullary part grows out from the sympathetic ganglia +and so is probably ectodermal in origin. J. Janosik, however (<i>Archiv. +f. mikrosk. Anat.</i> bd. xxii. 1883 and <i>Sitzungsber. d. Wiener Akad.</i>, +1885), thinks that the cortical part is derived from the germ epithelium +covering the upper part of the genital ridge. C.S. Minot (<i>Human +Embryology</i>, 1897) believes that the original cells which grow in from +the sympathetic disappear later, and that the adult medullary cells are +derived from the cortical.</p> + +<p>In the early human embryo the adrenals are larger than the kidneys, and +at birth they are proportionately much larger than in the adult. (For +literature see. <i>Development of the Human Body</i>, J.P. McMurrich, +London, 1906; and <i>Handbuch der Entwickelungslehre</i>, by O. Hertwig, +Jena.)</p> + +<p><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i>—Adrenals are unknown in Amphioxus and the Dipnoi +(mud fish). In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) they are said by +some to arise in connexion with the cephalic part of the pronephros, +though other writers deny their presence at all (see W.E. Collinge and +Swale Vincent, <i>Anat. Anz.</i> bd. xii., 1896). In the Elasmobranchs and +Holocephali the medullary and cortical parts are apparently distinct, +the former being represented by a series of organs situated close to the +intercostal arteries, while the latter may be either median or paired, +and, as they are placed between the kidneys, are often spoken of as +interrenals. In the Amphibia the glands are sunk into the surface of the +kidney. In reptiles and birds they are long lobulated bodies lying close +to the testis or ovary and receiving an adrenal portal vein. In the +lower mammals they are not as closely connected with the kidneys as they +are in man, and their shape is usually oval or spherical.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Thyroid Gland</p> + +<p>The thyroid body or gland is a deep red glandular mass consisting of two +lobes which lie one on each side of the upper part of the trachea and +lower part of the larynx; these are joined across the middle line by the +isthmus which lies in front of the second and third rings of the +trachea. Occasionally, from the top of the isthmus, a nearly but not +quite median pyramidal lobe runs up toward the hyoid bone, while in +other cases the isthmus may be absent. The gland is relatively larger in women and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span> +children than in the adult male. It is enclosed in a capsule of +cervical fascia and is supplied by the superior and inferior +thyroid arteries on each side, though occasionally a median +thyroidea ima artery is present. On microscopical examination +the gland shows a large number of closed tubular alveoli, lined +by columnar epithelial cells, unsupported by a basement membrane, +and filled with colloid or jelly-like material. These are +supported by fibrous septa growing in from the true capsule, +which is distinct from the capsule of cervical fascia. The +lymphatic vessels are large and numerous, and have been shown +by E.C. Baber (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1881) to contain the same colloid +material as the alveoli. Accessory thyroids, close to the main +gland, are often found.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Embryology.</i>—The median part of the gland is developed from a +tube which grows down in the middle line from the junction of the +buccal and pharyngeal parts of the tongue (<i>q.v.</i>), between the first +and second branchial arches. This tube is called the thyro-glossal +duct and is entodermal in origin. The development of the hyoid +bone obliterates the middle part of the duct, leaving its upper part +as the foramen caecum of the tongue, while its lower part bifurcates, +and so the asymmetrical arrangement of the pyramidal lobe is +accounted for. A. Kanthack (<i>J. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. xxv., 1891) has +denied the existence of this duct, but on slender grounds. The +lateral parts of the gland are developed from the entoderm of the +fourth visceral clefts, and, joining the median part, lose their pharyngeal +connexion. Nearly, but not quite, the whole of the lateral +lobes probably belong to this part. (For literature and further +details see Quain’s <i>Anatomy</i>, London, 1892, and J.P. McMurrich’s +<i>Development of the Human Body</i>, London, 1906.)</p> + +<p><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i>—The endostyle or hypobranchial groove +of Tunicata (sea squirts) and Acrania (Amphioxus) is regarded +as the first appearance of the median thyroid; this is a median +entodermal groove in the floor of the pharynx, secreting a glairy +fluid in which food particles become entangled and so pass into the +intestine. In the larval lamprey (Ammocoetes) among the Cyclostomata +the connexion with the pharynx is present, but in the adult +lamprey (Petromyzon), as in all adult vertebrates, this connexion is +lost. In the Elasmobranchs the single median thyroid lies close to +the mandibular symphysis, but in the bony fish (Teleostei) it is +paired. In the mud fish (Dipnoi) there is also an indication of a +division into two lobes. In the Amphibia the thyroid forms numerous +vesicles close to the anterior end of the pericardium. In Reptilia +it lies close to the trachea, and in the Chelonia and Crocodilia is +paired. In birds it is also paired and lies near the origin of the carotid +arteries. In Mammalia the lateral lobes make their first appearance. +In the lower orders of this class the isthmus is often absent. (For +further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim’s <i>Vergleichende +Anatomie der Wirbeltiere</i>, Jena, 1902, and also for literature, Quain’s +<i>Anatomy</i>, London, 1896.)</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Parathyroid Glands</p> + +<p>These little oval bodies, of considerable physiological importance, +are two in number on each side. From their position they +are spoken of as postero-superior and antero-inferior; the +postero-superior are embedded in the thyroid at the level of the +lower border of the cricoid cartilage, while the antero-inferior +may be embedded in the lower edge of the lateral lobes of the +thyroid or may be found a little distance below in relation to +the inferior thyroid veins. They are often very difficult to find, +but it is easiest to do so in a perfectly fresh, full-term foetus or +young child. Microscopically they consist of solid masses of +epithelioid cells with numerous blood-vessels between, while, +embedded in their periphery, are often found masses of thymic +tissue including the concentric corpuscles of Hassall. They +have been regarded as undeveloped portions of thyroid tissue +in an embryonic state, but the experiments of Gley (<i>Comptes +rendus de la Soc. de Biol.</i> No. 11, 1895) and of W. Edmunds +(<i>Proc. Physiol. Soc.—Journ. Phys.</i> vol. xviii., 1895) do not +confirm this. They are developed from the entoderm of the +third and fourth branchial grooves.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Parathyroids have been found in the orders of Primates, Cheiroptera, +Carnivora, Ungulata and Rodentia among the Mammalia, and +also in Birds. In the other classes of vertebrates little is known of +them. The fullest and most recent account of these bodies is that +of D.A. Welsh in Journ. <i>Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. 32, 1898, pp. 292 and +380.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Thymus Gland</p> + +<p>The thymus gland (Gr. <span class="grk" title="thymos">θύμος</span>, from a fancied resemblance +to the corymbs of the Thyme) is a light pink gland, consisting +of two unequal lobes, which lies in the superior and anterior +mediastina of the thorax in front of the pericardium and great +vessels; it also extends up into the root of the neck to within a +short distance of the thyroid gland. It continues to grow until +the second year of life, after which it remains stationary until +puberty, when it usually degenerates rapidly. The writer has +seen it perfectly well developed in a man between 40 and 50, +though such cases are rare; probably, however, some patches +of its tissue remain all through life. Each lobe is divided into a +large number of lobules divided by areolar tissue, and each of +these, under the microscope, is seen to consist of a cortical and +medullary part. The cortex is composed of lymphoid tissue and +resembles the structure of a lymphatic gland (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lymphatic +System</a></span>); it is imperfectly divided into a number of follicles. +In the medulla the lymphoid cells are fewer, and nests of epithelial +cells are found, called the concentric corpuscles of Hassall. The +vascular supply is derived from all the vessels in the neighbourhood, +the lymphatics are very large and numerous, but the +nerves, which come from the sympathetic and vagus, are few +and small. H. Watney (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1882) has discovered +haemoglobin, and apparently developing red blood corpuscles, +in the thymus. (For further details see Gray’s or Quain’s +<i>Anatomy</i>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Embryology.</i>—The thymus is formed from a diverticulum, on each +side, from the entoderm lining the third branchial groove, but the +connexion with the pharynx is soon lost. The lymphoid cells and +concentric corpuscles are probably the derivatives of the original +cells lining the diverticulum.</p> + +<p><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i>—The thymus is always a paired gland. +In most fishes it rises from the dorsal part of all five branchial clefts; +in Lepidosiren (Dipnoi), from all except the first; in Urodela from +3rd, 4th and 5th, and in Anura from the 2nd only (see T.H. Bryce, +“Development of Thymus in Lepidosiren,” <i>Journ. Anat. and Phys.</i> +vol. 40, p. 91). In all fishes, including the Dipnoi (mud fish) it is +placed dorsally to the gill arches on each side. In the Amphibia it +is found close to the articulation of the mandible. In the Reptilia +it is situated by the side of the carotid artery; but in young crocodiles +it is lobulated and extends all along the neck, as it does in birds, +lying close to the side of the oesophagus. In Mammals the Marsupials +are remarkable for having a well-developed cervical as well +as thoracic thymus (J. Symington, <i>J. Anat. and Phys.</i> vol. 32, +p. 278). In some of the lower mammals the gland does not disappear +as early as it does in man. The thymus of the calf is popularly +known as “the chest sweetbread.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Carotid Bodies</p> + +<p>These are two small bodies situated, one on each side, between +the origins of the external and internal carotid arteries. Microscopically +they are divided into nodules or cell balls by connective +tissue, and these closely resemble the structure of the parathyroids, +but are without any thymic tissue. The blood-vessels +in their interior are extremely large and numerous. The modern +view of their development is that they are part of the sympathetic +system, and the reaction of their cells to chromium salts bears +this out. (See Kohn, <i>Archiv f. mikr. Anat.</i> lxx., 1907.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the Anura there is a rete or network into which the carotid +artery breaks up in the position of the carotid body, and this has +an important effect on the course of the circulation. It is probable, +however, that this structure has nothing to do with the carotid body +of Mammalia.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Coccygeal Body</p> + +<p>This is a small median body, about the size of a pea, situated +in front of the apex of the coccyx and between the insertions of +the levatores ani muscles. It resembles the carotid body in its +microscopical structure, but is not so vascular. Concentric +corpuscles, like those of the thymus, have been recorded in it. +It derives its arteries from the middle sacral and its nerves from +the sympathetic. Of its embryology and comparative anatomy +little is known, though J.W. Thomson Walker has recently +shown that numerous, outlying, minute masses of the same +structure lie along the course of the middle sacral artery +(<i>Archiv f. mikroscop. Anat.</i> Bd. lxiv.). The probability is that, +like the carotid body, it is sympathetic in origin. (Quain’s +<i>Anatomy</i> gives excellent illustrations of the histology of this as +well as of all the other ductless glands.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the literature on and further details concerning the foregoing +structures the following works should be consulted: Quain’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span> +<i>Anatomy</i>, vol. 1 (1908, London, Longman & Co.); McMurrich’s <i>Development +of the Human Body</i> (London, Rebman, 1906); Wiedersheim’s +<i>Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbeltiere</i> (Jena, 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDERSTADT,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Hanover, situated in a beautiful and fertile valley (formerly +called <i>Goldene Mark</i>) watered by the Hahle, and on the railway +Wulften-Leinefelde. Pop. (1905) 5327. It is an interesting +medieval town with many ancient buildings. Notable are the +two Roman Catholic churches, beautiful Gothic edifices of the +14th century, the Protestant church, and the handsome town-hall. +Its chief industries are woollen and cotton manufactures, +sugar-refining and cigar-making; it has also a trade in singing-birds. +Duderstadt was founded by Henry I. (the Fowler) in +929, passed later to the monastery of Quedlinburg, and then to +Brunswick. It was a member of the Hanseatic League, and +during the Thirty Years’ War became a stronghold of the +Imperialists. It was taken by Duke William of Weimar in 1632; +in 1761 its walls were dismantled, and, after being alternately +Prussian and Hanoverian, it passed finally in 1866 with Hanover +to Prussia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF.<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> The holders of these +English titles are descended from John de Sutton (<i>c.</i> 1310-1359) +of Dudley castle, Staffordshire, who was summoned to parliament +as a baron in 1342. Sutton was the son of another John +de Sutton, who had inherited Dudley Castle through his marriage +with Margaret, sister and heiress of John de Somery (d. 1321); +he was called Lord Dudley, or Lord Sutton of Dudley, the latter +being doubtless the correct form. However, his descendants, +the Suttons, were often called by the name of Dudley; and from +John Dudley of Atherington, Sussex, a younger son of John +Sutton, the 5th baron, the earls of Warwick and the earl of +Leicester of the Dudley family are descended.</p> + +<p>John Sutton or Dudley (<i>c.</i> 1400-1487), the 5th baron, was +first summoned to parliament in 1440, having been viceroy of +Ireland from 1428 to 1430. He served Henry VI. as a diplomatist +and also as a soldier, being taken prisoner at the first +battle of St Albans in 1455, but this did not prevent him from +enjoying the favour of Edward IV. He died on the 30th of +September 1487. He was succeeded as 6th baron by his grandson +Edward (<i>c.</i> 1459-1532), and one of his sons, William Dudley, +was bishop of Durham from 1476 until his death in 1483. His +descendant Edward Sutton or Dudley, the 9th baron (1567-1643), +had several illegitimate sons. Among them was Dud Dudley +(1599-1684), who in 1665 published <i>Metallum Martis</i>, describing +a process of making iron with “pit-coale, sea-coale, &c.” which +was put in operation at his father’s ironworks at Pensnet, +Worcestershire, of which he was manager. His success aroused +much opposition on the part of other ironmasters, and his commercial +ventures at Himley, at Askew Bridge and at Bristol +ended in loss and disaster. During the Civil War he was a colonel +in the army of Charles I.</p> + +<p>Dying without lawful male issue in June 1643, the 9th baron +was succeeded in the barony by his grand-daughter, Frances +(1611-1697); she married Humble Ward (<i>c.</i> 1614-1670), the +son of a London goldsmith, who was created Baron Ward of +Birmingham in 1644. Their son Edward (1631-1701) succeeded +both to the barony of Dudley and to that of Ward, but these +were separated when his grandson William died unmarried in +May 1740. The barony of Dudley passed to a nephew, Ferdinando +Dudley Lea, falling into abeyance on his death in October +1757; that of Ward passed to the heir male, John Ward +(d. 1774), a descendant of Humble Ward. In 1763 Ward was +created Viscount Dudley, and in April 1823 his grandson, John +William Ward (1781-1833), became the 4th viscount.</p> + +<p>Educated at Oxford, John William Ward entered parliament +in 1802, and except for a few months he remained in the House +of Commons until he succeeded his father in the peerage. In +1827 he was minister for foreign affairs under Canning and then +under Goderich and under Wellington, resigning office in May +1828. As foreign minister he was only a cipher, but he was a +man of considerable learning and had some reputation as a +writer and a talker. Dudley took an interest in the foundation +of the university of London, and his <i>Letters</i> to the bishop of +Llandaff were published by the bishop (Edward Copleston) in +1840 (new ed. 1841). He was created Viscount Ednam and earl +of Dudley in 1827, and when he died unmarried on the 6th of +March 1833 these titles became extinct. His barony of Ward, +however, passed to a kinsman, William Humble Ward (1781-1835), +whose son, William (1817-1885), inheriting much of the +dead earl’s great wealth, was created Viscount Ednam and earl +of Dudley in 1860. The 2nd earl of Dudley in this creation was +the latter’s son William Humble (b. 1866), who was lord-lieutenant +of Ireland from 1902 to 1906, and in 1908 was appointed governor-general +of Australia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H.S. Grazebrook in the <i>Herald and Genealogist</i>, vols. ii., v. and +vi.; in <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 2nd series, vol. xi.; and in vol. ix. of the +publications of the William Salt Society (1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDLEY, EDMUND<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1462-1510), minister of Henry VII. +of England, was a son of John Dudley of Atherington, Sussex, +and a member of the great baronial family of Sutton or Dudley. +After studying at Oxford and at Gray’s Inn, Dudley came +under the notice of Henry VII., and is said to have been made a +privy councillor at the early age of twenty-three. In 1492 he +helped to negotiate the treaty of Etaples with France and soon +became prominent in assisting the king to check the lawlessness +of the barons, and at the same time to replenish his own exchequer. +He and his colleague Sir Richard Empson (<i>q.v.</i>) are +called <i>fiscales judices</i> by Polydore Vergil, and owing to their +extortions they became very unpopular. Dudley, who was +speaker of the House of Commons in 1504, in addition to aiding +Henry, amassed a great amount of wealth for himself, and +possessed large estates in Sussex, Dorset and Lincolnshire. +When Henry VII. died in April 1509, he was thrown into prison +by order of Henry VIII. and charged with the crime of constructive +treason, being found guilty and attainted. After +having made a futile attempt to escape from prison, he was +executed on the 17th or 18th of August 1510. Dudley’s nominal +crime was that during the last illness of Henry VII. he had +ordered his friends to assemble in arms in case the king died, +but the real reason for his death was doubtless the unpopularity +caused by his avarice. During his imprisonment he sought to +gain the favour of Henry VIII. by writing a treatise in support +of absolute monarchy called <i>The Tree of Commonwealth</i>. This +never reached the king’s hands, and was not published until +1859, when it was printed privately in Manchester. Dudley’s +first wife was Anne, widow of Roger Corbet of Morton, Shropshire, +by whom he had a daughter, Elizabeth, who married +William, 6th Lord Stourton. By his second wife, Elizabeth, +daughter of Edward Grey, Viscount Lisle, he had three sons: +John, afterwards duke of Northumberland (<i>q.v.</i>); Andrew +(d. 1559), who was made a knight and held various important +posts during the reign of Edward VI.; and Jasper.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Francis Bacon, <i>History of Henry VII.</i>, edited by J.R. Lumby +(Cambridge, 1881); and J.S. Brewer, <i>The Reign of Henry VIII.</i>, +edited by J. Gairdner (London, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1573-1649), titular duke of Northumberland +and earl of Warwick, English explorer, engineer and +author, was the son of Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester (<i>q.v.</i>), +the favourite of Queen Elizabeth. His mother was Lady Douglas +Sheffield, daughter of Thomas, first Baron Howard of Effingham. +Leicester, who deserted Lady Douglas Sheffield for Lettice +Knollys, widow of the first earl of Essex, denied that they were +married. She asserted that they were, at Esher in Surrey, but +her marriage with Sir Edward Stafford of Grafton, after her +desertion by Leicester, would seem to be a tacit confession that +her claim had no foundation. Her son Robert was born in May +1573, was recognized by Leicester, and sent to Christ Church, +Oxford, in 1587. He inherited all Leicester’s property under the +earl’s will at his death in 1588, and in the following year the +property of Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick. In 1594 he +made a voyage to the West Indies, and in 1596 he took part in +the expedition to Cadiz and was knighted. In 1592 he had +married a sister of Thomas Cavendish the circumnavigator. +On her death he married Alicia Leigh in 1596, by whom he had +four daughters. After the death of Elizabeth he endeavoured +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span> +to secure recognition of his legitimacy, and of his right to inherit +the titles of his father and uncle. The proceedings were quashed +by the Star Chamber. In 1605 he obtained leave to travel +abroad, and went to Italy accompanied by the beautiful Miss +Elizabeth Southwell, daughter of Sir Robert Southwell of +Woodrising, in the dress of a page. When ordered to return home +and to provide for his deserted wife and family, he refused, was +outlawed, and his property was confiscated. On the continent +he avowed himself a Roman Catholic, married Elizabeth Southwell +at Lyons, and entered the service of Cosimo II., grand-duke +of Tuscany. In the service of the grand-duke he is said to have +done some fighting against the Barbary pirates, and he was undoubtedly +employed in draining the marshes behind Leghorn, +and in the construction of the port. In 1620 the emperor +Ferdinand II. gave him a patent recognizing his claim not only +to the earldom of Warwick but to the duchy of Northumberland, +which had been held by his grandfather, who was executed by +Queen Mary Tudor. In Italy Dudley was known as Duca di +Nortombria and Conte di Warwick. He died near Florence on +the 6th of September 1649, leaving a large family of sons and +daughters. His deserted wife, Alicia, was created duchess of +Dudley by Charles I. in 1644, and died in 1670, when the title +became extinct. Through a daughter who married the Marquis +Paleotti, Dudley was the ancestor of the wife of the first duke of +Shrewsbury (of the revolution of 1688), and of her brother who +was executed at Tyburn for murder on the 17th of March 1718. +Dudley was the author of a pamphlet addressed to King James I., +showing how the “impertinences of parliament” could be bridled +by military force. But his chief claim to memory is the magnificent +<i>Arcano dell mare</i>, published in Italian at Florence in 1645-1646 +in three volumes folio. It is a collection of all the naval +knowledge of the age, and is particularly remarkable for a scheme +for the construction of a navy in five rates which Dudley designed +and described. It was reprinted in Florence in two volumes folio +in 1661 without the charts of the first edition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—G.L. Craik, <i>Romance of the Peerage</i> (London, 1848-1850), +vol. iii.; Sir N.H. Nicolas, <i>Report of Proceedings on the Claim +to the Barony of L’Isle</i> (London, 1829); and <i>The Italian Biography +of Sir R. Dudley</i>, published anonymously, privately and without +date or name of place, but known to have been written by Doctor +Vaughan Thomas, vicar of Stoneleigh, who died in 1858.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDLEY, THOMAS<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1576-1653), British colonial governor of +Massachusetts, was born in Northampton, England, in 1576, +a member of the elder branch of the family to the younger branch +of which Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, belonged. He was +the son of a country gentleman of some means and high standing, +was captain of an English company in the French expedition of +1597, serving under Henry of Navarre, and eventually became the +steward of the earl of Lincoln’s estates, which he managed with +great success for many years. Having been converted to +Puritanism, he became a strict advocate of its strictest tenets. +About 1627 he associated himself with other Lincolnshire +gentlemen who in 1629 entered into an agreement to settle in New +England provided they were allowed to take the charter with +them. This proposal the general court of the Plymouth Company +agreed to, and in April 1630 Dudley sailed to America in the +same ship with John Winthrop, the newly appointed governor, +Dudley himself at the last moment being chosen deputy-governor +in place of John Humphrey (or Humfrey), the earl of Lincoln’s +son-in-law, whose departure was delayed. Dudley was for +many years the most influential man in the Massachusetts Bay +colony, save Winthrop, with whose policy he was more often +opposed than in agreement. He was deputy-governor in 1629-1634, +in 1637-1640, in 1646-1650 and in 1651-1653, and was +governor four times, in 1634, 1640, 1645 and 1650. Soon after +his arrival in the colony he settled at Newton (Cambridge), of +which he was one of the founders; he was also one of the earliest +promoters of the plan for the establishment of Harvard College. +Winthrop’s decision to make Boston the capital instead of +Newton precipitated the first of the many quarrels between +the two, Dudley’s sterner and harsher Puritanism, being in strong +contrast to Winthrop’s more tolerant and liberal views. He +was an earnest and persistent heresy-hunter—not only the +Antinomians, but even such a good Puritan as John Cotton, +against whom he brought charges, feeling the weight of his stern +and remorseless hand. His position he himself best expressed +in the following brief verse found among his papers:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Let men of God in courts and churches watch</p> +<p class="i05">O’er such as do a Toleration hatch,</p> +<p class="i05">Lest that ill egg bring forth a Cockatrice</p> +<p class="i05">To poison all with heresy and vice.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>He died at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 31st of July 1653.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Augustine Jones, <i>Life and Work of Thomas Dudley, the Second +Governor of Massachusetts</i> (Boston, 1899); and the <i>Life of Mr +Thomas Dudley, several times Governor of the Colony of Massachusetts, +written as is supposed by Cotton Mather</i>, edited by Charles Deane +(Cambridge, 1870). Dudley’s interesting and valuable “Letter to the +Countess of Lincoln,” is reprinted in Alexander Young’s <i>Chronicles +of the Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay</i> (Boston, 1846), and +in the New Hampshire Historical Society <i>Collections</i>, vol. iv. (1834).</p> +</div> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Joseph Dudley</span> (1647-1720), colonial governor of +Massachusetts, was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the +23rd of September 1647. He graduated at Harvard College in +1665, became a member of the general court, and in 1682 was sent +by Massachusetts to London to prevent the threatened revocation +of her charter by Charles II. There, with an eye to his personal +advancement, he secretly advised the king to annul the charter; +this was done, and Dudley, by royal appointment, became +president of the provisional council. With the advent of the +new governor, Sir Edmund Andros, Dudley became a judge +of the superior court and censor of the press. Upon the deposition +of Andros, Dudley was imprisoned and sent with him to +England, but was soon set free. In 1691-1692 he was chief-justice +of New York, presiding over the court that condemned +Leisler and Milburn. Returning to England in 1693, he was +lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Wight and a member of +parliament, and in 1702, after a long intrigue, secured from +Queen Anne a commission as governor of Massachusetts, serving +until 1715. His administration was marked, particularly in +the earlier years, by ceaseless conflict with the general court, +from which he demanded a regular fixed salary instead of an +annual grant. He was active in raising volunteers for the so-called +Queen Anne’s War, and in 1707 sent a fruitless expedition +against Port Royal. He was accused by the Boston merchants, +who petitioned for his removal, of being in league with smugglers +and illicit traders, and in 1708 a bitter attack on his administration +was published in London, entitled <i>The Deplorable State of +New England by reason of a Covetous and Treacherous Governor +and Pusillanimous Counsellors</i>. His character may be best +summed up in the words of one of his successors, Thomas +Hutchinson, that “he had as many virtues as can consist with so +great a thirst for honour and power.” He died at Roxbury on +the 2nd of April 1720.</p> + +<p>Joseph Dudley’s son, <span class="sc">Paul Dudley</span> (1675-1751), graduated +at Harvard in 1690, studied law at the Temple in London, and +became attorney-general of Massachusetts (1702 to 1718). He was +associate justice of the superior court of that province from +1718 to 1745, and chief justice from 1745 until his death. He +was a member of the Royal Society (London), to whose <i>Transactions</i> +he contributed several valuable papers on the natural +history of New England, and was the founder of the Dudleian +lectures on religion at Harvard.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best extended account of Joseph Dudley’s administration +is in J.G. Palfrey’s <i>History of New England</i>, vol. iv. (Boston, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDLEY,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary borough +and market-town of Worcestershire, England, in a portion of +that county enclaved in Staffordshire, 8 m. W.N.W. of Birmingham, +and 121 N.W. of London by the London & North Western +railway. The Great Western railway also serves the town. +Pop. (1891) 45,724; (1901) 48,733. Dudley lies on an elevated +ridge, in the midst of the district of the midlands known as the +Black Country, which is given up to ironworks and coal mines. +The “ten-yard” coal, in the neighbourhood, is the thickest seam +worked in England. Limestone is extensively quarried, fire-clay is +abundant; and iron-founding, brass-founding, engineering works, +glass works and brick works are comprised in the industries. Among +the principal buildings are the churches of the five parishes into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span> +which the town is divided, the town hall, county court, free +libraries, and school of art, grammar school with university and +foundation scholarships, technical school, mechanics’ institute, +Guest hospital (founded by Joseph Guest, a citizen, in 1868), +and a dispensary. In the market-place stands a large domed +fountain, erected by the earl of Dudley (1867). There is a +geological society with a museum, for the neighbourhood of +Dudley is full of geological interest, the Silurian limestone +abounding in fossils. To the north of the town are extensive +remains of an ancient castle, surrounded by beautiful grounds. +The hill on which it stands is of limestone, which by quarrying +has been hollowed out in extensive chambers and galleries. +The view from the castle is remarkable. The whole district is +seen to be set with chimneys, pit-buildings and factories; and +at night the glare of furnaces reveals the tireless activity of +the Black Country. Dudley and its environs are connected +by a tramway system, and water communication is afforded +by the Dudley canal with Birmingham and with the river +Severn.</p> + +<p>Included in the parliamentary borough, but in Staffordshire, +and 2½ m. by rail S.W. of Dudley, is Brierley Hill, a market-town +on the river Stour and the Stourbridge and Birmingham +Canals. Its chief buildings are the modern church of St Michael, +standing on a hill, the Roman Catholic church of St Mary, by +A.W. Pugin, the town hall and free library. Between this and +Dudley lie the great ironworks of Roundoak, and the extensive +suburb of Netherton in the enclaved portion of Worcestershire. +The industries are similar to those of Dudley. Three miles W. +of Dudley is Kingswinford, a mining township, with large brick +works, giving name to a parliamentary division of Staffordshire. +The parliamentary borough of Dudley returns one member. +The town itself is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 +councillors. Area 3546 acres.</p> + +<p>In medieval times the importance of Dudley (<i>Dudelei</i>) depended +on the castle, which is mentioned in the Domesday +Survey. Before the Conquest Earl Eadwine held the manor, +which in 1086 belonged to William FitzAnsculf, from whom +it passed, probably by marriage, to Fulk Paynel, afterwards +to the Somerys, Suttons and Wards, whose descendants (earls of +Dudley) now hold it. The first mention of Dudley as a borough +occurs in an inquisition taken after the death of Roger de Somery +in 1272. This does not give a clear account of the privileges +held by the burgesses, but shows that they had probably been +freed from some or all of the services required from them as +manorial tenants, in return for a fixed rent. In 1865 Dudley +was incorporated. Before that time it was governed by a high +and low bailiff appointed every year at the court leet of the +manor. Roger de Somery evidently held a market by prescription +in Dudley before 1261, in which year he came to terms with +the dean of Wolverhampton, who had set up a market in Wolverhampton +to the disadvantage of Roger’s market at Dudley. +According to the terms of the agreement the dean might continue +his market on condition that Roger and his tenants should +be free from toll there. Two fairs, on the 21st of September and +the 21st of April, were granted in 1684 to Edward Lord Ward, +lord of the manor. Dudley was represented in the parliament of +1295, but not again until the privilege was revived by the Reform +Act of 1832. Mines of sea-coal in Dudley are mentioned as +early as the reign of Edward I., and by the beginning of the +17th century mining had become an important industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDO,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dudon</span> (fl. <i>c.</i> 1000), Norman historian was dean of +St Quentin, where he was born about 965. Sent in 986 by +Albert I. count of Vermandois, on an errand to Richard I., +duke of Normandy, he succeeded in his mission, and, having +made a very favourable impression at the Norman court, spent +some years in that country. During a second stay in Normandy +Dudo wrote his history of the Normans, a task which Duke +Richard I. had urged him to undertake. Very little else is +known about his life, except that he died before 1043. Written +between 1015 and 1030, his <i>Historia Normannorum</i>, or <i>Libri III. +de moribus et actis primorum Normanniae ducum</i>, was dedicated +to Adalberon, bishop of Laon. Dudo does not appear to have +consulted any existing documents for his history, but to have +obtained his information from oral tradition, much of it being +supplied by Raoul, count of Ivry, a half-brother of Duke +Richard I. Consequently the <i>Historia</i> partakes of the nature of a +romance, and on this ground has been regarded as untrustworthy +by such competent critics as E. Dummler and G. Waitz. Other +authorities, however, <i>e.g.</i> J. Lair and J. Steenstrup, while +admitting the existence of a legendary element, regard the book +as of considerable value for the history of the Normans. +Although Dudo was acquainted with Virgil and other Latin +writers, his Latin is affected and obscure. The <i>Historia</i>, which +is written alternately in prose and in verse of several metres, is +divided into four parts, and deals with the history of the Normans +from 852 to the death of Duke Richard I. in 996. It glorifies the +Normans, and was largely used by William of Jumièges, Wace, +Robert of Torigni, William of Poitiers and Hugh of Fleury in +compiling their chronicles, and was first published by A. Duchesne +in his <i>Historiae Normannorum scriptores antiqui</i>, at Paris in 1619. +Another edition is in the <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tome cxli. of J.P. +Migne (Paris, 1844), but the best is perhaps the one edited by +J. Lair (Caen, 1865).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Dümmler, “Zur Kritik Dudos von St Quentin” in the +<i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Bande vi. and ix. (Göttingen, +1866); G. Waitz, “Über die Quellen zur Geschichte der Begrundung +der normannischen Herrschaft in Frankreich,” in the <i>Gottinger +gel. Anzeigen</i> (Göttingen, 1866); J.C.H.R. Steenstrup, <i>Normannerne</i>, +Band i. (Copenhagen, 1876); J. Lair, <i>Étude critique et +historique sur Dudon</i> (Caen, 1865); G. Kortung, <i>Über die Quellen +des Roman de Rou</i> (Leipzig, 1867); W. Wattenbach, <i>Deutschlands +Geschichtsquellen</i>, Band i. (Berlin, 1904); and A. Molinier, <i>Les +Sources de l’histoire de France</i>, tome ii. (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUDWEILER,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine +province, on the Sulzbach, 4 m. by rail N.E. from Saarbrücken. +It has extensive coal mines and ironworks and produces fire-proof +bricks. Pop. (1905) 16,320.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUEL<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Ital. <i>duello</i>, Lat. <i>duellum</i>—old form of <i>bellum</i>—from +<i>duo</i>, two), a prearranged encounter between two persons, with +deadly weapons, in accordance with conventional rules, with the +object of voiding a personal quarrel or of deciding a point of +honour. The first recorded instance of the word occurs in +Coryate’s <i>Crudities</i> (1611), but Shakespeare has <i>duello</i> in this +sense, and uses “duellist” of Tybalt in <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. In +its earlier meaning of a judicial combat we find the word latinized +in the Statute of Wales (Edw. I., Act 12), “<i>Placita de terris in +partibus istis non habent terminari per duellum</i>.”</p> + +<p>Duels in the modern sense were unknown to the ancient world, +and their origin must be sought in the feudal age of Europe. +The single combats recorded in Greek and Roman history and +legend, of Hector and Achilles, Aeneas and Turnus, the Horatii +and Curiatii, were incidents in national wars and have nothing +in common with the modern duel. It is, however, noteworthy +that in Tacitus (<i>Germania</i>, cap. x.) we find the rudiments of the +judicial duel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>, for the wager of battle). Domestic +differences, he tells us, were settled by a legalized form of combat +between the disputants, and when a war was impending a captive +from the hostile tribe was armed and pitted against a national +champion, and the issue of the duel was accepted as an omen. +The judicial combat was a Teutonic institution, and it was in +fact an appeal from human justice to the God of battles, partly +a sanction of the current creed that might is right, that the brave +not only will win but deserve to win. It was on these grounds +that Gundobald justified, against the complaints of a bishop, +the famous edict passed at Lyons (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 501) which established +the wager of battle as a recognized form of trial. It is God, he +argued, who directs the issue of national wars, and in private +quarrels we may trust His providence to favour the juster cause. +Thus, as Gibbon comments, the absurd and cruel practice of +judicial duels, which had been peculiar to some tribes of Germany, +was propagated and established in all the monarchies of Europe +from Sicily to the Baltic. Yet in its defence it may be urged +that it abolished a worse evil, the compurgation by oath which +put a premium on perjury, and the ordeal, or judgment of God, +when the cause was decided by blind chance, or more often by +priestcraft.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span></p> + +<p>Those who are curious to observe the formalities and legal +rules of a judicial combat will find them described at length in +the 28th book of Montesquieu’s <i>Esprit des lois</i>. On +these regulations he well remarks that, as there are an +<span class="sidenote">The judicial combat.</span> +infinity of wise things conducted in a very foolish +manner, so there are some foolish things conducted +in a very wise manner. For our present purpose it is sufficient +to observe the development of the idea of personal honour from +which the modern duel directly sprang. In the ancient laws of +the Swedes we find that if any man shall say to another, “You +are not a man equal to other men,” or “You have not the heart +of a man,” and the other shall reply, “I am a man as good as +you,” they shall meet on the highway, and then follow the +regulations for the combat. What is this but the modern +challenge? By the law of the Lombards if one man call another +arga, the insulted party might defy the other to mortal combat. +What is <i>arga</i> but the <i>dummer Junger</i> of the German student? +Beaumanoir thus describes a legal process under Louis le Débonnaire:—The +appellant begins by a declaration before the judge +that the appellee is guilty of a certain crime; if the appellee +answers that his accuser lies, the judge then ordains the duel. +Is not this the modern point of honour, by which to be given +the lie is an insult which can only be wiped out by blood?</p> + +<p>From Germany the judicial combat rapidly spread to France, +where it flourished greatly from the 10th to the 12th century, +the period of customary law. By French kings it was welcomed +as a limitation of the judicial powers of their half independent +vassals. It was a form of trial open to all freemen and in certain +cases, as under Louis VI., the privilege was extended to serfs. +Even the church resorted to it not unfrequently to settle disputes +concerning church property. Abbots and priors as territorial +lords and high justiciaries had their share in the confiscated +goods of the defeated combatant, and Pope Nicholas when applied +to in 858 pronounced it “a just and legitimate combat.” Yet +only three years before the council of Valence had condemned +the practice, imposing the severest penance on the victor and +refusing the last rites of the church to the vanquished as to a +suicide. In 1385 a duel was fought, the result of which was so +preposterous that even the most superstitious began to lose faith +in the efficacy of such a judgment of God. A certain Jacques +Legris was accused by the wife of Jean Carrouge of having introduced +himself by night in the guise of her husband whom she +was expecting on his return from the Crusades. A duel was +ordained by the parlement of Paris, which was fought in the +presence of Charles VI. Legris was defeated and hanged on the +spot. Not long after, a criminal arrested for some other offence +confessed himself to be the author of the outrage. No institution +could long survive so open a confutation, and it was annulled by +the parlement. Henceforward the duel in France ceases to be +an appeal to Heaven, and becomes merely a satisfaction of +wounded honour. Under Louis XII. and Francis I. we find the +first vestiges of tribunals of honour. The last instance of a duel +authorized by the magistrates, and conducted according to the +forms of law, was the famous one between François de Vivonne +de la Châtaignerie and Guy Chabot de Jarnac. The duel was +fought on the 10th of July 1547 in the courtyard of the château +of St Germain-en-Laye, in the presence of the king and a large +assembly of courtiers. It was memorable in two ways. It enriched +the French language with a new phrase; a sly and unforeseen +blow, such as that by which de Jarnac worsted La +Châtaignerie, has since been called a <i>coup de Jarnac</i>. And Henry, +grieved at the death of his favourite, swore a solemn oath that he +would never again permit a duel to be fought. This led to the +first of the many royal edicts against duelling. By a decree of +the council of Trent (cap. xix.) a ban was laid on “the detestable +use of duels, an invention of the devil to compass the destruction +of souls together with a bloody death of the body.”</p> + +<p>In England, it is now generally agreed, the wager of battle did +not exist before the time of the Norman Conquest. Some +previous examples have been adduced, but on examination they +will be seen to belong rather to the class of single combats +between the champions of two opposing armies. One such +instance is worth quoting as a curious illustration of the superstition +of the time. It occurs in a rare tract printed in London, +1610, <i>The Duello</i>, or <i>Single Combat</i>. “Danish irruptions and +the bad aspects of Mars having drencht the common mother +earth with her sonnes’ blood streames, under the reigne of +Edmund, a Saxon monarch, <i>misso in compendium</i> (so worthy +Camden expresseth it) <i>bello utriusque gentis fata Edmundo +Anglorum et Canuto Danorum regibus commissa fuerunt, qui +singulari certamine de summa imperij in hac insula</i> (that is, the +Eight in Glostershire) <i>depugnarunt.”</i> By the laws of William +the Conqueror the trial by battle was only compulsory when the +opposite parties were both Normans, in other cases it was optional. +As the two nations were gradually merged into one, this form +of trial spread, and until the reign of Henry II. it was the only +mode for determining a suit for the recovery of land. The +method of procedure is admirably described by Shakespeare +in the opening scene in <i>Richard II.</i>, where Henry of Bolingbroke, +duke of Hereford, challenges Thomas, duke of Norfolk; in the +mock-heroic battle between Horner the Armourer and his man +Peter in <i>Henry VI.</i>; and by Sir W. Scott in the <i>Fair Maid of +Perth</i>, where Henry Gow appears before the king as the champion +of Magdalen Proudfute. The judicial duel never took root in +England as it did in France. In civil suits it was superseded by +the grand assize of Henry II., and in cases of felony by indictment +at the prosecution of the crown. One of the latest instances +occurred in the reign of Elizabeth, 1571, when the lists were +actually prepared and the justices of the common pleas appeared +at Tothill Fields as umpires of the combat. Fortunately the +petitioner failed to put in an appearance, and was consequently +nonsuited (see Spelman, <i>Glossary</i>, s.v. “Campus”). As late as +1817 Lord Ellenborough, in the case of <i>Thornton</i> v. <i>Ashford</i>, +pronounced that “the general law of the land is that there shall +be a trial by battle in cases of appeal unless the party brings +himself within some of the exceptions.” Thornton was accused +of murdering Mary Ashford, and claimed his right to challenge +the appellant, the brother of the murdered girl, to wager of +battle. His suit was allowed, and, the challenge being refused, +the accused escaped. Next year the law was abolished (59 +Geo. III., c. 46).</p> + +<p>In sketching the history of the judicial combat we have traced +the parentage of the modern duel. Strip the former of its +legality, and divest it of its religious sanction, and +the latter remains. We are justified, then, in dating +<span class="sidenote">The duel of honour.</span> +the commencement of duelling from the abolition of +the wager of battle. To pursue its history we must return to +France, the country where it first arose, and the soil on which it +has most flourished. The causes which made it indigenous to +France are sufficiently explained by the condition of society and +the national character. As Buckle has pointed out, duelling is +a special development of chivalry, and chivalry is one of the +<span class="sidenote">In France.</span> +phases of the protective spirit which was predominant +in France up to the time of the Revolution. Add to +this the keen sense of personal honour, the susceptibility and +the pugnacity which distinguish the French race. Montaigne, +when touching on this subject in his essays, says, “Put +three Frenchmen together on the plains of Libya, and they will +not be a month in company without scratching one another’s +eyes out.” The third chapter of d’Audiguier’s <i>Ancien usage des +duels</i> is headed, “Pourquoi les seuls Français se battent en duel.” +English literature abounds with allusions to this characteristic +of the French nation. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, who was +ambassador at the court of Louis XIII., says, “There is scarce +a Frenchman worth looking on who has not killed his man in a +duel.” Ben Jonson, in his <i>Magnetic Lady</i>, makes Compass, +the scholar and soldier, thus describe France, “that garden of +humanity”:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“There every gentleman professing arms</p> +<p class="i05">Thinks he is bound in honour to embrace</p> +<p class="i05">The bearing of a challenge for another,</p> +<p class="i05">Without or questioning the cause or asking</p> +<p class="i05">Least colour of a reason.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>Duels were not common before the 16th century. Hallam +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span> +attributes their prevalence to the barbarous custom of wearing +swords as a part of domestic dress, a fashion which was not +introduced till the later part of the 15th century. In 1560 the +states-general at Orleans supplicated Charles IX. to put a stop +to duelling. Hence the famous ordinance of 1566, drawn up +by the chancellor de l’Hôpital, which served as the basis of the +successive ordinances of the following kings. Under the frivolous +and sanguinary reign of Henry III., “who was as eager for +excitement as a woman,” the rage for duels spread till it became +almost an epidemic. In 1602 the combined remonstrances of +the church and the magistrates extorted from the king an edict +condemning to death whoever should give or accept a challenge +or act as second. But public opinion was revolted by such +rigour, and the statue remained a dead letter. A duel forms a +fit conclusion to the reign. A hair-brained youth named L’Isle +Marivaux swore that he would not survive his beloved king, +and threw his cartel into the air. It was at once picked up, and +Marivaux soon obtained the death he had courted. Henry IV. +began his reign by an edict against duels, but he was known in +private to favour them; and, when de Créqui asked leave to +fight Don Philip of Savoy, he is reported to have said, “Go, and +if I were not a king I would be your second.” Fontenay-Mareuil +says, in his <i>Mémoires</i>, that in the eight years between 1601 and +1609, 2000 men of noble birth fell in duels. In 1609 a more +effective measure was taken at the instance of Sully by the +establishment of a court of honour. The edict decrees that all +aggrieved persons shall address themselves to the king, either +directly or through the medium of the constables, marshals, &c.; +that the king shall decide, whether, if an accommodation could +not be effected, permission to fight should be given; that the +aggressor, if pronounced in the wrong, shall in any case be suspended +from any public office or employment, and be mulcted +of one-third of his revenue till he has satisfied the aggrieved +party; that any one giving or receiving a challenge shall forfeit +all right of reparation and all his offices; that any one who kills +his adversary in an unauthorized duel shall suffer death without +burial, and his children shall be reduced to villanage; that +seconds, if they take part in a duel, shall suffer death, if not, +shall be degraded from the profession of arms. This edict has +been pronounced by Henri Martin “the wisest decree of the +ancient monarchy on a matter which involves so many delicate +and profound questions of morals, politics, and religion touching +civil rights” (<i>Histoire de France</i>, x. 466).</p> + +<p>In the succeeding reign the mania for duels revived. Rostand’s +<i>Cyrano</i> is a life-like modern portraiture of French bloods in the +first half of the 17th century. De Houssaye tells us that in +Paris when friends met the first question was, “Who fought +yesterday? who is to fight to-day?” They fought by night +and day, by moonlight and by torch-light, in the public streets +and squares. A hasty word, a misconceived gesture, a question +about the colour of a riband or an embroidered letter, such were +the commonest pretexts for a duel. The slighter and more +frivolous the dispute, the less were they inclined to submit +them to the king for adjudication. Often, like gladiators or +prize-fighters, they fought for the pure love of fighting. A +misunderstanding is cleared up on the ground. “N’importe,” +cry the principals, “puisque nous sommes ici, battons-nous.” +Seconds, as Montaigne tells us, are no longer witnesses, but +must take part themselves unless they would be thought wanting +in affection or courage; and he goes on to complain that men +are no longer contented with a single second, “c’était anciennement +des duels, ce sont à cette heure rencontres et batailles.” +There is no more striking instance of Richelieu’s firmness and +power as a statesman than his conduct in the matter of duelling. +In his <i>Testament politique</i> he has assigned his reasons for disapproving +it as a statesman and ecclesiastic. But this disapproval +was turned to active detestation by a private cause. His elder +brother, the head of the house, had fallen in a duel stabbed to +the heart by an enemy of the cardinal. Already four edicts +had been published under Louis XIII. with little or no effect, +when in 1626 there was published a new edict condemning to +death any one who had killed his adversary in a duel, or had +been found guilty of sending a challenge a second time. Banishment +and partial confiscation of goods were awarded for lesser +offences. But this edict differed from preceding ones not so +much in its severity as in the fact that it was the first which was +actually enforced. The cardinal began by imposing the penalties +of banishment and fines, but, these proving ineffectual to stay +the evil, he determined to make a terrible example. To quote +his own words to the king, “Il s’agit de couper la gorge aux duels +ou aux édits de votre Majesté.” The count de Boutteville, a +renommist who had already been engaged in twenty-one affairs +of honour, determined out of pure bravado to fight a twenty-second +time. The duel took place at midday on the Place +Royale. Boutteville was arrested with his second, the count de +Chapelles; they were tried by the parlement of Paris, condemned +and, in spite of all the influence of the powerful house of Montmorenci, +of which de Boutteville was a branch, they were both +beheaded on the 21st of June 1627. For a short time the +ardour of duellists was cooled. But the lesson soon lost its +effect. Only five years later we read in the <i>Mercure de France</i> +that two gentlemen who had killed one another in a duel were, +by the cardinal’s orders, hanged on a gallows, stripped and with +their heads downwards, in the sight of all the people. This was +a move in the right direction, since, for fashionable vices, ridicule +and ignominy is a more drastic remedy than death. It was on +this principle that Caraccioli, prince of Melfi, when viceroy of +Piedmont, finding that his officers were being decimated by duelling, +proclaimed that all duels should be fought on the parapet +of the Ponte Vecchio, and if one of the combatants chanced +to fall into the river he should on no account be pulled out.</p> + +<p>Under the long reign of Louis XIV. many celebrated duels +took place, of which the most remarkable were that between +the duke of Guise and Count Coligny, the last fought on the +Place Royale, and that between the dukes of Beaufort and +Nemours, each attended by four friends. Of the ten combatants, +Nemours and two others were killed on the spot, and none +escaped without some wound. No less than eleven edicts against +duelling were issued under le Grand Monarque. That of 1643 +established a supreme court of honour composed of the marshals +of France; but the most famous was that of 1679, which confirmed +the enactments of his predecessors, Henry IV. and Louis +XII. At the same time a solemn agreement was entered into by +the principal nobility that they would never engage in a duel +on any pretence whatever. A medal was struck to commemorate +the occasion, and the firmness of the king, in refusing pardon to +all offenders, contributed more to restrain this scourge of society +than all the efforts of his predecessors.</p> + +<p>The subsequent history of duelling in France may be more +shortly treated. In the preamble to the edict of 1704 Louis XIV. +records his satisfaction at seeing under his reign an almost entire +cessation of those fatal combats which by the inveterate force of +custom had so long prevailed. Addison (<i>Spectator</i>, 99) notes it +as one of the most glorious exploits of his reign to have banished +the false point of honour. Under the regency of Louis XV. +there was a brief revival. The last legislative act for the suppression +of duels was passed on the 12th of April 1723. Then +came the Revolution, which in abolishing the <i>ancien régime</i> +fondly trusted that with it would go the duel, one of the privileges +and abuses of an aristocratic society. Dupleix, in his <i>Military +Law concerning the Duel</i> (1611), premises that these have no +application to lawyers, merchants, financiers or justices. This +explains why in the legislation of the National Assembly there +is no mention of duels. Camille Desmoulins when challenged +shrugged his shoulders and replied to the charge of cowardice +that he would prove his courage on other fields than the Bois de +Boulogne. The two great Frenchmen whose writings preluded +the French Revolution both set their faces against it. Voltaire +had indeed, as a young man, in obedience to the dictates of +society, once sought satisfaction from a nobleman for a brutal +insult, and had reflected on his temerity in the solitude of the +Bastille.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Henceforward he inveighed against the practice, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span> +not only for its absurdity, but also for its aristocratic exclusiveness. +Rousseau had said of duelling, “It is not an institution +of honour, but a horrible and barbarous custom, which a +courageous man despises and a good man abhors.” Napoleon +was a sworn foe to it. “Bon duelliste mauvais soldat” is one +of his best known sayings; and, when the king of Sweden sent +him a challenge, he replied that he would order a fencing-master +to attend him as plenipotentiary. After the battle of Waterloo +duels such as Lever loves to depict were frequent between disbanded +French officers and those of the allies in occupation. +The restoration of the Bourbons brought with it a fresh crop of +duels. Since then duels have been frequent in France—more +frequent, however, in novels than in real life—fought mainly +between politicians and journalists, and with rare exceptions +bloodless affairs. If fought with pistols, the distance and the +weapons chosen render a hit improbable; and, if fought with +rapiers, honour is generally satisfied with the first blood drawn. +Among Frenchmen famous in politics or letters who have “gone +out” may be mentioned Armand Carrel, who fell in an encounter +with Émile Girardin; Thiers, who thus atoned for a youthful +indiscretion; the elder Dumas; Lamartine; Ste Beuve, who +to show at once his sangfroid and his sense of humour, fought +under an umbrella; Ledru Rollin; Edmond About; Clément +Thomas; Veuillot, the representative of the church militant; +Rochefort; and Boulanger, the Bonapartist <i>fanfaron</i>, whose +discomfiture in a duel with Floquet resulted in a notable loss of +popular respect.</p> + +<p>Duelling did not begin in England till some hundred years +after it had arisen in France. There is no instance of a private +duel fought in England before the 16th century, +and they are rare before the reign of James I. A very +<span class="sidenote">In England.</span> +fair notion of the comparative popularity of duelling, +and of the feeling with which it was regarded at various periods, +might be gathered by examining the part it plays in the novels +and lighter literature of the times. The earliest duels we remember +in fiction are that in the <i>Monastery</i> between Sir Piercie +Shafton and Halbert Glendinning, and that in <i>Kenilworth</i> between +Tressilian and Varney. (That in <i>Anne of Geierstein</i> either is an +anachronism or must reckon as a wager by battle.) Under +James I. we have the encounter between Nigel and Lord Dalgarno. +The greater evil of war, as we observed in French history, +expels the lesser, and the literature of the Commonwealth is in +this respect a blank. With the Restoration there came a reaction +against Puritan morality, and a return to the gallantry and loose +manners of French society, which is best represented by the +theatre of the day. The drama of the Restoration abounds in +duels. Passing on to the reign of Queen Anne, we find the +subject frequently discussed in the <i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i>, +and Addison points in his happiest way the moral to a contemporary +duel between Mr Thornhill and Sir Cholmeley Dering. +“I come not,” says Spinomont to King Pharamond, “I come +not to implore your pardon, I come to relate my sorrow, a sorrow +too great for human life to support. Know that this morning +I have killed in a duel the man whom of all men living I love +best.” No reader of <i>Esmond</i> can forget Thackeray’s description +of the doubly fatal duel between the duke of Hamilton and Lord +Mohun, which is historical, or the no less life-like though fictitious +duel between Lord Mohun and Lord Castlewood. The duel +between the two brothers in Stevenson’s <i>Master of Ballantrae</i> +is one of the best conceived in fiction. Throughout the reigns of +the Georges they are frequent. Richardson expresses his opinion +on the subject in six voluminous letters to the <i>Literary Repositor</i>. +Sheridan, like Farquhar in a previous generation, not only +dramatized a duel, but fought two himself. Byron thus commemorates +the bloodless duel between Tom Moore and Lord +Jeffrey:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Can none remember that eventful day,</p> +<p class="i05">That ever glorious almost fatal fray,</p> +<p class="i05">When Little’s leadless pistols met the eye,</p> +<p class="i05">And Bow Street myrmidons stood laughing by?”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">There are no duels in Miss Austen’s novels, but in those of +Miss Edgeworth, her contemporary, there are three or four. +As we approach the 19th century they become rarer in fiction. +Thackeray’s novels, indeed, abound in duels. “His royal highness +the late lamented commander-in-chief” had the greatest +respect for Major Macmurdo, as a man who had conducted +scores of affairs for his acquaintance with the greatest prudence +and skill; and Rawdon Crawley’s duelling pistols, “the same +which I shot Captain Marker,” have become a household word. +Dickens, on the other hand, who depicts contemporary English +life, and mostly in the middle classes, in all his numerous works +has only three; and George Eliot never once refers to a duel. +Tennyson, using a poet’s privilege, laid the scene of a duel in the +year of the Crimean War, but he echoes the spirit of the times +when he stigmatizes “the Christless code that must have life +for a blow.” Browning, who delights in cases of conscience, +has given admirably the double moral aspect of the duel in his +two lyrics entitled “Before” and “After.”</p> + +<p>To pass from fiction to fact we will select the most memorable +English duels of the last century and a half. Lord Byron killed +Mr Chaworth in 1765; Charles James Fox and Mr Adams fought +in 1779; duke of York and Colonel Lennox, 1789; William Pitt +and George Tierney, 1796; George Canning and Lord Castlereagh, +1809; Mr Christie killed John Scott, editor of the <i>London +Magazine</i>, 1821; duke of Wellington and earl of Winchelsea, +1829; Mr Roebuck and Mr Black, editor of <i>Morning Chronicle</i>, +1835; Lord Alvanley and a son of Daniel O’Connell in the same +year; Earl Cardigan wounded Captain Tuckett, was tried by +his peers, and acquitted on a legal quibble, 1840.</p> + +<p>The year 1808 is memorable in the annals of duelling in +England. Major Campbell was sentenced to death and executed +for killing Captain Boyd in a duel. In this case it is true that +there was a suspicion of foul play; but in the case of Lieutenant +Blundell, who was killed in a duel in 1813, though all had been +conducted with perfect fairness, the surviving principal and the +seconds were all convicted of murder and sentenced to death, +and, although the royal pardon was obtained, they were all +cashiered. The next important date is the year 1843, when +public attention was painfully called to the subject by a duel in +which Colonel Fawcett was shot by his brother-in-law, Lieutenant +Monro. The survivor, whose career was thereby blasted, had, +it was well known, gone out most reluctantly, in obedience to the +then prevailing military code. A full account of the steps taken +by the prince consort, and of the correspondence which passed +between him and the duke of Wellington, will be found in the +<i>Life of the Prince</i> by Sir Theodore Martin. The duke, unfortunately, +was not an unprejudiced counsellor. Not only had +he been out himself, but, in writing to Lord Londonderry on +the occasion of the duel between the marquess and Ensign +Battier in 1824, he had gone so far as to state that he considered +the probability of the Hussars having to fight a duel or two a +matter of no consequence. In the previous year there had been +formed in London the association for the suppression of duelling. +It included leading members of both houses of parliament and +distinguished officers of both services. The first report, issued +in 1844, gives a memorial of the association presented to Queen +Victoria through Sir James Graham, and in a debate in the House +of Commons (15th of March 1844) Sir H. Hardinge, the secretary +of war, announced to the House that Her Majesty had expressed +herself desirous of devising some expedient by which the barbarous +practice of duelling should be as much as possible discouraged. +In the same debate Mr Turner reckoned the number of duels +fought during the reign of George III. at 172, of which 91 had +been attended with fatal results; yet in only two of these cases +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span> +had the punishment of death been inflicted. But though the +proposal of the prince consort to establish courts of honour met +with no favour, yet it led to an important amendment of the +articles of war (April 1844). The 98th article ordains that “every +person who shall fight or promote a duel, or take any steps +thereto, or who shall not do his best to prevent duel, shall, if +an officer, be cashiered, or suffer such other penalty as a general +court-martial may award.” These articles, with a few verbal +changes, were incorporated in the consolidated Army Act of +1879 (section 38), which is still in force.</p> + +<p>In the German army duels are still authorized by the military +code as a last resort in grave cases. A German officer who is +involved in a difficulty with another is bound to +notify the circumstance to a council of honour at the +<span class="sidenote">In Germany.</span> +latest as soon as he has either given or received a +challenge. A council of honour consists of three officers of +different ranks and is instructed, if possible, to bring about a +reconciliation. If unsuccessful it must see that the conditions +of the duel are not out of proportion to the gravity of the quarrel. +Public opinion was greatly roused by a tragic duel fought by +two officers of the reserve in 1896; and the German emperor +in a cabinet order of 1897, confirmed in 1901, enforced the +regulation of the military court of honour, and gave warning +that any infringement would be visited with the full penalties +of the law. It is, notwithstanding, still the fact that a German +officer who is not prepared to accept a challenge and fight, if the +opinion of his regiment demands it, must leave the service. +The German penal code (<i>Reichsstrafgesetzbuch</i>, pars. 101-110) +only punishes a duel when it is fought with lethal weapons; +and much controversy has raged round the question of the +<i>Mensuren</i> or students’ duels, which, as being conducted with +sharpened rapiers, have, despite the precautions taken, in the +way of bandaging the vital parts of the body which a cut would +reach, to reduce the risk of a fatal issue to a minimum, been +declared by the Supreme Court of the Empire to fall under the +head of duels, and as such to be punishable.</p> + +<p>The <i>Mensuren</i> (German students’ duels) above referred to +are frequently misunderstood. They bear little resemblance, +save in form, to the duel <i>à outrance</i>, and should rather be considered +in the light of athletic games, in which the overflow of +high animal spirits in young Germany finds its outlet. These +combats are indulged in principally by picked representatives +of the “corps” (recognized clubs), and according to the position +and value of the <i>Schmisse</i> (cuts which have landed) points are +awarded to either side. Formerly these so-called duels could +be openly indulged in at most universities without let or hindrance. +Gradually, however, the academic authorities took +cognizance of the illegality of the practice, and in many cases +inflicted punishment for the offence. Nowadays, owing to the +decision of the supreme court reserving to the common law +tribunals the power to deal with such cases, the governing bodies +at the universities have only a disciplinary control, which is +exercised at the various seats of learning in various degrees: +in some the practice is silently tolerated, or at most visited by +reprimand; in others, again, by relegation or <i>carcer</i>—with the +result that the students of one university frequently visit another, +in order to be able to fight out their battles under less rigorous +surveillance.</p> + +<p>Any formal discussion of the morality of duelling is, in England +at least, happily superfluous. No fashionable vice has been so +unanimously condemned both by moralists and +divines, and in tracing its history we are reminded +<span class="sidenote">Modern views.</span> +of the words of Tacitus, “in civitate nostra et vetabitur +semper et retinebitur.” Some, however, of the problems, moral +and social, which it suggests may be shortly noticed. That +duelling flourished so long in England the law is, perhaps, as much +to blame as society. It was doubtless from the fact that duels +were at first a form of legal procedure that English law has +refused to take cognizance of private duels. A duel in the eye +of the law differs nothing from an ordinary murder. The +greatest English legal authorities, from the time of Elizabeth +downwards, such as Coke, Bacon and Hale, have all distinctly +affirmed this interpretation of the law. But here as elsewhere +the severity of the penalty defeated its own object. The public +conscience revolted against a Draconian code which made no +distinction between wilful murder and a deadly combat wherein +each party consented to his own death or submitted to the +risk of it. No jury could be found to convict when conviction +involved in the same penalty a Fox or a Pitt and a Turpin or a +Brownrigg. Such, however, was the conservatism of English +publicists that Bentham was the first to point out clearly this +defect of the law, and propose a remedy. In his <i>Introduction +to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</i>, published in 1789, +Bentham discusses the subject with his usual boldness and +logical precision. In his exposition of the absurdity of duelling +considered as a branch of penal justice, and its inefficiency as a +punishment, he only restates in a clearer form the arguments +of Paley. So far there is nothing novel in his treatment of the +subject. But he soon parts company with the Christian moralist, +and proceeds to show that duelling does, however rudely and +imperfectly, correct and repress a real social evil. “It entirely +effaces a blot which an insult imprints upon the honour. Vulgar +moralists, by condemning public opinion upon this point, only +confirm the fact.” He then points out the true remedy for the +evil. It is to extend the same legal protection to offences +against honour as to offences against the person. The legal +satisfactions which he suggests are some of them extremely +grotesque. Thus for an insult to a woman, the man is to be +dressed in a woman’s clothes, and the retort to be inflicted by +the hand of a woman. But the principle indicated is a sound +one, that in offences against honour the punishment must be +analogous to the injury. Doubtless, if Bentham were now alive, +he would allow that the necessity for such a scheme of legislation +had in a great measure passed away. That duels have since +become extinct is no doubt principally owing to social changes, +but it may be in part ascribed to improvements in legal remedies +in the sense which Bentham indicated. A notable instance is +Lord Campbell’s Act of 1843, by which, in the case of a newspaper +libel, a public apology coupled with a pecuniary payment is +allowed to bar a plea. In the Indian Code there are special +enactments concerning duelling, which is punishable not as +murder but as homicide.</p> + +<p>Suggestions have from time to time been made for the establishment +of courts of honour, but the need of such tribunals is doubtful, +while the objections to them are obvious. The present +tendency of political philosophy is to contract rather than +extend the province of law, and any interference with social +life is justly resented. Real offences against reputation are +sufficiently punished, and the rule of the lawyers, that mere +scurrility or opprobrious words, which neither of themselves +import nor are attended with any hurtful effects, are not punishable, +seems on the whole a wise one. What in a higher rank +is looked upon as a gross insult may in a lower rank be regarded +as a mere pleasantry or a harmless joke. Among the lower +orders offences against honour can hardly be said to exist; the +learned professions have each its own tribunal to which its +members are amenable; and the highest ranks of society, +however imperfect their standard of morality may be, are +perfectly competent to enforce that standard by means of +social penalties without resorting either to trial by law or trial +by battle.</p> + +<p>The duel, which in a barbarous age may be excused as “a +sort of wild justice,” was condemned by Bacon as “a direct +affront of law and tending to the dissolution of magistracy.” +It survived in more civilized times as a class distinction and as an +ultimate court of appeal to punish violations of the social code. +In a democratic age and under a settled government it is doomed +to extinction. The military duels of the European continent, +and the so-called American duel, where the lot decides which of +the two parties shall end his life, are singular survivals. For real +offences against reputation law will provide a sufficient remedy +The learned professions will have each its own tribunal to which +its members are amenable. Social stigma is at once a surer and +a juster defence against conduct unworthy of a gentleman. Yet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span> +the duel dies hard, and even to-day it is approved or palliated by +some notable publicists and professors in France and Germany. +M.H. Marion (<i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>), in an article strongly +condemnatory of duels, still holds that the wrongdoer is bound +to accept a challenge, though he may not take the offensive, +and further allows that obligatory duels may be the only way +of evoking a sense of honour and of maintaining discipline in +the army. Dr Paulsen goes much further, and not only defends +the duels of university students (<i>Mensuren</i>) as an encouragement +of physical exercise, a proof of courage and a protest of worth +against wealth, but maintains generally that the duel should be +retained as an expedient in those exceptional cases when a man +cannot bring himself to drag before a law court the outrage done +to his personal honour. But in such cases Dr Paulsen would have +the courts hold the injured person scathless, whether he be +challenger or challenged, and visit the aggressor with condign +punishment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Castillo, <i>Tractatus de duello</i> (Turin, 1525); J.P. +Pigna, <i>Il Duello</i> (1554); Muzio Girolamo, <i>Traité du duel</i> (Venice, +1553): Boyssat, <i>Recherches sur les duels</i> (Lyons, 1610); J. Savaron, +<i>Traité contre les duels</i> (Paris, 1610); Brantôme, <i>Mémoire sur les +duels rodomontades</i>; F. Bacon, <i>Charge concerning Duels</i>, &c. (1614); +d’Audiguier, <i>Le Vray et ancien usage des duels</i> (Paris, 1617); <i>His +Majesties Edict and severe Censure against private combats</i> (London, +1618); Cockburn, <i>History of Duels</i> (London, 1720); Brillat Savarin, +<i>Essai sur le duel</i> (1819); Châteauvillard, <i>Essai sur le duel</i> (1836); +Colombey, <i>Histoire anecdotique du duel</i> (Paris); Fourgeroux de +Champigneules, <i>Histoire des duels anciens et modernes</i> (2 vols., Paris, +1835-1837); Millingen, <i>History of Duelling</i> (London, 1841); L. Sabine, +<i>Notes on Duels</i> (Boston, 1855); Steinmetz, <i>Romance of Duelling</i> +(London, 1868). See also Eugène Cauchy, <i>Du duel</i>, &c. (1846), a +learned and philosophic treatise by a French lawyer; G. Letainturier-Fradin, +<i>Le Duel à travers les âges</i> (Paris, 1892); Mackay, <i>History +of Popular Delusions, Duels and Ordeals</i>; and for a valuable list +of authorities, Buckle, <i>History of Civilization in England</i>, ii. +137, note 71. For judicial combats see Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, +ch. xxxviii. For courts of honour see <i>Armed Strength of the German +Empire</i> (1876). For <i>Mensur</i>, see Paulsen, <i>The German Universities</i> +(1906), ch. vi.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Voltaire met the chevalier Rohan-Chabot at the house of the +Marquis of Sully. The chevalier, offended by Voltaire’s free speech, +insolently asked the marquis, “Who is that young man?” “One,” +replied Voltaire, “who if he does not parade a great name, honours +that he bears.” The chevalier said nothing at the time, but, seizing +his opportunity, inveigled Voltaire into his coach, and had him beaten +by six of his footmen. Voltaire set to work to learn fencing, and +then sought the chevalier in the theatre, and publicly challenged +him. A <i>bon-mot</i> at the chevalier’s expense was the only satisfaction +that the philosopher could obtain. “Monsieur, si quelque affaire +d’intérêt ne vous a point fait oublier l’outrage dont j’ai à me plaindre, +j’espère que vous m’en rendrez raison.” The chevalier was said to +employ his capital in petty usury.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUENNA<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (Span. <i>dueña</i>, a married lady or mistress, Lat. +<i>domina</i>), specifically the chief lady-in-waiting upon the queen of +Spain. The word is more widely applied, however, to an elderly +lady in Spanish and Portuguese households (holding a position +midway between a governess and companion) appointed to take +charge of the young girls of the family; and “duenna” is thus +used in English as a synonym for chaperon (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUET<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (an adaptation of the Ital. <i>duetto</i>, from Lat. <i>duo</i>, two), +a term in music for a composition for two performers, both either +vocal or instrumental. The term is not properly applied to a +composition for one voice and one instrument, the latter being +regarded as an accompaniment, though in the modern evolution +of this latter form of composition it often has the same character. +Both parts must be of equal importance; if one is subordinated +to the other it becomes an accompaniment and the work ceases +to be a duet. Instrumental duets are written either for two +different instruments, such as Mozart’s duets for violin and +piano, or for two similar instruments. Duets written for the +pianoforte are either for two performers on two separate instruments +or for two performers on the same instrument, when they +are termed “<i>duets à quatre mains</i>.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1798-1881), +French statesman, was born at Saujon (Charente-Inférieure) on +the 4th of December 1798. He became an advocate at Bordeaux, +where he won a great reputation by his oratorical gifts, but soon +abandoned law for politics, and in 1834 was elected deputy. +In 1839 he became minister of public works in the Soult ministry, +and succeeded in freeing railway construction in France from +the obstacles which till then had hampered it. Losing office +in 1840, Dufaure became one of the leaders of the Opposition, +and on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he frankly accepted +the Republic, and joined the party of moderate republicans. +On October 13th he became minister of the interior under G. +Cavaignac, but retired on the latter’s defeat in the presidential +election. During the Second Empire Dufaure abstained from +public life, and practised at the Paris bar with such success that +he was elected <i>bâtonnier</i> in 1862. In 1863 he succeeded to +Pasquier’s seat in the French Academy. In 1871 he became +a member of the Assembly, and it was on his motion that Thiers +was elected President of the Republic. Dufaure became the +minister of justice as chief of the party of the “left-centre,” +and his tenure of office was distinguished by the passage of the +jury-law. In 1873 he fell with Thiers, but in 1875 resumed his +former post under L.J. Buffet, whom he succeeded on the 9th +of March 1876 as president of the council. In the same year he +was elected a life senator. On December the 12th he withdrew +from the ministry owing to the attacks of the republicans of the +left in the chamber and of the conservatives in the senate. +After the check which the conservatives received on the 16th of +May he returned to power on the 24th of December 1877. Early +in 1879 Dufaure took part in compelling the resignation of Marshal +MacMahon, but immediately afterwards (1st February), worn out +by opposition, he himself retired. He died in Paris on the +28th of June 1881.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Picot, <i>M. Dufaure, sa vie et ses discours</i> (Paris, 1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFF, ALEXANDER<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1806-1878), Scottish missionary in +India, was born on the 26th of April 1806, at Auchnahyle in the +parish of Moulin, Perthshire. At St Andrews University he +came under the influence of Dr Chalmers. He then accepted +an offer made by the foreign mission committee of the general +assembly to become their first missionary to India. He was +ordained in August 1829, and started at once for India, but was +twice shipwrecked before he reached Calcutta in May 1830, +and lost all his books and other property. Making Calcutta the +base of his operations, he at once identified himself with a policy +which had far-reaching results. Up to this time Protestant +missions in India had been successful only in reaching low-caste +and outcaste peoples, particularly in Tinevelly and south Travancore. +The Hindu and Mahommedan communities had been +practically untouched. Duff saw that, to reach these communities, +educational must take the place of evangelizing +methods, and he devised the policy of an educational mission. +The success of his work had the effect (1) of altering the policy +of the government of India in matters of education, (2) of securing +the recognition of education as a missionary agency by Christian +churches at home, and (3) of securing entrance for Christian ideas +into the minds of high-caste Hindus. He first opened an English +school in which the Bible was the centre of the school work, and +along with it all kinds of secular knowledge were taught from +the rudiments upwards to a university standard. The English +language was used on the ground that it was destined to be the +great instrument of higher education in India, and also as giving +the Hindu the key of Western knowledge. The school soon began +to expand into a missionary college, and a government minute was +adopted on the 7th of March 1835, to the effect that in higher +education the object of the British government should be the +promotion of European science and literature among the natives +of India, and that all funds appropriated for purposes of education +would be best employed on English education alone. Duff +wrote a pamphlet on the question, entitled “A New Era of the +English Language and Literature in India.” He returned home +in 1834 broken in health, but succeeded in securing the approval +of his church for his educational plans, and also in arousing much +interest in the work of foreign missions.</p> + +<p>In 1840 he returned to India. In the previous year the earl +of Auckland, governor-general, had yielded to the “Orientalists” +who opposed Duff, and adopted a policy which was a compromise +between the two. At the Disruption of 1843 Duff sided with +the Free Church, gave up the college buildings, with all their +effects, and with unabated courage set to work to provide a new +institution. He had the support of Sir James Outram and Sir +Henry Lawrence, and the encouragement of seeing a new band +of converts, including several young men of high caste. In 1844 +Viscount Hardinge opened government appointments to all +who had studied in institutions similar to Duff’s foundation. +In the same year Duff took part in founding the <i>Calcutta Review</i>, +of which from 1845 to 1849 he was editor. In 1849 he returned +home. He was moderator of the Free Church assembly in 1851. +He gave evidence before various Indian committees of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span> +parliament on matters of education. This led to an important despatch +by Viscount Halifax, president of the board of control, to +the marquess of Dalhousie, the governor-general, authorizing an +educational advance in primary and secondary schools, the +provision of technical and scientific teaching, and the establishment +of schools for girls.</p> + +<p>In 1854 Duff visited the United States, where what is now +New York University gave him the degree of LL.D.; he was +already D.D. of Aberdeen. In 1856 he returned to India, +where the mutiny soon broke out; his descriptive letters were +collected in a volume entitled <i>The Indian Mutiny, its Causes and +Results</i> (1858). Duff gave much thought and time to the +university of Calcutta, which owes its examination system and +the prominence given to physical sciences to his influence. In +1863 Sir Charles Trevelyan offered him the post of vice-chancellor +of the University, but his health compelled him to leave India. +As a memorial of his work the Duff Hall was erected in the centre +of the educational buildings of Calcutta; and a fund of £11,000 +was raised for his disposal, the capital of which was afterwards +to be used for invalided missionaries of his own church. In 1864 +Duff visited South Africa, and on his return became convener +of the foreign missions committee of the Free Church. He +raised £10,000 to endow a missionary chair at New College, +Edinburgh, and himself became first professor. Among other +missionary labours of his later years, he helped the Free Church +mission on Lake Nyassa, travelled to Syria to inspect a mission +at Lebanon, and assisted Lady Aberdeen and Lord Polwarth +to establish the Gordon Memorial Mission in Natal. In 1873 +the Free Church was threatened with a schism owing to negotiations +for union with the United Presbyterian Church. Duff +was called to the chair, and guided the church happily through +this crisis. He also took part in forming the alliance of Reformed +Churches holding the Presbyterian system. He died on the +12th of February 1878. By his will he devoted his personal +property to found a lectureship on foreign missions on the model +of the Bampton Lectures.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Life</i>, by George Smith (2 vols.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFFERIN AND AVA, FREDERICK TEMPLE HAMILTON-TEMPLE-BLACKWOOD,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> +<span class="sc">1st Marquess of</span> (1826-1902), British +diplomatist, son of Price Blackwood, 4th Baron Dufferin, was +born at Florence, Italy, on the 21st of June 1826. The Irish +Blackwoods were of old Scottish stock,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> tracing their descent +back to the 14th century. John Blackwood of Bangor (1591-1663), +the ancestor of the Irish line, made a fortune and acquired +landed property in county Down, and his great-grandson Robert +was created a baronet in 1763. Sir Robert’s son, Sir John, +married the heiress of the Hamiltons, earls of Clanbrassil and +viscounts of Clandeboye (“clan of yellow Hugh”), and thus +brought into the family a large property in the borough of +Killyleagh and barony of Dufferin, county Down. Sir John +Blackwood (d. 1799) declined a peerage, and so did his heir +James at the time of the Union, but the Irish title of Baroness +Dufferin was conferred (1800) on Sir John’s widow, and James +(d. 1836) succeeded as second baron in 1808. His brother Hans +(d. 1839) became third baron, and by his marriage with Miss +Temple (a descendant of the Temples of Stowe) was the father +of Price Blackwood, 4th baron. Among other distinguished +members of the family was Admiral Sir Henry Blackwood, Bart. +(1770-1832)—a brother of James and Hans—one of Nelson’s +captains, who commanded the “Euryalus” at Trafalgar. +Price Blackwood, too, was in the Navy; his marriage in 1825 +with Helen Selina Sheridan, a daughter of Thomas Sheridan, and +granddaughter of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the dramatist and +politician, was against his parents’ wishes, but his young wife’s +talents and beauty soon won them over.</p> + +<p>Frederick went to Eton (1839-1843) and Christ Church, +Oxford (1845-1847), where he took a pass school and was +President of the Union. His father died in 1841, and the influence +of his mother—one of three unusually accomplished +sisters, the other two being the duchess of Somerset and Mrs +Norton (<i>q.v.</i>)—was very marked on his mental development; +she lived till 1867 and is commemorated by the “Helen’s Tower” +erected by her son in her honour at Clandeboye (the Irish seat +of the Blackwoods) in 1861, and adorned with epigraphical +verses written by Tennyson, Browning and others. On leaving +Oxford Lord Dufferin busied himself for some little while with +the management of his Irish estates. In 1846-1848 he was +active in relieving the distress in Ireland due to the famine, and +he was always generous and liberal in his relations with his +tenants. In 1855 he already advocated compensation for +disturbance and for improvements; but while supporting +reasonable reform, he demanded justice for the landowners. +In later years (1868-1881) he wrote much, in opposition to +J.S. Mill, on behalf of Irish landlordism, and, when Gladstone +adopted Home Rule, Lord Dufferin, who had been attached +throughout his career to the Liberal party, regarded the new +policy as fatal both to Ireland and to the United Kingdom, +though, being then an ambassador, he took no public part in +opposing it.</p> + +<p>Starting with every personal and social advantage, Lord +Dufferin quickly became a favourite both at Court and in London +society; and in 1849 he was made a lord-in-waiting. In political +life he followed Lord John Russell, and in 1850 was further +attached to the party by being created a peer of the United +Kingdom as Baron Clandeboye. In 1855 Lord John Russell +took him as attaché on his special mission to the Vienna Conference. +Meanwhile Lord Dufferin was enlarging his experience +by foreign travel, and in 1856 he went on a yachting-tour to +Iceland, which he described with much humour and graphic +power in his successful book, <i>Letters from High Latitudes</i>; this +volume made his reputation as a writer, though his only other +purely literary publication was his memorial edition (1894) of +his mother’s <i>Poems and Verses</i>. In 1860 Lord John Russell sent +him as British representative on a joint commission of the powers +appointed to inquire into the affairs of the Lebanon (Syria), +where the massacres of Christian Maronites by the Mussulman +Druses had resulted in the landing of a French force and the +possibility of a French occupation. Lord Dufferin was associated +with French, Russian, Prussian and Turkish colleagues, and his +difficult diplomatic position was made none the less delicate by +his conscientious endeavour to be just to all parties. Even if he +had not satisfied himself that the Mahommedans were by no +means wholly to blame, the question of punishment was in any +case complicated by the problem of future administration. His +own proposal to put the whole Syrian province under a responsible +governor, appointed by the sultan for a term of years, with +unfettered jurisdiction, was rejected; but at last it was agreed +to place a Christian governor, subordinate to the Porte, over +the Lebanon district, and to set up local administrative councils. +In May 1861 the French forces departed, and Lord Dufferin +was thanked for his services by the government.</p> + +<p>In 1862 he married Hariot, daughter of Captain A. Rowan +Hamilton, of Killyleagh Castle, Down. He held successively +the posts of under-secretary for India (1864-1866) and under-secretary +for war (1866) in Lord Palmerston’s and Earl Russell’s +ministries; and he was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, +outside the cabinet, under Mr Gladstone (1868-1872). In 1871 +he was created earl of Dufferin.</p> + +<p>In 1872 he was appointed governor-general of Canada. There +his tact and personal charm and genial hospitality were invaluable. +He had already become known as a powerful and graceful +orator, and a man of culture and political distinction; and his +abilities were brilliantly displayed in dealing with the problems +of the newly united provinces of the Canadian Dominion. At a +time when a weak or unattractive governor-general might easily +have damaged the imperial connexion, he admittedly strengthened +and consolidated it. Lord Dufferin left Canada in 1878, and in +1879, rather to the annoyance of his old party leader, he accepted +from the conservative prime minister, Lord Beaconsfield, the +appointment of ambassador to Russia. At St Petersburg he +did useful diplomatic work for a couple of years, and then, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span> +1881, was transferred to Constantinople as ambassador to +Turkey. He was soon involved in the negotiations connected +with the situation in Egypt caused by Arabi’s revolt and the +intervention of Great Britain. It was Lord Dufferin’s task to +arrange matters at Constantinople, so that no international +friction should be created by any inconvenient assertion by the +sultan of his position as suzerain, while it was also necessary +to avoid offending either the sultan or the other powers by any +appearance of ignoring their rights. He was considerably helped +by Turkish ineptitude, and by the accomplished fact of British +military successes in Egypt, but his own diplomacy was responsible +for securing the necessary freedom of action for the British +government.</p> + +<p>From October 1882 to May 1883 he was himself in Egypt as +British commissioner to report on a scheme of reorganization; +and his recommendations—drawn up in a somewhat elaborate +State paper—formed the basis of the subsequent reforms. In +1884 he was appointed viceroy of India, succeeding Lord Ripon, +whose zeal on behalf of the natives had created a good deal of +antagonism among the officials and the Anglo-Indian community. +Lord Dufferin, though agreeing in the main with Lord Ripon’s +policy, was excellently fitted for the task of restoring confidence +without producing any undesirable reaction, and in domestic +affairs his viceroyalty was a period of substantial progress, in +the reform of the evils of land tenure and in other directions. +He was responsible also for initiating stable relations with +Afghanistan, and settling the crisis with Russia arising out of +the Panjdeh incident (1885), which led to the delimitation of the +north-west frontier (1887). The most striking event of his +administration was, however, the annexation of Burma, resulting +from the Burmese War of 1885; and this procured him, on his +resignation, the title of marquess of Dufferin and Ava (1888). +His viceroyalty was also memorable for Lady Dufferin’s work, +and the starting of a fund called by her name, for providing +better medical treatment for native women. In 1888 he was +made ambassador at Rome, and in 1892 he was promoted to be +ambassador in Paris, a post which he retained till 1896, when he +retired from the public service.</p> + +<p>Lord Dufferin was one of the most admired public servants +of his time. A man of great natural gifts, he had a special talent +for diplomacy, though he has no claim to a place in the first +rank of statesmen. He was remarkable for tact and amiability, +and had a florid and rather elaborately literary style of oratory, +which also characterized his despatches and reports. For +purposes of ceremony his courtliness, dignity and charm of +manner were invaluable, and both in public and in private life +he was a conspicuous “great gentleman.” His last years, spent +mainly at his Irish home, were clouded by the death of his eldest +son, the earl of Ava, at Ladysmith in the Boer War (1900), +and by business troubles. He was so ill-advised as to become +chairman in 1897 of the “London and Globe Finance Corporation,” +a financial company which most good judges in the city +of London thought to be too much in the hands of its managing +director, Mr Whitaker Wright, whose methods had been a good +deal criticized. At last there came a complete crash, and an +exposure before the liquidator, which ultimately led to Mr +Whitaker Wright’s trial for fraud in 1904, and his suicide within +the precincts of the court on being found guilty. Lord Dufferin +did not live to see this final catastrophe. The affairs of the +company were still under investigation in bankruptcy when, +on the 12th of February 1902, he died. He had been in failing +health for two or three years, but, having once become chairman +of the “London and Globe,” he had insisted upon standing by +his colleagues when difficulties arose. Incautious as he had +been in accepting the position, no reflections were felt to be +possible on Lord Dufferin’s personal honour; he was a serious +loser by the failure, and he had followed his predecessor in the +chairmanship, Lord Loch, in confiding too wholly in the masterful +personality of Mr Wright. He was succeeded in the title by his +second son Terence (b. 1866).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The official <i>Life</i> of Lord Dufferin, by Sir Alfred Lyall, appeared +in 1905. There are two Canadian histories of his Canadian administration, +one by George Stewart (1878), the other by W. Leggo (1878). +Lady Dufferin brought out <i>Our Viceregal Life in India</i> in 1889, and +<i>My Canadian Journal</i> in 1891. See also the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">India</a></span>; +<i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canada</a></span>: <i>History</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> One branch of the Blackwood family emigrated to France; +the head of this line being Adam Blackwood (d. 1613), jurist, poet +and divine, and senator of the presidial court of Poitiers.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFF-GORDON, LUCIE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1821-1869), English woman of +letters, daughter of John and Sarah Austin (<i>q.v.</i>), was born on +the 24th of June 1821. Her chief playfellows as a child were +her cousin, Henry Reeve, and John Stuart Mill, who lived next +door in Queen Square, London. In 1834 the Austins went to +Boulogne, and at table d’hôte Lucie found herself next to Heinrich +Heine. The poet and the little girl became fast friends, and years +afterwards she contributed to Lord Houghton’s <i>Monographs +Personal and Social</i> a touching account of a renewal of their +friendship when Heine lay dying in Paris. Her parents went to +Malta in 1836, and Lucie Austin was left in England at school, +but her unconventional education made the restrictions of a +girls’ school exceedingly irksome. She showed her independence +of character by joining the English Church, though this step +was certain to cause pain to her parents, who were Unitarians, +and to many of her friends. She married in 1840 Sir Alexander +Duff-Gordon (1811-1872). With her mother’s beauty she had +inherited her social gifts, and she gathered round her a brilliant +circle of friends. George Meredith has analysed and described +her extraordinary success as a hostess, and the process by which +she reduced too ardent admirers to “happy crust-munching +devotees.” “In England, in her day,” he says, “while health +was with her, there was one house where men and women conversed. +When that house perforce was closed, a light had gone +out in our country.” After her father’s death, she fell into weak +health and was obliged to seek sunnier climes. She went in +1860 to the Cape of Good Hope, and later to Egypt, where she +died on the 14th of July 1869. She had translated among other +works <i>Ancient Grecian Mythology</i> (1839) from the German of +Niebuhr; <i>Mary Schweidler</i>; <i>The Amber Witch</i> (1844) from the +German of Wilhelm Meinhold; and <i>Stella and Vanessa</i> (1850) +from the French of A.F.L. de Wailly. Her <i>Letters from the +Cape</i> (1862-1863) appeared in 1865; and in 1865 her <i>Letters +from Egypt</i>, edited by her mother, attracted much attention. +<i>Last Letters from Egypt</i> (1875) contained a memoir by her +daughter, Mrs Janet Ross. Lady Duff-Gordon won the hearts +of her Arab dependents and neighbours. She doctored their +sick, taught their children, and sympathized with their sorrows.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Letters front Egypt</i> were not originally published in a complete +form. A fuller edition than had before been possible, with an introduction +by George Meredith, was edited in 1902 by Mrs Janet Ross. +See also Mrs Ross’s <i>Three Generations of Englishwomen</i> (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFFTOWN,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Banffshire, +Scotland, on the Fiddich, 64 m. W.N.W. of Aberdeen by the +Great North of Scotland railway. Pop. (1901) 1823. It dates +from 1817 and bears the name of its founder, James Duff, 4th +earl of Fife. Although planned in the shape of a cross, with a +square and tower in the middle, the arms of the cross are not +straight, the constructor holding the ingenious opinion that, +in order to prevent little towns from being taken in at a glance, +their streets should be crooked. The leading industries are lime-works +and distilleries, the water being specially fitted for the +making of whisky. The town has considerable repute as a health +resort, owing partly to its elevation (737 ft.) and partly to the +natural charms of the district. The parish of Mortlach, in which +Dufftown is situated, is rich in archaeological and historical +associations. What is called the Stone of Mortlach is traditionally +believed to have been erected to commemorate the success +of Malcolm II. over the Danes in 1010. The three large stones +known as “The King’s Grave,” a hill-fort, and cairns are of +interest to the antiquary. The old church of Mortlach, though +restored and almost renewed, still contains some lancet windows +and a round-headed doorway, besides monuments dating from +1417. A portion of old Balvenie Castle, a ruin, is considered +to be of Pictish origin, but most of it is in the Scots Baronial. +It has associations with Alexander Stewart, earl of Buchan and +lord of Badenoch (1343-1405), son of Robert II., whose ruffianly +conduct in Elginshire earned him the designation of the Wolf of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span> +Badenoch, the Comyns, the Douglases (to whom it gave the title +of baron in the 15th century), the Stuarts and the Duffs. The +new castle, an uninteresting building, was erected in 1724 by +the earl of Fife, and though untenanted is maintained in repair. +Two miles to the S.E. of Dufftown is the ruined castle of Auchindown, +finely situated on a limestone crag, 200 ft. high, of which +three sides are washed by the Fiddich and the fourth was protected +by a moat. It dates from the 11th century, and once +belonged to the Ogilvies, from whom it passed in 1535 to the +Gordons. The Gothic hall with rows of fluted pillars is in fair +preservation. Ben Rinnes (2755 ft.) and several other hills of +lesser altitude all lie within a few miles of Dufftown. About +4 m. to the N.W. is Craigellachie—Gaelic for “the rock of alarm”—(pop. +454), on the confines of Elginshire. It is situated on the +Spey amidst scenery of surpassing loveliness. The slogan of the +Grants is “Stand fast Craigellachie!” The place has become an +important junction of the Great North of Scotland railway +system.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1816-1903), Irish and +colonial politician, was born in Monaghan, Ireland, on the 12th +of April 1816. At an early age he became connected with the +press, and was one of the founders (1842) of the <i>Nation</i>, a Dublin +weekly which was remarkable for its talent, for its seditious +tendencies, and for the fire and spirit of its political poetry. +In 1844 Duffy was included in the same indictment with +O’Connell, and shared his conviction in Dublin and his acquittal +by the House of Lords upon a point of law. His ideas, nevertheless, +were too revolutionary for O’Connell; a schism took place +in 1846, and Duffy united himself to the “Young Ireland” +party. He was tried for treason-felony in 1848, but the jury +were unable to agree. Duffy continued to agitate in the press +and in parliament, to which he was elected in 1852, but his +failure to bring about an alliance between Catholics and Protestants +upon the land question determined him in 1856 to emigrate +to Victoria. There he became in 1857 minister of public works, +and after an active political career, in the course of which he +was prime minister from 1871 to 1873, when he was knighted, +he was elected speaker of the House of Assembly in 1877, being +made K.C.M.G. in the same year. In 1880 he resigned and +returned to Europe, residing mostly in the south of France. +He published <i>The Ballad Poetry of Ireland</i> (1845), several works +on Irish history, <i>Conversations with Carlyle</i> (1892), <i>Memoirs</i> +(1898), &c. In 1891 he became first president of the Irish +Literary Society. He was married three times, his third wife +dying in 1889. He died on the 9th of February 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Guillaume Henri</span>] +(1787-1875), Swiss general, was born at Constance of Genevese +parents temporarily in exile, on the 15th of September 1787. +In 1807 he went to the École Polytechnique at Paris, Switzerland +being then under French rule, taking the 140th place only in +his entrance examination. By two years’ close study he so +greatly improved his position that he was ranked fifth in the +exit examination. Immediately on leaving the school he +received a commission in the engineers, and was sent to serve +in Corfu, which was blockaded by the English. During the +Hundred Days he attained the rank of <span class="correction" title="amended from captian">captain</span>, and was employed +in raising fortifications at Grenoble. After the peace that +followed Waterloo he resumed his status as a Swiss citizen, +and devoted himself to the military service of his native land. +From 1819 to 1830 he was chief instructor in the military school +of Thun, which had been founded mainly through his instrumentality. +Among other distinguished foreign pupils he instructed +Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor of the French. +In 1827 he was raised to the rank of colonel, and commanded +the Federal army in a series of field manœuvres. In 1831 he +became chief of the staff, and soon afterwards he was appointed +quartermaster-general. Two years later the diet commissioned +him to superintend the execution of a complete trigonometrical +survey of Switzerland. He had already made a cadastral +survey of the canton of Geneva, and published a map of the +canton on the scale of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">25000</span>. The larger work occupied thirty-two +years, and was accomplished with complete success. The +map in 25 sheets on the scale of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100000</span> was published at intervals +between 1842 and 1865, and is an admirable specimen of cartography. +In recognition of the ability with which Dufour had +carried out his task, the Federal Council in 1868 ordered the +highest peak of Monte Rosa to be named Dufour Spitze. In +1847 Dufour was made general of the Federal Army, which +was employed in reducing the revolted Catholic cantons. The +quickness and thoroughness with which he performed the +painful task, and the wise moderation with which he treated his +vanquished fellow-countrymen, were acknowledged by a gift of +60,000 francs from the diet and various honours from different +cities and cantons of the <span class="correction" title="amended from confederaton">confederation</span>. In politics he belonged +to the moderate conservative party, and he consequently lost +a good deal of his popularity in 1848. In 1864 he presided over +the international conference which framed the Geneva Convention +as to the treatment of the wounded in time of war, &c. +He died on the 14th of July 1875. His <i>De la fortification permanente</i> +(1850) is an important and original contribution to the +science of fortification, and he was also the author of a <i>Mémoire +sur l’artillerie des anciens et sur celle du moyen âge</i> (1840), <i>Manuel +de tactique pour les officiers de toutes armes</i> (1842), and various +other works in military science. His memoir, <i>La Campagne du +Sonderbund</i> (Paris, 1876), is prefaced by a biographical notice. +An equestrian statue of General Dufour was erected after his +death at Geneva by national subscription.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFRÉNOY, OURS PIERRE ARMAND PETIT<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1792-1857), +French geologist and mineralogist, was born at Sevran, in the +department of Seine-et-Oise, in France, on the 5th of September +1792. After leaving the Imperial Lyceum, in 1811, he studied +till 1813 at the École Polytechnique, and then entered the Corps +des Mines. He subsequently assisted in the management of the +École des Mines, of which he was professor of mineralogy and +afterwards director. He was also professor of geology at the +École des Ponts et Chaussés. In conjunction with Élie de +Beaumont he in 1841 published a great geological map of France, +the result of investigations carried on during thirteen years +(1823-1836). Five years (1836-1841) were spent in writing the +text to accompany the map, the publication of the work with two +quarto vols. of text extending from 1841-1848; a third volume +was issued in 1873. The two authors had already together +published <i>Voyage métallurgique en Angleterre</i> (1827, 2nd ed. +1837-1839), <i>Mémoires pour servir à une description géologique de +la France</i>, in four vols. (1830-1838), and a <i>Mémoire</i> on Cantal +and Mont-Dore (1833). Other literary productions of Dufrénoy +are an account of the iron mines of the eastern Pyrenees (1834), +and a treatise on mineralogy (3 vols. and atlas, 1844-1845; 2nd +ed., 4 vols. and atlas, 1856-1859), in which the geological relations +as well as the physical and chemical properties of minerals were +dealt with; he likewise contributed numerous papers to the +Annales des mines and other scientific publications, one of the +most interesting of which is entitled <i>Des terrains volcaniques des +environs de Naples</i>. Dufrénoy was a member of the Academy of +Sciences, a commander of the Legion of Honour, and an inspector-general +of mines. He died in Paris on the 20th of March 1857.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUFRESNY, CHARLES,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de la Rivière</span> (1648-1724), +French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1648. The allegation +that his grandfather was an illegitimate son of Henry IV. procured +him the liberal patronage of Louis XIV., who gave him +the post of <i>valet de chambre</i>, and affixed his name to many +lucrative privileges. Dufresny’s expensive habits neutralized all +efforts to enrich him, and as if to furnish a piquant commentary +on the proverb that poverty makes us acquainted with strange +bedfellows, he married, as his second wife, a washerwoman, +in discharge of her bill—a whimsicality which supplied Le Sage +with an episode in the <i>Diable boiteux</i>, and was made the subject +of a comedy by J.M. Deschamps (<i>Charles Rivière Dufresny, ou +le mariage impromptu</i>). He died in Paris on the 6th of October +1724. His plays, destitute for the most part of all higher qualities, +abound in sprightly wit and pithy sayings. In the six volumes +of his <i>Théâtre</i> (Paris, 1731), some of the best are <i>L’Esprit de +contradiction</i> (1700), <i>Le Double Veuvage</i> (1701), <i>La Joueuse</i> (1709), +<i>La Coquette de village</i> (1715), <i>La Réconciliation normande</i> (1719) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span> +and <i>Le Mariage fait et rompu</i> (1721). A volume of <i>Poésies diverses</i>, two +volumes of <i>Nouvelles historiques</i> (1692), and <i>Les Amusements sérieux et +comiques d’un Siamois</i> (1705), a work to which Montesquieu was indebted +for the idea of his <i>Lettres persanes</i>, complete the list of Dufresny’s +writings. The best edition of his works is that of 1747 (4 vols.). His +<i>Théâtre</i> was edited (1882) by Georges d’Heylli.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUGAZON<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Jean Henri Gourgaud</span>] (1746-1809), French +actor, was born in Marseilles on the 15th of November +1746, the son of the director of military hospitals +there. He began his career in the provinces, making his +début in 1770 at the Comédie Française, where he +aspired to leading comedy roles. He pleased the public +at once and was made <i>sociétaire</i> in 1772. Dugazon was an +ardent revolutionist, helped the schism which divided +the company, and went with Talma and the others to what +became the Théâtre de la République. After the closing +of this theatre, and the dissolution of the Comédie +Française, he took refuge at the Théâtre Feydeau until +(1799) he returned to the restored Comédie. He retired +in 1807, and died insane at Sandillon in 1809. Dugazon +wrote three mediocre comedies of a political character, +performed at the Théâtre de la République. He married, +in 1776, Louis Rose Lefèvre, but was soon divorced and +then married again. The first Madame Dugazon +(1755-1821), the daughter of a Berlin dancing master, +was a charming actress. Her first appearance on the +stage was made at the age of twelve as a dancer. It was +as an actress “with songs” that she made her début at +the Comédie Italienne in 1774 in Grétry’s <i>Sylvain</i>. She +was at once admitted <i>pensionnaire</i> and in 1776 +<i>sociétaire</i>. Madame Dugazon delighted all Paris, and +nightly crowded the Comédie Italienne for more than +twenty years. The two kinds of parts with which she was +especially identified—young mothers and women past +their first youth—are still called “<i>dugazons</i>” and +“<i>mères dugazons</i>.” Examples of the first are Jenny in <i>La +Dame blanche</i> and Berthe de Simiane in <i>Les Mousquetaires +de la reine</i>; of the second, Marguerite in <i>Le Pré aux +clercs</i> and the queen in <i>La Part du diable</i>.</p> + +<p>Dugazon’s sister, <span class="sc">Marie Rose Gourgaud</span> (1743-1804), was +an actress who first played at Stuttgart, where she +married Angelo, brother of Gaétano Vestris, the dancer. +Under the protection of the dukes of Choiseul and +Duras, she was commanded to make her début at the +Comédie Française in 1768, where she created important +parts in a number of tragedies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1605-1686), English antiquary, was +born at Shustoke, near Coleshill, in Warwickshire, on +the 12th of September 1605, the son of a country +gentleman of an old Lancashire stock; he was educated +at Coventry. To please his father, who was old and +infirm, he married at seventeen. He lived with his +wife’s family until his father’s death in 1624, when he +went to live at Fillongley, near Shustoke, an estate +formerly purchased for him by his father. In 1625 he +purchased the manor of Blythe, Shustoke, and removed +thither in 1626. He had early shown an inclination for +antiquarian studies, and in 1635, meeting Sir Symon +Archer (1581-1662), himself a learned antiquary, who +was then employed in collecting materials for a history +of Warwickshire, he accompanied him to London. There he +made the acquaintance of Sir Christopher (afterwards +Lord) Hatton, comptroller of the household, and Thomas, +earl of Arundel, then earl marshal of England. In 1638 +Dugdale was created a pursuivant of arms extraordinary +by the name of Blanch Lyon, and in 1639 rouge croix +pursuivant in ordinary. He now had a lodging in the +Heralds’ Office, and spent much of his time in London +examining the records in the Tower and the Cottonian +and other collections of MSS. In 1641 Sir Christopher +Hatton, foreseeing the war and dreading the ruin and +spoliation of the Church, commissioned him to make +exact drafts of all the monuments in Westminster Abbey +and the principal churches in England, including +Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, Lincoln. Newark, Beverley, +Southwell, Kingston-upon-Hull, York, Selby, Chester, +Lichfield, Tamworth and Warwick. In June 1642 he was +summoned to attend the king at York. When war broke out +Charles deputed him to summon to surrender the castles +of Banbury and Warwick, and other strongholds which +were being rapidly filled with ammunition and rebels. +He went with Charles to Oxford, remaining there till +its surrender in 1646. He witnessed the battle of +Edgehill, where he made afterwards an exact survey of +the field, noting how the armies were drawn up, and +where and in what direction the various movements took +place, and marking the graves of the slain. In November +1642 he was admitted M.A. of the university, and in +1644 the king created him Chester herald. During his +leisure at Oxford he collected material at the Bodleian +and college libraries for his books. In 1646 Dugdale +returned to London and compounded for his estates, +which had been sequestrated, by a payment of £168. After +a visit to France in 1648 he continued his antiquarian +researches in London, collaborating with Richard +Dodsworth in his <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>, which was +published successively in single volumes in 1655, 1664 +and 1673. At the Restoration he obtained the office of +Norroy king-at-arms, and in 1677 was created garter +principal king-at-arms, and was knighted. He died “in +his chair” at Blythe Hall on the 10th of February 1686.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dugdale’s most important works are <i>Antiquities of +Warwickshire</i> (1656); <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i> (1655-1673); +<i>History of St Paul’s Cathedral</i> (1658); and <i>Baronage of +England</i> (1675-1676). His <i>Life</i>, written by himself up to +1678, with his diary and correspondence, and an index +to his manuscript collections, was edited by William +Hamper, and published in 1827.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUGONG,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> one of the two existing generic representatives +of the Sirenia, or herbivorous aquatic mammals. Dugongs +are distinguished from their cousins the manatis by the +presence in the upper jaw of the male of a pair of +large tusks, which in the female are arrested in their +growth, and remain concealed. There are never more than +five molar teeth on each side of either jaw, or twenty +in all, and these are flat on the grinding surface. The +flippers are unprovided with nails, and the tail is +broad, and differs from that of the manati in being +crescent-shaped instead of rounded. The bones are hard +and firm, and take a polish equal to that of ivory. +Dugongs frequent the shallow waters of the tropical +seas, extending from the east coast of Africa north of +the mouth of the Zambezi, along the shores of the +Indian, Malayan and Australian seas, where they may be +seen basking on the surface of the water, or browsing +on submarine pastures of seaweed, for which the thick +obtuse lips and truncated snout pre-eminently fit them. +They are gregarious, feeding in large numbers in +localities where they are not often disturbed. The +female produces a single young one at a birth, and is +remarkable for the great affection it shows for its +offspring, so that when the young dugong is caught +there is no difficulty in capturing the mother. Three +species—the Indian dugong (<i>Halicore dugong</i>), the Red +Sea dugong (<i>H. tabernaculi</i>) and the Australian dugong +(<i>H. australis</i>)—are commonly recognized. The first is +abundant along the shores of the Indian Ocean, and is +captured in large numbers by the Malays, who esteem its +flesh a great delicacy; the lean portions, especially +of young specimens, are regarded by Europeans as +excellent eating. It is generally taken by spearing, +the main object of the hunter being to raise the tail +out of the water, when the animal becomes perfectly +powerless. It seldom attains a length of more than 8 or +10 ft. The Australian dugong is a larger species, +attaining sometimes a length of 15 ft.; it occurs along +the Australian coast from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span> +Moreton Bay to Cape York, and is highly valued by the natives, +who hunt it with spears, and gorge themselves with its flesh, +when they are fortunate enough to secure a carcase. Of late +years the oil obtained from the blubber of this species has been +largely used in Australia as a substitute for cod-liver oil. It +does not contain iodine, but is said to possess all the therapeutic +qualities of cod-liver oil without its nauseous taste. A full-grown +dugong yields from 10 to 12 gallons of oil, and this forms +in cold weather a thick mass, and requires to be melted before a +fire previous to being used. The flesh of the Australian dugong +is easy of digestion, the muscular fibre when fresh resembling +beef, and when salted having the flavour of bacon. In the +earliest Australian dugong-fishery natives were employed to +harpoon these animals, which soon, however, became too wary +to allow themselves to be approached near enough for this +purpose, and the harpoon was abandoned for the net. The latter +is spread at night, and in its meshes dugongs are caught in +considerable numbers.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:615px; height:188px" src="images/img647.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">The Dugong.</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENÉ<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1673-1736), French sea captain, +belonged to a well-known family of merchants and sea captains +of St Malo. He was born at St Malo on the 10th of June 1673. +He was originally intended for the church, and studied with that +view at Rennes and Caen; but on the breaking out of the war +with England and Holland in 1689 he went to sea in a privateer +owned by his family. During the first three months his courage +was tried by a violent tempest, an imminent shipwreck, the +boarding of an English ship, and the threatened destruction of +his own vessel by fire. The following year, as a volunteer in a +vessel of 28 guns, he was present in a bloody combat with an +English fleet of five merchant vessels. The courage he then +showed was so remarkable that in 1691, at the age of eighteen, +his family gave him a corsair of 14 guns; and having been thrown +by a tempest on the coast of Ireland, he burned two English +ships in the river Limerick. In 1694 his vessel of 40 guns was +captured by the English, and, being taken prisoner, he was +confined in the castle of Plymouth. He escaped, according to his +own account, by the help of a pretty shopwoman and her lover, +a French refugee in the English service. He then obtained +command of a vessel of 48 guns, and made a capture of English +vessels on the Irish coast. In 1696 he made a brilliant capture +of Dutch vessels, and the king hearing an account of the affair +gave him a commission as <i>capitaine de frégate</i> (commander) in +the royal navy. In 1704-1705 he desolated the coasts of England. +In 1706 he was raised to the rank of captain of a vessel of the line. +In 1707 he was made chevalier of the order of St Louis, and +captured off the Lizard the greater part of an English convoy +of troops and munitions bound for Portugal. His most glorious +action was the capture in 1711 of Rio Janeiro, on which he +imposed a heavy contribution. In 1715 he was made <i>chef +d’escadre</i>, the rank which in the French navy answered to the +English commodore, and in 1728 commander of the order of +St Louis and <i>lieutenant général des armées navales</i>. In 1731 he +commanded a squadron for the protection of French commerce +in the Levant. He died on the 27th of September 1736.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his own <i>Mémoires</i> (1740); and J. Poulain, <i>Duguay-Trouin</i> +(1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1320-1380), constable of +France, the most famous French warrior of his age, was born of +an ancient but undistinguished family at the castle of La Motte-Broons +(Dinan). The date of his birth is doubtful, the authorities +varying between 1311 and 1324. The name is spelt in various +ways in contemporary records, <i>e.g.</i> Claquin, Klesquin, Guescquin, +Glayaquin, &c. The familiar form is found on his monument +at St Denis, and in some legal documents of the time. +In his boyhood Bertrand was a dull learner, spending his time +in open-air sports and exercises, and could never read or write. +He was remarkable for ugliness, and was an object of aversion +to his parents. He first made himself a name as a soldier at the +tournament held at Rennes in 1338 to celebrate the marriage +of Charles of Blois with Jeanne de Penthièvre, at which he +unseated the most famous competitors. In the war which +followed between Charles of Blois and John de Montfort, for the +possession of the duchy of Brittany, he served his apprenticeship +as a soldier (1341). As he was not a great baron with a body +of vassals at his command, he put himself at the head of a band +of adventurers, and fought on the side of Charles and of France. +He distinguished himself by a brilliant action at the siege of +Vannes in 1342; and after that he disappears from history for +some years.</p> + +<p>In 1354, having shortly before been made a knight, he was sent +into England with the lords of Brittany to treat for the ransom +of Charles of Blois, who had been defeated and captured by the +English in 1347. When Rennes and Dinan were attacked by +the duke of Lancaster in 1356, Du Guesclin fought continuously +against the English, and at this time he engaged in a celebrated +duel with Sir Thomas Canterbury. He finally forced his way +with provisions and reinforcements into Rennes, which he +successfully defended till June 1357, when the siege was raised +in pursuance of the truce of Bordeaux. For this service he was +rewarded with the lordship of Pontorson. Shortly afterwards +he passed into the service of France, and greatly distinguished +himself at the siege of Melun (1359), being, however, taken +prisoner a little later by Sir Robert Knollys. In 1360, 1361 and +1362 he was continually in the field, being again made prisoner +in 1360. In 1364 he married, but was soon again in the field, +this time against the king of Navarre. In May 1364 he won an +important victory over the Navarrese at Cocherel, and took the +famous Captal de Buch prisoner. He had previously been made +lord of La Roche-Tesson (1361) and chamberlain (1364); he +was now made count of Longueville and lieutenant of Normandy. +Shortly afterwards, in aiding Charles of Blois, Du Guesclin was +taken prisoner by Sir John Chandos at the battle of Auray, in +which Charles was killed. The close of the general war, however, +had released great numbers of mercenaries (the great companies) +from control, and, as they began to play the part of +brigands in France, it was necessary to get rid of them. Du +Guesclin was ransomed for 100,000 crowns, and was charged +to lead them out of France. He marched with them into Spain, +supported Henry of Trastamara against Pedro the Cruel, set the +former upon the throne of Castile (1366), and was made constable +of Castile and count of Trastamara. In the following year he was +defeated and captured by the Black Prince, ally of Pedro, at +Navarette, but was soon released for a heavy ransom. Once +more he fought for Henry, won the battle of Montiel (1369), +reinstated him on the throne, and was created duke of +Molinas.</p> + +<p>In May 1370, at the command of Charles V., who named him +constable of France, he returned to France. War had just been +declared against England, and Du Guesclin was called to take +part in it. For nearly ten years he was engaged in fighting against +the English in the south and the west of France, recovering from +them the provinces of Poitou, Guienne and Auvergne, and +thus powerfully contributing to the establishment of a united +France. In 1373, when the duke of Brittany sought English +aid against a threatened invasion by Charles V., Du Guesclin +was sent at the head of a powerful army to seize the duchy, +which he did; and two years later he frustrated the attempt of +the duke with an English army to recover it. Finding in 1379 +that the king entertained suspicions of his fidelity to him, he +resolved to give up his constable’s sword and retire to Spain. +His resolution was at first proof against remonstrance; but +ultimately he received back the sword, and continued in the +service of France. In 1380 he was sent into Languedoc to +suppress disturbances and brigandage, provoked by the harsh +government of the duke of Anjou. His first act was to lay siege +to the fortress of Châteauneuf-Randon, but on the eve of its +surrender the constable died on the 13th of July 1380. His +remains were interred, by order of the king, in the church of +St Denis. Du Guesclin lost his first wife in 1371, and married a +second in 1373, but he left no legitimate children.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See biography by D.F. Jamison (Charleston, 1863), which was +translated into French (1866) by order of Marshal Count Randon, +minister of war; also S. Luce, <i>Histoire de B. du Guesclin</i> (Paris, +1876).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1624-1706), French physicist, +was born in 1624 at Vire in Normandy. He studied at Caen and +Paris; wrote at eighteen a tract on the <i>Spherics</i> of Theodosius +of Tripolis; then became an Oratorian priest, and fulfilled with +great devotion for ten years (1653-1663) the duties of <i>curé</i> at +Neuilly-sur-Marne. He was appointed in 1656 almoner to the +king, and in 1666 perpetual secretary to the newly founded +Academy of Sciences. He died on the 6th of August 1706. He +published among other works: <i>Astronomia physica</i> (1660) and +<i>De meteoris et fossilibus</i> (1660), both in dialogue form; <i>De +consensu veteris et novae philosophiae</i> (1663); <i>De corporum +affectionibus</i> (1672); <i>De mente humana</i> (1673); <i>Regiae scientiarum +Academiae historia</i>, 1666-1696 (1698), new edition +brought down to 1700 (1701); <i>Institutiones biblicae</i> (1698); +followed by annotated editions of the Psalms (1701), of the +Book of Wisdom, &c. (1703), and of the entire Bible in 1705.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1700-1782), +French botanist and engineer, son of Alexandre Duhamel, lord +of Denainvilliers, was born at Paris in 1700. Having been +requested by the Academy of Sciences to investigate a disease +which was destroying the saffron plant in Gâtinais, he discovered +the cause in a parasitical fungus which attached itself to the roots, +and this achievement gained him admission to the Academy in +1728. From then until his death he busied himself chiefly +with making experiments in vegetable physiology. Having +learned from Sir Hans Sloane that madder possesses the property +of giving colour to the bones, he fed animals successively on food +mixed and unmixed with madder; and he found that their +bones in general exhibited concentric strata of red and white, +whilst the softer parts showed in the meantime signs of having +been progressively extended. From a number of experiments +he was led to believe himself able to explain the growth of bones, +and to demonstrate a parallel between the manner of their growth +and that of trees. Along with the naturalist Buffon, he made +numerous experiments on the growth and strength of wood, +and experimented also on the growth of the mistletoe, on layer +planting, on smut in corn, &c. He was probably the first, in +1736, to distinguish clearly between the alkalis, potash and +soda. From the year 1740 he made meteorological observations, +and kept records of the influence of the weather on agricultural +production. For many years he was inspector-general +of marine, and applied his scientific acquirements to the improvement +of naval construction. He died at Paris on the 13th +of August 1782.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works are nearly ninety in number, and include many technical +handbooks. The principal are:—<i>Traité des arbres et arbustes qui +se cultivent en France en pleine terre</i>; <i>Éléments de l’architecture navale</i>; +<i>Traité général des pêches maritimes et fluviatiles</i>; <i>Éléments d’agriculture</i>; +<i>La Physique des arbres</i>; <i>Des Semis et plantations des arbres +et de leur culture</i>; <i>De l’exploitation des bois</i>; <i>Traité des arbres fruitiers</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜHRING, EUGEN KARL<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1833-1901), German philosopher +and political economist, was born on the 12th of January 1833 +at Berlin. After a legal education he practised at Berlin as a +lawyer till 1859. A weakness of the eyes, ending in total blindness, +occasioned his taking up the studies with which his name +is now connected. In 1864 he became <i>docent</i> of the university of +Berlin, but, in consequence of a quarrel with the professoriate, +was deprived of his licence to teach in 1874. Among his works +are <i>Kapital und Arbeit</i> (1865); <i>Der Wert des Lebens</i> (1865); +<i>Natürliche Dialektik</i> (1865); <i>Kritische Geschichte der Philosophie</i> +(1869); <i>Kritische Geschichte der allgemeinen Principien der +Mechanik</i> (1872)—one of his most successful works; <i>Kursus der +National- und Sozialökonomie</i> (1873); <i>Kursus der Philosophie</i> +(1875), entitled in a later edition <i>Wirklichkeitsphilosophie; Logik +und Wissenschaftstheorie</i> (1878); <i>Der Ersatz der Religion durch +Vollkommeneres</i> (1883). He published his autobiography in 1882 +under the title <i>Sache, Leben und Feinde</i>; the mention of +“Feinde” (enemies) is characteristic. Dühring’s philosophy +claims to be emphatically the philosophy of reality. He is +passionate in his denunciation of everything which, like mysticism, +tries to veil reality. He is almost Lucretian in his anger +against religion which would withdraw the secret of the universe +from our direct gaze. His “substitute for religion” is a doctrine +in many points akin to Comte and Feuerbach, the former of +whom he resembles in his sentimentalism. Dühring’s opinions +changed considerably after his first appearance as a writer. His +earlier work, <i>Natürliche Dialektik</i>, in form and matter not the +worst of his writings, is entirely in the spirit of the Critical +Philosophy. Later, in his movement towards Positivism, he +strongly repudiates Kant’s separation of phenomenon from noumenon, +and affirms that our intellect is capable of grasping the +whole reality. This adequacy of thought to things is due to the +fact that the universe contains but one reality, <i>i.e.</i> matter. It +is to matter that we must look for the explanation both of +conscious and of physical states. But matter is not, in his system, +to be understood with the common meaning, but with a deeper +sense as the substratum of all conscious and physical existence; +and thus the laws of being are identified with the laws of thought. +In this materialistic or quasi-materialistic system Dühring finds +room for teleology; the end of Nature, he holds, is the production +of a race of conscious beings. From his belief in teleology he is not +deterred by the enigma of pain; he is a determined optimist. +Pain exists to throw pleasure into conscious relief. In ethics +Dühring follows Comte in making sympathy the foundation of +morality. In political philosophy he teaches an ethical communism, +and attacks the Darwinian principle of struggle for +existence. <span class="correction" title="amended from It">In</span> economics he is best known by his vindication +of the American writer H.C. Carey, who attracts him both by +his theory of value, which suggests an ultimate harmony of the +interests of capitalist and labourer, and also by his doctrine of +“national” political economy, which advocates protection on +the ground that the morals and culture of a people are promoted +by having its whole system of industry complete within +its own borders. His patriotism is fervent, but narrow and +exclusive. He idolized Frederick the Great, and denounced +Jews, Greeks, and the cosmopolitan Goethe. Dühring’s clear, +incisive writing is disfigured by arrogance and ill-temper, failings +which may be extenuated on the ground of his physical affliction. +He died in 1901.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Druskowitz, <i>Eugen Dühring</i> (Heidelberg, 1888); E. Döll, +<i>Eugen Dühring</i> (Leipzig, 1892); F. Engels, <i>Eugen D.’s Umwalzung +der Wissenschaft</i> (3rd ed., Stuttgart, 1894); H. Vaihinger, <i>Hartmann, +Dühring und Lange</i> (1876).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. St.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUIGENAN, PATRICK<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1735-1816), Irish lawyer and politician, +was the son of a Leitrim Roman Catholic farmer named +O’Duibhgeannain. Through the tuition of the local Protestant +clergyman, who was interested in the boy, he got a scholarship +in 1756 at Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became a +fellow. He was called to the Irish bar in 1767 and obtained +a rich practice. He is remembered, however, mainly as a +politician, on account of his opposition to Grattan, his support +of the Union, and his violent antagonism to Catholic emancipation. +He was elected member for Armagh in the first united +parliament, and was a well-known character at Westminster till +he died on the 11th of April 1816.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUIKER<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (diver), or <span class="sc">Duikerbok</span>, the Dutch name of a small +S. African antelope, scientifically known as <i>Cephalophus grimmi</i>; +the popular name alluding to its habit of diving into and threading +its way through thick bush. Scientifically the name is extended +to include all the members of the African genus <i>Cephalophus</i>, +which, together with the Indian chousingha, or four-horned +antelope (<i>Tetraceros</i>), constitutes the subfamily <i>Cephalophinae</i>. +Duikers are animals of small or medium size, usually frequenting +thick forest. The horns, usually present in both sexes, are +small and straight, situated far back on the forehead; and +between them rises the crest-like tuft of hair from which the +genus takes its scientific name. The common or true duiker +(<i>C. grimmi</i>) is found in bush-country from the Cape to the +Zambezi and Nyasaland, and ranges northward on the west +coast to Angola. The banded duiker (<i>C. doriae</i>) from West +Africa is golden brown with black transverse bands on the back +and loins. <i>C. sylvicultor</i>, of West Africa, is the largest species, +and approaches a donkey in size. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antelope</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUILIUS<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Duellius</span>), <b>GAIUS,</b> Roman general during the +first Carthaginian War and commander in the first Roman naval +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span> +victory. In 260 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when consul in command of the land +forces in Sicily, he was appointed to supersede his colleague +Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina, commander of the fleet, who had +been captured in the harbour of Lipara. Recognizing that the +only chance of victory lay in fighting under conditions as similar +as possible to those of a land engagement, he invented a system +of grappling irons (<i>corvi</i>) and boarding bridges, and gained a +brilliant victory over the Carthaginian fleet off Mylae on the +north coast of Sicily. He was accorded a triumph and the +distinction of being accompanied, when walking in the streets +during the evening, by a torchbearer and a flute-player. A +memorial column (<i>columna rostrata</i>), adorned with the beaks +of the captured ships, was set up in honour of his victory. The +inscription upon it (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Latin Language</a></span>, section 3, “The +Language as Recorded”) has been preserved in a restored form +in pseudo-archaic language, ascribed to the reign of Claudius.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>, i. No. 195; Polybius i. 22; +Diod. Sic. xvii. 44; Frontinus, <i>Strat.</i> ii. 3; Florus ii. 2; Cicero, <i>De +senectute</i>, 13; Silius Italicus vi. 667; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Punic Wars</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUISBURG,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, +15 m. by rail N. from Düsseldorf, between the Rhine and the +Ruhr, with which rivers it communicates by a canal. It is an +important railway centre. Pop. (1885) 47,519; (1900) 92,729; +(1905), including many outlying townships then recently incorporated, +191,551. It has six Roman Catholic and six Protestant +churches, among the latter the fine Gothic Salvatorkirche, +of the 15th century. It is well furnished with schools, +which include a school of machinery. Of modern erections, +the concert hall, the law courts and a memorial fountain to the +cartographer Gerhard Kremer (Mercator) are worthy of mention. +There are important foundries, rolling mills for copper, steel +and brass plates, chemical works, saw-milling, shipbuilding, +tobacco, cotton, sugar, soap and other manufactures.</p> + +<p>Duisburg was known to the Romans as <i>Castrum Deutonis</i>, +and mentioned under the Frankish kings as <i>Dispargum</i>. In the +12th century it attained the rank of an imperial free town, but +on being mortgaged in 1290 to Cleves it lost its privileges. At +the beginning of the 17th century it was transferred to Brandenburg, +and during the Thirty Years’ War was alternately occupied +by the Spaniards and the Dutch. In 1655 the elector Frederick +William of Brandenburg founded here a Protestant university, +which flourished until 1802.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUK-DUK,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> a secret society of New Britain or New Pomerania, +Bismarck Archipelago, in the South Pacific. The society has +religious and political as well as social objects. It represents +a rough sort of law and order through its presiding spirit Duk-Duk, +a mysterious figure dressed in leaves to its waist, with a helmet +like a gigantic candle-extinguisher made of network. Upon +this figure women and children are forbidden to look. Women, +who are entitled in New Britain to their own earnings and work +harder than men, are the special victims of Duk-Duk, who +levies blackmail upon them if they are about during its visits. +These are generally timed to coincide with the hours at which +the women are out in the fields and therefore cannot help seeing +the figure. Justice is executed, fines extorted, taboos, feasts, +taxes and all tribal matters are arranged by the Duk-Duk +members, who wear hideous masks or chalk their faces. In +carrying out punishments they are allowed to burn houses and +even kill people. Only males can belong to Duk-Duk, the +entrance fees of which vary from 50 to 100 fathoms of <i>dewarra</i> +(small cowrie shells strung on strips of cane). The society has +its secret signs and ritual, and festivals at which the presence +of a stranger would mean his death. Duk-Duk only appears +with the full moon. The society is now much discredited and +is fast dying out.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Duk-Duk and other Customs or Forms of Expression of the +Melanesian’s Intellectual Life,” by Graf von Pfeil (<i>Journ. of Anthrop. +Instit.</i> vol. 27, p. 181).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUKE<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (corresponding to Fr. <i>duc</i>, Ital. <i>duca</i>, Ger. <i>Herzog</i>), the +title of one of the highest orders of the European nobility, and +of some minor sovereign princes. The word “duke,” which is +derived from the Lat. <i>dux</i>, a leader, or general, through the +Fr. <i>duc</i> (O. Fr. <i>dusc</i>, <i>ducs</i>, <i>dus</i>), originally signified a leader, +and more especially a military chief, and in this latter sense was +the equivalent of the A.S. <i>heretoga</i> (<i>here</i>, an army, and <i>teon</i>, from +<i>togen</i>, to draw; Ger. <i>ziehen</i>, <i>zog</i>; Goth, <i>tiuhan</i>; Lat. <i>ducere</i>) +and the old Ger. <i>herizog</i>. In this general sense the word survived +in English literature until the 17th century, but is now obsolete.</p> + +<p>The origin of modern dukes is twofold. The <i>dux</i> first appears +in the Roman empire under the emperor Hadrian, and by the time +of the Gordians has already a recognized place in the official +hierarchy. He was the general appointed to the command of +a particular expedition and his functions were purely military. +In the 4th century, after the separation of the civil and military +administrations, there was a duke in command of the troops +quartered in each of the frontier provinces of the empire, <i>e.g.</i> +the <i>dux Britanniarum</i>. The number of dukes continually increased, +and in the 6th and 7th centuries there were <i>duces</i> at Rome, +Naples, Rimini, Venice and Perugia. Gradually, too, they became +charged with civil as well as military functions, and even +exercised considerable authority in ecclesiastical administration. +Under the Byzantine emperors they were the representatives +in all causes of the central power. The Roman title of duke was +less dignified than that of count (<i>comes</i>, companion) which implied +an honourable personal relation to the emperor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Count</a></span>). +Both titles were borrowed by the Merovingian kings for the +administrative machinery of the Frank empire, and under them +the functions of the duke remained substantially unaltered. He +was a great civil and military official, charged to watch, in the +interests of the crown, over groups of several <i>comitatus</i>, or countships, +especially in the border provinces. The sphere of the dukes +was never rigidly fixed, and their commission was sometimes +permanent, sometimes temporary. Under the Carolingians +the functions of the dukes remained substantially the same; +but with the decay of the royal power in the 10th century, +both dukes and counts gained in local authority; the number +of dukes became for the time fixed, and finally title and +office were made hereditary, the relation to the crown being +reduced to that of more or less shadowy vassalage. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Feudalism</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Side by side with these purely official dukedoms, however, +there had continued to exist, or had sprung up, either independently +or in more or less of subjection to the Frank rulers, +national dukedoms, such as those of the Alemanni, the Aquitanians, +and, later, of the Bavarians and Thuringians. These +were developed from the early Teutonic custom by which the +<i>herizog</i> was elected by the nation as leader for a particular campaign, +as in the case of the <i>heretogas</i> who had led the first Saxon +invaders into Britain. Tacitus says of the ancient Germans +<i>reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt</i>; <i>i.e.</i> they elected their +dukes for their warlike prowess only, and as purely military +chiefs, whereas their kings were chosen from a royal family of +divine descent. Sometimes the dukes so chosen succeeded in +making their power permanent without taking the style of king. +To this national category belong, besides the great German +dukedoms, the dukes of Normandy, and the Lombard dukes of +Spoleto and Benevento, who traced their origin, not to an +administrative office, but to the leadership of Teutonic war +bands. With the development of the feudal system the distinction +between the official and the national dukedoms was more +and more obliterated. By the 13th and 14th centuries the title +had become purely territorial, and implied no necessary overlordship +over counts and other nobles, who existed side by side +with the dukes as tenants-in-chief of the crown. From this time +the significance of the ducal title varies widely in different +countries. Whenever the crown got the better of the feudal +spirit of independence, as in France or Naples, it sank from being +a sovereign title to a mere social distinction, implying no political +power, and not necessarily any territorial influence. In northern +Italy and in Germany, on the other hand, where the crown had +proved too weak to combat the forces of disruption, it came +ultimately to imply independent sovereignty.</p> + +<p>The abolition of the Holy Empire in 1806 removed even the +shadow of vassalage from the German reigning dukes, who retain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span> +their sovereign status under the new empire. Only one, however, +the grand duke of Luxemburg, is now both sovereign and +independent. Besides the sovereign dukes in Germany there are +certain “mediatized” ducal houses, <i>e.g.</i> that of Ratibor, which +share with the dispossessed families of the Italian sovereign +duchies certain royal privileges, notably that of equality of blood +(<i>Ebenbürtigkeit</i>). In Italy, where titles of nobility give no precedence +at court, that of duke (<i>duca</i>) has lost nearly all even of +its social significance owing to lavish creations by the popes and +minor sovereigns, and to the fact that the title often passes +by purchase with a particular estate. Political significance it has +none. Some great Italian nobles are dukes, notably the heads of +the great Roman ducal families, but not all Italian dukes are +great nobles.</p> + +<p>In France the title duke at one time implied vast territorial +power, as with the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy, Aquitaine +and Brittany, who asserted a practical independence against the +crown, though it was not till the 12th century that the title duke +was definitely regarded as superior to others. At first (in the 10th +and 11th centuries) it had no defined significance, and even +a baron of the higher nobility called himself in charters duke, +count or even marquis, indifferently. In any case the strengthening +of the royal power gradually sapped the significance of the +title, until on the eve of the Revolution it implied no more than +high rank and probably territorial wealth.</p> + +<p>There were, under the <i>ancien régime</i>, three classes of dukes in +France: (1) dukes who were peers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peerage</a></span>) and had a seat +in the parlement of Paris; (2) hereditary dukes who were not +peers; (3) “brevet” dukes, created for life only. The French +duke ranks in Spain with the “grandee” (<i>q.v.</i>), and vice versa. +In republican France the already existing titles are officially +recognized, but they are now no more than the badges of distinguished +ancestry. Besides the descendants of the feudal +aristocracy there are in France certain ducal families dating +from Napoleon I.’s creation of 1806 (<i>e.g.</i> ducs d’Albufera, de +Montebello, de Feltre), from Louis Philippe (duc d’Isly, and duc +d’Audiffret-Pasquier), and from Napoleon III. (Malakoff, Magenta, +Morny).</p> + +<p>In England the title of duke was unknown till the 14th century, +though in Saxon times the title ealdorman, afterwards exchanged +for “earl,” was sometimes rendered in Latin as <i>dux</i>,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the +English kings till John’s time styled themselves dukes of Normandy, +and dukes of Aquitaine even later. In 1337 King +Edward III. erected the county of Cornwall into a duchy for his +son Edward the Black Prince, who was thus the first English duke. +The second was Henry, earl of Lancaster, Derby, Lincoln and +Leicester, who was created duke of Lancaster in 1351. In Scotland +the title of duke was first bestowed in 1398 by Robert III. +on his eldest son David, who was made duke of Rothesay, and +on his brother, who became duke of Albany.</p> + +<p>British dukes rank next to princes and princesses of the blood +royal, the two archbishops of Canterbury and York, the lord +Chancellor, &c., but beyond this precedence they have no special +privileges which are not shared by peers of lower rank (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peerage</a></span>). Though their full style as proclaimed by the herald +is “most high, potent and noble prince,” and they are included +in the <i>Almanach de Gotha</i>, they are not recognized as the equals +in blood of the crowned or mediatized dukes of the continent, +and the daughter of an English duke marrying a foreign royal +prince can only take his title by courtesy, or where, under the +“house-laws” of certain families, a family council sanctions +the match. The eldest son of an English duke takes as a rule +by courtesy the second title of his father, and ranks, with or +without the title, as a marquess. The other sons and daughters +bear the titles “Lord” and “Lady” before their Christian +names, also by courtesy. A duke in the British peerage, if not +royal, is addressed as “Your Grace” and is styled “the Most +Noble.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archduke</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grand Duke</a></span>, and, for the ducal +coronet, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crown and Coronet</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So <i>Ego Haroldus dux, Ego Tostinus dux</i>, in a charter of Edward +the Confessor (1060), Hist. MSS. Comm. 12th rep. app. pt. ix. p. 581.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUKE OF EXETER’S DAUGHTER,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a nickname applied to +a 15th-century instrument of torture resembling the rack (<i>q.v.</i>). +Blackstone says (<i>Commentaries</i>, ii. sec. 326): “The trial by rack +is utterly unknown to the law of England, though once when the +dukes of Exeter and Suffolk, and other ministers of Henry VI., +had laid a design to introduce the civil (<i>i.e.</i> Roman) law into the +kingdom as the rule of government, for a beginning thereof they +erected a rack for torture, which was called in derision the duke +of Exeter’s daughter, and still remains in the Tower of London, +where it was used as an engine of state, not of law, more than +once in Queen Elizabeth’s reign. But when, upon the assassination +of Villiers, duke of Buckingham, by Felton, it was proposed +in the privy council to put the assassin to the rack, in order to +discover his accomplices, the judges being consulted, declared +unanimously that no such proceeding was allowable by the laws +of England.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUKER, CARL ANDREAS<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1670-1752), German classical +scholar and jurist, was born at Unna in Westphalia. He studied +at the university of Franeker under Jacob Perizonius. In 1700 +he was appointed teacher of history and eloquence at the Herborn +gymnasium, in 1704 vice-principal of the school at the Hague, +and in 1716 he succeeded (with Drakenborch as colleague) to +the professorship formerly held by Peter Burmann at Utrecht. +After eighteen years’ tenure he resigned his post, and lived in +retirement at Ysselstein and Vianen. His health finally broke +down under excessive study, and he died, almost blind, at the +house of a relative in Meiderich near Duisburg, on the 5th +of November 1752. His chief classical works were editions of +Florus (1722) and Thucydides (1731, considered his best). He +brought out the 2nd edition of Perizonius’s <i>Origines Babylonicae +et Aegyptiacae</i> (1736) and his commentary on Pomponius Mela +(1736-1737). Duker was also an authority on ancient law, and +published <i>Opuscula varia de latinitate veterum jurisconsultorum</i> +(1711), and a revision of the <i>Leges Atticae</i> of S. Petit (1741).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Saxe, <i>Onomasticon litterarium</i>, vi. 267; articles in <i>Allgemeine +deutsche Biographie</i> and in Ersch and Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine +Encyklopadie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUKERIES, THE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a name given to a district in the N.W. +of Nottinghamshire, England; included within the ancient +Sherwood Forest (<i>q.v.</i>). The name is taken from the existence +of several adjacent demesnes of noblemen, and the character +of the Forest is to some extent preserved here. On the north +is the Sheffield-Retford branch of the Great Central railway, +serving the town of Worksop, connecting at Retford with the +Great Northern railway, while on the south the Great Central +railway serves the small market town of Ollerton, and connects +with the Great Northern at Dukeries Junction. The following +demesnes are comprised in the district. Worksop Manor +formerly belonged to the dukes of Norfolk. Welbeck Abbey +is the seat of the dukes of Portland, to whom it came from the +Cavendish family (dukes of Newcastle); the mansion is mainly +classic in style, dating from the early 17th century, but with +many subsequent additions; the fifth duke of Portland (d. 1879) +built the curious series of subterranean corridors and chambers +beneath the grounds. Clumber House, the seat of the dukes +of Newcastle, is beautifully placed above a lake in a fine +park. Thoresby House is the seat of the earls Manvers, to +whom it came on the extinction of the dukedom of Kingston; +part of this demesne is a splendid tract of wild woodland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUKES, LEOPOLD<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (1810-1891), Hungarian critic of Jewish +literature. He spent about twenty years in England, and from +his researches in the Bodleian library and the British Museum +(which contain two of the most valuable Hebrew libraries in +the world) Dukes was able to complete the work of Zunz (<i>q.v.</i>). +The most popular work of Dukes was his <i>Rabbinische Blumenlese</i> +(1844), in which he collected the rabbinic proverbs and illustrated +them from the gnomic literatures of other peoples. Dukes made +many contributions to philology, but his best work was +connected with the medieval Hebrew poetry, especially Ibn +Gabirol.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUKINFIELD,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a municipal borough of Cheshire, England, +within the parliamentary borough of Stalybridge, 6 m. E. of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span> +Manchester. Pop. (1901) 18,929. It lies in the densely populated +district in the north-east of the county, between Stalybridge +and Ashton-under-Lyne, and is served by the London & North +Western and Great Central railways. There are extensive +collieries, and the other industries include cotton manufactures, +calico-printing, hat-making, iron-founding, engineering and the +manufacture of firebricks and tiles. A portion remains of +the old timbered Dukinfield Hall, in the chapel of which +Samuel Eaton (d. 1665) taught the first congregational church +in the north of England. The chapel, much enlarged, is still +used by this denomination. The borough, incorporated in +1899, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, +1405 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DULCIGNO<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Servian, <i>Ultsin</i>, Turk. <i>Olgun</i>), a seaport of Montenegro, +on the Adriatic Sea, 8 m. W. of the Albanian frontier. +Pop. (1900) about 5000. Shut in by hills and forests, and built +partly on a promontory overlooking its bay, partly along the +shore, Dulcigno is the prettiest of Montenegrin towns. Its +narrow crooked lanes, however, with its bazaars, mosques, +minarets and veiled women, give to its picturesqueness a +decidedly Turkish air. The old quarter, on the promontory, is +walled, and has a medieval castle, once of great strength. Turks +form the bulk of the inhabitants, although their numbers +decreased steadily after 1880, when the population numbered +about 8000. Albanians and Italians are fairly numerous. +Dulcigno has a Roman Catholic cathedral and an ancient Latin +church. The Austrian Lloyd steamers call at intervals, and +some shipbuilding and fishing are carried on; but the harbour +lacks shelter and is liable to deposits of silt.</p> + +<p>To the Romans, who captured it in 167 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Dulcigno was +known as <i>Ulcinium</i> or <i>Olcinium</i>; in the middle ages it was a +noted haunt of pirates; in the 17th century it was the residence +of Sabbatai Zebi (d. 1676), a Jew who declared himself to be the +Messiah but afterwards embraced Islam. In 1718 Dulcigno +was the scene of a great Venetian defeat. It belonged to the +Turks until 1880, when its cession, according to the terms of the +treaty of Berlin (1878), was enforced by the “Dulcigno demonstration,” +in which the fleets of Great Britain, France, Germany, +Austria and Russia took part.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DULCIMER<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (Fr. <i>tympanon</i>; Ger. <i>Hackbrett</i>, <i>Cymbal</i>; Ital. +<i>cembalo</i>, <i>timpanon</i> or <i>salterio tedesco</i>), the prototype of the +pianoforte, an instrument consisting of a horizontal sound-chest +over which are stretched a varying number of wire strings set +in vibration by strokes of little sticks or hammers. The dulcimer +differed from the psalterium or psaltery chiefly in the manner +of playing, the latter having the strings plucked by means of +fingers or plectrum. The shape of the dulcimer is a trapeze +or truncated triangle, having the bass strings stretched parallel +with the base, which measures from 3 to 4 ft.; the strings decrease +gradually in length, the shortest measuring from about +18 to 24 in. at the truncated apex. The sound-board has one +or two rose sound-holes; the strings are attached on one side to +hitch pins and at the other to the larger tuning pins firmly +fixed in the wrest plank. The strings of fine brass or iron wire +are in groups of two to five unisons to each note; the vibrating +lengths of the strings are determined by means of two bridges. +The dulcimer is placed upon a table in front of the performer, +who strikes the strings with a little hammer mounted on a metal +rod and covered on one side with hard and on the other with +soft leather for forte and piano effects. The compass, now +chromatic throughout, varies according to the size of the instrument; +the large cymbalom of the Hungarian gipsies has a +range of four chromatic octaves, <img style="width:134px; height:59px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img652a.jpg" alt="" />.</p> + +<p>The origin of the dulcimer is remote, and must be sought in +the East. In the bas-reliefs from Kuyunjik, now in the British +Museum, are to be seen musicians playing on dulcimers of ten +strings with long sticks curved at the ends, and damping the +strings with their hands. This is the pisantir of the days of +Nebuchadrezzar, translated “psaltery” in Dan. iii. 5, &c., and +rendered “psalterion” in the Septuagint, a confusion which +has given rise to many misconceptions.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the Septuagint +no less than four different instruments are rendered <i>psalterion</i> +(from Gr. <span class="grk" title="psallô">ψάλλω</span>, pluck, pull), <i>i.e.</i> <i>ugab</i>, <i>nebel</i>, <i>pisantir</i> and <i>toph</i>, +two stringed, one wind and one percussion. The use of the +word in Greek for a musical instrument is not recorded before +the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The modern santir of the Persians, almost +identical with the German hackbrett, has a compass from +<img style="width:179px; height:46px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img652b.jpg" alt="" /> according to Fétis.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The Persians place +its origin in the highest antiquity. Carl Engel<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> gives an illustration +said to be taken from a very old painting.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The dulcimer was extensively used during the middle ages +in England, France, Italy, Germany, Holland and Spain, and +although it had a distinctive name in each country, it was +everywhere regarded as a kind of psalterium. The importance +of the method of setting the strings in vibration by means of +hammers, and its bearing on the acoustics of the instrument, +were recognized only when the invention of the pianoforte had +become a matter of history. It was then perceived that the +psalterium in which the strings were plucked, and the dulcimer +in which they were struck, when provided with keyboards, +gave rise to two distinct families of instruments, differing +essentially in tone quality, in technique and in capabilities: +the evolution of the psalterium stopped at the harpsichord, +that of the dulcimer gave us the pianoforte. The dulcimer is +described and illustrated by Mersenne,<a name="fa5g" id="fa5g" href="#ft5g"><span class="sp">5</span></a> who calls it <i>psaltérion</i>; +it has thirteen courses of pairs of unisons or octaves; the first +strings were of brass wire, the others of steel. The curved stick +was allowed to fall gently on to the strings and to rebound many +times, which, Mersenne remarks, produces an effect similar to +the trembling or tremolo of other instruments. Praetorius<a name="fa6g" id="fa6g" href="#ft6g"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +figures a hackbrett having a body in the shape of a truncated +triangle, with a bridge placed between two rose sound-holes, +and played by means of two sticks. Another kind of hackbrett<a name="fa7g" id="fa7g" href="#ft7g"><span class="sp">7</span></a> +(a psaltery), which was played with the fingers, was known to +Praetorius. The pantaleon, a double dulcimer, named after the +inventor, Pantaleon Hebenstreit of Eisleben, a violinist, had +two sound-boards, 185 strings, one scale of overspun catgut, the +other of wire. Hebenstreit travelled to Paris with his monster +dulcimer in 1705 and played before Louis XIV., who baptized +it <i>Pantaléon</i>. Quantz<a name="fa8g" id="fa8g" href="#ft8g"><span class="sp">8</span></a> and Quirin of Blankenburg<a name="fa9g" id="fa9g" href="#ft9g"><span class="sp">9</span></a> both gave +descriptions of the instrument.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The names of the musical instruments in those verses of the +Book of Daniel have formed the basis of a controversy as to the +authenticity of the book.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Histoire de la musique</i> (Paris, 1869), vol. ii. p. 131.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Music of the most Ancient Nations</i> (London, 1864), pp. 42-3.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Hommaire de Hell, <i>Voyage en Perse</i>, p. lxii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5g" id="ft5g" href="#fa5g"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>L’Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), livre iii. p. 174.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6g" id="ft6g" href="#fa6g"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Syntagma musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. 18 (3).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7g" id="ft7g" href="#fa7g"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Pl. 36 (1).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8g" id="ft8g" href="#fa8g"><span class="fn">8</span></a> “Herrn Joh. Joachim Quantzens Lebenslauf von ihm selbst +entworfen,” in Fr. W. Marpurg’s <i>Histor. kritische Beytrage</i>, Bd. i +p. 207 (1754-1755).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9g" id="ft9g" href="#fa9g"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Elementa musica</i>, chap. xxvi.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜLKEN,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, +11 m. by rail S.W. from Crefeld. Pop. 10,000. It has a (Roman +Catholic) Gothic parish church. There are manufactures of +linen, cotton, silk and velvet, &c., ironworks and foundries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DULONG, PIERRE LOUIS<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1785-1838), French chemist and +physicist, was born at Rouen on the 12th (or 13th) of February +1785. He began as a doctor in one of the poorest districts of +Paris, but soon abandoned medicine for scientific research. +After acting as assistant to Berthollet, he became successively +professor of chemistry at the faculty of sciences and the normal +and veterinary schools at Alfort, and then (1820) professor of +physics at the École Polytechnique, of which he was appointed +director in 1830. He died in Paris on the 18th (or 19th) of July +1838. His earliest work was chemical in character. In 1811 +he discovered chloride of nitrogen; during his experiments +serious explosions occurred twice, and he lost one eye, besides +sustaining severe injuries to his hand. He also investigated +the oxygen compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen, and was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span> +one of the first to hold the hydrogen theory of acids. In 1815, +in conjunction with Alexis Thérèse Petit (1791-1820), the +professor of physics at the École Polytechnique, he made careful +comparisons between the mercury and the air thermometer. +The first published research (1816) dealt with the dilatation of +solids, liquids and gases and with the exact measurement of +temperature, and it was followed by another in 1818 on the +measurement of temperature and the communication of heat, +which was crowned by the French Academy. In a third, “On +some important points in the theory of heat” (1819), they +stated that the specific heats of thirteen solid elements which +they had investigated were nearly proportional to their atomic +weights—a fact otherwise expressed in the “law of Dulong and +Petit” that the atoms of simple substances have equal capacities +for heat. Subsequent papers by Dulong were concerned with +“New determinations of the proportions of water and the +density of certain elastic fluids” (1820, with Berzelius); the +property possessed by certain metals of facilitating the combination +of gases (1823 with Thénard); the refracting powers +of gases (1826); and the specific heats of gases (1829). In +1830 he published a research, undertaken with Arago for the +academy of sciences, on the elastic force of steam at high temperatures. +For the purposes of this determination he set up a +continuous column of mercury, constructed with 13 sections +of glass tube each 2 metres long and 5 mm. in diameter, in the +tower of the old church of St Geneviève in the Collège Henri IV. +The apparatus was first used to investigate the variation in the +volume of air with pressure, and the conclusion was that up to +twenty-seven atmospheres, the highest pressure attained in the +experiments, Boyle’s law holds good. In regard to steam, the +old tower was so shaky that it was considered unwise to risk the +effects of an explosion, and therefore the mercury column was +removed bodily to a court in the observatory. The original +intention was to push the experiments to a pressure equivalent +to thirty atmospheres, but owing to the signs of failure exhibited +by the boiler the limit actually reached was twenty-four atmospheres, +at which pressure the thermometers indicated a temperature +of about 224°C. In his last paper, published posthumously +in 1838, Dulong gave an account of experiments made to determine +the heat disengaged in the combination of various simple +and compound bodies, together with a description of the calorimeter +he employed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DULSE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (Ir. and Gael. <i>duileasg</i>), in botany, <i>Rhodymenia palmata</i>, +one of the red seaweeds, consisting of flat solitary or tufted +purplish-red fronds, fan-shaped in general outline and divided +into numerous segments, which are often again and again divided +in a forked manner. It varies very much in size and degree of +branching, ranging from 5 or 6 to 12 or more inches long. It +grows on rocks, shell-fish or larger seaweeds, and is used by the +poor in Scotland and Ireland as a relish with their food. It is +commonly dried and eaten raw, the flavour being brought out +by long chewing. In the Mediterranean it is used cooked in +ragouts and made dishes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.H. Harvey, <i>Phycologica Britannica</i>, vol. ii. plates 217, 218.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DULUTH,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of St Louis county, +Minnesota, U.S.A., at the W. end of Lake Superior, at the mouth +of the St Louis river, about 150 m. N.E. of Minneapolis and +St Paul. Pop. (1880) 3483; (1890) 33,115; (1900) 52,969, of +whom 20,983 were foreign-born and 357 were negroes; (1910 +census) 78,466. Of the 20,983 foreign-born in 1900, 5099 +were English-Canadians, 5047 Swedes, 2655 Norwegians, 1685 +Germans, and 1285 French-Canadians. Duluth is served by +the Duluth and Iron Range, the Duluth, Missabe & Northern, +the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, the Chicago & North-Western +(the North-Western line), the Great Northern, and the +Northern Pacific railways. Situated attractively on the side and +along the base of a high bluff rising 600 ft. above the lake level, +Duluth lies at the W. end of Superior Bay (here called Duluth +Harbour), directly opposite the city of Superior, Wisconsin. +A narrow strip of land known as Minnesota Point, 7 m. in length +and extending toward Wisconsin Point, which projects from +the Wisconsin shore, separates the bay from the lake and forms +with St Louis Bay one of the finest natural harbours in the world. +The natural entrance to the harbour is the narrow channel +between the two points, but there is also a ship-canal across +Minnesota Point, spanned by a curious aerial bridge 400 ft. long +and 186 ft. above the water.</p> + +<p>The unusually favourable position for lake transportation, +and the extensive tributary region in the N.W., with ample rail +connexions, make Duluth-Superior one of the greatest commercial +ports in the country. The two cities constitute the largest +coal-distributing centre in the N.W., and have some of the largest +coal-docks in the world. Upwards of twenty grain elevators, +with a net capacity of nearly 35,000,000 bushels, which receive +enormous quantities of grain from the Red River Valley, +Manitoba, and the Dakotas, either for home manufacture or for +transhipment to the East, are among the noteworthy sights of +the place; and extensive ore-docks are required for handling +the enormous and steadily increasing shipments of iron ore from +the rich Vermilion and Mesabi iron ranges first opened about +1890. In 1907 more than 29,000,000 tons of iron ore were +shipped from this port. Duluth is also an important hay +market. There are flour and lumber mills, foundries and machine +shops, wooden ware, cooperage, sash, door and blind, lath and +shingle factories, and shipyards. In 1909 great mills of the +Minnesota Steel Co. were begun here. In 1905 the factory +product of Duluth was valued at $10,139,009, an increase of +29.8% over that of 1900. The St Louis river furnishes one of +the finest water-powers in the United States.</p> + +<p>The commanding heights upon which the principal residential +section of the city is built render it at once attractive in appearance +and healthful; there is a fine system of parks and boulevards, +the chief of the former being Lester, Fairmount, Portland, +Cascade, Lincoln and Chester. The popular Boulevard drive at +the back of Duluth commands excellent views of city and lake. +Among the principal buildings are the court house, the Masonic +temple, chamber of commerce, board of trade, Lyceum theatre, +Federal, Providence, Lonsdale, Torrey, Alworth, Sellwood and +Wolvin buildings, St. Mary’s hospital, St. Luke’s hospital and +Spalding Hotel. There is a public (Carnegie) library with 50,000 +volumes in 1908. The building of the central high school (classical), +one of the finest in the United States, erected at a cost of about +$500,000, has a square clock tower 230 ft. high, and an auditorium +seating 2000. The city also has a technical high school, and in +addition to the regular high school courses there are departments +of business, manual training and domestic science. At Duluth +also is a state normal school, erected in 1902. The federal government +maintains here a life-saving station on Minnesota Point, +and an extensive fish hatchery.</p> + +<p>The first Europeans to visit the site of Duluth were probably +French <i>coureurs-des-bois</i>, possibly the adventurous Radisson and +Groseilliers. The first visitor certainly known to have been here +was Daniel Greysolon, Sieur Du Lhut (d. 1709), a French trader +and explorer, who about 1678 skirted Lake Superior and built a +stockaded trading-post at the mouth of Pigeon river on the N. +shore. From him the place received its name. A trading-post +was established near the present city, at Fond du Lac, about +1752, and this eventually became a depôt of Astor’s American Fur +Company. There was no permanent settlement at Duluth proper, +however, until 1853, and in 1860 there were only 80 inhabitants. +Incorporated in 1870, in which year railway connexion with the +South was established, its growth was slow for some years, the +increase for the decade 1870-1880 being very slight (from 3131 +to 3483); but the extension of railways into the north-western +wheat region, the opening up of Lake Superior to commerce, and +finally the development of the Vermilion and Mesabi iron ranges, +brought on a period of almost unparalleled growth, marked by the +remarkable increase in population of more than 850% between +1880 and 1890; between 1890 and 1900 the increase was 60%.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.R. Carey, <i>History of Duluth and Northern Minnesota</i> (Duluth, +1898); Leggett and Chipman, <i>Duluth and its Environs</i> (Duluth, +1895); and J.D. Ensign, <i>History of St Louis County</i> (Duluth, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DULWICH,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a district in the metropolitan borough of Camberwell, +London, England. The manor, which had belonged to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span> +Cluniac monks of Bermondsey, passed through various hands to +Edward Alleyn (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1606. His foundation of the College +of God’s Gift, commonly called Dulwich College, was opened +with great state on the 13th of September 1619, in the presence +of Lord Chancellor Bacon, Lord Arundell, Inigo Jones and other +distinguished men. According to the letters patent the almspeople +and scholars were to be chosen in equal proportions from +the parishes of St Giles (Camberwell), St Botolph without +Bishopsgate, and St Saviour’s (Southwark), and “that part of +the parish of St Giles without Cripplegate which is in the county +of Middlesex.” By a series of statutes signed in 1626, a few days +before his death, Alleyn ordained that his school should be for +the instruction of 80 boys consisting of three distinct classes:— +(1) the twelve poor scholars; (2) children of inhabitants of Dulwich, +who were to be taught freely; and (3) “towne or foreign +schollers,” who were “to pay such allowance as the master and +wardens shall appoint.” The almspeople consisted of six “poor +brethren” and six “poor sisters,” and the teaching and governing +staff of a master and a warden, who were always to be of the +founder’s surname, and four fellows, all “graduates and divines,” +among whom were apportioned the ministerial work of the chapel, +the instruction of the boys, and the supervision of the almspeople. +That it was the founder’s intention to establish a great public +school upon the model of Westminster and St Paul’s, with +provision for university training, is shown by the statutes; +but for more than two centuries the educational benefits of God’s +Gift College were restricted to the twelve poor scholars. Successive +actions at law resulted in the ruling that it was not within +the competence of the founder to divert any portion of the +revenues of his foundation to the use of others than the members +thereof, as specified in the letters patent. In 1842, however, +some effort was made towards the realization of Alleyn’s schemes, +and in 1858 the foundation was entirely reconstituted by act of +parliament. It comprises two schools, the “Upper” and the +“Lower,” now called respectively Dulwich College and Alleyn’s +school. In the Upper school, now one of the important English +“public schools,” there are classical, modern, science and engineering +sides. The Lower school is devoted to middle-class education. +The buildings of the Upper school, by Charles Barry, contain +a fine hall. The college possesses a splendid picture gallery, +bequeathed by Sir P.F. Bourgeois, R.A., in 1811, with a separate +endowment. The pictures include some exquisite Murillos and +choice specimens of the Dutch school. The surplus income of +the gallery fund is devoted to instruction in drawing and design +in the two schools.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.H. Blanch, <i>Dulwich College and Edward Alleyn</i> (London, +1877); R. Hovenden, <i>The History of Dulwich College, with a short +biography of its founder</i> (London, 1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMAGUETE,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> the capital town of the province of Negros +Oriental, island of Negros, Philippine Islands, on Tañón Strait. +Pop. (1903) 14,894. The town of Sibulan (pop. in 1903, 8413) +was annexed to Dumaguete in 1903, after the census had been +taken. Dumaguete lies in the midst of a fertile agricultural +district. The inhabitants are chiefly natives, but the shops are +kept by Chinese merchants. The public buildings, which include +an interesting watch-tower and belfry, are large, substantial and +well cared for.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMANJUG,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, +Philippine Islands, on the W. coast, at the mouth of the Dumanjug +river, about 40 m. S.W. of the town of Cebú. Pop. (1903) +22,203. In 1903, after the census had been taken, the adjacent +town of Ronda (pop. 9662) was annexed to Dumanjug. Dumanjug +is in communication with the town of Sibonga, on the +opposite shore of one of the few passes through the mountains of +the interior. Indian corn and sugar-cane are grown successfully +in the neighbouring country, and the town has an important +coast trade.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU MARSAIS, CÉSAR CHESNEAU,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur</span> (1676-1756), +French philologist, was born at Marseilles on the 17th of July +1676. He was educated in his native town by the Fathers of the +Oratory, into whose congregation he entered; but he left it at +the age of twenty-five and went to Paris, where he married +and was admitted an advocate (1704). He was tutor to the sons +successively of the président de Maisons, of John Law, the +projector, and of the marquis de Bauffremont. He then opened +a boarding school in the faubourg St Victor, which scarcely +afforded him the means of subsistence. He made contributions +of great value on philological and philosophical subjects to the +<i>Encyclopédie</i>, and after vain attempts to secure a competence +from the court he was insured against want by the generosity +of a private patron. He died in Paris on the 11th of June 1756. +The researches of Du Marsais are distinguished by considerable +individuality. He held sensible views on education and elaborated +a system of teaching Latin, which, although open to grave +criticism, was a useful protest against current methods of teaching. +His best works are his <i>Principes de grammaire</i> and his <i>Des +tropes, ou des différents sens dans lesquels on peut prendre un mot</i> +(1730).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An edition of his works (7 vols.) was collected by Duchosal and +Millon, and was published with an éloge on Du Marsais by D’Alembert +at Paris in 1797.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMAS, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie</span>] +(1802-1870), French novelist and dramatist, was born +at Villers-Cotterets (Aisne) on the 24th of July 1802. His father, +the French general, Thomas Alexandre Dumas (1762-1806)—also +known as Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie—was born in +Saint Domingo, the natural son of Antoine Alexandre Davy, +marquis de la Pailleterie, by a negress, Marie Cessette Dumas, +who died in 1772. In 1780 he accompanied the marquis to France, +and there the father made a mésalliance which drove the son +into enlisting in a dragoon regiment. Thomas Alexandre Dumas +was still a private at the outbreak of the revolution, but he rose +rapidly and became general of division in 1793. He was general-in-chief +of the army of the western Pyrenees, and was transferred +later to commands in the Alps and in La Vendée. Among his +many exploits was the defeat of the Austrians at the bridge of +Clausen on the 22nd of April 1797, where he commanded Joubert’s +cavalry. He lost Napoleon’s favour by plain speaking in the +Egyptian campaign, and presently returned to France to spend +the rest of his days in retirement at Villers Cotterets, where he +had married in 1792 Marie Élisabeth Labouret.</p> + +<p>The novelist, who was the offspring of this union, was not +four years old when General Dumas died, leaving his family with +no further resource than 30 acres of land. Mme Dumas tried +to obtain help from Napoleon, but in vain, and lived with her +parents in narrow circumstances. Alexandre received the rudiments +of education from a priest, and entered the office of a local +solicitor. His chief friend was Adolphe de Leuven, the son of +an exiled Swedish nobleman implicated in the assassination +of Gustavus III. of Sweden, and the two collaborated in various +vaudevilles and other pieces which never saw the footlights. +Leuven returned to Paris, and Dumas was sent to the office of +a solicitor at Crépy. When in 1823 Dumas contrived to visit +his friend in Paris, he was received to his great delight by Talma. +He returned home only to break with his employer, and to arrange +to seek his fortune in Paris, where he sought help without success +from his father’s old friends. An introduction to the deputy of +his department, General Foy, procured for him, however, a place +as clerk in the service of the duke of Orleans at a salary of 1200 +francs. He set to work to rectify his lack of education and to +collaborate with Leuven in the production of vaudevilles and +melodramas. Madame Dumas presently joined her son in Paris, +where she died in 1838.</p> + +<p>Soon after his arrival in Paris Dumas had entered on a liaison +with a dressmaker, Marie Catherine Labay, and their son, the +famous Alexandre Dumas <i>fils</i> (see below), was born in 1824. +Dumas acknowledged his son in 1831, and obtained the custody +of him after a lawsuit with the mother.</p> + +<p>The first piece by Dumas and Leuven to see the footlights was +<i>La Chasse et l’amour</i> (Ambigu-Comique, 22nd of Sept. 1825), +and in this they had help from other writers. Dumas had a +share in another vaudeville, <i>La Noce et l’enterrement</i> (Porte Saint-Martin, +21st of Nov. 1826). It was under the influence of the +Shakespeare plays produced in Paris by Charles Kemble, Harriet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span> +Smithson (afterwards Mme Berlioz) and an English company +that the romantic drama of <i>Christine</i> was written. The subject +was suggested by a bas relief of the murder of Monaldeschi +exhibited at the Salon of 1827. The piece was accepted by +Baron Taylor and the members of the Comédie Française with +the stipulation that it should be subject to revision by another +dramatist because of its innovating tendencies. But the production +of the piece was deferred. Meanwhile Dumas had met +with the story of the ill-fated Saint-Mégrin and the duchess of +Guise in Anquetil’s history, and had written, in prose, <i>Henri III. +et sa cour</i>, which was immediately accepted by the Comédie +Française and produced on the 11th of February 1829. It was +the first great triumph of the romantic drama. The brilliant +stagecraft of the piece and its admirable historical setting +delighted an audience accustomed to the decadent classical +tragedy, and brought him the friendship of Hugo<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and Vigny. +His literary efforts had met with marked disapproval from his +official superiors, and he had been compelled to resign his clerkship +before the production of <i>Henri III.</i> The duke of Orleans +had, however, been present at the performance, and appointed +him assistant-librarian at the Palais Royal. <i>Christine</i> was now +recast as a romantic trilogy in verse in five acts with a prologue +and epilogue, with the sub-title of <i>Stockholm</i>, <i>Fontainebleau</i>, +<i>Rome</i>, and was successfully produced by Harel at the Odéon in +March 1830.</p> + +<p>The revolution of 1830 temporarily diverted Dumas from +letters. The account of his exploits should be read in his +<i>Mémoires</i>, where, though the incidents are true in the main, they +lose nothing in the telling. During the fighting in Paris he +attracted the attention of La Fayette, who sent him to Soissons +to secure powder. With the help of some inhabitants he compelled +the governor to hand over the magazine, and on his return +to Paris was sent by La Fayette on a mission to raise a national +guard in La Vendée. The advice he gave to Louis Philippe on +this subject was ill-received, and after giving offence by further +indiscretions he finally alienated himself from the Orleans government +by being implicated in the disturbances which attended +the funeral of General Lamarque in June 1832, and he received +a hint that his absence from France was desirable. A tour in +Switzerland undertaken on this account furnished material for +the first of a long series of amusing books of travel. Dumas remained, +however, on friendly and even affectionate terms with +the young duke of Orleans until his death in 1842.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile he had produced <i>Napoléon Bonaparte</i> (Odéon, +10th of Jan 1831), his unwillingness to make a hero of the man +who had slighted his father having been overcome by Harel, who +put him under lock and key until the piece was finished. His next +play, <i>Antony</i>, had a real importance in the history of the romantic +theatre. It was put in rehearsal by Mlle Mars, but so unsatisfactorily +that Dumas transferred it to Bocage and Mme Dorval, +who played it magnificently at the Porte Saint-Martin theatre +on the 3rd of May 1831. The Byronic hero Antony was a portrait +of himself in his relations with Mme Mélanie Waldor, the wife +of an officer, and daughter of the journalist M.G.T. de Villenave, +except of course in the extravagantly melodramatic <i>dénouement</i>, +when Antony, to save his mistress’s honour, kills her and exclaims, +“Elle me résistait, je l’ai assassinée.” He produced more +than twenty more plays alone or in collaboration before 1845, +exclusive of dramatizations from his novels. <i>Richard Darlington</i> +(Porte Saint Martin, 10th of Dec 1831), the first idea of which +was drawn from Sir Walter Scott’s <i>Chronicles of the Canongate</i>, +owed part of its great success to the admirable acting of Frédérick +Lemaître. <i>La Tour de Nesle</i> (Porte Saint-Martin, 29th of May +1832), announced as by MM. × × × and Gaillardet, was the +occasion of a duel and a law-suit with the original author, +Frédéric Gaillardet, whose MS. had been revised, first by Jules +Janin and then by Dumas. In rapidity of movement, and in +the terror it inspired, the piece surpassed <i>Henri III.</i> and <i>Antony</i>. +A lighter drama, <i>Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle</i> (Théâtre Français, +2nd of April 1839), still remains in the repertory.</p> + +<p>In 1840 Dumas married Ida Ferrier, an actress whom he +had imposed on the theatres that took his pieces. The amiable +relations which had subsisted between them for eight years +were disturbed by the marriage, which is said to have been undertaken +in consequence of a strong hint from the duke of Orleans, +and Mme Dumas lived in Italy separated from her husband.</p> + +<p>As a novelist Dumas began by writing short stories, but his +happy collaboration with Auguste Maquet,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> which began in +1839, led to the admirable series of historical novels in which he +proposed to reconstruct the whole course of French history. +In 1844 he produced, with Maquet’s help, that most famous of +“cloak and sword” romances, <i>Les Trois Mousquetaires</i> (8 vols.), +the material for which was discovered in the <i>Mémoires de +M. d’Artagnan</i> (Cologne, 1701-1702) of Courtils de Sandras. The +adventures of d’Artagnan and the three musketeers, the gigantic +Porthos, the clever Aramis, and the melancholy Athos, who +unite to defend the honour of Anne of Austria against Richelieu +and the machinations of “Milady,” are brought down to the +murder of Buckingham in 1629. Their admirers were gratified +by two sequels, <i>Vingt ans après</i> (10 vols., 1845) and <i>Dix ans plus +tard, ou le vicomte de Bragelonne</i> (26 pts., 1848-1850), which +opens in 1660, showing us a mature d’Artagnan, a respectable +captain of musketeers, and contains the magnificent account of +the heroic death of Porthos. The three musketeers are as +famous in England as in France. Thackeray could read about +Athos from sunrise to sunset with the utmost contentment of +mind, and R.L. Stevenson and Andrew Lang have paid tribute +to the band in <i>Memories and Portraits</i> and <i>Letters to Dead +Authors</i>. Before 1844 was out Dumas had completed a second +great romance in 12 volumes, <i>Le Comte de Monte-Cristo</i>, in which +he had help from Fiorentino as well as from Maquet. The idea +of the intrigue was suggested by Peuchet’s <i>Police dévoilée</i>, and +the stress laid on the earlier incidents, Dantès, Danglars and the +Château d’If, is said to have been an afterthought. Almost +as famous as these two romances is the set of Valois novels of +which Henri IV. is the central figure, beginning with <i>La Reine +Margot</i> (6 vols., 1845), which contains the history of the struggle +between Catherine of Medicis and Henry of Navarre; the history +of the reign of Henry III. is told in <i>La Dame de Monsoreau</i> +(8 vols., 1846), generally known in English as <i>Chicot the Jester</i>, +from its principal character; and in <i>Les Quarante-cinq</i> (10 vols., +1847-1848), in which Diane de Monsoreau avenges herself on +the duke of Anjou for the death of her former lover, Bussy +d’Amboise.</p> + +<p>Much has been written about the exact share which Dumas +had in the novels which bear his name. The Dumas-Maquet +series is undoubtedly the best, but Maquet alone never accomplished +anything to approach them in value. The MSS. of the +novels still exist in Dumas’s handwriting, and the best of them +bear the unmistakable stamp of his unrivalled skill as a narrator. +The chief key to his enormous output is to be found in his untiring +industry and amazing fertility of invention, not in the +system of wholesale collaboration which was exposed with much +exaggeration by Quérard in his <i>Superchéries littéraires</i> and by +“Eugène de Mirecourt” (C.B.J. Jacquot) in his misleading +<i>Fabrique de romans, maison Alexandre Dumas et c<span class="sp">ie</span></i> (1845). +His assistants, in fact, supplied him with outlines of romances on +plans drawn up by himself, and he then rewrote the whole thing. +That this method was never abused it would be impossible to say; +<i>Les Deux Diane</i>, for instance, a prelude to the Valois novels, is +said to have been written entirely by Paul Meurice, although +Dumas’s name appears on the title-page.</p> + +<p>The latter part of Dumas’s life is a record of excessive toil to +meet prodigal expenditure and accumulated debts. His disasters +began with the building of a house in the Renaissance style, with +a Gothic pavilion and an “English” park, at Saint Germain-en-Laye. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span> +This place, called Monte-Cristo, was governed by a +crowd of hangers-on of both sexes, who absorbed Dumas’s large +earnings and left him penniless. Dumas also founded the +Théâtre Historique chiefly for the performance of his own works. +The enterprise was under the patronage of the duc de Montpensier, +and was under the management of Hippolyte Hostein, who had +been the secretary of the Comédie Française. The theatre was +opened in February 1847 with a dramatic version of <i>La Reine +Margot</i>. Meanwhile Dumas had been the guest of the duc de +Montpensier at Madrid, and made a quasi-official tour to Algeria +and Tunis in a government vessel, which caused much comment +in the press. Dumas had never changed his republican opinions. +He greeted the revolution of 1848 with delight, and was even +a candidate for electoral honours in the department of the Yonne. +But the change was fatal to his theatrical enterprise, for the failure +of which in 1850 he was made financially responsible. His son, +Alexandre Dumas, was at that time living with his mother +Mlle Labay, who was eventually reconciled with the elder Dumas. +Father and son, though always on affectionate terms when they +met, were too different in their ideas to see much of one another. +After the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 Dumas crossed the frontier to +Brussels, and two years of rapid production, and the economy +of his secretary, Noël Parfait, restored something like order +to his affairs. On his return to Paris in the end of 1853 he +established a daily paper, <i>Le Mousquetaire</i>, for the criticism of art +and letters. It was chiefly written by Dumas, whose <i>Mémoires</i> +first appeared in it, and survived until 1857, when it was succeeded +by a weekly paper, the <i>Monte-Cristo</i> (1857-1860). In +1858 Dumas travelled through Russia to the Caucasus, and in +1860 he joined Garibaldi in Sicily. After an expedition to +Marseilles in search of arms for the insurgents, he returned to +Naples, where Garibaldi nominated him keeper of the museums. +After four years’ residence in Naples he returned to Paris, and +after the war of ’66 he visited the battlefields and produced his +story of <i>La Terreur prussienne</i>. But his powers were beginning to +fail, and in spite of the 1200 volumes which he told Napoleon +he had written, he was at the mercy of his creditors, and of the +succession of theatrical ladies who tyrannized over him and +feared nothing except the occasional visits of Dumas <i>fils</i>. He +was finally rescued from these by his daughter, Mme Petel, who +came to live with him in 1868; and two years later, on the +5th of December 1870, he died in his son’s house at Puys, near +Dieppe.</p> + +<p>Dumas was never an actual candidate for academic honours, +but he had more than once taken steps to investigate his chances +of success. A statue of him was erected on the Place Malesherbes, +Paris, in 1883, and the figure of d’Artagnan finds a place on the +pedestal.</p> + +<p>Auguste Maquet was Dumas’s chief collaborator. Others were +Paul Lacroix (the bibliophile “P.L. Jacob”), Paul Bocage, J.P. +Mallefille and P.A. Fiorentino. The novels of Dumas may be +conveniently arranged in a historical sequence. The Valois +novels and the musqueteers series brought French history down +to 1672. Contributions to later history are:—<i>La Dame de volupté</i> +(2 vols., 1864), being the memoirs of Mme de Luynes, and its +sequel <i>Les Deux Reines</i> (2 vols., 1864); <i>La Tulipe noire</i> (3 vols., +1850), giving the history of the brothers de Witt; <i>Le Chevalier +d’Harmental</i> (4 vols., 1853), and <i>Une Fille du régent</i> (4 vols., 1845), +the story of two plots against the regent, the duke of Orleans; +two books on Mme du Deffand, <i>Mémoires d’une aveugle</i> (8 vols., +1856-1857) and <i>Les Confessions de la marquise</i> (8 vols., 1857), +both of doubtful authorship; <i>Olympe de Clèves</i> (9 vols., 1852), +the story of an actress and a young Jesuit novice in the reign of +Louis XV., one of his most popular novels; five books on the +beginning of the Revolution down to the execution of Marie +Antoinette: the <i>Mémoires d’un médecin</i>, including <i>Joseph +Balsamo</i> (19 pts., 1846-1848), in which J.J. Rousseau, Mme +du Barry and the dauphiness Marie Antoinette figure, with its +sequels; <i>Le Collier de la reine</i> (9 vols., 1849-1850), in which Balsamo +appears under the alias of Cagliostro; <i>Ange Pitou</i> (8 vols., 1852), +known in English as “The Taking of the Bastille”; <i>La Comtesse +de Charny</i> (19 vols., 1853-1855), describing the attempts to save +the monarchy and the flight to Varennes; and <i>Le Chevalier de +maison rouge</i> (6 vols., 1846), which opens in 1793 with the hero’s +attempt to save the queen. Among the numerous novels dealing +with the later revolutionary period are:—<i>Les Blancs et les bleus</i> +(3 vols., 1868) and <i>Les Compagnons de Jéhu</i> (7 vols., 1857). <i>Les +Louves de Machecoul</i> (10 vols., 1859) deals with the rising in 1832 +in La Vendée. Other famous stories are:—<i>Les Frères corses</i> +(2 vols., 1845); <i>La Femme au collier de velours</i> (2 vols., 1851); +<i>Les Mohicans de Paris</i> (19 vols., 1854-1855), detective stories with +which may be classed the series of <i>Crimes célèbres</i> (8 vols., 1839-1841), +which are, however, of doubtful authorship; <i>La San +Félice</i> (9 vols., 1864-1865), in which Lady Hamilton played a +prominent part, with its sequels <i>Emma Lyonna</i> and <i>Souvenirs +d’une favorite</i>. Of his numerous historical works other than +fiction the most important is his <i>Louis XIV et son siècle</i> (4 vols., +1845). <i>Mes Mémoires</i> (20 vols., 1852-1854; Eng. trans. of +selections by A.F. Davidson, 2 vols., 1891) is an account of his +father and of his own life down to 1832. There are collective +editions of his plays (6 vols., 1834-1836, and 15 vols., 1863-1874), +but of the 91 pieces for which he was wholly or partially responsible, +24 do not appear in these collections.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The complete works of Dumas were issued by Michel Lévy <i>frères</i> +in 277 volumes (1860-1884). The more important novels have been +frequently translated into English. There is a long list of writings +on his life and his works both in English and French. The more +important French authorities are: his own memoirs, already cited; +C. Glinel, <i>Alexandre Dumas et son œuvre</i> (Reims, 1884); H. Parigot, +<i>Dumas père</i> (Grands écrivains français series, 1902), and <i>Le Drame +d’Alexandre Dumas</i> (1899); H. Blaze de Bury, <i>Alexandre Dumas</i> +(1885); Philibert Andebrand, <i>Alexandre Dumas à la maison d’or</i> +(1888); G. Ferry, <i>Dernières Années d’Alexandre Dumas</i> (1883); +and L.H. Lecomte, <i>Alexandre Dumas</i> (1904). Of the English lives +of Dumas perhaps the best is that by Arthur F. Davidson, <i>Alexandre +Dumas Père, his Life and Works</i> (1902), which contains an extensive +bibliography. See also lives by P. Fitzgerald (2 vols., 1873) and H.A. +Spurr (1902), and essays by Andrew Lang (<i>Letters to Dead Authors</i>), +Brander Matthews (<i>French Dramatists</i>), R.L. Stevenson (<i>Memories +and Portraits</i>).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> His friendship with Victor Hugo was interrupted in 1833-1834 +by the articles contributed to the <i>Journal des débats</i> by a friend +and protégé of the poet, Granier de Cassagnac, who brought against +Dumas charges of wholesale plagiarism from other dramatists.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The details of this collaboration were brought to light in a suit +brought against Dumas by Maquet with regard to his share in the +profits. See the <i>Gazette des tribunaux</i> (January 21, 22, 28, and +February 4, 1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMAS, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> [”<span class="sc">Dumas <i>Fils</i></span>”] (1824-1895), French +dramatist and novelist, was born in Paris on the 27th of July +1824, the natural son of Alexandre Dumas (see above) and the +dressmaker Marie Labay. His father at that date was still a +humble clerk and not much more than a boy. “Happily,” writes +the son, “my mother was a good woman, and worked hard to +bring me up”; while of his father he says, “by a most lucky +chance he happened to be well-natured,” and “as soon as his first +successes as a dramatist” enabled him to do so, “recognized me +and gave me his name.” Nevertheless, the lad’s earlier school-life +was made bitter by his illegitimacy. The cruel taunts and +malevolence of his companions rankled through life (see preface +to <i>La Femme de Claude</i> and <i>L’Affaire Clémenceau</i>), and left indelible +marks on his character and thoughts. Nor was his +paternity, however distinguished, without peril. Alexandre +the younger and elder saw life together very thoroughly, and +Paris can have had few mysteries for them. Suddenly the son, +who had been led to regard his prodigal father’s resources as +inexhaustible, was rudely undeceived. Coffers were empty, +and he had accumulated debts to the amount of two thousand +pounds.</p> + +<p>Thereupon he pulled himself together. To a son of Dumas +the use of the pen came naturally. Like most clever young +writers—and report speaks of him as specially brilliant at that +time—he opened with a book of verse, <i>Péchés de jeunesse</i> (1847). +It was succeeded in 1848 by a novel, <i>La Dame aux camélias</i>, +a sort of reflection of the world in which he had been living. The +book had considerable success, and was followed, in fairly quick +succession, by <i>Le Roman d’une femme</i> (1848) and <i>Diane de +Lys</i> (1851). All this, however, did not deliver him from the +load of debt, which, as he tells us, remained odious. In 1849 he +dramatized <i>La Dame aux camélias</i>, but for various reasons, +the rigour of the censorship being the most important, it was not +till the 2nd of February 1852, and then only by the intervention +of Napoleon’s all-powerful minister, Morny, that the play could +be produced at the Vaudeville. It succeeded then, and has held +the stage ever since, less perhaps from inherent superiority to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span> +other plays which have foundered than to the great opportunities +it affords to any actress of genius.</p> + +<p>Thenceforward Dumas’s career was that of a brilliant and +prosperous dramatist. <i>Diane de Lys</i> (1853), <i>Le Demi-Monde</i> +(1855), <i>La Question d’argent</i> (1857), <i>Le Fils naturel</i> (1858), <i>Le Père +prodigue</i> (1859) followed rapidly. Debts became a thing of the +past, and Dumas a wealthy man. The didactic habit was always +strong upon him. “Alexandre loves preaching overmuch,” wrote +his father; and in most of his plays he assumes the attitude of +a rigid and uncompromising moralist commissioned to impart +to a heedless world lessons of deep import. The lessons themselves +are mostly concerned with the “eternal feminine,” by +which Dumas was haunted, and differ in ethical value. Thus +in <i>Les Idées de Madame Aubray</i> (1867) he inculcates the duty +of the seducer to marry the woman he has seduced; but in +<i>La Femme de Claude</i> (1873) he argues the right of the husband +to take the law into his own hand and kill the wife who is unfaithful +and worthless—a thesis again defended in his novel, +<i>L’Affaire Clémenceau</i>, and in his pamphlet, <i>L’Homme-femme</i>; +while in <i>Diane de Lys</i> he had taught that the betrayed husband +was entitled to kill—not in a duel, but summarily—the man who +had taken his honour; and in <i>L’Étrangère</i> (1876) the bad +husband is the victim. Nor did he preach only in his plays. +He preached in voluminous introductions, and pamphlets not a +few. And when, in 1870 and 1872, France was going through +bitter hours of humiliation, he called her to repentance and +amendment in a <i>Nouvelle Lettre de Junius</i> and two <i>Lettres sur les +choses du jour</i>.</p> + +<p>As a moralist Dumas <i>fils</i> took himself very seriously indeed. +As a dramatist, didacticism apart, he had great gifts. He knew +his business thoroughly, possessed the art of situation, interest, +crisis—could create characters that were real and alive. His +dialogue also is admirable, the repartee rapier-like, the wit most +keen. He was singularly happy, too, in his dramatic interpreters. +The cast of <i>L’Étrangère</i>, for instance, comprised Sarah Bernhardt, +Sophie Croizette, Madeleine Brohan, in the female characters; +and Coquelin, Got, Mounet-Sully and Fébvre in the male characters; +and Aimée Desclée, whom he discovered, gave her genius +to the creation of the parts of the heroine in <i>Une Visite de noces</i>, +the <i>Princesse Georges</i> and <i>La Femme de Claude</i>. His wit has +been mentioned. He possessed it in abundance, of a singularly +trenchant kind. It shows itself less in his novels, which, however, +do not contain his best work; but in his introductions, whether +to his own books or those of his friends, and what may be called +his “occasional” writings, there is an admirable brightness. +At work of this kind he showed the highest literary skill. His +style is that of the best French traditions. Towards his father +Dumas acted a kind of brother’s part, and while keeping strangely +free from his literary influence, both loved and admired him. +The father never belonged to the French Academy. The son +was elected into that august assembly on the 30th of January +1874. He died on the 27th of November 1895.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Jules Claretie, <i>A. Dumas fils</i> (1883); Paul Bourget, +<i>Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine</i> (1885); “La Comédie +de mœurs,” by René Doumic, in L. Petit de Julleville’s <i>Histoire de +la langue et de la littérature française</i>, viii. pp. 82 et seq.; R. Doumic, +<i>Portraits d’écrivains</i> (1892), Émile Zola, <i>Documents littéraires, études +et portraits</i> (1881).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. T. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMAS, GUILLAUME MATHIEU,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1753-1837), +French general, was born at Montpellier, of a noble family, +on the 23rd of November 1753. He joined the army in 1773, +and entered upon active service in 1780, as aide-de-camp to +Rochambeau in the American War. He had a share in all the +principal engagements that occurred during a period of nearly +two years. On the conclusion of peace in 1783 he returned to +France as a major. He was engaged from 1784 to 1786 in +exploring the archipelago and the coasts of Turkey. He was +present at the siege of Amsterdam in 1787, where he co-operated +with the Dutch against the Prussians. At the Revolution he +acted with Lafayette and the constitutional liberal party. He +was entrusted by the Assembly with the command of the escort +which conducted Louis XVI. to Paris from Varennes. In 1791 +as a <i>maréchal de camp</i> he was appointed to a command at Metz, +where he rendered important service in improving the discipline +of the troops. Chosen a member of the Legislative Assembly +in the same year by the department of Seine-et-Oise, he was in +the following year elected president of the Assembly. When +the extreme republicans gained the ascendancy, however, he +judged it prudent to make his escape to England. Returning +after a brief interval, under the apprehension that his father-in-law +would be held responsible for his absence, he arrived in Paris +in the midst of the Reign of Terror, and had to flee to Switzerland. +Soon after his return to France he was elected a member of the +Council of Ancients. After the 18th Fructidor (1797) Dumas, +being proscribed as a monarchist, made his escape to Holstein, +where he wrote the first part of his <i>Précis des événements militaires</i> +(published anonymously at Hamburg, 1800).</p> + +<p>Recalled to his native country when Bonaparte became First +Consul, he was entrusted with the organization of the “Army of +Reserve” at Dijon. In 1801 he was nominated a councillor +of state. He did good service at Austerlitz, and went in 1806 to +Naples, where he became minister of war to Joseph Bonaparte. +On the transfer of Joseph to the throne of Spain, Dumas rejoined +the French army, with which he served in Spain during the +campaign of 1808, and in Germany during that of 1809. After +the battle of Wagram, Dumas was employed in negotiating the +armistice. In 1810 he became grand officer of the Legion of +Honour and a count of the empire. In the Russian campaign +of 1812 he held the post of intendant-general of the army, +which involved the charge of the administrative department. +The privations he suffered in the retreat from Moscow brought +on a dangerous illness. Resuming, on his recovery, his duties +as intendant-general, he took part in the battles of 1813, and was +made prisoner after the capitulation of Dresden. On the accession +of Louis XVIII., Dumas rendered his new sovereign important +services in connexion with the administration of the +army. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Dumas at first +kept himself in retirement, but he was persuaded by Joseph +Bonaparte to present himself to the emperor, who employed +him in organizing the National Guard. Obliged to retire when +Louis XVIII. was restored, he devoted his leisure to the continuation +of his <i>Précis des événements militaires</i>, of which nineteen +volumes, embracing the history of the war from 1798 to the peace +of 1807, appeared between 1817 and 1826. A growing weakness +of sight, ending in blindness, prevented him from carrying the +work further, but he translated Napier’s <i>Peninsular War</i> as a +sort of continuation to it. In 1818 Dumas was restored to favour +and admitted a member of the council of state, from which, +however, he was excluded in 1822. After the revolution of 1830, +in which he took an active part, Dumas was created a peer of +France, and re-entered the council of state. He died at Paris on +the 16th of October 1837.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the <i>Précis des événements militaires</i>, which forms a valuable +source for the history of the period, Dumas wrote <i>Souvenirs +du lieut.-général Comte Mathieu Dumas</i> (published posthumously +by his son, Paris, 1839).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1800-1884), French +chemist, was born at Alais (Gard) on the 15th of July 1800. +Disappointed in his early hope of entering the navy, he became +apprentice to an apothecary in his native town; but seeing little +prospect of advancement in that calling, he soon moved to Geneva +(in 1816). There he attended the lectures of such men as M.A. +Pictet in physics, C.G. de la Rive in chemistry, and A.P. de +Candolle in botany, and before he had reached his majority +he was engaged with Pierre Prévost in original work on problems +of physiological chemistry, and even of embryology. In 1823, +acting on the advice of A. von Humboldt, he left Geneva for +Paris, which he made his home for the rest of his life. There he +gained the acquaintance of many of the foremost scientific men +of the day, and quickly made a name for himself both as a teacher +and an investigator, attaining within ten years the honour +of membership of the Academy of Sciences. When approaching +his fiftieth year he entered political life, and became a member +of the National Legislative Assembly. He acted as minister +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span> +of agriculture and commerce for a few months in 1850-1851, +and subsequently became a senator, president of the municipal +council of Paris, and master of the French mint; but his official +career came to a sudden end with the fall of the Second Empire. +He died at Cannes on the 11th of April 1884. Dumas is one of +the most prominent figures in the chemical history of the middle +part of the 19th century. He was one of the first to criticize +the electro-chemical doctrines of J.J. Berzelius, which at the time +his work began were widely accepted as the true theory of the +constitution of compound bodies, and opposed a unitary view +to the dualistic conception of the Swedish chemist. In a paper +on the atomic theory, published so early as 1826, he anticipated +to a remarkable extent some ideas which are frequently supposed +to belong to a later period; and the continuation of these studies +led him to the ideas about substitution (“metalepsis”) which +were developed about 1839 into the theory (“Older Type +Theory”) that in organic chemistry there are certain types +which remain unchanged even when their hydrogen is replaced +by an equivalent quantity of a haloid element. Many of his +well-known researches were carried out in support of these views, +one of the most important being that on the action of chlorine +on acetic acid to form trichloracetic acid—a derivative of essentially +the same character as the acetic acid itself. In the 1826 paper +he described his famous method for ascertaining vapour densities, +and the redeterminations which he undertook by its aid of the +atomic weights of carbon and oxygen proved the forerunners +of a long series which included some thirty of the elements, +the results being mostly published in 1858-1860. He also devised +a method of great value in the quantitative analysis of organic +substances for the estimation of nitrogen, while the classification +of organic compounds into homologous series was advanced +as one consequence of his researches into the acids generated +by the oxidation of the alcohols. Dumas was a prolific writer, +and his numerous books, essays, memorial addresses, &c., show +him to have been gifted with a clear and graceful style. His +earliest large work was a treatise on applied chemistry in eight +volumes, the first of which was published in 1828 and the last +twenty years afterwards. In the <i>Essai de statique chimique des +êtres organisés</i> (1841), written jointly with J.B.J.D. Boussingault +(1802-1887), he treated the chemistry of life, both plant and +animal; this book brought him into conflict with Liebig, who +conceived that some of his prior work had been appropriated +without due acknowledgment. In 1824, in conjunction with +J.V. Audouin and A.T. Brongniart, he founded the <i>Annales +des sciences naturelles</i>, and from 1840 he was one of the editors of +the <i>Annales de chimie et de physique</i>. As a teacher Dumas was +much sought after for his lectures at the Sorbonne and other +institutions both on pure and applied science; and he was one +of the first men in France to realize the importance of experimental +laboratory teaching.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> +(1834-1896), British artist and writer, was born in Paris. His +father, a naturalized British subject, was the son of <i>émigrés</i> +who had left France during the Reign of Terror and settled in +London. In <i>Peter Ibbetson</i>, the first of the three books which +won George Du Maurier late in life a reputation as novelist almost +as great as he had enjoyed as artist and humorist for more than +a generation, the author tells in the form of fiction the story of +his singularly happy childhood. He was brought to London, indeed, +when three or four years old, and spent in Devonshire +Terrace and elsewhere two colourless years; but vague memories +of this period were suddenly exchanged one beautiful day in June—“the +first day of his conscious existence”—for the charming +realities of a French garden and “an old yellow house with green +shutters and mansard roofs of slate.” Here, at Passy, with his +“gay and jovial father” and his young English mother, the boy +spent “seven years of sweet priceless home-life—seven times +four changing seasons of simple genial prae-Imperial Frenchness.” +The second chapter of Du Maurier’s life had for scene a +Paris school, very much in the style of that “Institution F. +Brossard” which he describes, at once so vividly and so sympathetically, +in <i>The Martian</i>; and like “Barty Josselin’s” +schoolfellow and biographer, he left it (in 1851) to study chemistry +at University College, London, actually setting up as an analytical +chemist afterwards in Bucklersbury. But this was clearly +not to be his <i>métier</i>, and the year 1856 found him once more in +Paris, in the Quartier Latin this time, in the core of that art-world +of which in <i>Trilby</i>, forty years later, he was to produce +with pen and pencil so idealistic and fascinating a picture. +Then, like “Barty Josselin” himself, he spent some years in +Belgium and the Netherlands, experiencing at Antwerp in 1857, +when he was working in the studio of van Lerius, the one great +misfortune of his life—the gradual loss of sight in his left eye, +accompanied by alarming symptoms in his right. It was a period +of tragic anxiety, for it seemed possible that the right eye might +also become affected; but this did not happen, and the dismal +cloud was soon to show its silver lining, for, about Christmastime +1858, there came to the forlorn invalid a copy of <i>Punch’s +Almanac</i>, and with it the dawn of a new era in his career.</p> + +<p>There can be little doubt that the study of this <i>Almanac</i>, +and especially of Leech’s drawings in it, fired him with the +ambition of making his name as a graphic humorist; and it +was not long after his return to London in 1860 that he sent +in his first contribution (very much in Leech’s manner) to +<i>Punch</i>. Mark Lemon, then editor, appreciated his talent, and +on Leech’s death in 1865 appointed him his successor, counselling +him with wise discrimination not to try to be “too funny,” +but “to undertake the light and graceful business” and be the +“romantic tenor” in Mr Punch’s little company, while Keene, as +Du Maurier puts it, “with his magnificent highly-trained basso, +sang the comic songs.” These respective rôles the two artists +continued to play until the end, seldom trespassing on each +other’s province; the “comic songs” finding their inspiration +principally in the life of the homely middle and lower middle +classes, while the “light and graceful business” enacted itself +almost exclusively in “good Society.” To a great extent, +also, Du Maurier had to leave outdoor life to Keene, his weak +sight making it difficult for him to study and sketch in the +open air and sunshine, thus cutting him off, as he records +regretfully, from “so much that is so popular, delightful and +exhilarating in English country life”—hunting and shooting +and fishing and the like. He contrived, however, to give due +attention to milder forms of outdoor recreation, and turned to +good account his familiarity with Hampstead Heath and Rotten +Row, and his holidays with his family at Whitby and Scarborough, +Boulogne and Dieppe.</p> + +<p>Of Du Maurier’s life during the thirty-six years of his connexion +with <i>Punch</i> there is not, apart from his work as an artist, much +to record. In the early ’sixties he lived at 85 Newman Street in +lodgings, which he shared with his friend Lionel Henley, afterwards +R.B.A., working hard at his <i>Punch</i> sketches and his more +serious contributions to <i>Once a Week</i> and the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>. +After his marriage with Miss Emma Wightwick in 1862 he took +a spacious and pleasant house near Hampstead Heath, in surroundings +made familiar in his drawings. Shortly before he died +he moved to a house in Oxford Square. About 1866 he struck +out a new line in his admirable illustrations to Jerrold’s <i>Story of a +Feather</i>. In 1869 he realized a long-cherished aspiration, the +illustrating of Thackeray’s <i>Esmond</i>, and in 1879 he drew twelve +additional vignettes for it, in the same year providing several +illustrations for the <i>Ballads</i>. From time to time he sent pretty +and graceful pictures to the exhibitions of the Royal Society of +Painters in Water-Colour, to which he was elected in 1881. In +1885 the first exhibition of his works at the Fine Art Society +took place. Thus occupied in the practice of his art, spending +his leisure in social intercourse with his many friends and at +home with his growing family, hearing all the new singers and +musicians, seeing all the new plays, he lived the happiest of lives. +He died somewhat suddenly on the 8th of October 1896, and was +buried in the Hampstead parish churchyard. He left a family +of two sons—the elder, Major Guy Du Maurier (b. 1865), a +soldier who became more widely known in 1909 as author of +the military play <i>An Englishman’s Home</i>, and the younger, +Gerald, a well-known actor—and three daughters.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span></p> + +<p>It is impossible, in considering Du Maurier’s work, to avoid +comparing it with that of Leech and Keene, the more so that +in his little book on <i>Social Pictorial Satire</i> he himself has set forth +or suggested the points both of resemblance and of difference. +Like Keene, though Keene’s marvellous technique was his +despair, Du Maurier was a much more finished draughtsman than +John Leech, but in other respects he had less in common with the +younger than with the older humorist. He shows himself, in +the best sense, a man of feeling in all his work. He is clearly +himself in love with “his pretty woman,” as he calls her—every +pen-stroke in his presentment of her is a caress. How affectionate, +too, are his renderings of his fond young mothers +and their big, handsome, simple-minded husbands; his comely +children and neat nurserymaids; even his dogs—his elongated +dachshunds and magnificent St Bernards! And how he scorns +the snobs and philistines—Sir Gorgius Midas and Sir Pompey +Bedell, Grigsby and Cadby, Soapley and Toadson! How +merciless is his ridicule of the aesthetes of the ’eighties—Maudle +and Postlethwaite and Mrs Cimabue Brown! Even to Mrs +Ponsonby de Tomkyns, his most conspicuous creation, his +satire is scarcely tempered, despite her prettiness. He shows +up unsparingly all her unscrupulous little ways, all her cynical, +cunning little wiles. Like Leech, he revelled in the lighter +aspects of life—the humours of the nursery, the drawing-room, +the club, the gaieties of the country house and the seaside—without +being blind to the tragic and dramatic. Just as Leech +could rise to the height of the famous cartoon “General Février +turned Traitor,” so it was Du Maurier who inspired Tenniel in +that impressive drawing on the eve of the Franco-German War, +in which the shade of the great Napoleon is seen warning back +the infatuated emperor from his ill-omened enterprise. In his +tender drawings in <i>Once a Week</i>, also, and in his occasional +excursions into the grotesque in <i>Punch</i>, such as his picture of +“Old Nickotin stealing away the brains of his devotees,” he has +given ample proof of his faculty for moving and impressive art. +The technique of Du Maurier’s work in the ’eighties and the +’nineties, though to the average man it seems a marvel of finish +and dexterity, is considered by artists a falling off from what +was displayed in some of his earlier <i>Punch</i> drawings, and +especially in his contributions to the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> and +<i>Once a Week</i>. His later work is undoubtedly more mannered, +more “finicking,” less simple, less broadly effective. But +it is to his fellow-craftsmen only and to experts that this is +noticeable.</p> + +<p>A quaint tribute has been paid to the literary talent shown +in Du Maurier’s inscriptions to his drawings by Mr F. Anstey +(Guthrie), author of <i>Vice Versa</i>, and Du Maurier’s colleague on +the staff of <i>Punch</i>. “In these lines of letterpress,” says Mr +Anstey, “he has brought the art of précis-writing to perfection.” +They are indeed singularly concise and to the point. It is the +more curious, therefore, to note that in his novels, and even in +his critical essays, Du Maurier reveals very different qualities: +the précis-writer has become an <i>improvisatore</i>, pouring out his +stories and ideas in full flood, his style changing with every mood—by +turn humorous, eloquent, tender, gay, sometimes merely +“skittish,” sometimes quite solemn, but never for long; sometimes, +again, breaking into graceful and haunting verse. He +writes with apparent artlessness; but, in his novels at least, on +closer examination, it is found that he has in fact exerted all +his ingenuity to give them—what such flagrantly untrue tales +most require—verisimilitude. It is hard to say which of the +three stories is the more impossible: that of Trilby, the tone-deaf +artist’s model who becomes a <i>prima donna</i>, that of Barty Josselin +and his guardian angel from Mars, or that of the dream-existence +of Peter Ibbetson and the duchess of Towers. They are all +equally preposterous, and yet plausible. The drawings are +cunningly made to serve the purpose of evidence, circumstantial +and direct. These books cannot be criticized by the ordinary +canons of the art of fiction. They are a <i>genre</i> by themselves, +a blend of unfettered day-dream and rose-coloured reminiscence. +For the dramatic version of <i>Trilby</i> by Mr Paul Potter Du Maurier +would accept no credit. The play was produced in 1895 by +Herbert Beerbohm Tree, at the Haymarket, with immense +popular success.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Some striking examples of Du Maurier’s work for <i>Once a Week</i> +and the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> are included in Gleeson White’s <i>English +Illustrators of the Sixties</i>. The following is a list of the chief works +which he illustrated: Foxe’s <i>Book of Martyrs</i> (1865), Mrs Gaskell’s +<i>Wives and Daughters</i> (1866), Jerrold’s <i>Story of a Feather</i> (1867), +Owen Meredith’s <i>Lucile</i> (1868), <i>The Book of Drawing room Plays</i>, +by H. Dalton (1868), <i>Sooner or Later</i>, by C.A.G. Brooke (1868), +Thackeray’s <i>Esmond</i> (1869 and 1879), and <i>Ballads</i> (1879), <i>Misunderstood</i>, +by Florence Montgomery (1874), <i>Round about the Islands</i>, by +C.W. Scott (1874), <i>Hurlock Chase</i>, by G.E. Sargent (1876), <i>Songs +of many Seasons</i>, by J. Browne (in collaboration) (1876), <i>Pegasus +Re-saddled</i>, by H.C. Pennell (1877), <i>Ingoldsby Legends</i> (in collaboration), +by R. Barham (1877), <i>Prudence</i>, by L.C. Lillie (1882), +<i>As in a Looking-glass</i> by F.C. Phillips (1889), <i>Luke Ashleigh</i>, by +A. Elwes (1891), and his own three novels, which appeared serially +in <i>Harper’s Magazine</i>: <i>Peter Ibbetson</i> (1892), <i>Trilby</i> (1894), <i>The +Martian</i> (1897), and published after his death. In 1897 also there +was published, under the title <i>English Society</i>, with an introduction +by W.D. Howells, a collection of full page drawings which he had +contributed regularly to <i>Harper’s Magazine</i>.</p> + +<p>Some of his <i>Punch</i> drawings have been reproduced also in <i>The +Collections of Mr Punch</i> (1880), <i>Society Pictures from Punch</i> (1890), +<i>A Legend of Camelot</i> (1890). To his <i>Social Pictorial Satire</i> (1890) +reference has been made. He contributed two essays upon book +illustration to the <i>Magazine of Art</i> (1890). See also the <i>Magazine +of Art</i> for 1892, for an article upon his work by W. Delaplaine Scull, +with illustrations. Other volumes containing information about his +life and work are: <i>The History of Punch</i> by M.H. Spielmann, <i>In +Bohemia with Du Maurier</i>, by Felix Moscheles, Henry James’s +“Du Maurier and London Society,” <i>Century Magazine</i> (1883), +and “Du Maurier,” <i>Harper’s Magazine</i> (September 1897, June +1899). See also Ruskin’s <i>Art of England</i> Lecture 5, Pennell’s <i>Pen-Drawing +and Pen-Draughtsmen</i>, and Muther’s <i>Modern Painting</i> +vol. ii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. W. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMBARTON,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, seaport, +and county town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, situated on the +river Leven, near its confluence with the Clyde, 15½ m. W. by N. +of Glasgow by the North British and Caledonian railways. Pop. +(1891) 17,625, (1901) 19,985. The Alcluith (“hill of the Clyde”) +of the Britons, and Dunbreatan (“fort of the Britons”) of the +Celts, it was the capital of the district of Strathclyde. Here, too, +the Romans had a naval station which they called Theodosia. +Although thus a place of great antiquity, the history of the town +practically centres in that of the successive fortresses on the Rock +of Dumbarton, a twin peaked mount, 240 ft. high and a mile +in circumference at the base. The fortress was often besieged +and sometimes taken, the Picts seizing it in 736 and the Northmen +in 870, but the most effectual surprise of all was that accomplished, +in the interests of the young King James VI., by Thomas +Crawford of Jordanhill on March 31, 1571. The castle was +held by Queen Mary’s adherents, and as it gave them free communication +with France, its capture was deemed essential. +Crawford decided to climb the highest point, concluding that, +owing to its imagined security, it would be carelessly guarded. +Favoured with a dark and foggy night the party of 150 men and +a guide reached the first ledge of rock undiscovered. In scaling +the second precipice one of the men was seized with an epileptic +fit on the ladder. Crawford bound him to the ladder and then +turned it over and was thus enabled to ascend to the summit. +At this moment the alarm was given, but the sentinel and the +sleepy soldiers were slain and the cannon turned on the garrison. +Further resistance being useless, the castle was surrendered. +During the governorship of Sir John Menteith, William Wallace +was in 1305 imprisoned within its walls before he was removed +to London. The higher of the two peaks is known as Wallace’s +seat, a tower, perhaps the one in which he was incarcerated, +being named after him. On the portcullis gateway may still be +seen rudely carved heads of Wallace and his betrayer, the latter +with his finger in his mouth. Queen Mary, when a child, resided +in the castle for a short time. It is an ugly barrack-like structure, +defended by a few obsolete guns, although by the Union Treaty +it is one of the four fortresses that must be maintained. The rock +itself is basalt, with a tendency to columnar formation, and some +parts of it have a magnetic quality.</p> + +<p>The town arms are the elephant and castle, with the motto +<i>Fortitudo et fidelitas</i>. Dumbarton was of old the capital of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span> +earldom of Lennox, but was given up by Earl Maldwyn to Alexander +II., by whom it was made a royal burgh in 1221 and +declared to be free from all imposts and burgh taxes. Later +sovereigns gave it other privileges, and the whole were finally +confirmed by a charter of James VI. It had the right to levy +customs and dues on all vessels on the Clyde between Loch Long +and the Kelvin. “Offers dues” on foreign ships entering the +Clyde were also exacted. In 1700 these rights were transferred +to Glasgow by contract, but were afterwards vested in a special +trust created by successive acts of parliament.</p> + +<p>Most of the town lies on the left bank of the Leven, which +almost converts the land here into a peninsula, but there is +communication with the suburb of Bridgend on the right bank +by a five-arched stone bridge, 300 ft. long. The public buildings +include the Burgh Hall, the academy (with a graceful steeple), +the county buildings, the Denny Memorial, a Literary and a +Mechanics’ institute, Masonic hall, two cottage hospitals, a fever +hospital, a public library and the combination poorhouse. There +are two public parks—Broad Meadow (20 acres), part of ground +reclaimed in 1859, and Levengrove (32 acres), presented to the +corporation in 1885 by Peter Denny and John McMillan, two ship-builders +who helped lay the foundation of the town’s present +prosperity. The old parish kirkyard was closed in 1856, but a fine +cemetery was constructed in its place outside the town. Dumbarton +is controlled by a provost and a council. With Port-Glasgow, +Renfrew, Rutherglen and Kilmarnock it unites in +returning one member to parliament. The principal industry +is shipbuilding. The old staple trade of the making of crown +glass, begun in 1777, lapsed some 70 years afterwards when the +glass duty was abolished. There are several great engineering +works, besides iron and brass foundries, saw-mills, rope-yards +and sail-making works. There are quays, docks and a harbour +at the mouth of the Leven, and a pier for river steamers runs out +from the Castle rock. The first steam navigation company was +established in Dumbarton in 1815, when the “Duke of Wellington” +(built in the town) plied between Dumbarton and Glasgow. +But it was not till 1844, consequent on the use of iron for vessels, +that shipbuilding became the leading industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMBARTONSHIRE,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a western county of Scotland, bounded +N. by Perthshire, E. by Stirlingshire, S.E. by Lanarkshire, +S. by the Clyde and its estuary, and W. by Loch Long and +Argyllshire. There is also a detached portion, comprising the +parish of Kirkintilloch and part of that of Cumbernauld enclosed +between the shires of Stirling and Lanark. This formerly formed +part of Stirlingshire, but was annexed in the 14th century when +the earl of Wigtown, to whom it belonged, became heritable +sheriff of Dumbartonshire. Dumbartonshire has an area of +170,762 acres or 267 sq. m. The north-west and west are +mountainous, the chief summits being Ben Vorlich (3092 ft.), +Ben Vane (3004), Doune Hill (2409), Beinn Chaorach (2338), +Beinn a Mhanaich (2328), Beinn Eich (2302), Cruach ant Suthein +(2244), Ben Reoch (2168), Beinn Tharsuinn (2149), Beinn Dubh +(2018), Balcnock (2092) and Tullich Hill (2075). In the south +are the Kilpatrick Hills, their highest points being Duncomb +and Fynloch (each 1313 ft.). The Clyde, the Kelvin and the +Leven are the only rivers of importance. The Leven flows out +of Loch Lomond at Balloch and joins the Clyde at Dumbarton +after a serpentine course of about 7 m. Most of the other +streams are among the mountains, whence they find their way +to Loch Lomond, the principal being the Inveruglas, Douglas, +Luss, Finlas and Fruin. Nearly all afford good sport to +the angler. Of the inland lakes by far the largest and most +magnificent is Loch Lomond (<i>q.v.</i>). The boundary between the +shires of Dumbarton and Stirling follows an imaginary line +through the lake from the mouth of Endrick Water to a point +opposite the isle of Vow, giving about two-thirds of the loch +to the former county. Loch Sloy on the side of Ben Vorlich is a +long, narrow lake, 812 ft. above the sea amid wild scenery. +From its name the Macfarlanes took their slogan or war-cry. +The shores of the Gareloch, a salt-water inlet 6½ m. long and 1 m. +wide, are studded with houses of those whose business lies in +Glasgow. Garelochhead has grown into a favourite summer +resort; Clynder is famed for its honey. The more important +salt-water inlet, Loch Long, is 17 m. in length and varies in width +from 2 m. at its mouth to about ½ a mile in its upper reach. It +is the dumping-place for the dredgers which are constantly at +work preserving the tide-way of the Clyde from Dumbarton +to the Broomielaw—its use for this purpose being a standing +grievance to anglers. The scenery on both shores is very beautiful. +Only a mile separates Garelochhead from Loch Long, and +at Arrochar the distance from Tarbet on Loch Lomond is barely +1¾ m. Nearly all the glens are situated in the Highland part +of the shire, the principal being Glen Sloy, Glen Douglas, Glen +Luss and Glen Fruin. The last is memorable as the scene of +the bloody conflict in 1603 between the Macgregors and the +Colquhouns, in which the latter were almost exterminated. It +was this savage encounter that led to the proscription of the +Macgregors, including the famous Rob Roy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Like the other counties along the eastern border of the +Highlands, Dumbartonshire is divided geologically into two areas, +the boundary between the two being defined by a line extending +from Rossdhu on Loch Lomond south-west by Row and Roseneath +to Kilcreggan. The mountainous region lying to the north of this +line is composed of rocks belonging to the metamorphic series of the +Eastern Highlands and representing several of the groups met with +in the adjoining counties of Perth and Argyll. Immediately to +the north of the Highland border the Aberfoyle slates and grits +appear, repeated by isoclinal folds trending north-east and south-west +and dipping towards the north-west. These are followed by +a great development of the Ben Ledi grits and schists—the representatives +of the Beinn Bheula grits and ablite schists of Argyllshire, +which, by means of rapid plication, spread over the high grounds +northwards to beyond the head of Loch Lomond. Along the line +of section between Luss and Ardlui important evidence is obtained +of the gradual increase of metamorphism as we proceed northwards +from the Highland border. The original clastic characters of the +strata are obscured and the rocks between Arrochar and Inverarnan +in Glen Falloch merge into quartz-biotite gneisses and albite schists. +In the extreme north between Ardlui and the head of Glen Fyne in +Argyllshire there is a large development of plutonic rocks piercing +the Highland schists and producing marked contact metamorphism. +These range from acid to ultrabasic types and include granite, +augite-diorite, picrite and serpentine. On the hill-slopes to the +west of Ardlui and Inverarnan the diorite appears, while farther +west, between the watershed and Glen Fyne, there is a large mass of +granite. Boulders of plutonic rocks from this area have been widely +distributed by the ice during the glacial period. Immediately to +the south of the Highland border line there is a belt of Upper Old +Red Sandstone strata which stretches from the shores of Loch +Lomond westwards by Helensburgh and Roseneath Castle to Kilcreggan. +These sandstones and conglomerates are succeeded by +the sandstones, shales, clays and cementstones at the base of the +Carboniferous formation which occupy a narrow strip between +Loch Lomond and Gareloch and are cut off by a fault along their +south-east margin. East of this dislocation there is a belt of Lower +Old Red Sandstone strata extending from the mouth of the Endrick +Water south-westwards by Balloch to the shore of the Clyde west +of Cardross, which is bounded on either side by the upper division +of that system. Still farther east beyond Dumbarton the Upper Old +Red Sandstone is again surmounted by the representatives of the +Cementstone group, which are followed by the lavas, tuffs and +agglomerates of the Kirkpatrick Hills, intercalated in the Calciferous +Sandstone series. Here the terraced features of the volcanic plateau, +produced by the denudation of the successive flows is well displayed. +Eastwards by Kilpatrick and Bearsden to the margin of the county +near Maryhill the rocks of Calciferous Sandstone age are followed +in normal order by the Carboniferous Limestone series; the Hurlet +Limestone and Hurlet Coal of the lower limestone group being +prominently developed. In the detached portion of the county +between Kirkintilloch and Cumbernauld there is an important +coalfield embracing the seams in the middle or coal-bearing group +of the Carboniferous Limestone series. In this county there are +several striking examples of the east and west dolerite dykes which +are probably of late Carboniferous age. These traverse the Highland +schists between Loch Long and Loch Lomond, the Old Red +Sandstone area between Alexandria and the Blane Valley, and the +Carboniferous tract near Cumbernauld. The ice which radiated +from the Dumbartonshire Highlands moved south-east and east +towards the central plain of Carboniferous rocks. Hence the +boulder clay of the lowland districts is abundantly charged with +boulders of schistose grit, slate, gneiss and granite derived from +areas lying far to the north-west. Along the shores of the Clyde the +broad terraced features indicate the limits of successive raised +beaches.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Agriculture.</i>—There is excessive rainfall in the +Highlands, averaging 53 in. at Helensburgh up to nearly 70 in. +in the north. The temperature, with an average for the year +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span> +of 47½° F., varies from 38° in January to 58° in July, but in the +valleys the heat in midsummer is often oppressive. The prevailing +winds are from the west and south-west, but easterly +winds are frequent in the spring. Frosts are seldom severe, and, +except on the mountains, snow never lies long. The arable lands +extend chiefly along the Clyde and the Leven, and are composed +of rich black loam, gravelly soil and clay. From the proximity +to Glasgow and other large towns the farmers have the double +advantage of good manure and a ready market for all kinds of +stock and produce, and under this stimulus high farming and +dairying on a considerable scale prosper. Black-faced sheep and +Highland cattle are pastured on the hilly lands and Cheviots +and Ayrshires on the low grounds. Oats and wheat are the +principal cereals, but barley and potatoes in abundance, and +turnips and beans are also grown.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries</i>.—Turkey-red dyeing has long been the +distinctive industry of the county. The water of the Leven being +not only constant but also singularly soft and pure, dyers and +bleachers have constructed works at many places in the Vale of +Leven. Bleaching has been carried on since the early part of +the 18th century, and cotton-printing at Levenfield dates from +1768. The establishments at Alexandria, Bonhill, Jamestown, +Renton and other towns for all the processes connected with +the bleaching, dyeing and printing of cottons, calicoes and other +cloths, besides yarns, are conducted on the largest scale. At +Milton the first power-loom mill was erected. The engineering +works and shipbuilding yards at Clydebank are famous, and at +Dumbarton there are others almost equally busy. The extensive +Singer sewing-machine works are at Kilbowie, and the Clyde +Trust barge-building shops are at Dalmuir. There are distilleries +and breweries at Duntocher, Bowling, Dumbarton, Milngavie +(pronounced <i>Milguy</i>) and other towns. In fact the Vale of Leven +and the riverside towns east of Dumbarton form a veritable +hive of industry. In the detached portion, Kirkintilloch and +Cumbernauld are seats of great activity in the mining of coal +and ironstone, and there are besides chemical works and saw-mills +in the former town. There is some fishing at Helensburgh +and along the Gareloch.</p> + +<p>The populous districts of the county are served almost wholly +by the North British railway. From Helensburgh to Inverarnan +the Highland railway runs through scenery of the most diversified +and romantic character. The Caledonian railway has access to +Balloch from Glasgow, and its system also traverses the detached +portion. Portions of the Forth and Clyde Canal, which connects +with the Clyde at Bowling, and was opened for traffic in 1775, +pass through the shire. There is regular steamer communication +between Glasgow and the towns and villages on the coast, and +on Loch Lomond steamers call at several points between Balloch +and Ardlui.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population of Dumbartonshire +in 1891 was 98,014 and in 1901 113,865, of whom 3101 +spoke both Gaelic and English and 14 Gaelic only. The principal +towns, with populations in 1901, are—Alexandria (8007), Bonhill +(3333), Clydebank (21,591), Dumbarton (19,985), Duntocher +(2122), Helensburgh (8554), Jamestown (2080), Kirkintilloch +(11,681), Milngavie (3481), New Kilpatrick or Bearsden (2705) +and Renton (5067). The county returns one member to parliament. +Dumbarton, the county town, is the only royal burgh, +and belongs to the Kilmarnock group of parliamentary burghs. +The municipal and police burghs are Clydebank, Cove and Kilcreggan, +Dumbarton, Helensburgh, Kirkintilloch and Milngavie. +Dumbartonshire forms a sheriffdom with the counties of Stirling +and Clackmannan, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at +Dumbarton, who sits also at Kirkintilloch. The shire is under +school-board jurisdiction, but there are several voluntary schools, +besides St Peter’s Roman Catholic College in New Kilpatrick. +Science, art and technical classes are subsidized out of the whole +of the county “residue” and, if necessary, out of part of the +burgh “residue” also. Agricultural lectures and the travelling +expenses and fees of county students at Glasgow Technical +College are also paid for from the same source.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The country is rich in antiquities connected with +the aborigines and also with the Romans. The Caledonians and +Picts have left their traces in rude forts and tumuli, but of greater +interest are remains in several places of the wall of Antoninus, +built from the Forth to the Clyde, and running along the north +of the detached portion of the shire and through the south-eastern +corner of the county to Kilpatrick. Other Roman relics have +been found at Duntocher, Cumbernauld and elsewhere. The +shire forms part of the old Scottish territory of Lennox +(<i>Levenachs</i>, “fields of the Leven”), which embraced the Vale of +the Leven and the basin of Loch Lomond, or all modern Dumbartonshire, +most of Stirling and parts of the shires of Renfrew +and Perth. It gave the title of the earldom created in 1174 by +William the Lion and of the dukedom conferred by Charles II. +on his natural son, Charles, duke of Richmond and Lennox. +In 1702 the Lennox estates were sold to the marquis of Montrose. +The captive Wallace was conveyed in chains to Dumbarton +Castle, whence he was taken to his death in London. Robert +Bruce is said to have mustered his forces at Dullatur prior to the +battle of Bannockburn, and died at Cardross Castle in 1329. +The Covenanters in their flight from the bloody field of Kilsyth, +where in 1645 Montrose had defeated them with great slaughter, +made their way through the southern districts. When the Forth +and Clyde Canal was being excavated swords, pistols, and other +weapons dropped by the fugitives were found at Dullatur, +together with skeletons of men and horses. In the Highland +country the clans of Macgregor and Macfarlane made their +home in the fastnesses, whence they descended in raids upon +the cattle, the goods and sometimes the persons of their Lowland +neighbours.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Irving, <i>History of Dumbartonshire</i> (Dumbarton, 1860); +<i>Book of Dumbartonshire</i> (Edinburgh, 1879); Sir W. Fraser, <i>Chiefs +of Colquhoun</i> (Edinburgh, 1869); <i>The Lennox</i> (Edinburgh, 1874); +D. Macleod, <i>Castle and Town of Dumbarton</i> (Dumbarton, 1877); +<i>Dumbarton</i> (Dumbarton, 1884); <i>Dumbarton: Ancient and Modern</i> +(Glasgow, 1893); <i>Ancient Records of Dumbarton</i> (Dumbarton, 1896); +J. Glen, <i>History of Dumbarton</i> (Dumbarton, 1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMB WAITER,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span><a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a small oblong or circular table to hold +reserve plates, knives and forks, and other necessaries for a meal. +This piece of furniture originated in England towards the end +of the 18th century, and some exceedingly elegant examples +were designed by Sheraton and his school. They were usually +circular, with three diminishing tiers, sometimes surrounded by +a continuous or interrupted pierced gallery in wood or brass. +The smaller varieties are now much used in England for the display +of small silver objects in drawing-rooms.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term “dumb,” strictly meaning mute or destitute of +speech (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deaf and Dumb</a></span>), is applied in this and other analogous +cases (<i>e.g.</i> dumb-bell, dumb-barge) as connoting the absence of some +normal capacity in the term with which it is associated.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUM-DUM,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> a town and cantonment in British India at the +head of an administrative subdivision in the district of the +Twenty-four Parganas, in the presidency division of Bengal, +with a station on the Eastern Bengal railway, 4½ m. N.E. of +Calcutta. It was the headquarters of the Bengal artillery from +1783 to 1853, when they were transferred to Meerut as a more +central station; and its possession of a cannon foundry and a +percussion-cap factory procured for it the name of the Woolwich +of India. The barracks—still occupied by small detachments—are +brick-built and commodious; and among the other buildings +are St Stephen’s Protestant church, a Roman Catholic chapel, +a European and native hospital, a large bazaar and an English +school. The population in 1901 of North Dum-Dum was 9916, +and of South Dum-Dum 10,904. It was at Dum-Dum that the +treaty of 1757 was signed by which the nawab of Bengal ratified +the privileges of the English, allowed Calcutta to be fortified, +and bestowed freedom of trade. On the 7th of December 1908 +a serious explosion occurred by accident at the Dum-Dum +arsenal, resulting in death or serious injury to about 50 native +workmen.</p> + +<p>At the Dum-Dum foundry the hollow-nosed “Dum-Dum” +(Mark IV.) bullets were manufactured, the supposed use of which +by the British during the Boer War caused considerable comment +in 1899. Their peculiarity consisted in their expanding on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +impact and thus creating an ugly wound, and they had been +adopted in Indian frontier fighting owing to the failure of the +usual type of bullets to stop the rushes of fanatical tribesmen. +They were not, in fact, used during the Boer War. Other and +improvised forms of expanding bullet were used in India and +the Sudan, the commonest methods of securing expansion being +to file down the point until the lead core was exposed and to +make longitudinal slits in the nickel envelope. All these forms +of bullet have come to be described colloquially, and even in +diplomatic correspondence, as “dum-dum bullets,” and their +alleged use by Russian troops in the Russo-Japanese War of +1904-1905 formed the subject of a protest on the part of the +Japanese government. The proposals made at the second Hague +Conference to forbid the use of these bullets by international +agreement were agreed to by all the powers except Great Britain +and the United States.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMESNIL, MARIE FRANÇOISE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1713-1803), French actress, +whose real name was Marchand, was born in Paris on the 2nd +of January 1713. She began her stage career in the provinces, +whence she was summoned in 1737 to make her <i>début</i> at the +Comédie Française as Clytemnestre in <i>Iphigénie en Tauride</i>. +She at once came into the front rank, playing Cléopâtre, Phèdre, +Athalie and Hermione with great effect, and when she created +Mérope (1743) Voltaire says that she kept the audience in tears +for three successive acts. She retired from the stage in 1776, +but lived until the 20th of February 1803. Her rival, Clairon, +having spoken ill of her, she authorized the publication of a +<i>Mémoire de Marie Françoise Dumesnil, en réponse aux mémoires +d’Hippolyte Clairon</i> (1800).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMFRIES<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (Gaelic, “the fort in the copse”), a royal and +parliamentary burgh and capital of the county, Dumfriesshire, +Scotland. It lies on the left bank of the Nith, about 8 m. from +the Solway Firth and 81 m. S.E. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & +South-Western railway. Pop. (1891) 16,675; (1901) 17,079. +Dumfries is beautifully situated and is one of the handsomest +county towns in Scotland. The churches and chapels of the +Presbyterian and other communions are, many of them, fine +buildings. St Michael’s (1746), a stately pile, was the church +which Robert Burns attended, and in its churchyard he was +buried, his remains being transferred in 1815 to the magnificent +mausoleum erected in the south-east corner, where also lie his +wife, Jean Armour, and several members of his family. The +Gothic church of Greyfriars (1866-1867) occupies the site partly +of a Franciscan monastery and partly of the old castle of +the town. On the site of St Mary’s (1837-1839), also Gothic, +stood the small chapel raised by Christiana, sister of Robert +Bruce, to the memory of her husband, Sir Christopher Seton, +who had been executed on the spot by Edward I. St Andrew’s +(1811-1813), in the Romanesque style, is a Roman Catholic +church, which also serves as the pro-cathedral of the diocese of +Galloway.</p> + +<p>Besides numerous schools, there is an admirably equipped +Academy. The old infirmary building is now occupied by St +Joseph’s College, a commercial academy of the Marist Brotherhood, +in connexion with which there is a novitiate for the training +of members of the order for missionary service at home or abroad. +In the middle of the market-place stands the old town hall, +with red tower and cupola, known from its situation as the Mid +Steeple, built by Tobias Bachup of Alloa (1708). The new town +hall and post-office are near the uppermost bridge. The county +buildings, in Buccleuch Street, are an imposing example of the +Scots Baronial style. To Mr Andrew Carnegie and Mr and Mrs +M’Kie of Moat House was due the free library. The charitable +institutions include Moorhead’s hospital (1753) for reduced +householders; the Dumfriesshire and Galloway royal infirmary, +dating from 1778, but now housed in a fine edifice in the northern +Italian style; the Crichton royal institution for the insane, +founded by Dr James Crichton of Friars Carse, and supplemented +in 1848 by the Southern Counties asylum; the new +infirmary, a handsome building; the contagious diseases +hospital, the industrial home for orphan and destitute girls and a +nurses’ home. The Theatre Royal, reconstructed in 1876, dates +from 1787. Burns composed several prologues and epilogues for +some of its actors and actresses. Among other public buildings +are the assembly rooms, St George’s hall, the volunteer drill hall, +and the Crichton Institution chapel, completed at a cost of +£30,000. The corporation owns the water supply, public baths +and wash-houses and the gasworks. In front of Greyfriars +church stands a marble statue of Burns, unveiled in 1882, and +there is also a monument to Charles, third duke of Queensberry. +The Nith is crossed by three bridges and the railway viaduct. +The bridge, which is used for vehicular traffic, dates from 1790-1794. +Devorgilla’s bridge, below it, built of stone in 1280, +originally consisted of nine arches (now reduced to three), and +is reserved in spite of its massive appearance for foot passengers +only, as is also the suspension bridge opened in 1875.</p> + +<p>Dumfries, Annan, Kirkcudbright, Lochmaben and Sanquhar—the +“Five Carlins” of Burns’s Election Ballads—combine to +return one member to Parliament. As a parliamentary burgh +Dumfries includes Maxwelltown, on the opposite side of the river, +which otherwise belongs to Kirkcudbrightshire.</p> + +<p>The leading industries comprise manufactures of tweeds, +hosiery, clogs, baskets and leather, besides the timber trade, +nursery gardening and the making of machinery and iron +implements. Dumfries markets for cattle and sheep, held weekly, +and for horses, held five times annually, have always ranked with +the best, and there is also a weekly market for pork during the +five months beginning with November. The sea-borne trade is +small compared with what it was before the railway came.</p> + +<p>Although Dumfries was the site of a camp of the Selgovian +Britons, nothing is known of its history until long after the +withdrawal of the Romans. William the Lion (d. 1214) made +it a royal burgh, but the oldest existing charter was granted by +Robert II. in 1395. The town became embroiled in the struggles +that ended in the independence of Scotland. It favoured the +claims to the throne, first of John Baliol—whose mother Devorgilla, +daughter of Alan, lord of Galloway, had done much to +promote its prosperity by building the stone bridge over the Nith—and +then of the Red Comyn, as against those of Robert Bruce, +who drew his support from Annandale. When Edward I. +besieged Carlaverock Castle in 1300 he lodged in the Franciscan +monastery, which, six years later (10th of February 1306), was +the scene of the murder of Comyn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Robert the Bruce</a></span>). +From this time to nearly the close of the 16th century the burgh +was exposed to frequent raids, both from freebooters on the +English side and from partisans of the turbulent chiefs—Douglases, +Maxwells, Johnstones. The Scottish sovereigns, +however, did not wholly neglect Dumfries. James IV., James V., +Mary and her son each visited it. James VI. was royally entertained +on the 3rd of August 1617, and afterwards presented the +seven incorporated trades with a silver gun to encourage the +craftsmen in the practice of musketry. The competition for this +cannon-shaped tube, now preserved in the old town hall, took +place annually—with a great festival every seven years—until +1831. John Mayne (1759-1836), a native of Dumfries, commemorated +the gathering in an excellent humorous poem +called “The Siller Gun.” Though in sympathy with the +Covenanters, the town was the scene of few incidents comparable +to those which took place in the northern parts of the shire. +The Union with England was so unpopular that not only did the +provost vote against the measure in the Scottish parliament, +but the articles were burned (20th of November 1706) at the +Market Cross by a body of Cameronians, amidst the approving +cheers of the inhabitants. In both 1715 and 1745 Dumfries +remained apathetic. Prince Charles Edward indeed occupied +the town, holding his court in a building afterwards known as +the Commercial Hotel, levying £2000 tribute money and requisitioning +1000 pairs of shoes for his Highlanders, by way of +punishing its contumacy. But, in a false alarm, the Jacobites +suddenly retreated, and a few years later the town was reimbursed +by the State for the Pretender’s extortions. The most interesting +event in the history of Dumfries is its connexion with Burns, +for the poet resided here from December 1791 till his death on +the 21st of July 1796. The house in which he died is still standing.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span></p> + +<p>The picturesque ruins of Carlaverock Castle—the “Ellangowan” +of <i>Guy Mannering</i>—are 8 m. to the south. Above the +entrance are the arms of the Maxwells, earls of Nithsdale, to whose +descendant, the duchess of Norfolk, it belongs. The castle, which +is in an excellent state of preservation, is built of red sandstone, +on the site of a fortress supposed to have been erected in the 6th +century, of which nothing now remains. In plan it is a triangle, +protected by a double moat, and has round towers at the angles. +Part of the present structure is believed to date from 1220 and +once sheltered William Wallace. It withstood Edward I.’s +siege in 1300 for two days, although garrisoned by only sixty men. +In the troublous times that followed it often changed hands. In +1570 it fell into disrepair, but was restored, and in 1641 was +besieged for the last time by the Covenanters.</p> + +<p>A mile and a half to the north-west of Dumfries lies Lincluden +Abbey, “an old ruin,” says Burns, “in a sweet situation at +the confluence of the Cluden and the Nith.” Originally the abbey +was a convent, founded in the 12th century, but converted two +centuries later into a collegiate church by Archibald, earl of +Douglas. The remains of the choir and south transept disclose +rich work of the Decorated style.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMFRIESSHIRE,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a border county of Scotland, bounded +S. by the Solway Firth, S.E. by Cumberland, E. by Roxburghshire, +N. by the shires of Lanark, Peebles and Selkirk, and W. +by Ayrshire and Kirkcudbrightshire. Its area is 686,302 acres +or 1072 sq. m. The coast line measures 21 m. The county +slopes very gradually from the mountainous districts in the +north down to the sea, lofty hills alternating in parts with +stretches of tableland or rich fertile holms. At various points +within a few miles of the Solway are tracts of moss land, like +Craigs Moss, Lochar Moss and Longbridge Moor in the west, and +Nutberry Moss in the east, all once under water, but now largely +reclaimed. The principal mountains occur near the northern +boundaries, the highest being White Coomb (2695 ft.), Hart +Fell (2651), Saddle Yoke (2412), Swatte Fell (2389), Lowther +Hills (2377), Queensberry (2285), which gives his secondary title +to the duke of Buccleuch and the title of marquess to a branch +of the house of Douglas, and Ettrick Pen (2269). The three +longest rivers are the Nith, the Annan and the Esk, the basins +of which form the great dales by which the county is cleft from +north to south—Nithsdale, Annandale and Eskdale. From the +point where it enters Dumfriesshire, 16 m. from its source near +Enoch Hill in Ayrshire, the course of the Nith is mainly south-easterly +till it enters the Solway, a few miles below Dumfries. +Its total length is 65 m., and its chief affluents are, on the right, +the Kello, Euchan, Scar, Cluden and Cargen, and, on the left, +the Crawick, Carron and Campie. The Annan rises near the +Devil’s Beef Tub, a remarkable chasm in the far north, and +after flowing about 40 m., mainly in a southerly course, it enters +the Solway at Barnkirk headland. It receives, on the right, +the Kinnel (reinforced by the Ae), and, on the left, the Moffat, +the Dryfe and the Milk. From the confluence of the White Esk +(rising near Ettrick Pen) and the Black Esk (rising near Jock’s +Shoulder, 1754 ft.) the Esk flows in a gradually south-easterly +direction till it crosses the Border, whence it sweeps to the S.W. +through the extreme north-western territory of Cumberland +and falls into the Solway. Of its total course of 42 m., 12 belong +to the White Esk, 20 are of the Esk proper on Scottish soil and +10 are of the stream in its English course. On the right the +Wauchope is the chief affluent, and on the left it receives the +Megget, Ewes, Tarras and Line—the last being an English +tributary. Other rivers are the Lochar (18 m.), the Kirtle +(17) and the Sark (12), all flowing into the Solway. For one +mile of its course the Esk, and for 7 m. of its course the Sark, form +the boundaries between Dumfriesshire and Cumberland. Loch +Skene in the north (1750 ft. above the sea), the group of lochs +around Lochmaben, and Loch Urr in the west, only part of +which belongs to Dumfriesshire, are the principal lakes. There +are few glens so named in the shire, but the passes of Dalveen, +Enterkin and Menock, leading up from Nithsdale to the Lowther +and other hills, yield to few glens in Scotland in the wild grandeur +of their scenery. For part of the way Enterkin Pass runs +between mountains rising sheer from the burn to a height of +nearly 2000 ft. Loch Skene finds an outlet in Tail Burn, the +water of which at a short distance from the lake leaps from a +height of 200 ft. in a fine waterfall, known as the Grey Mare’s +Tail. A much smaller but picturesque fall of the same name, +also known as Crichope Linn, occurs on the Crichope near +Thornhill. Mineral waters are found at Moffat, Hartfell Spa, +some three miles farther north, Closeburn and Brow on the +Solway.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The greater portion of the county of Dumfries belongs +to the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland which contains +representatives of all the divisions of that system from the Arenig +to the Ludlow rocks. By far the largest area is occupied by strata +of Tarannon and Llandovery age which cover a belt of country +from 20 to 25 m. across from Drumlanrig Castle in the north to +Torthorwald in the south. Consisting of massive grits, sometimes +conglomeratic, greywackes, flags and shales, these beds are repeated +by innumerable folds frequently inverted, striking N.E. and S.W. +and usually dipping towards the N.W. In the midst of this belt +there are lenticular bands of older strata of Arenig, Llandeilo, +Caradoc and Llandovery age composed of fine sediments such as +cherts, black and grey shales, white clays and flags, which come +to the surface along anticlinal folds and yield abundant graptolites +characteristic of these divisions. These black shale bands are +typically developed in Moffatdale, indeed the three typical sections +chosen by Professor Lapworth to illustrate his three great groups—(1) the +Glenkill shales (Upper Llandeilo), (2) the Hartfell shales +(Caradoc), (3) Birkhill shales (Lower Llandovery)—occur respectively +in the Glenkill Burn north of Kirkmichael, on Hartfell and in Dobbs +Linn near St Mary’s Loch in the basin of the river Annan. In the +extreme N.W. of the county between Drumlanrig Castle and +Dalveen Pass in the S. and the Spango and Kello Waters on the +N., there is a broad development of Arenig, Llandeilo and Caradoc +strata, represented by Radiolarian cherts, black shales, grits, conglomerates, +greywackes and shales which rise from underneath the +central Tarannon belt and are repeated by innumerable folds. In +the cores of the arches of Arenig cherts there are diabase lavas, +tuffs and agglomerates which are typically represented on Bail Hill +E. of Kirkconnel. Along the southern margin of the Tarannon belt, +the Wenlock and Ludlow rocks follow in normal order, the boundary +between the two being defined by a line extending from the head of +the Ewes Water in Eskdale, S.W. by Lockerbie to Mouswald. These +consist of greywackes, flags and shales with bands of dark graptolite +shales, the finer sediments being often well cleaved. They are likewise +repeated by inverted folds, the axial planes being usually +inclined to the S.E. The Silurian tableland in the N.W. of the +county is pierced by intrusive igneous rocks in the form of dikes and +bosses, which are regarded as of Lower Old Red Sandstone age. +Of these, the granite mass of Spango Water, N.E. of Kirkconnel, is +an excellent example. Along the N.W. margin of the county, on the +N. side of the fault bounding the Silurian tableland, the Lower +Old Red Sandstone occurs, where it consists of sandstones and conglomerates +associated with contemporaneous volcanic rocks. The +Upper Old Red Sandstone forms a narrow strip on the south side +of the Silurian tableland, resting unconformably on the Silurian +rocks and passing upwards into the Carboniferous formation. It +stretches from the county boundary E. of the Ewes Water, S.W. +by Langholm to Birrenswark. Along this line these Upper Red +sandstones and shales are overlaid by a thin zone of volcanic rocks +which point to contemporaneous volcanic action in this region at +the beginning of the Carboniferous period. Some of the vents from +which these igneous materials may have been discharged are found +along the watershed between Liddesdale and Teviotdale in Roxburghshire. +The strata of Carboniferous age are found in three +areas: (1) between Sanquhar and Kirkconnel, (2) at Closeburn near +Thornhill, (3) in the district between Liddesdale and Ruthwell. +In the first two instances (Sanquhar and Thornhill) the Carboniferous +sediments lie in hollows worn out of the old Silurian tableland. In the +Sanquhar basin the strata belong to the Coal Measures, and include +several valuable coal-seams which are probably the southern prolongations +of the members of this division in Ayrshire. At the +S.E. limit of the Sanquhar Coalfield there are patches of the Carboniferous +Limestone series, but towards the N. these are overlapped +by the Coal Measures which thus rest directly on the Silurian platform. +At Closeburn and Barjarg there are beds of marine limestone, +associated with sandstones and shales which probably represent +marine bands in the Carboniferous Limestone series. The most +important development of Carboniferous strata occurs between +Liddesdale and Ruthwell. In the valleys of the Liddel and the Esk +the following zones are represented which are given in ascending +order: (1) The Whita Sandstone, (2) the Cementstone group, (3) +the Fell Sandstones, (4) the Glencartholm volcanic group, (5) Marine +limestone group with Coal seams, (6) Millstone Grit, (7) Rowanburn +coal group, (8) Byreburn coal group, (9) Red Sandstones of Canonbie +yielding plants characteristic of the Upper Coal Measures. The coal-seams +of the Rowanburn field have been chiefly wrought, and in +view of their exhaustion bores have been sunk to prove the coals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +beneath the red sandstone of upper Carboniferous age. From a +palaeontological point of view the Glencartholm volcanic zone is of +special interest, as the calcareous shale associated with the tuffs has +yielded a large number of new species of fishes, decapod crustaceans, +phyllopods and scorpions. The Triassic rocks rest unconformably +on all older formations within the county. In the tract along the +Solway Firth they repose on the folded and eroded edges of the +Carboniferous strata, and when traced westwards to the Dumfries +basin they rest directly on the Silurian platform. They occur in +five areas, (1) between Annan and the mouth of the Esk, (2) the +Dumfries basin, (3) the Thornhill basin, (4) at Lochmaben and Corncockle +Moor, (5) at Moffat. The strata consist of breccias, false-bedded +sandstones and marls, the sandstones being extensively +quarried for building purposes. In the sandstones of Corncockle +Moor reptilian footprints have been obtained. In the Thornhill +basin there is a thin zone of volcanic rocks at the base of this series +which are evidently on the horizon of the lavas beneath the Mauchline +sandstones in Ayrshire. In the Sanquhar basin there are small +outliers of lavas probably of this age and several vents filled with +agglomerate from which these igneous materials in the Thornhill +basin may have been derived. There are several striking examples +of basalt dikes of Tertiary age, one having been traced from the +Lead Hills south-east by Moffat, across Eskdalemuir to the English +border.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Climate and Industries.</i>—The climate is mild, with a mean +yearly temperature of 48° F. (January, 38.5°; July, 59.5°), +and the average annual rainfall is 53 ins. Towards the middle +of the 18th century farmers began to raise stock for the south, +and a hundred years later 20,000 head of heavy cattle were +sent annually to the English markets. The Galloways, which +were the breed in vogue at first, have been to a large extent +replaced by shorthorns and Ayrshire dairy cattle. Sheep +breeding, of later origin, has attained to remarkable dimensions, +the walks in the higher hilly country being given over to Cheviots, +and the richer pasture of the low-lying farms being reserved +for half-bred lambs, a cross of Cheviots and Leicesters or other +long-woolled rams. Pig-feeding, once important, has declined +before the imports of bacon from foreign countries. Horse-breeding +is pursued on a considerable scale. Grain crops, of +which oats are the principal, show a downward tendency. Arable +farms range from 100 acres to 300 acres, and pastoral from +300 to 3000 acres.</p> + +<p>In general the manufactures are only of local importance and +mostly confined to Dumfries and a few of the larger towns. +Langholm is famous for its tweeds; breweries and distilleries +are found at Annan, Sanquhar and elsewhere; some shipping +is carried on at Annan and Dumfries; and the salmon fisheries +of the Nith and Annan and the Solway Firth are of value.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The Glasgow & South-Western railway +from Glasgow to Carlisle runs through Nithsdale, practically +following the course of the river, and lower Annandale to the +Border. The Caledonian railway runs through Annandale, +throwing off at Beattock a small branch to Moffat, at Lockerbie +a cross-country line to Dumfries, and at Kirtlebridge a line +that ultimately crosses the Solway to Bowness. From Dumfries +westwards there is communication with Castle Douglas, Kirkcudbright, +Newton Stewart, Stranraer and Portpatrick. The +North British railway sends a short line to Langholm from +Riddings Junction in Cumberland, giving access to Carlisle +and, by the Waverley route, to Edinburgh. There is also coach +service between various points, as from Dumfries to New Abbey +and Dalbeattie, and from Langholm to Eskdalemuir.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population in 1891 was +74,245, and in 1901, 72,571, when there were 176 persons who +spoke Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Annan (pop. +in 1901, 4309), Dumfries (14,444), Langholm (3142), Lockerbie +(2358) and Moffat (2153). The county returns one member to +parliament. Dumfries, the county town, Annan, Lochmaben +and Sanquhar are royal burghs; Dumfries forms a sheriffdom +with the shires of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, and there is a +resident sheriff-substitute at Dumfries, who sits also at Annan, +Langholm and Lockerbie. The shire is under school-board +jurisdiction, and some of the public schools earn grants for +higher education. The county council and most of the borough +councils give the bulk of the “residue” grant to the county +committee on secondary education, which is thus enabled, +besides assisting building schemes, to subsidize high schools, to +provide bursaries and apparatus, and to carry on science and +technical classes, embracing agriculture, dairying (at Kilmarnock +Dairy school) and practical chemistry. There are academies +at Dumfries, Annan, Moffat and other centres.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The British tribe which inhabited this part of +Scotland was called by the Romans Selgovae. They have left +many signs of their presence, such as hill forts in the north, +stone circles (as in Dunscore and Eskdalemuir), camps (Dryfesdale), +tumuli and cairns (Closeburn), and sculptured stones +(Dornock). The country around Moffat especially is rich in +remains. At Holywood, near Dumfries, there stand the relic +of the grove of sacred oaks from which the place derived its +name, and a stone circle known locally as the Twelve Apostles. +In the parish church of Ruthwell (pron. Rivvel: the “rood, or +cross, well”) is preserved an ancient cross which tells in Runic +characters the story of the Crucifixion. There are traces of the +Roman roads which ran by Dalveen Pass into Clydesdale and +up the Annan to Tweeddale, and at Birrens is one of the best-preserved +examples of a Roman camp. Roman altars, urns +and coins are found in many places. Upon the withdrawal of +the Romans, the Selgovae were conquered by Scots from Ireland, +who, however, fused with the natives. The Saxon conquest of +Dumfriesshire does not seem to have been thorough, the people +of Nithsdale and elsewhere maintaining their Celtic institutions +up to the time of David I.</p> + +<p>As a Border county Dumfriesshire was the scene of stirring +deeds at various epochs, especially in the days of Robert Bruce. +Edward I. besieged Carlaverock Castle, and the factions of Bruce +(who was lord of Annandale), John Comyn and John Baliol were +at constant feud. The Border clans, as haughty and hot-headed +as the Gaels farther north, were always at strife. There is record +of a bloody fight in Dryfesdale in 1593, when the Johnstones slew +700 Maxwells, and, overtaking the fugitives at Lockerbie, there +massacred most of the remnant. These factions embroiled the +dalesmen until the 18th century. The highlands of the shire +afforded retreat to the persecuted Covenanters, who, at Sanquhar, +published in 1680 their declaration against the king, anticipating +the principles of the “glorious Revolution” by several years. +Prince Charles Edward’s ambition left the shire comparatively +untouched, for the Jacobite sentiment made little appeal to the +people.</p> + +<p>Dumfriesshire is inseparably connected with the name of +Robert Burns, who farmed at Ellisland on the Nith for three +years, and spent the last five years of his life at Dumfries. +Thomas Carlyle was born at Ecclefechan, in a house still standing, +and was buried beside his parents in the kirkyard of the old +Secession church (now the United Free). His farm of Craigenputtock +was left to Edinburgh University in order to found the +John Welsh bursaries in classics and mathematics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. M‘Dowall, <i>History of the Burgh of Dumfries</i> (Edinburgh, +1887); Sir Herbert Maxwell, <i>Dumfries and Galloway</i> (Edinburgh +and London, 1897); J. Macdonald and J. Barbour, <i>Birrens and its +Antiquities</i> (Dumfries, 1897); Sir William Fraser, <i>The Book of +Carlaverock</i> (Edinburgh, 1873); <i>The Douglas Book</i> (Edinburgh, +1885); <i>The Annandale Book</i> (Edinburgh, 1894); G. Neilson, +<i>Annandale under the Bruces</i> (Annan, 1887); C.T. Ramage, <i>Drumlanrig +Castle and the Douglases</i> (Dumfries, 1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜMICHEN, JOHANNES<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1833-1894), German Egyptologist, +was born near Grossglogau. He studied philology and theology +in Berlin and Breslau. Subsequently he became a pupil of +Lepsius and Brugsch, and devoted himself to the study of +Egyptian inscriptions. He travelled widely in Egypt, and +published his results in a number of important books. In 1872 +he was chosen professor of Egyptology at Strassburg. The value +of his work consists not only in the stores of material which he +collected, but also in the success with which he dealt with many of +the problems raised by the inscriptions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his works are <i>Bauurkunde des Tempels von Dendera</i> (1865); +<i>Geographische Inschriften altagyptischer Denkmaler</i> (4 vols., 1865-1885); +<i>Altagyptische Kalenderinschriften</i> (1866); <i>Altagypt. Tempelinschriften</i> +(2 vols., 1867); <i>Historische Inschriften altagypt. +Denkmaler</i> (2 vols., 1867-1869); <i>Baugeschichte und Beschreibung +des Denderatempels</i> (Strassburg, 1877); <i>Die Oasen der libyschen Wüste</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +(1878); <i>Die kalendarischen Opferfestlisten von Medinet-Habu</i>(1881); <i>Gesch. des alten Äegypten</i> (1878-1883); <i>Der Grabpalast des +Patuamenap in der thebanischen Nekropolis</i> (1884-1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜMMLER, ERNST LUDWIG<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1830-1902), German historian, +the son of Ferdinand Dümmler (1777-1846), a Berlin bookseller, +was born in Berlin, on the 2nd of January 1830. He studied at +Bonn under J.W. Löbell (1786-1863), under L. von Ranke and +W. Wattenbach, and his doctor’s dissertation, <i>De Arnulfo +Francorum rege</i> (Berlin, 1852), was a notable essay. He entered +the faculty at Halle in 1855, and started an historical <i>Seminar</i>. +In 1858 he became professor extraordinary, in 1866 full professor. +In 1875 he became a member of the revised committee directing +the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, himself undertaking the +direction of the section <i>Antiquitates</i>, and in 1888 became president +of the central board in Berlin. This was an official recognition of +Dümmler’s leading position among German historians. In +addition to numerous critical works and editions of texts, he +published <i>Piligrim von Passau und das Erzbistum Lorch</i> (1854), +<i>Über die älteren Slawen in Dalmatien</i> (1856), <i>Das Formelbuch des +Bischofs Salomo III. von Konstanz</i> (1857) and <i>Anselm der +Peripatetiker</i> (1872). But his great work was the <i>Geschichte des +ostfränkischen Reiches</i> (Berlin, 1862-1865, in 2 vols.; 2nd ed. +1887-1888, in 3 vols.). In conjunction with Wattenbach he +completed the <i>Monumenta Alcuiniana</i> (Berlin, 1873), which had +been begun by Philipp Jaffé, and with R. Köpke he wrote <i>Kaiser +Otto der Grosse</i> (Leipzig, 1876). He edited the first and second +volumes of the <i>Poëtae latini aevi Carolini</i> for the <i>Monumenta +Germaniae historica</i> (Berlin, 1881-1884). Dümmler died in +Berlin on the 11th of September 1902.</p> + +<p>His son, Ferdinand (1859-1896), who won some reputation as +an archaeologist and philologist, was professor at the university of +Basel from 1890 until his death on the 15th of November 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMONT,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> the name of a family of prominent French artists. +François Dumont (1688-1726), a sculptor, best known for his +figures in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, was the brother of the +painter Jacques Dumont,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> known as “le Romain” (1701-1781), +whose chief success was gained with a great allegorical composition +for the Paris <i>hôtel-de-ville</i> in 1761. François’s son Edme +(1720-1775), the latter’s son Jacques Edme (1761-1844), and the +last-named’s son Augustin Alexander (1801-1884) were also +famous sculptors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Vattier, <i>Une Famille d’artistes</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not to be confounded with his contemporary Jean Joseph +Dumons (1687-1779), sometimes called Dumont, best known for his +designs for the Aubusson tapestries.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMONT, ANDRÉ HUBERT<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1809-1857), Belgian geologist, +was born at Liége on the 15th of February 1809. His first work +was a masterly <i>Mémoire</i> on the geology of the province of Liége +published in 1832. A few years later he became professor of +mineralogy and geology and afterwards rector in the university of +Liége. His attention was now given to the mineralogical and +stratigraphical characters of the geological formations in Belgium—and +the names given by him to many subdivisions of Cretaceous +and Tertiary ages have been adopted. His <i>Mémoire sur les +terrains ardennais et rhénan de l’Ardenne, du Brabant et du +Condroz</i> (1847-1848) is notable for the care with which the +mineral characters of the strata were described, but the palaeontological +characters were insufficiently considered, and neither the +terms “Silurian” nor “Devonian” were adopted. During +twenty years he laboured at the preparation of a geological map +of Belgium (1849). He spared no pains to make his work as +complete as possible, examining on foot almost every area of +importance in the country. Journeying to the more southern +parts of Europe, he investigated the shores of the Bosphorus, the +mountains of Spain and other tracts, and gradually gathered +materials for a geological map of Europe: a work of high merit +which was “one of the first serious attempts to establish on a +larger scale the geological correlation of the various countries of +Europe.” The Geological Society of London awarded him in +1840 the Wollaston medal. He died at Liége on the 28th of +February 1857.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Memoir by Major-General J.E. Portlock in <i>Address to Geol. +Soc.</i> (London, 1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMONT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1751-1831), French miniature painter, +was born at Lunéville (Meurthe), and was left an orphan when +quite young, with five brothers and sisters to support. He was +for a while a student under Jean Girardet, and then, on the advice +of a Lunéville Academician, Madame Coster, set up a studio +for himself. In 1784 he journeyed to Rome, returning after +four years’ careful study, and in 1788 was accepted as an Academician +and granted an apartment in the Louvre. He married the +daughter of Antoine Vestier, the miniature painter, and had two +sons, Aristide and Bias, both of whom became painters. He +was one of the three greatest miniature painters of France, +painting portraits of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, Louis +XVIII. and Charles X., and of almost all the important persons +of his day. His own portrait was engraved both by Audouin +and by Tardieu. He resided the greater part of his life in Paris, +and there he died. A younger brother, known as Tony Dumont, +was also a miniature painter, a pupil of his brother, a frequent +exhibitor and the recipient of a medal from the Academy in 1810. +Each artist signed with the surname only, and there is some +controversy concerning the attribution to each artist of his own +work. Tony was an expert violinist and delighted in painting +portraits of persons who were playing upon the violin. Many of +Dumont’s finest paintings came into the collection of Mr J. +Pierpont Morgan, but others are in the Louvre, presented by the +heir of Bias Dumont. The work of both painters is distinguished +by breadth, precision and a charming scheme of colouring, and +the unfinished works of the elder brother are amongst some of +the most beautiful miniatures ever produced.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The History of Portrait Miniatures</i>, by G.C. Williamson +(London, 1904); also the privately printed <i>Catalogue of the Collection +of Miniatures of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan</i>, vol. iv.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMONT, JEAN<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (d. 1726), French publicist, was born in +France in the 17th century, the precise date being unknown. +He followed the profession of arms; but, not obtaining promotion +so rapidly as he expected, he quitted the service and travelled +through different parts of Europe. He stopped in Holland with +the intention of publishing an account of his travels. But in the +interval, at the request of his bookseller, he wrote and published +several pamphlets, which were eagerly sought after, owing to the +unceremonious manner in which he treated the ministry of +France. This freedom having deprived him of all hope of employment +in his own country, he thought of forming a permanent +establishment in that where he resided, and accordingly commenced +a course of lectures on public law. The project succeeded +far beyond his expectations; and some useful compilations which +he published about the same period made him favourably known +in other countries. The emperor appointed him his historiographer, +and some time afterwards conferred on him the title +of baron de Carlscroon. He died at Vienna in 1726, at an +advanced age.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is a list of his publications:—(1) <i>Voyages en France, +en Italie, en Allemagne, à Malte, et en Turquie</i> (Hague, 1699, 4 vols. +12mo); (2) <i>Mémoires politiques pour servir à la parfaite intelligence +de l’histoire de la Paix de Ryswick</i> (Hague, 1699, 4 vols. 12mo); +(3) <i>Recherches modestes des causes de la présente guerre, en ce qui +concerne les Provinces Unies</i> (1713, 12mo); (4) <i>Recueil de traités +d’alliance, de pai, et de commerce entre les rois, princes, et états, +depuis la Paix de Münster</i> (Amsterdam, 1710, 2 vols. 12mo); (5) +<i>Soupirs de l’Europe à la vue du projet de paix contenu dans la harangue +de la reine de la Grande-Bretagne</i> (1712, 12mo); (6) <i>Corps universel +diplomatique du droit des gens, contenant un recueil des traités de +paix, d’alliance, &c., faits en Europe, depuis Charlemagne jusqu’à +présent</i> (Amsterdam, 1626, and following years, 8 vols. fol., continued +after Dumont’s death by J. Rousset); and (7) <i>Batailles gagnées par +le Prince Eugène de Savoie</i> (Hague, 1723). Dumont was also the +author of <i>Lettres historiques contenant ce qui se passe de plus important +en Europe</i> (12mo). This periodical, which was commenced in 1692, +two volumes appearing annually, Dumont conducted till 1710, from +which time it was continued by Basnage and others until 1728. +The earlier volumes are much prized.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMONT, PIERRE ÉTIENNE LOUIS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1759-1829), French +political writer, was born on the 18th of July 1759 at Geneva, +of which his family had been citizens of good repute from the +days of Calvin. He was educated for the ministry at the college +of Geneva, and in 1781 was chosen one of the pastors of the city. +The political troubles which disturbed Geneva in 1782, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span> +suddenly turned the course of his life. He belonged to the +liberals or democrats, and the triumph of the aristocratic party, +through the interference of the courts of France and Sardinia, +made residence in his native town impossible, though he was not +among the number of the proscribed. He therefore went to +join his mother and sisters at St Petersburg. In this he was +probably influenced in part by the example of his townsman +Pierre Lefort, the first tutor, minister, and general of the tsar. +At St Petersburg he was for eighteen months pastor of the French +church. In 1785 he removed to London, Lord Shelburne, then +a minister of state, having invited him to undertake the education +of his sons. It was at the house of Lord Shelburne, now 1st +marquess of Lansdowne, where he was treated as a friend or +rather member of the family, that he became acquainted with +many illustrious men, amongst others Fox, Sheridan, Lord +Holland and Sir Samuel Romilly. With the last of these he +formed a close and enduring friendship, which had an important +influence on his life and pursuits.</p> + +<p>In 1788 Dumont visited Paris with Romilly. During a stay +of two months in that city he had almost daily intercourse with +Mirabeau, and a certain affinity of talents and pursuits led to an +intimacy between two persons diametrically opposed to each +other in habits and in character. On his return from Paris +Dumont made the acquaintance of Jeremy Bentham. Filled +with admiration for the genius of Bentham, Dumont made it +one of the chief objects of his life to recast and edit the writings +of the great English jurist in a form suitable for the ordinary +reading public. This literary relationship was, according to +Dumont’s own account, one of a somewhat peculiar character. +All the fundamental ideas and most of the illustrative material +were supplied in the manuscripts of Bentham; Dumont’s task +was chiefly to abridge by striking out repeated matter, to supply +lacunae, to secure uniformity of style, and to improve the French. +The following works of Bentham were published under his +editorship: <i>Traité de législation civile et pénale</i> (1802), <i>Théorie +des peines et des récompenses</i> (1811), <i>Tactique des assemblées +législatives</i> (1815), <i>Traité des preuves judiciaires</i> (1823) and +<i>De l’organization judiciaire et de la codification</i> (1828).</p> + +<p>In the summer of 1789 Dumont went to Paris. The object of +the journey was to obtain through Necker, who had just returned +to office, an unrestricted restoration of Genevese liberty, by +cancelling the treaty of guarantee between France and Switzerland, +which prevented the republic from enacting new laws +without the consent of the parties to this treaty. The proceedings +and negotiations to which this mission gave rise necessarily +brought Dumont into connexion with most of the leading men +in the Constituent Assembly, and made him an interested +spectator, sometimes even a participator, indirectly, in the +events of the French Revolution. The same cause also led him +to renew his acquaintance with Mirabeau, whom he found +occupied with his duties as a deputy, and with the composition +of his journal, the <i>Courier de Provence</i>. For a time Dumont +took an active and very efficient part in the conduct of this +journal, supplying it with reports as well as original articles, +and also furnishing Mirabeau with speeches to be delivered or +rather read in the assembly, as related in his highly instructive +and interesting posthumous work entitled <i>Souvenirs sur Mirabeau</i> +(1832). In fact his friend George Wilson used to relate that one +day, when they were dining together at a <i>table d’hôte</i> at Versailles, +he saw Dumont engaged in writing the most celebrated paragraph +of Mirabeau’s address to the king for the removal of the +troops. He also reported such of Mirabeau’s speeches as he did +not write, embellishing them from his own stores, which were +inexhaustible. But this co-operation soon came to an end; for, +being attacked in pamphlets as one of Mirabeau’s writers, he +felt hurt at the notoriety thus given to his name in connexion +with a man occupying Mirabeau’s peculiar position, and returned +to England in 1791.</p> + +<p>In 1801 he travelled over various parts of Europe with Lord +Henry Petty, afterwards 3rd marquess of Lansdowne, and on +his return settled down to the editorship of the works of Bentham +already mentioned. In 1814 the restoration of Geneva to independence +induced Dumont to return to his native place, and +he soon became the leader of the supreme council. He devoted +particular attention to the judicial and penal systems of his +native state, and many improvements on both are due to him. +He died at Milan when on an autumn tour on the 29th of September +1829.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMONT D’URVILLE, JULES SÉBASTIEN CÉSAR<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1790-1842), +French navigator, was born at Condé-sur-Noireau, in +Normandy, on the 23rd of May 1790. The death of his father, +who before the revolution had held a judicial post in Condé, +devolved the care of his education on his mother and his maternal +uncle, the Abbé de Croizilles. Failing to pass the entrance +examination for the École Polytechnique, he went to sea in 1807 +as a novice on board the “Aquilon.” During the next twelve +years he gradually rose in the service, and added a knowledge +of botany, entomology, English, German, Spanish, Italian and +even Hebrew and Greek to the professional branches of his +studies. In 1820, while engaged in a hydrographic survey of the +Mediterranean, he was fortunate enough to recognize the Venus +of Milo (Melos) in a Greek statue recently unearthed, and to +secure its preservation by the report he presented to the French +ambassador at Constantinople. A wider field for his energies +was furnished in 1822 by the circumnavigating expedition of the +“Coquille” under the command of his friend Duperrey; and +on its return in 1825 his services were rewarded by promotion +to the rank of <i>capitaine de frégate</i>, and he was entrusted with the +control of a similar enterprise, with the especial purpose of discovering +traces of the lost explorer La Pérouse, in which he was +successful. The “Astrolabe,” as he renamed the “Coquille,” +left Toulon on the 25th of April 1826, and returned to Marseilles +on the 25th of March 1829, having traversed the South Atlantic, +coasted the Australian continent from King George’s Sound to +Port Jackson, charted various parts of New Zealand, and visited +the Fiji Islands, the Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia, New +Guinea, Amboyna, Van Diemen’s Land, the Caroline Islands, +Celebes and Mauritius. Promotion to the rank of <i>capitaine +de vaisseau</i> was bestowed on the commander in August 1829; +and in August of the following year he was charged with the +delicate task of conveying the exiled king Charles X. to England. +His proposal to undertake a voyage of discovery to the south +polar regions was discouraged by Arago and others, who criticized +the work of the previous expedition in no measured terms; but +at last, in 1837, all difficulties were surmounted, and on the 7th of +September he set sail from Toulon with the “Astrolabe” and +its convoy “La Zélée.” On the 15th of January 1838 they +sighted the Antarctic ice, and soon after their progress southward +was blocked by a continuous bank, which they vainly coasted +for 300 m. to the east. Returning westward they visited +the South Orkney Islands and part of the New Shetlands, +and discovered Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land, but +were compelled by scurvy to seek succour at Talcahuano in +Chile. Thence they proceeded across the Pacific and through +the Asiatic archipelago, visiting among others the Fiji and the +Pelew Islands, coasting New Guinea, and circumnavigating +Borneo. In 1840, leaving their sick at Hobart Town, Tasmania, +they returned to the Antarctic region, and on the 21st of the +month were rewarded by the discovery of Adélie Land, which +D’Urville named after his wife, in 140° E. The 6th of +November found them at Toulon. D’Urville was at once +appointed <i>contre-amiral</i>, and in 1841 he received the gold +medal of the Société de Géographie. On the 8th of May +1842 he was killed, with his wife and son, in a railway accident +near Meudon.</p> + +<p>His principal works are—<i>Enumeratio plantarum quas in insulis +Archipelagi aut littoribus Ponti Euxini</i>, &c. (1822); <i>Voyage de la +corvette “l’Astrolabe,” 1826-1829</i> (Paris, 1830-1835), and +<i>Voyage au pôle sud et dans l’Océanie, 1837-1840</i> (Paris, 1842-1854), +in each of which his scientific colleagues had a share; +<i>Voyages autour du monde; résumé général des voyages de Magellan</i>, +&c. (Paris, 1833 and 1844). An island (also called Kairu) off +the north coast of New Guinea, and a cape on the same coast, +bear the name of D’Urville.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMORTIERITE,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a mineral described in 1881 by M.F. +Gonnard, who named it after Eugène Dumortier, a palaeontologist +of Lyons, France. It is essentially a basic aluminium borosilicate, +belonging to the orthorhombic system; it occurs usually +in fibrous forms, of smalt-blue, greenish-blue, lavender or almost +black colour, and exhibits strong pleochroism. According to +W.T. Schaller (<i>Amer. Journ. Sci.</i>, 1905 (iv.), 19, p. 211) a purple +colour may be due to the presence of titanium. Analyses of +some specimens point to the formula (SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>Al(AlO)<span class="su">7</span>(BO)H, +which, written in this form, explains the analogy with andalusite +and the alteration into muscovite. Dumortierite occurs in gneiss +at Chaponost, near Lyons, and at a few other European localities; +it is found also in the United States, being known from near +New York City, from Riverside and San Diego counties, +California, and from Yuma county, Arizona. The last-named +locality yields the mineral in some quantity in the form of dense +fibres embedded in quartz, to which it imparts a blue colour. +The mineral aggregate is polished as an ornamental stone, +rather resembling lapis-lazuli.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMOULIN, CHARLES<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Molinaeus</span>] (1500-1566), French +jurist, was born in Paris in 1500. He began practice as an +advocate before the parlement of Paris. Dumoulin turned +Calvinist, and when the persecution of the Protestants began +he went to Germany, where for a long time he taught law at +Strassburg, Besançon and elsewhere. He returned to France +in 1557. Dumoulin had, in 1552, written <i>Commentaire sur +l’édit du roi Henri II sur les petites dates</i>, which was condemned +by the Sorbonne, but his <i>Conseil sur le fait du concile de Trente</i> +created a still greater stir, and aroused against him both the +Catholics and the Calvinists. He was imprisoned by order of +the parlement until 1564. It was as a jurist that Dumoulin +gained his great reputation, being regarded by his contemporaries +as the “prince of jurisconsults.” His remarkable erudition and +breadth of view had a considerable effect on the subsequent +development of French law. He was a bitter enemy of feudalism, +which he attacked in his <i>De feudis</i> (Paris, 1539). Other important +works were his commentaries on the customs of Paris (Paris, +1539, 1554; Frankfort, 1575; Lausanne, 1576), valuable as the +only commentary on those in force in 1510, and the <i>Extricatio +labyrinthi dividui et individui</i>, a treatise on the law of surety.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A collected edition of Dumoulin’s works was published in Paris in +1681 (5 vols.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANÇOIS<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1739-1823), French +general, was born at Cambray in 1739. His father was a commissary +of the royal army, and educated his son most carefully +in various branches of learning. The boy continued his studies +at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and in 1757 began his military +career as a volunteer in the campaign of Rossbach. He received +a commission for good conduct in action, and served in the later +German campaigns of the Seven Years’ War with distinction; +but at the peace he was retired as a captain, with a small pension +and the cross of St Louis. Dumouriez then visited Italy and +Corsica, Spain and Portugal, and his memorials to the duc de +Choiseul on Corsican affairs led to his re-employment on the +staff of the French expeditionary corps sent to the island, +for which he gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. After this +he became a member of the <i>Secret du roi</i>, the secret service +under Louis XV., where his fertility of diplomatic resource +had full scope. In 1770 he was sent on a mission into Poland, +where in addition to his political business he organized a Polish +militia. The fall of Choiseul brought about his recall, and +somewhat later he was imprisoned in the Bastille, where he +spent six months, occupying himself with literary pursuits. +He was then removed to Caen, where he was detained until +the accession of Louis XVI.</p> + +<p>Upon his release in 1774 he married his cousin Mlle de Broissy, +but he was neglectful and unfaithful, and in 1789 the pair +separated, the wife taking refuge in a convent. Meanwhile +Dumouriez had devoted his attention to the internal state of +his own country, and amongst the very numerous memorials +which he sent in to the government was one on the defence of +Normandy and its ports, which procured him in 1778 the post +of commandant of Cherbourg, which he administered with much +success for ten years. He became <i>maréchal de camp</i> in 1788; but +his ambition was not satisfied, and at the outbreak of the Revolution, +seeing the opportunity for carving out a career, he went to +Paris, where he joined the Jacobin Club. The death of Mirabeau, +to whose fortunes he had attached himself, was a great blow +to him; but, promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general and +commandant of Nantes, his opportunity came after the flight +to Varennes, when he attracted attention by offering to march +to the assistance of the Assembly. He now attached himself +to the Girondist party, and on the 15th of March 1792 was +appointed minister of foreign affairs. He was mainly responsible +for the declaration of war against Austria (April 20), and the +invasion of the Low Countries was planned by him. On the +dismissal of Roland, Clavière and Servan (June 13), he took the +latter’s post of minister of war, but resigned it two days later on +account of the king’s refusal to come to terms with the Assembly, +and went to join the army of Marshal Lückner. After the +<i>émeute</i> of August 10 and Lafayette’s flight he was appointed +to the command of the “Army of the Centre,” and at the same +moment the Coalition assumed the offensive. Dumouriez acted +promptly. His subordinate Kellermann repulsed the Prussians +at Valmy (September 20, 1792), and he himself severely defeated +the Austrians at Jemappes (November 6). Returning to Paris, +he was received with a popular ovation; but he was out of +sympathy with the extremists in power, his old-fashioned +methodical method of conducting war exposed him to the +criticism of the ardent Jacobins, and a defeat would mean the +end of his career. Defeat coming to him at Neerwinden in +January 1793, he ventured all on a desperate stroke. Arresting +the commissaries of the Convention sent to inquire into his +conduct, he handed them over to the enemy, and then attempted +to persuade his troops to march on Paris and overthrow the +revolutionary government. The attempt failed, and Dumouriez, +with the duc de Chartres (afterwards King Louis Philippe) and +his brother the duc de Montpensier, fled into the Austrian camp.</p> + +<p>He now wandered from country to country, occupied in +ceaseless intrigues with Louis XVIII., or for setting up an +Orleanist monarchy, until in 1804 he settled in England, where +the government conferred on him a pension of £1200 a year. +He became a valuable adviser to the War Office in connexion +with the struggle with Napoleon, though the extent to which +this went was only known in public many years later. In 1814 +and 1815 he endeavoured to procure from Louis XVIII. the +bâton of a marshal of France, but was refused. He died at +Turville Park, near Henley-on-Thames, on the 14th of March +1823. His memoirs were published at Hamburg in 1794. An +enlarged edition, <i>La Vie et les mémoires du Général Dumouriez</i>, +appeared at Paris in 1823. Dumouriez was also the author of a +large number of political pamphlets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. von Boguslawski, <i>Das Leben des Generals Dumouriez</i> +(Berlin, 1878-1879); <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (15th July, 1st and +15th August 1884); H. Welschinger, <i>Le Roman de Dumouriez</i> +(1890); A. Chuquet, <i>La Première Invasion, Valmy, La Retraite +de Brunswick, Jemappes, La Trahison de Dumouriez</i> (Paris, +1886-1891); A. Sorel, <i>L’Europe et la Révolution française</i> (1885-1892); +J. Holland Rose and A.M. Broadley, <i>Dumouriez and the +Defence of England</i> (1908); E. Daudet, <i>La Conjuration de Pichegru +et les complots royalistes du midi et du l’est, 1795-1797</i> (Paris, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUMP.<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1) (Of obscure origin; corresponding in form and +possibly connected with the word, are the Mid. Dutch <i>domp</i>, +mist or haze, and the Ger. <i>dumpf</i>, dull or dazed), a state of +wonder, perplexity or melancholy. The word thus occurs +particularly in the plural, in such phrases as “doleful dumps.” +It was also formerly used for a tune, especially one of a mournful +kind, a dirge. (2) (Connected with “dumpy,” but appearing +later than that word, and also of obscure origin), something +short and thick, and hence used of many objects such as a lead +counter or medal, of a coin formerly used in Australia, formed +by punching a circular piece out of a Spanish dollar, and of a +short thick bolt used in shipbuilding. (3) (Probably of Norse +origin, cf. Nor. <i>dumpa</i>, and Dan. <i>dumpe</i>, meaning “to fall” +suddenly, with a bump), to throw down in a heap, and hence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +particularly applied to the depositing of any large quantity of +material, to the shooting of rubbish, or tilting a load from a +cart. It is thus used of the method of disposal of the masses of +gravel, &c., disintegrated by water in the hydraulic method of +gold mining. A “dump” or “dumping-ground” is thus the +place where such waste material is deposited. The use of the +term “dumping” in the economics of international trade has +come into prominence in the tariff reform controversy in the +United Kingdom. It is sometimes used loosely of the importing +of foreign goods at prices below those ruling in the importing +country; but strictly the term is applied to the importing, at a +price below the cost of production, of the surplus of manufactures +of a foreign country over and above what has been disposed of +in its home market. The ability to sell such a surplus in a +foreign market below the cost of production depends on the +prices of the home market being artificially sustained at a +sufficiently high level by a monopoly or by a tariff or by bounties. +An essential factor in the operation of “dumping” is the +lessening of the whole cost of production by manufacture on +a large scale.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNASH,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> the name of two Jewish scholars of the 10th century.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Dunash Ben Labraṭ</span>, grammarian and poet, belonged +to the brilliant circle attracted to Cordova by Ḥasdai, and took +a large share in promoting the Jewish “Golden Age” under +the Moors in Andalusia. Dunash not only helped in the foundation +of a school of scientific philology, but adapted Arabian +metres to Hebrew verse, and thereby gave an impulse to the +neo-Hebraic poetry, which reached its highest level in Spain.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Dunash Ibn Tamim</span> was, like the preceding, a leader in +the critical study of language among Arabic-speaking Jews. +Professor Bacher says of him: “In the history of Hebrew +philology, Ibn Tamim ranks as one of the first representatives of +the systematic comparison of Hebrew and Arabic.” The philological +researches of the 10th century were closely associated +with the Spanish-Moorish culture of the period.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNBAR, GEORGE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1774-1851), English classical scholar +and lexicographer, was born at Coldingham in Berwickshire. +In early life he followed the humble profession of gardening, +but, having been permanently injured by an accident, devoted +himself to the study of the classics. When about thirty years +of age, he settled in Edinburgh, where he obtained a tutorship +in the family of Lord Provost Fettes. In 1807 he succeeded +Andrew Dalzel as professor of Greek in the university. Dunbar +held his appointment till his death on the 6th of December +1851. Although a man of great energy and industry, Dunbar +did not produce anything of permanent value. He deserves +mention, however, for his Greek-English and English-Greek +lexicon (1840), on the compilation of which he spent eight years. +Although now superseded, it was the best work of its kind that +had appeared in England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The little that is known of Dunbar’s life will be found in the +<i>Caledonian Mercury</i> (8th of December 1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1872-1906), American author, +of negro descent, was born in Dayton, Ohio, on the 27th of June +1872. He graduated (1891) from the Dayton high school, had a +varied experience as elevator boy, mechanic and journalist, +and in 1897-1898 held a position on the staff of the Library of +Congress, resigning in December 1898 to devote himself to +literary work. He died of consumption at his home in Dayton +on the 8th of February 1906. His poetry was brought to the +attention of American readers by William Dean Howells, who +wrote an appreciative introduction to his <i>Lyrics of Lowly Life</i> +(1896). Subsequently Dunbar published eleven other volumes +of verse, three novels and five collections of short stories. Some +of his short stories and sketches, especially those dealing with +the American negro, are charming; they are far superior to +his novels, which deal with scenes in which the author is not so +much at home. His most enduring work, however, is his poetry. +Some of this is in literary English, but the best is in the dialect +of his people. In it he has preserved much of their very temperament +and outlook on life, usually with truth and freshness of +feeling, united with a happy choice of language and much +lyrical grace and sweetness, and often with rare humour and +pathos. These poems of the soil are a distinct contribution to +American literature, and entitle the author to be called pre-eminently +the poet of his race in America.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Works of Paul Laurence Dunbar</i> (Naperville, Ill., +1907), with a biography by L.K. Wiggins.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNBAR, WILLIAM<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1460-<i>c.</i> 1520), Scottish poet, was +probably a native of East Lothian. This is assumed from a +satirical reference in the <i>Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie</i>, where, +too, it is hinted that he was a member of the noble house of +Dunbar. His name appears in 1477 in the Register of the +Faculty of Arts at St Andrews, among the Determinants or +Bachelors of Arts, and in 1479 among the masters of the +university. Thereafter he joined the order of Observantine +Franciscans, at St Andrews or Edinburgh, and proceeded to +France as a wandering friar. He spent a few years in Picardy, +and was still abroad when, in 1491, Bothwell’s mission to secure +a bride for the young James IV. reached the French court. +There is no direct evidence that he accompanied Blackadder, +archbishop of Glasgow, on a similar embassy to Spain in 1495. +On the other hand, we know that he proceeded with that prelate +to England on his more successful mission in 1501. Dunbar +had meanwhile (about 1500) returned to Scotland, and had +become a priest at court, and a royal pensioner. His literary +life begins with his attachment to James’s household. All that +is known of him from this date to his death about 1520 is derived +from the poems or from entries in the royal registers of payments +of pension and grants of livery. He is spoken of as the Rhymer +of Scotland in the accounts of the English privy council dealing +with the visit of the mission for the hand of Margaret Tudor, +rather because he wrote a poem in praise of London, than because, +as has been stated, he held the post of laureate at the Scottish +court. In 1511 he accompanied the queen to Aberdeen and +commemorated her visit in verse. Other pieces such as the +<i>Orisoun</i> (“Quhen the Gouernour past in France”), apropos +of the setting out of the regent Albany, are of historical interest, +but they tell us little more than that Dunbar was alive. The +date of his death is uncertain. He is named in Lyndsay’s +<i>Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo</i> (1530) with poets then +dead, and the reference precedes that to Douglas who had +died in 1522. He certainly survived his royal patron. We may +not be far out in saying that he died about 1520.</p> + +<p>Dunbar’s reputation among his immediate successors was +considerable. By later criticism, stimulated in some measure by +Scott’s eulogy that he is “unrivalled by any which Scotland has +produced,” he has held the highest place among the northern +makars. The praise, though it has been at times exaggerated, +is on the whole just, certainly in respect of variety of work and +mastery of form. He belongs, with James I., Henryson and +Douglas, to the Scots Chaucerian school. In his allegorical poems +reminiscences of the master’s style and literary habit are most +frequent. Yet, even there, his discipleship shows certain +limitations. His wilder humour and greater heat of blood give +him opportunities in which the Chaucerian tradition is not +helpful, or even possible. His restlessness leads us at times to a +comparison with Skelton, not in respect of any parallelism of +idea or literary craftsmanship, but in his experimental zeal in +turning the diction and tuning the rhythms of the chaotic +English which only Chaucer’s genius had reduced to order. The +comparison must not, however, be pushed too far. Skelton’s +work carries with it the interest of attempt and failure. Dunbar’s +command of the medium was more certain. So that while we +admire the variety of his work, we also admire the competence of +his effort.</p> + +<p>One hundred and one poems have been ascribed to Dunbar. +Of these at least ninety are generally accepted as his: of the +eleven attributed to him it would be hard to say that they should +not be considered authentic. Most doubt has clung to his verse +tale <i>The Freiris of Berwik</i>.</p> + +<p>Dunbar’s chief allegorical poems are <i>The Goldyn Targe</i> and <i>The +Thrissil and the Rois</i>. The motif of the former is the poet’s +futile endeavour, in a dream, to ward off the arrows of Dame +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +Beautee by Reason’s “scheld of gold.” When wounded and +made prisoner, he discovers the true beauty of the lady: when +she leaves him, he is handed over to Heaviness. The noise of the +ship’s guns, as the company sails off, wakes the poet to the real +pleasures of a May morning. Dunbar works on the same theme +in a shorter poem, known as <i>Beauty and the Prisoner</i>. <i>The +Thrissil and the Rois</i> is a prothalamium in honour of James IV. +and Margaret Tudor, in which the heraldic allegory is based on +the familiar beast-parliament.</p> + +<p>The greater part of Dunbar’s work is occasional—personal and +social satire, complaints (in the style familiar in the minor verse of +Chaucer’s English successors), orisons and pieces of a humorous +character. The last type shows Dunbar at his best, and points +the difference between him and Chaucer. The best specimen of +this work, of which the outstanding characteristics are sheer +whimsicality and topsy-turvy humour, is <i>The Ballad of Kynd +Kittok</i>. This strain runs throughout many of the occasional +poems, and is not wanting in odd passages in Dunbar’s contemporaries; +and it has the additional interest of showing a +direct historical relationship with the work of later Scottish poets, +and chiefly with that of Robert Burns. Dunbar’s satire is never +the gentle funning of Chaucer: more often it becomes invective. +Examples of this type are <i>The Satire on Edinburgh</i>, <i>The General +Satire</i>, the <i>Epitaph on Donald Owre</i>, and the powerful vision of +<i>The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Synnis</i>. In the <i>Flyting of Dunbar +and Kennedie</i>, an outstanding specimen of a favourite northern +form, analogous to the continental <i>estrif</i>, or <i>tenzone</i>, he and his +rival reach a height of scurrility which is certainly without +parallel in English literature. This poem has the additional +interest of showing the racial antipathy between the “Inglis”-speaking +inhabitants of the Lothians and the “Scots” or +Gaelic-speaking folk of the west country.</p> + +<p>There is little in Dunbar which may be called lyrical, and +little of the dramatic. His <i>Interlud of the Droichis</i> [<i>Dwarf’s</i>] <i>part +of the Play</i>, one of the pieces attributed to him, is supposed to be a +fragment of a dramatic composition. It is more interesting as +evidence of his turn for whimsicality, already referred to, and may +for that reason be safely ascribed to his pen. If further selection +be made from the large body of miscellaneous poems, the comic +poem on the physician Andro Kennedy may stand out as one of +the best contributions to medieval Goliardic literature; <i>The +Two Mariit Wemen and the Wedo</i>, as one of the richest and most +effective <i>pastiches</i> in the older alliterative style, then used by the +Scottish Chaucerians for burlesque purposes; <i>Done is a battell on +the Dragon Blak</i>, for religious feeling expressed in melodious +verse; and the well-known <i>Lament for the Makaris</i>. The main +value of the last is historical, but it too shows Dunbar’s mastery +of form, even when dealing with lists of poetic predecessors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authorities for the text of Dunbar’s poems are:— +(a) the Asloan MS. (<i>c.</i> 1515); (b) the Chepman and Myllar Prints +(1508) preserved in the Advocates’ library, Edinburgh; (c) Bannatyne +MS. (1568) in the same; (d) the Maitland Folio MS. (<i>c.</i> 1570-1590) +in the Pepysian library, Magdalene College, Cambridge. Some +of the poems appear in the Makculloch MS. (before 1500) in the +library of the university of Edinburgh; in MS. Cotton Vitellius +A. xvi., appendix to Royal MSS. No. 58, and Arundel 285, in the +British Museum; in the Reidpath MS. in the university library +of Cambridge; and in the Aberdeen Register of Sasines. The first +complete edition was published by David Laing (2 vols., Edinburgh, +1834) with a supplement (Edinburgh, 1865). This has been superseded +by the Scottish Text Society’s edition (ed. John Small, Aeneas +J.G. Mackay and Walter Gregor, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1893), and +by Dr Schipper’s 1 vol. edition (Vienna; Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften, +1894). The editions by James Paterson (Edinburgh, 1860) +and H.B. Baildon (Cambridge, 1907) are of minor value. Selections +have been frequently reprinted since Ramsay’s <i>Ever-Green</i> (1724) +and Hailes’s <i>Ancient Scottish Poems</i> (1817). For critical accounts +see Irving’s <i>History of Scottish Poetry</i>, Henderson’s <i>Vernacular +Poetry of Scotland</i>, Gregory Smith’s <i>Transition Period</i>, J.H. Millar’s +<i>Literary History of Scotland</i>, and the <i>Cambridge History of English +Literature</i>, vol. ii. (1908). Professor Schipper’s <i>William Dunbar, +sein Leben und seine Gedichte</i> (with German translations of several +of the poems), appeared at Berlin in 1884.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. G. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNBAR<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (Gaelic, “the fort on the point”), a royal, municipal +and police burgh, and seaport of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 3581. It is situated on the southern shore of the +entrance to the Firth of Forth, 29¼ m. E. by N. of Edinburgh by +the North British railway. Dunbar is said to have the smallest +rainfall in Scotland and is a favourite summer resort. The ruins +of the castle, and the remains of the Grey Friars’ monastery, +founded in 1218, at the west end of the town, and Dunbar House +in High Street, formerly a mansion of the Lauderdales, but now +used as barracks, are of historic interest. The parish church, a +fine structure in red sandstone, the massive tower of which, 107 ft. +high, is a landmark for sailors, dates only from 1819, but occupies +the site of what was probably the first collegiate church in +Scotland, and contains the large marble monument to Sir George +Home, created earl of Dunbar and March by James VI. in 1605. +Among other public buildings are the town hall, assembly rooms, +St Catherine’s hall, the Mechanics’ institute and library.</p> + +<p>There are two harbours, difficult of access owing to the number of +reefs and sunken rocks. Towards the cost of building the eastern +or older harbour Cromwell contributed £300. The western or +Victoria harbour is a refuge for vessels between Leith Roads and +the Tyne. On the advent of steam the shipping declined, and +even the herring fishery, which fostered a large curing trade, has +lost much of its prosperity. The industries are chiefly those +of agricultural-implement making, rope-making, brewing and +distilling, but a considerable business is done in the export of +potatoes. Dunbar used to form one of the Haddington district +group of parliamentary burghs, but its constituency was merged +in that of the county in 1885.</p> + +<p>About 4 m. S.W. is the village of Biel, where, according to some +authorities, William Dunbar the poet was born. One mile to the +S.E. of the town is Broxmouth Park (or Brocksmouth House), the +first position of the English left wing in the battle of 1650, now +belonging to the duke of Roxburghe.</p> + +<p>The site of Dunbar is so commanding that a castle was built on +the cliffs at least as early as 856. In 1070 Malcolm Canmore gave +it to Cospatric, earl of Northumberland, ancestor of the earls of +Dunbar and March. The fortress was an important bulwark +against English invasion, and the town—which was created a +royal burgh by David II.—grew up under its protection. The +castle was taken by Edward I., who defeated Baliol in the +neighbourhood in 1296, and it afforded shelter to Edward II. +after Bannockburn. In 1336 it was besieged by the English +under William, Lord Montacute, afterwards 1st earl of Salisbury, +but was successfully defended by Black Agnes of Dunbar, +countess of March, a member of the Murray family. Joanna +Beaufort, widow of James I., chose it for her residence, and in +1479, after his daring escape from Edinburgh Castle, the duke of +Albany concealed himself within its walls, until he contrived to +sail for France. In 1567 Mary made Bothwell keeper of the +castle, and sought its shelter herself after the murder of Rizzio +and again after her flight from Borthwick Castle. When she +surrendered at Carberry Hill the stronghold fell into the hands of +the regent Moray, by whom it was dismantled in 1568, but its +ruins are still a picturesque object on the hill above the harbour.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Battle of Dunbar</span> was fought on the 3rd (13th) of +September 1650 between the English army under Oliver Cromwell +and the Scots under David Leslie, afterwards Lord Newark. +It took place about 3 m. S.E. of the centre of the town, where +between the hills and the sea coast there is a plain about 1 m. +wide, through the middle of which the main road from Dunbar +to Berwick runs. The plain and the road are crossed at right +angles by the course of the Brocksburn, or Spott Burn, which +at first separated the hostile armies. Rising from the right bank +of the Brock is Doon Hill (650 ft.), which overlooks the lower +course of the stream and indeed the whole field. For the events +preceding the battle, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Cromwell, after a war of manœuvre near Edinburgh, had been +compelled by want of supplies to withdraw to Dunbar; Leslie +pursued and took up a position on Doon Hill, commanding the +English line of retreat on Berwick. The situation was more than +difficult for Cromwell. Some officers were for withdrawing by +sea, but the general chose to hold his ground, though his army +was enfeebled by sickness and would have to fight on unfavourable +terrain against odds of two to one. Leslie, however, who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span> +was himself in difficulties on his post among the bare hills, +and was perhaps subjected to pressure from civil authorities, +descended from the heights on the 2nd of September and began +to edge towards his right, in order first to confront, and afterwards +to surround, his opponent. The cavalry of his left wing +stood fast, west of Doon Hill, as a pivot of manœuvre, the northern +face of Doon (where the ground rises from the burn at an average +slope of fifteen degrees and is even steeper near the summit) he +left unoccupied. The centre of infantry stood on the forward +slope of the long spur which runs east from Doon, and beyond +them, practically on the plain, was the bulk of the Scottish +cavalry. In the evening Cromwell drew up his army, under +11,000 effective men, along the ravine, and issued orders +to attack the Scots at dawn of the 3rd (13th). The left +of the Scots was ineffective, as was a part of their centre +of foot on the upper part of the hillside, and the English commander +proposed to deal with the remainder. Before dawn +the English advanced troops crossed the ravine, attacked +Doon, and pinned Leslie’s left; under cover of this the +whole army began its manœuvre. The artillery was posted +on the Dunbar side of the burn, directly opposite and north of +Doon, the infantry and cavalry crossed where they could, and +formed up gradually in a line south of and roughly parallel to the +Berwick road, the extreme left of horse and foot, acting as a +reserve, crossed at Brocksmouth House on the outer flank. The +Scots were surprised in their bivouacs, but quickly formed up, +and at first repulsed both the horse and the foot. But ere long +Cromwell himself arrived with his reserve, and the whole English +line advanced again. The fresh impulse enabled it to break the +Scottish cavalry and repulse the foot, and Leslie’s line of battle +was gradually rolled up from right to left. In the words of an +English officer, “The sun appearing upon the sea, I heard Nol +say, ‘Now let God arise, and let His enemies be scattered,’ and +following us as we slowly marched I heard him say, ‘I profess they +run.’” Driven into the broken ground, and penned between +Doon Hill and the ravine, the Scots were indeed helpless. “They +routed one another after we had done their work on their right +wing,” says the same officer. Ten thousand men, including +almost the whole of the Scottish foot, surrendered, and their +killed numbered three thousand. Few of the English were +killed. “I do not believe,” wrote Cromwell, “that we have lost +twenty men.”</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:507px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img670.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<div class="condensed pt2"> +<p>The account of the battle of Dunbar here followed is that of C.H. +Firth, for which see his <i>Cromwell</i>, pp. 281 ff. and references there +given. For other accounts see Carlyle, <i>Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches</i>, +letter cxl.; Hoenig, <i>Cromwell</i>; Baldock, <i>Cromwell as a Soldier</i>; and +Gardiner, <i>Hist. of the Commonwealth and Protectorate</i>, vol. i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNBLANE,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, on the +left bank of Allan Water, a tributary of the Forth, 5 m. N. by W. +of Stirling by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2516. It is +a place of great antiquity, with narrow streets and old-fashioned +houses. The leading industry is the manufacture of woollens. +The cathedral is situated by the side of the river, and was one +of the few ecclesiastical edifices that escaped injury at the hands +of the Reformers. The first church is alleged to have been +erected by Blane, a saint of the 7th century, but the cathedral +<span class="correction" title="amended from as">was</span> founded by David I. in 1141, and almost entirely rebuilt +about 1240 by Bishop Clemens. Excepting the tower, which is +Early Norman and was probably incorporated from the earlier +structure, the building is of the Early Pointed style. It consists +of a nave (130 ft. long, 58 ft. wide, 50 ft. high), aisles, choir (80 ft. +long by 30 ft. wide), chapter-house and tower. Ruskin considered +that there was “nothing so perfect in its simplicity” +as the west window, the design of which resembles a leaf. After +the decline of episcopacy the building was neglected for a long +period, but the choir, which contains some carved oak stalls of +the 16th century, was restored in 1873, and the nave roofed and +restored in 1892-1895, under the direction of Sir Rowand +Anderson, the architect. From the time of the Reformation the +choir had been used as the parish church, but since its restoration +the whole cathedral has been devoted to this purpose. The new +oak roof is emblazoned with the arms of the Scottish and later +British monarchs, and of the old earls of Strathearn. Several +members of the families of Strathearn and Strathallan were buried +in the cathedral, and three stones of blue marble in the floor of +the choir are supposed to mark the graves of Lady Margaret +Drummond (b. 1472), mistress of James IV., and her two sisters, +daughters of Lord Drummond, who were mysteriously poisoned +in 1501. An ancient Celtic cross, 6½ ft. high, stands in the north-western +corner of the nave. Robert Leighton was the greatest of +the bishops of Dunblane, and held the see from 1661 to 1670. +The library of 1500 volumes which he bequeathed to the clergy +of the diocese is housed in a building with an outside stair, +standing near the cathedral, and the Bishop’s Walk by the +river also perpetuates his memory. Of the bishop’s palace only +a few ruins remain. The battlefield of Sheriffmuir is about 2½ m. +E. of the town. A mile and a half S. of Dunblane is the estate +of Keir which belonged to Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the +historian and art critic. The duke of Leeds derives the title of +one of his viscounties from Dunblane.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCAN,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> the name of two Scottish kings.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Duncan I.</span> (d. 1040) was a son of Crinan or Cronan, lay abbot +of Dunkeld, and became king of the Scots in succession to his +maternal grandfather, Malcolm II., in 1034, having previously +as <i>rex Cumbrorum</i> ruled in Strathclyde. His accession was +“the first example of inheritance of the Scottish throne in the +direct line.” Duncan is chiefly known through his connexion +with Macbeth, which has been immortalized by Shakespeare. +The feud between these two princes originated probably in a +dispute over the succession to the throne; its details, however, +are obscure, and the only fact which can be ascertained with any +certainty is that Duncan was slain by Macbeth in 1040. Two +of Duncan’s sons, Malcolm III. Canmore and Donald V. Bane, +were afterwards kings of the Scots.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Duncan II.</span> (d. 1094) was a son of Malcolm III. and therefore +a grandson of Duncan I. For a time he lived as a hostage in +England and became king of the Scots after driving out his uncle, +Donald Bane, in 1093, an enterprise in which he was helped by +some English and Normans. He was killed in the following year.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.F. Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i> (1876-1880), and A. Lang, <i>History +of Scotland</i>, vol. i. (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCAN, ADAM DUNCAN,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> (1731-1804), +British naval commander, was born on the 1st of July 1731, +at Lundie, in Forfarshire, Scotland. After receiving the rudiments +of his education at Dundee, he was in 1746 placed under +Captain Haldane, of the “Shoreham” frigate, and in 1749 he +became a midshipman in the “Centurion.” In 1755 he was +appointed second lieutenant of the “Norwich,” but on the +arrival of that ship in America, whither, with the rest of Keppel’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +squadron, it had convoyed General Braddock’s forces, he was +transferred to the “Centurion.” Once again in England, he +was promoted to be second lieutenant of the “Torbay,” and +after three years on the home station he assisted in the attack +on the French settlement of Goree, on the African coast, in which +he was slightly wounded. He returned to England as first +lieutenant of the “Torbay”; and in 1759 was made a commander, +and in 1761 a post-captain. His vessel, the “Valiant” (74), +was Commodore Keppel’s flag-ship in the expedition against +Belle-Ile en Mer in that year, and also in 1762, when it took an +important part in the capture of Havana. In 1778, on the +recommencement of war with France, Captain Duncan was +appointed to the “Suffolk” (74), whence before the close of the +year he removed to the “Monarch” (74), one of the Channel +Fleet. On the 16th of January 1780, in an action off Cape +St Vincent, between a Spanish squadron under Don Juan de +Langara and the British fleet under Sir George Rodney, Captain +Duncan in the “Monarch” was the first to engage the enemy; +and in 1782, as captain of the “Blenheim” (90), he took part +in Lord Howe’s relief of Gibraltar. From the rank of rear-admiral +of the blue, received in 1789, he was gradually promoted +until, in 1799, he became admiral of the white. In February +1795 he hoisted his flag as commander-in-chief of the North Sea +fleet, appointed to harass the Batavian navy. Towards the +end of May 1797, though, in consequence of the widespread +mutiny in the British fleet, he had been left with only the +“Adamant” (50), besides his own ship the “Venerable” (74), +Admiral Duncan proceeded to his usual station off the Texel, +where lay at anchor the Dutch squadron of fifteen sail of the +line, under the command of Vice-Admiral de Winter. From +time to time he caused signals to be made, as if to the main +body of a fleet in the offing, a stratagem which probably was the +cause of his freedom from molestation until, in the middle of +June, reinforcements arrived from England. On the 3rd of +October the admiral put into Yarmouth Roads to refit and +victual his ships, but, receiving information early on the 9th +that the enemy was at sea, he immediately hoisted the signal +for giving him chase. On the morning of the 11th de +Winter’s fleet, consisting of 4 seventy-fours, 7 sixty-fours, 4 +fifty-gun ships, 2 forty-four-gun frigates, and 2 of thirty-two +guns, besides smaller vessels, was sighted lying about 9 m. +from shore, between the villages of Egmont and Camperdown. +The British fleet numbered 7 seventy-fours, 7 sixty-fours, 2 +fifties, 2 frigates, with a sloop and several cutters, and was +slightly superior in force to that of the Dutch. Shortly after +mid-day the British ships, without waiting to form in order, +broke through the Dutch line, and an engagement commenced +which, after heavy loss on both sides, resulted in the taking by +the British of eleven of the enemy’s vessels. When the action +ceased the ships were in nine fathoms water, within 5 m. of +a lee shore, and there was every sign of an approaching gale. +So battered were the prizes that it was found impossible to fit +them for future service, and one of them, the “Delft,” sank +on her way to England. In recognition of this victory, Admiral +Duncan was, on the 21st of October, created Viscount Duncan +of Camperdown and baron of Lundie, with an annual pension +of £3000 to himself and the two next heirs to his title. The +earldom of Camperdown was created for his son Robert (1785-1859) +in 1831, and is still in the possession of his descendants. +In 1800 Lord Duncan withdrew from naval service. He died +on the 4th of August 1804.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Charnock, <i>Biog. Nav.</i> (1794-1796); Collins, <i>Peerage of England</i>, +p. 378 (1812); W. James, <i>Naval History of Great Britain</i> (1822); +Yonge, <i>History of the British Navy</i>, vol. i. (1863); Earl of Camperdown, +<i>Admiral Duncan</i> (1898), vol. xvi. of the Navy Record Soc. +Publications, contains the logs of the ships engaged in the battle of +Camperdown.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCAN, PETER MARTIN<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1824-1891), English palaeontologist, +was born on the 20th of April 1824 at Twickenham, and +was educated partly at the local grammar school and partly in +Switzerland. Having entered the medical department of King’s +College, London, in 1842, he obtained the degree of M.B. (Lond.) +in 1846, and then acted for a short time as assistant to a doctor +at Rochester. Subsequently he practised at Colchester (1848-1860), +and during this period he served for a year as mayor of +the city. Returning to London in 1860 he practised for a few +years at Blackheath, and then gave his time entirely to scientific +research, first in botany, and later in geology and palaeontology. +His attention was directed especially to fossil corals, and in +1863 he contributed to the Geological Society of London the +first of a series of papers on the fossil corals of the West Indian +Islands in which he not only described the species, but discussed +their bearings on the physical geography of the Tertiary period. +Corals from various parts of the world and from different +geological formations were subsequently dealt with by Duncan, +and he came to be regarded as a leading authority on these +fossils. He prepared also for the Palaeontographical Society +(1866-1872) an important work on British fossil corals, as a +supplement to the monograph by Henri Milne-Edwards and +Jules Haime. He was elected F.R.S. in 1868. In 1870 he was +chosen professor of geology at King’s College. He was president +of the Geological Society (1876-1877), and in 1881 was awarded +the Wollaston medal. In addition to papers on fossil corals, +he dealt with some of the living forms, also with the Echinoidea +and other groups, recent and fossil. He edited the six volumes +of Cassell’s <i>Natural History</i> (1877, &c.). He died at Gunnersbury +on the 28th of May 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCAN, THOMAS<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1807-1845), Scottish portrait and +historical painter, was born at Kinclaven, in Perthshire. He +was educated at the Perth Academy, and began the study of +the law, but abandoned it for art. Beginning under the instruction +of Sir William Allan, he early attained distinction as a +delineator of the human figure; and his first pictures established +his fame so completely, that at a very early age he was appointed +professor of colouring, and afterwards of drawing, in the Trustees’ +Academy of Edinburgh. In 1840 he painted one of his finest +pictures, “Prince Charles Edward and the Highlanders entering +Edinburgh after the Battle of Prestonpans,” which secured his +election as an associate of the Royal Academy in 1843. In the +same year he produced his picture of “Charles Edward asleep +after Culloden, protected by Flora MacDonald,” which, like +many other of his works, has been often engraved. In 1844 +appeared his “Cupid” and his “Martyrdom of John Brown +of Priesthill.” His last work was a portrait of himself, now in +the National Gallery in Edinburgh. He particularly excelled +in his portraits of ladies and children. He died in Edinburgh +on the 25th of May 1845.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCE,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a slow or stupid person, one incapable of learning. +The word is derived from the name of the great schoolman, John +Duns Scotus, whose works on logic, theology and philosophy +were accepted text-books in the universities from the 14th +century. “Duns” or “Dunsman” was a name early applied +by their opponents to the followers of Duns Scotus, the Scotists, +and hence was equivalent to one devoted to sophistical distinctions +and subtleties. When, in the 16th century, the Scotists +obstinately opposed the “new learning,” the term “duns” or +“dunce” became, in the mouths of the humanists and reformers, +a term of abuse, a synonym for one incapable of scholarship, +a dull blockhead.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCKER, MAXIMILIAN WOLFGANG<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1811-1886), German +historian and politician, eldest son of the publisher Karl Duncker, +was born at Berlin on the 15th of October 1811. He studied +at the universities of Bonn and Berlin till 1834, was then accused +of participation in the students’ societies, which the government +was endeavouring to suppress, and was condemned to six years’ +imprisonment, afterwards reduced to six months. He had +already begun his labours as a historian, but after serving his +sentence in 1837, found himself debarred till 1839 from completing +his course at Halle, where in 1842 he obtained a professorship. +Elected to the National Assembly at Frankfort in 1848, he joined +the Right Centre party, and was chosen reporter of the projected +constitution. He sat in the Erfurt assembly in 1850, and in the +second Prussian chamber from 1849 to 1852. During the crisis in +Schleswig and Holstein in 1850 he endeavoured in person to aid +the duchies in their struggles. An outspoken opponent of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span> +policy of Manteuffel, he was refused promotion by the Prussian +government, and in 1857 accepted the professorship of history +at Tubingen. In 1859, however, he was recalled to Berlin as +assistant in the ministry of state in the Auerswald cabinet, and +in 1861 was appointed councillor to the crown prince. In 1867 +he became director of the Prussian archives, with which it was +his task to incorporate those of Hanover, Hesse and Nassau. +He retired on the 1st of January 1875, and died at Ansbach on +the 21st of July 1886. Duncker’s eminent position among +German historians rests mainly on his <i>Geschichte des Alterthums</i> +(1st ed., 1852-1857); 5th ed. in 9 vols., 1878-1886; (English +translation by Evelyn Abbott, 1877-1882). He edited, with +J.G. Droysen, <i>Preussische Staatsschriften</i>, <i>Politische Correspondenz +Friedrichs des Grossen</i>, and <i>Urkunden und Actenstucke +zur Geschichte des Kurfursten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg</i>. +To the period of his political activity belong <i>Zur Geschichte der +deutschen Reichsversammlung in Frankfurt</i> (1849); <i>Heinrich +von Gagern</i> (1850), in the series of <i>Manner der Gegenwart</i>; and +the anonymous <i>Vier Monate auswartiger Politik</i> (1851). His +other works include <i>Origines Germanicae</i> (1840); the lectures +<i>Die Krisis der Reformation</i> (1845) and <i>Feudalitat und Aristokratie</i> +(1858); <i>Aus der Zeit Friedrichs des Grossen und Friedrich +Wilhelms III. Abhandlungen zur preussischen Geschichte</i> (1876); +followed after his death by <i>Abhandlungen aus der griechischen +Geschichte</i> and <i>Abhandlungen aus der neueren Geschichte</i> (1887).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCKLEY, HENRY<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1823-1896), English journalist, was +born at Warwick on the 24th of December 1823. Educated +at the Baptist college at Accrington, Lancashire, and at Glasgow +University, he became in 1848 minister of the Baptist church +at Salford, Lancashire. Here he closely investigated the educational +needs of the working-classes, embodying the results of his +inquiries in an essay, <i>The Glory and the Shame of Britain</i> (1851), +which gained a prize offered by the Religious Tract Society. +In 1852 he won the Anti-Corn-law League’s prize with an essay +on the results of the free-trade policy, published in 1854 under +the title <i>The Charter of the Nations</i>. In 1855 he abandoned +the ministry to edit the <i>Manchester Examiner and Times</i>, a +prominent Liberal newspaper, in charge of which he remained +till 1889. For twenty years he wrote, over the signature +“Verax,” weekly letters to the Manchester papers; those on +<i>The Crown and the Cabinet</i> (1877) and <i>The Crown and the Constitution</i> +(1878) evoked so much enthusiasm that a public subscription +was set on foot to present the writer with a handsome +testimonial for his public services. In 1878 Dunckley, who had +often declined to stand for parliament, was elected a member of +the Reform Club in recognition of his services to the Liberal +party, and in 1883 he was made an LL.D. by Glasgow University. +He died at Manchester on the 29th of June 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNCOMBE, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1648-1711), English politician, +was a London apprentice, who became a goldsmith and a banker; +he amassed great wealth in his calling and was chosen an alderman +of the city of London in 1683. Duncombe’s parliamentary career +began in 1685, when he was elected member of parliament for +Hedon, and he was afterwards one of the representatives of +Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight and of Downton in Wiltshire. +He was made receiver of the customs, and upon the flight of +James II. from England in 1688 refused to forward to him the sum +of £1500 as requested; accordingly his name alone was excepted +from the pardon issued by the exiled king in 1692. A strong +Tory, Duncombe held for a short time the office of receiver of the +excise, and in this capacity he profited slightly by a transaction +over some exchequer bills which had been falsely endorsed. +Consequently he was imprisoned by the House of Commons, and +expelled from parliament; and having been released by order +of the House of Lords, where his friends were more powerful, +he was again imprisoned by the Commons. Tried before the +court of king’s bench he was found “not guilty” on two occasions +and the matter was allowed to drop. Duncombe made three +unsuccessful attempts to enter parliament as member for the city +of London, and then represented Downton a second time from +1702 until his death. In 1699 he was knighted, and in 1709 he +served as lord mayor of London. Upon retiring from business +in 1695 Duncombe caused some stir by giving the representatives +of the duke of Buckingham a high price for an estate at Helmsley +in Yorkshire, where he built a magnificent house.</p> + +<p>He died at his residence at Teddington on the 9th of April +1711, and much of his great wealth passed to his sister, Ursula, +wife of Thomas Browne, who took the name of Duncombe. +Ursula’s great-grandson, Charles Duncombe (1764-1841), was +created Baron Feversham in 1826, and in 1868 his grandson, +William Ernest, the 3rd baron (b. 1829), was made earl of +Feversham. Sir Charles Duncombe’s nephew, Anthony Duncombe +(<i>c.</i> 1695-1763), who was made a baron in 1747, left an +only daughter, Anne (1757-1829), who married Jacob Pleydell-Bouverie, +2nd earl of Radnor, by whom she was the ancestress +of the succeeding earls of Radnor.</p> + +<p>A celebrated member of the Duncombe family was <span class="sc">Thomas +Slingsby Duncombe</span> (1796-1861), a Radical politician, who was +member of parliament for Hertford from 1826 to 1832 and for +Finsbury from 1834 until his death. Duncombe defended Lord +Durham’s administration of Canada; he sought to obtain the +release of John Frost and other Chartists, whose immense +petition he presented to parliament in 1842; and he interested +himself in the affairs of Charles II., the deposed duke of Brunswick. +He showed a practical sympathy with Mazzini, whose +letters had been opened by order of the English government, by +urging for an inquiry into this occurrence; and also with Kossuth. +He died at Lancing on the 13th of November 1861.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Correspondence of T.S. Duncombe</i>, edited by T.H. +Duncombe (1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNDALK,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a seaport of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the north +parliamentary division, on the Castletown river near its mouth in +Dundalk Bay. Pop. of urban district (1901), 13,076. It is an +important junction on the Great Northern railway, by the main +line of which it is 54 m. N. from Dublin. The company has its +works here, and a line diverges to the north-west of Ireland. +Dundalk is connected with the port of Greenore (for Holyhead) by +a line owned by the London & North-Western railway company of +England. The parish church is an old and spacious edifice with a +curious wooden steeple covered with copper; and the Roman +Catholic chapel is a handsome building in the style of King’s +College chapel, Cambridge. There are ruins of a Franciscan +priory, with a lofty tower. Adjacent to the town are several +fine parks and demesnes. Until 1885 a member was returned +to parliament. A brisk trade, chiefly in agricultural and dairy +produce, is carried on, and the town contains some manufactories. +Distilling and brewing are the principal industrial works, and +there are besides a flax and jute-spinning mill, salt works, &c. +The port is the seat of a considerable trade, mainly in agricultural +produce and live stock. It is also the centre of a sea-fishery +district and of salmon fisheries. Dundalk was a borough +by prescription, and received charters from Edward III. and +successive monarchs. Edward Bruce, having invaded Ireland +from Scotland in 1315, proceeded south from his landing-place in +Antrim, ravaging as he came, to Dundalk, which he stormed, and +proclaimed himself king here. In this neighbourhood, too, he was +defeated and killed by the English under Sir John de Bermingham +in 1318, and at Faughart near Dundalk, near the ruined church of +St Bridget, he is buried.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNDEE, JOHN GRAHAM OF CLAVERHOUSE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> +(<i>c.</i> 1649-1689), Scottish soldier, was the elder son of Sir William +Graham and Lady Madeline Carnegie. Of his youth little record +has been kept; but in the year 1665 he became a student at the +university of St Andrews. His education was upon the whole +good, as appears from the varied and valuable correspondence of +his later years. Young Graham was destined for a military +career; and after about four years he proceeded abroad as a +volunteer in the service of France. In 1673 or 1674 he went to +Holland, and obtained a cornetcy, and he was soon raised to the +rank of captain, as a reward for having saved the life of the +prince of Orange at the battle of Seneff. A few years later, +being disappointed in his hopes of obtaining a regiment, Graham +resigned his commission. In the beginning of 1677 he returned to +England, bearing, it is said, letters of strong recommendation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +from the prince to Charles II. and the duke of York. In 1678 he +became a lieutenant, and soon afterwards captain of a troop, in +the regiment commanded by his relative the marquis of Montrose. +The task before him was the suppression of the Covenanters’ +rebellion. To this he brought, over and above the feelings of +romantic loyalty and the cavalier spirit, which in his case was +free from its usual defects, a hatred of the Covenanters which was +based largely on his hero-worship of the great Montrose. Further, +his uncompromising disposition and unmistakable capacity at +once marked him out as a leader upon whom the government +could rely. But the difficulties of his task, the open or secret +hostility of the whole people, and the nature and extent of the +country he was required to watch, were too great for the leader of +a small body of cavalry, and in spite of his vigorous and energetic +action, Graham accomplished but little. He entered, however, +upon his occupation with zest, and interpreted consistently the +orders he received. There is evidence, also, that his efforts were +appreciated at headquarters in his appointment, jointly with the +laird of Earlshall, his subaltern, to the office of sheriff-depute of +Dumfries and Annandale in March 1679, with powers—specially +narrated in his commission—anent “separation,” conventicles, +“disorderly baptisms and marriages,” and the like.</p> + +<p>For some years thereafter the position of Graham was in the +highest degree difficult and delicate. In the midst of enemies, +and in virtue of the most erroneous but direct orders of his +government, he combined the functions of soldier, spy, prosecutor +and judge. Shortly after the murder of Archbishop +Sharp (1679), he was summoned to increased activity. There +were reports of rebels gathering near Glasgow, and Graham went +in pursuit. On the 1st of June, the Covenanters being in a well-protected +position upon the marshy ground of Drumclog, +Graham advanced to the attack. Hindered by the ground, he had +to wait till the impatience of his adversaries induced them to +commence an impetuous attack. The charge of the Covenanters +routed the royal cavalry, who turned and fled, Graham himself +having a narrow escape. This was the only regular engagement +he had with the Covenanters. The enthusiasm raised by this +victory was the beginning of a serious and open rebellion.</p> + +<p>On the 22nd of June Graham was present at the battle of +Bothwell Bridge, at the head of his own troop. Immediately +thereafter he was commissioned to search the south-western +shires for those who had taken part in the insurrection. In this +duty he seems to have been engaged till the early part of 1680, +when he disappears for a time from the record of these stringent +measures. The wide powers given to him by his commission +were most sparingly used, and the gravest accusation made +against him in reference to this period is that he was a +robber.</p> + +<p>He was, in any case, an advocate of rigorous measures, and his +own systematic and calculated terrorism, directed principally +against the ringleaders, proved far more efficacious than the +irregular and haphazard brutalities of other commanders. +During these months he was despatched to London, along with +Lord Linlithgow, to influence the mind of Charles II. against +the indulgent method adopted by Monmouth with the extreme +Covenanting party. The king seems to have been fascinated by +his loyal supporter, and from that moment Graham was destined +to rise in rank and honours. Early in 1680 he obtained a royal +grant of the barony of the outlawed Macdougal of Freuch, and +the grant was after some delay confirmed by subsequent orders +upon the exchequer in Scotland. In April 1680 it appears that +his roving commission had been withdrawn by the privy council. +He is thus free from all concern with the severe measures which +followed the Sanquhar Declaration of the 22nd of June 1680.</p> + +<p>The turbulence occasioned by the passing of the Test Act of +1681 required to be quelled by a strong hand; and in the beginning +of the following year Graham was again commissioned to +act in the disaffected districts. In the end of January he was +appointed to the sheriffships of Wigtown, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright +and Annandale. He retained his commission in the +army—the pernicious combination of his offices being thus +repeated. He appears further to have had powers of life and +death in virtue of a commission of justiciary granted to him +about the same time. These powers he exercised strictly and in +conformity with the tenor of his orders, which were not more +severe than he himself desired. He quartered on the rebels, +rifled their houses, and, to use his own words, “endeavoured to +destroy them by eating up their provisions.” The effect of his +policy, if we believe his own writ, is not overstated as</p> + +<p class="center f90">“Death, desolation, ruin and decay.”</p> + +<p>The result of a bitter quarrel between Graham and Sir John +Dalrymple, who, with many others of the gentry, was far from +active in the execution of the government’s orders, confirmed +his prestige. Graham was acquitted by the privy council of +the charges of exaction and oppression preferred against him, +and Sir John condemned to fine and imprisonment for interference +with his proceedings. In December 1682 Graham was appointed +colonel of a new regiment raised in Scotland. He had still +greater honours in view. In January 1683 the case of the earl +of Lauderdale, late Maitland of Hatton, was debated in the +House of Lords. Maitland was proprietor of the lands and +lordship of Dundee and Dudhope, and the decree of the Lords +against him was in March 1683 issued for the sum of £72,000. +Graham succeeded in having part of the property of the defaulter +transferred to him by royal grant, and in May he was nominated +to the privy council of Scotland.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards Claverhouse was appointed to be present +at the sittings of the Circuit Court of Justiciary in Stirling, +Glasgow, Dumfries and Jedburgh, recently instituted for the +imposition of the test and the punishment of rebels. Several +were sentenced to death. During the rest of the year he attended +the meetings of council, in which he displayed the spirit of an +obedient soldier rather than that of a statesman capable of +independent views. There is, however, one record of his direct +and efficacious interference. He declared decisively against +the proposal to let loose the Highland marauders upon the +south of Scotland.</p> + +<p>In June 1684 he was again at his old employment—the +inspection of the southern shires; and in August he was commissioned +as second in command of the forces in Ayr and Clydesdale +to search out the rebels. By this time he was in possession +of Dudhope, and on the 10th of June he married Lady Jean, +daughter of William, Lord Cochrane. As constable of Dundee +he recommended the remission of extreme punishment in the +case of many petty offences. He issued from his retirement to +take part in a commission of lieutenancy which perambulated +the southern districts as a criminal court; and in the end of +the year he was again in the same region on the occasion of +disturbances in the town of Kirkcudbright.</p> + +<p>Shortly after the death of Charles II. (February 1685) Graham +incurred a temporary disgrace by his deposition from the office +of privy councillor; but in May he was reinstated, although +his commission of justiciary, which had expired, was not renewed.</p> + +<p>In May 1685 he was ordered with his cavalry to guard the +borders, and to scour the south-west in search of rebels. By +act of privy council, a certificate was required by all persons +over sixteen years of age to free them from the hazard of attack +from government officials. Without that they were at once liable +to be called upon oath to abjure the declaration of Renwick, +which was alleged to be treasonable. While on this mission he +pursued and overtook two men, one of whom, John Brown, +called the “Christian carrier,” having refused the abjuration +oath, was shot dead. The order was within the authorized +powers of Graham.</p> + +<p>In 1686 he was promoted to the rank of major-general, and +had added to his position of constable the dignity of provost of +Dundee. In 1688 he was second in command to General Douglas +in the army which had been ordered to England to aid the falling +dynasty of the Stuarts.</p> + +<p>His influence with James II. was great and of long standing, +and amid the hurry of events in this critical time he was created +Viscount Dundee on the 12th of November 1688. Throughout the +vexed journeyings of the king, Dundee is found accompanying +or following him, endeavouring in vain to prompt him to make +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +his stand in England, and fight rather than flee from the +invader. At last James announced his resolve to go to France, +promising that he would send Dundee a commission to command +the troops in Scotland.</p> + +<p>Dundee returned to Scotland in anticipation of the meeting +of the convention, and at once exerted himself to confirm the +waning resolution of the duke of Gordon with regard to holding +Edinburgh Castle for the king. The convention proving hostile +(March 16th, 1688), he conceived the idea of forming another +convention at Stirling to sit in the name of James II., but the +hesitancy of his associates rendered the design futile, and it +was given up. Previous to this, on the 18th of March, he had +left Edinburgh at the head of a company of fifty dragoons, who +were strongly attached to his person. He was not long gone +ere the news was brought to the alarmed convention that he +had been seen clambering up the castle rock and holding conference +with the duke of Gordon. In excitement and confusion +order after order was despatched in reference to the fugitive. +Dundee retired to Dudhope. On the 30th of March he was +publicly denounced as a traitor, and in the latter half of April +attempts were made to secure him at Dudhope, and at his +residence in Glen Ogilvy. But the secrecy and speed of his +movements outwitted his pursuers, and he retreated to the +north.</p> + +<p>In the few years which had elapsed since 1678 he had risen, +despite the opposition of his superiors in rank, from the post of +captain and the social status of a small Scottish laird to positions +as a soldier and statesman and the favourite of his sovereigns, +of the greatest dignity, influence and wealth. In this period +he had, justly or unjustly, earned the reputation of being a +cruel and ruthless oppressor. When the ruling dynasty changed, +and he had himself become an outlaw and a rebel, he supported +the cause of his exiled monarch with such skill and valour +that his name and death are recorded as heroic.</p> + +<p>In the Highlands his diplomatic skill was used with effect +amongst the chieftains. General Hugh Mackay was now in the +field against him, and a Highland chase began. The campaign +resembled those of Montrose forty years earlier. The regular +troops were at a great disadvantage in the wild Highland country, +and Dundee, like Montrose, invariably anticipated his enemy. +But, as usual, the army of the clans required the most careful +management. After the first few weeks of operations, Dundee’s +army melted away, and Mackay, unable to follow his opponent, +retired also.</p> + +<p>Throughout the whole of the campaign Dundee was indefatigable +in his exertions with the Highland chiefs and his +communications with his exiled king. To the day of his death +he believed that formidable succour for his cause was about to +arrive from Ireland and France. He justly considered himself +at the head of the Stewart interest in Scotland, and his despatches +form a record of the little incidents of the campaign, strangely +combined with a revelation of the designs of the statesman. +It mattered little to him that on the 24th of July a price of +£20,000 had been placed upon his head. The clans had begun +to reassemble; he was now in command of a considerable force, +and in July both sides took the field again. A contest for the +castle of Blair forced on the decision. Mackay, in his march +towards that place, entered the pass of Killiecrankie, the battleground +selected by Dundee and his officers. Here, on the 17th-27th +of July 1689, was fought the battle of Killiecrankie (<i>q.v.</i>). +The Highlanders were completely victorious, but their leader, +in the act of encouraging his men, was pierced beneath the +breastplate by a bullet of the enemy, and fell dying from his +horse. Dundee asked “How goes the day?” of a soldier, who +replied, “Well for King James, but I am sorry for your lordship.” +The dying general replied, “If it goes well for him, it matters +the less for me.” Dundee was conveyed to the castle of Blair, +where he died on the night of the battle. Within an hour or +two of his death he wrote a short account of the engagement to +King James. The battle, disastrous as it was to the government +forces, was in reality the end of the insurrection, for the controlling +and commanding genius of the rebellion was no more. The +death of Dundee, in the mist and the confusion of a cavalry +charge, formed the subject of numerous legends, the best known +of which is the long prevalent tradition that he was invulnerable +to all bullets and was killed by a silver button from his own +coat.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mark Napier, <i>Memorials and Letters of Graham of Claverhouse</i> +(1859-1862); Bannatyne Club, <i>Letters of the Viscount Dundee</i> (1826); +C.S. Terry, <i>John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee</i>; and +authorities quoted in <i>Dict. Nat. Biogr.</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Graham of Claverhouse.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNDEE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a royal, municipal and police burgh, county of a +city, and seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 153,587; +(1901) 161,173. It lies on the north shore of the Firth of Tay, +59¼ m. N. by E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway via +the Forth and Tay bridges. The Caledonian railway finds access +to the city by way of Perth, which is distant about 22 m. W. by +S. The general disposition of the town is from east to west, +with a frontage on the water of 4 m. The area northwards that +has already been built over varies in depth from half a mile +to nearly 2½ m. (from Esplanade Station to King’s Cross). The +city rises gradually from the river to Dundee Law and Balgay +Hill. Since the estuary to the E. of Tay bridge is 1½ m. wide, +and the commodious docks—in immediate contact with the river +at all stages of the tide—are within 12 m. of the sea, the position +of the city eminently adapts it to be the emporium of a vast +trade by land and sea. But its prosperity is due in a far greater +measure to its manufactures of jute and linen—of which it is the +chief seat in the United Kingdom—than to its shipping.</p> + +<p><i>Public Buildings.</i>—The town-hall, built in 1734 from the +designs of Robert Adam, stands in High Street. It is surmounted +by a steeple 140 ft. high, carrying a good peal of bells, and beneath +it is a piazza. The old Town Cross, a shaft 15 ft. high, bearing +a unicorn with the date of 1586, once stood in High Street also, +but was re-erected within the enclosure on the S.W. of Town +Churches (see below). Albert Square, with statues of Robert +Burns, George Kinloch, the first member for Dundee in the +Reform Parliament (both by Sir John Steell), and James Carmichael +(1776-1853), inventor of the fan-blast (by John Hutchison, +R.S.A.), contains several good buildings, among them the +Royal Exchange in Flemish Pointed (erected in 1853-1856), +the Eastern Club-house, and the Albert Institute, founded in +memory of the prince consort. The last, built mainly from +designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, is one of the most important edifices +in the city, since it embraces the art gallery, free library, reference +library, museum and several halls. On the north side of the +building is the seated figure, in bronze, of Queen Victoria, on a +polished red granite pedestal containing bas-reliefs of episodes in +Her Majesty’s life, the work of Harry Bates, A.R.A. The custom +house, near the docks, is in Classical style and dates from 1843. +The Sheriff Court buildings and Police Chambers, a structure +of Grecian design, with a bold portico, was erected in 1864-1865. +The halls used for great public meetings are the Volunteer Drill +Hall in Parker Square, and Kinnaird Hall in Bank Street. Of +the newer streets, Commercial, Reform, Whitehall, Bank and +Lindsay contain many buildings of good design and the principal +shops. In Bank Street are the offices of the <i>Dundee Advertiser</i>, +the leading newspaper in the north-east of Scotland; and in +Lindsay Street the headquarters of the <i>Dundee Courier</i>. In +Dock Street stands the Royal Arch, an effective structure, +erected to commemorate the visit of Queen Victoria in 1844. +Among places of amusement are the Theatre Royal, the People’s +Palace theatre, the Music Hall, the Circus and the Gymnasium. +The cattle market and slaughter-houses, both on an extensive +scale, are in the east end of the city, not far from Camperdown +Dock. Dudhope Castle, once the seat of the Scrymgeours, +hereditary constables of the burgh—one of whom (Sir Alexander) +was a companion-in-arms of Wallace,—was granted by James II. +to John Graham of Claverhouse. On his death it reverted to the +crown, and at a later date was converted into barracks. When +the new barracks at Dudhope Park were occupied, the Castle +was transformed into an industrial museum. Though Dundee +was once a walled town, the only relic of its walls is the East Port, +the preservation of which was due to the tradition that George +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span> +Wishart preached from the top of it during the plague of +1544.</p> + +<p><i>Churches.</i>—Of the many churches and chapels the most interesting +is Town Churches—St Mary’s, St Paul’s and St +Clement’s, the three under one roof—surmounted by the noble +square tower, 156 ft. high, called the Old Steeple, once the belfry +of the church which was erected on this spot by David, earl of +Huntingdon, as a thank-offering for his escape from shipwreck +on the shoals at the mouth of the Tay (1193). The church +perished, but the bell-tower remained and was restored in 1871-1873 +by Sir Gilbert Scott. The fine Roman Catholic pro-cathedral +of St Andrew’s is in Early English style, and St Paul’s +Episcopal church, in Decorated Gothic style, with a spire 211 ft. +high, from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, was due to the zeal of +Bishop Forbes (1817-1875), who transferred the headquarters +of the see of Brechin to Dundee. It occupies the site of the old +castle. Memorial churches commemorate the work of Robert +Murray McCheyne (1813-1843) and of George Gilfillan (1813-1878), +long ministers in Dundee. John Glas (1695-1773), founder +of the Glasites (<i>q.v.</i>), ministered here from 1730 to 1733.</p> + +<p><i>Cemeteries.</i>—The ancient burying-ground in the centre of the +city is called the Howff. It has long been closed, but contains +several interesting monuments and epitaphs. Not far from it +the New Cemetery was laid out in West Bell Street; to the east +of Baxter Park lies the Eastern Cemetery; and the Western +Cemetery was constructed in Perth Road. The most beautifully +situated of all the burying-grounds, however, is the Western +Necropolis, which occupies the western portion of the hill of +Balgay. A bridge over the ravine connects it with Balgay Park.</p> + +<p><i>Public Parks and Open Spaces.</i>—On the N. of the city rises +Dundee Law (571 ft.), the property of the Corporation, a +prominent landmark, on the summit of which are traces of an old +vitrified fort. The surrounding park covers 18 acres. Near the +eastern boundary of the city lies Baxter Park, of 37 acres, presented +to the town by Sir David Baxter (1793-1872), a leading +manufacturer, and his sisters. It was laid out by Sir Joseph +Paxton, and contains a statue of Sir David by Sir John Steell, +erected by public subscription. In the west the finely wooded +hill of Balgay was acquired in 1869 and 36 acres of the area were +converted into a park. Immediately adjoining it on the north +is Lochee Park, of 25 acres, given to the city in 1891 by Messrs +Cox Brothers of Camperdown Works. In the extreme north +lies the park of Fair Muir, of 12 acres, which was secured in 1890, +and nearer to the heart of the town is Dudhope or Barrack Park, +purchased in 1893. Near the north end of the Tay bridge is +Magdalen Green, an old common of 17 acres, and along the shore +of the estuary there runs for a distance of 2½ m. from Magdalen +Point to beyond Craig Pier a promenade called the Esplanade.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—University College in Nethergate, founded in +1880 by Miss Baxter of Balgavies (d. 1884) and Dr John Boyd +Baxter, was opened in 1883, and united to the university of St +Andrews in 1890. The affiliation was cancelled in 1895 owing +to divergence of view in the governing body, but this was overcome +and the college finally incorporated in 1897. The staff +consists of a principal, professors and lecturers, and the curriculum, +which may be taken by students of both sexes, is especially +concerned with medicine and natural and applied science. +The endowments exceed £250,000. Adjoining the buildings +is the Technical Institute, built and endowed by Sir David +Baxter and opened in 1888. In connexion with the high school, +a building in the Doric style, dating from 1833, there is a museum +which was endowed in 1880 by Mr William Harris. Morgan +hospital, a structure in the Scots Baronial style, situated immediately +to the north of Baxter Park, was founded in 1868 by John +Morgan, a native of Dundee, for the board and education of +a hundred boys, sons of indigent tradesmen, but was acquired +by the school board and transformed into a secondary school. +Besides a high school for girls and Roman Catholic and Episcopalian +schools, there are numerous efficient and thoroughly +equipped board schools.</p> + +<p><i>Charitable Institutions.</i>—One of the most conspicuous buildings +in the city, occupying a prominent position in the centre, is the +Royal Infirmary, a fine structure in the Tudor style. On the +southern face of Balgay Hill stands the Royal Victoria hospital +for incurables, opened in 1889. In addition to the maternity +hospital and nurses’ home, there are several institutions devoted +to special afflictions and diseases—among them the Blind and +the Deaf and Dumb institutions, the Royal asylum, the fever +hospital at King’s Cross, and, in the parish of Mains—beyond +the municipal boundary—the Baldovan asylum for imbeciles, +founded in 1854 by Sir John Ogilvy and said to be the earliest +of its kind in Scotland, besides the smallpox and cholera hospital. +The large Dundee hospital adjoins the poorhouse, and an epidemic +hospital has been built in the Fair Muir district. One of the +convalescent homes is situated at Broughty Ferry. Among other +institutions are the Royal Orphan and the Wellburn Charitable +institutions, the rescue home for females, the sailors’ home and +Lady Jane Ogilvy’s orphanage in Mains.</p> + +<p><i>Trade.</i>—Hector Boece, in his <i>History and Croniklis of Scotland</i>, +thus quaintly writes of the manufactures of Dundee in the +opening of the 16th century—“Dunde, the toun quhair we wer +born; quhair mony virtewus and lauborius pepill ar in, making +of claith.” Jute is, <i>par excellence</i>, the industry of the city. +Enormous quantities of the raw material—estimated at 300,000 +tons a year—are imported directly from India in a fleet solely +devoted to this trade, and many of the factories in Bengal are +owned by Dundee merchants. Fabrics in jute range from the +roughest sacking to carpets of almost Oriental beauty. Another +staple industry is the linen manufacture, which is also one of the +oldest, although it was not till the introduction of steam power +that headway was made. Bell Mill, erected in 1806, was the +first work of any importance, and the first power-loom factory +dates from 1836. Now factories and mills are to be counted by +the score, and the jute, hemp and flax manufactures alone +employ about 50,000 hands, while the value of the combined +annual output exceeds £6,000,000. Some of the works are +planned on a colossal scale, and many of the buildings in respect +of design and equipment are among the finest and most complete +in the world. In the thriving quarter of Lochee are situated +the Camperdown Linen Works, covering an immense area and +employing more than 5000 hands. The chimney-stalk (282 ft. +high), in the style of an Italian campanile, built of parti-coloured +bricks with stone cornices, is a conspicuous feature. The chief +textile products are drills, ducks, canvas (for which the British +navy is the largest customer), ropes, sheetings, sackings and +carpets. Dundee is also celebrated for its confectionery and +preserves, especially marmalade. Among other prominent +industries are bleaching and dyeing, engineering, shipbuilding, +tanning, the making of boots and shoes and other goods in +leather, foundries, breweries, corn and flour mills, and the +construction of motor-cars.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping.</i>—By reason of its excellent docking facilities +Dundee can cope with a shipping trade of the largest proportions. +On the front wharves and harbour works extend for 2 m., and the +docks cover an area of 35½ acres, made up thus—Earl Grey Dock, +5¼ acres; King William IV. Dock, 6¼ acres; Tidal Harbour, 4¾ +acres; Victoria Dock, 10¾ acres; Camperdown Dock, 8½ acres. +There are, besides, graving docks, the Ferry harbour and timber +ponds. The warehouses are capacious and the ample quays +equipped with steam cranes and other modern appliances. In +1898 there entered and cleared 2914 vessels of 1,390,331 tons; in +1904 the numbers were 2428 vessels of 1,227,429 tons. At the +close of 1904 the registered shipping of the port was 131 vessels of +109,885 tons. Dundee is the seat of the Arctic fishery, once an +important and lucrative business, but now shrunk to the most +meagre dimensions in consequence of the increasing scarcity of +whales and seals. There is regular communication by steamer +with London, Hull, Newcastle, Liverpool and Leith, besides +Rotterdam, Hamburg and other continental ports. Of the local +excursions the two hours’ run to Perth is the favourite summer +trip.</p> + +<p><i>Local Government.</i>—Dundee returns two members to parliament. +The city council consists of the lord provost, bailies and +councillors. The corporation owns the gas and water supplies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +(the latter drawn from the loch of Lintrathen, 18 m. to the N.W.) +and the electric tramcars.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—There appears to be some doubt as to the origin of +the name of Dundee. It is extravagant to trace it to the Latin +<i>Donum Dei</i>, “the gift of God,” as some have done, or the Celtic +<i>Dun Dhia</i>, “the hill of God.” More probably it is the Gaelic +<i>Dun Taw</i>, “the fort of the Tay,” of which the Latin <i>Taodunum</i> +is a transliteration—the derivation pointing to the fact of a +Pictish settlement on the site. The earliest authentic mention of +the city is in a deed of gift by David, earl of Huntingdon, younger +brother of William the Lion, dated about 1200, in which it is +designated as “Dunde.” Shortly afterwards it was erected into +a royal burgh by William the Lion. When Edward I. visited it, +however, as he did twice (in 1296 and 1303) with hostile intent, +he is said to have removed its charter. Consequently Robert +Bruce and successive kings confirmed its privileges and rights, +and Charles I. finally granted it its great charter. Dundee played +a prominent part in the War of Scottish Independence. Here +Wallace finished his education, and here he slew young Selby, son +of the English constable, in 1291, for which deed he was outlawed. +In that year the town fell into the hands of the English, and it +was whilst engaged in besieging the castle in 1297 that Wallace +withdrew to fight the battle of Stirling Bridge. In their incursion +into Scotland under John of Gaunt the English captured and +partially destroyed the town in 1385, but retreated to meet a +counter-invasion of their own country. The English seized it +again for a brief space during one of the 1st earl of Hertford’s +devastating raids in the reign of Edward VI. Dundee bore such a +prominent part in propagating the Reformed doctrines that it was +styled “the Scottish Geneva.” It saw more trouble at the time +of the Civil War, for the marquess of Montrose sacked it in 1645, +and then gave a considerable portion of it to the flames. Charles +II. spent a few days in the castle after his crowning at Scone +(January 1st, 1651). In the same year General Monk demanded +the submission of the town to Cromwell, and on its refusal +captured it after an obstinate resistance and visited it with +condign punishment. More than one-sixth of the inhabitants and +garrison, including its governor Lumsden, were put to the sword, +and no fewer than 60 vessels were seized and filled with plunder; +but the ships, says Gumble in his <i>Life of Monk</i>, “were cast away +within sight of the town and that great wealth perished.” In +1684 John Graham of Claverhouse—whose family derived its +name from the lands of Claverhouse in the parish of Mains +immediately to the north of the town—became constable, and in +1688 provost. In the same year James II. created him Viscount +Dundee. Thenceforward the annals of the town cease to touch +national history, save at very rare intervals. The greatest local +disaster of modern times was the destruction of the first Tay +bridge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tay</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Many interesting old documents have been preserved in the +Town House, such as certain characteristic despatches from +Edward I. and Edward II., the original charter of Robert Bruce, +dated 1327, a papal order from Leo X., and a letter from Queen +Mary, dated 1564, providing for extra-mural interments. It may +be mentioned that to describe Claverhouse himself as “bonnie +Dundee” is a modern invention, the old song from which Sir +Walter Scott borrowed a hint for his refrain referring solely to +the town.</p> + +<p>Since the middle and particularly during the last quarter of the +19th century many of the more unsightly districts have been +demolished. In the process several picturesque but insanitary +buildings, narrow winding streets and unsavoury closes disappeared, +along with a few structures of more or less historic +interest, like the castle, the mint and numerous convents. The +wholesale clearances, however, improved both the public health +and the appearance of the city, some of the new thoroughfares +vieing with the finest business streets of the largest commercial +centres in the United Kingdom. Queen Victoria granted a +charter to Dundee, dated the 25th of January 1889, erecting it to +the status of a city, and since 1892 its chief magistrate has been +styled lord provost.</p> + +<p>Among men more or less eminent who were born in Dundee may +be named Hector Boece (1465-1536), the historian; George +Dempster of Dunnichen (1732-1818), the agriculturist, a former +owner of Skibo; Thomas Dick (1774-1857), the author of <i>The +Christian Philosopher</i>; Admiral Lord Duncan (1731-1804); +Viscount Dundee (1643-1689); James Halyburton (1518-1589), +the Scottish Reformer, who was provost of the town for +thirty-three years; Sir James Ivory (1765-1842), the mathematician, +who bequeathed his science library to the town, and +his nephew Lord Ivory (1792-1866), the judge; Sir George +Mackenzie (1636-1691), the celebrated lawyer; Sir Alexander +Scrymgeour (d. 1310), Wallace’s standard-bearer, and many of +the Scrymgeours, his successors, who were constables of the town; +James (1495-1553), John (1500-1556) and Robert Wedderburn +(1510-1557), the poets, who were all concerned in the authorship +or collection of the book of <i>Gude and Godlie Ballatis</i> published in +1578; Sir John Wedderburn (1599-1679), the physician; and +Sir Peter Wedderburn (1616-1679), the judge. Many well-known +persons lived for longer or shorter periods in the town. James +Chalmers (1782-1853), the inventor of the adhesive postage +stamp (1834), was a bookseller in Castle Street. George Constable +of Wallace Craigie, the prototype of Jonathan Oldbuck in Sir +Walter Scott’s <i>Antiquary</i>, had a residence in the east end of +Seagate, the house standing until about 1820. Thomas Hood’s +father was a native and the poet spent part of his youth in the +town, his first literary effort appearing in the <i>Dundee Advertiser</i> +about 1816. James Bowman Lindsay (1799-1862), electrician +and philologist, carried on his experiments for many years in +Dundee, where he died. Robert Nicoll (1814-1837), the poet, +kept a circulating library in Castle Street; and William Thom +(1798-1848), the writer of <i>The Rhymes of a Handloom Weaver</i>, +was buried in the Western Cemetery.</p> + +<p><i>Suburbs.</i>—Close to the municipal boundaries on the N.W. +lies Benvie, where John Playfair (1748-1819), the mathematician, +was born, and which has a mineral well that once enjoyed considerable +repute. Camperdown House, the seat of the earl of +Camperdown, a fine building of Greek design, standing in +beautiful grounds, is situated in the parish. Fowlis, 5 m. N.W., +is remarkable for its church, which dates from the 15th century, +but has even been assigned to the 12th. It contains a carved +ambry and rood-screen (with a curious representation of the +Crucifixion), decorated font, crocketed door canopy and several +pictures. The ruined castle adjoining the church ultimately +became a dwelling for labourers. The Dell of Balruddery is +rich in geological and botanical specimens. Lundie, 3 m. +farther out in the same direction, contains several lakelets, and +its kirkyard is the burial-place of the earls of Camperdown. +Tealing, 4 m. N. of Dundee, was the scene of the ministry of +John Glas before he was deposed for heresy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—David Barrie, <i>The City of Dundee Illustrated</i> +(Dundee, 1890); Alexander Maxwell, <i>Old Dundee</i> (Dundee, 1891); +A.C. Lamb, <i>Dundee: its Quaint and Historic Buildings</i> (Dundee, +1895); A.H. Millar, <i>Roll of Eminent Burgesses of Dundee</i> (Dundee, +1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNDERLANDSDAL,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a valley of northern Norway, in Nordland +<i>amt</i> (county), draining south-westward from the neighbouring +glaciers to the Ranenfjord (lat. 66° 20′ N.). There are +deposits of iron ore, the working of which was undertaken in +1902 by the Dunderland Iron Ore Company, water-power being +provided by the strong Dunderland river. There are also +pyrites mines. At the mouth of the river is Mo, a considerable +trading village. The valley is remarkable for several stalactite +caverns in the limestone, some of the tributary streams flowing +for considerable distances underground. From Mo a fine road +crosses the mountains to the head-lake of the great Ume river, +draining to the Baltic, and from the head of Dunderlandsdal a +sequestered bridle-path runs to Saltdal on the Skjerstadfjord, +with a branch through the magnificent Junkersdal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> <span class="sc">10th Earl of</span> (1775-1860), +British admiral, was born at Annsfield in Lanarkshire on +the 14th of December 1775. He came of an old Scottish family, +the first earl having been Sir William Cochrane (d. 1686), a +soldier who was created Baron Cochrane in 1647 and earl of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +Dundonald in 1669. He was the son of Archibald Cochrane, +9th Earl (1749-1831), who is remembered as a most ingenious, +but also most unfortunate, scientific speculator and inventor, +who was before his time in suggesting and attempting new +processes of alkali manufacture, and various other uses of +applied science. The family was greatly impoverished owing +to his losses over these schemes, but still possessed a good deal +of interest. By the help of friends Thomas was provided with +a commission in an infantry regiment, and at the same time put +on the books of a man-of-war by his uncle, Captain A.F.I. +Cochrane (1758-1832), while still a boy. He finally chose the +navy, and went to sea in his uncle’s ship, the “Hind,” in 1793. +He could already count nearly five years’ nominal service, an +example of those naval abuses which he was to denounce (and +to profit by) during a large part of his career. His promotion +was rapid. He became a lieutenant in 1796. While in that +rank he was led by his self-assertive temper into a quarrel +with his superior, Lieutenant Philip Beaver (1766-1813), for +which he was sent before a court-martial. A warning to avoid +flippancy in future was, however, the worst that happened +to him.</p> + +<p>In 1800 he was appointed to the command of the “Speedy” +brig, a small vessel in which he gained a great and deserved +reputation as a daring and skilful officer. His capture of the +Spanish frigate “El Gamo” (32) on the 6th of May 1801 was +indeed a feat of unparalleled audacity. His promotion to post +rank followed on the 8th of August. Though he was apt to +represent himself as disliked and neglected by the admiralty, +and was frequently insolent towards his superiors, he was, as a +matter of fact, pretty constantly employed, and he more than +justified his appointments by his activity and success as captain +of the “Pallas” (32) and “Impérieuse” (38) on the ocean and +in the Mediterranean. Unfortunately for himself he secured +his return to parliament as member for Honiton in 1806 and for +Westminster in 1807. In the House of Commons he soon made +his mark as a radical, and as a denouncer of naval abuses. But +his views did not prevent him from profiting to the utmost by +one very bad abuse, for he did his utmost to secure the retention +of his frigate in port, in order that he might be able to attend +parliament. In spite of his radical opinions he made a furious +attack on the admiralty for the new prize money regulations +which diminished the shares of the captains to the advantage of +the men. In April 1809 he was engaged in the attack on the +French squadron in the Basque Roads, which was very ill conducted +by Lord Gambier. The conduct of Lord Cochrane, as he +was called till the death of his father, was brilliant and was +rewarded by the order of the Bath, but his aggressive temper +led him into making attacks on the admiral which necessitated +a court-martial on Gambier. The admiral was acquitted, and +Cochrane naturally fell into disfavour with the admiralty. He +was not employed again till 1813, when he was named to the +command of the “Tonnant,” which was ordered for service as +flagship on the coast of America. In the interval he was restlessly +active in parliament in denouncing naval abuses, and was +also, most disastrously for himself, led into speculations on the +Stock Exchange, by which he was brought at the beginning of +1814 into pressing danger of total ruin.</p> + +<p>At this moment a notorious fraud was perpetrated on the +Stock Exchange by an uncle of his and by other persons with +whom he habitually acted in his speculations. Lord Cochrane +was brought to trial with the others before Lord Ellenborough +on the 8th of June 1814 and all were condemned. He was sentenced +to an hour in the pillory, which was remitted, and to +fine and imprisonment, which were enforced. He continued to +assert his innocence, and to protest that he had been unjustly +condemned, but he was expelled from parliament and the order +of the Bath. He was, however, almost immediately re-elected +member for Westminster, but he had to serve his term (one year) +of imprisonment, and, after escaping and being recaptured, he +regained his liberty in 1815 on payment of the fine of £1000 to +which he had been sentenced.</p> + +<p>In 1817 he accepted the invitation of the Chileans, who were +then in revolt against Spain, to take command of their naval +forces, and remaining in their service until 1822 contributed +largely to their success. His capture of the Spanish frigate +“Esmeralda” (40) in the harbour of Callao, on the 5th of +November 1820, was an achievement of signal daring. In 1823 +he transferred his services to Brazil, where he helped the emperor +Dom Pedro I. to shake off the yoke of Portugal; but by the end +of 1825 he had fallen out with the Brazilians, and he returned +to Europe. His activity was next devoted to the aid of the +Greeks, then at the end of their struggle with the Turks, but he +found no opportunity for distinguishing himself, and in 1828 +he returned home. His efforts were now steadily directed to +securing his restoration to the navy, and in this he succeeded +in 1832; but though he was granted a “free pardon” he failed +to obtain the new trial for which he was anxious, or to secure +the arrears of pay he claimed.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He was restored to his place in +the order of the Bath in 1847. In 1848 he was appointed to the +command of the North American and West India station, which +he retained till 1851. At various periods of his life he occupied +himself with scientific invention. He took out patents for lamps +to burn oil of tar, for the propulsion of ships at sea, for facilitating +excavation, mining and sinking, for rotary steam-engines and +for other purposes; and so early as 1843 he was an advocate of +the employment of steam and the screw propeller in war-ships. +During the Crimean War he revived his “secret war plan” for +the total destruction of an enemy’s fleet, and offered to conduct +in person an attack on Sevastopol and destroy it in a few hours +without loss to the attacking force. This plan, the details of +which have never been divulged, he had proposed so far back +as 1811, and the committee which was then appointed to consider +it reported on it as effective but inhuman. Lord Dundonald +died in London on the 30th of October 1860, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey. No one ever excelled him in daring and +resource as a naval officer, but he suffered from serious defects +of character, and even those who think him guiltless of the +charge on which he was convicted in 1814 must feel that he had +his own imprudence and want of self-command to thank for +many of his misfortunes.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded in the title by his son Thomas as 11th earl +(d. 1885), and the latter by his son Douglas (b. 1852) as 12th earl, +a distinguished cavalry officer who became a lieutenant-general +in 1907.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The 10th earl’s <i>Autobiography of a Seaman</i> (2 vols., 1860-1861), the +main source for his <i>Life</i> (1869, by his son and heir), is written with +spirit, but it was composed at the end of his career when his memory +was failing, and was chiefly executed by others. He also wrote +<i>Notes on the Mineralogy, Government and Condition of the British +West India Islands</i> (1851), and a <i>Narrative of Services in the Liberation +of Chili, Peru and Brazil</i> (1858). The whole story of his trial and of +the Stock Exchange fraud for which he was condemned has been +examined by Mr J.B. Atlay in <i>The Trial of Lord Cochrane before +Lord Ellenborough</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In 1878, as the result of the report of a select committee of the +House of Commons appointed in 1877, a grant of £5000 was made +to the then Lord Cochrane “in respect of the distinguished services +of his grandfather, the late earl of Dundonald.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNEDIN,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a city of New Zealand, capital of the provincial +district of Otago, and the seat of a bishop, in Taieri county. +Pop (1906) 36,070, including suburbs, 56,020. It lies 15 m. +from the open sea, at the head of Otago harbour, a narrow inlet +(averaging 2 m. in width) on the south-eastern coast of South +Island. The situation was chosen on the consideration of this +harbour alone, for the actual site offered many difficulties, steep +forest-clad hills rising close to the sea, and rendering reclamation +necessary. The hills give the town a beautiful appearance, as +the forest was allowed to remain closely embracing it, being +preserved in the public ground named the Town Belt. The +principal thoroughfare is comprised in Prince’s Street and +George Street, running straight from S.W. to N.E., and passing +through the Octagon, which is surrounded by several of the +principal buildings. From these streets others strike at right +angles down to the harbour, while others again lead obliquely +up towards the Belt, beyond which are extensive suburbs. +There are several handsome commercial and banking houses. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span> +The town hall, Athenaeum and museum are noteworthy buildings, +the last having a fine biological collection. The university, +founded in 1869, built mainly of basalt, has schools of arts, +medicine, chemistry and mineralogy. It is in reality a university +college, for though it was originally intended to have the power +of conferring degrees, it was subsequently affiliated to the New +Zealand University. The churches are numerous and some are +particularly handsome; such as the First church, which overlooks +the harbour, and is so named from its standing on the site +of the church of the original settlers; St Paul’s, Knox church +and the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Joseph. Finally, one +of the most striking buildings in the city is the high school (1885) +with its commanding tower. The white Oamaru stone is commonly +used in these buildings. The primary and secondary +schools of the town are excellent, and there is a small training +college for state teachers. Besides the Belt there are several +parks and reserves, including botanical and acclimatization +gardens, the so-called Ocean Beach, and two race-courses.</p> + +<p>Dunedin is connected by rail with Christchurch northward +and Invercargill southward, with numerous branches. Electric +tramways serve the principal thoroughfares and suburbs. The +most important internal industries are in wool and frozen meat. +The harbour is accessible, owing to extensive dredging, to vessels +drawing 19 ft., at high tide; and Dunedin is the headquarters +of the coasting services of the Union Steamship Co. Port +Chalmers, however (9 m. N.E. by rail) though incapacitated by +its site from growing into a large town, is more readily accessible +for shipping, and has extensive piers and a graving dock. +Dunedin is governed by a mayor and corporation, and most of +its numerous suburbs are separate municipalities.</p> + +<p>The colony of Otago (from a native word meaning ochre, +which was found here and highly prized by the Maoris as a +pigment for the body when preparing for battle) was founded +as the chief town of the Otago settlement by settlers sent out +under the auspices of the lay association of the Free Church +of Scotland in 1848. The discovery of large quantities of gold +in Otago in 1861 and the following years brought prosperity, +a great “rush” of diggers setting in from Australia. Gold-dredging, +in the hands of rich companies, remains a primary +source of wealth in the district.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNES,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span><a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or <span class="sc">Dunkirk Dunes, Battle of</span>, was fought near +Dunkirk on the 24th of May (3rd of June) 1658, between the +French and English army under the command of Marshal +Turenne and the Spanish army under Don Juan of Austria and +the prince of Condé. The severest part of the fighting was borne +by the English contingents on either side. Six thousand English +infantry under General Lockhart were sent by Cromwell to join +the army of Turenne, and several Royalist corps under the +command of the duke of York (afterwards James II.) served +in the Spanish forces. The object of the Spaniards was to relieve +Dunkirk, which Turenne was besieging, and the complete +victory of the French and English caused the speedy surrender +of the fortress.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the word “dune” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Down</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNFERMLINE, ALEXANDER SETON,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (<i>c.</i> 1555-1622), +was the fourth son of George, 5th Lord Seton, and younger +brother of Robert, 1st earl of Winton. He was sent as a boy to +Rome, where he studied at the Jesuits’ College with a view to +becoming a priest. He turned, however, to the study of law, +and after some years’ residence in France was called to the bar +about 1577. He was suspected of Romanist leanings by the +officials of the Scottish kirk, and was temporarily deprived of +the priory of Pluscardine, which had been granted to him by +his god-mother, Queen Mary. In 1583 he accompanied his +father, Lord Seton, on an embassy to Henry III. of France. +His promotion was now rapid: he was made extraordinary +lord of session in 1586 as prior of Pluscardine, ordinary lord of +session in 1588 as lord Urquhart, judge in 1593, lord president +of the court session in 1598, Baron Fyvie in 1597 and chancellor +in 1604. In 1595 he was one of the commission formed by +James VI. to control the royal finance. The eight commissioners +were known from their number as the Octavians, and were +relieved of their functions about two years later. Urquhart’s +continued influence was, however, assured, in spite of the +animosity of the kirk, by his appointment as lord provost of +Edinburgh of nine successive years. He showed considerable +independence in his relations with James VI., and dissuaded him +from his intention of forming a standing army in readiness to +enforce his claims to the English crown. He was entrusted +with the care of Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., after +the king’s departure for England, and arranged the details of +the union between Scotland and England. He became chancellor +of Scotland in 1604, and on the 4th of March 1605 he was created +earl of Dunfermline. He died at Pinkie House, near Musselburgh, +on the 16th of June 1622.</p> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Charles</span>, 2nd earl of Dunfermline (<i>c.</i> 1608-1672), +was the offspring of his third marriage with Margaret Hay, +sister of John, 1st earl of Tweeddale. He signed the National +Covenant and was one of the leaders of the Presbyterian party, +but as one of the “Engagers” of 1648 he was prevented from +holding any public office, and after the execution of Charles I. +he joined Charles II. on the continent. He was made privy +councillor at the Restoration, extraordinary lord of session and +lord of the articles in 1667, and in 1671 lord privy seal. He died +in May 1672. The earldom was then held successively by his +sons Alexander (d. 1675) and James; but at the latter’s death, +at St Germains on the 26th of December 1694, the title became +extinct.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Seton, <i>Memoir of Alex. Seton, first Earl of Dunfermline</i> +(1882); and Sir Robert Douglas, <i>Scots Peerage</i>, vol. ii. (1906, edited +by Sir J.B. Paul).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNFERMLINE, JAMES ABERCROMBY,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1776-1858), +third son of General Sir Ralph Abercromby, was born +on the 7th of November 1776. He was called to the bar at +Lincoln’s Inn in 1801, and became a commissioner in bankruptcy, +and subsequently steward for the estates of the 5th duke of +Devonshire. In 1807 he was chosen member of parliament for +the borough of Midhurst, and in 1812 was returned for Calne +by the influence of the 3rd marquess of Lansdowne. He attached +himself to the Whigs, but his chief interest was reserved for +Scottish questions, and on two occasions he sought to change +the method of electing representatives to parliament for the +city of Edinburgh. When the Whigs under George Canning +came into power in 1827, Abercromby was made judge-advocate-general, +and became chief baron of the exchequer of Scotland +in 1830, when he resigned his seat in parliament. This office +was abolished in 1832, and Abercromby received a pension of +£2000 a year, and was sent as member for Edinburgh to the +reformed parliament. After being an unsuccessful candidate +for the office of speaker he joined the cabinet of Earl Grey in +1834 as master of the mint. Again a candidate for the speakership +in the new parliament of 1835, Abercromby was elected to +this office after an exceptionally keen contest by a majority of +ten votes. As speaker he was not very successful in quelling +disorder, but he introduced several important reforms in the +management of private bills. Resigning his office in May 1839 +he was created Baron Dunfermline of Dunfermline, and granted +a pension of £4000 a year. He continued his interest in the affairs +of Edinburgh, and was one of the founders of the United +Industrial school. He died at Colinton House, Midlothian, on +the 17th of April 1858, and was succeeded in the title by his +only son, Ralph. His wife was Marianne, daughter of Egerton +Leigh of West Hall, High Leigh, Cheshire. He wrote a life of +his father, Sir Ralph Abercromby, which was published after his +death (Edinburgh, 1861).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Spencer Walpole, <i>History of England</i> (London, 1890); <i>Greville +Memoirs</i>, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1896); Lord Cockburn’s +<i>Journal</i> (Edinburgh, 1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNFERMLINE<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (Gaelic, “the fort on the crooked linn”), a +royal, municipal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1891) 22,157; (1901) 25,250. It is situated on high ground 3 m. +from the shore of the Firth of Forth, with two stations on the +North British railway—Lower Dunfermline 16¾ m., and Upper +Dunfermline 19¼ m. N.W. of Edinburgh, via the Forth Bridge. +The town is intersected from north to south by Pittencrieff Glen, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +a deep, picturesque and tortuous ravine, from which the town +derives its name and at the bottom of which flows Lyne Burn.</p> + +<p>The history of Dunfermline goes back to a remote period, for +the early Celtic monks known as Culdees had an establishment +here; but its fame and prosperity date from the marriage of +Malcolm Canmore and his queen Margaret, which was solemnized +in the town in 1070. The king then lived in a tower on a mound +surrounded on three sides by the glen. A fragment of this castle +still exists in Pittencrieff Park, a little west of the later palace. +Under the influence of Queen Margaret in 1075 the foundations +were laid of the Benedictine priory, which was raised to the rank +of an abbey by David I. Robert Bruce gave the town its charter +in 1322, though in his <i>Fife: Pictorial and Historical</i> (ii. 223), +A.H. Millar contends that till the confirming charter of James VI. +(1588) all burghal privileges were granted by the abbots.</p> + +<p>In the 18th century Dunfermline impressed Daniel Defoe as +showing the “full perfection of decay,” but it is now one of the +most prosperous towns in Scotland. Its staple industry is the +manufacture of table linen. The weaving of damask was introduced +in 1718 by James Blake, who had learned the secret of the +process in the workshops at Drumsheugh near Edinburgh, to +which he gained admittance by feigning idiocy; and since that +date the linen trade has advanced by leaps and bounds, much +of the success being due to the beautiful designs produced by +the manufacturers. Among other industries that have largely +contributed to the welfare of the town are dyeing and bleaching, +brass and iron founding, tanning, machine-making, brewing and +distilling, milling, rope-making and the making of soap and +candles, while the collieries in the immediate vicinity are numerous +and flourishing.</p> + +<p>The town is well supplied with public buildings. Besides the +New Abbey church, the United Free church in Queen Anne +Street founded by Ralph Erskine, and the Gillespie church, +named after Thomas Gillespie (1708-1774), another leader of +the Secession movement, possess some historical importance. +Erskine is commemorated by a statue in front of his church and a +sarcophagus over his grave in the abbey churchyard; Gillespie +by a marble tablet on the wall above his resting-place within the +abbey. The Corporation buildings, a blend of the Scots Baronial +and French Gothic styles, contain busts of several Scottish +sovereigns a statue of Robert Burns, and Sir Noel Paton’s +painting of the “Spirit of Religion.” Other structures are the +County buildings, the Public, St Margaret’s, Music and Carnegie +halls, the last in the Tudor style, Carnegie public baths, high +school (founded in 1560), school of science and art, and two +hospitals. Several distinguished men have been associated with +Dunfermline. Robert Henryson (1430-1506), the poet, was long +one of its schoolmasters. John Row (1568-1646), the Church +historian, held the living of Carnock, 3 m. to the E., and David +Ferguson (d. 1598) who made the first collection of Scottish +proverbs (not published till 1641), was parish minister; Robert +Gilfillan (1798-1850), the poet, and Sir Joseph Noel Paton (1821-1901), +painter and poet—whose father was a designer of patterns +for the damask trade—were all born here. Andrew Carnegie +(b. 1837), however, is in a sense the most celebrated of all her sons, +as he is certainly her greatest benefactor. He gave to his birthplace +the free library and public baths, and, in 1903, the estate of +Pittencrieff Park and Glen, rich in historical associations as well +as natural charm, together with bonds yielding £25,000 a year, +in trust for the maintenance of the park, the support of a theatre +for the production of plays of the highest merit, the periodical +exhibitions of works of art and science, the promotion of horticulture +among the working classes and the encouragement of +technical education in the district. The town is governed by a +provost, bailies and council, and, with Stirling, Culross, Inverkeithing +and Queensferry (the Stirling group), combines in +returning a member to parliament.</p> + +<p>Dunfermline Abbey is one of the most important remains in +Scotland. Excepting Iona it has received more of Caledonia’s +royal dead than any other place in the kingdom. Within its +precincts were buried Queen Margaret and Malcolm Canmore; +their sons Edgar and Alexander I., with his queen; David I. and +his two queens; Malcolm IV.; Alexander III., with his first +wife and their sons David and Alexander; Robert Bruce, with +his queen Elizabeth and their daughter Matilda; and Annabella +Drummond, wife of Robert III. and mother of James I. Bruce’s +heart rests in Melrose, but his bones lie in Dunfermline Abbey, +where (after the discovery of the skeleton in 1818) they were +reinterred with fitting pomp below the pulpit of the New church. +In 1891 the pulpit was moved back and a monumental brass +inserted in the floor to indicate the royal vault. The tomb of St +Margaret and Malcolm, within the ruined walls of the Lady +chapel, was restored and enclosed by command of Queen Victoria. +During the winter of 1303 the court of Edward I. was held in the +abbey, and on his departure next year most of the buildings were +burned. When the Reformers attacked the abbey church in +March 1560, they spared the nave, which served as the parish +church till the 19th century, and now forms the vestibule of the +New church. This edifice, in the Perpendicular style, opened for +public worship in 1821, occupies the site of the ancient chancel +and transepts, though differing in style and proportions from the +original structure. The old building was a fine example of simple +and massive Norman, as the nave testifies, and has a beautiful +doorway in its west front. Another rich Norman doorway was +exposed in the south wall in 1903, when masons were cutting a +site for the memorial to the soldiers who had fallen in the South +African War. A new site was found for this monument in order +that the ancient and beautiful entrance might be preserved. +The venerable structure is maintained by the commissioners of +woods and forests, and private munificence has provided several +stained-glass windows. Of the monastery there still remains the +south wall of the refectory, with a fine window. The palace, a +favourite residence of many of the kings, occupying a picturesque +position near the ravine, was of considerable size, judging from +the south-west wall, which is all that is left of it. Here James IV., +James V. and James VI. spent much of their time, and within its +walls were born three of James VI.’s children—Charles I., Robert +and Elizabeth. After Charles I. was crowned he paid a short +visit to his birthplace, but the last royal tenant of the palace was +Charles II., who occupied it just before the battle of Pitreavie +(20th of July 1650), which took place 3 m. to the south-west, and +here also he signed the National League and Covenant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.H. Millar’s <i>Fife: Pictorial and Historical</i> (2 vols., 1895); +and Sheriff Æneas Mackay’s <i>History of Fife and Kinross</i> (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNGANNON,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a market town of Co. Tyrone, Ireland, in the +east parliamentary division, on an acclivity 8 m. W. of the south-western +shore of Lough Neagh. Pop. of urban district (1901) +3694. It is 103 m. N.N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern +railway, and a branch line runs thence to Cookstown. The only +public buildings of note are the parish church, with an octagonal +spire, and a royal school founded in 1614 and settled in new +buildings at the end of the 18th century; it is now managed by +the county Protestant Board of Education. Linens, muslin and +coarse earthenware are manufactured, tanning is prosecuted, and +there is trade in corn and timber. The early history of the place +is identified with the once powerful family of the O’Neills, whose +chief residence was here, and a large rath or earthwork north of +the town was the scene of the inauguration of their chiefs, but +of the castle and abbey founded by this family there are no +remains. In Dungannon the independence of the Irish parliament +(to which the town returned two members) was proclaimed +in 1782. The town was formerly corporate, and was a parliamentary +borough returning one member to the Imperial parliament +until 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNGARPUR,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Rajputana +agency, in the extreme south of Rajputana. A large portion is +hilly, and inhabited by Bhils. Its area is 1447 sq. m. In 1901 +the total population was 100,103, showing an increase of 2% +in the decade. The revenue is £15,100, and the tribute £2276. +An annual fair is held at Baneswar. Kherwara is the headquarters +of the Mewar Bhil corps.</p> + +<p>The chiefs of Dungarpur, who bear the title of maharawal, +are descended from Mahup, eldest son of Karan Singh, chief of +Mewar in the 12th century, and claim the honours of the elder line +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span> +of Mewar. Mahup, disinherited by his father, took refuge with his +mother’s family, the Chauhans of Bagar, and made himself +master of that country at the expense of the Bhil chiefs. The +town of Dungarpur (pop. 6094 in 1901), the capital of the state, +was founded towards the end of the 14th century by his +descendant Rawal Bir Singh, who named it after Dungaria, an +independent Bhil chieftain whom he had caused to be assassinated. +After the death of Rawal Udai Singh of Bagar at the battle +of Khanua in 1527, his territories were divided into the states +of Dungarpur and Banswara, the name of Bagar being still often +applied to the tract covered by these states. Dungarpur fell +under the sway of the Moguls and Mahrattas in turn, and was +taken under British protection by treaty in 1818.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNGARVAN,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a market town and seaport of Co. Waterford, +Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, 28½ m. W.S.W. +from Waterford by the Waterford and Mallow branch of the +Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 4850. It is situated on the south coast, on the Bay of +Dungarvan, at the mouth of the Colligan, which divides the town +into two parts, connected by a bridge of a single arch. The +eastern suburb is called Abbeyside, where the remains of an +ancient keep, erected by the M’Graths, still exist, together +with portions of an Augustinian friary, founded by the same +family in the 14th century and incorporated with a Roman +Catholic chapel. In the main portion of the town a part of the +keep of a castle of King John remains. Brewing is carried on, +and there are woollen mills. The exports consist chiefly of +agricultural produce. Dungarvan was incorporated in the 15th +century, was represented by two members in the Irish parliament +until the Union, and returned a member to the Imperial parliament +until 1885. It was fortified with walls by John when the +castle was built. A story is told that Cromwell spared the town +from bombardment owing to the wit of a woman who drank +his health at the town-gate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNGENESS,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a promontory of the south coast of England, +in the south of Kent, near the town of Lydd. It is a low-lying +broad bank of shingle, forming the seaward apex of the great +level of the Romney Marshes. Its seaward accretion is estimated +at 6 ft. annually. Its formation is characteristic, consisting of +a series of ridges forming a succession of curves from a common +centre. It is unique, however, among the great promontories of +the south coast of England, the accretion of gravel banks falling +into deep water contrasting with the cliff-bound headlands of +the North Foreland, Beachy Head and the Lizard, and with the +low eroded Selsey Bill, off which the sea is shallow. A lighthouse +(50° 55′ N., 0° 58′ E.) stands on the ness, which has been +the scene of many shipwrecks, and has been lighted since the +time of James I. There are also here Lloyds’ signalling station, +coast-guard stations, and the terminus of a branch of the South-Eastern +& Chatham railway.</p> + +<p>The name Dungeness has also been applied elsewhere; thus the +point on the north side of the eastern entrance to Magellan Strait +is so called, and there is a town of Dungeness near a promontory +on the coast of Washington, U.S.A. (Strait of Juan de Fuca).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNGEON,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> the prison in a castle keep, so called because the +Norman name for the latter is donjon (<i>q.v.</i>), and the dungeons or +prisons (<i>q.v.</i>) are generally in its lowest storey. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Keep</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNKELD,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a town of Perthshire, Scotland, on the left bank +of the Tay, 15½ m. N.W. of Perth by the Highland railway. +Pop. (1901) 586. The river is crossed by a bridge of seven arches +which was designed by Thomas Telford in 1805 and opened in +1808. The town lies in the midst of luxuriant trees, and the noble +sweep of the Tay, the effectively situated bridge, the magnificent +grounds of Dunkeld House, and the protecting mountains combine +to give it a very romantic appearance. The town hall is the +principal modern building, and the fountain erected in Market +Square to the memory of the 6th duke of Atholl (d. 1864) occupies +the site of the old cross.</p> + +<p>As early as 729—some authorities fix the date a hundred +and fifty years before—the Culdees possessed a monastery at +Dunkeld, which was converted into a cathedral by David I. in +1127. This structure stood until the Reformation, when it +was unroofed and suffered to fall into ruin. The building +consists of the nave (120 ft. long, 60 ft. wide, 40 ft. high), aisles +(12 ft. wide), choir, chapter-house and tower. The nave is the +most beautiful portion. The Pointed arches rest upon pillars, +possibly Norman, and above them, below the Decorated clerestory +windows, is a series of semicircular arches with flamboyant +tracery, a remarkable feature. The choir, founded by Bishop +William Sinclair (d. 1337), has been repaired, and serves as the +parish church, a blue marble slab in the floor marking the bishop’s +grave. The chapter-house, adjoining the choir, was built by +Bishop Thomas Lauder (1395-1481) in 1469, and the vault +beneath is the burial-place of the Atholl Murrays. Lauder also +began the tower, completed in 1501. In the porch of the church +is the most interesting of the extant old tombs, namely, the +recumbent effigy of Alexander Stewart, the Wolf of Badenoch +(1343-1405; the inscription refers his death to 1394, but this +is said to be an error). The most famous of the Bishops was +Gavin Douglas (1474-1522), translator of the <i>Aeneid</i>. One of the +most heroic exploits in the annals of warfare is associated with +the cathedral. Shortly after the battle of Killiecrankie (1689), +the Cameronian regiment, enrolled in the same year (afterwards +the 26th Foot), was despatched to hold Dunkeld prior to another +invasion of the Highlands. It was under the command of Colonel +William Cleland (b. 1661), a poet of some merit. On the 26th of +August a force of 5000 Highlanders suddenly appearing, Cleland +posted his men in the church and behind the wall of the earl of +Atholl’s mansion. Still flushed with their victory under Dundee, +and animated by bitterest hatred of their Whiggamore foes, the +Highlanders assaulted the position of the Covenanters, who were +1200 strong, with the most desperate valour. Sustained by +their enthusiasm, however, the recruits displayed equal courage, +and, at the end of four hours’ stubborn fighting, their defence +was still intact. Fearing lest victory, even if won, might be +purchased too dearly, the Highlanders gradually withdrew. +While leading a sortie Cleland was shot dead, and was buried in +the churchyard.</p> + +<p>Adjoining the cathedral is Dunkeld House, a seat of the duke +of Atholl, the grounds of which are estimated to contain 50 m. +of walks and 30 m. of drives. On the lawn near the cathedral +stand two of the earliest larches grown in Great Britain, having +been introduced from Tirol by the 2nd duke in 1738. The 4th +duke planted several square miles of the estate with this tree, +of which he had made a special study.</p> + +<p>A mile south of Dunkeld, on the left bank of the Tay, is the +village of Birnam (pop. 389), where Sir John Everett Millais, +the painter, made his summer residence. It lies at the foot of +Birnam Hill (1324 ft.), once covered with a royal forest that +has been partly replaced by plantations. The oak and sycamore +in front of Birnam House, the famed twin trees of Birnam, are +believed to be more than 1000 years old, and to be the remnant +of the wood of Birnam which Shakespeare immortalized in +<i>Macbeth</i>. The Pass of Birnam, where the river narrows, was the +path usually taken by the Highlanders in their forays. In the +vicinity are the castles of Murthly, one a modern mansion in the +Elizabethan style, erected about 1838 from designs by James +Gillespie Graham (1777-1855), and the other the old castle, still +occupied, which was occasionally used as a hunting-lodge by the +Scottish kings.</p> + +<p>At Little Dunkeld, almost opposite to Dunkeld, the Bran +joins the Tay, after a run of 11 m. from its source in Loch +Freuchie. It is celebrated for its falls about 2 m. from the mouth. +The upper fall is known as the Rumbling Bridge from the fact +that the stream pours with a rumbling noise through a deep +narrow gorge in which a huge fallen rock has become wedged, +forming a rude bridge or arch. Inver, near the mouth of the +Bran, was the birthplace of the two famous fiddlers, Niel Gow +(1727-1807) and his son Nathaniel (1766-1831).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNKIRK<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Dunkerque</i>), a seaport of northern France, +capital of an arrondissement in the department of Nord, on the +Straits of Dover, 53 m. N.W. of Lille on the Northern railway. +Pop. (1906) 35,767. Dunkirk is situated in the low but fertile +district of the Wateringues. It lies, amidst a network of canals, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +immediately to the west and south of its port, which disputes +with Bordeaux the rank of third in importance in France. The +populous suburbs of Rosendaël and St Pol-sur-Mer lie respectively +to the east and west of the town; to the north-east is the +bathing resort of Malo-les-Bains. The streets of Dunkirk are +wide and well paved, the chief of them converging to the square +named after Jean Bart (born at Dunkirk in 1651), whose statue +by David d’Angers stands at its centre. Close to the Place Jean +Bart rises the belfry (290 ft. high) which contains a fine peal of +bells and also serves as a signalling tower. It was once the +western tower of the church of St Eloi, from which it is now +separated by a street. St Eloi, erected about 1560 in the +Gothic style, was deprived of its first two bays in the 18th +century; the present façade dates from 1889. The chapel of +Notre-Dame des Dunes possesses a small image, which is the +object of a well-known pilgrimage. The chief civil buildings are +a large Chamber of Commerce, including the customs and port +services, and a fine modern town hall. Dunkirk is the seat +of a sub-prefect; its public institutions include tribunals of +first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, +an exchange, a branch of the Bank of France and a communal +college; and it has a school of drawing, architecture and music, +a library and a rich museum of paintings. Dunkirk forms with +Bergues, Bourbourg and Gravelines a group of fortresses enclosed +by inundations and canals. A chain of forts to the eastward is +designed to facilitate the deployment of an army, concentrated +within the fortified region, towards the Belgian frontier.</p> + +<p>The harbour of Dunkirk (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dock</a></span>) is approached by a fine +natural roadstead entered on the east and west, and protected +on the north by sand-banks. From the roadstead, entrance is +by a channel into the outer harbour, which communicates with +seven floating basins about 115 acres in area and is accessible to +the largest vessels. The port is provided with four dry docks and +a gridiron, and its quays exceed 5 m. in length. Its commerce +is much facilitated by the system of canals which bring it into +communication with Belgium, the coal-basins of Nord and Pas-de-Calais, +the rich agricultural regions of Flanders and Artois, +and the industrial towns of Lille, Armentières, Roubaix, Tourcoing, +Valenciennes, &c. The roadstead is indicated by lightships +and the entrance channel to the port by a lighthouse +which, at an altitude of 193 ft., is visible at a distance of 19 m.</p> + +<p>Dunkirk annually despatches a fleet to the Icelandic cod-fisheries, +and takes part in the herring and other fisheries. It +imports great quantities of wool from the Argentine and Australia, +and is in regular communication with New York, London and +the chief ports of the United Kingdom, Brazil and the far East. +Besides wool, leading imports are jute, cotton, flax, timber, +petroleum, coal, pitch, wine, cereals, oil-seeds and oil-cake, +nitrate of soda and other chemical products, and metals. The +principal exports are sugar, coal, cereals, wool, forage, cement, +chalk, phosphates, iron and steel, tools and metal-goods, thread +and vegetables. The average annual value of the imports for +the years 1901-1905 was £23,926,000 (£22,287,000 for 1896-1900), +of exports £6,369,000 (£4,481,000 for 1896-1900). The industries +include the spinning of jute, flax, hemp and cotton, iron-founding, +brewing, and the manufacture of machinery, fishing-nets, sailcloth, +sacks, casks, and soap. There are also saw- and flour-mills, +petroleum refineries and oil-works. Ship-building is carried on, +and the preparation of fish and cod-liver oil occupies many hands.</p> + +<p>Dunkirk is said to have originated in a chapel founded by +St Eloi in the 7th century, round which a small village speedily +sprang up. In the 10th century it was fortified by Baldwin III., +count of Flanders; together with that province it passed +successively to Burgundy, Austria and Spain. In the 15th, 16th +and 17th centuries its possession was disputed by French and +Spaniards. In 1658 Turenne’s victory of the Dunes (<i>q.v.</i>) gave +it into the hands of the French and it was ceded to England. +After the Restoration, Charles II., being in money difficulties, +sold it to the French king Louis XIV., who fortified it. By the +terms of the peace of Utrecht (1713) the fortifications were +demolished and its harbour filled up, a sacrifice demanded by +England owing to the damage inflicted on her shipping by Jean +Bart and other corsairs of the port. In 1793 it was besieged by +the English under Frederick Augustus, duke of York, who was +compelled to retire after the defeat of Hondschoote.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. de St Leger, <i>La Flandre maritime et Dunkerque</i> (Paris, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNKIRK,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a city and a port of entry of Chautauqua county, +New York, U.S.A., on the S. shore of Lake Erie, 40 m. S.W. +of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) 9416; (1900) 11,616, of whom 3338 +were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,221. The city is served +by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Lake Shore & Michigan +Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, and the Dunkirk, +Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railways, by the electric line of +the Buffalo & Lake Erie Traction Co., and by several lines of +freight and passenger steamships. Dunkirk is attractively +situated high above the lake, and has several parks, including +Point Gratiot and Washington; in the city are the Dunkirk +free library, the Brooks Memorial hospital (1891), and St Mary’s +academy. The city lies in an agricultural and grape-growing +region, and has a fine harbour and an extensive lake trade; the +manufactures include locomotives, radiators, lumber, springs, +shirts, axes, wagons, steel, silk gloves and concrete blocks. The +value of factory products increased from $5,225,996 in 1900 to +$9,909,260 in 1905, or 89.6%. Large numbers of food-fish +are caught in the lake. The municipality owns and operates +the water works and the electric lighting plant. Dunkirk was +first settled about 1805. It was incorporated as a village in 1837, +and was chartered as a city in 1880.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1785-1842), Scottish man of letters, +was born on the 30th of December 1785. In 1816 he became +sheriff of Renfrewshire, and retained this office until his death +at Edinburgh, on the 26th of January (according to others, in +February) 1842. The work by which he is best known, and which +will always hold an honourable place in English literature, is his +<i>History of Fiction</i> (1814; new edition, 1888, with notes by H. +Wilson, in Bohn’s “Standard Library”). In spite of the somewhat +contemptuous notices in <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i> (September 1824) +and the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (July 1815), it may be pronounced +the best book on the subject in English. F. Liebrecht, by whom +it was translated into German (1851) with valuable notes, +describes it as the only work of its kind. Dunlop was also the +author of <i>A History of Roman Literature</i> (1823-1828), and of +<i>Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II.</i> +(1834).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNMORE,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., adjoining Scranton on the N.E. and about 20 m. N.E. +of Wilkesbarre. Pop. (1890) 8315; (1900) 12,583, of whom +3103 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,615. It is served +by the Erie, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, and the +Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley (electric) railways. Its chief +industry is the mining of anthracite coal; the principal establishments +are railway repair shops, which in 1905 gave employment +to 48.9% of all wage-earners engaged in manufacturing. +Among the borough’s manufactures are stoves and furnaces, +malt liquors and silk. Dunmore is the seat of the state oral +school for the deaf. The town was first settled in 1783 and was +incorporated in 1862. Its growth was accelerated by the +establishment here, in 1863, of the shops of the railway from +Pittston to Hawley built in 1849-1850 by the Pennsylvania Coal +Company. Dunmore became a station of the Scranton post +office in 1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNMOW<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (properly <span class="sc">Great Dunmow</span>), a market town in the +Epping (W.) parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the +river Chelmer, 40 m. N.E. by N. from London on a branch of the +Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2704. The church of St +Mary is Decorated and Perpendicular. The town was corporate +from the 16th century until 1886. Roman remains have been +discovered. Two miles E. is the village of <span class="sc">Little Dunmow</span>, +formerly the seat of a priory, remarkable for the custom of +presenting a flitch of bacon to any couple who could give proof +that they had spent the first year of married life in perfect +harmony, and had never at any moment wished they had +tarried. In place of the monastic judicature a jury of six +bachelors and six maidens appear in the 16th century. A +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +rhyming oath, quoted by Fuller, was taken. The institution of this +strange matrimonial prize—which had its parallel at Whichanoure +(or Wichnor) in Staffordshire, at St Moleine in Brittany, +and apparently also at Vienna—appears to date from the reign +of John. The first instance of its award recorded is in 1445, +and there are a few others. But there are references which +suggest its previous award in <i>Piers Plowman</i> and Chaucer. The +Chaucerian couplet conveys the idea of an award to a patient +husband, without reference to the wife. A revival of the custom +was effected in 1855 by Harrison Ainsworth, author of the +novel <i>The Flitch of Bacon</i>, but the scene of the ceremony was +transferred to the town hall of Great Dunmow. It has since +been maintained in altered form. (For details see Chambers’s +<i>Book of Days</i>, ii. 748-751; and W. Andrews, <i>History of the +Dunmow Flitch of Bacon Customs</i>, 1877.) Close to Little Dunmow +is Felsted (<i>q.v.</i>) or Felstead; and Easton Lodge (with a railway +station), a seat of the earl of Warwick, is in the vicinity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNNE, FINLEY PETER<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1867-  ), American journalist +and humorist, was born, of Irish descent, in Chicago, Illinois, +on the 10th of July 1867. After a public school education he +became a newspaper reporter (1885); he was city editor of the +Chicago <i>Times</i> (1891-1892), a member of the editorial staff +of the Chicago <i>Evening Post</i> and of the Chicago <i>Times-Herald</i> +(1892-1897), and editor of the Chicago <i>Journal</i> (1897-1900). +In 1900 he removed to New York city. Although for several +years he had been contributing humorous sketches in Irish +brogue to the daily papers, he did not come into prominence +until he wrote for the Chicago <i>Journal</i> a series of satirical observations +and reflections attributed to an honest Irish-American, +Martin Dooley, the shrewd philosopher of Archey Road, on +social and political topics of the day. These were widely copied +by the press of America and England. The first published +collection, <i>Mr Dooley in Peace and in War</i> (1898), was followed +by several others, similar in subject-matter and method, including +<i>Mr Dooley in the Hearts of his Countrymen</i> (1899), <i>Mr Dooley’s +Philosophy</i> (1900), <i>Mr Dooley’s Opinions</i> (1901), <i>Observations +by Mr Dooley</i> (1902), and <i>Dissertations by Mr Dooley</i> (1906). +These books made their author widely known as the creator of a +delightfully original character, and as a humorist of shrewd insight. +In 1906 he became associate editor of the <i>American Magazine</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNNOTTAR CASTLE,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a ruined stronghold, on the east coast +of Kincardineshire, Scotland, about 2 m. S. of Stonehaven. It +stands on a rock 160 ft. high, with a summit area of 4 acres, +and surrounded on three sides by the sea. It is accessible from +the land by a winding path leading across a deep chasm, to the +outer gate in a wall of enormous thickness. It is supposed that +a fortress stood here since perhaps the 7th century, but the +existing castle dates from 1392, when it was begun by Sir William +Keith (d. 1407), great marischal of Scotland. The keep and +chapel are believed to be the oldest structures, most of the other +buildings being two centuries later. It was the residence of the +earls marischal and was regarded as impregnable. Here the +seventh earl entertained Charles II. before the battle of Worcester. +When Cromwell became Protector, the Scottish regalia +were lodged in the castle for greater security, and, in 1651, +when the Commonwealth soldiers laid successful siege to it, +they were saved by a woman’s wit. Mrs Granger, wife of the +minister of Kinneff, a parish about 6 m. to the S., was allowed +to visit the wife of the governor, Ogilvy of Barras, and when she +rode out she was spinning lint on a distaff. The crown was +concealed in her lap, and the distaff consisted of the sword and +sceptre. The regalia were hidden beneath the flagstones in the +parish church, whence they were recovered at the Restoration. +In 1685 the castle was converted into a Covenanters’ prison, no +fewer than 167 being confined in a dungeon, called therefrom +the Whigs’ Vault. On the attainder of George, tenth and last +marischal, for his share in the earl of Mar’s rising in 1715 the +castle was dismantled (1720).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNOIS, JEAN,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1403-1468), commonly called the +“Bastard of Orleans,” a celebrated French commander, was +the natural son of the duke of Orleans (brother of Charles VI.) +and Mariette d’Enghien, Madame de Canny. He was brought +up in the house of the duke, and in the company of his legitimate +sons, and it appears that he was present at the battle of Beaugé +in 1421 and Verneuil in 1424. His earliest feat of arms was the +surprise and rout in 1427 of the English, who were besieging +Montargis—the first successful blow against the English power +in France following a long series of French defeats. In 1428 +he defended Orleans with the greatest spirit, and enabled the +place to hold out until the arrival of Joan of Arc, when he +shared with her the honour of defeating the enemy there in +1429. He then accompanied Joan to Reims and shared in the +victory of Patay. After her death he raised the siege of Chartres +and of Lagny (1432) and engaged in a series of successful campaigns +which ended in his triumphal entry into Paris on the +13th of April 1436. He continued to carry on the war against +the English, and gradually drove them to the northward, though +his work was to some extent interrupted by the civil disorders +of the time, in which he played a conspicuous part. Finally in +1450 he completed the reconquest of northern France, and in +1451 he attacked them in Guienne, taking among other towns +Bordeaux, which the English had held for three hundred years, +and Bayonne. After the expulsion of the English he was constantly +engaged in the highest diplomatic and military missions. +In 1465 he joined the league of revolted princes, but, assuming +the function of negotiator, he was after a time reinstated in his +offices. Dunois was thenceforward in the greatest favour with +the court. He died on the 24th of November 1468.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNOON,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a police and municipal burgh of Argyllshire, Scotland, +on the western shore of the Firth of Clyde, opposite to +Gourock. Pop. (1901) 6779. Including Kirn and Hunter’s +Quay, it presents a practically continuous front of seaside villas. +The mildness of its climate and the beauty of its situation have +made it one of the most prosperous watering-places on the west +coast. The principal buildings are the parish church, well-placed +on a hill overlooking the pier, convalescent homes, Cottage and +Victoria fever hospitals, and the town house. On a conical +hill above the pier stand the remains of Dunoon Castle, the +hereditary keepership of which was conferred by Robert Bruce +on the family of Sir Colin Campbell of Loch Awe, an ancestor +of the duke of Argyll. It was visited by Queen Mary in 1563, +and in 1643 was the scene of the massacre of the Lamonts by +the Campbells. The grounds have been laid out as a recreation +garden. Near the hill stands the modern castle. Facing the +pier a statue was erected in 1898 of Mary Campbell, Burns’s +“Highland Mary,” who was a native of Dunoon. The town +itself is of modern growth, having been a mere fishing village +at the beginning of the 19th century. There is frequent communication +daily by steamer with the railway piers at Craigendoran +and Gourock, and Glasgow merchants are thus enabled +to reside here all the year round. Hunter’s Quay is the yachting +headquarters, the Royal Clyde Yacht Club’s house adjoining +the pier. Kilmun, on the northern shore of Holy Loch, a portion +of the parish of Dunoon and Kilmun, contains the ruins of a +Collegiate chapel founded in 1442 by Sir Duncan Campbell of +Loch Awe and used as the burial-ground of the Argyll family.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNROBIN CASTLE,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a seat of the duke of Sutherland, +picturesquely situated on the north-eastern shore of Dornoch +Firth, Sutherlandshire, Scotland, about 2 m. N.E. of Golspie, +with a private station on the Highland railway. The name is +said to have originally meant the fort of Raffu, the “law-man,” +or crown agent for the district in 1222, but it was renamed out of +compliment to Robert (or Robin), 6th earl of Sutherland, who died +in 1389. The ancient portion, dating from the end of the 13th +century, was a square structure with towers at the corners, but in +1856 there was added a wing, a main north-eastern tower, and +front, with numerous bartizan turrets, and dormer windows in the +roof. The stately entrance porch recalls that of Windsor Castle, +and the interior is designed and decorated on a sumptuous scale. +In April 1746 George Mackenzie, the 3rd earl of Cromarty, +thinking that Prince Charles Edward had prevailed at Culloden, +seized the castle in his interests, but the Sutherland militia +surrounded the building and captured the earl in an apartment +which was afterwards called the Cromartie room. The beautiful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +gardens contain a wealth of trees, which grow with remarkable +luxuriance for the latitude of 58° N. The 3rd duke of Sutherland +erected a museum in the grounds in which are many specimens of +the antiquities of the shire, such as querns, stone tools and +weapons, silver brooches and the like, found in brochs and +elsewhere. There is a graceful waterfall in Dunrobin glen, +through which flows Golspie Burn, near the left bank of which are +remains of Pictish towers. About 1 m. N.W. of Golspie rises Ben +Bhragie (1256 ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of the 1st duke of +Sutherland, by Chantrey.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNS,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> a police burgh and county town of Berwickshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2206. It is situated 44 m. E.S.E. of +Edinburgh by road, with a station on the branch line of the +North British railway from Reston to St Boswells. The principal +buildings are the town-hall, county buildings, corn exchange, +mechanics’ institute and the public library. There is a woollen +mill, and stock sales are held at frequent intervals. The +alternative spelling of Dunse seems to have been in vogue from +1740 till 1882. It was on Duns Law (700 ft.) that the Covenanters, +under Alexander Leslie, were encamped in 1639, and the +Covenanters’ Stone on the top of the hill has been enclosed to +preserve it from relic-hunters. Duns castle, adjoining the town +on the W., includes the Tower erected by Thomas Randolph, +earl of Moray (d. 1332), and about 3 m. S.W. is the village of +Polwarth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNSINANE,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a peak of the Sidlaw Hills, in the parish of +Collace, Perthshire, Scotland, 8 m. N.E. of Perth. It is 1012 ft. +high, and commands a fine view of the Carse of Gowrie and the +valley of the Tay. Its chief claim to mention, however, is due to +its association with Birnam Wood (about 12 m. N.W.) in two +well-known passages in Shakespeare’s <i>Macbeth</i>. An old fort on +the summit, of which faint traces are still discernible, is traditionally +called Macbeth’s Castle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1265 or 1275-1308), one of the foremost +of the schoolmen. His birthplace has been variously given as +Duns in Berwickshire, Dunum (Down) in Ulster, and Dunstane +in Northumberland, but there is not sufficient evidence to settle +the question. He joined the Franciscan order in early life, and +studied at Merton College, Oxford, of which he is said to have +been a fellow. He became remarkably proficient in all branches +of learning, but especially in mathematics. When his master, +William Varron, removed to Paris in 1301, Duns Scotus was +appointed to succeed him as professor of philosophy, and his +lectures attracted an immense number of students. Probably in +1304 he went to Paris, in 1307 he received his doctor’s degree +from the university, and in the same year was appointed regent of +the theological school. His connexion with the university was +made memorable by his defence of the doctrine of the Immaculate +Conception, in which he displayed such dialectical ingenuity as +to win for himself the title <i>Doctor Subtilis</i>. The doctrine long +continued to be one of the main subjects in dispute between the +Scotists and the Thomists, or, what is almost the same thing, +between the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The university of +Paris was so impressed by his arguments, that in 1387 it formally +condemned the Thomist doctrine, and a century afterwards +required all who received the doctor’s degree to bind themselves +by an oath to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. +In 1308 Duns Scotus was sent by the general of his order to +Cologne, with the twofold object of engaging in a controversy +with the Beghards and of assisting in the foundation of a university; +according to some, his removal was due to jealousy. +He was received with enthusiasm by the inhabitants but died +suddenly (it was said, of apoplexy) on the 8th of November in the +same year. There was also a tradition that he had been buried +alive.</p> + +<p>His philosophical position was determined, or at least very +greatly influenced, by the antagonism between the Dominicans +and the Franciscans. Further, while the genius of Aquinas was +constructive, that of Duns Scotus was destructive; Aquinas was +a philosopher, Duns a critic. The latter has been said to stand to +the former in the relation of Kant to Leibnitz. In the matter of +Universals, Duns was more of a realist and less of an eclectic than +Aquinas. Theologically, the Thomistic system approximates to +pantheism, while that of Scotus inclines distinctly to Pelagianism. +The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception was the great subject +in dispute between the two parties; it was strenuously opposed +by Aquinas, and supported by Duns Scotus, although not without +reserve. There were, however, differences of a wider and deeper +kind. In opposition to Aquinas, who maintained that reason and +revelation were two independent sources of knowledge, Duns +Scotus held that there was no true knowledge of anything +knowable apart from theology as based upon revelation. In +conformity with this principle he denied that the existence of +God was capable of being proved, or that the nature of God +was capable of being comprehended. He therefore rejected as +worthless the ontological proof offered by Aquinas. Another +chief point of difference with Aquinas was in regard to the +freedom of the will, which Duns Scotus maintained absolutely. +He reconciled free-will and necessity by representing the divine +decree not as temporarily antecedent, but as immediately related +to the action of the created will. He maintained, in opposition to +Aquinas, that the will was independent of the understanding, that +only will could affect will. From this difference as to the nature +of free-will followed by necessary consequence a difference with +the Thomists as to the operation of divine grace. In ethics the +distinction he drew between natural and theological virtues is +common to him with the rest of the schoolmen. (Cf. <span class="sc">Aquinas</span>.) +Duns Scotus strongly upheld the authority of the church, making +it the ultimate authority on which that of Scripture depends. +(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most important of his works consisted of questions and +commentaries on the writings of Aristotle, and on the <i>Sentences</i> of +Lombard, the so-called <i>Opus Oxoniense</i> or <i>Anglicanum</i>. Complete +works, edited by Luke Wadding (13 vols., Lyons, 1639) and at +Paris (26 vols., 1891-1895). There is an edition of his <i>De modis +significandi</i> or <i>Grammatica speculativa</i>, the first attempt to investigate +the general laws of language, by F.M. Fernández García +(Quaracchi, Florence, 1902).</p> + +<p>On Duns Scotus generally, see life by Wadding in vol. i. of the works +(full, however, of legendary absurdities); J. Müller, <i>Biographisches +über Duns Scotus</i> (progr., Cologne, 1881); W.J. Townsend, <i>The +Great Schoolmen</i> (1881); K. Werner, <i>Die Scholastik des späteren +Mittelalters</i>, i. (1881); J.M. Rigg, in <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. +On his theology: C. Frassen, <i>Scotus Academicus</i> (1744, +new edition, 1900); Hieronymus de Montefortino (Jerome de +Fortius), <i>Scoti summa theologica</i> (1728-1738, new edition, 1900); +L.F.O. Baumgarten-Crusius, <i>De theologia Scoti</i> (1826); R. Seeberg, +<i>Die Theologie des J. Duns Scotus</i> (1900), and in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie</i> (1898), with bibliog. +refs; F. Morin, <i>Dictionnaire de philosophie et de théologie scolastiques</i> +[= J.P. Migne, <i>Troisième encyclopédie théologique</i>, xxi., xxii., +1857]; C.R. Hagenbach, <i>History of Doctrines</i> (Eng. tr., ii., 1880). +On his philosophy: E. Pluzanski, <i>Essai sur la philosophie de Duns +Scot</i> (1887); A. Schmid, <i>Die Thomistische und Scotistische Gewissheitlehre</i> +(1859); M. Schneid, <i>Die Körperlehre des J. Duns Scotus</i>—its +relation to Thomism and Atomism (1879); P. Minges, “Ist Duns +Scotus Indeterminist?” in <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philosophie +des Mittelalters</i>, Bd. v. Heft 4 (1905); W. Kahl, <i>Die Lehre vom Primat +des Willens bei Augustinus, Duns Scotus, und Descartes</i> (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNSTABLE,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a municipal borough and market town in the +southern parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 37 +m. N.W. of London, on branches of the Great Northern and +London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 5157. It lies +at an elevation of about 500 ft. on the bleak northward slope +of the Chiltern Hills. The church of St Peter and St Paul is a +fine fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory founded +by Henry I. in 1131. The building was cruciform, but only the +west front and part of the nave remain. The front has a large +late Norman portal of four orders, with rich Early English +arcading above; the nave arcade is ornate Norman. The original +triforium is transformed into a clerestory, the original clerestory +being lost. The north-west tower has a Perpendicular upper +portion, but the south-west tower is destroyed. The church +contains various monuments of the 18th century. Foundations +of a palace of Henry I. are traceable near the church. The main +part of the town extends for a mile along the broad straight +Roman road, Watling Street; the high road from Luton to +Tring, which crosses it in the centre of the town, representing +the ancient Icknield Way. The chief industry is straw hat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +manufacture; there are also printing, stationery and engineering +works. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 +councillors. Area, 453 acres.</p> + +<p>There may have been a Romano-British village on this site +on the Watling Street. Dunstable (<i>Dunestaple</i>, <i>Donestaple</i>) +first appears as a royal borough in the reign of Henry I., who, +according to tradition, on account of the depredations of +robbers, cleared the forest where Watling Street and the Icknield +Way met, and encouraged his subjects to settle there by various +grants of privileges. He endowed the priory by charter with the +lordship of the manor and borough, which it retained till its +dissolution in 1536-1537. The Dunstable Annals deal exhaustively +with the history of the monastery and town in the 13th +century. In 1219 the prior secured the right of holding a court +there for all crown pleas and of sitting beside the justices itinerant, +and this led to serious collision between the monks and burgesses. +The body of Queen Eleanor rested here for a night on its journey +to Westminster, and a cross, of which there is now no trace, +was subsequently erected in the market-place. At Dunstable +Cranmer held the court which, in 1533, declared Catherine of +Aragon’s marriage invalid. At the dissolution a plan was set +on foot for the creation of a new bishopric from the spoils of +the religious houses, which was to include Bedfordshire and +Buckinghamshire with Dunstable as cathedral city. The +scheme was never realized, though plans for the cathedral were +actually drawn up.</p> + +<p>From the earliest time Dunstable has been an agricultural +town. The Annals abound with references to the prices and +comparative abundance or scarcity of the two staple products, +wool and corn. The straw hat manufacture has flourished since +the 18th century. Henry I. granted a market held twice a week, +and a three days’ fair on the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. John +made a further grant of a three days’ fair from the 10th of May. +A market is still held weekly, also fairs in May and August +correspond to these grants. Dunstable had also a gild merchant +and was affiliated to London. In 1864 the town was made a +municipal borough by royal charter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNSTAFFNAGE,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a ruined castle of Argyllshire, Scotland, 3 m. +N.N.E. of Oban. It is situated on a platform of conglomerate +rock forming a promontory at the south-west of the entrance +to Loch Etive and is surrounded on three sides by the sea. +It dates from the 13th century, occupying the site of the earlier +stronghold in which was kept the Stone of Destiny prior to its +removal to Scone (<i>q.v.</i>) in 843. The castle is a quadrangular +structure of great strength, with rounded towers at three of the +angles, and has a circumference of about 400 ft. The walls are +60 ft. high and 10 ft. thick, affording a safe promenade, which +commands a splendid view. Brass cannon recovered from +wrecked vessels of the Spanish Armada are mounted on the walls. +In 1308 Robert Bruce captured the fortress from the original +owners, the MacDougalls, and gave it to the Campbells. It was +garrisoned at the period of the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and +1745, fell into decay early in the 19th century, and is now the +property of the crown, the duke of Argyll being hereditary keeper. +The adjoining chapel, in a very ruinous state, was the burial-place +of the Campbells of Dunstaffnage.</p> + +<p>There are other interesting places on Loch Etive, an arm of +the sea, measuring 19¼ m. in length and from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> m. to fully 1 m. +in width. Near the mouth, where the lake narrows to a strait, +are the rapids which Ossian called the Falls of Lora, the ebbing +and flowing tides, as they rush over the rocky bar, creating a +roaring noise audible at a considerable distance. In the parish +of Ardchattan, on the north shore, stands the beautiful ruin of +St Modan’s Priory, founded in the 13th century for Cistercian +monks of the order of Vallis Caulium. It is said that Robert +Bruce held within its walls the last parliament in which the +Gaelic language was used. On the coast of Loch Nell, or Ardmucknish +Bay, is the vitrified fort of Beregonium, not to be confounded +with Rerigonium (sometimes miscalled Berigonium) on Loch +Ryan in Wigtownshire—a town of the Novantae Picts, identified +with Innermessan. The confusion has arisen through a textual +error in an early edition of Ptolemy’s <i>Geography</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNSTAN, SAINT<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (924 or 925-988),<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> English archbishop, +entered the household of King Æthelstan when still quite a boy. +Here he soon excited the dislike of his young companions, who +procured his banishment from the court. He now took refuge +with his kinsman Alphege, bishop of Winchester, whose persuasion, +seconded by a serious illness, induced him to become +a monk. Æthelstan’s successor, Edmund, recalled him to the +court and made him one of his counsellors. Through the machinations +of enemies he was again expelled from the royal presence; +but shortly afterwards Edmund revoked the sentence and made +him abbot of Glastonbury. His successor Edred showed him +greater favour still. On the accession of Edwig, however, in +955, Dunstan’s fortunes underwent a temporary eclipse. Having +offended the influential Ælfgifu, he was outlawed and compelled +to flee to Flanders. But in 957 the Mercians and Northumbrians +revolted and chose Edgar as their king. The new king at once +recalled Dunstan, who was made a bishop. At first apparently +he was without a see; but that of Worcester falling vacant, he +was appointed to fill it. In 959 he received the bishopric of +London as well. In the same year Edwig died and Edgar became +sole king, Dunstan shared his triumph, and was appointed +archbishop of Canterbury. On Edgar’s death in 975 the archbishop’s +influence secured the crown for his elder son Edward. +But with the accession of Æthelred in 979 Dunstan’s public +career came to an end. He retired to Canterbury, and died on +the 19th of May 988.</p> + +<p>Dunstan is of more importance as a lay than as an ecclesiastical +statesman. The great church movement of his time—the +reformation of English monasticism on Benedictine lines—found +in him a sympathizer, but in no sense an active participant. +But as a secular statesman he occupies a high place. He guided +the state successfully during the nine years’ reign of the invalid +Edred. Through that of Edgar, he was the king’s chief minister +and most trusted adviser; and to him a great share in its glories +must be assigned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memorials of St Dunstan</i>, edited by W. Stubbs (London, 1874); +<i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The date of Dunstan’s birth here given is that given in the +Anglo-Saxon chronicle and hitherto accepted. In an appendix to +the <i>Bosworth Psalter</i>, edited by Mr Edmund Bishop and Abbot +Gasquet (1908), Mr Leslie A. St L. Toke gives reason to believe that +the date must be set back at least as early as 910.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNSTER,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> a market town in the Western parliamentary +division of Somersetshire, England, 1½ m. from the shore of +the Bristol Channel, on the Minehead branch of the Great +Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1182. Its streets, sloping sharply, +contain many old houses. On an eminence stands the ancient +castle, entered by a gateway of the 13th century. There are +portions of later date, but still ancient, in the main building, +but it has been considerably modernized as a residence. The +church of St George has Norman portions, but the building +is in the main Perpendicular. The fine tower in this style is +characteristic of this part of England. There are traces of +monastic buildings near the church, for it belonged to a Benedictine +house of early Norman foundation. The church is cruciform +and the altar stands beneath the eastern lantern arch, a +fine rood screen separating off the choir, which was devoted to +monastic use, while the nave was kept for the parishioners, in +consequence of a dispute between the vicar and the monastery +in 1499. The Yarn Market, a picturesque octagonal building +with deep sloping roof, in the main street, dates from <i>c.</i> 1600, +and is a memorial of Dunster’s former important manufacture of +cloth.</p> + +<p>There were British, Roman and Saxon settlements at Dunster +(<i>Torre Dunestorre</i>, <i>Dunester</i>), fortified against the piracies of the +Irish Northmen. The Saxon fort of Alaric was replaced by a +Norman castle built by William de Mohun, first lord of Dunster, +who founded the priory of St George. Before 1183, Dunster had +become a mesne borough, owned by the de Mohuns until the +14th century when it passed to the Luttrells, the present owners. +Reginald de Mohun granted the first charter between 1245 and +1247, which diminished fines and tolls, limited the lord’s “mercy,” +and provided that the burgesses should not against their will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +be made bailiffs or farmers of the seaport. John de Mohun +granted other charters in 1301 and 1307. Dunster was only +represented in parliament in conjunction with Minehead, one +of its tithings being part of that borough. Representation began +in 1562, and was lost in 1832. Feudal in origin, Dunster’s later +importance was commercial, and the port had a considerable +wool, corn and cattle trade with Ireland. During the middle +ages the Friday market and fair in Whit week, granted by the +first charter, were centres for the sale of yarn and cloth called +“Dunsters,” made in the town. The market day is still Friday. +The manufacture of cloth had disappeared, the harbour is silted +up, and there is no special local industry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir H.C. Maxwell Lyte, <i>Dunster and its Lords</i> (1882); <i>Victoria +County History, Somerset</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNTOCHER<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (Gaelic, “The Fort of ill hap”), a town on +Dalmuir Burn, Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 9 m. from Glasgow. +Pop. (1901) 2122. The district contains coal, limestone and +ironstone, but there is not much mining. Many of the inhabitants +are employed at the Singer factory in Kilbowie and at +the Clyde Trust yards in Dalmuir. There are considerable +Roman remains in the neighbourhood. Antoninus’ Wall passed +immediately to the south; the burn is crossed by a bridge +alleged to be of Roman origin (which at least is doubtful); +subterranean remains indicate a Roman structure; a Roman +camp has been traced, and the vicinity has yielded a number +of altars, urns, vases, coins and tablets, which are now in the +custody of Glasgow University.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNTON, JOHN<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1659-1733), English bookseller and author, +was born at Graffham, in Huntingdonshire, on the 4th of May +1659. His father, grandfather and great-grandfather had all +been clergymen. At the age of fifteen he was apprenticed to +Thomas Parkhurst, bookseller, at the sign of the Bible and Three +Crowns, Cheapside, London. Dunton ran away at once, but +was soon brought back, and began to “love books.” During the +struggle which led to the Revolution, Dunton was the treasurer +of the Whig apprentices. He became a bookseller at the sign of +the Raven, near the Royal Exchange, and married Elizabeth +Annesley, whose sister married Samuel Wesley. His wife +managed his business, so that he was left free in a great measure +to follow his own eccentric devices. In 1686, probably because +he was concerned in the Monmouth rising, he visited New +England, where he stayed eight months selling books and observing +with interest the new country and its inhabitants. Dunton +had become security for his brother’s debts, and to escape the +creditors he made a short excursion to Holland. On his return +to England, he opened a new shop in the Poultry in the hope of +better times. Here he published weekly the <i>Athenian Mercury</i> +which professed to answer all questions on history, philosophy, +love, marriage and things in general. His wife died in 1697, and +he married a second time; but a quarrel about property led to +a separation; and being incapable of managing his own affairs, +he spent the last years of his life in great poverty. He died in +1733. He wrote a great many books and a number of political +squibs on the Whig side, but only his <i>Life and Errors of John +Dunton</i> (1705), on account of its naïveté, its pictures of bygone +times, and of the literary history of the period, is remembered. +His letters from New England were published in America in 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜNTZER, JOHANN HEINRICH JOSEPH<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1813-1901), +German philologist and historian of literature, was born at +Cologne on the 12th of July 1813. After studying philology and +especially ancient classics and Sanskrit at Bonn and Berlin +(1830-1835), he took the degree of doctor of philosophy and +established himself in 1837 at Bonn as <i>Privat docent</i> for classical +literature. He had already, in his Goethes <i>Faust in seiner +Einheit und Ganzheit</i> (1836) and <i>Goethe als Dramatiker</i> (1837), +advocated a new critical method in interpreting the German +classics, which he wished to see treated like the ancient classics. +He subsequently turned his attention almost exclusively to +the poets of the German classical period, notably Goethe and +Schiller. Düntzer’s method met with much opposition and he +consequently failed to obtain the professorship he coveted. In +1846 he accepted the post of librarian at the Roman Catholic +gymnasium in Cologne, where he died on the 16th of December +1901. Düntzer was a painstaking and accurate critic, but +lacking in inspiration and finer literary taste; consequently +his work as a biographer and commentator has, to a great extent, +been superseded and discredited.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his philological writings may be mentioned <i>Die Lehre von +der lateinischen Wortbildung</i> (1836); <i>Die Deklination der indogermanischen +Sprachen</i> (1839); <i>Homer und der epische Kyklos</i> (1839); +<i>Die homerischen Beiworter des Gotter- und Menschengeschlechts</i> +(1859). Of his works on the German classical poets, especially +Goethe, Schiller and Herder, the following are particularly worthy +of note, <i>Erlauterungen zu den deutschen Klassikern</i> (1853-1892); +<i>Goethes Prometheus und Pandora</i> (1850); <i>Goethes Faust</i> (2 vols., +1850-1851; 2nd ed. 1857); <i>Goethes Gotz und Egmont</i> (1854); <i>Aus +Goethes Freundeskreise</i> (1868); <i>Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben +und Werken</i> (2 vols., 1885); <i>Goethes Tagebucher der sechs ersten +weimarischen Jahre</i> (1889); <i>Goethes Leben</i> (1880; 2nd ed. 1883; +Engl. transl. by T. Lyster, London, 1884); <i>Schillers Leben</i> (1881); +<i>Schiller und Goethe; Übersicht und Erlauterung zum Briefwechsel +zwischen Schiller und Goethe</i> (1859); <i>Herders Reise nach Italien</i> +(1859); <i>Aus Herders Nachlass</i> (3 vols., 1856-1857), and further, +<i>Charlotte von Stein</i> (1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUNWICH,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a village in the Eye parliamentary division of +Suffolk, England, on the coast between Southwold and Aldeburgh, +5 m. S.S.W. of Southwold. Pop. (1901) 157. This was +in Anglo-Saxon days the most important commercial centre and +port of East Anglia. It was probably a Romano-British site. +The period of its highest dignity was the Saxon era, when it was +called Dommocceaster and Dunwyk. Early in the 7th century, +when Sigebert became king of East Anglia, Dunwich was chosen +his capital and became the nursery of Christianity in Eastern +Britain. A bishopric was founded (according to Bede in 630, +while the Anglo-Saxon chronicle gives 635), the name of the first +bishop being Felix. Sigebert’s reign was notable for his foundation +of a school modelled on those he had seen in France; it +was probably at Dunwich, but formed the nucleus of what +afterwards became the university of Cambridge. By the middle +of the 11th century (<i>temp.</i> Edward the Confessor) Dunwich was +declining, as it had already suffered from an evil which later +caused its total ruin, namely the inroads of the sea on the unstable +coast. At the Norman Conquest the manor was granted to +Robert Malet; but the history of the place remains blank until +the reign of Henry II., when it re-emerged into prosperity. In +1173 the sight of its strength caused Robert earl of Leicester to +despair of besieging it. The town received a charter from King +John. In the reign of Edward I. it is recorded to have possessed +36 ships and “barks,” trading to the North Seas, Iceland and +elsewhere, with 24 fishing boats, besides maintaining 11 ships +of war. But early in the reign of Edward III. the attacks of the +sea began to make headway again. In 1347 over 400 houses +were destroyed. In 1570, after a terrible storm, appeal was +made to Elizabeth, who parsimoniously granted money obtained +by the sale of lead and other materials from certain neighbouring +churches. But the doomed town was gradually engulfed, and +now the only outward evidence of the old wealthy port is the +ruined fragment of the church of All Saints, overhanging a low +cliff, which, as it crumbles, exposes the coffins and bones in the +former churchyard, the greater part of which has disappeared. +A small white flower growing wild among the ruins is called the +Dunwich Rose, and is traditionally said to have been planted +and cultivated by monks. Many relics have been discovered by +excavation, and even from beneath the waves. Until 1832 +Dunwich returned 2 members to parliament.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUOVIRI,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> less correctly <span class="sc">Duumviri</span> (from Lat. <i>duo</i> two, and +<i>vir</i>, man), in ancient Rome, the official style of two joint magistrates. +Such pairs of magistrates were appointed at various +periods of Roman history both in Rome itself and in the colonies +and municipia. (1) <i>Duumviri iuri</i> (<i>iure</i>) <i>dicundo</i>, municipal +magistrates, whose chief duties were concerned with the administration +of justice. Sometimes there were four of these +magistrates (<i>Quattuorviri</i>). (2) <i>Duumviri quinquennales</i>, also +municipal officers, not to be confused with the above, who were +elected every fifth year for one year to exercise the function of +the censorship which was in abeyance for the intervening four +years. (3) <i>Duumviri sacrorum</i>, officers who originally had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +charge of the Sibylline books; they were afterwards increased +to ten (<i>decemviri sacris faciundis</i>), and in Sulla’s time to fifteen +(<i>quindecimviri</i>). (4) <i>Duumviri aedi locandae</i>, originally officers +specially appointed to supervise the erection of a temple. There +were also <i>duumviri aedi dedicandae</i>. (5) <i>Duumviri navales</i>, +extraordinary officers appointed <i>ad hoc</i> for the equipping of a +fleet. Originally chosen by consuls or dictator, they were +elected by the people after 311 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Livy ix. 30; xl. 18; xli. 1). +(6) <i>Duumviri perduellionis</i>, the earliest criminal court for trying +offences against the state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Treason</a></span>: <i>Roman Law</i>). (7) +<i>Duumviri viis extra urbem purgandis</i>, subordinate officers under +the aediles, whose duty it was to look after those streets of +Rome which were outside the city walls. Apparently in 20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +certainly by 12 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, their duties were transferred to the <i>Curatores +viarum</i>. From at least as early as 45 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (cf. the Lex Iulia +Municipalis) the streets of the city were superintended by +<i>Quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis</i>, later called <i>Quattuorviri +viarum purgandarum</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fiebiger and Liebenam in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyc.</i> v. pt. 2.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPANLOUP, FÉLIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1802-1878), +French ecclesiastic, was born at St Félix in Savoy on the 3rd of +January 1802. In his earliest years he was confided to the care +of his brother, a priest in the diocese of Chambéry. In 1810 +he was sent to a <i>pensionnat ecclésiastique</i> at Paris. Thence he +went to the seminary of St Nicolas de Chardonnel in 1813, and +was transferred to the seminary of St Sulpice at Paris in 1820. +In 1825 he was ordained priest, and was appointed vicar of the +Madeleine at Paris. For a time he was tutor to the Orleans +princes. He became the founder of the celebrated academy +at St Hyacinthe, and received a letter from Gregory XVI. +eulogizing his work there, and calling him <i>Apostolus juventutis</i>. +His imposing height, his noble features, his brilliant eloquence, +as well as his renown for zeal and charity, made him a prominent +feature in French life for many years. Crowds of persons +attended his addresses, on whom his energy, command of +language, powerful voice and impassioned gestures made a +profound impression. When made bishop of Orleans in 1849, he +pronounced a fervid panegyric on Joan of Arc, which attracted +attention in England as well as France. Before this he had +been sent by Archbishop Affre to Rome, and had been appointed +Roman prelate and protonotary apostolic. For thirty years +he remained a notable figure in France, doing his utmost to +arouse his countrymen from religious indifference. In ecclesiastical +policy his views were moderate; thus he opposed the +definition of the dogma of papal infallibility both before and +during the Vatican council, but was among the first to accept the +dogma when decreed. He was a distinguished educationist who +fought for the retention of the Latin classics in the schools and +instituted the celebrated catechetical method of St Sulpice. +Among his publications are <i>De l’éducation</i> (1850), <i>De la haute +éducation intellectuelle</i> (3 vols., 1866), <i>Œuvres choisies</i> (1861, 4 +vols.); <i>Histoire de Jésus</i> (1872), a counterblast to Renan’s <i>Vie +de Jésus</i>. He died on the 11th of October 1878.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> by F. Lagrange (Eng. tr. by Lady Herbert, London, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1556-1618), French cardinal, +was born at St Lô, in Normandy, on the 15th of November 1556. +His father was a physician, who on embracing the doctrines of +the Reformation became a Protestant minister, and to escape +persecution settled at Bern, in Switzerland. Here Jacques Davy +received his education, being taught Latin and mathematics +by his father, and learning Greek and Hebrew and the philosophy +then in vogue. Returning to Normandy he was presented to the +king by Jacques of Matignon; after he had abjured Protestantism, +being again presented by Philip Desportes, abbot of Tiron, +as a young man without equal for knowledge and talent, he +was appointed reader to the king. He was commanded to preach +before the king at the convent of Vincennes, when the success +of his sermon on the love of God, and of a funeral oration on the +poet Ronsard, induced him to take orders. On the death of +Mary queen of Scots he was chosen to pronounce her eulogy. +On the death of Henry III., after having supported for some +time the cardinal de Bourbon, the head of the league against the +king, Duperron became a faithful servant of Henry IV., and +in 1591 was created by him bishop of Evreux. He instructed +Henry in the Catholic religion; and in 1594 was sent to Rome, +where with Cardinal d’Ossat (1536-1604) he obtained Henry’s +absolution. On his return to his diocese, his zeal and eloquence +were largely instrumental in withstanding the progress of +Calvinism, and among others he converted Henry Sponde, who +became bishop of Pamiers, and the Swiss general Sancy. At +the conference at Fontainebleau in 1600 he argued with much +eloquence and ingenuity against Du Plessis Mornay (1549-1623). +In 1604 he was sent to Rome as <i>chargé d’affaires de France</i>; +when Clement VIII. died, he largely contributed by his eloquence +to the election of Leo XI. to the papal throne, and, on the death +of Leo twenty-four days after, to the election of Paul V. While +still at Rome he was made a cardinal, and in 1606 became +archbishop of Sens. After the death of Henry IV. he took an +active part in the states-general of 1614, when he vigorously +upheld the ultramontane doctrines against the Third Estate. +He died in Paris on the 6th of September 1618.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Les Diverses Œuvres de l’illustrissime cardinal Duperron</i> (Paris, +1622); Pierre Féret, <i>Le Cardinal Duperron</i> (Paris, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPIN, ANDRÉ MARIE JEAN JACQUES<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1783-1865), +commonly called Dupin the Elder, French advocate, president +of the chamber of deputies and of the Legislative Assembly, +was born at Varzy, in Nièvre, on the 1st of February 1783. +He was educated by his father, who was a lawyer of eminence, +and at an early age he became principal clerk of an attorney at +Paris. On the establishment of the <i>Académie de Législation</i> +he entered it as pupil from Nièvre. In 1800 he was made advocate, +and in 1802, when the schools of law were opened, he +received successively the degrees of licentiate and doctor from +the new faculty. He was in 1810 an unsuccessful candidate for +the chair of law at Paris, and in 1811 he also failed to obtain the +office of advocate-general at the court of cassation. About this +time he was added to the commission charged with the classification +of the laws of the empire, and, after the interruption caused +by the events of 1814 and 1815, was charged with the sole care +of that great work. When he entered the chamber of deputies +in 1815 he at once took an active part in the debates as a member +of the Liberal Opposition, and strenuously opposed the election +of the son of Napoleon as emperor after his father’s abdication. +At the election after the second restoration Dupin was not re-elected. +He defended with great intrepidity the principal +political victims of the reaction, among others, in conjunction +with Nicolas Berryer, Marshal Ney; and in October 1815 +boldly published a tractate entitled <i>Libre Défense des accusés</i>. +In 1827 he was again elected a member of the chamber of deputies +and in 1830 he voted the address of the 221, and on the 28th of +February he was in the streets exhorting the citizens to resistance. +At the end of 1832 he became president of the chamber, +which office he held successively for eight years. On Louis +Philippe’s abdication in 1848 Dupin introduced the young count +of Paris into the chamber, and proposed him as king with the +duchess of Orleans as regent. This attempt failed, but Dupin +submitted to circumstances, and, retaining the office of <i>procureur-général</i>, +his first act was to decide that justice should henceforth +be rendered to the “name of the French people.” In 1849 he +was elected a member of the Assembly, and became president +of the principal committee—that on legislation. After the +<i>coup d’état</i> of the 2nd of December 1851 he still retained his +office of <i>procureur-général</i>, and did not resign it until effect was +given to the decrees confiscating the property of the house of +Orleans. In 1857 he was offered his old office by the emperor, +and accepted it, explaining his acceptance in a discourse, a +sentence of which may be employed to describe his whole political +career. “I have always,” he said, “belonged to France and +never to parties.” He died on the 8th of November 1865. +Among Dupin’s works, which are numerous, may be mentioned +<i>Principia Juris Civilis</i>, 5 vols. (1806); <i>Mémoires et plaidoyers +de 1806 au 1<span class="sp">er</span> Janvier 1830</i>, in 20 vols.; and <i>Mémoires ou +souvenirs du barreau</i>, in 4 vols. (1855-1857).</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">François Pierre Charles Dupin</span> (1784-1873), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span> +wrote several geometrical works, treating of descriptive geometry +after the manner of Monge, and of the theory of curves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU PIN, LOUIS ELLIES<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1657-1719), French ecclesiastical +historian, came of a noble family of Normandy, and was born at +Paris on the 17th of June 1657. When ten years old he entered +the college of Harcourt, where he graduated M.A. in 1672. He +afterwards became a pupil of the Sorbonne, and received the +degree of B.D. in 1680 and that of D.D. in 1684. About this +time he conceived the idea of his <i>Bibliothèque universelle de tous +les auteurs ecclésiastiques</i>, the first volume of which appeared in +1686. The liberty with which he there treated the doctrines of +the Fathers aroused ecclesiastical prejudice, and the archbishop +of Paris condemned the work. Although Du Pin consented to a +retractation, the book was suppressed in 1693; he was, however, +allowed again to continue it on changing its title by substituting +<i>nouvelle</i> for <i>universelle</i>. He was subsequently exiled to Châtellerault +as a Jansenist, but the sentence of banishment was +repealed on a new retractation. In 1718 he entered into a +correspondence with William Wake, archbishop of Canterbury, +with a view to a union of the English and Gallican churches; +being suspected of projecting a change in the dogmas of the +church, his papers were seized in February 1719, but nothing +incriminating was found. The same zeal for union induced him, +during the residence of Peter the Great in France, and at that +monarch’s request, to draw up a plan for uniting the Greek and +Roman churches. He died at Paris on the 6th of June 1719.</p> + +<p>Du Pin was a voluminous author. Besides his great work +(Paris, 1686-1704, 58 vols. 8vo; Amsterdam, 19 vols. 4to; in +the last of which he gives much autobiographical information), +mention may be made of <i>Bibliothèque universelle des historiens</i> +(2 vols., 1707); <i>L’Histoire de l’église en abrégé</i> (1712); and +<i>L’Histoire profane depuis le commencement du monde jusqu’à +présent</i> (4 vols., 1712).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPLEIX, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1697-1763), governor-general +of the French establishment in India, the great rival of +Clive (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Landrecies, France, on the 1st of January +1697. His father, François Dupleix, a wealthy farmer-general, +wished to bring him up as a merchant, and, in order to distract +him from his taste for science, sent him on a voyage to India in +1715 on one of the French East India Company’s vessels. He +made several voyages to America and India, and in 1720 was +named a member of the superior council at Pondicherry. He +displayed great business aptitude, and, in addition to his +official duties, made large ventures on his own account, and +acquired a fortune. In 1730 he was made superintendent of +French affairs in Chandernagore, the town prospering under his +energetic administration and growing into great importance. +His reputation procured him in 1742 the appointment of governor-general +of all French establishments in India. His ambition now +was to acquire for France vast territories in India; and for this +purpose he entered into relations with the native princes, and +adopted a style of oriental splendour in his dress and surroundings. +The British took the alarm. But the danger to their +settlements and power was partly averted by the bitter mutual +jealousy which existed between Dupleix and La Bourdonnais, +French governor of the isle of Bourbon. When Madras +capitulated to the French in 1764, Dupleix opposed the restoration +of the town to the British, thus violating the treaty +signed by La Bourdonnais. He then sent an expedition against +Fort St David (1747), which was defeated on its march by the +nawab of Arcot, the ally of the British. Dupleix succeeded in +gaining over the nawab, and again attempted the capture of Fort +St David, but unsuccessfully. A midnight attack on Cuddalore +was repulsed with great loss. In 1748 Pondicherry was besieged +by the British; but in the course of the operations news arrived +of the peace concluded between the French and the British at +Aix-la-Chapelle. Dupleix next entered into negotiations which +had for their object the subjugation of southern India, and he +sent a large body of troops to the aid of two claimants of the +sovereignty of the Carnatic and the Deccan. The British were +engaged on the side of their rivals. After temporary successes +the scheme failed. Dupleix was a great organizer, but did not +possess the genius for command in the field that was shown by +Clive. The conflicts between the French and the British in India +continued till 1754, when the French government, anxious to +make peace, sent out to India a special commissioner with orders +to supersede Dupleix and, if necessary, to arrest him. These +orders were carried out with needless harshness, what survived of +Dupleix’s work was ruined at a blow, and he himself was compelled +to embark for France on the 12th of October 1754. He +had spent his private fortune in the prosecution of his public +policy; the company refused to acknowledge the obligation; +and the government would do nothing for a man whom they +persisted in regarding as an ambitious and greedy adventurer. +The greatest of French colonial governors died in obscurity and +want on the 10th of November 1763. In 1741 he had married +Jeanne Albert, widow of one of the councillors of the company, a +woman of strong character and intellect, known to the Hindus as +Joanna Begum, who proved of great use to her husband in his +negotiations with the native princes. She died in 1756, and two +years later he married again.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Tibulle Hamont, <i>Dupleix, d’après sa correspondance inédite</i> +(Paris, 1881); H. Castonnet, <i>Dupleix, ses expéditions et ses projets</i> +(Paris, 1888) and <i>La Chute de Dupleix</i> (Angers, 1888); G.B. Malleson, +<i>Dupleix</i> (Rulers of India series, 1890); and E. Guérin, <i>Dupleix</i> +(1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPONT, PIERRE<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1821-1870), French song-writer, the son +of a blacksmith, was born at Lyons on the 23rd of April 1821. +His parents both died before he was five years old, and he was +brought up in the country by his godfather, a village priest. +He was educated at the seminary of L’Argentière, and was +afterwards apprenticed to a notary at Lyons. In 1839 he found +his way to Paris, and some of his poems were inserted in the +<i>Gazette de France</i> and the <i>Quotidienne</i>. Two years later he was +saved from the conscription and enabled to publish his first +volume—<i>Les Deux Anges</i>—through the exertions of a kinsman and +of Pierre Lebrun. In 1842 he received a prize from the Academy, +and worked for some time on the official dictionary. Gounod’s +appreciation of his peasant song, <i>J’ai deux grands bœufs dans mon +étable</i> (1846), settled his vocation as a song-writer. He had no +theoretical knowledge of music, but he composed both the words +and the melodies of his songs, the two processes being generally +simultaneous. He himself remained so innocent of musical knowledge +that he had to engage Ernest Reyer to write down his +airs. He sang his own songs, as they were composed, at the +workmen’s concerts in the Salle de la Fraternité du Faubourg +Saint-Denis; the public performance of his famous <i>Le Pain</i> was +forbidden; <i>Le Chant des ouvriers</i> was even more popular; and in +1851 he paid the penalty of having become the poet laureate of +the socialistic aspirations of the time by being <span class="correction" title="amended from comdemned">condemned</span> to +seven years of exile from France. The sentence was cancelled, +and the poet withdrew for a time from participation in politics. +He died at Lyons, where his later years were spent, on the 24th of +July 1870. His songs have appeared in various forms—<i>Chants et +chansons</i> (3 vols., with music, 1852-1854), <i>Chants et poésies</i> (7th +edition, 1862), &c. Among the best-known are <i>Le Braconnier</i>, +<i>Le Tisserand</i>, <i>La Vache blanche</i>, <i>La Chanson du blé</i>, but many +others might be mentioned of equal spontaneity and charm. His +later works have not the same merit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, iv.; Ch. Baudelaire, +<i>Notice sur P. Dupont</i> (1849); Déchaut, <i>Biographie de Pierre Dupont</i> +(1871); and Ch. Lenient, <i>Poésie patriotique en France</i> (1889), ii. +352 et seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPONT DE L’ÉTANG, PIERRE ANTOINE,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1765-1840), +French general, first saw active service as a member of +Maillebois’ legion in Holland, and in 1791 was on the staff of the +Army of the North under Dillon. He distinguished himself at +Valmy, and in the fighting around Menin in 1793 he forced an +Austrian regiment to surrender. Promoted general of brigade for +this feat, he soon received further advancement from Carnot, who +recognized his abilities. In 1797 he became general of division. +The rise of Napoleon, whom he warmly supported in the <i>coup +d’état</i> of 18th Brumaire, brought him further opportunities. +In the campaign of 1800 he was chief of the staff to Berthier, +the nominal commander of the “Army of Reserve of the Alps”, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span> +which won the battle of Marengo. After the battle he sustained +a brilliant combat, against greatly superior forces, at Pozzolo. +In the campaign on the Danube in 1805, as the leader of one of +Ney’s divisions, he earned further distinction, especially at the +action of Albeck-Haslach, in which he prevented the escape of +the Austrians from Ulm, and so contributed most effectively +to the isolation and subsequent capture of Mack and his +whole army (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). At Friedland he +won further fame. With a record such as but few of Napoleon’s +divisional commanders possessed, he entered Spain in 1808 at +the head of a corps. After the occupation of Madrid, Dupont, +newly created count by Napoleon, was sent to subdue Andalusia. +After a few initial successes he had to retire on the passes +of the Sierra Morena. Pursued and cut off by the Spanish army +under Castaños, his corps was defeated and he felt himself constrained +to capitulate (Baylen, 19th-23rd July; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular +War</a></span>). The disgrace which fell upon the general was not entirely +merited. His troops were for the most part raw levies, and +ill-luck contributed materially to the catastrophe, but, after his +return to France, Dupont was sent before a court-martial, +deprived of his rank and title, and imprisoned from 1812 to 1814. +Released only by the fall of Napoleon, he was employed by Louis +XVIII. in a military command, which he lost on the return of +Napoleon. But the Second Restoration saw him restored to +the army, and appointed a member of the <i>conseil privé</i> of Louis +XVIII. From 1815 to 1830 he was deputy for the Charente. +He lived in retirement from 1832 till his death in 1840. Amongst +the writings Dupont left are some poems, including <i>L’Art de la +guerre</i> (1838), and verse translations from Horace (1836), and +the following military works: <i>Opinion sur le nouveau mode de +recrutement</i> (1818), <i>Lettres sur l’Espagne en 1808</i> (1823), +<i>Lettre sur la campagne d’Autriche</i> (1826). At the time of his +death he was on the point of publishing his memoirs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lieut.-Col. Titeux, <i>Le Général Dupont: une erreur historique</i> +(Paris, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPONT DE L’EURE, JACQUES CHARLES<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1767-1855), +French lawyer and statesman, was born at Neubourg (Eure), in +Normandy, on the 27th of February 1767. In 1789 he was an +advocate at the parlement of Normandy. During the republic +and the empire he filled successively judicial offices at Louviers, +Rouen and Evreux. He had adopted the principles of the +Revolution, and in 1798 he commenced his political life as a +member of the Council of Five Hundred. In 1813 he became +a member of the Corps Legislatif. During the Hundred Days +he was vice-president of the chamber of deputies, and when +the allied armies entered Paris he drew up the declaration in +which the chamber asserted the necessity of maintaining the +principles of government that had been established at the +Revolution. He was chosen one of the commissioners to negotiate +with the allied sovereigns. From 1817 till 1849 he was +uninterruptedly a member of the chamber of deputies, and he +acted consistently with the liberal opposition, of which at more +than one crisis he was the virtual leader. For a few months in +1830 he held office as minister of justice, but, finding himself out +of harmony with his colleagues, he resigned before the close of +the year and resumed his place in the opposition. At the revolution +of 1848 Dupont de l’Eure was made president of the provisional +assembly as being its oldest member. In the following +year, having failed to secure his re-election to the chamber, he +retired into private life. He died in 1855. The consistent +firmness with which he adhered to the cause of constitutional +liberalism during the many changes of his times gained him the +highest respect of his countrymen, by whom he was styled the +Aristides of the French tribune.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU PONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1739-1817), +French political economist and statesman, was born at Paris +on the 14th of September 1739. He studied for the medical +profession, but did not enter upon practice, his attention having +been early directed to economic questions through his friendship +with François Quesnay, Turgot and other leaders of the school +known as the Economists. To this school he rendered valuable +service by several pamphlets on financial questions, and numerous +articles representing and advocating its views in a popular style +in the <i>Journal de l’agriculture, du commerce, et des finances</i>, +and the <i>Éphémérides du citoyen</i>, of which he was successively +editor. In 1772 he accepted the office of secretary of the council +of public instruction from Stanislas Poniatowski, king of Poland. +Two years later he was recalled to France by the advent of his +friend Turgot to power. After assisting the minister in his wisely-conceived +but unavailing schemes of reform during the brief +period of his tenure of office, Du Pont shared his dismissal and +retired to Gâtinais, in the neighbourhood of Nemours, where +he employed himself in agricultural improvements. During his +leisure he wrote a translation of Ariosto (1781), and <i>Mémoires sur +la vie de Turgot</i> (1782). He was drawn from his retirement by +C.G. de Vergennes, minister of foreign affairs, who employed +him in 1782 in negotiating, with the English commissioner Dr +James Hutton, for recognition of the independence of the +United States (1782), and in preparing a treaty of commerce with +Great Britain (1786). Under Calonne he became councillor of +state, and was appointed commissary-general of commerce.</p> + +<p>During the Revolution period he advocated constitutional +monarchy, and was returned as deputy by the Third Estate of +the <i>bailliage</i> of Nemours to the states-general, and then to the +Constituent Assembly, of which he was elected president on the +16th of October 1790. But his conservative opinions rendered +him more and more unpopular, and after the 10th of August +1792, when he took the side of the king, he was forced to lie concealed +for some weeks in the observatory of the Mazarin College, +from which he contrived to escape to the country. During the +time that elapsed before he was discovered and arrested he +wrote his <i>Philosophie de l’univers</i>. Imprisoned in La Force (1794), +he was one of those who had the good fortune to escape the +guillotine till the death of Robespierre set them free. As a +member of the Council of Five Hundred, Du Pont carried out his +policy of resistance to the Jacobins, and made himself prominent +as a member of the reactionary party. After the republican +triumph on the 18th Fructidor (4th of September) 1797 his house +was sacked by the mob, and he himself only escaped transportation +to Cayenne through the influence of M.J. Chénier. In 1799 +he found it advisable for his comfort, if not for his safety, to +emigrate with his family to the United States. Jefferson’s high +opinion of Du Pont was shown in using him in 1802 to convey to +Bonaparte unofficially a threat against the French occupation of +Louisiana; and also, earlier, in requesting him to prepare a +scheme of national education, which was published in 1800 under +the title <i>Sur l’éducation nationale dans les États-Unis d’Amérique</i>. +Though the scheme was not carried out in the United States, +several of its features have been adopted in the existing French +code. On his return to France in 1802 he declined to accept any +office under Napoleon, devoted himself almost exclusively to +literary pursuits, and was elected to the <i>Institut</i>. On the downfall +of Napoleon in 1814 Du Pont became secretary to the +provisional government, and on the restoration he was made +a councillor of state. The return of the emperor in 1815 determined +him to quit France, and he spent the close of his life +with his younger son, Eleuthère Irénée (1771-1834), who had +established a powder manufactory in Delaware. He died +at Eleutherian Mills near Wilmington, Delaware, on the 6th of +August 1817.</p> + +<p>His family continued to conduct the powder-mills, which +brought them considerable wealth. The business was subsequently +converted into the E.I. Du Pont de Nemours Powder +Company. His grandson, Admiral Samuel Francis Du Pont +(1803-1865), played a conspicuous part as a U.S. naval officer +in the American Civil War. His great-grandson, Henry Algernon +Du Pont (b. 1838), president of the Wilmington & Northern +railway, was a soldier in the Civil War, and afterwards a United +States senator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Du Pont’s most important works, besides those mentioned above, +were his <i>De l’origine et des progrès d’une science nouvelle</i> (London +and Paris, 1767); <i>Physiocratie, ou constitution naturelle du gouvernement +le plus avantageux au genre humain</i> (Paris, 1768); and his +<i>Observations sur les effets de la liberté du commerce des grains</i> (1760). +They are gathered together in vol. ii. of the <i>Collection des économistes</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span> +(1846). See notices of his life (1818) by Silvestre and Baron de +Gerando; also Schelle, <i>Du Pont de Nemours et l’école physiocratique</i> +(1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPORT, ADRIEN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1759-1798), French politician, was born +in Paris. He became an influential advocate in the parlement, +becoming prominent in opposition to the ministers Calonne and +Loménie de Brienne. Elected in 1789 to the states-general by +the <i>noblesse</i> of Paris, he soon revealed a remarkable eloquence. +A learned jurist, he contributed during the Constituent Assembly +to the organization of the judiciary of France. His report of +the 29th of March 1790 is especially notable. In it he advocated +trial by jury; but he was unable to obtain the jury system in +civil cases. Duport had formed with Barnave and Alexandre +de Lameth a group known as the “triumvirate,” which was +popular at first. But after the flight of the king to Varennes, +Duport sought to defend him; as member of the commission +charged to question the king, he tried to excuse him, and on the +14th of July 1791 he opposed the formal accusation. He was +thus led to separate himself from the Jacobins and to join the +Feuillant party. After the Constituent Assembly he became +president of the criminal tribunal of Paris, but was arrested +during the insurrection of the 10th of August 1792. He escaped, +thanks probably to the complicity of Danton, returned to France +after the 9th of Thermidor of the year II., left it in exile again +after the republican <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th of Fructidor of the +year V., and died at Appenzell in Switzerland in 1798.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F.A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Constituante</i> (2nd ed., Paris, +1905, 8vo).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPORT, JAMES<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1606-1679), English classical scholar, +was born at Cambridge. His father, John Duport, who was +descended from an old Norman family (the Du Ports of Caen, +who settled in Leicestershire during the reign of Henry IV.), +was master of Jesus College. The son was educated at Westminster +and at Trinity College, where he became fellow and +subsequently vicemaster. In 1639 he was appointed regius +professor of Greek, in 1664 dean of Peterborough, and in 1668 +master of Magdalene College. He died at Peterborough on the +17th of July 1679. Throughout the troublous times of the +Civil War, in spite of the loss of his clerical offices and eventually +of his professorship, Duport quietly continued his lectures. +He is best known by his <i>Homeri gnomologia</i> (1660), a collection +of all the aphorisms, maxims and remarkable opinions in the +<i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, illustrated by quotations from the Bible and +classical literature. His other published works chiefly consist +of translations (from the Bible and Prayer Book into Greek) +and short original poems, collected under the title of <i>Horae +subsecivae</i> or <i>Stromata</i>. They include congratulatory odes +(inscribed to the king); funeral odes; <i>carmina comitialia</i> +(tripos verses on different theses maintained in the schools, +remarkable for their philosophical and metaphysical knowledge); +sacred epigrams; and three books of miscellaneous poems +(<i>Sylvae</i>). The character of Duport’s work is not such as to appeal +to modern scholars, but he deserves the credit of having done +much to keep alive the study of classical literature in his day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authority for the life of Duport is J.H. Monk’s “Memoir” +(1825); see also Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> (1908), ii. 349.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜPPEL,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, opposite the town of Sonderburg (on the +island of Alsen). (Pop. 600.) The position of Düppel, forming +as it does a bridge-head for the defenders of the island of Alsen, +played a conspicuous part in the wars between Denmark and +the Germans. On the 28th of May 1848 the German federal +troops were there defeated by the Danes under General Hedemann, +and a second battle was fought on the 6th of June 1848. +On the 13th of April 1849 an indecisive battle was fought between +the federal troops under von Prittwitz and the Danes under von +Bulow. The most important event in the military history of +Düppel was, however, the siege by the Prussians of the Danish +position in 1864. The flanks of the defenders’ line rested upon +the Alsen Sund and the sea, and it was strengthened by ten +redoubts. A second line of trenches with lunettes at intervals +was constructed behind the front attacked, and a small réduit +opposite Sonderburg to cover the bridges between Alsen and the +mainland. The Prussian siege corps was commanded by Prince +Frederick Charles (headquarters, Düppel village), and after three +weeks’ skirmishing a regular siege was begun, the batteries being +opened on the 15th of March. The first parallel was completed +fifteen days later, the front of attack being redoubts II. to VI., +forming the centre of the Danish entrenchments on the road +Düppel-Sonderburg. The siege was pushed rapidly from the +first parallel and the assault delivered on the 18th of April, +against the redoubts I. to VI., each redoubt being attacked by +a separate column. The whole line was carried after a brief +but severe conflict, and the Prussians had penetrated to and +captured the réduit opposite Sonderburg by 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> The loss of +the Danes, half of whose forces were not engaged, included 1800 +killed and wounded and 3400 prisoners. This operation was +followed by the daring passage of the Alsen Sund, effected by +the Prussians in boats almost under the guns of the Danish +war-ships, and resulting in the capture of the whole island of +Alsen (June 29th, 1864). After being still further strengthened +and linked with similar defences at Sonderburg, the Düppel +entrenchments were abandoned in 1881 in favour of landward +fortifications around Kiel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Neumann, <i>Über den Angriff der Düppeler Schanzen in der +Zeit vom 15. März bis 18. April 1864</i> (Berlin, 1865); and <i>Der deutschdänische +Krieg 1864</i>, published by the Prussian General Staff +(Berlin, 1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU PRAT, ANTOINE<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1463-1535), chancellor of France and +cardinal, was born at Issoire on the 17th of January 1463. He +began life as a lawyer, and rose rapidly in the legal hierarchy +owing to the influence of his cousin Antoine Bohier, cardinal +archbishop of Bourges. The first office which he held was that of +lieutenant-general in the <i>bailliage</i> of Montferrand; in 1507 he +became first president of the parlement of Paris. Louise of +Savoy had employed him as her adviser in her affairs, and had +made him tutor to her son. When Francis I. ascended the throne +he made Du Prat chancellor of France, in which capacity he +played an important part in the government. It was he who +negotiated with Leo X. concerning the abolition of the Pragmatic +Sanction and the establishment of a concordat. After the +meeting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520) he was engaged +in unsuccessful negotiations with Wolsey. During the regency +of Louise of Savoy he, together with Florimond Robertet, was +at the head of affairs. He took an active part in the suit brought +by Louise of Savoy against the Constable de Bourbon, and in +1532 completed the work of uniting Brittany to France. After +the death of his wife in 1507 Du Prat had taken orders; he +received the bishoprics of Valence, Die, Meaux and Albi, and +the archbishopric of Sens (1525); in 1527 he became cardinal, +and in 1530 papal legate. He was a determined adversary of +the Reformation. He died on the 9th of July 1535.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the marquis Du Prat, <i>Vie d’Antoine Du Prat</i> (Paris, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPRÉ, JULES<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1812-1889), French painter, was one of the +chief members of the Barbizon group of romantic landscape +painters. If Corot stands for the lyric and Rousseau for the +epic aspect of the poetry of nature, Dupré is the exponent of her +tragic and dramatic aspects. He was the son of a porcelain +manufacturer, and started his career in his father’s works, +whence he went to his uncle’s china factory at Sèvres. After +studying for some time under Diébold, a painter of clock faces, he +had to pass through a short period of privation, until he attracted +the attention of a wealthy patron, who came to his studio and +bought all the studies on the walls at the price demanded by the +artist—20 francs apiece. Dupré exhibited first at the Salon in +1831, and three years later was awarded a second-class medal. +In the same year he came to England, where he was deeply +impressed by the genius of Constable. From him he learnt how +to express movement in nature; and the district of Southampton +and Plymouth, with its wide, unbroken expanses of water, sky +and ground, gave him good opportunities for studying the +tempestuous motion of storm-clouds and the movement of foliage +driven by the wind. He received the cross of the Legion of +Honour in 1848. Dupré’s colour is sonorous and resonant; the +subjects for which he showed marked preference are dramatic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +sunset effects and stormy skies and seas. Late in life he changed +his style and gained appreciably in largeness of handling and +arrived at greater simplicity in his colour harmonies. Among his +chief works are the “Morning” and “Evening” at the Louvre, +and the early “Crossing the Bridge” in the Wallace Collection.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANÇOIS<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1742-1809), French scientific +writer and politician, was born of poor parents at Trye-Château, +between Gisors and Chaumont, on the 26th of October 1742. +His father, who was a teacher, instructed him in mathematics and +land-surveying. While he was engaged in measuring a tower by a +geometrical method, the duc de la Rochefoucauld met him and was +so taken by the lad’s intelligence that he gave him a bursary in the +college of Harcourt. Dupuis made such rapid progress that, at the +age of twenty-four, he was appointed professor of rhetoric at +the college of Lisieux, where he had previously passed as a +licentiate of theology. In his hours of leisure he studied law, and +in 1770 he abandoned the clerical career and became an advocate. +Two university discourses which he delivered in Latin were +printed, and laid the foundation of his literary fame. His chief +attention, however, was devoted to mathematics, the object of +his early studies; and for some years he attended the +astronomical lectures of Lalande, with whom he formed an +intimate friendship. In 1778 he constructed a telegraph on the +principle suggested by Guillaume Amontons (<i>q.v.</i>), and employed +it in keeping up a correspondence with his friend Jean Fortin in +the neighbouring village of Bagneux, until the Revolution made +it necessary to destroy his machine to avoid suspicion. About +the same time Dupuis formed his theory as to the origin of the +Greek months. He endeavoured to account for the want of any +resemblance between the groups of stars and the names by which +they are known, by supposing that the zodiac was, for the people +who invented it, a sort of calendar at once astronomical and +rural, and that the figures chosen for the constellations were such +as would naturally suggest the agricultural operations of the +season. It seemed only necessary, therefore, to discover the +clime and the period in which the constellation of Capricorn must +have arisen with the sun on the day of the summer solstice, and +the vernal equinox must have occurred under Libra. It appeared +to Dupuis that this clime was Upper Egypt, and that the perfect +correspondence between the signs and their significations had +existed in that country at a period of between fifteen and sixteen +thousand years before the present time; that it had existed only +there; and that this harmony had been disturbed by the effect of +the precession of the equinoxes. He therefore ascribed the +invention of the signs of the zodiac to the people who then +inhabited Upper Egypt or Ethiopia. This was the basis on which +Dupuis established his mythological system, and endeavoured to +explain fabulous history and the whole system of the theogony +and theology of the ancients. Dupuis published several detached +parts of his system in the <i>Journal des savants</i> for 1777 and 1781. +These he afterwards collected and published, first in Lalande’s +<i>Astronomy</i>, and then in a separate volume in 4to, 1781, under the +title of <i>Mémoire sur l’origine des constellations et sur l’explication +de la fable par l’astronomie</i>. The theory propounded in this +memoir was refuted by J.S. Bailly in his <i>Histoire de l’astronomie</i>, +but, at the same time, with a just acknowledgment of the +erudition and ingenuity exhibited by the author.</p> + +<p>Condorcet proposed Dupuis to Frederick the Great of Prussia +as a fit person to succeed Thiébault in the professorship of +literature at Berlin; and Dupuis had accepted the invitation, +when the death of the king cancelled the engagement. The chair +of humanity in the College of France having at the same time +become vacant, it was conferred on Dupuis; and in 1788 he +became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. He now +resigned his professorship at Lisieux, and was appointed by the +administrators of the department of Paris one of the four commissioners +of public instruction. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary +troubles Dupuis sought safety at Évreux; and, having +been chosen a member of the National Convention by the +department of Seine-et-Oise, he distinguished himself by his +moderation. In the third year of the republic he was elected +secretary to the Assembly, and in the fourth he was chosen a +member of the Council of Five Hundred. After Bonaparte’s +<i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th Brumaire he was elected by the department +of Seine-et-Oise a member of the Legislative Body, of which +he became the president. He was proposed as a candidate for +the senate, but resolved to abandon politics, devoting himself +during the rest of his life to his favourite studies.</p> + +<p>In 1795 he published the work by which he is best known, entitled +<i>Origine de tous les cultes, ou la religion universelle</i> (3 vols. +4to, with an atlas, or 12 vols. 12mo). This work, of which an +edition revised by P.R. Auguis was published in 1822 (10th ed., +1835-1836), became the subject of much bitter controversy, and +the theory it propounded as to the origin of mythology in Upper +Egypt led to the expedition organized by Napoleon for the exploration +of that country. In 1798 Dupuis published an abridgment +of his work in one volume 8vo, which met with no better +success than the original. Another abridgment of the same work, +executed upon a much more methodical plan, was published by +M. de Tracy. The other works of Dupuis consist of two memoirs +on the Pelasgi, inserted in the <i>Memoirs of the Institute</i>; a +memoir “On the Zodiac of Tentyra,” published in the <i>Revue +philosophique</i> for May 1806; and a <i>Mémoire explicatif du +zodiaque chronologique et mythologique</i>, published the same year, +in one volume 4to. He died on the 29th of September 1809.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPUY, CHARLES ALEXANDRE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1851-  ), French +statesman, was born at Le Puy on the 5th of November 1851, +his father being a local official. After being a professor of +philosophy in the provinces, he was appointed a school inspector, +and thus obtained a practical acquaintance with the needs of +French education. In 1885 he was elected to the chamber as an +Opportunist Republican. After acting as “reporter” of the +budget for public instruction, he became minister for the department, +in M. Ribot’s cabinet, in 1892. In April 1893 he formed a +ministry himself, taking as his office that of minister of the +interior, but resigned at the end of November, and on 5th +December was elected president of the chamber. During his first +week of office an anarchist, Vaillant, who had managed to gain +admission to the chamber, threw a bomb at the president, and +M. Dupuy’s collected bearing, and his historic words: “Messieurs, +la séance continue,” gained him much credit. In May 1894 he +again became premier and minister of the interior; and he was by +President Carnot’s side when the latter was stabbed to death at +Lyons in June. He then became a candidate for the presidency, +but was defeated, and his cabinet remained in office till January +1895; it was under it that Captain Dreyfus was arrested and +condemned (23rd of December 1894). The progress of <i>l’affaire</i> +then cast its shadow upon M. Dupuy, along with other French +“ministrables,” but in November 1898, after M. Brisson had at +last remitted the case to the judgment of the court of cassation, he +formed a cabinet of Republican concentration. In view of the +apparent likelihood that the judges of the criminal division of the +court of cassation—who formed the ordinary tribunal for such an +appeal—would decide in favour of Dreyfus, it was thought that +M. Dupuy’s new cabinet would be strong enough to reconcile +public opinion to such a result; but, to the surprise of outside +observers, it was no sooner discovered how the judges were +likely to decide than M. Dupuy proposed a law in the chamber +transferring the decision to a full court of all the divisions of the +court of cassation. This arbitrary act, though adopted by the +chamber, was at once construed as a fresh attempt to maintain +the judgment of the first court-martial; but in the interval +President Faure (an anti-Dreyfusard) died, and the accession of +M. Loubet doubtless had some effect in quieting public feeling. +At all events, the whole court of cassation decided that there +must be a new court-martial, and M. Dupuy at once resigned +(June 1899). In June 1900 he was elected senator for the +Haute Saône.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPUY, PIERRE<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1582-1651), French scholar, otherwise +known as <span class="sc">Puteanus</span>, was born at Agen (Lot-et-Garonne) on the +27th of November 1582. In 1615 he was commissioned by +Mathieu Molé, first president of the parlement of Paris, to draw +up an inventory of the documents which constituted what at +that time was known as the <i>Trésor des chartes</i>. This work +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +occupied eleven years. His MS. inventory is preserved in the +original and in copy in the Bibliothèque Nationale, and transcriptions +are in the national archives in Paris, at the record office in +London, and elsewhere. Dupuy’s classification is still regarded +with respect, but the inventory has been partially replaced by +the publication of the <i>Layettes du trésor</i> (four volumes, coming +down to 1270; 1863-1902). Dupuy also published, with his +brother Jacques, and their friend Nicolas Rigault, the <i>History</i> +of Aug. de Thou (1620, 1626). The two brothers then bought +from Rigault the post of keeper of the king’s library, and drew +up a catalogue of the library (Nos. 9352-9354 and 10366-10367 of +the Latin collection in the Bibliothèque Nationale). In the +course of this work, Dupuy became acquainted with and copied +an enormous mass of unpublished documents, which furnished +him with the material for some excellent works: <i>Traité des +droits et des libertés de l’église gallicane, avec les preuves</i> (1639), +<i>Histoire de l’ordre militaire des Templiers</i> (1654), <i>Histoire générale +du schisme qui a été dans l’église depuis 1378 jusqu’à 1428</i> (1654), +and <i>Histoire du différend entre le pape Boniface VIII et le roi +Philippe le Bel</i> (1655). These works, especially the last, are +important contributions to the history of the relations of church +and state in the middle ages. They were written from the +Gallican standpoint, <i>i.e.</i> in favour of the rights of the crown in +temporal and political matters, and this explains the delay in +their publication until after Dupuy’s death. He wrote also +<i>Traité des régences et des majorités des rois de France</i> (1655) and +<i>Recueil des droits du roi</i> (1658). Dupuy’s papers, preserved in +the Bibliothèque Nationale, were inventoried by Léon Dorez +(<i>Catalogue de la collection Dupuy</i>, 1899). See also L. Delisle’s +<i>Le Cabinet des manuscrits de la bibliothèque impériale</i>. Dupuy +died in Paris on the 14th of December 1651.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPUY DE LÔME, STANISLAS CHARLES HENRI LAURENT<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> +(1816-1885), French naval architect, the son of a retired naval +officer, was born at Ploemeur, near Lorient, on the 15th of +October 1816. He entered the École Polytechnique in 1835, +and in 1842 was sent to England to study and report on iron shipbuilding. +Acting on his report, which was published in 1844, +the government built their first iron vessels under his supervision. +He planned and built the steam line-of-battle ship “Napoleon” +(1848-1852), and devised the method of altering sailing ships +of the line into steamers, which was afterwards extensively +practised in both France and England. He also showed the +practicability of armouring the sides of a ship, and the frigate +“Gloire” gave a very clear demonstration of his views. It was +the beginning of the great change in the construction of ships of +war which has been going on ever since. In 1857 Dupuy de +Lôme was appointed “chef de la direction du matériel,” at +Paris; and in 1861, “inspecteur général du matériel de la +marine.” In 1866 he was elected a member of the Academy of +Sciences. At the beginning of the Franco-German War he was +appointed a member of the committee of defence, and during +the siege of Paris occupied himself with planning a steerable +balloon, for carrying out which he was given a credit of +40,000 fr.; but the balloon was not ready till a few days before +the capitulation. The experiments that were afterwards made with +it did not prove entirely satisfactory. In 1875 he was busy over +a scheme for embarking a railway train at Calais, and exhibited +plans of the improved harbour and models of the “bateaux +porte-trains” to the Academy of Sciences in July. In 1877 he +was elected a senator for life. He received the cross of the +Legion of Honour in 1845, was made a commander in 1858, +and grand officer in December 1863. He died at Paris on the +1st of February 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1777-1835), French +anatomist and surgeon, was born on the 6th of October 1777 at +Pierre Buffière (Haute Vienne). He studied medicine in Paris +at the newly established École de Médecine, and was appointed +by competition prosector when only eighteen years of age. His +early studies were directed chiefly to morbid anatomy. In 1803 +he was appointed assistant-surgeon at the Hôtel-Dieu, and in +1811 professor of operative surgery in succession to R.B. Sabatier +(1732-1811). In 1815 he was appointed to the chair of clinical +surgery, and became head surgeon at the Hôtel-Dieu. +Dupuytren’s energy and industry were alike remarkable. He +visited the Hôtel-Dieu morning and evening, performing at each +time several operations, lectured to vast throngs of students, +gave advice to his outdoor patients, and fulfilled the duties +consequent upon one of the largest practices of modern times. +By his indefatigable activity he amassed a fortune of £300,000, +the bulk of which he bequeathed to his daughter, with the deduction +of considerable sums for the endowment of the anatomical +chair in the École de Médecine, and the establishment of a +benevolent institution for distressed medical men. The most +important of Dupuytren’s writings is his <i>Treatise on Artificial +Anus</i>, in which he applied the principles laid down by John +Hunter. In his operations he was remarkable for his skill and +dexterity, and for his great readiness of resource. He died in +Paris on the 8th of February 1835.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUQUE DE ESTRADA, DIEGO<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1589-?), Spanish memoir +writer, soldier and adventurer, son of Juan Duque de Estrada, +also a soldier of rank, was born at Toledo on the 15th of August +1589. Having been left an orphan when very young, he was +educated by a cousin. While still young he was betrothed to +his cousin’s daughter. One night he found an intruder in the +house, a gentleman with whom he was acquainted, and in a fit +of jealousy killed both him and the young lady. The prevailing +code of honour was considered a sufficient justification for Duque +de Estrada’s violence, but the law looked upon the act as a vulgar +assassination, and he had to flee. After leading a vagabond life +in the south of Spain, he was arrested at Ecija, was brought to +Toledo, and was there put to the torture with extreme ferocity, +in order to extort a general confession as to his life during the +past months. He had the strength not to yield to pain, and was +finally able to escape from prison, partly by the help of a nun in +a religious house which faced the prison, and partly by the +intervention of friends. He made his way to Naples, where he +entered the service of the duke of Osuna (<i>q.v.</i>), at that time +viceroy. Duque de Estrada saw a good deal of fighting both +with the Turks and the Venetians; but he is mainly interesting +because he was employed by the viceroy in the conspiracy against +Venice. He was one of the disguised Spanish soldiers who were +sent into the town to destroy the arsenal, and who were warned +in time that the conspiracy had been betrayed, and therefore +escaped. After the fall of his patron, Duque de Estrada resumed +his vagabond life, served under Bethlen Gabor in Transylvania, +and in the Thirty Years’ War. In 1633 he entered the order of +San Juan de Dios, and died at some time after 1637 in Sardinia, +where he is known to have taken part in the defence of the island +against an attack by the French. He left a book of memoirs, +entitled <i>Comentarios de el desengeñado de si Mismo prueba de +todos estados, y eleccion del Mejor de ellos</i>—“The Commentaries +of one who knew his own little worth, the touchtstone of all the +state of man, and the choice of the best.” They were written +at different times, and part has been lost. The style is incorrect, +and it would be unsafe to trust them in every detail, but they are +amazingly vivid, and contain a wonderful picture of the moral +and intellectual state of a large part of Spanish society at the +time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The memoirs have been reprinted by Don Pascual de Gayangos +in the <i>Memorial histórico español</i>, vol. xii. (Madrid, 1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUQUESNE, ARRAHAM,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis</span> (1610-1688), French +naval officer, was born at Dieppe in 1610. Born in a stirring +seaport, the son of a distinguished naval officer, he naturally +adopted the profession of a sailor. He spent his youth in the +merchant service, and obtained his first distinction in naval +warfare by the capture of the island of Lerins from the Spaniards +in May 1637. About the same time his father was killed in an +engagement with the Spaniards, and the news raised his hatred +of the national enemy to the pitch of a personal and bitter +animosity. For the next five years he sought every opportunity +of inflicting defeat and humiliation on the Spanish navy, and +he distinguished himself by his bravery in the engagement at +Guetaria (1638), the expedition to Corunna (1639), and in battles +at Tarragona (1641), Barcelona (1643), and the Cabo de Gata. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> +The French navy being left unemployed during the minority of +Louis XIV., Duquesne obtained leave to offer his services to the +king of Sweden, who gave him a commission as vice-admiral +in 1643. In this capacity he defeated the Danish fleet near +Gothenburg and thus raised the siege of the city. The Danes +returned to the struggle with increased forces under the command +of King Christian in person, but they were again defeated—their +admiral being killed and his ship taken. Peace having +been concluded between Sweden and Denmark in 1645, Duquesne +returned to France. The revolt at Bordeaux, supported as it +was by material aid from Spain, gave him the opportunity of +at once serving his country and gratifying his long-cherished +hatred of the Spaniards. In 1650 he fitted out at his own +expense a squadron with which he blockaded the mouth of the +Gironde, and compelled the city to surrender. For this service +he was promoted in rank, and received a gift of the castle and +isle of Indre, near Nantes. Peace with Spain was concluded +in 1659, and for some years afterwards Duquesne was occupied +in endeavours to suppress piracy in the Mediterranean. On +the revolt of Messina from Spain, he was sent to support the +insurgents, and had to encounter the united fleets of Spain and +Holland under the command of the celebrated Admiral de +Ruyter. After several battles, in which the advantage was +generally on the side of the French, a decisive engagement +took place near Catania, on the 20th of April 1676, when the +Dutch fleet was totally routed and de Ruyter mortally wounded. +The greater part of the defeated fleet was afterwards burned in +the harbour of Palermo, where it had taken refuge, and the +French thus secured the undisputed command of the Mediterranean. +For this important service Duquesne received a letter +of thanks from Louis XIV., together with the title of marquis +and the estate of Bouchet. His last achievements were the bombardment +of Algiers (1682-1683), in order to effect the deliverance +of the Christian captives, and the bombardment of Genoa +in 1684. He retired from service in 1684, on the ground of age +and ill-health. It is probable also that he foresaw the revocation +of the edict of Nantes, which took place in the following year. +He died in Paris on the 2nd of February 1688.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jal, <i>Abraham Duquesne, et la marine de son temps</i> (1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUQUESNE,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, about 12 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. +Pop. (1900) 9036, of whom 3451 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 15,727. It is served by the Pennsylvania railway. +Its most prominent buildings are the Carnegie free library and +club (opened in 1904 and containing 17,500 volumes in 1908), and +the city hall. A short distance N. of the borough limits Kennywood +Park, with a large auditorium and pavilion, is an attractive +resort. By far the most important industry of the borough is +the manufacture of steel. The value of the borough’s factory +products increased from $20,333,476 in 1900 to $28,494,303 in +1905, or 40.1%. The municipality owns and operates its +water-works. Duquesne was settled in 1885 and was incorporated +in 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURAMEN<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (a rare Latin word, meaning hardness, from <i>durus</i>, +hard), a botanical term for the inner, harder wood of a tree, the +heart-wood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURAN,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a Jewish Provençal family of rabbis and scholars, +of whom the following are the most important.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Profiaṭ Duran</span>, called also <span class="sc">Ephodi</span>. He was in 1391 +compelled to profess Christianity, but remained devoted to +Judaism. His chief works were grammatical and philosophical. +In the former realm his most important contribution was the +<i>Ma’aseh ‘Ephod</i> (completed in 1403); in the latter, his commentary +to the <i>Guide of the Perplexed</i> by Maimonides (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Simon Ben Ẓemaḥ Duran</span> (1361-1441), rabbi of Algiers. +He was one of the first of the medieval rabbis to be a salaried +official of the synagogue. Before the 14th century the rabbinical +post had been almost invariably honorary, and filled by men +who derived their income from a profession, <span class="correction" title="amended from epecially">especially</span> medicine. +Duran wrote a systematic work on theology, <i>Magen ‘Aboth</i>, +but is chiefly famous for his numerous <i>Responsa</i> (known as +<i>Tashbaz</i>) published in three vols. in 1738-1739. These <i>Responsa</i>, +“Answers to questions sent from many lands,” give valuable +information as to social and religious conditions in the earlier +part of the 15th century.</p> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURÁN, AGUSTÍN<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1789-1862), Spanish scholar, was born +in 1789 at Madrid, where his father was court physician. He +was sent to the seminary at Vergara, whence he returned learned +in the traditions of Spanish romance. In 1817 he began the study +of philosophy and law at the university of Seville, and in due +course was admitted to the bar at Valladolid. From 1821 to +1823 he held a post in the education department at Madrid, +but in the latter year he was suspended on account of his political +opinions. In 1834 he became secretary of the board for the +censorship of the press, and shortly afterwards obtained a post in +the national library at Madrid. The revolution of 1840 led to +his dismissal; but he was reinstated in 1843, and in 1854 was +appointed chief librarian. Next year, however, he retired to +devote himself to his literary work. In 1828, shortly after his +first discharge from office, he published anonymously his <i>Discurso +sobre el influjo que ha tenido la crítica moderna en la decadencia +del teatro antiguo</i>; this treatise greatly influenced the younger +dramatists of the day. He next endeavoured to interest his +fellow-countrymen in their ancient, neglected ballads, and in +the forgotten dramas of the 17th century. Five volumes of a +<i>Romancero general</i> appeared from 1828 to 1832 (republished, +with considerable additions, in 2 vols. 1849-1851), and <i>Talia +española</i> (1834), a reprint of old Spanish comedies. Durán’s +<i>Romancero general</i> is the fullest collection of the kind and is +therefore unlikely to be superseded, though the texts are inferior +to those edited by Menendez y Pelayo.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURANCE<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (anc. <i>Druentia</i>), one of the principal rivers +descending from the French slope of the Alps towards the +Mediterranean. Its total length from its source to its junction +with the Rhone (of which it is one of the principal affluents), a +little below Avignon, is 217½ m. For the greater part of its +course it flows in a south-westerly direction, but near Pertuis +gradually bends N.W. and thenceforth preserves this direction. +It passes through the departments of Hautes-Alpes, of Basses-Alpes, +and between those of Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhône. +It is commonly said to take its origin in some small lakes a little +south of the summit plateau of the Mont Genèvre Pass. But really +this stream is surpassed both in volume and length of course +by two others which it joins beneath Briançon:—the Clairée, +flowing in from the north, through the smiling Névache glen, +at the head of which, not far from the foot of the Mont Thabor +(10,440 ft.), it rises in some small lakes, on the east side of the +Col des Rochilles; and the Guisane (flowing in from the north-west +and rising near the Col du Lautaret, 6808 ft.). The united +stream soon receives its first affluent, the Cerveyrette (left), and, +after having passed through some fine deep-cut gorges, the +Gyronde (right). It then runs through a stony plain, where it +frequently overflows and causes great damage, this being indeed +the main characteristic of the Durance throughout its course. +At the foot of the fortress of Mont Dauphin it receives (left) +the Guil, which flows through the Queyras valley from near the +foot of Monte Viso. Some way beyond it passes beneath Embrun, +the first important town on its banks. It soon becomes the +boundary for a while between the departments of the Hautes-Alpes +and of the Basses-Alpes, and receives successively the +considerable Ubaye river, flowing from near the foot of Monte +Viso past Barcelonnette (left), and then the small stream of the +Luye (right), on which, a few miles above, is Gap. It enters the +Basses-Alpes shortly before reaching Sisteron, where it is joined +(right) by the wild torrent of the Buëch, flowing from the desolate +region of the Dévoluy, and receives the Bléone (left) (on which +Digne, the capital of the department, is situated) and the Asse +(left), before quitting the department of the Basses-Alpes just +as it is reinforced (left) by the Verdon, flowing from the lower +summits of the Maritime Alps past Castellane. After passing +through some narrow gorges near Sisteron the bed of the river +becomes wide, and spreads desolation around, the frequent +overflows being kept within bounds by numerous dykes and +<span class="correction" title="amended from enbankments">embankments</span>. These features are especially marked when the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span> +river, after leaving the Basses-Alpes, soon bends N.W. and, +always serving as the boundary between the departments of +Vaucluse (N.) and of the Bouches-du-Rhône (S.), passes Cavaillon +before it effects its junction with the Rhône. The drainage area +of the Durance is about 5166 sq. m., while the height it descends +is 6550 ft., if reckoned from the lakes on the Mont Genèvre, or +7850 ft. if we take those at the head of the Névache valley as the +true source of the river.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURAND, ASHER BROWN<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1796-1886), American painter +and engraver, was born at South Orange, New Jersey, on the +21st of August 1796. He worked with his father, a watchmaker; +was apprenticed in 1812 to an engraver named Peter +Maverick; and his first work, the head of an old beggar after +Waldo, attracted the attention of the artist Trumbull. Durand +established his reputation by his engraving of Trumbull’s +“Declaration of Independence.” After 1835, however, he devoted +himself chiefly to portrait painting. He painted several +of the presidents of the United States and many other men of +political and social prominence. In 1840 he visited Europe, +where he studied the work of the old masters; after his return +he devoted himself almost entirely to landscape. He died at South +Orange on the 17th of September 1886. He had been one of +the founders of the National Academy of Design in 1826, and +was its president in 1845-1861. Durand may be called the +father of the Hudson River School. Although there was something +hard and unsympathetic about his landscapes, and unnecessary +details and trivialities were over-prominent, he was +a well-trained craftsman, and his work is marked by sincerity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURAND, GUILLAUME<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Guillelmus Durandus</span>), also +known as <span class="sc">Duranti</span> or <span class="sc">Durantis</span>, from the Italian form of <i>Durandi +filius</i>, as he sometimes signed himself (<i>c.</i> 1230-1296), French +canonist and liturgical writer, and bishop of Mende, was born at +Puimisson, near Beziers, of a noble family of Languedoc. He +studied law at Bologna, especially with Bernardus of Parma, +and about 1264 was teaching canon law with success at Modena. +Clement IV., his fellow-countryman, called him to the pontifical +court as a chaplain and auditor of the palace, and in 1274 he +accompanied Clement’s successor Gregory X. to the council of +Lyons, the constitutions of which he drew up, along with some +other prelates. As spiritual and temporal legate of the patrimony +of St Peter, he received in 1278, in the name of the pope, the +homage of Bologna and of the other cities of Romagna. Martin +IV. made him vicar spiritual in 1281, then governor of Romagna +and of the March of Ancona (1283). In the midst of the struggles +between Guelfs and Ghibellines, Durandus successfully defended +the papal territories, both by diplomacy and by arms. Honorius +IV. retained him in his offices, and although elected bishop of +Mende in 1286, he remained in Italy until 1291. In 1295 he refused +the archbishopric of Ravenna, offered him by Boniface VIII., +but accepted the task of pacifying again his former provinces +of Romagna and the March of Ancona. In 1296 he withdrew +to Rome, where he died on the 1st of November.</p> + +<p>Durandus’ principal work is the <i>Speculum judiciale</i>, which +was drawn up in 1271, and revised in 1286 and 1291. It is a +general explanation of civil, criminal and canonical procedure, +and also includes a survey of the subject of contracts. It is a +remarkable synthesis of Roman and ecclesiastical law, distinguished +by its clarity, its method, and especially its practical +sense, in a field in which it was pioneer, and its repute was as +great and lasting in the courts as in the schools. It won for +Durandus the name of “The Speculator.” It was commented +upon by Giovanni Andrea (in 1346), and by Baldus, and in 1306 +Cardinal Béranger drew up an alphabetical table of its contents +(<i>Inventorium</i>). There are many manuscripts of the <i>Speculum</i>, +and several editions, of which the most usual is that of Turin in +1578 in 2 volumes, containing all additions and tables. This +edition was reproduced at Frankfort in 1612 and 1668. The +next important work of Durandus is the <i>Rationale divinorum +officiorum</i>, a liturgical treatise written in Italy before 1286, on +the origin and symbolic sense of the Christian ritual. It presents +a picture of the liturgy of the 13th century in the West, studied +in its various forms, its traditional sources, and its relation to +the church buildings and furniture. With Martène’s <i>De antiquis +Ecclesiae ritibus</i> it is the main authority on Western liturgies. +It has run through various editions, from its first publication in +1459 to the last edition at Naples, 1866. The other important +works of Durandus comprise a <i>Repertorium juris canonici</i> +(<i>Breviarium aureum</i>), a collection of citations from canonists on +questions of controversy—often published along with the +<i>Speculum</i>; a <i>Commentarius in sacrosanctum Lugdunense concilium</i> +(ed. Fano, 1569), of especial value owing to the share of +Durandus in the elaboration of the constitutions of this council +(1274), and inserted by Boniface VIII. in the <i>Sextus</i>.</p> + +<p>A nephew of “The Speculator,” also named <span class="sc">Guillaume +Durand</span> (d. 1330), and also a canonist, was rector of the university +of Toulouse and succeeded his uncle as bishop of Mende. +He wrote in 1311, in connexion with the council of Vienne, <i>De +modo celebrandi concilii et corruptelis in Ecclesia reformandis</i>. +It attacks the abuses of the Church with extreme sincerity and +vigour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the elder Durand see V. Leclerc in <i>Histoire littéraire de la +France</i>, vol. xx. pp. 411-497 (1842); Schulte, <i>Geschichte der Quellen +des canonischen Rechts</i> (1877); E. Male, <i>L’Art religieux au XIII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle en France</i> (1898). On the nephew see B. Hauréau, in <i>Journal +des savants</i> (1892), 64.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURAND, GUILLAUME<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (d. 1334), French scholastic theologian, +known also by the Latin form of his name as <span class="sc">Durandus</span> +of St Pourçain (<i>de Sancto Porciano</i>), and as <i>Doctor Resolutissimus</i>, +was born at St Pourçain-sur-Sioule in the Bourbonnois. He +entered the Dominican order at Clermont, and in 1313 was +made a doctor in Paris, where he taught till Pope John XXII. +called him to Avignon as master of the sacred palace, <i>i.e.</i> theological +adviser and preacher to the pope. He subsequently +became bishop of Limoux (1317), of Le Puy (1318) and of Meaux +(1326). He composed a commentary on the Sentences of Peter +Lombard, in which, breaking with the realism of St Thomas +Aquinas, he anticipated the <i>terminism</i> of William of Occam, +and gave up the attempt to show that dogmas can be demonstrated +by reason. In the question of the beatific vision, arising +out of opinions promulgated by John XXII. (<i>q.v.</i>), he sided with +Thomas Walleis, Armand de Bellovisu and the doctors of the +faculty of theology in Paris against the pope, and composed his +<i>De statu animarum post separationem a corpore</i>. Mention should +also be made of his <i>De origine jurisdictionum quibus populus +regitur, sive de jurisdictione ecclesiastica et de legibus</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. Hauréau, <i>Histoire de la philosophie scolastique</i> (2nd ed., +Paris, 1872); C. Werner, <i>Die Scholastik des spateren Mittelalters</i>, +vol. ii. (Vienna, 1883); H.S. Denifle, in <i>Archiv f. Litteratur und +Kirchengeschichte</i>, ii. (1886); U. Chevalier, <i>Rép. des sources hist. +du moyen âge</i>, <i>s.v.</i> Durand de St Pourçain.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURANDO, GIACOMO<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1807-1894), Italian general and +statesman, was born at Mondovì in Piedmont. He was implicated +in the revolutionary movements of 1831 and 1832, after +which he was obliged to take refuge abroad. He served in +the Belgian army, taking part in the war of 1832, and fought in +Portugal in 1833. The following year he entered the service of +Spain, when he fought in various campaigns, and was promoted +colonel in 1838. After a short stay in France he returned to +Italy and identified himself with the Liberal movement; he +became an active journalist, and founded a newspaper called +<i>L’Opinione</i> in 1847. In 1848 he was one of those who asked +King Charles Albert for the constitution. On the outbreak of +the war with Austria he took command of the Lombard volunteers +as major-general, and in the campaign of 1849 he was aide-de-camp +to the king. He was elected member of the first Piedmontese +parliament and was a strenuous supporter of Cavour; +during the Crimean campaign he took General La Marmora’s +place as war minister. In 1855 he was nominated senator, +lieutenant-general in 1856, ambassador at Constantinople in +1859, and minister for foreign affairs in the Rattazzi cabinet two +years later. He was president of the senate from 1884 to 1887, +after which year he retired from the army. He died in 1894.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Giovanni Durando</span> (1804-1869), was in early life +driven into exile on account of his Liberal opinions. He served +in the armies of Belgium, Portugal and Spain, distinguishing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +himself in many engagements. Returning to Italy on the outbreak +of the revolution of 1848, he was appointed commander +of a division of the pontifical forces, and fought against the +Austrians in Venetia until the fall of Vicenza, when he returned +to Piedmont as major-general. In the campaign of 1849 he commanded +the first Piedmontese division; he subsequently served +in the Crimea, in the war of 1859, and in that of 1866 as commander +of the I. Army Corps. In 1867 he was appointed +president of the supreme military and naval tribunal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURANGO,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a state of northern Mexico, bounded N. by +Chihuahua, E. and S.E. by Coahuila, S. by Zacatecas and the +territory of Tepic, and W. by Sinaloa. Pop. (1895) 292,549; +(1900) 370,294. Area 38,009 sq. m. Durango is a continuation +southward of the high, semi-arid plateau of Chihuahua, with +the Sierra Madre extending along its western side. The Bolsón +de Mapimí covers its N.E. angle, and in the S. there are peculiar +volcanic hills, covering about 1000 sq. m. and known as La Breña. +The Bolsón de Mapimí, previous to the building of the Mexican +Central railway across it, had been considered an uninhabitable +desert, but irrigation experiments have demonstrated that its +soil is highly fertile and well adapted to the production of cotton +and fruit. The rainfall is very light in the eastern part of the +state, a succession of years sometimes passing without any +precipitation whatever, but in the W. it is sufficient to produce +good pasturage and considerable areas of forest. There are no +rivers of any magnitude in the state. The largest is the Rio +Nazas, which flows eastward into the lakes of the Mapimí depression, +and the Mezquital, which flows S.W. through the sierras +to the Pacific coast. The climate is generally dry and healthful. +Cotton is produced to a limited extent, especially where irrigation +is employed, and wheat, Indian corn, tobacco, sugar-cane +and grapes are also grown. In the elevated valleys of the sierras +stock-raising is successful. The principal industry of Durango, +however, is mining, and some of the richest and best known +mines of Mexico are found in the state. Besides silver, which has +been extensively mined since the first arrival of the Spanish +under Francisco de Ibarra (1554-1562), gold, copper, iron, +cinnabar, tin, coal and rubies are found. The famous Cerro del +Mercado, 2 m. from the city of Durango, is a hill composed in +great part of remarkably pure iron ore, and is estimated to contain +300,000,000 tons of that metal. Near it are iron and steel works. +The principal mining districts of Durango include San Dimas +(on the western slope of the main sierra), Guarisamey, Buenavista, +Gavilanes, Guanaceví, Mapimí, El Oro and Indé. In the first-named +is the celebrated Candelaria mine, where the ores (largely +argentite) assay between $70 and $140 a ton, the aggregate +output being estimated as over $100,000,000 before the close +of the 19th century. With the exception of silver, the mineral +resources of the state have been but slightly developed because +of difficult and expensive transportation. The Mexican Central +railway crosses the eastern side of the state, and the Mexican +International crosses N.E. to S.W. through the state capital on +its way to the port of Mazatlán. The history of Durango is +similar to that of Chihuahua, the state originally forming part +of the province of Nueva Viscaya. The capital is Durango, and +among the principal towns are Guanaceví (pop. 6859), El Oro, +Nombre de Dios (the first Spanish settlement in the state), +San Juan de Guadalupe, San Dimas and Villa Lerdo. These +are comparatively small mining towns. Mapimí lies 130 m. +N.N.E. of Durango and gives its name to the great arid depression +situated still farther north.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURANGO,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> sometimes called <span class="sc">Ciudad de Victoria</span>, a city of +Mexico, capital of the state of Durango, 574 m. N.W. of the federal +capital, in lat. 24° 25′ N., long. 105° 55′ W. Pop. (1900) 31,092. +Durango is served by the Mexican International railway. The +city stands in the picturesque Guadiana valley formed by +easterly spurs of the Sierra Madre, about 6850 ft. above the sea. +It has a mild, healthy climate, and is surrounded by a district +of considerable fertility. Durango is an important mining and +commercial centre, and was for a time one of the most influential +towns of northern Mexico. It is the seat of a bishop, and has +a handsome cathedral, ten parish churches, a national institute +or college, an episcopal seminary, government buildings, a public +library, hospital, penitentiary and bull-ring. The city is provided +with urban and suburban tramways, electric light, telephone +service and an abundant water-supply, and there are thermal +springs in its vicinity. Its manufacturing establishments include +reduction works, cotton and woollen mills, glass works, iron +foundries, tanneries, flour mills, sugar refineries and tobacco +factories. Durango was founded in 1563 by Alonso Pacheco +under the direction of Governor Francisco de Ibarra, who named +it after a city of his native province in Spain. It was known, +however, as Guadiana for a century thereafter, and its first +bishops were given that title. It was the capital of Ibarra’s +new province of Nueva Viscaya, which included Durango and +Chihuahua, and continued as such down to their separation in +1823.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURANI,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Durrani</span>, the dominant race of Afghans, to +which the ruling family at Kabul belongs. The Duranis number +100,000 fighting men, and have two branches, the Zirak and the +Panjpai. To the former section belong the Popalzai, Alikozai, +Barakzai and Achakzai; and to the latter the Nurzai, Alizai, +Isakzai, Khokani and Maku tribes. The Saddozai clan of the +Popalzai Duranis furnished the first independent shahs of the +Durani dynasty (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1747), the Barakzais furnishing the amirs. +The line of the shahs was overthrown in the third generation +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1834), after a protracted period of anarchy and dissension, +which broke out on the death in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1773 of Ahmad Shah +Durani, the founder of Afghan national independence.</p> + +<p>Bar Durani is a name sometimes applied to the independent +Pathan tribes who inhabit the hill districts south of the Hindu +Kush, parts of the Indus valley, the Salt Range, and the range +of Suliman, which were first conceded to them by Ahmad Shah. +Bar Durani includes the Yusafzai, Utman Khel, Tarkanis, +Mohmands, Afridis, Orakzais and Shinwaris, as well as the +Pathan tribes of the plains of Peshawar and those of Bangash +and Khattak, although the derivation of some of these tribes +from the true Durani stock is doubtful.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURANTE, FRANCESCO<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1684-1755), Italian composer, was +born at Frattamaggiore, in the kingdom of Naples, on the 15th of +March 1684. At an early age he entered the Conservatorio dei +poveri di Gesù Cristo, at Naples, where he received lessons from +Gaetano Greco, later he became a pupil of Alessandro Scarlatti +at the Conservatorio di Sant’ Onofrio. He is also supposed to +have studied under Pasquini and Pitoni in Rome, but no documentary +proof of this statement can be given. He is said to have +succeeded Scarlatti in 1725 at Sant’ Onofrio, and to have remained +there until 1742, when he succeeded Porpora as head of +the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto, also at Naples. This +post he held for thirteen years, till his death on the 13th of +August 1755 at Naples. He was married three times. His +fame as a teacher was all but unrivalled, and Jommelli, Paesiello, +Pergolesi, Piccini and Vinci were amongst his pupils. A complete +collection of Durante’s works, consisting all but exclusively +of sacred compositions, was presented by Selvaggi, a Neapolitan +lover of art, to the Paris library. A catalogue of it may be found +in Fétis’s <i>Biographie universelle</i>. The imperial library of Vienna +also preserves a valuable collection of Durante’s manuscripts. +Two requiems, several masses (one of which, a most original +work, is the <i>Pastoral Mass</i> for four voices) and the <i>Lamentations</i> +of the prophet Jeremiah are amongst his most important settings. +The fact that Durante never composed for the stage brought him +a somewhat exaggerated reputation as a composer of sacred +music. Although certainly one of the best church composers of +his style and period, he is far inferior to Leo, and seems to have +been the founder of the sentimental school of Italian church +music. Leo and Scarlatti at their best have a solidity and +dignity entirely wanting in Durante, and Alessandro Scarlatti at +his worst is frivolous rather than sentimental. This type of +music is characteristic of Durante as a man; intellectually +uncultured, but sincerely devout. As a teacher he insisted on the +strict observance of rules for which he either would not or could +not give a reason, differing thus from Alessandro Scarlatti, +whose first care was to develop his pupils’ talents according to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span> +their own individualities, regarding all rules as subservient to +his exquisite sense of musical beauty. Hasse rightly protested +against Durante’s being described as the greatest harmonist +of Italy, a title which could be claimed only by Alessandro +Scarlatti.</p> +<div class="author">(E. J. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURÃO, JOSÉ DE SANTA RITA<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1720-1784), Brazilian poet, +was born near Marianna, in the province of Minas Geraes, in 1720, +and died in Lisbon in 1754. He studied at Coimbra, in Portugal, +graduated as a doctor of divinity, became a member of the +Augustinian order of friars, and obtained a great reputation as a +preacher. Having irritated the minister Pombal by his defence of +the Jesuits, he retired from Portugal in 1759; and, after being +imprisoned in Spain as a spy, found his way to Italy in 1763, +where he became acquainted with Alfieri, Pindemonte, Casti +and other literary men of the time. On his return to Portugal he +delivered the opening address at the university of Coimbra for the +year 1777; but soon after retired to the cloisters of a Gratian +convent. At the time of his death he taught in the little college +belonging to that order in Lisbon. His epic in ten cantos, entitled +<i>Caramúru, poema epico do descubrimento da Bahia</i>, appeared in +Lisbon in 1781, but proved at first a total failure. Its value has +gradually been recognized, and it now ranks as one of the best +poems in Brazilian literature—remarkable especially for its fine +descriptions of scenery and native life in South America. The +historic institute of Rio de Janeiro offered a prize to the author of +the best essay on the legend of Caramúru; and the successful +competitor published a new edition of Durão’s poem. There is a +French translation which appeared in Paris in 1829.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Adolfo de Varnhagen, <i>Epicos Brazileiros</i> (1845); Pereira da +Silva, <i>Os Varões illustres do Brasil</i> (1858); Wolf, <i>Le Brésil littéraire</i> +(Berlin, 1863); Sotero dos Reis, <i>Curso de litteratura Portugueza e +Brazileira</i>, vol. iv. (Maranhão, 1868); José Verissimo, <i>Estudos de +literatura Brazileira, segunda serie</i> (Rio, 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURAZZO<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (anc. <i>Epidamnus</i> and <i>Dyrrachium</i>; Albanian, +<i>Durresi</i>; Turkish and Slavonic, <i>Drach</i>), a seaport and capital of +the sanjak of Durazzo, in the vilayet of Iannina, Albania, Turkey. +Pop. (1900) about 5000. Durazzo is about 50 m. S. of Scutari, on +the Bay of Durazzo, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea. It is the seat of +a Roman Catholic archbishop and a Greek metropolitan, but in +every respect has greatly declined from its former prosperity. +The walls are dilapidated; plane-trees grow on the gigantic +ruins of its old Byzantine citadel; and its harbour, once equally +commodious and safe, is gradually becoming silted up. The +only features worthy of notice are the quay, with its rows of +cannon, and the bridge, 750 ft. long, which leads across the +marshes stretching along the coast. The chief exports are olive +oil—largely manufactured in the district—wheat, oats, barley, +pottery and skins.</p> + +<p><i>Epidamnus</i> was founded by a joint colony of Corcyreans +and Corinthians towards the close of the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and +from its admirable position and the fertility of the surrounding +country soon rose into very considerable importance. The +dissolution of its original oligarchical government by the democratic +opposition, the consequent quarrel between Corcyra and +the oligarchical city of Corinth, and the intervention of Athens +on behalf of Corcyra, are usually included among the contributory +causes of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In 312 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Epidamnus was seized by the Illyrian king Glaucias, and +shortly afterwards it passed into the power of the Romans. +As the name Epidamnus sounded to Roman ears like an evil +omen, as though it were derived from the Latin <i>damnum</i>, “loss” +or “harm,” the alternative name of <i>Dyrrachium</i>, which the +city possibly received from the rugged nature of the adjoining +sea-coast, came into general use. Thenceforward Epidamnus +rose rapidly in importance. It was a favourite point of debarcation +for the Roman armies; the great military road known as +the <i>Via Egnatia</i> led from Dyrrachium to Thessalonica (Salonica); +and another highway passed southwards to Buthrotum and +Ambracia. Broad swamps rendered the city almost impregnable, +and in 48 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it became famous as the place where Pompey +made his last successful resistance to Caesar. After the battle +of Actium in 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Augustus made over Dyrrachium to a +colony of his veterans; it became a <i>civitas libera</i> and a great +commercial emporium (for coins see Maier, <i>Numis. Zeitschr.</i>, 1908). +The summit of its prosperity was reached about the end of the +4th century, when it was made the capital of Epirus Nova. Its +bishopric, created about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 58, was raised to an archbishopric +in 449. In 481 the city was besieged by Theodoric, the king +of the East Goths; and in the 10th and 11th centuries it frequently +had to defend itself against the Bulgarians. In 1082 +it was stormed by the Norman Robert Guiscard, who in the +previous year had defeated the Greeks under their emperor +Alexius; and in 1185 it fell into the hands of King William +of Sicily. Surrendered to Venice in 1202, it afterwards broke +loose from the republic and in 1268 passed into the possession +of Charles of Anjou. In 1273 it was laid in ruins by an earthquake, +but it soon recovered from the disaster, and became an +independent duchy under John, the grandson of Charles (1294-1304), +and afterwards under Philip of Otranto. In 1333 it was +annexed to Achaea, in 1336 to Servia, and in 1394 to Venice. +The Turks obtained possession in 1501.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">D’URBAN, SIR BENJAMIN<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1777-1849), British general +and colonial administrator, was born in 1777, and entered +the British army in 1793. Promoted lieutenant and captain in +1794 he took part in that year in operations in Holland and +Westphalia. In 1795 he served under Sir Ralph Abercromby +in San Domingo. He went on half-pay in 1800, joining the Royal +Military College, where he remained until 1805, when he went +to Hanover with the force under Lord Cathcart. Returning +to England he filled various staff offices, and in November +1807 went to Dublin as assistant-quartermaster-general, being +transferred successively to Limerick and the Curragh. He joined +the army in the Peninsula in 1808, and his marked abilities +as a staff officer led to his selection by General (afterwards +Viscount) Beresford as quartermaster-general in the reorganization +of the Portuguese army. He served throughout the Peninsular +War without once going on leave and took part in nine +pitched battles and sieges, Busaco, Albuera, Badajoz, Salamanca, +Vittoria, the Pyrenees, the Nivelle, the Nive and Toulouse. +He was promoted major-general in the Portuguese army and +colonel in the British army in 1813, and made a K.C.B. in +1815. He remained in Portugal until 1816, when he was summoned +home to take up the posts of colonel of the royal staff +corps and deputy quartermaster-general at the Horse Guards. +In 1819 he became major-general and in 1837 lieutenant-general. +From 1829 he was colonel of the 51st Foot.</p> + +<p>Sir Benjamin began his career as colonial administrator in +1820 when he was made governor of Antigua. In 1824 he was +transferred to Demerara and Essequibo, then in a disturbed +condition owing to a rising among the slaves consequent on +the emancipation movement in Great Britain. D’Urban’s rule +proved successful, and in 1831 he carried out the amalgamation +of Berbice with the other counties, the whole forming the colony +of British Guiana, of which D’Urban was first governor. The +ability with which he had for nine years governed a community +of which the white element was largely of Dutch origin led to his +appointment as governor of Cape Colony. He assumed office +in January 1834, and the four years during which he held that +post were of great importance in the history of South Africa. +They witnessed the abolition of slavery, the establishment of a +legislative council and municipal councils in Cape Colony, the +first great Kaffir war and the beginning of the Great Trek. +The firmness and justice of his administration won the cordial +support of the British and Dutch colonists. The greater part of +1835 was occupied in repelling an unprovoked invasion of the +eastern borders of the colony by Xosa Kaffirs. To protect the +inhabitants of the eastern province Sir Benjamin extended the +boundary of the colony to the Kei river and erected military +posts in the district, allowing the Xosa to remain under British +supervision. Since his appointment to the Cape there had been +a change of ministry in England, and Lord Glenelg had become +secretary for the Colonies in the second Melbourne administration. +Prejudiced against any extension of British authority and +lending a ready ear to a small but influential party in South +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +Africa, Glenelg adopted the view that the Kaffirs had been the +victims of systematic injustice. In a momentous despatch +dated the 26th of December 1835 he set forth his views and +instructed Sir Benjamin D’Urban to give up the newly annexed +territory. At the same time Sir Andries Stockenstrom, Bart. +(1792-1864), was appointed lieutenant-governor for the eastern +provinces of the colony to carry out the policy of the home +government, in which the Kaffir chiefs were treated as being +on terms of full equality with Europeans. D’Urban in vain +warned Glenelg of the disastrous consequences of his decision, +the beginning of the long course of vacillation which wrought +great harm to South Africa. One result of the new policy was +to recreate a state of insecurity, bordering on anarchy, in the +eastern province, and this condition was one of the causes of the +Great Trek of the Dutch farmers which began in 1836. In +various despatches D’Urban justified his position, characterizing +the Trek as due to “insecurity of life and property occasioned +by the recent measures, inadequate compensation for the loss +of the slaves, and despair of obtaining recompense for the +ruinous losses by the Kaffir invasion.” (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South +Africa</a></span>: <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cape Colony</a></span>: <i>History</i>.) But Glenelg +was not to be convinced by any argument, however cogent, +and in a despatch dated the 1st of May 1837 he informed Sir +Benjamin that he had been relieved of office. D’Urban, however, +remained governor until the arrival of his successor, Sir George +Napier, in January 1838.</p> + +<p>During his governorship Sir Benjamin endeavoured to help +the British settlers at Port Natal, who in 1835 named their +town D’Urban (now written Durban) in his honour, but his +suggestion that the district should be occupied as a British +possession was vetoed by Lord Glenelg. Though no longer +in office D’Urban remained in South Africa until April 1846. +In 1840 he was made a G.C.B., and in 1842 declined a high +military appointment in India offered him by Sir Robert Peel. +In January 1847 he took up the command of the troops in +Canada, and was still in command at the time of his death at +Montreal on the 25th of May 1849.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURBAN,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> the principal seaport and largest city of Natal, +South Africa, the harbour being known as Port Natal, in 29° 52′ +48″ S. 31° 42′ 49″ E. It is 6810 m. from London via Madeira +and 7785 via Suez, 823 m. by water E.N.E. from Cape Town and +483 m. by rail S.S.E. of Johannesburg. Pop. (1904) 67,842, +of whom 31,302 were whites, 15,631 Asiatics (chiefly British +Indians), 18,929 natives and 1980 of mixed race. From its +situation and the character of its buildings Durban is one of the +finest cities in South Africa. The climate is generally hot and +humid, but not unhealthy. Although nearly half the citizens +are British, the large number of Indians engaged in every kind +of work gives to Durban an oriental aspect possessed by no other +town in South Africa. The town is built on the E. side of a bay +(Durban Bay or Bay of Natal), the entrance to which is marked +on the west by a bold cliff, the Bluff, whose summit is 195 ft. +above the sea, and on the east by a low sandy spit called the +Point. The city extends from the Point along the side of the +bay and also for some distance along the coast of the Indian +Ocean, and stretches inland to a range of low hills called the +Berea.</p> + +<p>The chief streets, Smith, West and Pine, are in the lower +town, parallel to one another and to the bay. They contain the +principal public buildings, warehouses and shops, the Berea +being a residential quarter. Of the three streets mentioned, West +Street, the central thoroughfare, is the busiest. In its centre +are the public gardens, in which is a handsome block of buildings +in the Renaissance style, built in 1906-1908 at a cost of over +£300,000, containing the town hall, municipal offices, public +library, museum and art gallery. The art gallery holds many +pictures of the modern British school. Opposite the municipal +buildings are the post and telegraph offices, a fine edifice (built +1881-1885) with a clock tower 164 ft. high. The post office +formerly served as town hall. In Pine Street is the Central +railway station and the spacious Market House. Among the +churches St Cyprian’s (Anglican), in Smith Street, has a handsome +chancel. The Roman Catholic cathedral is a fine building +in the Gothic style. The town possesses several parks, one, the +Victoria Park, facing the Indian Ocean. This part of the town +is laid out with pleasure grounds and esplanades. The botanic +gardens, in the upper town, contain a very fine collection of +flowering shrubs and semi-tropical trees. Above the gardens is +the observatory. There is a fine statue of Queen Victoria by +Hamo Thornycroft, R.A., in the public gardens, and a memorial +to Vasco da Gama at the Point. There is an extensive system +of electric trams. Another favourite means of conveyance is +by rickshaw, the runners being Zulus. The town is governed +by a municipality which owns the water and electric lighting +supplies and the tramway system. The sanitary services are +excellent. The main water-supply is the Umlaas river, which +enters the ocean 10 m. S. of the port. The municipal valuation, +which is based on capital value, was £9,494,400 in 1909, the +rate, including water, being 2½d. in the £.</p> + +<p>The entrance to the harbour was obstructed by a formidable +sand bar, but as the result of dredging operations there is now +a minimum depth of water at the opening of the channel into +the bay of over 30 ft., with a maximum depth of over 33 ft. +The width of the passage between the Bluff and the Point is +450 ft. From the foot of the Bluff a breakwater extends over +2000 ft. into the sea, and parallel to it, starting from the Point, +is a pier. The harbour is landlocked, and covers 7½ sq. m. +Much of this area is shoal water, but the accommodation available +was largely increased by the removal during 1904-1908 of +24,000,000 tons of sand. The port has over 3 m. of wharfage. +It possesses a floating dock capable of lifting a vessel of 8500 +tons, a floating workshop, a patent slip for small craft, hydraulic +cranes, &c. The minimum depth alongside the quays at low +water is 23 ft., increased at places to over 30 ft. The principal +wharves, where passengers, mails and general merchandise are +landed, are along the Point. On the opposite side at the foot of +the Bluff land has been reclaimed and extensive accommodation +provided for ships coaling. At Congella at the N.E. end of the +harbour some 65 acres of land were reclaimed during 1905-1906, +and wharves built for the handling of heavy and bulky goods +such as timber and corrugated iron. Here also are situated +warehouses and railway works. The port is defended by batteries +armed with modern heavy guns. The trade of the port is almost +coextensive with the foreign trade of Natal.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The early history of Durban is closely identified +with that of the colony of Natal. The first permanent settlement +by white men in the bay was made by Englishmen in 1824, when +Lieutenant F.G. Farewell, R.N., and about ten companions +went thither from Cape Town in the brig “Salisbury,” from which +circumstance the island in the bay gets its name. In 1835 a township +was laid out and the colonists gave it the name of D’Urban, +in honour of Sir Benjamin D’Urban, then governor of Cape +Colony. At this time a mission church was built on the heights +overlooking the bay by Captain Allen Gardner, R.N., who named +the hill Berea in gratitude for support received from the settlers, +whom he found “more noble than those of” Zululand—Dingaan +having refused to allow the captain to start a mission among his +people. From December 1838 to December 1839 a small British +military force was stationed at the port. On its recall the little +settlement was taken possession of by Dutch emigrants from the +Cape, who had defeated the Zulu king Dingaan, and who the year +before at the upper end of the bay had formed an encampment, +<i>Kangela</i> (look-out), the present Congella. The Dutch claimed +independence, and on the block-house at Durban hoisted the +flag of the “Republic of Natalia.” In 1842, however, a British +military force reoccupied Durban, and on the 15th of July of +that year a treaty was signed in which the Dutch recognized +British sovereignty (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Natal</a></span>: <i>History</i>). From that +date Durban, though not the seat of government, became the +principal town in Natal. In 1850 there were 500 white inhabitants, +and in 1853 the town was granted municipal government. +The first mayor was Mr George Cato (<i>c.</i> 1810-1893), one +of the earliest settlers in Natal. In 1860 a railway from the Point +to the town, the first railway in South Africa, was opened. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span> +discovery of the gold-mines on the Rand greatly increased the +importance of the port, and renewed efforts were made to remove +the bar which obstructed the entrance to the bay. The Harbour +Board, which was formed in 1881 and ceased to exist in 1893, +effected, under the guidance of Mr Harry Escombe, enormous +improvements in the port—on which the prosperity of Durban +is dependent. But it was not until 1904 that the fairway was +deepened sufficiently to allow mail steamers of the largest class +to enter the harbour. The growth of the port as illustrated by +customs receipts is shown in the increase from £250,000 in 1880 +to £981,000 in 1904. In 1846 the customs revenue was returned +at £3510.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Durban: Fifty Years’ Municipal History</i>, compiled for the +corporation by W.P.M. Henderson, Asst. Town Clerk (Durban, +1904); G. Russell, <i>History of Old Durban</i> [to 1860] (Durban, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURBAR,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a term in India for a court or levee, from the Persian +<i>darbar</i>. A durbar may be either a council for administering +affairs of state, or a purely ceremonial gathering. In the former +sense the native rulers of India in the past, like the amir of +Afghanistan to-day, received visitors and conducted business in +durbar. A durbar is the executive council of a native state. In the +latter sense the word has come to be applied to great ceremonial +gatherings like Lord Lytton’s durbar for the proclamation +of the queen empress in India in 1877, or the Delhi durbar of 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜREN,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, +on the right bank of the Roer, 19 m. E. from Aix-la-Chapelle on +the main line of railway to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 29,270. It has +two Protestant and six Roman Catholic churches, among the +latter the Gothic St Annakirche, said to contain a portion of the +head of the saint, to the shrine of which frequent pilgrimages are +made. There are several high grade schools, monuments to the +emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke, and, in the town-hall, +a collection of antiquities. It is the seat of considerable manufactures, +notably cloth, paper, flax-spinning, carpet, artificial +wool, sugar, iron wares and needles.</p> + +<p>Düren derives its name, not, as was at one time believed, from +the <i>Marcodurum</i> of the Ubii, mentioned in Tacitus, but from the +<i>Dura</i> or <i>Duria</i>, assemblies held by the Carolingians in the 8th +century. It received civic rights early in the 13th century. +Hypothecated by the emperor Frederick II. to Count William of +Jülich, it became incorporated with the duchy of that name, and +with it passed to Prussia in 1816.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURENE<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1·2·4·5 tetramethyl benzene) C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">4</span>, a hydro-carbon +which has been recognized as a constituent of coal-tar. +It may be prepared by the action of methyl iodide on brom-pseudocumene +or 4.6 dibrom metaxylene, in the presence of +sodium; or by the action of methyl chloride on toluene, in the +presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride. It crystallizes in +plates, having a camphor-like smell, melting at 79-80° C. and +boiling at 189-191° C. It is easily soluble in alcohol, ether and +benzene, and sublimes slowly at ordinary temperature. On +oxidation with chromic acid mixture, it is completely decomposed +into carbon dioxide and acetic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to +durylic and cumidic acids [C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>·(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·(COOH)<span class="su">2</span>].</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜRER, ALBRECHT<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1471-1528), German painter, draughtsman +and engraver, was born at Nuremberg on the 21st of May +1471. His family was not of Nuremberg descent, but came from +the village of Eytas in Hungary. The name, however, is German, +and the family device—an open door—points to an original +form Thürer, meaning a maker of doors or carpenter. Albrecht +Dürer the elder was a goldsmith by trade, and settled soon +after the middle of the 15th century in Nuremberg. He served +as assistant under a master-goldsmith of the city, Hieronymus +Holper, and in 1468 married his master’s daughter Barbara, the +bridegroom being forty and the bride fifteen years of age. They +had eighteen children, of whom Albrecht was the second. The +elder Dürer was an esteemed craftsman and pious citizen, +sometimes, as was natural, straitened in means by the pressure of +his numerous progeny. His famous son writes with reverence and +affection of both parents, and has left a touching narrative of +their death-bed hours. He painted the portrait of his father +twice, first in 1490, next in 1497. The former of these is in the +Uffizi at Florence; of the latter, four versions exist, that in the +National Gallery (formerly in the Ashburton-Northampton +collections) having the best claim to originality.</p> + +<p>The young Albrecht was his father’s favourite son. “My +father,” he writes, “took special delight in me. Seeing that I +was industrious in working and learning, he put me to school; +and when I had learned to read and write, he took me home from +school and taught me the goldsmith’s trade.” By and by the boy +found himself drawn by preference from goldsmith’s work to +painting; his father, after some hesitation on the score of the +time already spent in learning the former trade, gave way and +apprenticed him for three years, at the age of fifteen and a half, to +the principal painter of the town, Michael Wolgemut. Wolgemut +furnishes a complete type of the German painter of that age. +At the head of a large shop with many assistants, his business was +to turn out, generally for a small price, devotional pieces commissioned +by mercantile corporations or private persons to +decorate their chapels in the churches—the preference being +usually for scenes of the Passion, or for tortures and martyrdoms +of the saints. In such work the painters of Upper Germany at +this time, working in the spirit of the late Gothic style just +before the dawn of the Renaissance, show considerable technical +attainments, with a love of quaint costumes and rich draperies +crumpled in complicated angular folds, some feeling for romance +in landscape backgrounds, none at all for clearness or balance in +composition, and in the attitudes and expressions of their overcrowded +figures a degree of grotesqueness and exaggeration +amounting often to undesigned caricature. There were also +produced in the workshop of Wolgemut, as in that of other artist-craftsmen +of his town, a great number of woodcuts for book +illustration. We cannot with certainty identify any of these as +being by the ’prentice hand of the young Dürer. Authentic +drawings done by him in boyhood, however, exist, including one +in silver-point of his own likeness at the age of thirteen in the +Albertina at Vienna, and others of two or three years later in the +print room at Berlin, at the British Museum and at Bremen.</p> + +<p>In the school of Wolgemut Dürer learned much, by his own +account, but suffered not a little from the roughness of his +companions. At the end of his apprenticeship in 1490 he entered +upon the usual course of travels—the <i>Wanderjahre</i>—of a German +youth. Their direction we cannot retrace with certainty. There +had been no one at Nuremberg skilled enough in the art of +metal-engraving to teach it him to much purpose, and it had at +one time been his father’s intention to apprentice him to Martin +Schongauer of Colmar, the most refined and accomplished +German painter-engraver of his time. But after travelling two +years in various parts of Germany, where we are unable to follow +him, the young Dürer arrived at Colmar in 1492, only to find +that Schongauer had died the previous year. He was received +kindly by three brothers of the deceased master established there, +and afterwards, still in 1492, by a fourth brother at Basel. +Under them he evidently had some practice both in metal-engraving +and in furnishing designs for the woodcutter. There +is in the museum at Basel a wood-block of St Jerome executed by +him and elaborately signed on the back with his name. This was +used in an edition of Jerome’s letters printed in the same city in +the same year, 1492. Some critics also maintain that his hand is +to be recognized in several series of small blocks done about the +same date or somewhat later for Bergmann and other printers of +Basel, some of them being illustrations to Terence (which were +never printed), some to the romance of the <i>Ritter vom Turm</i>, and +some to the <i>Narrenschiff</i> of Sebastian Brandt. But the prevailing +opinion is against this conjecture, and sees in these designs the +work not of a strenuous student and searcher such as Dürer was, +but of a riper and more facile hand working in a spirit of settled +routine. Whether the young Dürer’s stay at Basel was long or +short, or whether, as has been supposed, he travelled from there +into the Low Countries, it is certain that in the early part of 1494 +he was working at Strassburg, and returned to his home at +Nuremberg immediately after Whitsuntide in that year. Of +works certainly executed by him during his years of travel there +are extant, besides the Basel wood-block, only a much-injured +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span> +portrait of himself, very finely dressed and in the first bloom of his +admirable manly beauty, dated 1493 and originally painted on +vellum but since transferred to canvas (this is the portrait of the +Felix Goldschmid collection); a miniature painting on vellum +at Vienna (a small figure of the Child-Christ); and some half a +dozen drawings, of which the most important are the characteristic +pen portrait of himself at Erlangen, with a Holy Family on +the reverse much in the manner of Schongauer; another Holy +Family in nearly the same style at Berlin; a study from the +female nude in the Bonnat collection; a man and woman on +horseback in Berlin; a man on horseback, and an executioner +about to behead a young man, at the British Museum, &c. +These drawings all show Dürer intent above all things on the +sternly accurate delineation of ungeneralized individual forms by +means of strongly accented outline and shadings curved, somewhat +like the shadings of Martin Schongauer’s engravings, so as +to follow their modellings and roundness.</p> + +<p>Within a few weeks of his return (July 7th, 1494) Dürer was +married, according to an arrangement apparently made between +the parents during his absence, to Agnes Frey, the daughter of +a well-to-do merchant of the city. By the autumn of the same +year, probably feeling the incompleteness of the artistic training +that could be obtained north of the Alps, he must have taken +advantage of some opportunity, we know not what, to make +an excursion of some months to Italy, leaving his lately married +wife at Nuremberg. The evidences of this travel (which are +really incontestable, though a small minority of critics still +decline to admit them) consist of (1) some fine drawings, three +of them dated 1494 and others undated, but plainly of the same +time, in which Dürer has copied, or rather boldly translated +into his own Gothic and German style, two famous engravings by +Mantegna, a number of the “Tarocchi” prints of single figures +which pass erroneously under that master’s name, and one by +yet another minor master of the North-Italian school; with +another drawing dated 1495 and plainly copied from a lost +original by Antonio Pollaiuolo, and yet another of an infant +Christ copied in 1495 from Lorenzo di Credi, from whom also +Dürer took a motive for the composition of one of his earliest +Madonnas; (2) several landscape drawings done in the passes +of Tirol and the Trentino, which technically will not fit in with +any other period of his work, and furnish a clear record of his +having crossed the Alps about this date; (3) two or three +drawings of the costumes of Venetian courtesans, which he +could not have made anywhere but in Venice itself, and one of +which is used in his great woodcut Apocalypse series of 1498; +(4) a general preoccupation which he shows for some years +from this date with the problems of the female nude, treated +in a manner for which Italy only could have set him the +example; and (5) the clear implication contained in a letter +written from Venice in 1506 that he had been there already +eleven years before; when things, he says, pleased him much +which at the time of writing please him no more. Some time +in 1495 Dürer must have returned from this first Italian journey +to his home in Nuremberg, where he seems to have lived, without +further change or removal, in the active practice of his art for +the next ten years.</p> + +<p>The hour when Dürer, the typical artist of the German nation, +attained maturity was one of the most pregnant in the history +of his race. It was the crisis, in northern Europe, of the transition +between the middle ages and our own. The awakening +of Germany at the Renaissance was not, like the awakening of +Italy a generation or two earlier, a movement almost exclusively +intellectual. It was indeed from Italy that the races of the north +caught the impulse of intellectual freedom, the spirit of science +and curiosity, the eager retrospect towards the classic past; +but joined with these in Germany was a moral impulse which +was her own, a craving after truth and right, a rebellion against +spiritual tyranny and corruption—the Renaissance was big in +the north, as it was not in the south, with a Reformation to come. +The art of printing had been invented in good time to help +and hasten the new movement of men’s minds. Nor was it by +the diffusion of written ideas only that the new art supplied +the means of popular enlightenment. Along with word-printing, +or indeed in advance of it, there had sprung into use another +kind of printing, picture-printing, or what is commonly called +engraving. Just as books were the means of multiplying, +cheapening and disseminating ideas, so engravings on copper +or wood were the means of multiplying, cheapening and disseminating +images which gave vividness to the ideas, or served, +for those ignorant of letters, in their stead. Technically one +of these arts, that of line-engraving on copper, sprang from the +craft of the goldsmith and metal-chaser; while that of wood-engraving +sprang from the craft of the printers of pattern-blocks +and playing cards. The engraver on metal habitually cut his +own designs, and between the arts of the goldsmith and the +painter there had always been a close alliance, both being +habitually exercised by persons of the same family and sometimes +by one and the same person; so that there was no lack +of hands ready-trained for the new craft which required of the +man who practised it that he should design like a painter and +cut metal like a goldsmith. Designs intended to be cut on +wood, on the other hand, were usually drawn by the artist on +the block and handed over for cutting to a class of workmen—<i>Formschneider</i> +or <i>Briefmaler</i>—especially devoted to that industry. +Both kinds of engraving soon came to be in great demand. +Independently of the illustration of written or printed books, +for which purpose woodcuts were almost exclusively used, +separate engravings or sets of engravings in both kinds were +produced, the more finely wrought and more expensive, appealing +especially to the more educated classes, on copper, the bolder, +simpler and cheaper on wood; and both kinds found a ready +sale at all the markets, fairs and church festivals of the land. +Subjects of popular devotion predominated. Figures of the +Virgin and Child, of the apostles and evangelists, the fathers +of the Church, the saints and martyrs, with illustrations of sacred +history and the Apocalypse, were supplied in endless repetition +to satisfy the cravings of a pious and simple-minded people. +But to these were quickly added subjects of allegory, of classical +learning, of witchcraft and superstition and of daily life; +scenes of the parlour and the cloister, of the shop, the field, the +market and the camp; and lastly portraits of famous men, +with scenes of court life and princely pageant and ceremony. +Thus the new art became a mirror of almost all the life and +thoughts of the age. The genius of Albrecht Dürer cannot be +rightly estimated without taking into account the position +which the arts of engraving on metal and on wood thus held in +the culture of this time. He was indeed professionally and in +the first place a painter; but throughout his career a great, and +on the whole the most successful, part of his industry was devoted +to drawing on the block for the woodcutter or engraving with +his own hand on copper. The town of Nuremberg in Franconia, +in the age of Dürer’s early manhood, was a favourable home +for the growth and exercise of his powers. Of the free imperial +cities of central Germany, none had a greater historic fame or a +more settled and patriotic government. None was more the +favourite of the emperors, nor the seat of a more active and +flourishing commerce. Nuremberg was the chief mart for the +merchandise that came to central Europe from the east through +Venice and over the passes of Tirol. She held not only a close +commercial intercourse, but also a close intellectual intercourse, +with Italy. Without being so forward as the rival city of Augsburg +to embrace the architectural fashions of the Italian renaissance—continuing, +indeed, to be profoundly imbued with the +old and homely German burgher spirit, and to wear, in a degree +which time has not very much impaired even yet, the quaintness +of the old German civic aspect—she had imported before the +close of the 15th century a fair share of the new learning of Italy, +and numbered among her citizens distinguished humanists like +Hartmann Schedel, Sebald Schreier, Willibald Pirkheimer and +Conrad Celtes. From associates like these Dürer could imbibe +the spirit of Renaissance culture and research; but the external +aspects and artistic traditions which surrounded him were purely +Gothic, and he had to work out for himself the style and form-language +fit to express what was in him. During the first seven +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span> +or eight years of his settled life in his native city from 1495, +he betrays a conflict of artistic tendencies as well as no small +sense of spiritual strain and strife. His finest work in this +period was that which he provided for the woodcutter. After +some half—dozen miscellaneous single prints—“Samson and +the Lion,” the “Annunciation,” the “Ten Thousand Martyrs,” +the “Knight and Men-at-arms,” the “Men’s Bath,” &c.—he +undertook and by 1498 completed his famous series of sixteen +great designs for the Apocalypse. The northern mind had long +dwelt with eagerness on these phantasmagoric mysteries of things +to come, and among the earliest block-books printed in Germany +is an edition of the Apocalypse with rude figures. Founding +himself to some extent on the traditional motives, Dürer conceived +and carried out a set of designs in which the qualities +of the German late Gothic style, its rugged strength and restless +vehemence, its love of gnarled forms, writhing actions and +agitated lines, are fused by the fire of the young master’s spirit +into vital combination with something of the majestic power +and classic severity which he had seen and admired in the works +of Mantegna. Of a little later date, and of almost as fine a +quality, are the first seven of a large series of woodcuts known +as the Great Passion; and a little later again (probably after +1500), a series of eleven subjects of the Holy Family and of +saints singly or in groups: then, towards 1504-1505, come the +first seventeen of a set illustrating the life of the Virgin: neither +these nor the Great Passion were published till several years +later.</p> + +<p>In copper-engraving Dürer was at the same time diligently +training himself to develop the methods practised by Martin +Schongauer and earlier masters into one suitable for his own +self-expression. He attempted no subjects at all commensurate +with those of his great woodcuts, but contented himself for the +most part with Madonnas, single figures of scripture or of the +saints, some nude mythologies of a kind wholly new in northern +art and founded upon the impressions received in Italy, and +groups, sometimes bordering on the satirical, of humble folk and +peasants. In the earliest of the Madonnas, the “Virgin with the +Dragon-fly” (1495-1496), Dürer has thrown something of his +own rugged energy into a design of the traditional Schongauer +type. In examples of a few years later, like the “Virgin with +the Monkey,” the design of Mother and Child clearly betrays +the influence of Italy and specifically of Lorenzo di Credi. +The subjects of the “Prodigal Son” and “St Jerome in the +Wilderness” he on the other hand treats in an almost purely +northern spirit. In the nudes of the next four or five years, +which included a “St Sebastian,” the so-called “Four Witches” +(1497), the “Dream” or “Temptation,” the “Rape of Amymome,” +and the “Jealousy” or “Great Hercules,” Venetian, +Paduan and Florentine memories are found, in the treatment +of the human form, competing somewhat uncomfortably with +his own inherited Gothic and northern instincts. In these early +engravings the highly-wrought landscape backgrounds, whenever +they occur, are generally the most satisfying feature. This +feature reaches a climax of beauty and elaboration in the large +print of “St Eustace and the Stag,” while the figures and animals +remain still somewhat cramped and immature. In the first three +or four years of the 16th century, we find Dürer in his graver-work +still contending with the problems of the nude, but now +with added power, though by methods which in different subjects +contrast curiously with one another. Thus the “Nemesis,” +belonging probably to 1503, is a marvellously wrought piece +of quite unflinching realism in the rendering of a common type +of mature, muscular, unshapely German womanhood. The +conception and attributes of the figure are taken, as has lately +been recognized, from a description in the “Manto” of Politian: +the goddess, to whose shoulders are appended a pair of huge +wings, stands like Fortune on a revolving ball, holding the +emblems of the cup and bridle, and below her feet is spread +a rich landscape of hill and valley. In the “Adam and Eve” +of the next year, we find Dürer treating the human form in an +entirely opposite manner; constructing it, that is, on principles +of abstract geometrical proportion. The Venetian painter-etcher, +Jacopo de Barbari, whom Dürer had already, it would +seem, met in Venice in 1494-1495, and by the example of whose +engravings he had already been much influenced, came to settle +for a while in Nuremberg in 1500. He was conversant to some +extent with the new sciences of perspective, anatomy and +proportion, which had been making their way for years past in +Italy, and from him it is likely that Dürer received the impulse +to similar studies and speculations. At any rate a whole series +of extant drawings enables us to trace the German gradually +working out his own ideas of a canon of human proportion in +the composition of his famous engraving of “Adam and Eve” +(1504); which at first, as a drawing in the British Museum +proves, had been intended to be an Apollo and Diana conceived +on lines somewhat similar to one of Barbari’s. The drama of +the subject has in this instance not interested him at all, but only +the forms and designs of the figures, the realization of the quality +of flesh surfaces by the subtlest use of the graving-tool known +to him, and the rendering, by methods of which he had become +the greatest of all masters, of the richness and intricacy of the +forest background. Two or three other technical masterpieces +of the engraver’s art, the “Coat-of-Arms with the Skull,” the +“Nativity,” with its exquisite background of ruined buildings, +the “Little Horse” and the “Great Horse,” both of 1505, +complete the list of the master’s chief productions in this kind +before he started in the last-named year for a second visit to Italy.</p> + +<p>The pictures of this earlier Nuremberg period are not many +in number and not very admirable. Dürer’s powers of hand +and eye are already extraordinary and in their way almost +unparalleled, but they are often applied to the too insistent, +too glittering, too emphatic rendering of particular details and +individual forms, without due regard to subordination or the +harmony of the whole. Among the earliest seem to be two +examples of a method practised in Italy especially by the school +of Mantegna, but almost without precedent in Germany, that +of tempera-painting on linen. One of these is the portrait of +Frederick the Wise of Saxony, formerly in the Hamilton collection +and now at Berlin; the second, much disfigured by restoration, +is the Dresden altarpiece with a Madonna and Child in +the middle and St Anthony and Sebastian in the wings. A +mythology reminiscent of Italy is the “Hercules and the Stymphalian +Birds” in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg, founded +directly upon the “Hercules and Centaur Nessus” of Pollaiuolo, +now at New Haven, Connecticut, U.S.A. Of portraits, besides +that of his father already mentioned as done in 1497, there is +his own of 1498 at Madrid. Two totally dissimilar portraits of +young women, both existing in duplicate examples (one pair at +Augsburg and Frankfort, the other pair in the collections of +M. Hengel in Paris and Baron Speck von Sternburg at Lützschema, +for each of which has been claimed the name Fürlegerin, +that is, a member of the Fürleger family at Nuremberg), belong +to nearly the same time. Other panel portraits of the period +are three small ones of members of the Tucher family at Weimar +and Cassel, and the striking, restlessly elaborated half-length of +Oswald Krell at Munich. In some devotional pictures of the +time Dürer seems to have been much helped by pupils, as in +the two different compositions of the Maries weeping over the +body of Christ preserved respectively at Munich and Nuremberg. +In an altarpiece at Ober St Veit and in the scattered wings of +the Jabach altarpiece severally preserved at Munich, Frankfort +and Cologne, the workmanship seems to be exclusively that of +journeymen working from his drawings. The period is closed, +so far as paintings are concerned, by two examples of far higher +value than those above named, that is to say the Paumgartner +altarpiece at Munich, with its romantically attractive composition +of the Nativity with angels and donors in the central +panel, and the fine armed figures of St George and St Eustace +(lately freed from the over-paintings which disfigured them) +on the wings; and the happily conceived and harmoniously +finished “Adoration of the Magi” in the Uffizi at Florence.</p> + +<p>In the autumn of 1505 Dürer journeyed for a second time to +Venice, and stayed there until the spring of 1507. The occasion +of this journey has been erroneously stated by Vasari. Dürer’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +engravings, both on copper and wood, had by this time attained +great popularity both north and south of the Alps, and had +begun to be copied by various hands, among others by the celebrated +Marcantonio of Bologna, then in his youth. According +to Vasari, Marcantonio, in copying Dürer’s series of the Little +Passion on wood, had imitated the original monogram, and Dürer, +indignant at this fraud, set out for Italy in order to protect his +rights, and having lodged a complaint against Marcantonio +before the signory of Venice, carried his point so far that Marcantonio +was forbidden in future to add the monogram of Dürer +to copies taken after his works. This account will not bear +examination. Chronological and other proofs show that if such +a suit was fought at all, it must have been in connexion with +another set of Dürer’s woodcuts, the first seventeen of the Life of +the Virgin. Dürer himself, a number of whose familiar letters +written from Venice to his friend Pirkheimer at Nuremberg are +preserved, makes no mention of anything of the kind. Nevertheless +some such grievance may possibly have been among the +causes which determined his journey. Other causes, of which +we have explicit record, were an outbreak of sickness at Nuremberg; +Dürer’s desire, which in fact was realized, of finding a +good market for the proceeds of his art; and the prospect, also +realized, of a commission for an important picture from the +German community settled at Venice, who had lately caused an +exchange and warehouse—the <i>Fondaco de’ Tedeschi</i>—to be built +on the Grand Canal, and who were now desirous to dedicate a +picture in the church of St Bartholomew. The picture painted +by Dürer on this commission was the “Adoration of the Virgin,” +better known as the “Feast of Rose Garlands”; it was subsequently +acquired by the emperor Rudolf II., and carried as +a thing beyond price upon men’s shoulders to Vienna; it now +exists in a greatly injured state in the monastery of Strahow at +Prague. It shows the pope and emperor, with a lute-playing +angel between them, kneeling to right and left of the enthroned +Virgin and Child, who crown them with rose garlands, with a +multitude of other kneeling saints disposed with free symmetry +in the background, and farther in the background portraits of the +donor and the painter, and a flutter of wreath-carrying cherubs +in the air. Of all Dürer’s works, it is the one in which he most +deliberately rivalled the combined splendour and playfulness +of certain phases of Italian art. The Venetian painters assured +him, he says, that they had never seen finer colours. They were +doubtless too courteous to add that fine colours do not make +fine colouring. Even in its present ruined state, it is apparent +that in spite of the masterly treatment of particular passages, +such as the robe of the pope, Dürer still lacked a true sense of +harmony and tone-relations, and that the effect of his work must +have been restless and garish beside that of a master like the aged +Bellini. That veteran showed the German visitor the most +generous courtesy, and Dürer still speaks of him as the best in +painting (“<i>der pest im gemell</i>”) in spite of his advanced years. +A similar festal intention in design and colouring, with similar +mastery in passages and even less sense of harmonious relations +in the whole, is apparent in a second important picture painted +by Dürer at Venice, “The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch,” +formerly in the collection of Lord Lothian and now at Berlin. +A “Christ disputing with the Doctors” of the same period, in +the Barberini Gallery at Rome, is recorded to have cost the +painter only five days’ labour, and is an unsatisfying and ill-composed +congeries of heads and hands, both of such strenuous +character and individuality as here and there to pass into caricature. +The most satisfying of Dürer’s paintings done in Venice +are the admirable portrait of a young man at Hampton Court +(the same sitter reappears in the “Feast of Rose Garlands”), +and two small pieces, one the head of a brown Italian girl +modelled and painted with real breadth and simplicity, formerly +in the collection of Mr Reginald Cholmondeley and now at +Berlin, and the small and very striking little “Christ Crucified” +with the figure relieved against the night sky, which is preserved +in the Dresden Gallery and has served as model and inspiration +to numberless later treatments of the theme. An interesting, +rather fantastic, portrait of a blonde girl wearing a wide cap, +now in the Berlin museum, is dated 1507 and may have been done +in the early months of that year at Venice. It is possible, though +not certain, that to this date also belongs the famous portrait of +himself at Munich bearing a false signature and date, 1500; in +this it has been lately shown that the artist modified his own +lineaments according to a preconceived scheme of facial proportion, +so that it must be taken as an ideal rather than a literal +presentment of himself to posterity as he appeared in the flower +of his early middle age. From Venice Dürer kept up a continuous +correspondence, which has been published, with his +bosom friend Pirkheimer at Nuremberg. He tells of the high +position he holds among the Venetians; of the jealousy shown +him by some of the meaner sort of native artist; of the honour +and wealth in which he might live if he would consent to abandon +home for Italy; of the northern winter, and how he knows that +after his return it will set him shivering for the south. Yet he +resisted all seductions and was in Nuremberg again before the +summer of 1507. First, it seems, he had made an excursion +to Bologna, having intended to take Mantua on the way, in +order to do homage to the old age of that Italian master, +Andrea Mantegna, from whose work he had himself in youth +learned the most. But the death of Mantegna prevented his +purpose.</p> + +<p>From the spring of 1507 until the summer of 1520, Dürer was +again a settled resident in his native town. Except the brilliant +existences of Raphael at Rome and of Rubens at Antwerp and +Madrid, the annals of art present the spectacle of few more +honoured or more fortunate careers. His reputation had spread +all over Europe. From Flanders to Rome his distinction was +acknowledged, and artists of less invention, among them some of +the foremost on both sides of the Alps, were not ashamed to +borrow from his work this or that striking combination or +expressive type. He was on terms of friendship or friendly +communication with all the first masters of the age, and Raphael +held himself honoured in exchanging drawings with Dürer. In +his own country, all orders of men, from the emperor Maximilian +down, delighted to honour him; and he was the familiar companion +of chosen spirits among the statesmen, humanists and +reformers of the new age. The burgher life of even Nuremberg, +the noblest German city, seems narrow, quaint and harsh +beside the grace and opulence and poetical surroundings of +Italian life in the same and the preceding generation. The great +cities of Flanders also, with their world-wide commerce and long-established +eminence in the arts, presented aspects of more +splendid civic pomp and luxury. But among its native surroundings +the career of Dürer stands out with an aspect of ideal +elevation and decorum which is its own. His temper and life +seem to have been remarkably free from all that was jarring, +jealous and fretful; unless, indeed, we are to accept as true the +account of his wife’s character which represents her as having +been no fit mate for him, but an incorrigible shrew and skinflint. +The name of Agnes Dürer was for centuries used to point a moral, +and among the unworthy wives of great men the wife of Dürer +became almost as notorious as the wife of Socrates. The source +of the traditions to her discredit is to be found in a letter written a +few years after Dürer’s death by his life-long intimate, Willibald +Pirkheimer, who accuses her of having plagued her husband to +death by her meanness, made him overwork himself for money’s +sake, and given his latter days no peace. No doubt there must +have been some kind of foundation for Pirkheimer’s charges; and +it is to be noted that neither in Dürer’s early correspondence with +this intimate friend, nor anywhere in his journals, does he use any +expressions of tenderness or affection for his wife, only speaking of +her as his housemate and of her helping in the sale of his prints, &c. +That he took her with him on his journey to the Netherlands +shows at any rate that there can have been no acute estrangement. +And it is fair to remember in her defence that Pirkheimer when +he denounced her was old, gouty and peevish, and that the +immediate occasion of his outbreak against his friend’s widow +was a fit of anger because she had not let him have a pair of +antlers—a household ornament much prized in those days—to +which he fancied himself entitled out of the property left by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span> +Dürer. We have evidence that after her husband’s death Agnes +Dürer behaved with generosity to his brothers.</p> + +<p>The thirteen or fourteen years of Dürer’s life between his return +from Venice and his journey to the Netherlands (spring 1507-midsummer +1520) can best be divided according to the classes of +work with which, during successive divisions of the period, he was +principally occupied. The first five years, 1507-1511, are pre-eminently +the painting years of his life. In them, working with +infinite preliminary pains, as a vast number of extant drawings +and studies testify, he produced what have been accounted his +four capital works in painting, besides several others of minor +importance. The first is the “Adam and Eve” dated 1507, in +which both attitudes and proportions are as carefully calculated, +though on a somewhat different scheme, as in the engraving of +1504. Two versions of the picture exist, one in Florence at the +Pitti palace, the other, which is generally allowed to be the +original, at Madrid. To 1508 belongs the life-sized “Virgin with +the Iris,” a piece remarkable for the fine romantic invention of +its background, but plainly showing the hand of an assistant, +perhaps Hans Baldung, in its execution: the best version is in +the Cook collection at Richmond, an inferior one in the Rudolphinum +at Prague. In 1508 Dürer returned to a subject which +he had already treated in an early woodcut, the “Massacre of the +Ten Thousand Martyrs of Nicomedia.” The picture, painted for +the elector Frederick of Saxony, is now in the Imperial Gallery at +Vienna; the overcrowded canvas (into which Dürer has again +introduced his own portrait as a spectator alongside of the elector) +is full of striking and animated detail, but fails to make any +great impression on the whole, and does not do justice to the +improved sense of breadth and balance in design, of clearness +and dignity in composition, which the master had undoubtedly +brought back with him from his second visit to Italy. In 1509 +followed the “Assumption of the Virgin” with the Apostles +gathered about her tomb, a rich altarpiece with figures of saints +and portraits of the donor and his wife in the folding wings, +executed for Jacob Heller, a merchant of Frankfort, in 1509. +This altarpiece was afterwards replaced at Frankfort (all except +the <span class="correction" title="amended from protraits">portraits</span> of the donors, which remained behind) by a copy, +while the original was transported to Munich, where it perished +by fire in 1674. The copy, together with the many careful and +highly finished preparatory studies for the heads, limbs and +draperies which have been preserved, shows that this must have +been the one of Dürer’s pictures in which he best combined the +broader vision and simpler habits of design which had impressed +him in the works of Italian art with his own inherited and +ingrained love of unflinchingly grasped fact and rugged, accentuated +character. In 1511 was completed another famous painting, +multitudinous in the number of its figures though of very +moderate dimensions, the “Adoration of the Trinity by all the +Saints,” a subject commissioned for a chapel dedicated to All +Saints in an almshouse for decayed tradesmen at Nuremberg, +and now at the Imperial Gallery at Vienna. Nothing can exceed +the fulness and variety of invention, or the searching force and +precision of detail in this picture; nor does it leave so much to +desire as several of the master’s other paintings in point of +colour-harmony and pleasurable general effect.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Dürer had added a few to the number of his +line-engravings and had completed the two woodcut series of the +Great Passion, begun about 1498-1499, and the Life of the Virgin. +The new subjects compared with the old show some falling off in +dramatic stress and intensity of expression, but on the other hand +a marked gain in largeness of design and clearness of composition. +In 1511 these two works were brought out for the first time, and +the Apocalypse series in a second edition; and for the next three +years, 1511-1514, engraving both on wood and copper, but +especially the latter, took the first place among Dürer’s activities. +Besides such fine single woodcuts as the “Mass of St Gregory,” +the “St Christopher,” the “St Jerome,” and two Holy Families +of 1511, Dürer published in the same year the most numerous and +popularly conceived of all his woodcut series, that known from +the dimensions of its thirty-seven subjects as the “Little Passion” +on wood; and in the next year, 1512, a set of fifteen small +copper-engravings on the same theme, the “Little Passion” on +copper. Both of these must represent the labour of several +preceding years: one or two of the “Little Passion” plates, +dating back as far as 1507, prove that this series at least had been +as long as five years in his mind. In thus repeating over and over +on wood and copper nearly the same incidents of the Passion, or +again in rehandling them in yet another medium, as in the highly +finished series of drawings known as the “Green Passion” in the +Albertina at Vienna, Dürer shows an inexhaustible variety of +dramatic and graphic invention, and is never betrayed into +repeating an identical action or motive.</p> + +<p>In 1513 and 1514 appeared the three most famous of Dürer’s +works in copper-engraving, “The Knight and Death” (or +simply “The Knight,” as he himself calls it, 1513), the “Melancolia” +and the “St Jerome in his Study” (both 1514). These +are the masterpieces of the greatest mind which ever expressed +itself in this form of art. Like other masterpieces, they suggest +much more than they clearly express, and endless meanings +have been, rightly or wrongly, read into them by posterity. +Taken together as a group, they have been supposed to be three +out of an uncompleted series designed to illustrate the four +“temperaments” and complexions of men. Again, more reasonably, +they have been taken as types severally of the moral, the +intellectual and the theological virtues. The idea at the bottom +of the “Knight and Death” seems to be a combination of the +Christian knight of Erasmus’s <i>Enchiridion militis Christiani</i> +with the type, traditional in medieval imagery, of the pilgrim +on his way through the world. The imaginative force of the +presentation, coming from a man of Dürer’s powers, is intense; +but what consciously occupied him most may well have been +the problem how to draw accurately the proportions and action +of a horse in motion. This problem he here solves for the first +time, with the help of an Italian example: at least his design +so closely repeats that of Leonardo da Vinci’s famous and early +destroyed equestrian statue of Francesco Sforza that we must +certainly suppose him to have seen either the model itself or +such a drawing of it as is still preserved by Leonardo’s own hand. +The face of the rider seems to recall that of the statue of Bartolommeo +Colleoni at Venice; for the armour Dürer had recourse +to an old drawing of his own, signed and dated in 1498. The +“Melancolia,” numbered “1” as though intended to be the +first of a series, with its brooding winged genius sitting dejectedly +amidst a litter of scientific instruments and symbols, is hard +to interpret in detail, but impossible not to recognize in general +terms as an embodiment of the spirit of intellectual research +(the student’s “temperament” was supposed to be one with the +melancholic), resting sadly from its labours in a mood of lassitude +and defeat. Comparatively cheerful beside these two is the +remaining subject of the student saint reading in his chamber, +with his dog and domestic lion resting near him, and a marvellous +play of varied surface and chequered light on the floor and +ceiling of his apartment and on all the objects which it contains. +Besides these three masterpieces of line-engraving, the same +years, 1512-1515, found Dürer occupied with his most important +experiments in etching, both in dry-point (“The Holy Family +and Saints” and the “St Jerome in the Wilderness”) and with +the acid bath. At the same time he was more taken up than +ever, as is proved by the contents of a sketch-book at Dresden, +with mathematical and anatomical studies on the proportions +and structure of the human frame. A quite different kind of +study, that of the postures of wrestlers in action, is illustrated +by a little-known series of drawings, still of the same period, at +Vienna. Almost the only well-authenticated painting of the +time is a “Virgin and Child” in the Imperial Museum at Vienna. +The portraits of the emperors Charles the Great and Sigismund +(1512), in their present state at any rate, can hardly be recognized +as being by the master’s hand. An interval of five years +separates the Vienna “Madonna” from the two fine heads of +the apostles Philip and James in the Uffizi at Florence, the pair +of boys’ heads painted in tempera on linen in the Bibliothèque +Nationale at Paris, the “Madonna with the Pink” at Augsburg, +and the portrait of Wolgemut at Munich, all of 1516. Among +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span> +engravings of the same time are three Madonnas, the apostles +Thomas and Paul, a bagpiper and two peasants dancing, and +three or four experiments in etching on plates of iron and zinc. +In wood-engraving his energies were almost entirely given to +bearing a part—which modern research has proved to have +been not nearly so large as was traditionally supposed—in the +great decorative schemes commanded by the Emperor Max in +his own honour, and devised and carried out by a whole corps +of men of letters and artists: namely, the Triumphal Gate +and the Triumphal March or Procession. A third and smaller +commemorative design, the Triumphal Car, originally designed +to form part of the second but in the end issued separately, was +entirely Dürer’s own work. A far more successful and attractive +effort of his genius in the same service is to be found in the +marginal decorations done by him in pen for the emperor’s +prayer-book. This unequalled treasure of German art and +invention has in later times been broken up, the part executed +by Dürer being preserved at Munich, the later sheets, which were +decorated by other hands, having been transported to Besançon. +Dürer’s designs, drawn with the pen in pale lilac, pink and +green, show an inexhaustible richness of invention and an airy +freedom and playfulness of hand beyond what could be surmised +from the sternness of those studies which he made direct from +life and nature. They range from subjects of the homeliest and +most mirthful realism to others serious and devout, and from +literal or almost literal transcripts of natural form to the most +whimsically abstract combinations of linear pattern and tendril +and flourish.</p> + +<p>All these undertakings for his imperial friend and patron were +stopped by the emperor’s death in 1519. A portrait-drawing +by the master done at Augsburg a few months previously, one +of his finest works, served him as the basis both of a commemorative +picture and a woodcut. Other paintings of this and the +succeeding year we may seek for in vain; but in line engravings +we have four more Madonnas, two St Christophers, one or two +more peasant subjects, the well-known St Anthony with the +view of Nuremberg in the background, and the smaller of the +two portraits of the Cardinal-Elector of Mainz; and in wood-engraving +several fine heraldic pieces, including the arms of +Nuremberg.</p> + +<p>In the summer of 1520 the desire of Dürer to secure from +Maximilian’s successors a continuance of the patronage and +privileges granted during his lifetime, together with an outbreak +of sickness in Nuremberg, gave occasion to the master’s fourth +and last journey from home. Together with his wife and her +maid he set out in July for the Netherlands in order to be present +at the coronation of the young emperor Charles V., and if possible +to conciliate the good graces of the all-powerful regent Margaret. +In the latter part of his aim Dürer was but partially successful. +His diary of his travels enables us to follow his movements +almost day by day. He journeyed by the Rhine, Cologne, and +thence by road to Antwerp, where he was handsomely received, +and lived in whatever society was most distinguished, including +that of Erasmus of Rotterdam. Besides his written notes, +interesting traces of his travels exist in the shape of the scattered +leaves of a sketch-book filled with delicate drawings in silver-point, +chiefly views of places and studies of portrait and costume. +Several of his finest portrait-drawings in chalk or charcoal, +including those of his brother artists Lucas Van Leyden and +Bernard Van Orley, as well as one of two fine portrait paintings +of men, belong to the period of this journey. So does a magnificent +drawing of a head of a nonagenarian with a flowing beard +who sat to him at Antwerp, together with a picture from the +same head in the character of St Jerome; the drawing is now +at Vienna, the picture at Lisbon. Dürer’s interest and curiosity, +both artistic and personal, were evidently stimulated by his +travels in the highest degree. Besides going to Aachen for the +coronation, he made excursions down the Rhine from Cologne +to Nijmwegen, and back overland by ’s Hertogenbosch; to Brussels; +to Bruges and Ghent; and to Zealand with the object +of seeing a natural curiosity, a whale reported ashore. The +vivid account of this last expedition given in his diary contrasts +with the usual dry entries of interviews and disbursements. +A still more striking contrast is the passionate outburst of +sympathy and indignation with which, in the same diary, he +comments on the supposed kidnapping of Luther by foul play +on his return from the diet of Worms. Without being one of +those who in his city took an avowed part against the old ecclesiastical +system, and probably without seeing clearly whither +the religious ferment of the time was tending—without, that +is, being properly speaking a Reformer—Dürer in his art +and his thoughts was the incarnation of those qualities of +the German character and conscience which resulted in the +Reformation; and, personally, with the fathers of the Reformation +he lived in the warmest sympathy.</p> + +<p>On the 12th of July 1521 Dürer reached home again. Drawings +of this and the immediately following years prove that on his +return his mind was full of schemes for religious pictures. For a +great group of the Madonna surrounded with saints there are +extant two varying sketches of the whole composition and a +number of finished studies for individual heads and figures. +Less abundant, but still sufficient to prove the artist’s intention, +are the preliminary studies to a picture of the Crucifixion. There +exist also fine drawings for a “Lamentation over the body of +Christ,” an “Adoration of the Kings,” and a “March to Calvary”; +of the last-named composition, besides the beautiful and elaborate +pen-and-ink drawing at Florence, three still more highly-wrought +versions in green monochrome exist; whether any of them are +certainly by the artist’s own hand is matter of debate. But no +religious paintings on the grand scale, corresponding to these +drawings of 1521-1524, were ever carried out; perhaps partly +because of the declining state of the artist’s health, but more +because of the degree to which he allowed his time and thoughts +to be absorbed in the preparation of his theoretical works on +geometry and perspective, proportion and fortification. Like +Leonardo, but with much less than Leonardo’s genius for scientific +speculation and divination, Dürer was a confirmed reasoner and +theorist on the laws of nature and natural appearances. He +himself attached great importance to his studies in this kind; +his learned friends expected him to give their results to the +world; which accordingly, though having little natural gift or +felicity in verbal expression, he laboured strenuously to do. +The consequence was that in the last and ripest years of his life he +produced as an artist comparatively little. In painting there is +the famous portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher at Berlin, in +which the personality and general aspect of the sitter assert +themselves with surprising power. This and the Antwerp head of +Jerome are perhaps the most striking examples of Dürer’s power +of forcing into subordination to a general impression such a +multiplicity of insistent detail as would have smothered any +weaker conception than his. No other hand could have ventured +to render the hair and beard of a sitter, as it was the habit +of this inveterate linearist to do, not by indication of masses, +but by means of an infinity of single lines swept, with a miraculous +certainty and fineness of touch, in the richest <span class="correction" title="amended from amd">and</span> most intricate +of decorative curves. To the same period belong a pleasing +but somewhat weak “Madonna and Child” at Florence; and +finally, still in the same year 1526, the two famous panels at +Munich embodying the only one of the great religious conceptions +of the master’s later years which he lived to finish. +These are the two pairs of saints, St John with St Peter in front +and St Paul with St Mark in the background. The John and +Paul are conceived and executed really in the great style, with +a commanding nobility and force alike in the character of the +heads, the attitudes, and the sweep of draperies; they represent +the highest achievement of early German art in painting. In +copper-engraving Dürer’s work during the same years was confined +entirely to portraits, those of the cardinal-elector of Mainz +(“The Great Cardinal”), Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, +Willibald Pirkheimer, Melanchthon and Erasmus. To the tale of +his woodcuts, besides a few illustrations to his book on measurements +(that is, geometry and perspective), and on fortification, +he only added one Holy Family and one portrait, that of his +friend Eoban Hesse. Of his theoretical books, he only succeeded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span> +in getting two finished and produced during his lifetime, that on +geometry and perspective or measurement, to use his own title—which +was published at Nuremberg in 1525, and that on fortification, +published in 1527; the work on human proportions +was brought out shortly after his death in 1528. His labours, +whether artistic or theoretic, had for some time been carried +on in the face of failing health. In the canals of the Low +Countries he had caught a fever, of which he never shook off +the effects. We have the evidence of this in his own written +words, as well as in a sketch which he drew to indicate the seat +of his suffering to some physician with whom he was in correspondence, +and again in the record of his physical aspect which is +preserved by a portrait engraved on wood just after his death, +from a drawing made no doubt not long before in this portrait +we see his shoulders already bent, the features somewhat gaunt, +the old pride of the abundant locks shorn away. The end came +on the night of the 6th of April 1528, so suddenly that there was +no time to call his dearest friends to his bedside. He was buried +in a vault which belonged to his wife’s family, but was afterwards +disturbed, in the cemetery of St John at Nuremberg. An appropriate +<i>Requiescat</i> is contained in the words of Luther, in a letter +written to their common friend Eoban Hesse:—“As for Dürer, +assuredly affection bids us mourn for one who was the best of +men, yet you may well hold him happy that he has made so good +an end, and that Christ has taken him from the midst of this +time of trouble and from greater troubles in store, lest he, that +deserved to behold nothing but the best, should be compelled +to behold the worst. Therefore may he rest in peace with his +fathers: Amen.”</p> + +<p>The principal extant paintings of Dürer, with the places where +they are to be found, have been mentioned above. Of his +drawings, which for students are the most vitally interesting +part of his works, the richest collections are in the Albertina +at Vienna, the Berlin Museum and the British Museum. The +Louvre also possesses some good examples, and many others +are dispersed in various public collections, as in the Musée Bonnat +at Bayonne, at Munich, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort, Dresden, +Basel, Milan, Florence and Oxford, as well as in private hands +all over Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal editions of Dürer’s theoretical writings are +these:—</p> + +<p><i>Geometry and Perspective.</i>—<i>Underweysung der Messung mit dem +Zirckel und Richtscheyt, in Linien, Ebnen und ganzen Corporen</i> +(Nuremberg, 1525, 1533, 1538). A Latin translation of the same, +with a long title (Paris, Weichel, 1532) and another ed. in 1535. +Again in Latin, with the title <i>Institutionum geometricarum libri +quatuor</i> (Arnheim, 1605).</p> + +<p><i>Fortification.</i>—<i>Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, Schloss +und Flecken</i> (Nuremberg, 1527), and other editions in 1530, 1538 +and 1603 (Arnheim). A Latin translation, with the title <i>De urbibus, +arcibus, castellisque muniendis ac condendis</i> (Paris, Weichel, 1535). +See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Human Proportion.</i>—<i>Hierinnen sind begriffen vier Bücher von menschlicher +Proportion</i> (Nuremberg, 1582, and Arnheim, 1603). Latin +translation: <i>De symetria partium in rectis formis humanorum corporum +libri in latinum conversi, de varietate figurarum, &c. libri ii.</i> +(Nuremberg, 1528, 1532 and 1534); (Paris, 1535, 1537, 1557). +French translation (Paris, 1557, Arnheim, 1613, 1614). Italian +translation (Venice, 1591, 1594); Portuguese translation (1599); +Dutch translation (Arnheim, 1622, 1662).</p> + +<p>The private literary remains of Dürer, his diary, letters, &c., were +first published, partially in Von Murr’s <i>Journal zur Kunstgeschichte</i> +(Nuremberg, 1785-1787); afterwards in Campe’s <i>Reliquien von +A. Dürer</i> (Nuremberg, 1827); again edited by Thausing, in the +<i>Quellenschriften für Kunstgeschichte und Kunsttechnik</i> (Vienna, 1872), +but most completely in Lange and Fuhse’s <i>Dürers schriftlicher +Nachlass</i> (Halle, 1893); W.M. Conway’s <i>Literary Remains of A. +Dürer</i> (London, 1889) contains extensive transcripts from the MSS. +in the British Museum.</p> + +<p>The principal remaining literature of the subject will be found +in the following books and treatises—Johann Neudörfer, Schreib- und +Rechenmeister zu Nürnberg, <i>Nachrichten über Künstlern und Werkleuten +daselbst</i> (Nuremberg, 1547); republished in the Vienna +<i>Quellenschrift</i> (1875); C. Scheurl, <i>Vita Antonii Kressen</i> (1515, reprinted +in the collection of Pirkheimer’s works, Frankfort 1610); +Wimpheling, <i>Epitome rerum Germanicarum</i>, ch. 68 (Strassburg, +1565); Joachim von Sandrart, <i>Deutsche Academie</i> (Nuremberg, 1675); +Doppelmayr, <i>Historische Nachricht von den nürnbergischen Mathematicis +und Künstlern</i> (Nuremberg, 1730); C.G. von Murr, <i>Journal +zur Kunstgeschichte</i>, as above; Adam Bartsch, <i>Le Peintre-Graveur</i>, +vol. vii. (Vienna, 1808); J.P. Passavant, <i>Le Peintre-Graveur</i>, vol. iii. +(Leipzig, 1842); J.F. Roth, <i>Leben Albrecht Dürers</i> (Leipzig, 1791); +Heller, <i>Das Leben und die Werke Albrecht Dürers</i>, vol. ii. (Bamberg, +1827-1831); B. Hausmann, <i>Dürers Kupferstiche, Radirungen, +Holzschnitte und Zeichnungen</i> (Hanover, 1861); R. von Rettberg, +<i>Dürers Kupferstiche und Holzschnitte</i> (Munich, 1876); M. Thausing, +<i>Dürer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst</i> (Leipzig, 1876, +2nd ed., 1884), English translation (from the 1st ed. by F.A. Eaton, +London, 1882); W. Schmidt in Dohme’s <i>Kunst und Künstler des +Mittelalters und der Neuzeit</i> (Leipzig, 1877); <i>Œuvre de Albert Dürer +reproduit et publié par Amand-Durand, texte par Georges Duplessis</i> +(Paris, 1877); C. Ephrussi, <i>A. Dürer et ses dessins</i> (Paris, 1882); +F. Lippmann, <i>Zeichnungen von A. Dürer in Nachbildungen</i> (5 vols. +Berlin, 1883-1905); A. Springer, <i>Albrecht Dürer</i> (Berlin, 1892); +D. Burckhardt, <i>Dürers Aufenthalt in Basel</i>, 1492-1494 (Munich, +1892); G. von Terey, <i>A Dürers venezianischer Aufenthalt</i>, 1494-1495 +(Strassburg, 1892); S.R. Koehler, <i>A Chronological Catalogue +of the Engravings, Dry Points and Etchings of A. Dürer</i> (New York, +1894); L. Cust, <i>A. Dürer, a Study of his Life and Works</i> (London, +1897); Dürer Society’s Publications (10 vols., 1898-1907), edited +by C. Dodgson and S.M. Peartree; H. Knackfuss, <i>Dürer</i> (Bielefeld +and Leipzig, 6th ed., 1899), English translation, 1900; B. Haendcke, +<i>Die Chronologie der Landschaften A. Dürers</i> (Strassburg, 1899); +M. Zucker, <i>Albrecht Dürer</i> (Halle, 1899-1900); L. Justi, <i>Konstruierte +Figuren und Köpfe unter den Werken Albrecht Dürers</i> (Leipzig, 1902); +A. Pelzer, <i>A. Dürer und Friedrich II. von der Pfalz</i> (Strassburg, 1905); +H. Wölfflin, <i>Die Kunst A. Dürers</i> (Munich, 1905); W. Weisbach, +<i>Der junge Dürer</i> (Leipzig, 1906); V. Scherer, <i>A. Dürer</i> (<i>Klassiker der +Kunst</i>, iv.), (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1906).</p> + +<p>Apart from books, a large and important amount of the literature +on Dürer is contained in articles scattered through the leading art +periodicals of Germany, such as the <i>Jahrbücher</i> of the Berlin and +Vienna museums, <i>Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft</i>, <i>Zeitschrift für +bildende Kunst</i>, &c. A comprehensive survey of this literature is +afforded by Prof. H.W. Singer’s <i>Versuch einer Dürer-Bibliographie</i> +(Strassburg, 1903); articles published more recently will be found +completely enumerated in A. Jellinek’s <i>Internationale Bibliographie +der Kunstwissenschaft</i> (Berlin).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURESS<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (through Fr. from Lat. <i>duritia</i>, harshness, severity, +<i>durus</i>, hard), in law, constraint or compulsion. Duress may be +of two kinds. It may consist in personal restraint or actual +violence or imprisonment; or it may be by threats (<i>per minas</i>), +as where a person is compelled to an act by threats of immediate +death or grievous bodily harm. Duress, in certain cases, may be +pleaded as a defence of an act which would otherwise be a crime, +but the extent to which the plea of duress can be urged is unascertained. +At common law a contract entered into under +duress is voidable at the option of one of the parties. See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coercion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contract</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">D’URFEY, THOMAS<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1653-1723), better known as Tom +d’Urfey, English song-writer and dramatist, belonged to a +Huguenot family settled at Exeter, where he was born in 1653. +Honoré d’Urfé, the author of <i>Astrée</i>, was his uncle. His first +play, <i>The Siege of Memphis, or the Ambitious Queen</i>, a bombastic +rhymed tragedy, was produced at the Theatre Royal in 1676. +He was much more successful with his comedies, which had +brisk, complicated plots carried out in lively dialogue. He had +a light touch for fitting words on current topics to popular airs; +moreover, many of his songs were set to music by his friends +Dr John Blow, Henry Purcell and Thomas Farmer. Many of +these songs were introduced into his plays. Addison in the +<i>Guardian</i> (No. 67) relates that he remembered to have seen +Charles II. leaning on Tom d’Urfey’s shoulder and humming +a song with him. Even William III. liked to hear him sing his +songs, and as a strong Tory he was sure of the favour of Princess +Anne, who is said to have given Tom fifty guineas for a song on +the Electress Sophia, the next heir in succession to the crown. +“The crown’s far too weighty, for shoulders of eighty,” said +d’Urfey, with an indirect compliment to the princess, “So +Providence kept her away,—poor old Dowager Sophy.” Pope, +in an amusing letter to Henry Cromwell (<i>Works</i>, ed. Elwin and +Courthope, vi. 91) describes him as “the only poet of tolerable +reputation in this country.” In spite of the success of his +numerous comedies he was poor in his old age. But his gaiety +and invincible good humour had made him friends in the craft, +and by the influence of Addison his <i>Fond Husband, or The Plotting +Sisters</i> was revived for d’Urfey’s benefit at Drury Lane on the +15th of June 1713. This performance, for which Pope wrote a +prologue full of rather faint praise, seems to have eased the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +poet’s difficulties. He died on the 26th of February 1723, and +was buried in St James’s Church, Piccadilly.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Collections of his songs with the music appeared during his lifetime, +the most complete being the 1719-1720 edition (6 vols.) of +<i>Wit and Mirth; or Pills to Purge Melancholy</i>. The best known of +the twenty-nine pieces of his which actually found their way to the +stage were <i>Love for Money; or The Boarding School</i> (Theatre Royal, +1691), <i>The Marriage-Hater Match’d</i> (1692), and <i>The Comical History +of Don Quixote</i>, in three parts (1694, 1694 and 1696), which earned +the especial censure of Jeremy Collier. In his burlesque opera, +<i>Wonders in the Sun; or the Kingdom of the Birds</i> (1706, music by +G.B. Draghi), the actors were dressed as parrots, crows, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURFORT,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> a village of south-western France, formerly in the +province of Guienne, now in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, +18 m. N.W. of Montauban by road. It was at one time the seat +of a feudal lordship which gave its name to a family distinguished +in French and English history. Though earlier lords are known, +the pedigree of the family is only clearly traceable to Arnaud +de Durfort (fl. 1305), who acquired the fief of Duras by his +marriage with a niece of Pope Clement V. His descendant, +Gaillard de Durfort, having embraced the side of the king of +England, went to London in 1453, and was made governor of +Calais and a knight of the Garter.</p> + +<p>The greatness of the family dates, however, from the 17th +century. Guy Aldonce (1605-1665), marquis de Duras and +comte de Rozan, had, by his wife Elizabeth de la Tour +d’Auvergne, sister of Marshal Turenne, six sons, three of whom +played a distinguished part. The eldest, Jacques Henri (1625-1704), +was governor of Franche Comté in 1674 and was created +a marshal of France for his share in the conquest of that province +(1675). The second, Guy Aldonce (1630-1702), comte de +Lorges and duc de Quintin (known as the duc de Lorges), became +a marshal of France in 1676, commanded the army in Germany +from 1690 to 1695, and captured Heidelberg in 1693. The sixth +son, Louis (1640?-1709), marquis de Blanquefort, came to +England in the suite of James, duke of York, in 1663, and was +naturalized in the same year. On the 19th of January 1672-1673 +he was raised to the English peerage as Baron Duras of Holdenby, +his title being derived from an estate in Northamptonshire +bought from the duke of York, and in 1676 he married Mary, +daughter and elder co-heiress of Sir George Sondes, created in +that year Baron Throwley, Viscount Sondes and earl of Feversham. +On the death of his father-in-law (16th of April 1677), +Duras succeeded to his titles under a special remainder. He was +appointed by Charles II. successively to the command of the +third and second troops of Horse Guards, was sent abroad on +several important diplomatic missions, and became master of +the horse (1679) and lord chamberlain to the queen (1680). +In 1682 he was appointed a lord of the bed-chamber, and was +present at the king’s deathbed reconciliation with the Roman +Church. Under James II. Feversham became a member of the +privy council, and in 1685 was given the chief command against +the rebels under Monmouth (<i>q.v.</i>), in which he mainly distinguished +himself by his cruelty to the vanquished. He was +rewarded with a knighthood of the Garter and the colonelcy +of the first troop of Life Guards, and in 1686 he was appointed +to the command of the army assembled by King James on Blackheath +to overawe the people. On James’s flight, Feversham +succeeded in making his peace with William, on the intercession +of the queen dowager, at whose instance he received the mastership +of the Royal Hospital of St Catherine near the Tower +(1698). He died without issue on the 8th of April 1709. +[See G.E. C(ockayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i>, and art. in <i>Dict. +Nat. Biog.</i>]</p> + +<p>Jean Baptiste (1684-1770), due de Duras, son of Jacques Henri, +was also a marshal of France. In 1733 he resigned the dukedom +of Duras to his son, Emmanuel Félicité, himself receiving the +brevet title of duc de Durfort. Emmanuel Félicité (1715-1789), +duc de Duras, took part in all the wars of Louis XV. and was +made a marshal of France in 1775. His grandson, Amédée +Bretagne Malo (1771-1838), duc de Duras, is mainly known +as the husband of Claire Louise Rose Bonne de Coëtnempren +de Kersaint (1778-1828), daughter of Armand Guy Simon de +Coëtnempren Kersaint (<i>q.v.</i>), who, as duchesse de Duras, presided +over a once celebrated salon and wrote several novels once +widely read.</p> + +<p>The family of Durfort is represented in France now by the +branch of Durfort-Civrac, dating from the 16th century. Jean +Laurent (1740-1826), marquis de Civrac, married his cousin, the +daughter of the duc de Lorges; his son, Guy Emeric Anne +(1767-1837), duc de Civrac, became afterwards duc de Lorges. +Henri, marquis de Durfort-Civrac (1812-1884), was a well-known +politician, and was several times elected vice-president of the +chamber of deputies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURGA,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Devi</span> (Sanskrit for inaccessible), in Hindu mythology, +the wife of Siva (<i>q.v.</i>) and daughter of Himavat (the +Himalayas). She has many names and many characters. As +Durga (so named from having slain the demon Durga) she is +warlike and ferocious, and to her in this form are offered bloody +sacrifices, and such ceremonies as the Durgapuja and Churrukpuga +are held in her honour (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kali</a></span>). The chief festival in +Bengal—sometimes termed the Christmas of Bengal—celebrates +the goddess’s birth in the sixth Hindu month (parts of September +and October). Durga is pictured, in spite of her fierce nature, +with a gentle face. She has ten arms, holding each a weapon, +while her attendant lions and giants are grouped on each side.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1792-1840), +English statesman, son of William Henry Lambton of +Lambton Castle, Durham, was born in London on the 12th of +April 1792. His mother was Anne Barbara Villiers, daughter of +the 4th earl of Jersey. Lambton was only five years old when by +his father’s death at Pisa (1797) he succeeded to large estates +in the north of England which had been in the uninterrupted +possession of his family since the 12th century. In 1805 he went +to Eton, and in 1809 obtained a commission in the 10th Hussars. +In 1812, while still a minor, he made a runaway match with +Henrietta, natural daughter of Lord Cholmondeley, whom he +married at Gretna Green, and who died in 1815. In 1813 he +was elected to the House of Commons as member for the county +of Durham. Whig principles of a pronounced type were traditional +in Lambton’s family. His grandfather, General John +Lambton, had refused a peerage in 1793 out of loyalty to Fox, +and his father was not only one of Pitt’s keenest opponents, +but was chairman of “The Friends of the People” and author +of that society’s address to the nation in 1792. Lambton +adhered to this tradition, and soon developed opinions of an +extremely Radical type, which he fearlessly put forward in parliament +and in the country with marked ability. His maiden +speech in the House of Commons was directed against the foreign +policy of Lord Liverpool’s government, who had sanctioned, +and helped to enforce, the annexation of Norway by Sweden. +In 1815 he vehemently opposed the corn tax, and in general began +to take a prominent part in opposition to the Tories. In 1816 +he made the acquaintance of Lafayette in Paris, and narrowly +escaped arrest for alleged complicity in his escape. In 1817 he +began to speak on every opportunity in favour of parliamentary +reform.</p> + +<p>His political position was strengthened by his marriage in +December 1816 to Louisa Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Lord +Grey, and as early as 1818 he was taken into the political confidence +of his father-in-law and other leaders of the Whigs in +matters touching the leadership and policy of the party. But +from the first Lambton belonged to the avowedly Radical wing +of the party, with whose aims Grey had little sympathy; and +when he gave notice of a resolution in 1819 in favour of shortening +the duration of parliaments, and of a wide extension of the +franchise, he found himself discountenanced by old Whigs like +Grey, Holland and Fitzwilliam. Having warmly espoused the +cause of Queen Caroline, Lambton ably seconded Lord Tavistock’s +resolution in February 1821 censuring the government +for their conduct towards the queen; and in April he made his +first great speech in the House of Commons on parliamentary +reform, when he proposed a scheme for the extension of the +suffrage to all holders of property, the division of the country +into electoral districts and the disfranchisement of rotten +boroughs. He was now one of the recognized leaders of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +the advanced Liberals, forming a connecting link between +the aristocratic Whig leaders and the irresponsible and often +violent politicians of the great towns. His opposition to +those members of his party who in 1825 were prepared for +compromise on the question of Catholic emancipation led to his +first conflict with Brougham, with whom he had been on terms +of close friendship. While supporting the candidature of his +brother-in-law, Lord Howick, for Northumberland in the +elections of 1826, Lambton fought a duel with T.W. Beaumont, +the Tory candidate, but without bloodshed on either side. Unlike +his father-in-law, Lambton supported the ministry of Canning, +though he had some grounds for personal grievance against the +new prime minister, and after Canning’s death that of Lord +Goderich. On the advice of the latter Lambton was raised to +the peerage in 1828 with the title of Baron Durham. Owing to +his Liberal principles Lord Durham was on terms of friendship +with the duke of Sussex, and also with Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, +who sought his advice in the difficult crisis in 1829 +when he was offered the throne of Greece, and who, after he +became king of the Belgians as Leopold I., continued to correspond +with Durham as a trusted confidant; the same confidential +relations also existed between Durham and Leopold’s sister, the +duchess of Kent, and her daughter, afterwards Queen Victoria.</p> + +<p>In November 1830 when Grey became prime minister in succession +to the duke of Wellington, Lord Durham entered the +cabinet as lord privy seal. Parliamentary reform was in the +forefront of the new government’s policy, and with this question +no statesman except Lord Grey himself was more closely indentified +than Durham. To ardent reformers in the country the +presence in the cabinet of “Radical Jack,” the name by which +Lambton had been popularly known in the north of England, +was a pledge that thorough-going reform would not be shirked +by the Whigs, now in office for the first time for twenty years. +And it was to his son-in-law that Lord Grey confided the task +of preparing a scheme to serve as the basis of the proposed +legislation. Full justice has not generally been done to the +leading part played by Lord Durham in preparing the great +Reform Act. He was the chief author of the proposals which, +after being defeated in 1831, became law with little alteration +in 1832. He was chairman of the famous committee of four, +which met at his house in Cleveland Row and drew up the +scheme submitted by the government to parliament. His +colleagues, who were appointed rather as his assistants than +as his equals, were Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham and +Lord Duncannon; and it was Durham who selected Lord John +Russell, not then in the cabinet, to introduce the bill in the +House of Commons; a selection that was hotly opposed by +Brougham, whose later vindictive animosity against Durham +is to be traced to his having been passed over in the selection +of the committee of four. Durham was present with Grey at an +audience of the king which led to the sudden dissolution of +parliament in March 1831; and when the deadlock between +the two Houses occurred over the second Reform Bill, he was the +most eager in pressing on the prime minister the necessity for a +creation of peers to overcome the resistance of the house of +Lords.</p> + +<p>After the passing of the Reform Act, Durham, whose health +was bad and who had suffered the loss of two of his children, +accepted a special and difficult diplomatic mission to Russia, +which he carried out with much tact and ability, though without +accomplishing its main purpose. On his return he resigned +office in March 1833, ostensibly for reasons of health, but in +reality owing to his disagreement with the government’s Irish +policy as conducted by Lord Stanley; in the same month he was +created earl of Durham and Viscount Lambton. His advanced +opinions, in the assertion of which he was too little disposed to +consider the convictions of others, gradually alienated the more +moderate of his late colleagues, such as Melbourne and Palmerston, +and even Lord Grey often found his son-in-law intractable +and self-assertive; but the growing hostility of the +treacherous Brougham was mainly due to Durham’s undoubted +popularity in the country, where he was regarded by many, +including J.S. Mill, as Grey’s probable successor in the leadership +of the Liberal party. Durham was at this time courted by the +youthful Disraeli, who, when Melbourne became prime minister +in succession to Grey in 1834, declared that the Whigs could not +exist as a party without Lord Durham. Brougham’s animosity +became undisguised at the great banquet given to Lord Grey +at Edinburgh in September 1834, where he made a venomous +attack on Durham, repeated shortly afterwards at Salisbury, +and anonymously in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>. On the other hand +the strength of Durham’s position in the country was shown +on the occasion of his visit to Glasgow in October to receive the +freedom of the city, when a concourse of more than a hundred +thousand persons assembled to hear him speak at Glasgow +Green, and where he replied to Brougham’s attacks at a great +banquet held in his honour. Brougham had over-reached +himself; and although Durham was no favourite with William +IV., the king’s disgust with the lord chancellor was one of the +principal reasons for his summary dismissal of the Whig ministry +in 1834. When Melbourne returned to power after Peel’s short +administration, Durham’s radicalism and impatient temper +excluded him from the cabinet; and again in 1837, on his return +from an appointment as ambassador extraordinary in St Petersburg +(1835-1837), when there was some idea of his joining the +ministry, Lord John Russell wrote: “Everybody, after the +experience we have had, must doubt whether there can be peace +or harmony in a cabinet of which Lord Durham is a member.”</p> + +<p>In July 1837 he resisted the entreaty of Lord Melbourne that +he should undertake the government of Canada, where the +condition of affairs had become alarming; but a few months +later, giving way to the urgent insistence of the prime minister +who promised him “the firmest and most unflinching support” +of the government, he accepted the post of governor-general +and lord high commissioner, with the almost dictatorial powers +conferred on him by an act passed in February 1838, by which +the constitution of Lower Canada was suspended for two years. +Having secured the services of Charles Buller (<i>q.v.</i>) as first +secretary, and having with more doubtful wisdom appointed +Thomas Turton and Edward Gibbon Wakefield (<i>q.v.</i>) to be his +unofficial assistants, Durham arrived at Quebec on the 28th +of May 1838. Papineau’s rebellion had been quelled, but the +French Canadians were sullen, the attitude of the United States +equivocal, and the general situation dangerous, especially in +the Lower Province where government was practically in +abeyance. Durham at once issued a conciliatory proclamation. +His next step was to dismiss the executive council of his predecessor +and to appoint a new one consisting of men uncommitted +to any existing faction, a step much criticized at home but +generally commended on the spot. On the 28th of June, the day +of Queen Victoria’s coronation, he issued a proclamation of +amnesty, from the benefit of which eight persons only of those +who had taken part in the rebellion were excepted; while an +accompanying ordinance provided for the transference of these +eight excepted persons from Montreal to Bermuda, where they +were to be imprisoned without trial. Papineau and fifteen +other fugitives were forbidden on pain of death to return to +Canada. In a letter of congratulation to the queen, Durham +took credit for the clemency of his policy towards the rebels, +and it was defended on the same ground by Charles Buller and +by public opinion in the colony.</p> + +<p>In England, however, as soon as these proceedings became +known, Brougham seized the opportunity for venting his malice +against both Durham and the ministry. He had already raised +objections to the appointment of Turton and Wakefield; he now +attacked the ordinance in the House of Lords, challenging the +legality of the clause transporting prisoners to Bermuda, where +Durham had no jurisdiction. Melbourne and his colleagues, +with the honourable exception of Lord John Russell, made little +effort to defend the public servant to whom they had promised +“the most unflinching support”; and, although both the prime +minister and the colonial secretary when first fully informed of the +governor-general’s proceedings had hastened to assure him of +their “entire approval,” three weeks later, cowed by Brougham’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span> +malignant invective, they disallowed the ordinance, and carried +an Act of Indemnity the terms of which were insulting to Durham. +The latter immediately resigned; but before returning to +England he put himself in the wrong by issuing a proclamation in +which he not only justified his own conduct in detail, but made +public complaint of his grievances against the ministers of the +Crown, a step that alienated much sympathy which his unjust +treatment by the government would otherwise have called forth, +though it was defended by men like Charles Buller and J.S. Mill. +The usual official honours given to a returning plenipotentiary +were not accorded to Durham on his arrival at Plymouth on the +30th of November 1838, but the populace received him with +acclamation. He immediately set about preparing his memorable +“Report on the Affairs of British North America,” which was +laid before parliament on the 31st of January 1839. This report, +one of the greatest state papers in the English language, laid down +the principles, then unrecognized, which have guided British +colonial policy ever since. It was not written or composed by +Charles Buller, as Brougham was the first to suggest, and the +credit for the statesmanship it exhibits is Lord Durham’s alone, +though he warmly acknowledged the assistance he had derived +from Buller, Wakefield and others in preparing the materials on +which it was based. With regard to the future government of +British North America, Durham had at first inclined towards a +federation of all the colonies on that continent, and this aim, +afterwards achieved, remained in his eyes an ideal to be striven +for; but as a more immediately practical policy he advised the +legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada, his avowed aim +being to organize a single state in which the British inhabitants +would be in a majority. He further urged the creation of an +executive council responsible to the colonial legislature; he +advised state-aided emigration on the broadest possible scale, +and the formation of an intercolonial railway for the development +of the whole country. Meantime Durham, who almost alone +among the statesmen of his time saw the importance of imperial +expansion, interested himself in the emigration schemes of +Gibbon Wakefield (<i>q.v.</i>); he became chairman of the New +Zealand Company, and was thus concerned in the enterprise +which forestalled France in asserting sovereignty over the islands +of New Zealand in September 1839. His health, however, had long +been failing, and he died at Cowes on the 28th of July 1840, just +five days after the royal assent had been given to the bill giving +effect to his project for uniting Upper and Lower Canada.</p> + +<p>Lord Durham filled a larger place in the eyes of his contemporaries +than many statesmen who have been better remembered. +He was in his lifetime regarded as a great popular leader; and his +accession to supreme political power was for some years considered +probable by many; his opinions were, however, too extreme to +command the confidence of any considerable party in parliament +before 1840. That Brougham hated him and Melbourne feared +him, is a tribute to his abilities; and in the first Reform Act, of +which he was the chief author, and in the famous <i>Report</i> on the +principles of colonial policy, he left an indelible mark on English +history. His personal defects of character did much to mar the +success of a career, which, it must be remembered, terminated +at the age of forty-eight. He was impatient, hot-tempered, +hypersensitive to criticism, vain and prone to take offence at +fancied slights; but he was also generous and unvindictive, and +while personally ambitious his care for the public interest was +genuine and untiring.</p> + +<p>By his first wife Durham had three daughters; by his second, +who was a lady of the bedchamber to Queen Victoria but resigned +on her husband’s return from Canada, he had two sons and three +daughters. The eldest son, Charles William, the “Master +Lambton” of Sir Thomas Lawrence’s celebrated picture, died +in 1831; the second, George Frederick d’Arcy (1828-1879), +succeeded his father as 2nd earl of Durham. The latter’s son, +John George Lambton (b. 1855), became 3rd earl in 1879.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Stuart J. Reid, <i>Life and Letters of the First Earl of Durham</i> +(2 vols., London, 1906); <i>The Greville Memoirs</i>, parts i. and ii. +(London, 1874-1887); Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, +<i>Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria</i> +(2 vols., London, 1861); William Harris, <i>History of the Radical</i> +<i>Party in Parliament</i> (London, 1885); Harriet Martineau, <i>History +of the Thirty Years’ Peace</i> (4 vols., London, 1877); William Kingsford, +<i>History of Canada</i>, vol. x. (10 vols., Toronto, 1887-1898), +H.E. Egerton, <i>Short History of British Colonial Policy</i> (London, +1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURHAM,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> a northern county of England, bounded N. by +Northumberland, E. by the North Sea, S. by Yorkshire, and W. +by Westmorland and Cumberland. Its area is 1014.6 sq. m. +It is wholly on the eastern slope, the western angle being occupied +by spurs of the Pennine chain, exceeding 2300 ft. in height at some +points on the Cumberland border. West of a line from Barnard +Castle by Wolsingham to the neighbourhood of Consett the whole +of the land, excepting narrow valleys, lies at elevations exceeding +1000 ft. This area represents roughly one quarter of the total. +The principal rivers rising in these hills are the Derwent, tributary +to the Tyne, forming part of the county boundary with +Northumberland, the Wear and the Tees, which forms almost +the whole of the boundary with Westmorland and Yorkshire. +The dales traversed by these rivers in their upper parts, though +sufficiently strongly contrasted with the dark, barren moors +surrounding them, yet partake of somewhat the same wild +character. Lower down, however, are beautiful and fertile +valleys, the main rivers flowing between steep, well-wooded +banks; while the lesser streams of the coastal district have +carved out denes or ravines on the steep flanks of which vegetation +is luxuriant. Castle Eden Dene, 7 m. N.W. of Hartlepool, is +famous for its beautiful trees and wild flowers. The coastward +slope is fairly steep in the northern half of the county, but it is +steady, and the coast itself has no striking scenic features, save +where the action of the waves upon the magnesian limestone has +separated great masses, leaving towering fragments standing, +and fretting the face of the rock with caverns and arches. The +cluster of rocks named the Black Halls, 6 m. N.W. of Hartlepool, +best exhibits these features. Other natural phenomena +include the Linnkirk caves near Stanhope in Weardale in which +numerous fossils and bones, with evidence of habitation by man, +have been discovered; and the Hell Kettles, S. of Darlington, +near the junction of the Tees and the Skerne, four cavities filled +with water, reputed to be unfathomable, and measuring from 80 +to 120 ft. in diameter. The water is sulphurous.</p> + +<p>Except in the moorlands of the west only a few scraps of the +county have been left in their natural state; but these portions +are of great interest to the student of natural history. The +ballast-hills at Shields, Jarrow and Hartlepool, formed by the +discharge of material from ships arriving in ballast from foreign +countries, are overgrown with aliens, many of which are elsewhere +unknown in this country. Nearly fifty different species have been +found. Stockton was almost the last retreat in England of the +native black rat. Of the former abundance of deer, wild ox and +boar every peat bog testifies by its remains; the boar appears to +have existed in the reign of Henry VIII., and records of red deer +in the county may be traced down to the middle of the 18th +century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The uplift of the Pennine hills causes nearly all the +stratified rocks of Durham to dip towards the east or south-east. +Thus the oldest rocks are to be found in the west, while in passing +eastward younger rocks are continually met. In the hilly district +of Weardale and Teesdale the Carboniferous Limestone series prevails; +this is a succession of thick beds of limestone with intervening +sandstones and shales. Some of the calcareous beds are highly +fossiliferous; those at Frosterley near Stanhope are full of the +remains of corals and the stone is polished as a marble. Much +of the higher ground in the west is capped by Millstone Grit, as +at Muggleswick and Walsingham commons. The outcrop of this +formation broadens eastward until it is covered by the Durham +coalfield which occupies the centre of the county from Newcastle +and South Shields to Barnard Castle. The Coal Measures are about +2000 ft. thick and contain upwards of 100 seams of coal, including +many of great importance—the Brockwell coal, Low Main coal and +High Main coal are some of the well-known seams. Fireclays of +great value are obtained from beneath many of the coal seams. +Apart from the coals, the Coal Measures are made up of beds of +sandstone and shale, the former called “post” and the latter “plate” +by the local miners. Permian magnesian limestone succeeds the +Coal Measures on the east, it reaches from the Tees to South Shields +in a broad tract and occupies the coast between that town and +Hartlepool. Remarkable concretionary forms are found in the +Fulwell Quarries simulating honeycomb and coral structures. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span> +stone is quarried at Marsden for the manufacture of Epsom salts; +it is also used for lime-making and building. Fish remains are not +uncommon in it. The sandstones and marls seen between the +magnesian limestone and the Coal Measures at South Shields, +Newbottle and several miles farther south are usually classed as +Permian, but they may possibly prove to belong to the lower series. +In the south-east corner of the county, by Darlington, Stockton +and Seaton Carew, the low ground is made of Triassic rocks, red +marls and sandstones with beds of gypsum and rock salt. Coal +Measures undoubtedly underlie the Permian and Triassic strata. +Normal faults traverse the district, mostly from east to west. Great +dykes and sills of basalt lie in the Tees valley above Middleton and +one, the Great Whin Sill, may be followed in an easterly direction +for over 120 m. The Cockfield dyke and Little Whin Sill are similar +intrusions of basalt. Lead mines have been extensively worked +in the limestone districts of Weardale and Teesdale; the limestone +itself is quarried on a large scale for fluxing in the ironworks. +Glacial deposits obscure the older rocks over much of the county, +they contain travelled stones from the Pennines and Cheviots. +Submerged forests appear off the coast at West Hartlepool and other +points. A small patch of Silurian occurs near Cronkley on the Tees; +here slate pencils were formerly made.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Near the river Tees, and in some places bordering +on the other rivers, the soil is loam or a rich clay. At a farther +distance from these rivers it is of inferior quality, with patches +of gravel interspersed. The hills east of the line from Barnard +Castle to Consett are covered with a dry loam, the fertility of +which varies with its depth. West of the line the summits and +flanks of the hills are in great part waste moorland. Only some +two-thirds of the total area of the county are under cultivation, +and nearly two-thirds of this are in permanent pasture. There +are also nearly 60,000 acres of hill-pasture. Of the diminished +area under corn crops oats occupy more than one-half, and barley +much exceeds wheat. Nearly two-thirds of the average under +green crops are occupied by turnips, as many cattle are raised +and have a long-standing reputation. The cows are especially +good yielders of milk. The sheep are also highly esteemed, +particularly the Teesdale breed. Those of Weardale are small, +but their mutton is finely flavoured.</p> + +<p><i>Mining.</i>—The mountain limestone contains veins of lead +ore and zinc ore. The beds of coal in the Coal Measures have long +been a source of enormous wealth. The mines are among the +most extensive and productive in the kingdom. At Sunderland +the coal trade furnishes employment for hundreds of vessels, +independently of the “keels” or lighters which convey the coal +from the termini of the railways and tramways to the ships. +The seams worked extend horizontally for many miles, and are +from 20 to 100 fathoms beneath the surface. The Frosterley +marble has been quarried for many centuries near Stanhope for +decorative purposes, in Durham cathedral and elsewhere taking +the place of Purbeck marble, while in modern houses it is used +chiefly for chimney-pieces. Ironstone is worked in the neighbourhood +of Whickham and elsewhere. Excellent slate is quarried +at several places. The neighbourhood of Wolsingham abounds +in fine millstones. The Newcastle grindstones are procured at +Gateshead Fell; and firestone for building ovens, furnaces and +the like is obtained in various parts of Durham, and exported +in considerable quantity.</p> + +<p><i>Other Industries.</i>—The manufacturing industries are extensive, +and all are founded upon the presence of coal, of which, moreover, +large quantities are exported. The industrial and mining +districts may be taken to lie almost wholly east of a line from +Darlington through Bishop Auckland to Consett. Textile industries +are not carried on to any great extent, but a large number of +hands are employed in the manufacture of machines, appliances, +conveyances, tools, &c. Of this manufacture the branch of shipbuilding +stands first; the yards on the Tyne are second only to +those on the Clyde, and the industry is prosecuted also at Sunderland, +the Hartlepools and Stockton-on-Tees. The founding +and conversion of metal stands next in importance; and other +industries include the manufacture of paper, chemicals (chiefly +on the Tyne), glass and bottles and earthenware (at Gateshead +and Sunderland). The output of limestone is greater than that +of any other county in the United Kingdom. As regards iron, the +presence of the coal and the proximity of the Cleveland iron +district of North Yorkshire enable the county to produce over +one million tons of pig-iron annually, though the output of iron +from within the county itself is inconsiderable. There is a large +production of salt from brine. The sea fisheries of Sunderland +and Hartlepool are valuable.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Railway communication is provided entirely +by the North Eastern company. The main line runs +northward through Darlington, Durham and Gateshead, and +there are a large number of branches through the mining and +industrial districts, while the company also owns some of the +docks. From Stockton to Darlington ran the railway engineered +by George Stephenson and opened in 1825. The chief ports of +Durham are Jarrow and South Shields on the Tyne, Sunderland +at the mouth of the Wear, Seaham Harbour, Hartlepool East +and West and Stockton-on-Tees.</p> + +<p><i>Administration and Population.</i>—Durham is one of the +Counties Palatine, the others being Lancashire and Cheshire. +The area of the ancient county is 649,352 acres, and that of +the administrative county 649,244 acres. There were formerly +three outlying portions of the county, known as North Durham +(including Norhamshire and Islandshire), Bedlingtonshire and +Crayke. These were attached to the county as having formed +parcels of the ancient “patrimony of St Cuthbert,” of which the +land between Tyne and Tees was the chief portion. The population +in 1891 was 1,016,454 and in 1901 1,187,361. The birth-rate +is much above, the death-rate also above, but the percentage +of illegitimacy considerably below, the average. The county is +divided into 4 wards. The following are municipal boroughs: +Darlington (pop. 44,511), Durham, city (14,679), Gateshead, +county borough (109,888), Hartlepool (22,723), Jarrow (34,295), +South Shields, county borough (97,263), Stockton-on-Tees +(51,478), Sunderland, county borough (146,077), West Hartlepool +(62,627). The other urban districts may be distributed so as to +indicate roughly the most populous and industrial districts:</p> + +<p>1. In the Tyne district (where Gateshead, Jarrow and South +Shields are the chief centres)—Blaydon (19,623), Felling (22,467), +Hebburn (20,901), Ryton (8452), Whickham (12,852).</p> + +<p>2. North-western district—Annfield Plain (12,481), Benfieldside +(7457), Consett (9694), Leadgate (4657), Tanfield (8276), +Stanley (13,554).</p> + +<p>3. Durham and Bishop Auckland district (continuation south +of the preceding)—Bishop Auckland (11,969), Brandon and +Byshottles (15,573), Crook (11,471), Shildon and East Thickley +(11,759), Spennymoor (16,665), Tow Law (4371), Willington +(7887).</p> + +<p>4. Durham and Sunderland district (N.E. of preceding)—Hetton +(13,673), Houghton-le-Spring (7858), Seaham Harbour +(10,163), Southwick-on-Wear (12,643). The township of Chester-le-Street +(11,753) is also in this district.</p> + +<p>The only other urban districts are Barnard Castle (4421) in +Teesdale and Stanhope (1964) in Weardale. Durham is in the +north-eastern circuit, and assizes are held at Durham. It has one +court of quarter sessions and is divided into 16 petty sessional +divisions. All the boroughs have separate commissions of the +peace. The ancient county, which is in the diocese of Durham, +excepting part of one parish in that of York, contains 243 ecclesiastical +parishes wholly or in part. There are 288 civil parishes. +The county is divided into eight parliamentary divisions, each +returning one member—Jarrow, Chester-le-Street, Houghton-le-Spring, +Mid, North-west, Barnard Castle, Bishop Auckland, +South-east. It also includes the parliamentary borough of +Sunderland, returning two members, and the boroughs of +Darlington, Durham, Gateshead, Hartlepool, South Shields +and Stockton-on-Tees, returning one member each. Among +educational establishments there may be mentioned the university +and the grammar school in the city of Durham, and the +Roman Catholic college of Ushaw near Durham.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—After the death of Ida in the 6th century the +kingdom of Northumbria was divided into the two states of +Bernicia and Deira, separated from each other by the Tees, the +latter including the district afterwards known as Durham. +The post-conquest palatinate arose by a process of slow growth +from the grant of land made by Egfrith to St Cuthbert on his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +election to the see of Lindisfarne in 684. On the transference of +the see to Chester-le-Street in the 9th century, Guthred the Dane +endowed it with the whole district between the Tyne and the +Wear, stretching west as far as Watling Street, a grant confirmed +by Alfred; and when in 995 the see was finally established +at Durham, the endowment was again largely enriched by +various donations. Durham continued, however, to form part of +the earldom of Northumbria, and not until after the purchase +of the earldom by Bishop Walcher in 1075 did the bishops begin +to exercise regal rights in their territory. The term <i>palatinus</i> +is applied to the bishop in 1293, and from the 13th century onwards +the bishops frequently claim such rights in their lands +as the king enjoys in his kingdom. At the time of the Conquest +the bishop’s possessions included nearly all the district between +the Tees and the Tyne, except Sadberge, and also the outlying +districts of Bedlingtonshire, Norhamshire, Islandshire and Crayke, +together with Hexhamshire, the city of Carlisle, and part of Teviotdale. +Henry I. deprived the bishopric of the last three, but in +compensation made over to it the vills of Burdon, Aycliffe and +Carlton, hitherto included in the earldom of Northumberland. +The wapentake of Sadberge also formed part of the earldom of +Northumberland; it was purchased for the see by Bishop +Pudsey in 1189, but continued an independent franchise, with +a separate sheriff, coroner and court of pleas. In the 14th +century Sadberge was included in Stockton ward and was itself +divided into two wards. The division into the four wards of +Chester-le-Street, Darlington, Easington and Stockton existed +in the 13th century, each ward having its own coroner and a +three-weekly court corresponding to the hundred court. The +diocese was divided into the archdeaconries of Durham and +Northumberland. The former is mentioned in 1072, and in 1291 +included the deaneries of Chester-le-Street, Auckland, Lanchester +and Darlington.</p> + +<p>Until the 15th century the most important administrative +officer in the palatinate was the steward. Other officers were the +sheriff, the coroners, the chamberlain and the chancellor. The +palatine exchequer was organized in the 12th century. The +palatine assembly represented the whole county, and dealt +chiefly with fiscal questions. The bishop’s council, consisting of +the clergy, the sheriff and the barons, regulated the judicial +affairs, and later produced the Chancery and the courts of +Admiralty and Marshalsea. The prior of Durham ranked first +among the bishop’s barons. He had his own court, and almost +exclusive jurisdiction over his men. The <i>quo warranto</i> proceedings +of 1293 exhibit twelve lords enjoying more or less extensive +franchises under the bishop. The repeated efforts of the crown to +check the powers of the palatinate bishops culminated in 1536 in +the Act of Resumption, which deprived the bishop of the power to +pardon offences against the law or to appoint judicial officers; +indictments and legal processes were in future to run in the name +of the king, and offences to be described as against the peace of +the king, not against that of the bishop. In 1596 restrictions +were imposed on the powers of the chancery, and in 1646 the +palatinate was formally abolished. It was revived, however, +after the Restoration, and continued with much the same power +until the act of 1836, which provided that the palatine jurisdiction +should in future be vested in the crown. There were ten +palatinate barons in the 12th century, the most important being +the Hiltons of Hilton Castle, the Bulmers of Brancepeth, the +Conyers of Sockburne, the Hansards of Evenwood, and the +Lumleys of Lumley Castle. The Nevilles owned large estates in +the county; Raby Castle, their principal seat, was built by John +de Neville in 1377. Owing to its isolated position the palatinate +took little part or interest in any of the great rebellions of the +Norman and Plantagenet period. During the Wars of the Roses +Henry VI. passed through Durham, and the novelty of a royal +visit procured him an enthusiastic reception. On the outbreak of +the Great Rebellion Durham inclined to support the cause of the +parliament, and in 1640 the high sheriff of the palatinate +guaranteed to supply the Scottish army with provisions during +their stay in the county. In 1642 the earl of Newcastle formed +the western counties into an association for the king’s service, but +in 1644 the palatinate was again overrun by the Scottish army, +and after the battle of Marston Moor fell entirely into the hands +of the parliament.</p> + +<p>Durham has never possessed any manufactures of importance, +and the economic history of the county centres round the growth +of the mining industry, which employed almost the whole of +the non-agricultural population. Stephen possessed a mine in +Durham which he granted to Bishop Pudsey, and in the same +century colliers are mentioned at Coundon, Bishopwearmouth +and Sedgefield. Cockfield Fell was one of the earliest Landsale +collieries in Durham. Edward III. issued an order allowing coal +dug at Newcastle to be taken across the Tyne, and Richard II. +granted to the inhabitants of Durham licence to export the +produce of the mines, without paying dues to the corporation of +Newcastle. Among other early industries lead-mining was +carried on in the western part of the county, and mustard was +extensively cultivated. Gateshead had a considerable tanning +trade and shipbuilding was carried on at Jarrow.</p> + +<p>In 1614 a bill was introduced in parliament for securing +representation to the county and city of Durham and the borough +of Barnard Castle. The movement was strongly opposed by the +bishop, as an infringement of his palatinate rights, and the +county was first summoned to return members to parliament in +1654. After the Restoration the county and city returned two +members each. By the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned +two members for two divisions, and the boroughs of Gateshead, +South Shields and Sunderland acquired representation. The +boroughs of Darlington, Stockton and Hartlepool returned one +member each from 1868 until the Redistribution Act of 1885.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—To the Anglo-Saxon period are to be referred +portions of the churches of Monk Wearmouth (Sunderland), +Jarrow, Escomb near Bishop Auckland, and numerous sculptured +crosses, two of which are <i>in situ</i> at Aycliffe. The best remains of +the Norman period are to be found in Durham cathedral and in +the castle, also in some few parish churches, as at Pittington and +Norton near Stockton. Of the Early English period are the +eastern portion of the cathedral, the fine churches of Darlington, +Hartlepool, and St Andrew, Auckland, Sedgefield, and portions of +a few other churches. The Decorated and Perpendicular periods +are very scantily represented, on account, as is supposed, of the +incessant wars between England and Scotland in the 14th and +15th centuries. The principal monastic remains, besides those +surrounding Durham cathedral, are those of its subordinate +house or “cell,” Finchale Priory, beautifully situated by the +Wear. The most interesting castles are those of Durham, Raby, +Brancepeth and Barnard. There are ruins of castelets or +peel-towers at Dalden, Ludworth and Langley Dale. The +hospitals of Sherburn, Greatham and Kepyer, founded by early +bishops of Durham, retain but few ancient features.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Hutchinson, <i>History and Antiquities of the County Palatine +of Durham</i> (3 vols., Newcastle, 1785-1794); R. Surtees, <i>History and +Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham</i> (4 vols., London, 1816-1840); +B. Bartlet, <i>The Bishoprick Garland, Collection of Legends, +Songs, Ballads ... of Durham</i> (London, 1834); J. Raine, <i>History +and Antiquities of North Durham</i> (London, 1852); Perry and +Herman, <i>Illustrations of the Medieval Antiquities of the County of +Durham</i> (Oxford, 1867); G.T. Lapsley, <i>The County Palatine of +Durham</i> (New York, &c., 1900); <i>Victoria County History, Durham</i>. +See also the Surtees Society’s Publications, and <i>Transactions of the +Architectural Society of Durham and Northumberland</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURHAM,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> a city and <span class="correction" title="amended from muncipal">municipal</span> and parliamentary borough, +and the county town of Durham, England, 256 m. N. by W. from +London, on the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 14,679. +The nucleus of the site is a narrow, bold peninsula formed by a +bend of the river Wear, on which stand the cathedral and the +castle. The city, however, extends both E. and W. of this.</p> + +<p>The position of the cathedral of St Cuthbert, its west end +rising immediately from the steep wooded bank of the river, is +surpassed in beauty by no other English cathedral. +Its foundation arose from the fact that here, after +<span class="sidenote">Cathedral.</span> +wandering far over the north of England, the monks of Lindisfarne +rested with the body of St Cuthbert, which they had +removed from its tomb in fear of Danish invaders. This was in +995. Soon afterwards a church was built by Bishop Ealdhune, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span> +and the see was removed hither from Lindisfarne. The peninsula +was called Dunholme (Hill Island), which in Norman times was +softened to Duresme, whence Durham. It is said that the +monks of Lindisfarne, knowing the name of the place where they +should find retreat, but ignorant of its situation, were guided +hither by a woman searching for her cow, and the bas-relief of a +cow on the north wall of the church commemorates this incident. +In 1093 Ealdhune’s church was rebuilt by Bishop Carilef, who +changed the early establishment of married priests into a Benedictine +abbey. The grand Norman building in which his designs +were carried out remains with numerous additions. The stone-vaulting +is particularly noteworthy. The choir contains the +earliest work, but Carilef’s eastern apses made way for the +exquisite chapel of the Nine Altars, with its rose windows and +beautiful carving, of late Early English workmanship. The +nave is massive Norman, with round pillars ornamented with +surface-carving of various patterns. The western towers are +Norman with an Early English superstructure. The famous +Galilee chapel, of the finest late Norman work, projects from the +west end. The central tower is a lofty and graceful Perpendicular +structure. Other details especially worthy of notice are the +altar screen of <i>c.</i> 1380, and the curious semi-classical font-cover +of the 17th century. There is a fine sanctuary-knocker on the +north door. The cloisters are of the early part of the 15th +century. The chapter-house is a modern restoration of the +original Norman structure, a very fine example, which was +destroyed by James Wyatt <i>c.</i> 1796, in the course of restoration of +which much was ill-judged. The cathedral library, formerly the +dormitory and refectories of the abbey, contains a number of +curious and interesting printed books and MSS., and the portable +altar, vestments and other relics found in St Cuthbert’s grave. +The Galilee contains the supposed remains of the Venerable +Bede. The total length of the cathedral within is 496½ ft., the +greatest height within (except the lantern) 74½ ft., and the height +of the central tower 218 ft. The diocese of Durham covers the +whole county excepting a small fragment, and also very small +parts of Northumberland and Yorkshire.</p> + +<p>The naturally strong position selected for the resting-place +of St Cuthbert’s remains was possibly artificially fortified also, +but it was not until 1072 that William the Conqueror +caused the erection of a castle to the north of the +<span class="sidenote">Castle.</span> +cathedral across the neck of the peninsula. Of this there remain +a beautiful crypt-chapel, and a few details incorporated in later +work. Other interesting portions are the Norman gallery, +with its fine arcade, Bishop Hatfield’s hall of <i>c.</i> 1350, a reconstruction +of the previous Norman one by Bishop Pudsey, and +the Black Staircase of fine woodwork of the 17th century. The +keep is a modern reconstruction. The castle, with the exception +of some apartments used by the judges of assize, is appropriated +to the uses of Durham University. On the peninsula are also +the churches of St Mary le Bow in the North Bailey and St Mary +the Less, the one a 17th-century building on a very ancient site, +possibly that on which the first church rose over St Cuthbert’s +remains; the other possessing slight traces of Norman work, +but almost completely modernized. Of other churches in +Durham, the site of St Oswald is apparently pre-Norman, and +the building contains Norman work of Bishop Pudsey, also +some fine early 15th-century woodwork. St Margaret’s and +St Giles’ churches show work of the same period, and the second +of these has earlier portions.</p> + +<p>Several of the streets of Durham preserve an appearance of +antiquity. Three of the bridges crossing the Wear are old, that +of Framwellgate having been built in the 13th century and +rebuilt in the 15th. In the neighbourhood of the city certain +sites are of interest as adding detail to its history. To the south +on Maiden Hill there is an encampment, occupied, if not constructed, +by the Romans. Immediately W. of Durham is +Neville’s Cross, of which little remains. The battle of Neville’s +Cross was fought in 1346, resulting in the defeat of the invading +Scots by the English under Lord Neville and Henry Percy. +The Scots had encamped at Beaurepaire or Bearpark, where a +few ruins mark the site of the county residence of the priors of +Durham, which had suffered from previous invaders. On the +Wear below Durham is the priory of Finchale (1196), of which +there are considerable remains of Early English date and later, +but in the main Decorated. The valley of the Wear in the +neighbourhood of Durham is well wooded and picturesque, but +there are numerous collieries on the uplands above it, and the +beauty of the county is marred.</p> + +<p>Among educational establishments in Durham the university +stands first. The earliest connexion of the ecclesiastical foundation +at Durham with an actual educational foundation +was made by Prior Richard de Hoton (1290-1308), +<span class="sidenote">University.</span> +who erected a hall in Oxford for students from Durham, +who had previously enjoyed no such provision. In 1380 Bishop +Hatfield refounded this hall as Durham College, which became +Trinity College (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oxford</a></span>) on a new foundation (1555) when +the possessions of the abbey of Durham had been surrendered +in 1540, after which Durham College survived as a secular +foundation only for a few years. Henry VIII. had the unfulfilled +intention of founding a college in Durham, and a similar +attempt failed in the time of the Commonwealth. In 1831 the +scheme for a college was projected by the chapter; an act of +1832 specified the foundation as a university, and in Michaelmas +1833 its doors were opened. The first warden, and a prime +mover in the scheme of foundation, was Archdeacon Charles +Thorp (d. 1862). In 1837 the university received its charter +from William IV. The dean and chapter of the cathedral are +governors, and the bishop of Durham is visitor, but the active +management is in the hands of the warden, senate and convocation. +The system and life of the university are broadly similar +to those of the greater universities of Oxford and Cambridge. +Proctorial administration is carried on by two proctors annually +nominated by the warden. Among the various residential +divisions of the university may be mentioned Bishop Hatfield’s +Hall (1846), which, through its endowment, by means of such +methods of economy as provision for all meals in common, +permits men of limited means to become students. The degree +for bachelor of arts is awarded after two public examinations, +and may be taken in two years, with a total of six months’ +residence in each year. Special examinations are provided for +candidates who seek honours, and those who obtain honours +are admissible, after a certain period, to the mastership of arts +without further examination, but in other cases further +examination must have been taken, or an essay presented as a +qualification for this degree. A theological course is provided +for bachelors of the university, those who have passed a similar +course elsewhere, or non-graduates aged nineteen who have +passed a certain standard of examination. Instruction in civil +engineering and mining was established as early as 1837, but +was subsequently given up; and in 1871 the university and the +North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers +co-operated to found the college of physical science at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, +which provides such instruction and was incorporated +with the university in 1874. The college of medicine +at Newcastle has been in connexion with Durham University +since 1852, and the professors there are professors of the university. +In 1895 degrees for women were established, and in 1889 +a hostel was opened for the <span class="correction" title="amended from accomodation">accommodation</span> of women, who may +take any course of instruction except the theological. In 1889 +musical degrees were instituted, and a professorship was founded +in 1897. Among other subjects may be mentioned the granting +of <span class="correction" title="amended from degress">degrees</span> in hygiene, and of diplomas in public health and +education (see J.T. Fowler, <i>Durham University</i>, uniform with +series of College Histories; London, 1904).</p> + +<p>The grammar school was refounded by Henry VIII. out of the +monastic school. It is a flourishing institution on the lines of +the public schools, and has “king’s scholarships” tenable in +the school, and scholarships and exhibitions tenable at the +universities. There are also a diocesan training college for schoolmasters +and mistresses, and a high school for girls; and 4 m. +W. of the city is the great Roman Catholic College of St Cuthbert, +Ushaw, the representative of the old college at Douai. Here are +preserved the magnificent natural history collections of Charles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +Waterton. Other buildings worthy of notice in Durham are +the town-hall, a 16th-century building reconstructed in 1851, +the police station, and the guildhall, the shire hall and county +buildings, and the county hospital. There are ironworks and +manufactures of hosiery, carpets and mustard in the city. The +parliamentary borough returns one member. The corporation consists +of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1070 acres.</p> + +<p><i>History of the City.</i>—The foundation of the city followed on +that of the church by the monks of Lindisfarne at the close of +the 10th century. The history of the city is closely associated +with that of the palatinate of Durham. The bishop of Durham +among other privileges claimed a mint in the city, which, according +to Boldon Book, rendered ten marks yearly until its value +was reduced by that established by Henry II. at Newcastle, +and it was temporarily abolished by the same king. The earliest +charter, dated 1179 or 1180, is a grant of exemption from toll +merchet and heriot made by Bishop Hugh Pudsey and confirmed +by Pope Alexander. Before that time, however, the monks had a +little borough at Elvet, which is divided from Durham by the +Wear and afterwards became part of the city. In 1183 the city +was at farm and rendered sixty marks. It was at first governed +by a bailiff appointed by the bishop, but in 1565 Bishop Pilkington +ordained that the government should consist, in addition to +the bailiff, of one alderman and twelve assistants, the latter to +continue in office for life, and the former to be chosen every year +from among their number. This form of government was replaced +in 1602, under the charter of Bishop Matthew, by that of +a mayor, 12 aldermen and 24 burgesses, the aldermen and burgesses +forming a common council and electing a mayor every +year from among the aldermen. This was confirmed by James I., +but in 1684 the corporation were obliged to resign their charters +to Bishop Crew, who granted them a new one, probably reserving +to himself a right of veto on the election of the mayor and aldermen. +At the time of the Revolution, however, Bishop Matthew’s +charter was revived, and continued to be the governing charter of +the city until 1770, when, owing to dissensions as to the election +of the common council, the number of aldermen was reduced to +four and the charter became void. No mayor or aldermen were +elected for ten years, but in 1780 Bishop Egerton, on the petition +of the burgesses, granted them a new charter, which was practically +a confirmation of that of 1602, and remained in force until the +Municipal Reform Act of 1835. Being within the county +palatine, the city of Durham sent no members to parliament, +until, after several attempts beginning in 1614, it was enabled +by an act of 1673 to return two members, which it continued to +do until 1885, when by the Redistribution of Seats Act the +number was reduced to one.</p> + +<p>The corporation of Durham claim their fair and market rights +under Bishop Pudsey’s charter of 1179, confirmed in 1565, as +a weekly market on Saturday and three yearly fairs on the feasts +of St Cuthbert in September and March and on Whit Monday, +each continuing for two days. In 1610 the bishop of Durham +brought a suit in chancery against the burgesses and recovered +from them the markets and fairs, which he afterwards leased to +the corporation for a rent of £20 yearly until they were purchased +from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 1860. Durham +has never been noted for any particular trade; and the attempts +to introduce the manufacture of cloth and wool in the 17th and +18th centuries were failures. The manufacture of carpets was +begun in 1814.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURHAM,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Durham county, +North Carolina, U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 25 m. +N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1900) 6679, of whom 2241 were negroes; +(1910) 18,241; of the township (1900) 19,055; (1910) 27,606. +Adjacent to the city and also in the township are East Durham +and West Durham (both unincorporated), which industrially +are virtually part of the city. Durham is served by the Southern, +the Seaboard Air Line, the Norfolk & Western, and the Durham +& Southern railways, the last a short line connecting at Apex +and Dunn, N.C., respectively with the main line of the Seaboard +and the Atlantic Coast Line railways. Durham is nearly +surrounded by hills. Its streets are shaded by elms. The city +is the seat of Trinity College (Methodist Episcopal, South), +opened in 1851 as a normal college, growing out of an academy +called Union Institute, which was established in the north-western +part of Randolph county in 1838 and was incorporated +in 1841. In 1852 the college was empowered to grant degrees; +in 1856 it became the property of the North Carolina Conference +of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South; in 1859 it received +its present name; and in 1892 it was removed to a park near +Durham, included in 1901 in the corporate limits of the city. +A new charter was adopted in 1903, and a law school was organized +in 1904. The college has received many gifts from the Duke +family of Durham. In 1908 its endowment and property were +valued at about $1,198,400, and the number of its students was +288. Although not officially connected with the college, the +<i>South Atlantic Quarterly</i>, founded by a patriotic society of the +college and published at Durham since 1902, is controlled and +edited by members of the college faculty. The <i>North Carolina +Journal of Education</i> and the <i>Papers of the Trinity College +Historical Society</i> also are edited by members of the college +faculty. The Trinity Park school is preparatory for the college. +Near the city are Watts hospital (for whites) and Lincoln hospital +(for negroes). Durham’s chief economic interest is in the manufacture +of granulated smoking tobacco, for which it became +noted after the Civil War. In the city are two large factories +and store houses of the American Tobacco Company. The +tobacco industry was founded by W.T. Blackwell (1839-1904) +and Washington Duke (1820-1905). The city also manufactures +cigars, cigarettes, snuff, a fertilizer having tobacco dust as the +base, cotton goods, lumber, window sashes, blinds, drugs and +hosiery. Durham has a large trade with the surrounding region. +The town of Durham was incorporated in 1869, and became +the county-seat of the newly-erected county in 1881, and in 1899 +was chartered as a city. Its growth is due to the tobacco and +cotton industries. In the Bennett house, at Durham Station, +near the city, General J.E. Johnston surrendered on the 26th +of April 1865 the Confederate army under his command to +General W.T. Sherman.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURIAN<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (Malay, <i>duri</i>, a thorn), the fruit of <i>Durio zibethinus</i>, +a tree of the natural order Bombaceae, which attains a height +of 70 or 80 ft., has oblong, tapering leaves, rounded at the base, +and yellowish-green flowers, and bears a general resemblance to +the elm. The durio is cultivated in Sumatra, Java, Celebes +and the Moluccas, and northwards as far as Mindanao in the +Philippines; also in the Malay Peninsula, in Tenasserim, on the +Bay of Bengal, to 14° N. lat., and in Siam to the 13th and 14th +parallels. The fruit is spherical, and 6 to 8 in. in diameter, +approaching the size of a large coco-nut; it has a hard external +husk or shell, and is completely armed with strong pyramidal +tubercles, meeting one another at the base, and terminating +in sharp thorny points; these sometimes inflict severe injuries +on persons upon whom the fruit may chance to fall when ripe. +On dividing the fruit at the joins of the carpels, where the spines +arch a little, it is found to contain five oval cells, each filled with +a cream-coloured, glutinous, smooth pulp, in which are embedded +from one to five seeds about the size of chestnuts. The +pulp and the seeds, which latter are eaten roasted, are the edible +parts of the fruit. With regard to the taste of the pulp, A.R. +Wallace remarks, “A rich butter-like custard, highly flavoured +with almonds, gives the best idea of it, but intermingled with it +come wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, +brown sherry and other incongruities;... it is neither acid, +nor sweet, nor juicy, yet one feels the want of none of these +qualities, for it is perfect as it is.” The fruit, especially when not +fresh from the tree, has, notwithstanding, a most offensive smell, +which has been compared to that of rotten onions or of putrid +animal matter. The Dyaks of the Sarawak river in Borneo +esteem the durian above all other fruit, eat it unripe both +cooked and raw, and salt the pulp for use as a relish with rice.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Linschoten, <i>Discours of Voyages</i>, bk. i. chap. 57, p. 102, +fol. (London, 1598); Bickmore, <i>Travels in the East Indian Archipelago</i>, +p. 91 (1868); Wallace, <i>The Malay Archipelago</i> (3rd ed., +1872).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURIS,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> of Samos, Greek historian, according to his own +account a descendant of Alcibiades, was born about 340 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +He must have been born and passed his early years in exile, +since from 352 to 324 Samos was occupied by Athenian cleruchs, +who had expelled the original inhabitants. He was a pupil of +Theophrastus of Eresus, whom he met at Athens. When quite +young, he obtained a prize for boxing at the Olympic games; +a statue by Hippias was set up in commemoration of his victory +(Pausanias vi. 13. 5). He was for some time despot of his native +island. Duris was the author of a comprehensive historical +work (<span class="grk" title="Historiai">Ἱστορίαι</span>) on Hellenico-Macedonian history, from the +battle of Leuctra (371) down to the death of Lysimachus +(281), which was largely used by Diodorus Siculus. Other works +by him included a life of Agathocles of Syracuse, the annals +(<span class="grk" title="ôroi">ῶροι</span>) of Samos chronologically arranged according to the lists +of the priests of Hera, and a number of treatises on literary and +artistic subjects. Ancient authorities do not appear to have +held a very high opinion of his merits as a historian. Plutarch +(<i>Pericles</i>, 28) expresses doubt as to his trustworthiness, Dionysius +of Halicarnassus (<i>De compos. verborum</i>, 4) speaks disparagingly +of his style, and Photius (<i>cod.</i> 176) regards the arrangement of +his work as altogether faulty. Cicero (<i>ad Att.</i> vi. 1) accords +him qualified praise as an industrious writer.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in C.W. Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i> ii. 446, where +the passage of Pausanias referred to above and the date of Duris’s +victory at Olympia are discussed.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜRKHEIM,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, +near the foot of the Hardt Mountains, and at the entrance of +the valley of the Isenach, 15 m. N.W. of Spires on the railway +Monsheim-Neustadt. Pop. 6300. It possesses two Evangelical +churches and one Roman Catholic, a town hall occupying the +site of the castle of the princes of Leiningen-Hartenburg, an +antiquarian and a scientific society, a public library and a high +school. It is well known as a health resort, for the grape cure +and for the baths of the brine springs of Philippshalle, in the +neighbourhood, which not only supply the bathing establishment, +but produce considerable quantities of marketable salt. There +is a brisk trade in wine and oil; tobacco, glass and paper are +manufactured.</p> + +<p>As a dependency of the Benedictine abbey of Limburg, which +was built and endowed by Conrad II., Dürkheim or Thurnigheim +came into the possession of the counts of Leiningen, who in the +14th century made it the seat of a fortress, and enclosed it with +wall and ditch. In the three following centuries it had its full +share of the military vicissitudes of the Palatinate; but it was +rebuilt after the French invasion of 1689, and greatly fostered +by its counts in the beginning of next century. In 1794 its new +castle was sacked by the French, and in 1849 it was the scene of +a contest between the Prussians and the insurrectionists. The +ruins of the Benedictine abbey of Limburg lie about 1 m. S.W. +of the town; and in the neighbourhood rises the Kastanienberg, +with the ancient rude stone fortification of the Heidenmauer or +Heathen’s Wall.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURLACH,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, +2½ m. by rail from Carlsruhe, with which it is connected by a +canal and an avenue of poplars, on the left bank of the Pfinz, at +the foot of the vineyard-covered Thurmberg, which is crowned +by a watch-tower and to the summit of which a funicular railway +ascends. Pop. (1905) 6207. It possesses a castle erected in +1565 and now used as barracks, an ancient town hall, a church +with an excellent organ, a high-grade school, an orphan asylum, +and in the market-place a statue of the margrave Charles II. +It has manufactures of sewing-machines, brushes, chemicals, +tobacco, beer, vinegar and chicory; and considerable trade in +market produce.</p> + +<p>Durlach was bestowed by the emperor Frederick II. on the +margrave Hermann V. of Zähringen as an allodial possession, +but afterwards came into the hands of Rudolph of Habsburg. +It was chosen as his residence by the margrave Charles II. in 1565, +and retained this distinction till the foundation of Carlsruhe +in 1715, though it was almost totally destroyed by the French +in 1688. In 1846 it was the seat of a congress of the Liberal +party of the Baden parliament; and in 1849 it was the scene +of an encounter between the Prussians and the insurgents. +Reichenbach the mechanician, and E.L. Posselt (1763-1804) +the historian, were natives of the town.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fecht, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Durlach</i> (Heidelberg, 1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUROC, GÉRAUD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> duc de Frioul +(1772-1813), French general, was born at Pont à Mousson +(Meurthe et Moselle) on the 25th of October 1772. The son of +an officer, he was educated at the military schools of his native +town and of Châlons. He was gazetted second lieutenant +(artillery) in the 4th regiment in 1793, and advanced steadily +in the service. Captain Duroc became aide-de-camp to Napoleon +in 1796, and distinguished himself at Isonzo, Brenta and Gradisca +in the Italian campaigns of 1796-97. He served in Egypt, and +was seriously wounded at Aboukir. His devotion to Napoleon +was rewarded by complete confidence. He became first aide-de-camp +(1798), general of brigade (1800), and governor of the +Tuileries. After the battle of Marengo he was sent on missions +to Vienna, St Petersburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen. As grand +marshal of the Tuileries he was responsible for the measures +taken to secure Napoleon’s personal safety whether in France +or on his campaigns, and he directed the minutest details of the +imperial household. After Austerlitz, where he commanded +the grenadiers in the absence of General Oudinot, he was employed +in a series of important negotiations with Frederick +William of Prussia, with the elector of Saxony (December 1806), +in the incorporation of certain states in the Confederation of +the Rhine, and in the conclusion of the armistice of Znaim +(July 1808). In 1808 he was created duke of Friuli, and after +the Russian campaign he became senator (1813). He was in +attendance on Napoleon at the battle of Bautzen (20th-21st May +1813) in Saxony, when he was mortally wounded, and died in a +farmhouse near the battlefield on the 23rd of May. Napoleon +bought the farm and erected a monument to his memory. Duroc +was buried in the Invalides.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief source for Duroc’s biography is the <i>Moniteur</i> (31st of +May 1797, 24th of October 1798, 30th of May 1813, &c.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUROCHER, JOSEPH MARIE ELISABETH<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1817-1858), +French geologist, was born at Rennes on the 31st of May 1817. +Educated at the École Polytechnique and École des Mines in +Paris, he qualified as a mining engineer. Early in his career he +travelled in the northern parts of Europe to study the metalliferous +deposits, and he contributed the articles on geology, +mineralogy, metallurgy and chemistry to Paul Gaimard’s +<i>Voyages de la Commission scientifique du nord, en Scandinavie, +en Laponie, au Spitzberg et aux Feröe, pendant les années 1838-1840</i>. +In 1844 he became professor of geology and mineralogy +at Rennes. His attention was now largely directed to the study +of the artificial production of minerals, to the metamorphism of +rocks, and to the genesis of igneous rocks. In 1857 he published +his famous <i>Essai de pétrologie comparée</i>, in which he expressed +the view that the igneous rocks have been derived from two +magmas which coexist beneath the solid crust, and are respectively +acid and basic. He died at Rennes on the 3rd of December +1858.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURRA<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (also written <i>dourah</i>, <i>dhura</i>, &c.; Arabic for a pearl, +hence a grain of corn), a cereal grass, <i>Sorghum vulgare</i>, extensively +cultivated in tropical and semi-tropical countries, where the grain, +made into bread, forms an important article of diet. In non-Arabic-speaking +countries it is known by other names, such as +Indian or African millet, pearl millet, Guinea corn and Kaffir corn. +In India it is called jowari, jowaree, jawari, &c. (Hindī, +<i>jawārī</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DURUY, JEAN VICTOR<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1811-1894), French historian and +statesman, was born in Paris on the 11th of September 1811. +The son of a workman at the factory of the Gobelins, he was at +first intended for his father’s trade, but succeeded in passing +brilliantly through the École Normale Supérieure, where he +studied under Michelet, whom he accompanied as secretary in his +travels through France, supplying for him at the École Normale +in 1836, when only twenty-four. Ill-health forced him to resign, +and poverty drove him to undertake that extensive series of +school textbooks which first brought him into public notice. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span> +He devoted himself with ardour to secondary school education, +holding his chair in the Collège Henri IV. at Paris for over a +quarter of a century. Already known as a historian by his +<i>Histoire des Romains et des peuples soumis à leur domination</i> (2 +vols., 1843-1844), he was chosen by Napoleon III. to assist him in +his life of Julius Caesar, and his abilities being thus brought under +the emperor’s notice, he was in 1863 appointed minister of +education. In this position he displayed incessant activity, and +a desire for broad and liberal reform which aroused the bitter +hostility of the clerical party. Among his measures may be +cited his organization of higher education (“enseignement +spécial”), his foundation of the “conférences publiques,” which +have now become universal throughout France, and of a course of +secondary education for girls by lay teachers, and his introduction +of modern history and modern languages into the curriculum +both of the <i>lycées</i> and of the colleges. He greatly improved the +state of primary education in France, and proposed to make it +compulsory and gratuitous, but was not supported in this project +by the emperor. In the new cabinet that followed the elections +of 1869, Duruy was replaced by Louis Olivier Bourbeau, and was +made a senator. After the fall of the Empire he took no part in +politics, except for an unsuccessful candidature for the senate in +1876. From 1881 to 1886 he served as a member of the Conseil +Supérieur de l’Instruction Publique. In 1884 he was elected to +the Academy in succession to Mignet. He died in Paris on the +25th of November 1894.</p> + +<p>As a historian Duruy aimed in his earlier works at a graphic +and picturesque narrative which should make his subject popular. +His fame, however, rests mainly on the revised edition of his +Roman history, which appeared in a greatly enlarged form in +7 vols. under the title of <i>Histoire des Romains depuis les temps les +plus reculés jusqu’à la mort de Théodose</i> (1879-1885), a really +great work; a magnificent illustrated edition was published +from 1879 to 1885 (English translation by W.J. Clarke, in 6 +vols., 1883-1886). His <i>Histoire des Grecs</i>, similarly illustrated, +appeared in 3 vols. from 1886 to 1891 (English translation in +4 vols., 1892). He was the editor, from its commencement in 1846, +of the <i>Histoire universelle, publiée par une société de professeurs +et de savants</i>, for which he himself wrote a “Histoire sainte +d’après la Bible,” “Histoire grecque,” “Histoire romaine,” +“Histoire du moyen âge,” “Histoire des temps modernes,” and +“Abrégé de l’histoire de France.” His other works include +<i>Atlas historique de la France accompagné d’un volume de texte</i> +(1849); <i>Histoire de France de 1453 à 1815</i> (1856), of which an +expanded and illustrated edition appeared as <i>Histoire de France +depuis l’invasion des barbares dans la Gaule romaine jusqu’à nos +jours</i> (1892); <i>Histoire populaire de la France</i> (1862-1863); +<i>Histoire populaire contemporaine de la France</i> (1864-1866); +<i>Causeries de voyage</i> (1864); and <i>Introduction générale à l’histoire +de France</i> (1865).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A memoir by Ernest Lavisse appeared in 1895 under the title of +Un Ministre: <i>Victor Duruy</i>. See also the notice by Jules Simon +(1895), and <i>Portraits et souvenirs</i> by S. Monod (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU RYER, PIERRE<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1606-1658), French dramatist, was born +in Paris in 1606. His earlier comedies are in the loose style of +Alexandre Hardy, but after the production of the <i>Cid</i> (1636) he +copied the manner of Corneille, and produced his masterpiece +<i>Scévole</i>, probably in 1644 (the date generally given is 1646). +<i>Alcionée</i> (1638) was so popular that the abbé d’Aubignac knew it +by heart, and Queen Christina is said to have had it read to her +three times in one day. Du Ryer was a prolific dramatist. +Among his other works may be mentioned <i>Saül</i> (printed 1642), +and a comedy, <i>Les Vendanges de Suresnes</i> (1635 or 1636). He +died in Paris on the 6th of November 1658.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUSE, ELEANORA<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (1859-  ), Italian actress, was born at +Vigevano of a family of actors, and made her first stage appearance +at a very early age. The hardships incident to touring with +travelling companies unfavourably affected her health, but by +1885 she was recognized at home as Italy’s greatest actress, and +this verdict was confirmed by that of all the leading cities of +Europe and America. In 1893 she made her first appearances +in New York and in London. For some years she was closely +associated with the romanticist Gabriele d’Annunzio, and +several of his plays, notably <i>La Città morta</i> (1898) and <i>Francesca +da Rimini</i> (1901), provided her with important parts. But some +of her great successes during the ’eighties and early ’nineties—the +days of her chief triumphs—were in Italian versions of such +plays as <i>La Dame aux camélias</i>, in which Sarah Bernhardt was +already famous; and Madame Duse’s reputation as an actress +was founded less on her “creations” than on her magnificent +individuality. In contrast to the great French actress she +avoided all “make-up”; her art depended on intense naturalness +rather than stage effect, sympathetic force and poignant +intellectuality rather than the theatrical emotionalism of the +French tradition. Her dramatic genius gave a new reading to +the parts, and during these years the admirers of the two leading +actresses of Europe practically constituted two rival schools of +appreciation. Ill-health kept Madame Duse off the stage for +some time; but though, after 1900, it was no longer possible for +her to avoid “make-up,” her rank among the great actresses of +history remained indisputable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also a biography by L. Rasi (1901); A. Symons, <i>Studies in +Seven Arts</i> (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (1761-1812), Bohemian pianist +and composer, was born at Czaslau, in Bohemia, on the 9th of +February 1761. His father, Johann Joseph Dussek, a musician +of high reputation, was organist and choir-master in the collegiate +church of Czaslau, and several other members of the family were +distinguished as organists. Under the careful instruction of his +father he made such rapid progress that he appeared in public as +a pianist at the age of six. A year or two later he was placed +as a choir boy at the convent of Iglau, and he obtained his first +instruction in counterpoint from Spenar, the choir-master. +When his voice broke he entered on a course of general study, +first at the Jesuits’ college, and then at the university of Prague, +where he took his bachelor’s degree in philosophy. During his +curriculum of two and a half years he had paid unremitting +attention to the practice and study of his art, and had received +further instruction in composition from a Benedictine monk. +In 1779 he was for a short time organist in the church of St +Rombaut at Mechlin. At the close of his engagement he proceeded +to Holland, where he attained great distinction as a +pianist, and was employed by the stadtholder as musical instructor +to his family. While at the Hague he published his first +works, several sonatas and concertos for the piano. He had +already composed at the age of thirteen a solemn mass and +several small oratorios. In 1783 he visited Hamburg, and placed +himself under the instruction of Philip Emmanuel Bach. After +spending two years in Lithuania in the service of Prince Radziwill, +he went in 1786 to Paris, where he remained, with the exception +of a short period spent at Milan, until the outbreak of the +Revolution, enjoying the special patronage of Marie Antoinette +and great popularity with the public. In Milan he appeared +not only as a pianist but also as a player of the harmonica, an +instrument which was much sought after on account of its +novelty in those days. Towards the close of 1789 he removed +to London, where on the 2nd of March 1790 he appeared at +Salomon’s concerts, and he married a daughter of Dominico Corri, +herself a clever harpist and pianist. Unfortunately he was +tempted by the large sale of his numerous compositions to open a +music-publishing warehouse in partnership with Montague Corri, +a relative of his wife. The result was injurious to his fame and +disastrous to his fortune. Writing solely for the sake of sale, +he composed many pieces that were quite unworthy of his genius; +and, as he was entirely destitute of business capacity, bankruptcy +was inevitable. In 1800 he was obliged to flee to Hamburg to +escape the claims of his creditors. Some years later he was +attached in the capacity of musician to the household of Prince +Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, with whom he formed an intimate +friendship. On the death of his patron in 1806 he passed into the +service of the prince of Isenburg as court musician. In 1809 he +went to Paris to fill a similar situation in the household of Prince +Talleyrand, which he held until his death on the 20th of March +1812.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span></p> + +<p>Dussek had an important influence on the development of +pianoforte music. As a performer he was distinguished by the +purity of his tone, the combined power and delicacy of his touch, +and the facility of his execution. His sonatas, known as <i>The +Invocation</i>, <i>The Farewell</i> and <i>The Harmonic Elegy</i>, though not +equally sustained throughout, contain movements that have +scarcely been surpassed for solemnity and beauty of idea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Alexander W. Thayer’s articles in Dwight’s <i>Journal of +Music</i> (Boston, 1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÜSSELDORF,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine +province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. by rail N. by W. +from Cologne. Pop. (1885) 115,190; (1895) 175,985; (1905) +252,630. Düsseldorf is one of the handsomest cities of western +Germany. Its situation on the great mid-European waterway +and as the junction of several main lines of railway has +largely favoured its rapid growth and industrial development. +It is the principal banking centre of the Westphalian coal and +iron trade, and the favourite residence of the leading merchants +of the lower Rhine.</p> + +<p>The city consists of five main portions—the Altstadt, the original +town with narrow, irregular streets; the Karlstadt, dating from +1787 and so called after the electoral prince Charles Theodore; +the Neustadt, laid out between 1690 and 1716; and the Friedrichstadt +and the Königstadt, of recent formation. In addition, +the former villages of Pempelfort, Oberbilk, Unterbilk, Flingern +and Derendorf have been incorporated and form the outer suburbs +of the town proper. On the south side the town has been +completely metamorphosed by the removal of the Köln-Mindner +and Bergisch-Maerkisch stations to a central station lying to +the east. The site thus gained was converted into new +boulevards, while the railway to Neuss and Aix-la-Chapelle +was diverted through the suburb of Bilk and thence across +the Rhine by an iron bridge. A road bridge (completed 1898, +2087 ft. long), replacing the old bridge of boats, carries the +electric tram-line to Crefeld. The town, with the exception of +the Altstadt, is regularly built, but within its area are numerous +open grounds and public squares, which prevent the regularity +of its plan degenerating into monotony: the market-place, with +the colossal bronze statue of the elector John William, the parade, +the Allee Strasse, the Königs Allee, and the Königs Platz may +be specially mentioned. Of the thirty-seven churches, of which +twenty-six are Roman Catholic, the most noticeable are:—St +Andrew’s, formerly the Jesuit and court church, with frescoes +by J. Hübner (1806-1882), E. Deger (1809-1885), and H. Mücke +(1806-1891), and the embalmed bodies of several Rhenish electors; +St Lambert’s, with a tower 180 ft. high and containing a monument +to Duke William (d. 1592); Maximilians, with frescoes by +J.A.N. Settegast (1813-1890); the Romanesque St Martin’s, +and the new Gothic church of St Mary. Besides the old ducal +palace, laid in ruins by the French in 1794, but restored in 1846, +the secular buildings comprise the government offices, the post-office +in Italian style, the town hall on the market square, the +law courts, the municipal music hall, the municipal theatre, +the assembly hall of the Rhenish provincial diet, an Italian +Renaissance edifice erected in 1879, the academy of art (1881; +in pure Renaissance), the industrial art museum (1896), the historical +museum, and the industrial art school. The town also +possesses a library of 50,000 volumes, several high-grade schools, +and is the seat of a great number of commercial and intellectual +associations; but to nothing is it more indebted for its celebrity +than to the Academy of Painting. This famous institution, +originally founded by the elector Charles Theodore in 1767, was reorganized +by King Frederick William III. in 1822, and has since +attained a high degree of prosperity as a centre of artistic culture. +From 1822 till 1826 it was under the direction of Cornelius, +a native of the town, from 1826 to 1859 under Schadow, and +from 1859 to 1864 under E. Bendemann (1811-1889). From +Bendemann’s resignation it continued in the hands of a body +of curators till 1873, when Hermann Wislicenus (1825-1899) of +Weimar was chosen director. The noble collection of paintings +which formerly adorned the Düsseldorf gallery was removed +to Munich in 1805, and has not since been restored; but there +is no lack of artistic treasures in the town. The academy +possesses 14,000 original drawings and sketches by the great +masters, 24,000 engravings, and 248 water-colour copies of Italian +originals; the municipal gallery contains valuable specimens +of the local school; and the same is the case with the Schulte +collection. The principal names are Cornelius, Lessing, the +brothers Andreas and Oswald Achenbach, A. Baur (b. 1835), +A. Tidemand (1814-1876), and L. Knaus (b. 1829). An annual +exhibition is held under the auspices of the Art Union; and the +members of the Artists’ Society, or <i>Malkasten</i>, as they are called, +have annual festivals and masquerades.</p> + +<p>The town is embellished with many handsome monuments—notably +a bronze statue of Cornelius, by A. Donndorf (b. 1835), +an equestrian statue of the emperor William I. (1896), and a +large bronze group in front of the assembly hall of the diet, +representing the river Rhine and its chief tributaries. In the +suburb of Bilk there are the Floragarten and Volksgarten, the +astronomical observatory and the harbour. Extensive quays +afford accommodation for vessels of deep draught, and the trade +with the Dutch cities and with London has been thereby greatly +enhanced. Within recent years Düsseldorf has made remarkable +progress as an industrial centre. The first place is occupied by +the iron industries, embracing foundries, furnaces, engineering +and machine shops, &c. Next come cotton spinning and weaving, +calico printing, yarn-spinning, dyeing and similar textile branches, +besides a variety of other industries.</p> + +<p>A little to the north of the town lies the village of Düsselthal, +with Count von der Recke-Volmerstein’s establishment for +homeless children in the former Trappist monastery, and in the +suburb of Pempelfort is the <i>Jägerhof</i>, the residence at one time +of Prince Frederick of Prussia, and afterwards of the prince of +Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.</p> + +<p>Düsseldorf, as the form of the name—the village on the Düssel—clearly +indicates, was long a place of small consideration. In +1288 it was raised to the rank of a town by Count Adolf of Berg; +from his successors it obtained various privileges, and in 1385 was +chosen as their residence. After it had suffered greatly in the +Thirty Years’ War and the War of the Spanish Succession, it +recovered its prosperity under the patronage of the electoral +prince John William of the Palatinate, who dwelt in the castle +for many years before his death in 1716. In 1795 the town, after +a violent bombardment, was surrendered to the French; and +after the peace of Lunéville it was deprived of its fortifications. +In 1805 it became the capital of the Napoleonic duchy of Berg; +and in 1815 it passed with the duchy into Prussian possession. +Among its celebrities are Johann Georg and Friedrich Heinrich +Jacobi, Heinrich Heine, Varnhagen von Ense, Peter von Cornelius, +Wilhelm Camphausen and Heinrich von Sybel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Ferber, <i>Historische Wanderung durch die alte Stadt Düsseldorf</i> +(Düsseldorf, 1889-1890); Brandt, <i>Studien zur Wirtschafts- und Ver-waltungsgeschichte +der Stadt Düsseldorf</i> (Düsseldorf, 1902); and local +<i>Guide</i> by Bone.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUSSERAH,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dasara</span>, a Hindu new-moon festival (sometimes +called Maha-navami), held in October, and specially +connected with ancestral worship. In the native states, such +as Mysore, the rajas give public entertainments lasting for ten +days, and especially invite European officials to the festivities, +which include horse-racing, athletic contests, and banquets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.A. Dubois, <i>Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies</i>, p. 577.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUST,<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> earth or other matter reduced to fine dry and powdery +particles; the word is Teutonic and appears in such various +forms as the Dutch <i>duist</i>, Danish <i>dyst</i>, for the dust of flour or +meal, and in the older forms <i>donst</i>; the modern German <i>Dunst</i>, +vapour, probably preserves the original form and meaning, +that of something which can be blown about by the wind.</p> + +<p><i>Atmospheric Dust.</i>—The presence of dust in the atmosphere +has probably been known from the earliest ages, as prehistoric +man must have had plenty of opportunities of noticing it lighting +up the paths of sunbeams that penetrated his dark caves, yet it +is only of recent years that it has become the subject of scientific +observation. Formerly it was considered as simply matter in +the wrong place, the presence of which had to be tolerated, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +was supposed to serve no useful purpose in nature. It was not +till the year 1880 that atmospheric dust came under scientific +investigation, when it soon became evident that it played a +most important part in nature, and that instead of being a +nuisance to be got rid of, it added much to the comforts and +pleasures of life.</p> + +<p>The atmosphere is composed of a number of gases which have +a nearly constant proportion to each other, and of varying +proportions of water vapour. This vapour, constantly rising +from land and sea, mixes with the gases in the atmosphere and +so long as it remains vapour is invisible, but when it becomes +cooled by the actual processes in nature the vapour tends to +condense to the liquid condition and form cloud particles. +Before 1880 it had always been assumed that when this condensation +took place, the vapour molecules simply combined with +each other to form the little globules of water, but J. Aitken +showed that vapour molecules in the atmosphere do not combine +with each other, that before condensation can take place there +must be some solid or liquid nucleus on which the vapour molecules +can combine, and that the dust in the atmosphere forms +the nuclei on which the water-vapour molecules condense. +Every cloud particle being grown round a dust nucleus thus +has a dust particle in it. The presence of dust in the atmosphere +allows the condensation of the vapour to take place whenever +the air is cooled to the saturation point, and if there were no +dust present the condensation would not take place till the air +was cooled far below that point, and become highly supersaturated; +and when it did take place the condensation would +be violent and result in heavy rain-drops without the formation +of what we know as cloud. This might be in some ways an +advantage, but living in such supersaturated air would have +many disadvantages. The supersaturated air having no dust +to condense on would condense on our clothes, the inside and +outside walls of our dwellings, and on every solid and liquid +surface with which it came in contact.</p> + +<p>Many of the dust particles in the atmosphere which form the +nuclei of condensation are extremely minute, so small as to be +beyond the powers of the microscope, and at first sight it might +appear to be impossible to get any reliable information as to +their numbers. But Aitken, having shown that water vapour +must have a nucleus to condense on, saw that this placed in our +hands the means of counting the dust particles in our atmosphere, +and in 1888 showed how it could be done. As water vapour +in the air condenses on the dust particles present and forms +cloud particles, he showed that all that would be necessary +would be to cause the dust particles to become centres of condensation, +when they would be so increased in size as to come +within the range of an ordinary magnifying lens, and that by +counting the cloud particles it would be possible to determine +the number of dust particles. To carry out this idea the air +under examination was placed in an air-tight receiver and +saturated with water vapour. It was then expanded by an air-pump, +and in this way cooled and condensation produced. The +cloud particles so formed were allowed to fall on a micrometer +and their number counted by the aid of an ordinary short-focussed +lens. Certain precautions are necessary in carrying +out this process. There must not be more than 500 particles +per cubic centimetre of air, or all the particles will not form +nuclei, and will not therefore be thrown down as cloud particles. +When the number in the air tested exceeds that figure, the dusty +air must be mixed with such a quantity of dustless air as will +reduce the number below 500 per c.c., and the correct number +in the air tested is obtained by allowing for the proportion of +dustless air to dusty air, and for the expansion necessary for +cooling.</p> + +<p>Thousands of tests of the atmospheric dust have been made +with this instrument at many places over the world, and in no +part of it has dustless air been found; indeed it is very rare to +find air with less than 100 particles per c.c., whilst in most +country places the numbers rise to thousands, and in cities such +as London and Paris the number may be as high as 100,000 to +150,000 per c.c.</p> + +<p>The sources of dust particles in the atmosphere are numerous. +In nature volcanoes supply a large quantity, and the meteoric +matter constantly falling towards the earth and becoming +dissipated by the intense heat produced by the friction of the +atmosphere keep up a constant supply. Large quantities of dust +are also raised from the surface of the earth by strong winds, from +dusty roads and dry soil, and there is good reason for supposing +that large quantities of sand are carried from the deserts by the +wind and transported great distances, the sand, for instance, +from the desert of Africa being carried to Europe. It is, however, +to artificial causes that most of the dust is due. The burning of +coal is the principal source of these, not only when the coal is +burned with the production of smoke, but also when smokeless, +and even when the coal is first converted into gas and burned in +the most perfect forms of combustion. It results from this that +while in the air over the uninhabited parts of the earth and over +the ocean the number of particles is small, being principally +produced by natural causes or carried from distant lands, they are +much more numerous in inhabited areas, especially in those +where much coal is burned. It is evident that if there were not +some purifying process in nature there would be a tendency for +the dust particles to increase in numbers, because though some +dust particles may fall out of the air, many of them are so small +they have but little tendency to settle, but by becoming centres +of cloud particles they are carried downwards to the earth, and, +further, these when showering down as rain tend to wash the others +out of the atmosphere. We may therefore look on all uninhabited +areas of the earth as purifying areas, and their purifying +power seems to depend partly on their extent, but principally +on their rainfall. The following table illustrates the purifying +effect of some of these areas obtained from the results of hundreds +of observations. The areas referred to are: (1) Mediterranean +Sea, the observations being made on the south coast of France +on the air blowing inshore; (2) the Alps, the observations being +made on the Rigi Kulm; (3) the Highlands of Scotland, the +observations being made at various places; and (4) the Atlantic +Ocean, the observations being made on the west coast of +Scotland, when the wind blew from the ocean.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Mediterranean.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alps.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Highlands.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Atlantic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mean of lowest</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 891</td> <td class="tcc rb">381</td> <td class="tcc rb">141</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 72</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mean of number</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1611</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">892</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">552</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">338</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These numbers are all low for atmospheric dust, much lower than +in air from inhabited areas. On the Rigi Kulm, for instance, the +number was sometimes over 10,000 per c.c. when the wind was +from inhabited areas and the sun causing ascending currents; +and at the same place as the Atlantic air was tested the numbers +went up to over 5000 per c.c. when the wind blew from the +inhabited areas of Scotland, though the distance to the nearest +was over 60 m.</p> + +<p>E.D. Fridlander<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> made many observations on the dust of the +atmosphere with the same instrument as employed by Aitken. +In crossing the Atlantic he got no low numbers, always over +2000 per c.c., but in the Gulf of St Lawrence he got a reading as +low as 280 per c.c. In crossing the Pacific the lowest obtained +was 245, in the Indian Ocean 243, in the Arabian Sea 280, in +the Red Sea 383, and in the Mediterranean 875 per c.c. He +has also made observations in Switzerland. The lowest number +obtained by him was in the air at the top of the Bieshorn, 13,600 ft. +above sea-level, where the number was as low as 157 per c.c. +Professor G. Melander<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> of Helsingfors studied the dust in +the atmosphere. His observations were made in Switzerland, +Biskra in the Sahara, Finland, the borders of Russia, and in +Norway; but in none of these places were low numbers observed. +The minimum numbers were over 300 per c.c., while maximum +numbers in some cases went high.</p> + +<p>Aitken when observing on the Rigi Kulm noticed during some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +conditions of weather that there was a daily variation in the +number of particles, a maximum near the hottest part of the day +and a minimum in the morning, and attributed the rise in the +numbers to the impure air of the valleys rising on the sun-heated +slopes of the mountain or driven up by the +wind. A. Rankin, at the Ben Nevis observatory, +also observed this daily variation, and his +observations also indicate a yearly variation +at that station, the numbers being highest in +March, April and May. This may possibly +be due to small rainfall in these months, +but more probably to the fact that south-easterly +winds blow more frequently during these months +on Ben Nevis than at any other season, and these winds bring +the impure air from the more densely inhabited parts of the +country.</p> + +<p>Without atmospheric dust not only would we not have the +glorious cloud scenery we at present enjoy, but we should have no +haze in the atmosphere, none of the atmospheric effects that +delight the artist. The white haze, the blue haze, the tender +sunset glows of red, orange and yellow, would all be absent, and +the moment the sun dipped below the horizon the earth would be +in darkness; no twilight, no after-glows, such as those given some +years ago by the volcanic dust from Krakatoa; none of the +poetry of eventide. Why, it may be asked, is this so? Simply +because all these are due to matter suspended in the air, to dust. +Water has no such effects as long as it is a vapour, and if it +condensed without the presence of dust, the particles would be far +too few to give any appreciable effect and too heavy to remain in +suspension.</p> + +<p>Turning now to the investigations on this point, Aitken has +shown that there is no evidence to indicate that water vapour has +any hazing effect, and shows that the haze is entirely due to dust, +the density of the haze increasing with the increase in the number +of dust particles in the air, and also with the <i>relative</i> humidity; +but the humidity does not act as vapour, but by condensing on +the dust and increasing the size of the particles, as it is not the +amount of vapour present but the degree of saturation that +affects the result; the more saturated the air, the more vapour +is condensed on the particles, they so become larger and their +hazing effect increased.</p> + +<p>The relation of haze or transparency of the air to the number of +dust particles was observed on five visits to the Rigi Kulm. The +visibility of Hochgerrach, a mountain 70 m. distant from the +Rigi, was used for estimating the amount of haze when the air was +clear. During the visits this mountain was visible thirteen times, +and it was never seen except when the number of particles was +low. On eight occasions the mountain was only one-half to one-fifth +hazed, and on these days the number of particles was as low +as from 326 to 850 per c.c. It was seen five times when the +number was from 950 to 2000 per c.c., but the mountain on these +occasions was only just visible, and it was never seen when the +number was a little over 2000 per c.c.</p> + +<p>It has been pointed out that the relative humidity has an +effect on the dust by increasing the size of the particles and so +increasing the haze. It was therefore necessary in working out +the dust and haze observations made at the different places to +arrange all the observations in tables according to the wet-bulb +depressions at the time. All the observations taken when the +wet-bulb depression was between 2° and 4° were put in one table, +all those when it was between 4° and 7° in another, and all +those when it was over 7° in a third. It should be here noted +that when the dust particles were counted and the wet and dry +bulb observations taken, an estimate of the amount of haze was +also made. This was done by estimating the amount of haze on +a mountain at a known distance. Suppose the mountain to be +25 m. distant, and at the time to be one-half hazed, then the limit +of visibility of the mountain under the conditions would be +50 m., and that was taken as the number representing the transparency +of the atmosphere at the time. In the tables above +referred to along with the number of particles was entered the +limit of visibility at the time; when this was done it was at once +seen that as the number of particles increased the limit of visibility +decreased, as will be seen from the following short table +of the Rigi Kulm observations when the wet-bulb depression +was between 2° and 4°.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Date.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lowest<br />Number.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Highest<br />Number.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />Number. +</td> <td class="tccm allb">Limit of<br />Visibility in<br />Miles.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">C.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">19th May 1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">428</td> <td class="tcr rb">690</td> <td class="tcr rb">559</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td> <td class="tcc">83,850</td> <td class="tccm rb bb" rowspan="3"><span style="font-size: 4em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">}</span>Mean 75,176.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">22nd May 1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">434</td> <td class="tcr rb">850</td> <td class="tcr rb">642</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcc">64,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">16th May 1893</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1225</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2600</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1912</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">40</td> <td class="tcc bb">77,480</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>When the number of particles is multiplied by the limit of visibility +in the tables a fairly constant number C. is obtained; see +preceding table. All the observations taken at the different +places were treated in a similar manner and the means of all the +observations at the different humidities were obtained, and the +following table gives the mean values of C. at the different wet-bulb +depressions of all the observations made at the different +places.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb tb">Wet-bulb depression</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">2° to 4°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">4° to 7°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">7° and over</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Mean values of C.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">76,058</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">105,545</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">141,148</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>From the above table it will be seen that as the dryness of the +air increased it required a larger number of particles to produce +a complete haze, nearly double the number being required when +the wet-bulb depression was over 7° than when it was only from +2° to 4°. To find the number of particles required to produce a +complete haze, that is, to render a mountain just invisible, all that +is necessary is to multiply the above constant C. by 160,930, the +number of centimetres in a mile, when this is done with the +observations made in the West Highlands we get the numbers +given in the following table:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Wet-bulb depression.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of Particles to<br />produce a complete haze.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2° to 4°</td> <td class="tcc rb">12,500,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4° to 7°</td> <td class="tcc rb">17,100,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">7° to 10°</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">22,600,000,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The above table gives the number of particles of atmospheric +dust in a column of air having a section of one centimetre square, +at the different humidities, required to produce a complete haze, +that is, to make a distant object invisible, and is of course quite +independent of the length of the column.</p> + +<p>In making these dust and transparency observations three +things were noted: 1st, the number of particles; 2nd, the +humidity; and 3rd, the limit of visibility. From the results above +given, it is evident that if we now know any two of these we can +calculate the third. Suppose we know the limit of visibility and +the humidity, then the number of particles can be calculated by +the aid of the above tables.</p> + +<p>To show the hazing effects of dust it is not, however, necessary +to use a dust counter. Aitken for some years made observations +on the haze in the air at Falkirk by simply noting the direction +of the wind, the wet-bulb depression at the time, and the transparency +of the air. Falkirk is favourably situated for such +observations owing to the peculiar distribution of the population +surrounding it. The whole area from west, north-west to north, +is very thinly populated, while in all other directions it is densely +populated. It was found that the air from the thinly inhabited +parts, that is, the north-west quadrant, was nine times clearer +than the air from other directions with the same wet-bulb +depression, and that the density of the haze was directly proportional +to the density of the population of the area from which +the wind blew. These observations also showed that the transparency +of the air increases with the dryness, being 3.7 times +clearer when the wet-bulb depression is 8° than when it is only +2°, and that the air coming from the densely inhabited parts +is about 10 times more hazed than if there were no inhabitants in +the country.</p> +<div class="author">(J. A.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Atmospheric Dust Observations from various parts of the +World,” <i>Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc.</i> (July 1896).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>La Condensation de la vapeur d’eau dans l’atmosphère</i> (Helsingfors, +1897).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (<i>Oostindische Vereenigde +Maatschappij</i>), a body founded by a charter from the Netherlands +states-general on the 20th of March 1602. It had a double +purpose: first to regulate and protect the already considerable +trade carried on by the Dutch in the Indian Ocean, and then to +help in prosecuting the long war of independence against Spain +and Portugal. Before the union between Portugal and Spain in +1580-81, the Dutch had been the chief carriers of eastern produce +from Lisbon to northern Europe. When they were shut out from +the Portuguese trade by the Spanish king they were driven to +sail to the East in order to make good their loss. Unsuccessful +attempts were made to find a route to the East by the north +of Europe and Asia, which would have been free from interference +from the Spaniards and Portuguese. It was only when these +failed that the Dutch decided to intrude on the already well-known +route by the Cape of Good Hope, and to fight their way +to the Spice Islands of the Malay Archipelago. A first expedition, +commanded by Cornelius Houtman, a merchant long resident at +Lisbon, sailed on the 2nd of April 1595. It was provided with +an itinerary or book of sailing instructions drawn up by Jan +Huyghen van Linschoten,<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a Dutchman who had visited Goa. +The voyage was marked by many disasters and losses, but the +survivors who reached the Texel on their return on the 20th of +August 1597 brought back some valuable cargo, and a treaty +made with the sultan of Bantam in Java.</p> + +<p>These results were sufficient to encourage a great outburst of +commercial adventure. Companies described as “Van Ferne”—that +is, of the distant seas—were formed, and by 1602 from sixty +to seventy Dutch vessels had sailed to Hindustan and the Indian +Archipelago. On those distant seas the traders could neither +be controlled nor protected by their native government. They +fought among themselves as well as with the natives and the +Portuguese, and their competition sent up prices in the eastern +markets and brought them down at home. Largely at the +suggestion of Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, and in full accordance +with the economic principles of the time, the states-general +decided to combine the existing separate companies into one +united Dutch East India Company, which could discharge +the functions of a government in those remote seas, prosecute +the war with Spain and Portugal, and regulate the trade. A +capital estimated variously at a little above and a little under +6,500,000 florins, was raised by national subscription in shares of +3000 florins. The independence of the states which constituted +the United Netherlands was recognized by the creation of local +boards at Amsterdam, in Zealand, at Delft and Rotterdam, +Hoorn and Enkhuizen. The boards directed the trade of their +own districts, and were responsible to one another, but not for +one another as towards the public. A general directorate of 60 +members was chosen by the local boards. Amsterdam was +represented by 20 directors, Zealand by 12, Delft and Rotterdam +by 14, and Hoorn and Enkhuizen also by 14. The real governing +authority was the “Collegium,” or board of control of 17 +members, of whom 16 were chosen from the general directorate +in proportion to the share which each local branch had contributed +to the capital or joint stock. Amsterdam, which subscribed +a half, had eight representatives; Zealand, which found +a quarter, had four; Delft and Rotterdam, Hoorn and Enkhuizen +had two respectively, since each of the pairs had subscribed an +eighth. The seventeenth member was nominated in succession +by the other members of the United Netherlands. A committee +of ten was established at the Hague to transact the business of the +company with the states-general. The “collegium” of seventeen +nominated the governors-general who were appointed after +1608. The charter, which was granted for twenty-one years, conferred +great powers on the company. It was endowed with a +monopoly of the trade with the East Indies, was allowed to +import free from all custom dues, though required to pay 3% +on exports, and charged with a rent to the states. It was authorized +to maintain armed forces by sea and land, to erect forts and +plant colonies, to make war or peace, to arrange treaties in the +name of the stadtholder, since eastern potentates could not be +expected to understand what was meant by the states-general, +and to coin money. It had full administrative, judicial and +legislative authority over the whole of the sphere of operations, +which extended from the west of the Straits of Magellan westward +to the Cape of Good Hope.</p> + +<p>The history of the Dutch East India Company from its +formation in 1602 until its dissolution in 1798 is filled, until the +close of the 17th century, with wars and diplomatic relations. +Its headquarters were early fixed at Batavia in Java. But it +extended its operations far and wide. It had to deal diplomatically +with China and Japan; to conquer its footing in the Malay +Archipelago and in Ceylon; to engage in rivalry with Portuguese +and English; to establish posts and factories at the Cape, in +the Persian Gulf, on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel and +in Bengal. Only the main dates of its progress can be mentioned +here. By 1619 it had founded its capital in Batavia in Java on +the ruins of the native town of Jacatra. It expelled the Portuguese +from Ceylon between 1638 and 1658, and from Malacca +in 1641. Its establishment at the Cape of Good Hope, which +was its only colony in the strict sense, began in 1652. A treaty +with the native princes established its power in Sumatra in 1667. +The flourishing age of the company dates from 1605 and lasted +till the closing years of the century. When at the summit of +its prosperity in 1669 it possessed 150 trading ships, 40 ships +of war, 10,000 soldiers, and paid a dividend of 40%. In the +last years of the 17th century its fortunes began to decline. Its +decadence was due to a variety of causes. The rigid monopoly +it enforced wherever it had the power provoked the anger of +rivals. When Pieter Both, the first governor-general, was sent +out in 1608, his instructions from the Board of Control were to +see that Holland had the entire monopoly of the trade with the +East Indies, and that no other nation had any share whatever. +The pursuit of this policy led the company into violent hostility +with the English, who were also opening a trade with the East. +Between 1613 and 1632 the Dutch drove the English from the +Spice Islands and the Malay Archipelago almost entirely. The +English were reduced to a precarious footing at Bantam in Java. +One incident of this conflict, the torture and judicial murder of +the English factors at Amboyna in 1623, caused bitter hostility +in England. The success of the company in the Malay Archipelago +was counterbalanced by losses elsewhere. It had in +all eight governments: Amboyna, Banda, Ternate, Macassar, +Malacca, Ceylon, Cape of Good Hope and Java. Commissioners +were placed in charge of its factories or trading posts in Bengal, +on the Coromandel coast, at Surat, and at Gambroon (or Bunder +Abbas) in the Persian Gulf, and in Siam. Its trade was divided +into the “grand trade” between Europe and the East, which was +conducted in convoys sailing from and returning to Amsterdam; +and the “Indies to Indies” or coasting trade between its possessions +and native ports.</p> + +<p>The rivalry and the hostilities of French and English gradually +drove the Dutch from the mainland of Asia and from Ceylon. +The company suffered severely in the War of American Independence. +But it extended and strengthened its hold on the +great islands of the Malay Archipelago. The increase of its +political and military burdens destroyed its profits. In the +early 18th century it was already embarrassed, and was bankrupt +when it was dissolved in 1798, though its credit remained unshaken, +largely, if its enemies are to be believed, because it +concealed the truth and published false accounts. In the later +stages of its history its revenue was no longer derived from trade, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +but from forced contributions levied on its subjects. At home, +the directors, who were accused of nepotism and corruption, +became unpopular at an early date. The company was subject +to increasing demands and ever more severe regulation on the +successive renewals of its charters at intervals of twenty-one +years. The immediate causes of its destruction were the conquest +of Holland by the French revolutionary armies, the fall of the +government of the stadtholder, and the establishment of the +Batavian Republic in 1798.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The great original work on the history of the +Dutch East India Company is the monumental <i>Beschryving van +oud en niew oost Indien</i> (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724), by +François Valentyn, in 8 vols., folio, profusely illustrated. Two +modern works of the highest value are: J.K.J. de Jonge, <i>De +Opkomst van het Nederlandsch Gezag in oost Indien</i> (The Hague and +Amsterdam, 1862-1888), in 13 vols.; J.J. Meinsma, <i>Geschiedenis +van de Nederlandsche oost-Indische Bezittingen</i> (3 vols., Delft and the +Hague, 1872-1875). See also John Crawford, <i>History of the Indian +Archipelago</i> (Edinburgh, 1820); Clive Day, <i>The Dutch in Java</i> +(New York, 1904); Sir W.W. Hunter, <i>A History of British India</i> +(London, 1899); and Pierre Bonnassieux, <i>Les Grandes Compagnies +de commerce</i> (Paris, 1892).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Linschoten was born at Haarlem in or about 1563. He started +his travels at the age of sixteen and, after some years in Spain, went +with the Portuguese East India fleet to Goa, where he arrived in +September 1583, returning in 1589. In 1594 and 1595 he took part +in the Dutch Arctic voyages, and in 1598 settled at Enkhuizen, +where he died on the 8th of February 1611. His <i>Navigatio ac +itinerarium</i> (1595-1596) is a compilation based partly on his own +experiences, partly on those of other travellers with whom he came +in contact. It was translated into English and German in 1598; +two Latin versions appeared in 1599 and a French translation in +1610. The famous English version was reprinted for the Hakluyt +Society in 1885. Large selections, with an Introduction, are published +in C. Raymond Beazley’s <i>Voyages and Travels</i>, vol. ii. (<i>English +Garner</i>, London, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTCH LANGUAGE.<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> When the Romans reached the +territory now forming the kingdom of Holland, they found a +number of tribes south of the Rhine, who—though here and +there mixed with Germans—belonged to a non-Germanic race, +and who, closely related to the Belgian tribes, spoke a language +belonging to the Celtic group. Possibly they were also situated +on the more elevated grounds north of the Rhine, at least +vestiges of them may still be traced. We do not know anything +about their being mixed with or subdued by the intruding +German tribes. We can only guess it.</p> + +<p>At that time the fertile delta of the Rhine was already occupied +by German tribes who in language and national customs must +have stood in some relation to the tribes living along the Rhine +in Germany, later called Franks. The consonantal system of +their language was in accordance with the other Low-German +dialects, which is proved by the remains we have in the glosses +of the Lex Salica, for the greater part handed down in a bad +condition. These tribes, whom we shall take together under +the name of Low-Franks—the Romans called them Batavi, +Caninefates, Chamavi, &c.—were spread over Gelderland, Overysel, +part of Utrecht and South Holland, and the south-western +part of North Holland. When in the sixth century allied tribes +from the present north Germany, who named themselves +Saxons after one of those tribes living alongside the Elbe, +conquered the territory occupied by the Franks a great many +retreated from the eastern parts, and then the Franks, who +already in the time of the Romans had begun to invade into the +territory of the Belgian tribes, continued their wars of conquest +in a southward direction and subdued all the land south of the +branch of the Rhine that is called the “Waal.” Since that time +the Frankish dialect came there, and the Celtic-speaking population +of the south suffered its language to be entirely supplanted +by that of the conquerors. Hence in the formerly Celtic-speaking +parts of Brabant and Limburg we find but Frankish dialects, +somewhat corresponding with those of part of Gelderland, Utrecht +and Holland. The deviation that is perceptible concerns less +the use of words than the way of laying the stress.</p> + +<p>In part of Gelderland, east of the Ysel, and in Overysel, the +older Frankish dialect (of the Salian Franks) was given up and +the language of the victorious Saxons was assumed, perhaps +here and there strongly mixed with the older language. The +language which is spoken there, and farther to the north through +Drente as far as in some parts of Groningen, is called Saxon. +Indeed, these dialects correspond in a great many respects +with the language of the Old-Saxon poem Heliand (<i>q.v.</i>) and +with the North-German dialects—from the latter they deviate +considerably in some respects. The chief point of conformity +is the formation of the plural of the verb: <i>wi loopt, wi gåt</i>, +<i>Heliand</i>: <i>wi hlopad, wi gangad</i>, which are <i>wèi loopen, wèi gaan</i> +in the Frankish dialects. In the vocal system, too, there are +peculiar differences.</p> + +<p>In the north of Holland there lived, and still lives alongside the +coast, a tribe with which Caesar did not come in contact. The +Frisians were spread over a large distance along the shore as +far as the mouth of the Elbe, and in the west at least as far as +the country north of Haarlem. In the time of the Romans they +cannot have extended their power farther southward. Later, +however, this seems to have been the case. Maerlant and Melis +Stoke (13th century) tell us that time was when their power +extended even over part of Flanders. About the year 339 they +were repelled as far as the mouth of the Meuse, and ever afterwards +the Franks, led by their counts, pushed their dominion +back farther and farther to the north, as far as the country +north of Alkmaar. After all, a great many Frisian peculiarities +may be perceived in the language of the country people of the +parts which were once in their power.</p> + +<p>To begin with the south: in Zeeland the population has quite +given up the former probably non-Germanic language. Frisian +influence is still perceptible in many words and expressions, but +for all that the language has lost the Frisian character and +assumed the nature of the neighbouring Frankish dialects in the +present Belgium and Brabant. If it was then influenced by the +south, later it was influenced rather by the language of Holland. +Farther to the north Frisian elements may be perceived in Holland +at the seashore and also in many respects still in North Holland. +The real Frisian tongue has only been preserved in the province of +Friesland, where intrusion of the dialect spoken in Holland is +already perceptible since the 13th century. With the Frisian +tongue this formed a new dialect in the towns, the “Stadfriesch,” +whereas the country people in the villages and the peasants have +preserved the old Frisian tongue as “Boerenfriesch.”</p> + +<p>The more eastward dialects of Frisian in Groningen, the eastern +part of Friesland (<i>Stellingawerf</i>) and West-Drente were first +strongly mixed with Saxon; at the same time we find a strong +mixture of Frisian and Saxo-Frankish east of the Zuider Zee. +Later the Saxon dialect of the town of Groningen, once the capital +of East-Drente, became prominent over the whole province.</p> + +<p>In all parts, however, the language of Holland, mixed with and +changed by the living speech, is getting more and more influence, +issuing from the towns and large villages.</p> + +<p>This influence over the whole country began at the opening of +the 17th century, and, in connexion with the prevalent written +language, gradually produced a colloquial language, deviating +from the written language as well as from the native idioms of the +country, though assuming elements from both. In this colloquial +speech the idiom of Holland forms the basis, whereas the written +language formed itself on quite different principles.</p> + +<p>If we compare the colloquial speech and the native idiom with +the written language, we find remarkable differences, which are +caused by the origin of the Dutch written language.</p> + +<p>The first to write in any of the idioms of the Dutch language, if +we leave apart the old version of the psalms in East Low Frankish, +was an inhabitant of the neighbourhood of Maastricht, Henrik +van Veldeke, who wrote a Servatius legend and an <i>Aeneid</i>; the +latter we only know by a Mid High German copy. This dialect +deviates from the western dialects and has likeness to the Middle-Frankish. +His work had no influence whatever on the written +language.</p> + +<p>In the west of Belgium, in the districts of Antwerp, East and +West Flanders and Brabant, great prosperity and strong development +of commerce caused a vivid intellectual life. No wonder we +find there the first writings in the West-Low-Frankish native +idiom. This language spread over the neighbouring districts. +At least in 1254 we find the same language used in the statute +(<i>i.e.</i> privilege) of Middelburg.</p> + +<p>In those parts a great deal was written in poetry and prose, and +the writings in this language are known under the name of +Middle-Dutch literature.</p> + +<p>If originally the south took the lead in all departments, later +the north gradually surpasses the south, and elements from the +northern native idiom begin to intrude into the written language.</p> + +<p>North of the Meuse and the Rhine little was written as yet in +the 13th century. Not until about 1300 does literary life begin +to develop here (Melis Stoke’s <i>Rijmcronijk</i>), and these writings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +were written in the language of the south with slight deviations +here and there. Chancery and clergy had taken a written +language to the north, deviating considerably from the native +idiom in vogue there, which belonged to the Frisio-Frankish +idioms. So this written language gradually spread over the +west of the Netherlands and Belgium. The east of the Netherlands +agreed in its chancery style more with the districts of Low +Germany.</p> + +<p>There was a great difference between the written language and +the dialect spoken on the banks of the Y. This becomes quite +conspicuous if we compare what Roemer Visscher, Coster, +Bredero borrow from their native idiom with the language of +Huygens or Cats, in the latter of which the southern elements +predominate, mixed with the dialects of Zeeland and Holland. +Vondel, too, in his first period was influenced by the idiom of +Brabant. Only after 1625 does he get on more familiar terms +with the Amsterdam dialect. In the various editions of his poems +it may be seen how not only loan-words, but also words belonging +to the southern idiom, are gradually replaced by other words, +belonging to the vocabulary of North Holland, and still to be +heard.</p> + +<p>The written language passed from the south to the north, and, +considerably changed at Amsterdam, was also assumed in the +other provinces in the 17th century, after the Union of Utrecht. +In the north, in Groningen and Friesland, the official writings and +laws were still noted down in a Frisian or Saxo-Frisian idiom as +late as the 15th and 16th centuries. When the contact with +Holland grew stronger, and the government officials ever and +again came in contact with Holland, chancery, too, gradually +assumed the Holland idiom. The same took place in the eastern +provinces.</p> + +<p>This, however, did not yet make the written language popular, +which did not happen before the population of the Dutch +provinces got its <i>Statenbÿbel</i>, the well-known authorized version +of the Bible, made at Dordrecht between 1626 and 1637.</p> + +<p>By the frequent use of this so-called <i>Statenvertaling</i> the language +of Holland obtained its vogue in all provinces on the point of +religion, and many expressions, borrowed from that Bible, were +preserved in the native idiom.</p> + +<p>By the remarkable vicissitudes of these parts from the earliest +time up to the moment when Holland became an independent +kingdom, during which alternately German elements under the +Bavarian counts and French influences under the Burgundian +princes were predominant, and also later in the 16th and 17th +centuries elements from these languages were mixed with the +language in common use. Moreover, various words passed from +the eastern languages into Dutch by the colonial and commercial +connexions, while at the same time many words were borrowed +from Latin, the language of the learned people, especially in the +16th century, and from French, under the influence of the poetic +clubs of the 17th and 18th centuries. In the time of the +rhetoricians, in the 16th century, and of Coornhert, as well as +in the days of Bredero, Hooft and Vondel, we repeatedly find +opposition against these foreign words, often successful, so that +in 1650 Vondel could say: “<i>Onze spraak is sedert weinige jaren +herwaart van bastaard-woorden en onduitsch allengs geschuimt.</i>”<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +Some people, <i>e.g.</i> Hooft, went even so far as to make very clumsy +versions of Latin and French bastard words, handed down of old.</p> + +<p>Under the influence of the club “<i>Nil Volentibus Arduum</i>” and +the predominant literary clubs of the 18th century, people +became inclined towards expressing their thoughts as much as +possible in pure Dutch. Therefore a large number of rules were +given, with respect to prose as well as to poetry, in consequence of +which the written language grew very stiff in choice of words and +forms, and remains so till the latter half of the 19th century. +The obtrusion of the French language during the reign of +Napoleon had no effect. But the subsequent union of Holland +and Belgium strengthened the French element, especially in the +higher ranks of society. King William I. had tried to make +Dutch more popular in Belgium by a general teaching of the +Dutch language. When north and south were separated, the +French became predominant in the south. Only in the Flemish +provinces of Belgium the people tried to preserve the native +idiom and to do away with French words. These endeavours, +called “De Vlaamsche beweging”, begun by F. v. Willems, +Heremans and others in the south, were supported in the north +by Professor de Vries at Leiden. In order to get a pure Dutch +language, the idea of composing a general Dutch dictionary was +introduced. M. de Vries and his partner L. te Winkel, however, +did not begin this task before having given a new formulation of +the rules for spelling. These rules, deviating in many respects +from the spelling then in vogue, introduced by Siegenbeek in +1806, have been predominant up to the present moment. Since +1891 Dr R.A. Kollewyn and Dr F. Buitenrust Hettema have +been engaged in trying to bring about a simplification in the +spelling. As this simplification is not generally considered +efficient, their principles are not yet generally adopted; see for +instance C.H. den Hertog, <i>Waarom onaannemelyk?</i> (Groningen, +1893).</p> + +<p>Excepting Belgium (Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant) the Dutch +language is heard outside Holland in Dutch East India and in +the West Indies. In East India pure Dutch has been preserved, +though some Javanese and Malay bastard words may have +slipped in by the habit of speaking to the population in the Malay +tongue or in the native idiom. Hence no Indo-Dutch was formed +there. This is different in the West Indies, where a great number +of negro words and English words as well as English syntactical +constructions have slipped in.</p> + +<p>In the 17th century a number of Dutchmen, for the greater +part from Holland and Zeeland, under Jan van Riebeek, had +settled in South Africa, in Cape Town, where the Dutch navigation +called into being a Dutch port. In course of time they +were joined there by French emigrants (most of them Huguenots +who left their country about 1688 and joined with other Huguenots +from Holland in assuming the Dutch language), perhaps +also by Portuguese and by Malay people, who, together with +the English who settled there and after 1820 became numerous +in Cape Colony, mixed some peculiarities of their language with +the Dutch idioms. Thus in the first half of the 18th century the +language arose which is now called the South African Dutch. +Since 1880 the present Dutch language has became more frequently +used in official writings, though with certain adaptations +agreeably to the native idiom.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In order to offer an example of the Middle-Dutch language beside +the present language, we give here a single strophe from Maerlant’s +<i>Wapene Martyn</i>, with a metrical translation in modern Dutch from +the pen of Nikolaas Beets (1880).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl rb2"> +<p>God, diet al bi redene doet,</p> +<p>Gaf dat wandel ertsche goet</p> +<p> Der menschelt gemene,</p> +<p>Dattere mede ware gevoet,</p> +<p>Ende gecleet, ende gescoet,</p> +<p> Ende leven soude rene.</p> +<p>Nu es giericheit so verwoet,</p> +<p>Dat elc settet sinen moet</p> +<p> Om al te hebbene allene.</p> +<p>Hieromme stortmen menschenbloet,</p> +<p>Hieromme stichtmen metter spoet</p> +<p> Borge ende hoge stene</p> +<p> Menegen te wene.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl"> +<p>God, die het al met wijsheid doet,</p> +<p>Gaf dit verganklijk aardsche goed</p> +<p> Den menschen in’t gemeen,</p> +<p>Op dat zij zouden zijn gevoed,</p> +<p>Het lijf gekleed, geschoeid de voet</p> +<p> En leven rein van zeen.</p> +<p>Maar zie nu hoe de hebzucht woedt</p> +<p>Dat iedereen in arren moed</p> +<p> ’t Al hebben wil alleen’</p> +<p>Hierom vergiet men menschenbloed</p> +<p>En bouwt met roekeloozen spoed</p> +<p> Burchtsloten, zwaar van steen,</p> +<p> Tot smart van menigeen.</p></td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><i>A Survey of the Sounds used in Dutch.</i>—<i>The Consonants.</i> As +regards the consonants, Dutch in the main does not differ from the +other Low German languages. The explosive <i>g</i> and the <i>th</i> are +wanting. Instead of the former there is a <i>g</i> with “fricative” +pronunciation, and as in High German the <i>th</i> has passed over into <i>d</i>.</p> + +<p>The final consonants in Middle Dutch are sharpened, and the sharp +sounds are graphically represented; in Modern Dutch, on the other +hand, the historical development of the language being more distinctly +kept in view, and the agreement observed with the inflexional +forms, the soft consonant is written more frequently than it is +sounded; thus we have Middle Dutch <i>dach</i>, Modern Dutch <i>dag</i>, in +analogy with the plural <i>dagen</i>.</p> + +<p>The gutturals are <i>g</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>ch</i> and <i>h</i>.</p> + +<p><i>G</i> is the soft spirant, not used in English. In Middle Dutch this +letter was also indicated by <i>gh</i>. <i>K</i> was pronounced like English <i>k</i>. +In Middle Dutch <i>c</i> was sometimes used instead of <i>k</i>; now this is no +longer done.</p> + +<p><i>Ch</i> (pronounced as German <i>ch</i> without the <i>i</i>-sound, not as English +<i>ch</i>) loses its sound when combined with <i>s</i> to <i>sch</i> at the end of a +syllable, for instance, <i>vleesch</i>, but the <i>s</i>-sound is not purely dental +as in <i>dans</i>. As an initial consonant <i>sch</i> is nearly pronounced as <i>sg</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +(<i>schip</i>, English ship); only in Frisian and Saxon dialects the old +consonant <i>sk</i> in <i>skip</i>, <i>skool</i> is retained.</p> + +<p><i>H</i> has the same pronunciation as in English.</p> + +<p>The dentals are <i>d</i> and <i>t</i>. The <i>d</i> is formed by placing the point of +the tongue against the upper teeth. At the end of a word <i>d</i> is +sharpened into <i>t</i>, but written <i>d</i>, for instance, <i>goed</i>, pronounced <i>gut</i>. +In the idiom of the east of the Netherlands final <i>d</i> is preserved. +When between two vowels after <i>oe</i> (Engl. <i>ô</i> in do), <i>ō</i>, or <i>ui</i>, <i>d</i> is not +pronounced, though it is written. After it has been left out, a <i>j</i>-sound +has developed between the two vowels, so, for instance, +<i>goede</i> became first <i>goe:e</i> and then <i>goeje</i>. Thus it is pronounced, +though it is still spelled <i>goede</i>. After <i>ou</i> <i>d</i> disappeared and <i>ou</i> became +<i>ouw</i>, for instance <i>koude</i> > <i>kouw</i>.</p> + +<p><i>T</i> has the same pronunciation as in English. In some dialects +final <i>t</i> is dropped, for instance, <i>heef</i> for <i>heeft</i>, <i>nie</i> for <i>niet</i>.</p> + +<p><i>S</i> has the pronunciation of English <i>s</i> in sound, <i>z</i> that of English <i>z</i> +in hazel; only in <i>zestig</i> and <i>zeventig</i> <i>z</i> has the pronunciation of <i>s</i>.</p> + +<p>The labials are <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>p</i>.</p> + +<p>At the beginning and in the body of a word <i>b</i> has the same sound +as in English. At the end of a word, when shortened from <i>bb</i>, +followed by a vowel, it became <i>p</i> in the pronunciation, so older +<i>krabbe</i> became <i>krabb</i>, <i>krab</i> (the present spelling), which is now +pronounced <i>krap</i>.</p> + +<p><i>F</i> has the same pronunciation as English <i>f</i>. In many cases older +initial <i>f</i> passed into <i>v</i>, hence most words which have <i>f</i> in English +have initial <i>v</i> in Dutch, for instance <i>vader</i>, <i>vol</i>, <i>vechten</i>.</p> + +<p>This <i>v</i>, initial and between vowels, has the pronunciation of +English <i>v</i> in lover. Dutch <i>p</i> is the same as English <i>p</i>, also the liquids +and nasals.</p> + +<p>The <i>w</i> in Dutch is mostly labiodental; in the eastern parts before +vowels bilabial pronunciation is heard.</p> + +<p><i>Vowels.</i>—<i>A</i> has in open syllables the sound of English <i>a</i> in father, +in closed syllables that of English <i>a</i> in ass, but more open; when +there is a clear sound in closed syllables the spelling is <i>aa</i> (<i>jaar</i>), in +open syllables <i>a</i> (<i>maken</i>), pronounced as <i>a</i> in ask; in <i>bad</i>, <i>nat</i>, <i>a = ă</i>. +An original short <i>a</i> and a long <i>a</i> in open syllables are even in Middle +Dutch pronounced alike, and may be rhymed with each other (<i>dagen</i>, +<i>lagen</i>, a rhyme which was not permitted in Middle High German). +In the Saxon dialects <i>â</i> was expressed by <i>ao</i>, <i>a</i> or <i>â</i> in the Frisio-Saxon +districts passes into <i>è</i> before <i>r</i>, as <i>jèr</i> (<i>jaar</i>). Middle Dutch preserved +<i>a</i> in several words where in Modern Dutch it passes into <i>e</i> before <i>r</i> +(<i>arg</i>, <i>erg</i>; <i>sarc</i>, <i>zerk</i>; <i>warf</i>, <i>werf</i>); in others, as <i>aarde</i>, <i>staart</i>, <i>zwaard</i>, +the Middle Dutch had <i>e</i> and <i>a</i> (<i>erde</i>, <i>stert</i>, <i>swert</i>, <i>swart</i>, <i>start</i>; Modern +Dutch <i>zwaard</i>, <i>staart</i>). In foreign words, likewise, <i>e</i> before <i>r</i> has +become <i>a</i>; <i>paars</i>, <i>perse</i>; <i>lantaarn</i>, <i>lanterne</i> (in the dialects <i>e</i> is still +frequently retained).</p> + +<p><i>E.</i> The sound of the <i>e</i> derived from <i>a</i> does not differ from that of +an original <i>e</i>, or of an <i>e</i> derived from <i>i</i>, as they appear in open syllables +(<i>steden</i>, <i>vele</i>, pronounced as <i>a</i> in English name). If the <i>e</i> derived from +<i>a</i> or <i>i</i> or the original <i>e</i> occurs in closed syllables, it has a short sound, +as in English men, end, Modern Dutch <i>stem</i>. The <i>e</i> in closed syllables +with a full sound (as English <i>a</i>; Sweet, <i>ei</i>) is spelled <i>ee</i>: <i>veel</i>, <i>week</i> +(<i>e</i> from <i>i</i>), <i>beek</i>. The sharp, clear <i>ee</i> is indicated by the same letters +in both open and closed syllables: <i>eer</i>, <i>sneeuw</i>, <i>zee</i>.</p> + +<p>In some dialects this <i>ee</i> is pronounced like English <i>ee</i>, not only in +the present dialects, but also in the 17th century.</p> + +<p>The pronunciation of <i>ei</i> (from <i>ai</i>, or <i>eg</i>: <i>ag</i>, French <i>ai</i>, <i>ei</i>, <i>ée</i>) is +that of English <i>i</i>, for instance, Dutch <i>ei</i>, English egg, is pronounced +like English <i>I</i>.</p> + +<p><i>I</i> is pronounced short (somewhat like <i>i</i> of English pit), for instance +in <i>pit</i>, <i>binden</i>, <i>sikkel</i>; it has a clear sound in <i>fabrikant</i>, though it has +no stress.</p> + +<p><i>Ie</i> is pronounced like English <i>ee</i> in see, but somewhat shorter; +so, <i>fabriek</i>, <i>fabrieken</i>, <i>Pieter</i>; also in <i>bieden</i>, <i>stierf</i>, &c. For original +long <i>î</i>, Middle Dutch <i>ii</i> and <i>ij</i>, afterwards <i>ÿ</i>, was used. This vowel, +though still written <i>y</i>, is pronounced like English <i>i</i> in I, like; so in +<i>sysje</i> (English siskin), <i>lÿken</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>The letter <i>o</i> represents three sounds:—(1) the short sharp <i>o</i> and +(2) the short soft <i>o</i>, the former like the <i>o</i> in English not and French +<i>soldat</i> (Dutch <i>bod</i>, <i>belofte</i>, <i>tocht</i>, <i>kolf</i>), the latter like the English <i>o</i> in +don, the French <i>o</i> in <i>ballon</i> (Dutch <i>dof</i>, <i>ploffen</i>, <i>ochtend</i>, <i>vol</i>), and (3) +the full, clear <i>o</i> as in English note, French <i>noter</i> (Dutch <i>kolen</i>, <i>sloten</i>, +<i>verloren</i>). The sharp clear <i>oo</i>, in <i>stroom</i>, <i>dood</i>, has almost the same +sound as the full <i>o</i>, in some dialects (among others the Saxon) it is +pronounced as <i>o</i> with a glide <i>o</i>, in others (Flemish and Hollandsch) +somewhat like <i>au</i>. In Middle Dutch, the lengthening of the vowels +was frequently indicated by <i>e</i> (before <i>r</i> sometimes by <i>i</i>, as in <i>oir</i>); +hence <i>ae</i> for <i>â</i>, <i>oe</i> for <i>ô</i>. Where <i>oe</i> occurs in the modern language, it +has the sound of <i>u</i> (pronounced like the <i>u</i> in High German, and +answering to the Gothic <i>ô</i>), which in Middle Dutch was frequently +represented by <i>ou</i>. <i>oe</i> is pronounced <i>ou</i> (<i>au</i>; Sweet, p. 6) in West +Flemish and the Groningen dialects. Before labials and gutturals +<i>oe</i> in Middle Dutch was expressed by <i>ue</i> and <i>oe</i> (<i>bouc</i>, <i>souken</i>, and also +<i>guet</i>, but usually <i>goet</i>, <i>soeken</i>, <i>boec</i>). The Saxon dialects still preserve +an <i>ô</i> sound which agrees with the Dutch <i>oe</i> (<i>bôk</i>, <i>môder</i>); in two +words—<i>romer</i> (<i>roemer</i>, however, is also used) and <i>spook</i>—<i>o</i> has +passed from these dialects into Dutch. As the <i>u</i> (Old German <i>û</i>), +which in the Dutch tongue has passed into <i>ui</i> except before <i>r</i> and +<i>w</i>, retains the <i>û</i>-sound in the Saxon districts, some words have come +into Dutch from these dialects, being written with <i>oe</i> from the +similar sound of <i>oe</i> (from <i>ô</i>) in Dutch and <i>û</i> in Saxon (<i>snoet</i>, <i>boer</i>, +<i>soezen</i>), by the side of which are Frankish words (<i>snuit</i>, <i>suizen</i>, &c.).</p> + +<p>In the language of the people <i>oe</i> before <i>m</i> is often pronounced as +<i>ŏ</i>, for instance <i>bloem</i> and <i>blom</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Eu</i> is not a diphthong, but the modification (<i>Umlaut</i>) of the clear <i>ō</i>; +it has the same sound as German <i>ö</i> in <i>schön</i>; so in <i>vleugel</i>, <i>leugen</i>, +<i>keuken</i>.</p> + +<p><i>U</i> before a double consonant or before a consonant in monosyllables +has about the same pronunciation as in English stuff, rug; so in +<i>kunnen</i>, <i>snurken</i>, <i>put</i>. When used in open syllables it has the same +sound as in French <i>nature</i>.</p> + +<p>In the 16th and 17th centuries, Middle Dutch <i>û</i> passed over +through <i>oi</i> into <i>ui</i> by the influence of the Holland dialect. In the +Saxon districts <i>û</i> kept the old pronunciation, but only in the language +of the peasants. The common language has everywhere <i>ui</i>, +pronounced nearly as German <i>eu</i>, English <i>oy</i>; so in <i>duizend</i>, <i>vuil</i>, +<i>buigen</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Ou</i> and <i>au</i> in <i>vrouw</i> and <i>blauw</i> are nearly pronounced in the same +way, very much like English <i>ow</i> in crowd.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For a full survey of a history of the Dutch language +the reader is referred to Jan te Winkel, “Geschichte der +niederländischen Sprache,” <i>Grundriss der germ. Philologie</i>, 2, p. 704 +(Strassburg, K. Grübner). Here an elaborate account may be found +on p. 704 of the different works on the grammar and phonology of +the various periods of the Dutch language. For explanation and +history of words of the current language see the <i>Woordenboek der +Nederlandsche Taal</i>, by De Vries and Te Winkel, continued by A. +Kluyver, A. Beets, for a time by J.W. Müller and De Vreese, who +left at their nomination as professors at Utrecht and Ghent. The +Middle Dutch language may be known from the <i>Middelnederlandsch +Woordenboek</i>, first by E. Verwys and J. Verdam, after the death of +Verwys by Verdam alone. For the dialects the different grammars +and glossaries issued at Martinus Nÿhoff (The Hague) and Kemink +& Son (Utrecht) are of great importance. The Flemish dialect may +be found in De Bo, <i>Westvlaamsch Idioticon</i>; other Belgian dialects +are recorded in the publications of the <i>Vlaamsche Academie</i> (Ghent). +Phonetic explanations are given in Roorda’s or in ten Bruggencate’s +<i>Phonetic Works</i>, and a survey of the pronunciation in Branco van +Dantzig’s <i>Dutch Pronunciation</i> and Dykstra’s <i>Dutch Grammar</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> “Within a few years our language has been gradually +skimmed of bastard words and non-Dutch elements.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTCH LITERATURE.<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> The languages now known as Dutch +and Flemish did not begin to take distinct shape till about the +end of the 11th century. From a few existing fragments—two +incantations from the 8th century, a version of the Psalms from +the 9th century, and several charters—a supposed Old Dutch +language has been recognized; but Dutch literature actually +commences in the 13th century, as Middle Dutch, the creation +of the first national movement in Brabant, Flanders, Holland and +Zealand.</p> + +<p>From the wreck of Frankish anarchy no genuine folk-tales +of Dutch antiquity have come down to us, and scarcely any +echoes of German myth. On the other hand, the sagas +of Charlemagne and Arthur appear immediately in +<span class="sidenote">Willem the Minstrel.</span> +Middle Dutch forms. These were evidently introduced +by wandering minstrels and jongleurs, and translated +to gratify the curiosity of the noble women. It is rarely that the +name of such a translator has reached us, but we happen to know +that the fragments we possess of the French romance of <i>William +of Orange</i> were written in Dutch by a certain Klaas van Haarlem, +between 1191 and 1217. The <i>Chanson de Roland</i> was translated +about the same time, and considerably later <i>Parthenopeus de +Blois</i>. The Flemish minstrel Diederic van Assenede completed +his version of <i>Floris et Blanchefleur</i> about 1250. The Arthurian +legends appear to have been brought to Flanders by some Flemish +colonists in Wales, on their return to their mother-country. +About 1250 a Brabantine minstrel translated Walter Map’s +<i>Lancelot du lac</i> at the command of his liege, Lodewijk van +Velthem. The <i>Gauvain</i> was translated by Penninc and Vostaert +before 1260, while the first original Dutch writer, the famous +Jakob van Maerlant, occupied himself about 1260 with several +romances dealing with Merlin and the Holy Grail. The earliest +existing fragments of the epic of <i>Reynard the Fox</i> were written +in Latin by Flemish priests, and about 1250 the first part of +a very important version in Dutch was made by Willem the +Minstrel, of whom it is unfortunate that we know no more save +that he was the translator of a lost romance, <i>Madoc</i>. In his +existing work the author follows Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but not +slavishly; and he is the first really admirable writer that we +meet with in Dutch literature. The second part was added by +another hand at the end of the 14th century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span></p> + +<p>It is not necessary to dwell at any length on the monkish +legends and the hymns to the Virgin Mary which were abundantly +produced during the 13th century, and which, though +destitute of all literary merit, were of use as exercises +<span class="sidenote">John I., duke of Brabant.</span> +in the infancy of the language. The first lyrical writer +of Holland was John I., duke of Brabant, who practised +the <i>minnelied</i> with success, but whose songs are only known to +us through a Swabian version of a few of them. In 1544 the +earliest collection of Dutch folk-songs saw the light, and in this +volume one or two romances of the 14th century are preserved, +of which <i>Het Daghet in den Oosten</i> is the best known. Almost the +earliest fragment of Dutch popular poetry, but of later time, is +an historical ballad describing the murder of Count Floris V. +in 1296. A very curious collection of mystical medieval hymns +by Sister Hadewych, a nun of Brabant, was first printed in 1875 +by Heremans and Ledeganck.</p> + +<p>Hitherto, as we have seen, the Middle Dutch language had +placed itself at the service of the aristocratic and monastic +orders, flattering the traditions of chivalry and of religion, but +scarcely finding anything to say to the bulk of the population. +With the close of the 13th century a change came over the face +of Dutch literature. The Flemish towns began to prosper and +to assert their commercial supremacy over the North Sea. +Under such mild rulers as William II. and Floris V., Dort, +Amsterdam, and other cities contrived to win such privileges as +amounted almost to political independence, and with this liberty +there arose a new sort of literary expression. The founder and +creator of this original Dutch literature was Jacob van Maerlant +<span class="sidenote">Maerlant.</span> +(<i>q.v.</i>). His <i>Naturen Bloeme</i>, written about 1263, +forms an epoch in Dutch literature; it is a collection +of moral and satirical addresses to all classes of society. With +his <i>Rijmbijbel</i> (Rhyming Bible) he foreshadowed the courage +and free-thought of the Reformation. It was not until 1284 +that he began his masterpiece, <i>De Spieghel Historiael</i> (The Mirror +of History), at the command of Count Floris V. Of his disciples, +<span class="sidenote">Boendale.</span> +the most considerable in South Holland was Jan van +Boendale (1280-1365), known as Jan de Klerk. He +was born in Brabant, and became clerk to the justices at Antwerp +in 1310. He was entrusted with various important missions. +His works are historical and moral in character. In him the last +trace of the old chivalric and romantic element has disappeared. +He completed his famous rhyme chronicle, the <i>Brabantsche +Yeesten</i>, in 1350; it contains the history of Brabant down to +that date, and was brought down to 1440 by an anonymous +later writer. For English readers it is disappointing that +Boendale’s other great historical work (<i>Van den derden Edewaert, +coninc van Ingelant ...</i>, ed. J.F. Willems, Ghent, 1840), +an account of Edward III. and his expedition to Flanders in +1338, has survived only in some fragments. The remainder of +Boendale’s works are didactic poems, pursuing still further the +moral thread first taken up by Maerlant, and founded on medieval +scholastic literature. In Ypres the school of Maerlant was +represented by Jan de Weert, a surgeon, who died in 1362, and +<span class="sidenote">Weert.</span> +who was the author of two remarkable works of moral +satire and exhortation, the <i>Nieuwe Doctrinael of +Spieghel der Sonden</i>, and a <i>Disputacie van Rogier end van Janne</i>. +In the beginning of the 13th century Gielijs van Molhem wrote a +Dutch version of part of the <i>Miserere</i> of the Picard poet who +concealed his identity under the name of the recluse of Moiliens. +The poem consisted of meditations on the origin and destiny +of man, and on the sins of pride, envy, &c. The translation, +completed later by an author calling himself Heinrec, was critically +edited (Groningen, 1893) by P. Leendertz. In North Holland +a greater talent than that of Weert or of Boendale was exhibited +<span class="sidenote">Stoke.</span> +by Melis Stoke, a monk of Egmond, who wrote the +history of the state of Holland to the year 1305; this +work, the <i>Rijmkronik</i>, was printed in 1591, and edited in 1885 +for the Utrecht Historical Society; and for its exactitude and +minute detail it has proved of inestimable service to later +historians.</p> + +<p>With the middle of the 14th century the chivalric spirit came +once more into fashion. A certain revival of the forms of feudal +life made its appearance under William III. and his successors. +Knightly romances came once more into vogue, but the newborn +didactic poetry contended vigorously against the supremacy +of what was lyrical and epical. It will be seen that from the +very first the literary spirit in Holland began to assert itself +in a homely and utilitarian spirit. Jan van Heelu, a Brabanter, +<span class="sidenote">Heelu.<br />Aken.</span> +was the author of an epic poem<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> on the battle of +Woeronc (1288), dedicated to Princess Margaret of +England, and to him has been attributed the still finer romance +of the <i>War of Grimbergen</i>.<a name="fa2q" id="fa2q" href="#ft2q"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Still more thoroughly aristocratic +in feeling was Hein van Aken, a priest of Louvain, who +lived about 1255-1330, and who combined to a very +curious extent the romantic and didactic elements. As early as +1280 he had completed his translation<a name="fa3q" id="fa3q" href="#ft3q"><span class="sp">3</span></a> of the <i>Roman de la rose</i>, +which he must have commenced in the lifetime of Jean de Meung. +More remarkable than any of his translated works, however, is +his original romance, completed in 1318, <i>Heinric en Margriete +van Limborch</i>,<a name="fa4q" id="fa4q" href="#ft4q"><span class="sp">4</span></a> upon which he was at work for twenty-seven +years. During the Bavarian period (1349-1433) very little +original writing of much value was produced in Holland. Buodewijn +van der Loren wrote one excellent piece on the Maid of +Ghent, in 1389. Augustijnken van Dordt was a peripatetic +minstrel of North Holland, who composed for the sheriff Aelbrecht +and for the count of Blois from 1350 to 1370. Such of his +verses as have been handed down to us are allegorical and moral. +Willem van Hildegaersberch (1350-1408) was another northern +poet, of a more strictly political cast. Many of his writings exist +still unpublished, and are very rough in style and wanting in +form. Towards the end of the 14th century an erotic poet of +<span class="sidenote">Dirk Potter.</span> +considerable power arose in the person of the lord +of Waddinxsveen and Hubrechtsambacht, Dirk Potter +van der Loo (<i>c.</i> 1365-1428), who was secretary at the +court of the counts of Holland. During an embassy in Rome +(1411-1412) this eminent diplomatist made himself acquainted +with the writings of Boccaccio, and commenced a vast poem on +the course of love, <i>Der Minnen Loep</i>,<a name="fa5q" id="fa5q" href="#ft5q"><span class="sp">5</span></a> which is a wonderful mixture +of classical and Biblical instances of amorous adventures +set in a framework of didactic philosophy. In Dirk Potter the +last traces of the chivalric element died out of Dutch literature, +and left poetry entirely in the hands of the school of Maerlant. +Many early songs, with some of later date, are preserved in a +<i>Liedekens-Boeck</i> printed by Jan Roulans (Antwerp, 1544). +The unique copy in the Wolfenbüttel library was edited by +Hoffmann von Fallersleben in <i>Horae Belgicae</i> (vol. xi., 1855).</p> + +<p>It is now time to consider the growth of prose literature in the +Low Countries. The oldest pieces of Dutch prose now in existence +are charters of the towns of Flanders and Zealand, dated 1249, +1251 and 1254. A prose translation of the Old Testament was +made about 1300, and there exists a <i>Life of Jesus</i> about the +same date. Of the mystical preachers whose religious writings +have reached us, the Brussels friar, Jan van Ruysbroec (1294-1381), +is the most important. But the most interesting relics of +medieval Dutch prose, as far as the formation of the language is +concerned, are the popular romances in which the romantic +stories of the <i>trouvères</i> and minstrels were translated for the benefit +of the unlettered public into simple language. As in most European +<span class="sidenote">Religious drama.</span> +nations, the religious drama takes a prominent +place in every survey of medieval literature in Holland. +Unfortunately the text of all the earliest mysteries, +the language of which would have an extraordinary interest for +us, has been lost. We possess records of dramas having been +played at various places—<i>Our Lord’s Resurrection</i>, at the Hague, +in 1400; <i>Our Lady the Virgin</i>, at Arnheim, in 1452; and <i>The +Three Kings</i>, at Delft, in 1498. The earliest existing fragment, +however, is part of a <i>Limburg-Maastricht Passover Play</i><a name="fa6q" id="fa6q" href="#ft6q"><span class="sp">6</span></a> of about +1360. The latest Dutch miracle play was the <i>Mystery of the Holy Sacrament</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +composed by a certain Smeken, at Breda, and +performed on St John’s day, 1500. This play was printed in 1867. +With these purely theological dramas there were acted mundane +farces, performed outside the churches by semi-religious +companies; these curious moralities were known as “Abelespelen” +and “Sotternieën.” In these pieces we discover the first +traces of that genius for low comedy which was afterwards to +take perfect form in the dramas of Brederôo and the paintings +of Teniers.</p> + +<p>The theatrical companies just alluded to, “Gesellen van den +Spele,” formed the germ out of which developed the famous +“Chambers of Rhetoric”<a name="fa7q" id="fa7q" href="#ft7q"><span class="sp">7</span></a> which united within +themselves all the literary movements that occupied the +<span class="sidenote">Chambers of Rhetoric.</span> +Low Countries during the 15th and 16th centuries. +The poets of Holland had already discovered in late +medieval times the value of gilds in promoting the arts and +industrial handicrafts. The term “collèges de rhétorique” is +supposed to have been introduced about 1440 to the courtiers of +the Burgundian dynasty, but the institutions themselves existed +long before. These literary gilds lasted till the end of the 16th +century, and during the greater part of that time preserved a +completely medieval character, even when the influences of the +Renaissance and the Reformation obliged them to modify in +some degree their outward forms. They were in almost all cases +absolutely middle-class in tone, and opposed to aristocratic ideas +and tendencies in thought. Of these remarkable bodies the +earliest were almost entirely engaged in preparing mysteries and +miracle-plays for the populace. Each chamber, and in process +of time every town in the Low Countries, possessed one, and took +as its title some fanciful or heraldic sign. At Diest “The Eyes of +Christ,” dated from 1302, and an earlier one, the “Lily,” is +mentioned. “The Alpha and Omega,” at Ypres, was founded +about 1398; that of the “Violet,” at Antwerp, followed in 1400; +the “Book,” at Brussels, in 1401; the “Berberry,” at Courtrai, +in 1427; the “Holy Ghost,” at Bruges, in 1428; the “Floweret +Jesse,” at Middelburg, in 1430; the “Oak Tree,” at Vlaardingen, +in 1433; and the “Marigold,” at Gouda, in 1437. The most +celebrated of all the chambers, that of the “Eglantine” at +Amsterdam, with its motto <i>In Liefde Bloeyende</i> (Blossoming in +Love), was not instituted until 1496. Among the most influential +chambers not above mentioned should be included the “Fountain” +at Dort, the “Corn Flower” at the Hague, the “White +Columbine” at Leiden, the “Blue Columbine” at Rotterdam, +the “Red Rose” at Schiedam, the “Thistle” at Zierikzee, +“Jesus with the Balsam” at Ghent, and the “Garland of Mary” +at Brussels. And not in these important places only, but in +almost every little town, the rhetoricians exerted their influence, +mainly in what we may call a social direction. Their wealth was +in most cases considerable, and it very soon became evident that +no festival or procession could take place in a town unless the +“Kamer” patronized it. Towards the end of the 15th century +the Ghent chamber of “Jesus with the Balsam” began to +exercise a sovereign power over the other Flemish chambers, +which was emulated later on in Holland by the “Eglantine” at +Amsterdam. But this official recognition proved of no consequence +in literature, and it was not in Ghent, but in Antwerp, +that intellectual life first began to stir. In Holland the burghers +only formed the chambers, while in Flanders the representatives +of the noble families were honorary members, and assisted with +their money at the arrangement of ecclesiastical or political +pageants. Their pompous <i>landjuweelen</i>, or tournaments of +rhetoric, at which rich prizes were contended for, were the great +occasions upon which the members of the chambers distinguished +themselves. Between 1426 and 1620 at least 66 of these festivals +were held. There was a specially splendid <i>landjuweel</i> at Antwerp +in 1496, in which 28 chambers took part, but the gayest of all was +that celebrated at Antwerp on the 3rd of August 1561. To this +the “Book” at Brussels sent 340 members, all on horseback, and +clad in crimson mantles. The town of Antwerp gave a ton of +gold to be given in prizes, which were shared among 1893 +rhetoricians. This was the zenith of the splendour of the +“Kamers van Rhetorica,” and after this time they soon fell into +disfavour. We can trace the progress of literary composition +under the chambers, although none of their official productions +has descended to us. Their dramatic pieces were certainly of +a didactic cast, with a strong farcical flavour, and continued the +tradition of Maerlant and his school. They very rarely dealt +with historical or even Biblical personages, but entirely with +allegorical and moral abstractions, until the age of humanism +introduced upon the stage the names without much of the spirit +of mythology. Of the pure farces of the rhetorical chambers we +can speak with still more confidence, for some of them have come +down to us, and among the authors famed for their skill in this +sort of writing are named Cornelis Everaert of Bruges and +Laurens Janssen of Haarlem. The material of these farces is +extremely raw, consisting of rough jests at the expense of priests +and foolish husbands, silly old men and their light wives. +Laurens Janssen is also deserving of remembrance for a satire +against the clergy, written in 1583. The chambers also encouraged +the composition of songs, but with very little success; +they produced no lyrical genius more considerable than Matthijs +de Casteleyn (1488-1550), the founder of the Flemish chamber of +“Pax Vobiscum” at Oudenarde, and author of <i>De Conste van +Rhetorijcken</i> (Ghent, 1573), a personage whose influence as a +fashioner of language would have been more healthy if his +astounding metrical feats and harlequin <i>tours de force</i> had not +been performed in a dialect debased with all the worst bastard +phrases of the Burgundian period.</p> + +<p>In the middle of the 16th century a group of rhetoricians in +Brabant and Flanders attempted to put a little new life into the +stereotyped forms of the preceding age by introducing +in original composition the new-found branches of +<span class="sidenote">Houwaert.</span> +Latin and Greek poetry. The leader of these men was Jean +Baptista Houwaert<a name="fa8q" id="fa8q" href="#ft8q"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (1533-1599), a personage of considerable +political influence in his generation. Houwaert held the title of +“Counsellor and Master in Ordinary of the Exchequer to the +Dukedom of Brabant”; he played a prominent part in the +revolution of the Low Countries against Spain; and when the +prince of Orange entered Brussels victoriously (Sept. 23rd, 1577), +Houwaert met him in pomp at the head of the two chambers of +rhetoric—the “Book” and the “Garland of Mary.” He did not +remain faithful to his convictions, for he composed in 1593 a poem +in honour of the cardinal-archduke Ernest of Austria, the governor +of the Spanish Netherlands. He considered himself a devout +disciple of Matthijs de Casteleyn, but his great characteristic was +his unbounded love of classical and mythological fancy. His +didactic poems are composed in a wonderfully rococo style, and +swarm with misplaced Latinities. In his bastard Burgundian +tongue he boasted of having “poëtelijck geïnventeert ende +rhetorijckelijck ghecomponeert” for the Brussels chamber such +dramas as <i>Aeneas and Dido</i>, <i>Mars and Venus</i>, <i>Narcissus and +Echo</i>, or <i>Leander and Hero</i>—named together the <i>Commerce of +Amorosity</i> (1583). But of all his writings, <i>Pegasides Pleyn</i> +(Antwerp, 1582-1583), or the Palace of Maidens, is the most +remarkable; this is a didactic poem in sixteen books, dedicated +to a discussion of the variety of earthly love. Houwaert’s +contemporaries nicknamed him “the Homer of Brabant”; +later criticism has preferred to see in him an important link in +that chain of homely didactic Dutch which ends in Cats. His +writings are composed in a Burgundian so base that they hardly +belong to Flemish literature at all. Into the same miserable +dialect Cornelis van Ghistele of Antwerp translated, between +1555 and 1583, parts of Terence, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, while +the painter Karel van Mander (1547-1609) put a French version +of the <i>Iliad</i> and of the <i>Eclogues</i> of Virgil into an equally ill-fitting +Flemish dress. In no country of Europe did the humanism of the +16th century at first affect the national literature so slightly or to +so little purpose.</p> + +<p>The stir and revival of intellectual life that arrived with the +Reformation found its first expression in the composition of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +Psalms. The earliest printed collection appeared at Antwerp in +1540, under the title of <i>Souter-Liedekens</i>, and was dedicated to +<span class="sidenote">Psalms and hymns.</span> +a Dutch nobleman, Willem van Zuylen van Nieuvelt, +by whose name it is usually known. This collection, +however, was made before the Reformation in Holland +really set in. For the Protestant congregations +Jan Utenhove printed a volume of Psalms in London in 1566; +Lucas de Heere (1534-1585), and immediately after him, with +much greater success, Petrus Datheen (1531-1590), translated +the hymns of Clément Marot. For printing this last volume, +in 1567, Herman Schinkel of Delft was burned to death in 1568. +Datheen was not a rhetorician, but a person of humble origin, +who wrote in the vulgar tongue, and his hymns spread far and +wide among the people. Until 1773 they were in constant use +in the state church of Holland. But the great events of the +period of reformation are not marked by psalms only in Dutch +literature. Two collections of hymns and lyrical pieces, printed +in 1562 and 1569, perpetuate the fervour and despair of the +martyrs of the Mennonite Church. Similar utterances of the +persecuted Protestants were published at Haarlem and Leeuwarden, +at Ghent and at Bruges. Very different in tone were +<span class="sidenote">Battle-songs.</span> +the battle-songs of liberty and triumph sung a generation +later by the victorious Reformers, the “Geuzen” +or “Gueux” (<i>q.v.</i>). The famous song-book of 1588, the +<i>Geusen Lieden Boecxken</i>, was full of ardent and heroic sentiment, +expressed often in marvellously brilliant phrases. In this +collection appeared for the first time such classical snatches of +Dutch song as the Ballad of Heiligerlee, the Ballad of Egmond +and Horn, and the song of the Storm of Leiden. The +political ballads, with their ridicule of the Spanish leaders, +form a section of the <i>Boecxken</i> which has proved of inestimable +value to historians. All these lyrics, however, whether +of victory or of martyrdom, are still very rough in form and +language.</p> + +<p>The first writer who used the Dutch tongue with grace and +precision of style was a woman and a professed opponent of +Lutheranism and reformed thought. Modern Dutch +literature practically begins with Anna Bijns (<i>c.</i> 1494-1575). +<span class="sidenote">Anna Bijns.</span> +Against the crowd of rhetoricians and psalm-makers +of the early part of the 16th century she stands out in +relief as the one poet of real genius. The language, oscillating +before her time between French and German, formless, corrupt +and invertebrate, took shape and comeliness, which none of the +male pedants could give it, from the impassioned hands of a +woman. Anna Bijns, who is believed to have been born at +Antwerp in 1494, was a schoolmistress at that city in her middle +life, and in old age she still “instructed youth in the Catholic +religion.” She died on the 10th of April 1575. Hendrik +Peppinck, a Franciscan, who edited her third volume of poems +when she was an old woman in 1567, speaks of her as “a maiden +small of descent, but great of understanding, and godly of life.” +Her first known volume bears the date 1528, and displays her +as already deeply versed in the mysteries of religion. We gather +from all this that she was a lay nun, and she certainly occupied +a position of great honour and influence at Antwerp. She was +named “the Sappho of Brabant” and the “Princess of all +Rhetoricians.” She bent the powerful weapon of her verse +against the faith and character of Luther. In her volume of +1528 the Lutherans are scarcely mentioned; in that of 1538 +every page is occupied with invectives against them; while +the third volume of 1567 is the voice of one from whom her age +has passed. All the poems of Anna Bijns which we possess are +called <i>refereinen</i> or refrains.<a name="fa9q" id="fa9q" href="#ft9q"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Her mastery over verse-form +was extremely remarkable, and these refrains are really modified +chants-royal. The writings of Anna Bijns offer many points of +interest to the philologist. In her the period of Middle Dutch +closes, and the modern Dutch begins. In a few grammatical +peculiarities—such as the formation of the genitive by some +verbs which now govern the accusative, and the use of <i>ghe</i> +before the infinitive—her language still belongs to Middle +Dutch; but these exceptions are rare, and she really initiated +that modern speech which Filips van Marnix adopted and made +classical in the next generation.</p> + +<p>In Filips van Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde (1538-1598), a +much greater personage came forward in the ranks of liberty and +reform. He was born at Brussels in 1538, and began life +as a disciple of Calvin and Beza in the schools of Geneva. +<span class="sidenote">Marnix.</span> +It was as a defender of the Dutch iconoclasts that he first appeared +in print, with his tract on <i>The Images thrown down in Holland +in August 1566</i>. He soon became one of the leading spirits in +the war of Dutch independence, the intimate friend of the prince +of Orange, and the author of the glorious <i>Wilhelmuslied</i>. It was +in the autumn of 1568 that Marnix composed this, the national +hymn of Dutch liberty and Protestantism. In 1569 he completed +a no less important and celebrated prose work, the +<i>Biencorf</i> or Beehive of the Romish Church. In this satire he was +inspired in a great measure by Rabelais, of whom he was an +intelligent disciple. It is written in prose that may be said to +mark an epoch in the language and literature of Holland. Overwhelmed +with the press of public business, Marnix wrote little +more until in 1580 he published his <i>Psalms of David newly +translated out of the Hebrew Tongue</i>. He occupied the last years +of his life in preparing a Dutch version of the Bible, translated +direct from the original. At his death only Genesis was found +completely revised; but in 1619 the synod of Dort placed the +unfinished work in the hands of four divines, who completed it.</p> + +<p>In Dirck Volckertsen Coornhert<a name="fa10q" id="fa10q" href="#ft10q"><span class="sp">10</span></a> (1522-1590) Holland +for the first time produced a writer at once eager to compose +in his native tongue and to employ the weapons of +humanism. Coornhert was a typical burgher of North +<span class="sidenote">Coornhert.</span> +Holland, equally interested in the progress of national emancipation +and in the development of national literature. He was a +native of Amsterdam, but he did not take part in the labours of +the old chamber of the Eglantine, but quite early in life proceeded +to Haarlem, and was notary, secretary and finally pensionary +of the town. In 1566 he was imprisoned for his support of the +Reformers, and in 1572 he became secretary to the states of +Holland. He practised the art of etching, and spent all his +spare time in the pursuit of classical learning. He was nearly +forty years of age before he made any practical use of his attainments. +In 1561 he printed his translation of the <i>De officiis</i> of +Cicero, and in 1562 of the <i>De beneficiis</i> of Seneca. In these +volumes he opposed with no less zeal than Marnix had done +the bastard forms still employed in prose by the rhetoricians of +Flanders and Brabant. During the next decade he occupied +himself chiefly with plays and poems, conceived and expressed +with far less freedom than his prose, and more in the approved +conventional fashion of the rhetoricians; he collected his poems +in 1575. The next ten years he occupied in polemical writing, +from the evangelical point of view, against the Calvinists. In +1585 he translated Boethius, and then gave his full attention +to his original masterpiece, the <i>Zedekunst</i> (1586), or Art of +Ethics, a philosophical treatise in prose, in which he studied to +adapt the Dutch tongue to the grace and simplicity of Montaigne’s +French. His humanism unites the Bible, Plutarch and Marcus +Aurelius in one grand system of ethics, and is expressed in a +style remarkable for brightness and purity. He died at Gouda +on the 29th of October 1590; his works, in three enormous +folio volumes, were first collected in 1630.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the period of transition, Amsterdam +became the centre of all literary enterprise in Holland. In 1585 +two of the most important chambers of rhetoric in +Flanders, the “White Lavender” and the “Fig +<span class="sidenote">Amsterdam the centre of letters.</span> +Tree,” took flight from the south, and settled themselves +in Amsterdam by the side of the “Eglantine.” +The last-named institution had already observed the new +tendency of the age, and was prepared to encourage intellectual +reform of every kind, and its influence spread through Holland +and Zealand. In Flanders, meanwhile, crushed under the yoke +of Parma, literature and native thought absolutely expired. +From this time forward, and until the emancipation of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +southern provinces, the domain of our inquiry is confined to the +district north of the Scheldt.</p> + +<p>In the chamber of the Eglantine at Amsterdam two men +took a very prominent place, more by their intelligence and +modern spirit than by their original genius. Hendrick +Laurenssen Spieghel (1549-1612) was a humanist +<span class="sidenote">Spieghel.</span> +of a type more advanced and less polemical than Coornhert. +He wrote a charming poem in praise of dancing; but his chief +contributions to literature were his <i>Tweespraeck van de nederduytsche +letterkunst</i>, a philological exhortation, in the manner of +Joachim du Bellay’s famous tract, urging the Dutch nation to +purify and enrich its tongue at the fountains of antiquity, and a +didactic epic, entitled <i>Hertspieghel</i> (1614),<a name="fa11q" id="fa11q" href="#ft11q"><span class="sp">11</span></a> which has been greatly +praised, but which is now much more antiquated in style and +more difficult to enjoy than Coornhert’s prose of a similar +tendency. That Spieghel was a Catholic prevented him perhaps +from exercising as much public influence as he exercised privately +among his younger friends. The same may be said of the man +who, in 1614, first collected Spieghel’s writings, and published +them in a volume with his own verses. Roemer Pieterssen +<span class="sidenote">Roemer Visscher.</span> +Visscher<a name="fa12q" id="fa12q" href="#ft12q"><span class="sp">12</span></a> (1547-1620) proceeded a step further than +Spieghel in the cultivation of polite letters. He was +deeply tinged with a spirit of classical learning that +was much more genuine and nearer to the true antique than +any that had previously been known in Holland. His own disciples +called him the Dutch Martial, but he was at best little +more than an amateur in poetry, although an amateur whose +function it was to perceive and encourage the genius of professional +writers. Roemer Visscher stands at the threshold of the +new Renaissance literature, himself practising the faded arts of +the rhetoricians, but pointing by his counsel and his conversation +to the naturalism of the great period.</p> + +<p>It was in the salon at Amsterdam which the beautiful daughters +of Roemer Visscher formed around their father and themselves +that the new school began to take form. The republic +of the United Provinces, with Amsterdam at its head, +<span class="sidenote">The Renaissance.</span> +had suddenly risen to the first rank among the nations +of Europe, and it was under the influence of so much new emotion +and brilliant ambition that the country no less suddenly asserted +itself in a great school of painting and poetry. The intellect of +the whole Low Countries was concentrated in Holland and +Zealand, while the six great universities, Leiden, Groningen, +Utrecht, Amsterdam, Harderwijk and Franeker, were enriched +by a flock of learned exiles from Flanders and Brabant. It had +occurred, however, to Roemer Visscher only that the path of +literary honour lay, not along the utilitarian road cut out by +Maerlant and Boendale, but in the study of beauty and antiquity. +In this he was curiously aided by the school of ripe and enthusiastic +scholars who began to flourish at Leiden, such as Drusius, +Vossius and Hugo Grotius, who themselves wrote little in Dutch, +but who chastened the style of the rising generation by insisting +on a pure and liberal Latinity. Out of that generation arose +the greatest names in the literature of Holland—Vondel, Hooft, +Cats, Huygens—in whose hands the language, so long left +barbarous and neglected, took at once its highest finish and +melody. By the side of this serious and aesthetic growth there +is to be noticed a quickening of the broad and farcical humour +which had been characteristic of the Dutch nation from its +commencement. For fifty years, and these the most glorious +in the annals of Holland, these two streams of influence, one +towards beauty and melody, the other towards lively comedy, +ran side by side, often in the same channel, and producing a rich +harvest of great works. It was in the house of the daughters of +Roemer Visscher that the tragedies of Vondel and the comedies of +Bredero, the farces of Coster and the odes of Huygens, alike +found their first admirers and their best critics.</p> + +<p>Of the famous daughters of Roemer, two cultivated literature +with marked success. Anna (1584-1651) was the author of +a descriptive and didactic poem, <i>De Roemster van den Aemstel</i> +(The Glory of the Aemstel), and of various miscellaneous writings; +<span class="sidenote">Roemer Visscher’s daughters.</span> +Tesselschade (1594-1649) wrote some lyrics which +still place her at the head of the female poets of +Holland, and she translated the great poem of Tasso. +They were women of universal accomplishment, +graceful manners and singular beauty; and their company +attracted to the house of Roemer Visscher all the most gifted +youths of the time, several of whom were suitors, but in vain, for +the hand of Anna or of Tesselschade.</p> + +<p>Of this Amsterdam school, the first to emerge into public notice +was Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647). His <i>Achilles and +Polyxena</i> (1598) displayed a precocious ease in the use +of rhetorical artifices of style. In his pastoral drama +<span class="sidenote">Hooft.</span> +of <i>Granida</i> (1605) he proved himself a pupil of Guarini. In +tragedy he produced <i>Baeto</i> and <i>Geraad van Velsen</i>; in history +he published in 1626 his <i>Life of Henry the Great</i>, while from 1628 +to 1642 he was engaged upon his master-work, the <i>History of +Holland</i>. Hooft desired to be a severe purist in style, and to a +great extent he succeeded, but, like most of the writers of his +age, he permitted himself too many Latinisms. In his poetry, +especially in the lyrical and pastoral verse of his youth, he is full +of Italian reminiscences both of style and matter; in his noble +prose work he has set himself to be a disciple of Tacitus. Motley +has spoken of Hooft as one of the greatest historians, not merely +of Holland, but of Europe. His influence in purifying the +language of his country, and in enlarging its sphere of experience, +can hardly be overrated.</p> + +<p>Very different from the long and prosperous career of Hooft +was the brief, painful life of the greatest comic dramatist +that Holland has produced. Gerbrand Adriaanssen +Bredero<a name="fa13q" id="fa13q" href="#ft13q"><span class="sp">13</span></a> (1585-1618), the son of an Amsterdam +<span class="sidenote">Bredero.</span> +shoemaker, was born on the 16th of March 1585. He knew no +Latin; he had no taste for humanism; he was a simple growth +of the rich humour of the people. He entered the workshop of +the painter Francisco Badens, but accomplished little in art. +His life was embittered by a hopeless love for Tesselschade, to +whom he dedicated his dramas, and whose beauty he celebrated +in a whole cycle of love songs. His ideas on the subject of drama +were at first a mere development of the medieval “Abelespelen.” +The “Oude Kammer,” one of the chambers of rhetoric, furnished +an opening for his dramatic powers. He commenced by dramatizing +the romance of <i>Roderick and Alphonsus</i>, in 1611, and <i>Griane</i> +in 1612, but in the latter year he struck out a new and more +characteristic path in his <i>Farce of the Cow</i>. From this time +until his death he continued to pour out comedies, farces and +romantic dramas, in all of which he displayed a coarse, rough +genius not unlike that of Ben Jonson, whose immediate contemporary +he was. His last and best piece was <i>Jerolimo, the Spanish +Brabanter</i>, a satire upon the exiles from the south who filled the +halls of the Amsterdam chambers of rhetoric with their pompous +speeches and preposterous Burgundian phraseology. The piece +was based on a Dutch version (Delft, 1609) of an early Spanish +picaresque romance, <i>La Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes</i> (Burgos, +1554). Bredero was closely allied in genius to the dramatists of +the Shakespearian age, but he founded no school, and stands +almost as a solitary figure in the literature of Holland. He +died on the 23rd of August 1618. Theodore Rodenburg (d. 1644), +ridiculed by Bredero for his pretentiousness, had a wider knowledge +of contemporary foreign literature than the other dramatists. +He adapted some of the dramas of Lope de Vega, which +he had witnessed at Madrid, into Dutch, and in 1618 he adapted +Cyril Tourneur’s <i>Revenger’s Tragedy</i>.</p> + +<p>The only individual at all clearly connected with Bredero in +talent was Dr Samuel Coster,<a name="fa14q" id="fa14q" href="#ft14q"><span class="sp">14</span></a> who was born at Amsterdam +on the 16th of September 1579. He studied medicine at Leiden, +and practised at Amsterdam. He is chiefly remembered for +<span class="sidenote">Coster.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +having been the first to take advantage of the growing dissension +in the body of the old chamber of the Eglantine to form a +new institution. In 1617 Coster founded what he +called the “First Dutch Academy.” This was in fact +a theatre, where, for the first time, dramas could be publicly +acted under the patronage of no chamber of rhetoric. Coster +himself had come before the world in 1612 with his farce of +<i>Teuwis the Boor</i>, based on a folk-song in Jan Roulans’s <i>Liedekens +Boeckh</i>, and he continued this order of composition in direct +emulation of Bredero, but with less talent. In 1615 he began +a series of “blood-and-thunder” tragedies with his horrible <i>Itys</i>, +and he continued this coarse style of tragic writing for several +years. He survived at least until after 1648 as a supreme +authority in Amsterdam upon all dramatic matters.</p> + +<p>The first work of the greatest of all Dutch writers, Joost van +den Vondel (1587-1679), was <i>Het Pascha</i> (1612), a tragedy or +tragi-comedy on the exodus of the children of Israel, +written, like all his succeeding dramas, on the +<span class="sidenote">Vondel.</span> +recognized Dutch plan, in alexandrines, in five acts, and with +choral interludes between the acts. There is comparatively little +promise in <i>Het Pascha</i>. It was much inferior dramatically to the +plays just being produced by Bredero, and metrically to the +clear and eloquent tragedies and pastorals of Hooft; but it +secured the young poet a position inferior only to theirs. Yet +for a number of years he made no attempt to emphasize the +impression he had produced on the public, but contented himself +during the years that are the most fertile in a poet’s life with +translating and imitating portions of du Bartas’s popular epic. +The short and brilliant life of Bredero, his immediate contemporary +and greatest rival, burned itself out in a succession of +dramatic victories, and it was not until two years after the death +of that great poet that Vondel appeared before the public with +a second tragedy, the <i>Jerusalem laid Desolate</i>. Five years later, +in 1625, he published what seemed an innocent study from the +antique, his tragedy of <i>Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence</i>. All +Amsterdam discovered, with smothered delight, that under the +name of the hero was thinly concealed the figure of Barneveldt, +whose execution in 1618 had been a triumph of the hated +Calvinists. Thus, at the age of forty-one, the obscure Vondel +became in a week the most famous writer in Holland. For the +next twelve years, and till the accession of Prince Frederick +Henry, Vondel had to maintain a hand-to-hand combat +with the “Saints of Dort.” This was the period of his most +resolute and stinging satires; Cats took up the cudgels on +behalf of the counter-Remonstrants, and there raged a war of +pamphlets in verse. A purely fortuitous circumstance led to the +next great triumph in Vondel’s slowly developing career. The +Dutch Academy, founded in 1617 almost wholly as a dramatic +gild, had become so inadequately provided with stage accommodation +that in 1638, having coalesced with the two chambers +of the “Eglantine” and the “White Lavender,” it ventured on +the erection of a large public theatre, the first in Amsterdam. +Vondel, as the greatest poet of the day, was invited to write +a piece for the first night; on the 3rd of January 1638 the +theatre was opened with the performance of a new tragedy out +of early Dutch history, the famous <i>Gysbreght van Aemstel</i>. The +next ten years were rich in dramatic work from Vondel’s hand; +he supplied the theatre with heroic Scriptural pieces, of which +the general reader will obtain the best idea if we point to the +<i>Athalie</i> of Racine. In 1654, having already attained an age +at which poetical production is usually discontinued by the +most energetic of poets, he brought out the most exalted and +sublime of all his works, the tragedy of <i>Lucifer</i>. Very late in +life, through no fault of his own, financial ruin fell on the aged +poet, and from 1658 to 1668—that is, from his seventieth to +his eightieth year—this venerable and illustrious person, the +main literary glory of Holland through her whole history, was +forced to earn his bread as a common clerk in a bank, miserably +paid, and accused of wasting his masters’ time by the writing +of verses. The city released him at last from this wretched +bondage by a pension, and the wonderful old man went on +writing odes and tragedies almost to his ninetieth year. He died +at last in 1679, of no disease, having outlived all his contemporaries +and almost all his friends, but calm, sane and good-humoured +to the last, serenely conscious of the legacy he left +to a not too grateful country. Vondel is the typical example +of Dutch intelligence and imagination at their highest development. +Not merely is he to Holland all that Camoens is to +Portugal and Mickiewicz to Poland, but he stands on a level +with these men in the positive value of his writings.</p> + +<p>Lyrical art was represented on its more spontaneous side +by the songs and ballads of Jan Janssen Starter (b. 1594), an +Englishman by birth, who was brought to Amsterdam +in his thirteenth year. Very early in life he was made +<span class="sidenote">Starter.</span> +a member of the “Eglantine,” and he worked beside Bredero +for two years; but in 1614 he wandered away to Leeuwarden, +in Friesland, where he founded a literary gild, and brought out, +in 1618, his plays <i>Timbre de Cardone</i>, <i>Fenicie van Messine</i>, the +subject of which is identical with that of Shakespeare’s <i>Much +Ado about Nothing</i>, and <i>Daraïda</i>. But his great contribution +to literature was his exquisite collection of lyrics, entitled the +<i>Friesche Lusthof</i>, or Frisian Pleasance (1621). He returned to +Amsterdam, but after 1625 we hear no more of him, and he is +believed to have died as a soldier in Germany. The songs of +Starter are in close relation to the lyrics of the English Elizabethans, +and have the same exquisite simplicity and audacity +of style.</p> + +<p>While the genius of Holland clustered around the circle of +Amsterdam, a school of scarcely less brilliance arose in Middelburg, +the capital of Zealand. The ruling spirit of +this school was the famous Jakob Cats (1577-1660). +<span class="sidenote">Cats.</span> +In this voluminous writer, to whom modern criticism almost +denies the name of poet, the genuine Dutch habit of thought, +the utilitarian and didactic spirit which we have already observed +in Houwaert and in Boendale, reached its zenith of fluency and +popularity. During early middle life he produced the most +important of his writings, his pastoral of <i>Galathea</i>, and his +didactic poems, the <i>Maechdenplicht</i> and the <i>Sinne- en Minne-Beelden.</i> +In 1624 he removed from Middelburg to Dort, where +he soon after published his tedious ethical work called <i>Houwelick</i>, +or Marriage; and this was followed from time to time by one +after another of his monotonous moral pieces. Cats is an +exceedingly dull and prosaic writer, whose alexandrines roll +smoothly on without any power of riveting the attention or +delighting the fancy. Yet his popularity with the middle +classes in Holland has always been immense, and his influence +extremely hurtful to the growth of all branches of literary art. +Among the disciples of Cats, Jakob Westerbaen (1599-1670) +was the most successful. His works included translations from +Virgil, Ovid, Seneca, Terence and Juvenal, besides original +poems. The Jesuit Adriaen Poirters (1606-1675) closely followed +Cats in his remarkable <i>Masquer of the World</i>. A poet of Amsterdam, +Jan Hermansz Krul (1602-1644), preferred to follow the +southern fashion, and wrote didactic pieces in the Catsian +manner.</p> + +<p>A poet of dignified imagination and versatile form was Sir +Constantijn Huygens (1596-1687), the diplomatist. He threw +in his lot with the great school of Amsterdam, and +became the intimate friend and companion of Vondel, +<span class="sidenote">Huygens.</span> +Hooft and the daughters of Roemer Visscher. His famous poem +in praise of the Hague, <i>Batava Tempe</i>, appeared in 1622, and +was, from a technical point of view, the most accomplished and +elegant poem till that time produced in Holland. His collected +poems, <i>Otiorum libri sex</i>, were printed in 1625. <i>Oogentroost</i>, or +Eye Consolation, was the fantastic title of a remarkable poem +dedicated in 1647 to his blind friend, Lucretia van Trello. He +printed in 1654 a topographical piece describing his own mansion, +<i>Hofwijck</i>. Huygens represents the direction in which it would +have been desirable that Dutch literature, now completely +founded by Hooft and Vondel, should forthwith proceed, while +Cats represents the tame and mundane spirit which was actually +adopted by the nation. Huygens had little of the sweetness +of Hooft or of the sublimity of Vondel, but his genius was +eminently bright and vivacious, and he was a consummate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span> +artist in metrical form. The Dutch language has never proved +so light and supple in any hands as in his, and he attempted no +class of writing, whether in prose or verse, that he did not adorn +by his delicate taste and sound judgment. A blind admiration +for John Donne, whose poems he translated, was the greatest +fault of Huygens, who, in spite of his conceits, remains +one of the most pleasing of Dutch writers. In addition to +all this he comes down to us with the personal recommendation +of having been “one of the most lovable men that ever +lived.”</p> + +<p>Three Dutchmen of the 17th century distinguished themselves +very prominently in the movement of learning and philosophic +thought, but the illustrious names of Hugo Grotius +(1583-1645) and of Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) can +<span class="sidenote">Bekker.</span> +scarcely be said to belong to Dutch literature. Balthasar +Bekker (1634-1698), on the contrary, a Reformed preacher +of Amsterdam, was a disciple of Descartes, who deserves to be +remembered as the greatest philosophical writer who has used +the Dutch language. His masterpiece, <i>Betoverde Wereld</i>, or +the World Bewitched, appeared in 1691-1693. Bekker is +popularly remembered most honourably by his determined +attacks upon the system of a penal code for witchcraft.</p> + +<p>From 1600 to 1650 was the blossoming time in Dutch literature. +During this period the names of greatest genius were +first made known to the public, and the vigour and grace of +literary expression reached their highest development. It +happened, however, that three men of particularly commanding +talent survived to an extreme old age, and under the shadow +of Vondel, Cats and Huygens there sprang up a new generation +which sustained the great tradition until about 1680, when the +final decline set in. Jan Vos (d. 1667) gained one illustrious +<span class="sidenote">Vos.<br />Brandt.</span> +success with his tragedy of <i>Aaron and Titus</i> in 1641, +and lost still more in 1642 by his obscene farce of <i>Oene</i>. +His second tragedy of <i>Medea</i>, in 1665, and his collected poems in +1662, supported his position as the foremost pupil of Vondel. +Geeraerdt Brandt (1626-1685), the author of a <i>History +of the Reformation</i> (4 vols., 1671-1704), deserves +remembrance less as a tragic dramatist than as a consummate +biographer, whose lives of Vondel and of De Ruyter are among +the masterpieces of Dutch prose. Johan Antonides van der Goes +<span class="sidenote">Goes.<br />Anslo.</span> +(1647-1684) followed Vos as a skilful imitator of +Vondel’s tragical manner. His Chinese tragedies, +<i>Trazil</i> (1665) and <i>Zungchin</i> (1666), scarcely gave promise of the +brilliant force and fancy of his <i>Yslroom</i>, a poem in praise of +Amsterdam, 1671. He died suddenly, in early life, leaving +unfinished an epic poem on the life of St. Paul. Reyer +Anslo (1626-1669) marks the decline of taste and +vigour; his once famous descriptive epic, <i>The Plague at Naples</i>, +is singularly tame and rococo in style. Joachim Oudaen (1628-1692) +<span class="sidenote">Oudaen.<br />Luiken.</span> +wrote in his youth two promising tragedies, +<i>Johanna Gray</i> (1648) and <i>Konradyn</i> (1649). The +Amsterdam section of the school of Cats produced Jeremias de +Decker (1609-1666), author of <i>The Praise of Avarice</i>, a satirical +poem in imitation of Erasmus, and Joannes Vollenhove (1631-1708), +voluminous writers of didactic verse. The engraver Jan +Luiken (1649-1708) published in 1671 a very remarkable +volume of poems. In lyrical poetry Starter had +a single disciple, Daniel Jonctijs (1600-1652), who published a +volume of love songs in 1639 under the affected and untranslatable +title of <i>Rooselijns oochjens ontleed</i>. None of these poets, +except in some slight degree Luiken, set before himself any +more ambitious task than to repeat with skill the effects of his +predecessors.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the romantic and voluminous romances of the +French school of Scudéry and Honoré d’Urfé had invaded +Holland and become fashionable. Johan van Heemskerk +(1597-1656), a councillor of the Hague, set himself +<span class="sidenote">Heemskerk.<br />Heinsius.</span> +to reproduce this product in native form, and published +in 1637 his <i>Batavian Arcadia</i>, the first original Dutch romance, in +which a party of romantic youths journey from the Hague to +Katwijk, and undergo all sorts of romantic adventures. This +book was extremely popular, and was imitated by Hendrik +Zoeteboom in his <i>Zaanlandsche Arcadia</i> (1658), and by Lambertus +Bos in his <i>Dordtsche Arcadia</i> (1662). A far more +spirited and original romance is the <i>Mirandor</i> (1675) of +Nikolaes Heinsius the younger (b. 1655), a book which resembles +<i>Gil Blas</i>, and precedes it.</p> + +<p>The drama fell into Gallicized hands at the death of Vondel and +his immediate disciples. Lodewijck Meijer translated Corneille, +and brought out his plays on the stage at Amsterdam, +where he was manager of the national theatre or +<span class="sidenote">Gallican dramatists.</span> +Schouwburg after Jan Vos. In connexion with +Andries Pels (d. 1681), author of the tragedy of <i>Dido’s +Death</i>, Meijer constructed a dramatic club, entitled “Nil Volentibus +Arduum,” the great object of which was to inflict the French +taste upon the public. Pels furthermore came forward as the +censor of letters and satirist of barbarism in <i>Horace’s Art of +Poetry expounded</i>, in 1677, and in his <i>Use and Misuse of the Stage</i>, +in 1681. Willem van Focquenbroch (1640-1679) was the most +voluminous comic writer of this period. The close of the century +saw the rise of two thoroughly Gallican dramatists, Jan van +Paffenrode (d. 1673) and Pieter Bernagie (1656-1699), who may +not unfairly be compared respectively to the Englishmen +Farquhar and Shadwell. Thomas Asselijn (1630-1695) was a +writer of more considerable talent and more homely instincts. +He attempted to resist the dictatorship of Pels, and to follow the +national tradition of Bredero. He is the creator of the characteristic +Dutch type, the comic lover, Jan Klaaszen, whom he +presented on the stage in a series of ridiculous situations. +Abraham Alewijn (b. 1664), author of <i>Jan Los</i> (1721), possessed +a coarse vein of dramatic humour; he lived in Java, and his +plays were produced in Batavia. Finally Pieter Langendijk, the +author of a farce borrowed from <i>Don Quixote</i>, claims notice +among the dramatists of this period, although he lived from 1683 +to 1756, and properly belongs to the next century. With him the +tradition of native comedy expired.</p> + +<p>The Augustan period of poetry in Holland was even more +blank and dull than in the other countries of northern Europe. +Of the name preserved in the history of literature +there are but very few that call for repetition here. +<span class="sidenote">Decline of poetry.</span> +Arnold Hoogvliet (1687-1763) wrote a passable poem +in honour of the town of Vlaardingen, and a terrible Biblical +epic, in the manner of Blackmore, on the history of Abraham. +Hubert Cornelissen Poot (1680-1733) showed an unusual love of +nature and freshness of observation in his descriptive pieces. +Sybrand Feitama (1694-1758), who translated Voltaire’s <i>Henriade</i> +(1743), and wrote much dreary verse of the same class himself, +is less worthy of notice than Dirk Smits (1702-1752), the mild +and elegiac singer of Rotterdam. Tragic drama was more or less +capably represented by Lucretia Wilhelmina van Merken (1722-1789), +wife of the very dreary dramatist Nicholaas Simon van +Winter (1718-1795).</p> + +<p>In the midst of this complete dissolution of poetical style, a +writer arose who revived an interest in literature, and gave to +Dutch prose the classical grace of the 18th century. +Justus van Effen<a name="fa15q" id="fa15q" href="#ft15q"><span class="sp">15</span></a> (1684-1735) was born at Utrecht, +<span class="sidenote">Van Effen.</span> +fell into poverty early in life, and was thrown very +much among the company of French émigrés, in connexion with +whom he began literary life in 1713 by editing a French journal. +Coming to London just when the <i>Tatler</i> and <i>Spectator</i> were in +their first vogue, Van Effen studied Addison deeply, translated +Swift and Defoe into French, and finally determined to transfer +the beauties of English prose into his native language. It was +not, however, until 1731, after having wasted the greater part of +his life in writing French, that he began to publish his <i>Hollandsche +Spectator</i>, which his death in 1735 soon brought to a close. Still, +what he composed during the last four years of his life, in all +its freshness, manliness and versatility, constitutes the most +valuable legacy to Dutch literature that the middle of the 18th +century left behind it.</p> + +<p>The supremacy of the poetical clubs in every town produced a +very weakening and Della-Cruscan effect upon literature, from +which the first revolt was made by the famous brothers Van +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +Haren,<a name="fa16q" id="fa16q" href="#ft16q"><span class="sp">16</span></a> so honourably known as diplomatists in the history of the +<span class="sidenote">The brothers Van Haren.</span> +Netherlands. Willem van Haren (1710-1768) wrote verses from +his earliest youth, while Onno Zwier van Haren (1713-1779), +strangely enough, did not begin to do so until he +had passed middle life. They were friends of Voltaire, +and they were both ambitious of success in epic +writing, as understood in France at that period. Willem published +in 1741 his <i>Gevallen van Friso</i>, a historical epos, and a long +series of odes and solemn lyrical pieces. Onno, in a somewhat +lighter strain, wrote <i>Piet and Agnietje, or Pandora’s Box</i>, and a +long series of tragedies in the manner of Voltaire. The baroness +<span class="sidenote">Baroness de Lannoy.<br /><br />Bellamy.</span> +Juliana Cornelia de Lannoy (1738-1782) was a writer of +considerable talent, also of the school of Voltaire; her +poems were highly esteemed by Bilderdijk, and she has a +neatness of touch and clearness of penetration that give +vivacity to her studies of social life. Jakobus Bellamy (1757-1786) +was the son of a Swiss baker at Flushing; his pompous +odes (<i>Gezangen myner Jeugd</i>, 1782; <i>Vaderlandsche +Gezangen</i>, 1782) struck the final note of the false taste +and Gallic pedantry that had deformed Dutch literature now for +a century, and were for a short time excessively admired.</p> + +<p>The year 1777 has been mentioned as the turning-point in the +history of letters in the Netherlands. It was in that year that +Elizabeth (Betjen) Wolff<a name="fa17q" id="fa17q" href="#ft17q"><span class="sp">17</span></a> (1738-1804), a widow lady +in Amsterdam, persuaded her friend Agatha (Aagjen) +<span class="sidenote">The ladies Wolff and Deken.</span> +Deken (1741-1804), a poor but extremely intelligent +governess, to throw up her situation and live with her. +For nearly thirty years these women continued together, writing +in combination, and when the elder friend died on the 5th of +November 1804, her companion survived her only nine days. +Madam Wolff had appeared as a poetess so early as 1762, and +again in 1769 and 1772, but her talent in verse was by no means +very remarkable. But when the friends, in the third year of +their association, published their <i>Letters on Divers Subjects</i>, it +was plainly seen that in prose their talent was very remarkable +indeed. Since the appearance of Heinsius’s <i>Mirandor</i> more than +a century had passed without any fresh start in novel-writing +being made in Holland. In 1782 the ladies Wolff and Deken, +inspired partly by contemporary English writers, and partly +by Goethe, published their first novel, <i>Sara Burgerhar</i>. In +spite of the close and obvious following of Richardson, this was +a masterly production, and it was enthusiastically received. +Another novel, <i>Willem Leevend</i>, followed in 1785, and <i>Cornelia +Wildschut</i> in 1792. The ladies were residing in France at the +breaking out of the Revolution, and they escaped the guillotine +with difficulty. After this they wrote no more, having secured +for themselves by their three unrivalled romances a place among +the foremost writers of their country.</p> + +<p>The last years of the 18th century were marked in Holland +by a general revival of intellectual force. The romantic movement +<span class="sidenote">Nieuwland.</span> +in Germany made itself deeply felt in all branches +of Dutch literature, and German lyricism took the +place hitherto held by French classicism. Pieter +Nieuwland (1764-1794) was a feeble forerunner of the revival, +but his short life and indifferent powers gave him no chance of +directing the transition that he saw to be inevitable. One volume +of poems appeared in 1788, and a second, posthumously, in 1797.</p> + +<p>The real precursor and creator of a new epoch in letters was the +famous Willem Bilderdijk (1756-1831) (<i>q.v.</i>). This remarkable +man, whose force of character was even greater than his +genius, impressed his personality on his generation so +<span class="sidenote">Bilderdijk.</span> +indelibly that to think of a Dutchman of the beginning of the +19th century is to think of Bilderdijk. In poetry his taste was +strictly national and didactic; he began as a disciple of Cats, nor +could he to the end of his life tolerate what he called “the puerilities +of Shakespeare.” His early love-songs, collected in 1781 +and 1785, gave little promise of talent, but in his epic of <i>Elias</i> +in 1786, he showed himself superior to all the Dutch poets since +Huygens in mastery of form. For twenty years he lived a busy, +eventful life, writing great quantities of verse, and then commenced +his most productive period with his didactic poem of +<i>The Disease of the Learned</i>, in 1807; in 1808 he imitated Pope’s +<i>Essay on Man</i>, and published the tragedy of <i>Floris V.</i>, and in +1809 commenced the work which he designed to be his masterpiece, +the epic of <i>De Ondergang der eerste Wereld</i> (The Destruction +of the First World), which he never finished, and which appeared +as a fragment in 1820. To the foreign student Bilderdijk is a +singularly uninviting and unpleasing figure. He unites in himself +all the unlovely and provincial features which deform the worst +of his countrymen. He was violent, ignorant and dull; his view +of art was confined to its declamatory and least beautiful side, +and perhaps no writer of equal talent has shown so complete +an absence of taste and tact. Ten Brink has summed up the +character of Bilderdijk’s writings in an excellent passage:—“As +an artist,” he says, “he can perhaps be best described +in short as the cleverest versemaker of the 18th century. His +admirable erudition, his power over language, more extended +and more colossal than that of any of his predecessors, enabled +him to write pithy and thoroughly original verses, although +the general tone of his thought and expression never rose above +the ceremonious, stagy and theatrical character of the 18th +century.” But in spite of his outrageous faults, and partly +because these faults were the exaggeration of a marked national +failing, Bilderdijk long enjoyed an unbroken and unbounded +popularity in Holland. Fortunately, however, a sounder spirit +has arisen in criticism, and the prestige of Bilderdijk is no longer +preserved so religiously.</p> + +<p>Bilderdijk’s scorn for the dramas of Shakespeare was almost +rivalled by that he felt for the new German poetry. Notwithstanding +his opposition, however, the romantic fervour found its +way into Holland, and first of all in the persons of Hieronymus +van Alphen (1746-1803) and Pieter Leonard van de Kastiele +(1748-1810), who amused themselves by composing funeral +poems of the school of Gessner and Blair. Van Alphen at one +time was extolled as a writer of verses for children, but neither +in this nor in the elegiac line did he possess nearly so much talent +as Rhijnvis Feith (1753-1824), burgomaster of Zwolle, the very +type of a prosperous and sentimental Dutchman. In his <i>Julia</i> +(1783), a prose romance, Feith proved himself as completely +the disciple of Goethe in <i>Werther</i> as Wolff and Deken had been +of Richardson in <i>Sara Burgerhart</i>. In Johannes Kinker (1764-1845) +a comic poet arose who, at the instigation of Bilderdijk, +dedicated himself to the ridicule of Feith’s sentimentalities. +The same office was performed with more dignity and less +vivacity by Baron W.E. van Perponcher (1741-1819), but Feith +continued to hold the popular ear, and achieved an immense +success with his poem <i>The Grave</i> in 1792. He then produced +tragedies for a while, and in 1803 published <i>Antiquity</i>, a didactic +epic. But his popularity waned before his death, and he was +troubled by the mirth of such witty scoffers as Arend Fokke +Simons (1755-1812), the disciple of Klopstock, and as P. de +Wacker van Zon (1758-1818), who, in a series of very readable +novels issued under the pseudonym of Bruno Daalberg, sharply +ridiculed the sentimental and funereal school.</p> + +<p>Under the Batavian republic a historian of great genius arose +in the person of Johannes Henricus van der Palm (1763-1840), +whose brilliant and patriotic <i>Gedenkschrift van Nederlands +<span class="sidenote">Van der Palm.<br />Loots.</span> +Herstelling</i> (1816) has somewhat obscured +his great fame as a politician and an Orientalist. +The work commenced by Van der Palm in prose was continued +in verse by Cornelis Loots (1765-1834) and Jan Frederik Helmers +(1767-1813). Loots, in his <i>Batavians of the Time of +Caesar</i> (1805), read his countrymen a lesson in patriotism, +which Helmers far exceeded in originality and force by +his <i>Dutch Nation</i> in 1812. Neither of these poets, however, had +sufficient art to render their pieces classical, or, indeed, +<span class="sidenote">Helmers.</span> +enough to protect them during their lifetime from +the sneers of Bilderdijk. Other political writers, whose lyrical +energies were stimulated by the struggle with France, were +Maurits Cornelis van Hall (1768-1858), Samuel Iperuszoon +Wiselius (1769-1845) and Jan ten Brink (1771-1839), the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +second of whom immortalized himself and won the favour +of Bilderdijk by ridiculing the pretensions of such frivolous +tragedians as Shakespeare and Schiller.</p> + +<p>The healthy and national spirit in which the ladies Wolff and +Deken had written was adopted with great spirit by a novelist +in the next generation, Adriaan Loosjes (1761-1818), +a bookseller at Haarlem. His romantic stories of +<span class="sidenote">Loosjes.</span> +medieval life, especially his <i>Charlotte van Bourbon</i>, are curiously +like shadows cast forward by the Waverley Novels, but he has +little of Sir Walter Scott’s historical truth of vision. His production +was incessant and his popularity great for many years, +but he was conscious all through that he was at best but a +disciple of the authoresses of <i>Sara Burgerhart</i>. Another disciple +whose name should not be passed over is Maria Jacoba de +Neufville (1775-1856), author of <i>Little Duties</i>, an excellent story +somewhat in the manner of Mrs Opie.</p> + +<p>A remarkable poet whose romantic genius strove to combine +the power of Bilderdijk with the sweetness of Feith was Hendrik +Tollens (1780-1856), whose verses have shown more +<span class="sidenote">Tollens.</span> +vitality than those of most of his contemporaries. He +struck out the admirable notion of celebrating the great deeds of +Dutch history in a series of lyrical romances, many of which +possess a lasting charm. Besides his folk-songs and popular +ballads, he succeeded in a long descriptive poem, <i>A Winter in +Nova Zembla</i>, 1819. He lacks the full accomplishment of a +literary artist, but his inspiration was natural and abundant, and +he thoroughly deserved the popularity with which his patriotic +<span class="sidenote">Messchert.<br /><br />Bogaers.</span> +ballads were rewarded. Willem Messchert (1790-1844), +a friend and follower of Tollens, pushed the +domestic and familiar tone of the latter to a still further +point, especially in his genre poem of the <i>Golden Wedding</i>, +1825. Both these writers were natives and residents of Rotterdam, +which also claims the honour of being the birthplace of +Adrianus Bogaers (1795-1870), the most considerable +poetical figure of the time. Without the force and +profusion of Bilderdijk, Bogaers has more truth to nature, more +sweetness of imagination, and a more genuine gift of poetry than +that clamorous writer, and is slowly taking a higher position in +Dutch literature as Bilderdijk comes to take a lower one. Bogaers +printed his famous poem <i>Jochebed</i> in 1835, but it had then been in +existence more than thirteen years, so that it belongs to the +second period of imaginative revival in Europe, and connects the +name of its author with those of Byron and Heine. Still more +beautiful was his <i>Voyage of Heemskerk to Gibraltar</i> (1836), in +which he rose to the highest level of his genius. In 1846 he +privately printed his <i>Romances and Ballads</i>. Bogaers had a great +objection to publicity, and his reputation was long delayed by the +secrecy with which he circulated his writings among a few +intimate friends. A poet of considerable talent, whose powers +were awakened by personal intercourse with Bogaers and +<span class="sidenote">Staring.</span> +Tollens, was Antoni Christiaan Winand Staring (1767-1840), +who first at the age of fifty-three came before the +world with a volume of <i>Poems</i>, but who continued to write till +past his seventieth year. His amorous and humorous lyrics +recall the best period of Dutch song, and are worthy to be named +beside those of Starter and Vondel.</p> + +<p>After 1830 Holland took a more prominent position in European +thought than she could claim since the end of the 17th century. +In scientific and religious literature her men of letters +showed themselves cognizant of the newest shades +<span class="sidenote">19th century influences.</span> +of opinion, and freely ventilated their ideas. The +language resisted the pressure of German from the +outside, and from within broke through its long stagnation +and enriched itself, as a medium for literary expression, with +a multitude of fresh and colloquial forms. At the same time, +no very great genius arose in Holland in any branch of literature. +The vast labours of Jakobus van Lennep (1802-1868) consist +of innumerable translations, historical novels and national +romances, which have gained for him the title of the leader of +the Dutch romantic school.</p> + +<p>The novels of Sir Walter Scott had a great influence on Dutch +literature, and the period was rich in historical novels. J. van +der Hage (1806-1854), who wrote under the pseudonym of Jan +Frederick Oltmans, was the author of the famous novels, <i>Castle +Loevenstein in 1570</i> (1834), and <i>The Shepherd</i> (1838), both +dealing with the national history. Other popular works were the +antique romance <i>Charikles and Euphorion</i> (1831) of Petrus van +Limburg-Brouwer (1795-1847), author of a history of Greek +mythology; the <i>Mejuffrouw Lèclerc</i> (1849), and the <i>Portretten van +Joost van den Vondel</i> (1876) of the literary historian and critic +J.A.A. Alberdingk Thijm (1820-1899); the <i>Jan Faessen</i> (1856) +of Lodewijk Mulder (b. 1822); and the <i>Lucretia d’Este</i> of +W.P. Walters (1827-1891). Johannes Kneppelhout (1814-1885) +sketched university life at Leiden in two amusing volumes +of <i>Studententypen</i> (1841) and <i>Studentenleven</i> (1844). Reinier +Cornelis Bakhuizen van den Brink (1810-1865) was the chief +critic of the romantic movement, and Everhard Johannes +Potgieter (1808-1875) its mystical philosopher and esoteric +lyrical poet. The genius and influence of Potgieter were very +considerable, but they were exceeded by the gifts of Nicolaes +Beets (<i>q.v.</i>), author of the famous <i>Camera Obscura</i> (1836), a +masterpiece of humour and character. Johannes Pieter Hasebroek +(1812-1896), who has been called the Dutch Charles Lamb, +wrote in 1840 an admirable collection of essays entitled <i>Truth +and Dreams</i>. Willem Hofdijk (1816-1888) wrote a collection +of ballads, <i>Kennemerland</i> (1849-1852), and a series of epic and +dramatic poems in the romantic style. Bernard ter Haar (1806-1881), +an Amsterdam pastor and, in the last year of his life, a +professor at Utrecht, made a reputation as a poet by his <i>Johannes +and Theagenes, a legend of apostolic times</i> (1838). His poems were +collected in 1866 and 1879. A poet of unusual power and promise +was lost in the early death of Pieter Augustus de Genestet (1803-1861). +His <i>Eve of Saint Nicholas</i> appeared in 1849, and was +followed by two volumes of verse in 1851 and 1861, the second of +which contains some poems that have attained great popularity. +Among the poets should not be forgotten two writers of verse for +children, Jan Pieter Heije (1809-1876) and J.J.A. Gouverneur +(1809-1889). Criticism was represented by W.J.A. Jonckbloet +(1817-1885), author of an excellent <i>History of Dutch Literature</i> +(1868-1870), C. Busken Huet, and Jan ten Brink (1834-1901), +author of a great number of valuable works on literary history, +notably of a history of Dutch literature (1897), and a series of +biographies of 19th century Dutch writers (new edition, 1902). +His novels were collected in 13 volumes in 1885. With Isaak +da Costa (<i>q.v.</i>), W.J. van Zeggelen (1811-1879), and J.J.L. +Ten Kate (<i>q.v.</i>), the domestic tendency of Cats and Bilderdijk +overpowered the influence of romanticism. The romantic drama +found its best exponent in H.J. Schiminel (<i>q.v.</i>), who found a +disciple in D.F. van Heyst (b. 1831), whose <i>George van Lalaing</i> +was produced in 1873. Hugo Beijerman (ps. Glanor) produced +a good play in his <i>Uitgaan</i> (1873), which was followed by other +successes. Rosier Faessen (b. 1833) published his dramatic works +in 1883.</p> + +<p>The recent literature of Holland presents the interesting +phenomenon of an aesthetic revolution, carefully and cleverly +planned, crowned with unanticipated success, and +dying away in a languor encouraged by the complete +<span class="sidenote">Recent developments.</span> +absence of organized resistance. It would perhaps be +difficult to point to another European example so well +defined of the vicissitudes which keep the history of literature +varied and fresh. For the thirty or forty years preceding 1880 +the course of <i>belles-lettres</i> in Holland was smooth and even +sluggish. The Dutch writers had slipped into a conventionality +of treatment and a strict limitation of form from which even the +most striking talents among them could scarcely escape. In +1880 the most eminent authors of this early period were ready to +pass away, and they appeared to be preparing no successors to +take their place. The greatest humorist of Holland, Nicolaas +Beets, had drawn his works together. The most interesting +novelist, Mrs Gertrude Bosboom-Toussaint, had in her last +psychological stories shown an unexpected sympathy with new +ideas. M.G.L. van Loghem (b. 1849), known under the +pseudonym of “Fiore delle Neve,” made a great success by his +<i>Een liefde in het Zuiden</i> (1881), followed in 1882 by <i>Liana</i>, and in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +1884 by <i>Van eene Sultane</i>. Among the novelists were Gerard +Keller (b. 1829), author of <i>From Home</i> (1867); Johan Gram (b. +1833), of whose novels <i>De Familie Schaffels</i> (1870) is the best +known; Hendrik de Veer (1829-1890), author of <i>Frans Holster</i> +(1871); Justus van Maurik (b. 1846), who wrote plays and short +sketches of Amsterdam life (<i>Uit het Volk</i>, 1879), and Arnold +Buning (b. 1846), whose <i>Marine Sketches</i> (1880) won great +popularity. The colonial novels of N. Marie C. Sloot, born in +Java in 1853, are widely read in Holland and Belgium, and many +of them have been translated into German. A number of them +were collected (Schiedam, 1900-1902) as <i>Romantische Werken</i>. +Adèle Opzoomer (b. 1856; pseud. A.C.S. Wallis) made her first +success in 1877 with <i>In Days of Strife</i>. The two leading Dutch +men of letters, however, besides Beets and Douwes Dekker, were +critics, Conrad Busken-Huet (<i>q.v.</i>) and Carel Vosmaer (<i>q.v.</i>). In +Huet the principles of the 1840-1880 period were summed up; he +had been during all those years the fearless and trusty watch-dog +of Dutch letters, as he understood them. He lived just long +enough to become aware that a revolution was approaching, +not to comprehend its character; but his accomplished fidelity +to literary principle and his wide knowledge have been honoured +even by the most bitter of the younger school. Vosmaer, +although in certain directions more sympathetic than Huet, +and himself an innovator, has not escaped so easily, because he +has been charged with want of courage in accepting what he knew +to be inevitable.</p> + +<p>In November 1881 there died a youth named Jacques Perk +(1860-1881), who had done no more than publish a few sonnets +in the <i>Spectator</i>, a journal published by Vosmaer. He was no +sooner dead, however, than his posthumous poems, and in +particular a cycle of sonnets called <i>Mathilde</i>, were published +(1882), and awakened extraordinary emotion. Perk had rejected +all the formulas of rhetorical poetry, and had broken up the +conventional rhythms. There had been heard no music like his +in Holland for two hundred years. A group of young men, +united in a sort of esoteric adoration of the memory of Perk, +collected around his name. They joined to their band a man +somewhat older than themselves, Marcellus Emants (born 1848), +poet, novelist and dramatist, who had come forward in 1879 +with a symbolical poem called <i>Lilith</i>, which had been stigmatized +as audacious and meaningless; encouraged by the admiration +of his juniors, Emants published in 1881 a treatise on <i>Young +Holland</i>, in the form of a novel in which the first open attack +was made on the old school. The next appearance was that of +Willem Kloos (born 1857), who had been the editor and intimate +friend of Perk, and who now undertook to lead the army of +rebellion. His violent attacks on recognized authority in +aesthetics began in 1882, and created a considerable scandal. +For some time, however, the new poets and critics found a great +difficulty in being heard, since all the channels of periodical +literature were closed to them. But in 1883 Emants expressed +his intellectual aspirations in his poem <i>The Twilight of the Gods</i>, +and in 1884 the young school founded a review, <i>De Nieuwe Gids</i>, +which was able to offer a direct challenge to <i>De Gids</i>, the ultra-respectable +Dutch quarterly. In this year a new element was +introduced: hitherto the influences of the young Dutch poetry +had chiefly come from England; they were those of Shelley, +Mrs Browning, the Rossettis. In 1884 Frans Netscher began to +imitate with avidity the French naturalists. For some time, +then, the new Dutch literature became a sort of mixture of +Shelley and Zola, very violent, heady and bewildering. In 1885 +the <i>Persephone and other Poems</i> of Albert Verwey (b. 1865) introduced +a lyrical poet of real merit to Holland; Emants published +his novel <i>Goudakker’s Illusions</i>. This was the great flowering +moment of the new school. It was at this juncture that the +principal recent writer of Holland, Louis Couperus (b. 1863), +made his first definite appearance. Born in the Hague, the +opening years of his boyhood were spent in Java, and he had +preserved in all his nature a certain tropical magnificence. In +1884 a little volume of lyrics, and in 1886 the more important +<i>Orchids</i>, showed in Couperus a poet whose sympathies were at +first entirely with the new school. But he was destined to be +a novelist, and his earliest story, <i>Eline Vere</i> (1889), already took +him out of the ranks of his contemporaries. In 1890 he published +<i>Destiny</i> (known as <i>Footsteps of Fate</i> in the English version), +and in 1892 <i>Ecstasy</i>. This was followed in 1894 by <i>Majesty</i>, in +1896 by <i>World-wide Peace</i>, in 1898 by <i>Metamorphosis</i>, a delicate +study of character, in 1899 by Fidessa, in 1901 by <i>Quiet Force</i>, +and in 1902 by the first volume of a tetralogy called <i>The Books +of Small Souls</i>. Of all these later books, some of which have +been translated into English, by Couperus, it is perhaps <i>Ecstasy</i> +in which the peculiar quality of his work is seen at present to +the greatest advantage. This is an extreme sensitiveness to +psychological phenomena, expressed in terms of singular delicacy +and beauty. The talent of Couperus is like a rich but simple +tropical flower laden with colour and odour. He separated +himself, as he developed, from the more fanatical members of the +group, and addressed himself to the wider public. Another +writer, of a totally different class, resembling Couperus only in his +defiance of the ruling system of aesthetics, is the prominent +Ultramontane politician and bishop, E.J.A.M. Schaepmann +(born 1844), whose poem of <i>Aja Sofia</i> originally appeared in 1886. +Recent novelists of some polemical vigour are H. Borel and van +Hulzen. A very delightful talent was revealed by Frederick +van Eeden in <i>Little Johnny</i> (1887), a prose fairy-tale; in <i>Ellen</i> +(1891), a cycle of mysterious and musical elegies; and in <i>From +the Cold Pools of Death</i> (1901), a very melancholy novel. Another +poet of less refinement of spirit, but even greater sumptuousness +of form, appeared in Helène Swarth-Lapidoth (born 1859), whose +<i>Pictures and Voices</i> belongs to 1887. In that year also, in which +Dutch literature reached its height of fecundity, was published +the powerful and scandalous naturalistic novel, <i>A Love</i>, by +L. van Deyssel (K.J.L. Alberdingk Thijm) who had hitherto +been known chiefly as a most uncompromising critic. After +1887 the condition of modern Dutch literature remained comparatively +stationary, and within the last decade of the 19th +century was definitely declining. In 1889, it is true, a new poet +Herman Gorter, made his appearance with a volume of strange +verses called <i>May</i>, eccentric both in prosody and in treatment. +He held his own without any marked advance towards lucidity +or variety. Since the recognition of Gorter, however, no really +remarkable talent has made itself prominent in Dutch poetry, +unless we except P.C. Boutens, whose <i>Verses</i> in 1898 were +received with great respect. Willem Kloos, still the acute and +somewhat turbulent leader of the school, collected his poems in +1894 and his critical essays in 1896. L. van Deyssel, though an +effective reviewer, continued to lack the erudition which years +should have brought to him. Gorter remained tenebrous, +Helène Swarth-Lapidoth still gorgeous; the others, with the +exception of Couperus, showed symptoms of sinking into silence. +The entire school, now that the struggle for recognition is over, +and its members are accepted as little classics and the tyrants +of taste, rests on its triumphs and seems to limit itself to a +repetition of its old experiments. The leading dramatist of +the close of the century was Hermann Heijermans (b. 1864), +a Jew of strong realistic and socialistic tendencies, and the +author of innumerable gloomy plays. His <i>Ghetto</i> (1898) and +<i>Ora et Labora</i> (1901) particularly display his peculiar talent. +Other notable products of drama are those of de Koo, whose +<i>Tobias Bolderman</i> (1900) and <i>Vier Ton</i> (1901) are effective +comedies. Dutch literature presented features of remarkable +interest between 1882 and 1888, but since that time the general +heightening of the average of merit, the abandonment of the old +dry conventions, and a recognition of the artistic value of words +and forms, are more evident to a foreign observer than any very +important single expression of the national genius in literary +art. An exception should be made in favour of the powerful +peasant-stories of Steijn Streuvels (Frank Lateur), a young baker +by trade, whose <i>Summer Land</i> (1901) was a most promising +production.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Dr W.J.A. Jonckbloet, <i>Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche +Letterkunde</i> (4th ed., 1889-1892); Dr J. ten Brink, <i>Kleine +Geschiedenis der Nederlandschen Letteren</i> (Haarlem, 1877); and the +same author’s <i>Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde</i> (1897), +with elaborate illustrations, facsimiles of MSS. and title pages, &c.; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +Dr J. van Vloten, <i>Schets van de Geschiedenis der Nederlandschen +Letteren</i> (1879); L. Schneider, <i>Geschichte der niederländischen +Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1887); G. Kalff, <i>Literatuur en tooneel te Amsterdam +in de zeventiende Eeuw</i> (Haarlem, 1895).</p> + +<p>Interesting observations on the development of the new school +in Dutch literature will be found in Willem Kloos, <i>Veertien Jaar +Literatuur-Geschiedenis</i> (2 vols., 1880-1896), and in L. van Deyssel, +<i>Verzamelde Opstelen</i> (4 vols., 1890-1897), and in the series of monographs +and bibliographies by Prof. J. ten Brink, <i>Geschiedenis der +Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX<span class="sp">e</span> Eeuw</i> (Rotterdam, new ed. +1902, &c.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Edited by J.F. Willems (Brussels, 1836).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2q" id="ft2q" href="#fa2q"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Edited by C.P. Serrure and Ph. Blommaert (Ghent, 1852-1854).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3q" id="ft3q" href="#fa3q"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Edited by Dr E. Verwijs (Leiden, 1868).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4q" id="ft4q" href="#fa4q"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Edited by L.P.C. v. den Bergh (Leiden, 1846-1847).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5q" id="ft5q" href="#fa5q"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Edited by P. Leendertz (Leiden, 1845-1847).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6q" id="ft6q" href="#fa6q"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Edited by Dr Jul. Zacher in Haupt’s <i>Zeitschrift für deutsches +Altertum</i>, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1842).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7q" id="ft7q" href="#fa7q"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Schotel, <i>Geschiedenis der Rederijkers in Nederland</i> (1862-1864), +Amsterdam.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8q" id="ft8q" href="#fa8q"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For Houwaert, see a study by K.F. Stallaert in the <i>Nederlandsch +Museum</i> (1885).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9q" id="ft9q" href="#fa9q"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Ed. Dr W.L. van Helten (1875).</p> + +<p><a name="ft10q" id="ft10q" href="#fa10q"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For Coornhert see also J. ten Brink, <i>D.V. Coornhert en zijne +wellevenkunst</i> (Amsterdam, 1860).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11q" id="ft11q" href="#fa11q"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The best edition is by P. Vlaming (Amsterdam, 1723).</p> + +<p><a name="ft12q" id="ft12q" href="#fa12q"><span class="fn">12</span></a> On Visscher and his daughters see N. Beets, <i>Al de gedichten van +Anna Roemers Visscher</i> (1881), and E. Gosse, <i>Studies in the Literature +of Northern Europe</i> (1879).</p> + +<p><a name="ft13q" id="ft13q" href="#fa13q"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See J. ten Brink, <i>G.A. Brederoo</i> (Utrecht, 1859; 3rd ed. 1887-1888); +also J.H.W. Unger, <i>Brederoo, eine Bibliographie</i> (1884). +His works were edited (3 vols., 1885-1890) by J. ten Brink and +others.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14q" id="ft14q" href="#fa14q"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See R.A. Kollewijn’s edition of <i>Samuel Coster’s Werken</i> +(1883).</p> + +<p><a name="ft15q" id="ft15q" href="#fa15q"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See Dr W. Bisschop, <i>Justus van Effen ...</i> (Utrecht, 1859).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16q" id="ft16q" href="#fa16q"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See Dr J. van Vloten, <i>Leven enwerken van Willem en Onno van +Haren</i> (1874), and Busken-Huet, <i>De van Harens</i> (1875).</p> + +<p><a name="ft17q" id="ft17q" href="#fa17q"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See Dr J. van Vloten, <i>Elisabeth Wolff ...</i> (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTCH WARS,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> a convenient general title for a series of +European wars between 1652 and 1678, which centred chiefly +upon the political and commercial relations of the Netherlands +with England and France. By Englishmen the term “Dutch +Wars” is usually applied to the two purely naval wars of 1652-53 +and 1663-67 and to the Anglo-Dutch or naval part of the war +that began in 1672. But the last of these was part of a much +wider struggle by land, known to Continental historians as the +Dutch War of 1672-78, and the second part of this article +deals with their struggle on the various frontiers of France, which +was illustrated by the genius of Turenne and Condé.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Naval Operations</p> + +<p><i>First Dutch War</i> (<i>1652-53</i>).—Though political causes were at +work, the main incentive to hostility between the peoples was +commercial rivalry. It was therefore natural that their first +encounters should have taken place between fleets engaged in +convoying trade, or in endeavouring to intercept the trade of +their enemy. Blows were exchanged before war was formally +declared. On the 12th of May 1652 an English officer, Captain +Young, stopped a Dutch convoy near the Start in order to +enforce the salute to the English flag, which England then +demanded from all who used the seas round her coast. The +demand was resisted, and was only yielded to after a sharp +conflict. Though the Dutch were still endeavouring to negotiate +a peace with the Council of State which governed in the British +Isles after the execution Of King Charles I., they made ready for +war. In May forty sail of their war-ships appeared off Dover +under command of Martin Harpertzoon Tromp—then the best +known of their admirals. There were then 8 British ships in +Dover under Rear-Admiral Nicholas Bourne, and 15 near Rye +under Robert Blake, a member of parliament, and soldier who +had gained a great reputation in the Civil War. Blake came into +the Straits of Dover with his ships, and on the 19th of May a sharp +collision took place between him and Tromp. Bourne joined his +countryman after the action began. The encounter, which the +Dutch attributed to the English, and the English to the Dutch, +made war inevitable, even if the relations of the two powers had +allowed of the maintenance of peace. The first operations on +both sides took the form of attacks on trade. Sir George Ayscue, +who had lately returned from the West Indies, whither he had +been sent to subdue the Royalist party in Barbados, had a sharp +encounter with a Dutch convoy while on his way up Channel to +the Downs, and had captured several prizes. The Council of +State, being mainly anxious to destroy the Dutch trade and +fisheries, began by reinforcing Blake, and sending him north +to scatter the Dutch herring fleet. He had with him 60 vessels. +Ayscue remained in the Downs with 16. Soon after Blake had +gone, Tromp appeared in the Downs with a stronger force and +threatened an attack on Ayscue. Want of wind prevented the +operation. Tromp was also most intent on collecting the home-coming +Dutch convoys, and seeing them safe into port. He +therefore also sailed north to meet the Baltic trade. No meeting, +however, took place between him and Blake, while bad weather +scattered the Dutch. Their herring fishery was ruined for the +year, and the outcry against Tromp was loud. He was notoriously +no friend to the Loevenstein party then prevalent in +Holland, and was displaced, his place being taken by Cornelius +de Witt and Michiel Adriaanzoon de Ruyter. De Ruyter was +sent into the Channel to convoy the outward-bound convoys, +and meet the home-coming trade. On the 16th of August he +had an encounter off Plymouth with Ayscue, whom he worsted, +and then cruised at the Land’s End. The failure of Ayscue, who +was not employed again in this war, induced the Council of State +to send Blake, who had now returned from the north, into the +Channel. He was not, however, more successful. His fleet was +allowed to become scattered, and the Dutchman brought his +convoy back safe after a partial action with Penn, Blake’s +subordinate, on the 16th of August.</p> + +<p>So far the operations had been confined to commerce destroying, +or to the protection of trade by convoy. The next moves +were more purely warlike. In the 27th of September the Dutch +appeared in force off the mouth of the Thames, and Blake, whose +fleet was collected in the Downs, stood to sea. On the 28th of +September the first real battle of the war was fought off the +Kentish Knock, a shoal opposite the coast of Essex. The English +fleet standing to the north passed to west of the Dutch, and then +turned. In the close engagement which followed, the Dutch +were defeated. They did not fight well, and their failure was +attributed in part to the discontent of their seamen with the +removal of Tromp, and the unpopularity of de Witt. The +states-general found it necessary to replace Tromp, who was at +once sent to sea, again with the charge of seeing the outward-bound +trade down Channel, and waiting for the homeward-bound. +Blake had not remained on the coast of Holland, for the +Council of State was still almost as intent as the Dutch on +convoying trade or molesting the enemy’s. It brought its fleet +back, and then divided the ships, sending some to the north +with Penn, and keeping the others, 40 in all, with Blake in the +Downs. Thus when Tromp appeared “at the back of the +Goodwins” with a fleet of 80 war-ships and a crowd of merchant +vessels on the 29th of November, Blake was not in a position +to engage him with any assured prospect of success. But he +made the attempt, and a hot engagement took place off Dungeness +on the 30th. Two English vessels were taken, and the loss +would have been greater if some of the English captains had not +shown themselves backward. Many of the ships were merchant +vessels pressed or hired, and commanded by their own skippers, +who displayed little military spirit. Blake, who offered to +resign, complained of the conduct of many of them, and +some were punished. The Council of State saw the necessity for +making a strong effort against Tromp, who ranged the Channel +unopposed. Penn was recalled from the north, Richard Deane +and George Monk were united with Blake as “admirals and +generals at sea,” and a competent force was collected by the +middle of February. The legend (for it is nothing more) that +Tromp hoisted a broom at his mainmast-head to announce his +intention to sweep the English off the sea, refers to this period.</p> + +<p>On the 18th of February 1653 the Dutch admiral, who had +now collected the homeward-bound convoys, was off Plymouth +on his way back to Holland, and was attacked by the English +fleet. The encounter, which lasted from the 18th to the 20th of +February and ranged from Plymouth to Calais, is commonly +named the “Three Days’ Battle” and was described by Clarendon +as “stupendous.” The Dutch admiral brought his charge of +merchant ships up Channel between him and the French shore. +His war-ships were arranged in what was called a half-moon, +and was in fact an obtuse angle with his flagship, the +“Brederode,” at the apex. During the 18th and 19th, the +attacks of the English though fierce were partial, and met with +no great success. Tromp had to complain of the conduct of +several of his captains. On the 20th his line was broken and +some 60 of his merchant ships were captured. He anchored in +some confusion in Calais roads. Yet by taking advantage of the +dark, and the turn of the tide, he succeeded in carrying the great +majority of his merchant ships home. The English fleet had +suffered severely, Blake himself was seriously wounded, and his +colleague Deane was also hurt. Blake’s wound disabled him +greatly through the remainder of the war.</p> + +<p>The Three Days’ Battle was followed by a pause in the war. +On the English side much damage had to be repaired. The +administration of the navy, called upon as it was to deal with +a war of unprecedented magnitude, was overtaxed by the +obligation to refit ships, raise crews, and provide for the numerous +sick or wounded. The close approach of the great political +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> +crisis in which Cromwell expelled the Long Parliament and +established the Protectorate (17th of April 1653), may have had +some influence. The fleet adhered to the new government on +the 22nd of April. On the Dutch side much damage had to be +repaired, and their complicated administration, by five independent +admiralty boards, rendered rapid work impossible. +They had also begun to realize that the quality of their ships was +inferior. Reflection had further shown them that to hamper +their fleets by imposing the direct protection of a great flock of +merchant ships on them was not even an effectual way to protect +commerce. When, therefore, Tromp was next sent to sea, it was +with an unhampered fleet of war-ships, and for the purpose of +bringing the English fleet to battle.</p> + +<p>In spite of their heavy losses and their awkward administration, +the Dutch were at sea before the end of May, and were close +to the mouth of the Thames. The English fleet was not all ready. +Part was in the river fitting out under Blake, who had not fully +recovered from his wound. The bulk of it was, however, ready +for service, and Blake’s colleagues, Monk and Deane, attacked +Tromp on the 2nd of June. Changes of wind made the battle +somewhat confused. At first the English were to windward and +they bore down with Rear-Admiral John Lawson in command of +the van. Tromp, conscious that his ships were weaker in build, +at first drew away, firing at the spars of the English ships in order +to cripple them. A shift of the wind having given him the +weather-gage, he concentrated a vigorous attack on Lawson. +But the wind changed again and transferred the weather-gage to +the English. Monk and Deane brought on a general action, in +which the Dutch were outmatched, and forced to retreat to their +own coast. Deane was slain by a cannon-shot by the side of his +colleague Monk, who threw his cloak over the mangled body. +Blake, informed by the sound of the cannon, which was audible +on the Thames, that an action was in progress, hurried to sea and +joined Monk in the pursuit of the Dutch on the 3rd of June. +Tromp was driven into port and told the states-general that they +must build better ships if they wished to beat the English at sea. +Blake was forced by his still unhealed wound to go ashore, and +the sole command was left to Monk, who remained cruising on the +coast of Holland. The states-general now sought for peace, but +Cromwell’s demands were excessive, and could not be accepted +without a surrender of the independence of Holland. A last effort +was therefore made to regain the command of the sea. A great +fleet was fitted out, partly at Flushing, partly in the Texel. +Between the 26th and the 30th of July Tromp, by a series of +skilful manœuvres, united the divided Dutch squadrons in the +face of Monk’s fleet, and on the 30th he stood out to sea with the +wind in his favour, and gave battle. More than a hundred vessels +were engaged on either side. The Dutch admiral manœuvred to +keep, and Monk to gain, the weather-gage. The fleets passed on +opposite tacks, and the Dutch tried to destroy their enemy with +fire-ships without success. At last the weatherly qualities of the +ships enabled Monk to break through the Dutch line, cutting +some of their ships off from the others. The vessels thus cut off +fled to the Maas, and Tromp with the others retired to the +Texel. He was shot dead by a musket bullet in the retreat. +The loss of life had been heavy on both sides. Six captains of +Monk’s fleet were slain. The Dutch now sought peace, and +Cromwell offered better terms. During the fighting in the North +Sea the Mediterranean trade of England had suffered severely. +A squadron of trading ships and a few war vessels were blocked in +Italian ports till some of them were taken and others forced to +flee in March 1653 off Leghorn. The battle of the 31st of July +was the last serious operation of the war, though peace was not +formally made till some months later.</p> + +<p><i>Second Dutch War</i> (<i>1663-67</i>).—Although the formal declaration +of war was not made by the government of King Charles II. +till March 1665, the operations of the second Dutch War began in +October 1663. The king and his brother the duke of York +(James II.), who were largely interested in the slave-trading +Guinea Company, were eager to remove the Dutch ports from the +slave coast. They knew that war with the Republic, which had +recovered very rapidly from the disasters of the war of 1652-53, +would be popular with the trading classes in England. They relied +also on the known reluctance of the Dutch government to go to +war. In October 1663, therefore, a squadron was sent out under +command of Sir Robert Holmes to attack the Dutch in Gambia +and America. Their posts on the African coast were captured +and New Amsterdam (now New York) taken. The states-general +under the skilful management of the Grand Pensionary, +John de Witt, retaliated by sending de Ruyter from the Mediterranean, +where he was cruising against the Barbary pirates, to +follow Holmes. De Ruyter re-established the Dutch posts in +Gambia, and, though he failed to retake New Amsterdam, did +much injury to English trade before he returned to Holland. It +may be pointed out that all colonial settlements belonged at that +time exclusively to England, and the war was made entirely by +her, and in her interest, Scotland and Ireland having no share. +Numbers of Scotch sailors and of English deserters served in the +Dutch fleet in this war—the bad administration of the navy and +the constant ill-treatment of the crews having caused bitter +discontent. Other attacks were made on Dutch trade during +1664, but the great operations of war did not begin till May 1665. +In that month the duke of York was on the east coast of England +with a fleet of 80 to 90 sail, composed, according to the custom of +the time, of vessels of all sizes. A Dutch fleet of corresponding +strength was sent to sea, under command of Baron Opdam van +Wassenaer. In this war we do not find that the movements of +fleets were subordinated to the work of providing convoy. They +were sent to sea for the much more intelligent purpose of seeking +out the enemy and driving him off. It was understood that the +trade of the victor would be secure.</p> + +<p>The first battle took place from 30 to 40 m. S.E. of Lowestoft, +on the 3rd of June 1665. By the bad conduct of some of the +captains in the centre of the Dutch line, the English, who fought +with much spirit, were able to win a considerable victory. +Opdam’s flagship was blown up and he perished. But the +pursuit of the English fleet was feeble, and the retreat of the +Dutch was ably covered by Cornelius van Tromp, son of Martin +Tromp. Much scandal was caused by the mysterious circumstances +in which an order to shorten sail was given in the English +flagship, and doubts were expressed of the courage of the duke of +York. He withdrew, or was withdrawn, from the active command +at sea, and was replaced by the earl of Sandwich. On the +Dutch side vigorous measures were taken to enforce good +discipline. Four of the captains who had misbehaved on the 3rd +of June were shot for cowardice, and others were dismissed. +De Ruyter was named commander-in-chief, and John de Witt, +or later his brother Cornelius, accompanied the admiral as +delegate of the states-general to support his authority. The +earl of Sandwich did nothing becoming a capable commander. +Under his command the fleet made no attempt to blockade the +Dutch coast, but was turned from its proper work to engage in a +prize-hunting plot with the king of Denmark. The object was to +plunder a Dutch convoy which had taken refuge at Bergen in +Norway, then united to Denmark. The mutual interest of the +associates led to the failure of the plot. Sir Thomas Teddeman, +who was sent by Sandwich to attack the Dutch at Bergen, was +suspected by the Danish governor of intending to play false, was +fired on by the batteries, and was beaten off. De Ruyter +covered the return of the trade to Holland. Sandwich, who had +taken some prizes, unlawfully seized part of their cargoes for the +benefit of himself and the other flag officers. A loud outcry was +raised in the fleet and the country. Sandwich was displaced, +and his command was transferred to Monk, with whom was +associated the king’s cousin, Prince Rupert. The war had so far +been unsuccessful for England. The victory of the 3rd of June +was barren. Great injury was inflicted on English trade by +Dutch cruisers, while the wasteful administration of his officers +reduced the king’s treasury to much embarrassment. Winter +suspended the movements of the fleets.</p> + +<p>The year 1666 (called the <i>annus mirabilis</i>, for it included the +plague and the fire of London) was marked by fierce fighting +and changes of fortune. The French, who had signed a treaty +with Holland in 1662, were reluctantly induced to intervene in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +the war as the enemies of England. By May a Dutch fleet of +some eighty sail was at sea, preparing to watch the English, +and unite with the French. Monk and Rupert were fitting out +a fleet of nearly the same strength in the Thames. Under the +influence of their fear of a French naval force King Charles’s +ministers committed a great blunder. They detached Prince +Rupert into the Channel with 20 ships, leaving Monk with +only 57 to face the Dutch. The English commander put to sea, +and found the enemy anchored on the coast of Flanders, in +three divisions. He boldly attacked the van, hoping to cripple it +before it could be helped by the centre and rear. This daring +and well-judged move brought on the Four Days’ Battle of the +1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th of June (O.S.). On the 1st the Dutch van, +under Cornelius van Tromp, bore the brunt of the English attack. +The fighting was very fierce. One English admiral, Sir William +Berkeley, was slain, and another, Sir John Harman, was in +great danger. Monk drew off at night without doing all the harm +he had wished to the Dutch. During the 2nd of June the fleets +engaged again, and on this day the self-will of Van Tromp, +who commanded the rear in the battle, and the misconduct of +some of the ships in the van, prevented De Ruyter from making +full use of his numbers. Yet Monk was clearly overtaxed, and +on the 3rd he prepared to retreat to the Thames. During this +movement the “Prince” (100) carrying the flag of Admiral Sir +Robert Ayscue, ran on the Galloper Sand, and was lost. In +the evening Prince Rupert returned, and by hugging the coast of +Kent to the south of the fleets, was able to rejoin his colleague. +Monk and Rupert renewed the battle on the 4th. It was fought +with extreme fury, and terminated in the retreat of the English +to the Thames with a loss of 20 ships and 6000 men.</p> + +<p>The Dutch remained masters of the approach to the Thames +till the 21st of July. They menaced the coast of Essex, and +could easily have covered an invasion of England by a French +army if Louis XIV. had been disposed to send one. Danger +stimulated the English government to active exertions, and by +the 21st of July Monk and Rupert were enabled by a happy +combination of wind and tide to set to sea through the passage +called the Swin. A storm which scattered both fleets delayed +their meeting till the 25th of July. On that and the two succeeding +days the Dutch were again defeated and driven into port. +The English fleet then burnt the Dutch East India Company’s +dockyard at Terschelting, inflicting great loss. But the fruits +of the victory were less than they would have been if it had +been properly followed up. The British fleet withdrew to its +own coast and within a month De Ruyter was at sea again, +hoping to effect a junction with a French squadron. The +French failed to keep tryst, and De Ruyter was watched by +Rupert, who was now in sole command, Monk having been +recalled to London to take command amid the confusion caused +by the fire and the plague. Nor did the failure of King Charles’s +government to press the war with vigour end here. Embarrassed +by want of money, on bad terms with his parliament, +and secretly intent on schemes incompatible with a policy which +could earn the approval of his subjects, the king preferred to +spend what money he could command on raising troops, and +neglected his fleet. Peace negotiations were begun with the +Dutch, and the line-of-battle ships were put out of commission. +A light squadron was, however, kept at sea to injure the Dutch +trade, and as no armistice was arranged the Republic was free +to continue warlike operations. The Dutch, being well aware of +the disarmed condition of the English coast, sent out a powerful +fleet again under the command of De Ruyter in June. It +entered the Thames, forced the entrance of the Medway, and +burnt both the dockyard at Chatham and a number of the +finest ships in the navy which were lying in the river. A terrible +panic prevailed in London, where an attack was expected. +The Dutch were content with the injury they had done at +Chatham, and dropped down the river. De Ruyter remained +cruising in the Channel till the peace of Breda was signed in +July. During the last months of the war Sir John Harman +had fought a successful campaign in the West Indies against +the French on whom he inflicted a severe defeat at Martinique +on the 24th of June. By the terms of the peace England retained +possession of New York, but the war, though it contained +some passages glorious to her arms, was very disastrous to her +commerce.</p> + +<p><i>Third Dutch War</i> (<i>1672-74</i>).—This war differed very +materially in its inception and conduct from the first and second. +They had been popular in England, and even the second gave +Englishmen not a little to be proud of. The third was undertaken +by the king in pursuit of a policy arranged between him +and his cousin Louis XIV. Their avowed object was a partition +of Holland, but there was a secret understanding that King +Charles II. was to establish Roman Catholicism, and to make +himself despotic in England, with the help of the French king. +This hidden purpose was suspected, and the war became intensely +unpopular with the English parliament and nation. Parliament +would grant the king no supplies, and he could find the means +of fitting out a fleet only by defrauding his creditors. The +English fleets were, therefore, comparatively small, were ill-provided +and had to co-operate with French squadrons which in +the then raw state of King Louis’ young navy, proved inefficient +allies.</p> + +<p>In this as in former wars, attacks on Dutch commerce preceded +a formal declaration of hostilities. On the 13th of March 1672 +Sir Robert Holmes fell upon a Dutch convoy under the command +of Van Ness in the Channel. In the penury of the dockyards +Holmes could not be provided with the force he was promised, +and the enterprise was but partially successful. It was characteristic +of the morality of his time and the spirit of the English +navy as it had been shaped by the corrupt government of +Charles II., that the officers concerned quarrelled violently and +accused one another of fraud. A fleet of 60 sail was with difficulty +got together under the duke of York, who now went to sea for +the second time. The duke was joined in May, and at Portsmouth, +by 40 French ships under the comte d’Estrées, a soldier +and noble who had been made an admiral late in life. The allies +entered the North Sea but did not take the offensive against +the Dutch. The English were ill supplied, and were compelled +to anchor at Southwold Bay on the coast of Suffolk in order to +obtain water and provisions. The Dutch, who had to contend +with an overwhelming French invasion on shore, nevertheless +fitted out a fleet of 70 to 80 sail of the line and the command was +given to De Ruyter. On the 28th of May 1672 he fell upon the +allies in a N.W. wind. D’Estrées, who was stationed with his +squadron at the south end of the line, went to sea on the port +tack, heading to the S.E. The English, who constituted the +centre and rear, stood out on the starboard tack. Thus the allies +were at once divided into two widely separated bodies, and the +Dutch admiral was able to concentrate nearly his whole force +on the centre division, which suffered severely. The flagship of +the duke of York, the “Prince” (100), was so shattered that +he was compelled to leave her, and go to the “St Michael.” +The “Royal James” (100), the flagship of his second in command, +the earl of Sandwich, after being much shattered by the +Dutch artillery, was set alight by a fire-ship, and destroyed with +enormous loss of life. The earl himself perished. His body +was picked up three days afterwards, so disfigured that it was +only recognized by the star on his coat. The ships at the head +of the English line at last tacked to the support of the centre, +and at evening De Ruyter drew off. A foolish attempt was +made to claim his retreat as a victory, but the allies were too +severely damaged to attempt an attack on the Dutch during the +rest of the year. The Republic was so hard pressed by the +French invasion that it had to land the gunpowder from its ships +for the service of its army.</p> + +<p>In 1673 the allies made an effort to invade Holland from the +sea coast. Prince Rupert replaced the duke of York, who as a +Roman Catholic was driven from office by the newly passed +Test Act. He was supplied with 54 ships and was joined early in +the year by d’Estrées with 27. Soldiers were embarked, and in +May the allied fleet stood over to the Dutch coast. The distress +of the Republic prevented it from equipping more than 55 ships, +but the patriotism of the race was roused to white heat, and in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +De Ruyter they possessed an admiral of consummate skill and +heroic character. He took up an anchorage at Schooneveld and +stood on his guard. On the 28th of May Rupert and d’Estrées, +believing that De Ruyter was too much afraid of their superior +numbers to venture to sea, sent in a squadron of light vessels and +fire-ships to attack him, but he took the offensive at once, +scattering the light squadron, and falling with energy on the rest +of the fleet, which, not being in expectation of a vigorous assault, +was taken at a disadvantage. On this occasion the English +placed the French in the centre, in order to avoid such a separation +as had taken place in the battle at Southwold Bay. But the +disposition made no difference in the result. De Ruyter concentrated +on the van and centre of the allies, and in spite of his great +inferiority of numbers was able to be superior at the point of +attack. The allies were compelled to retreat, and De Ruyter, +satisfied with having averted the invasion of his country, +anchored at West-Kappel.</p> + +<p>Seven days later, on the 4th of June, a second encounter took +place. The French were now placed in the rear of the line as it +engaged. The Dutch admiral, who had the advantage of the +wind, fell on the English in the van and centre. His inferiority in +numbers did not allow him to push his attack quite home, but he +inflicted so much injury that the allies were forced to return to +the Thames to refit. At the end of July the allies again appeared +off the coast of Holland, bringing four thousand soldiers in the +war-ships and two thousand in transports. De Ruyter’s fleet had +been raised to 70 vessels, but the allies had also been reinforced +and were 90 strong. On the 11th of August the Dutch +admiral kept in the shallow waters of the coast looking for a +favourable opportunity to attack. On the 11th of August the +wind, which had been westerly, turned to the S.E., giving him the +weather gage. The French division was leading, and De Ruyter +fell furiously upon the English in the centre and rear. The French +were kept in play by a small squadron under Bankert, while De +Ruyter drove Prince Rupert in the centre out of the line, and in +the rear Cornelius van Tromp fought a desperate duel with the +English rear division commanded by Sir E. Spragge. The two +admirals engaged in a species of personal conflict, and each was +compelled to shift his flag to another vessel. While Sir E. +Spragge, whose second flagship was shattered by the Dutch fire, +was on his way to a third, his boat was sunk by a cannon shot +and he was drowned.</p> + +<p>The defeat of the allies was undeniable, and a violent quarrel +broke out between them. Want of money, and the increasing +violence of popular opposition to the French alliance, compelled +the king to withdraw from the war. Peace was made in the +following spring.</p> + +<p>In this war, which presented no features of a creditable kind, +the loss to English commerce from Dutch cruisers was so great +that it was found necessary to suspend the clause of the navigation +act which forbade the purchase of foreign-built vessels.</p> + +<p>As England withdrew from her alliance with Louis XIV., the +other powers of Europe, frightened by the growth of the aggressive +French power, began to come forward to the support of +Holland. The coalition then formed continued the struggle till +1678. But the war was conducted mainly on the land. The +French king, who knew that his fleet was not as yet capable of +meeting the Dutch single-handed, was content to withdraw his +ships from the North Sea and the ocean. The Dutch, who had to +pay subventions to their German allies, and to support a large +army, could spare little for their fleet. For some time they +willingly confined themselves to efforts to protect their commerce +from French privateers. In 1674 a revolt of the people of Sicily +against their Spanish rulers gave the French king an opportunity of +seizing the island. Spain, unable to defend its possessions single-handed, +appealed to the Dutch for naval help. In September +1675 De Ruyter was sent into the Mediterranean with 18 sail of +the line and four fire-ships. The force was inadequate, but it +was all that Holland could spare. The Dutch admiral, who was +hampered rather than helped by his Spanish allies, did his best to +make good his weakness by skilful management. He cruised off +Messina to intercept the supplies which were being brought to the +French garrison by a fleet of 20 sail under the command of +Abraham Duquesne. Conscious that he must spare his small +force as much as possible, he abstained from such vigorous +attacks as he had made in 1672 and 1673. When Duquesne +appeared on the 7th of January 1676 near the Lipari Islands, De +Ruyter allowed them to get the weather-gage, and on the +8th of January waited passively for their attack. The French, +with more recklessness than was usual with them in later times, +bore down on their enemy courageously but in some disorder. +Their leading ships were severely mauled, and their whole force +so crippled that they could make no pursuit of the Dutch when +they drew off, their injured ships being towed by the Spanish +galleys, in the late afternoon. Duquesne was able to reach +Messina and join the French ships at anchor there. De Ruyter +made his way to Palermo, which was in the hands of the +Spaniards. One of his vessels sank on the way and he was +reduced to 17. It is true that his allies provided him with 10 +ships of their own, but the Spanish navy had sunk to abject +inefficiency. Their commander, the marquis of Bayona, +arrogantly insisted on occupying the centre of the line with his +worthless squadron instead of allowing his ships to be scattered +among the Dutch for support. When on the 22nd of April the +allies, 27 strong, met the fleet of Duquesne, 29 ships, off Agosta, +they attacked from windward. De Ruyter, who led the van, was +mortally wounded. The Spaniards in the centre behaved very +ill, and no victory was gained. The serious fighting was, in fact, +confined to the vans of the two fleets. After the battle the allies +retired to Syracuse, where De Ruyter died, and where their ships +were mostly destroyed by the French a month later. Reinforcements +sent out from Holland were stopped in the Straits of +Gibraltar and blockaded in Cadiz. The French remained masters +of the Mediterranean. In the meantime, however, angry disputes +had arisen between France and England. King Louis XIV. +enforced his belligerent rights at sea with as much disregard of +neutral interests as was shown by England in later times. His +naval officers insisted on making prize of all Dutch-built vessels +found under the English flag. In 1678 war seemed imminent +between France and England. King Louis then withdrew his +soldiers from Sicily, and made the peace of Nijmwegen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For the English side, see <i>Naval History of England</i>, +by Thomas Lediard (London, 1735); <i>Memorials of Sir W. Penn</i>, +by Grenville Penn (London, 1833); <i>The First Dutch War, 1652-1654</i>, +edited by S.R. Gardiner for the Navy Record Society (1899). +For the Dutch side: <i>Het Leven un Bedryf van den Heere Michiel de +Ruiter</i>, by Gerard Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687); <i>Geschiedenis van +den Nederlandsche Zeewegen</i>, by J.C. de Jongke (Haarlem, 1858); +<i>Annales des Provinces-Unies</i>, by J. Basnages de Beauval (The Hague, +1726). For the French side; <i>Abraham du Quesne et la marine de son +temps</i>, by A. Jal (Paris, 1873). For the small Spanish share; +<i>Armada Española</i>, by Captain Cesareo Fernandez Duro (Madrid, +1895-1901). For critical studies of these wars the reader may be +referred to <i>Naval Warfare</i>, by Rear-admiral P.H. Colomb (London, +1899), and <i>The Influence of Sea Power upon History</i>, by Captain +A.T. Mahan.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Operations on Land</p> + +<p>The contemporary military history of Europe included, first, +the war between France and Spain, 1654-59, usually called the +Spanish Fronde, of which the most notable incident was the great +battle of the Dunes fought on the 14th of June 1658 between +the French and English under Turenne and the Spaniards under +Condé, in which a contingent of Cromwell’s soldiers bore a +conspicuous part. About the same time a war was fought in +northern Europe (1655-60), celebrated chiefly for the three +days’ battle of Warsaw (28th, 29th, 30th July 1656), and the +successful invasion of Denmark by the Swedes, carried out from +island to island over the frozen sea (February 1658), and culminating +in a long siege of Copenhagen (1658-59). Between the +second and third wars of England and the United Provinces came +the short War of Devolution (1667-68)—a war of sieges in the +Low Countries in which the French were commanded chiefly by +Turenne. In 1668 the French under Condé made a rapid conquest +of Franche-Comté. This was, however, given up at the +peace. The war of 1672-78, the first of the three great wars of +Louis XIV., was fought on a grander scale.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span></p> + +<p><i>Invasion of Holland, 1672.</i>—The diplomacy of Louis had, +before the outbreak of war, deprived Holland of her allies—England +(treaty of Dover, 1670), Sweden (treaty of Stockholm, +1672) and the emperor, and when he declared war on the United +Provinces in March 1672, it seemed that the Dutch could offer +little resistance. The French army under Louis in person +started from Charleroi and marched down the Meuse unopposed. +The powerful Dutch fortress of Maastricht was masked, and the +French then moved towards Düsseldorf. In the electorate of +Cologne they were in friendly country, and the main army soon +moved down the Rhine from Düsseldorf, the corps of Turenne on +the left bank, that of Condé on the right. At the same time a +corps under Marshal Luxemburg, composed of Louis’ German +allies (Cologne and Münster) moved from Westphalia towards +Over-Yssel and Groningen. The Rhine fortresses offered but +little resistance to the advance of Turenne and Condé. William +of Orange with a weak field army tried to defend the Yssel-Rhine +line, but the French rapidly forced the passage of the Rhine at +Tollhuis (June 12th) and passed into the Betuwe (between the +Leck and the Waal). Condé now advised a cavalry raid on +Amsterdam, but Louis, acting on the suggestion of the war +minister Louvois, preferred to reduce Nijmwegen, Gorinchem +and other places, before entering Utrecht province. Condé’s +plan was, however, partially carried out by Count Rochefort, +who with 1800 troopers captured successively Amersfoort and +Naarden. His further progress was checked at Muyden, which +the Dutch garrisoned in the nick of time, and he returned to +the main army, taking Utrecht <i>en route</i>. Louis now moved on +Amsterdam, brushing aside the feeble opposition which was +offered, and it seemed that the French must achieve their object +in one short campaign. But the Dutch people were roused. +The month before, the citizens of Utrecht had refused to raze +their suburban villas, and defence of the fortifications had consequently +been impossible. Now, the dykes were cut and the +sluices opened, and Amsterdam was covered by a wide inundation, +against which the invader was powerless. At the same time the +men of Zealand repulsed a French raid from Ath on Ardenburg, +and this infraction of the neutrality of the Spanish Netherlands +served but to raise up another enemy for Louis. Luxemburg too, +at first successful, was repulsed before Groningen. A revolution +placed William of Orange at the head of the government. The +alliance of Brandenburg and the Mainz electorate had already +been secured, and Spain, justly fearing for the safety of her +Flemish possessions, soon joined them. The emperor followed, +and Louis was now opposed, not by one state, but by a formidable +coalition.</p> + +<p><i>War against the Coalition.</i>—In the autumn the war spread to +the Rhine. No attempt could be made on Amsterdam until the +ice should cover the floods. Turenne was therefore despatched +to Westphalia and Condé to Alsace, while a corps of observation +was formed on the Meuse to watch the Spanish Netherlands. +But the coalition had not yet developed its full strength, and +Turenne’s skill checked the advance of the Imperialists under +Montecucculi and of the Brandenburgers under the Great +Elector. A war of manœuvre on the middle Rhine ended in +favour of the French, and the allies then turned against the +territories of Cologne and Münster, while William, disappointed +in his hopes of joining forces with his friends, made a bold, but in +the end unsuccessful, raid on Charleroi (September-December +1672). The allies in Germany were now not merely checked but +driven from point to point by Turenne, who on this occasion +displayed a degree of energy rare in the military history of the +period. The troops of Cologne and Münster formed part of his +army, other friends of Louis were preparing to take the field, and +after a severe winter campaign, the elector, defeated in combat +and manœuvre, was forced back to the Weser, and being but +weakly supported by the Imperialists, found himself compelled +to make a separate peace (June 6th, 1673). Turenne then turned +his attention to the Imperialists who were assembling in Bohemia, +and made ready to meet them at Wetzlar. Meanwhile the other +French armies were fully employed. Corps of observation were +formed in Roussillon and Lorraine. Condé in Holland was to +renew his efforts against the Amsterdam defences; during the +winter the demands of the war on the Rhine had reduced the +French forces in the provinces to the size of a mere army of +occupation.<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Louis’ own army, originally collected for the +relief of Charleroi in December, advanced on Maastricht, and after +a brief siege, in which Vauban directed the besiegers, captured +this most important fortress (June 29th, 1673). But this was +the last success of the French armies in the campaign. Condé +made no headway against Amsterdam, and William retook +Naarden (September 14th). Louis, after the capture of Maastricht +led his army southwards into Lorraine and overran the +electorate of Trier. But nothing of importance was gained, and +Turenne’s summer campaign was wholly unsuccessful.</p> + +<p><i>Capture of Bonn.</i>—From Wetzlar he moved to Aschaffenburg, +Louis at the same time keeping back, for the intended conquest +of Franche-Comté, many soldiers who would have been more +usefully employed in Germany. Soon the Imperialists advanced +in earnest, greatly superior in numbers. Marching via Eger and +Nuremberg (September 3rd) on the Main, Montecucculi drew +Turenne to the valley of the Tauber; then, having persuaded the +bishop of Würzburg to surrender the bridge of that place, he +passed to the right bank of the Main before Turenne could +intervene. The Imperialists soon arrived at Frankfort, and the +French position was turned. Montecucculi thus achieved one of +the greatest objects of the 17th century strategist, the wearing +down of the enemy in repeated and useless marches. The French +retreat to the Rhine was painful and costly, and Montecucculi +then passed that river at Mainz and made for Trier. Turenne +followed, unable to do more than conform to his opponent’s +movements, and took post to defend Trier and Alsace. Thereupon +Montecucculi turned northward to meet William of Orange, +who evaded Condé’s weak army and marched rapidly via Venló +(22nd October) on Coblenz. The elector of Trier, who had not +forgotten the depredations of Louis’ army in the spring, followed +the example of the bishop of Würzburg and gave a free passage at +Coblenz. William and Montecucculi joined forces in the electorate +and promptly besieged Bonn. This fortress fell on the 12th of +November, and the troops of the coalition gained possession of an +unbroken line from Amsterdam to the Breisgau, while Louis’ +German allies (Cologne and Münster), now isolated, had to make +peace at once. William wintered in Holland, Montecucculi in +Cologne and Jülich, and the Spaniards, who had served with +William, in their own provinces of the Meuse. A century after +the outbreak of the War of Independence the Dutch and the +Spaniards are thus found making war as allies, a striking proof of +the fact that all questions but those of dynastic interests had been +effectually settled by the peace of Westphalia. Louis’ allies were +leaving him one by one. The German princes and the empire +itself rallied to the emperor, Denmark joined the coalition +(January 1674), the Great Elector re-entered the war, and soon +afterwards England made peace.</p> + +<p><i>1674.</i>—In 1674 therefore Louis reluctantly evacuated those +of the United Provinces occupied by his army. He had derived +a considerable revenue from the enemy’s country, and he had +moreover quartered his troops without expense. The resources +of the French government were almost intact for the coming +campaign; the corps of observation in Roussillon was continued, +and its commander, Marshal Schomberg, made a successful +campaign against the Spaniards, and the war was carried even +into Sicily. Condé, in the Spanish Low Countries, opposed +with inferior forces the united army of Spaniards, Dutch and +Austrians under William, and held the Meuse from Grave to +Charleroi on the Sambre. The war in this quarter was memorable +for Condé’s last, and William’s first, battle, the desperate and +indecisive engagement of Seneffe (August 11th), in which the two +armies lost one-seventh of their strength in killed alone. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +French, however, in the course of the year lost a few fortresses +on the Meuse, including Grave and Huy. The king’s part in +the campaign was, as usual, a war of sieges; an army under his +personal command overran Franche-Comté in six weeks, and +Louis, aided by the genius of Vauban, reduced Besançon in nine +days. Turenne’s Rhine campaign began with an invasion of +Germany, undertaken to prevent interference with Louis in +Franche-Comté. Bournonville, the imperial commander who +now replaced Montecucculi, lay in the Cologne and Trier +electorates. An army of South Germans in the Breisgau, after +an unsuccessful attempt to invade Alsace, moved northward +to the Neckar valley with the intention of uniting with Bournonville, +who was moving up the Rhine to meet them. Turenne +determined to attack the southern army under the duke of +Lorraine and Count Caprara before the junction could be effected. +He crossed the Rhine at Philipsburg early in June, and on the +16th fell upon the inferior forces of Caprara in their entrenched +position of Sinsheim. The result of the battle was a complete +victory for the French, who followed up their success by driving +a portion of Bournonville’s army (on which the duke of Lorraine +had rallied his forces) from the Neckar (action of Ladenburg +near Heidelberg, July 7th). Turenne then laid waste the +Palatinate, in order that it should no longer support an army, +and fell back over the Rhine, ignoring the reproaches of the +elector palatine, who vainly challenged him to a duel. This +devastation has usually been considered as a grave stain on the +character of the commander who ordered it, but Turenne’s +conception of duty did not differ in this respect from that of +Cromwell, Marlborough, Wellington and the generals of the +American Civil War. It was held to be necessary and expedient, +and it was accordingly carried out. Bournonville’s army near +Frankfort was still to be dealt with, and the Great Elector and +his Brandenburgers were rapidly approaching the Main valley. +After a slight attempt to invade Lorraine, which Turenne easily +stopped, the Imperialists suddenly recrossed the Rhine and +marched rapidly into the neighbourhood of the Strassburg +bridge.</p> + +<p><i>Turenne’s Winter Campaign in Alsace.</i>—The magistrates of +this city were not less amenable than had been the bishop of +Würzburg in 1673. Bournonville obtained a free passage, and +Turenne was too late to oppose him. The French general, +however, determined to fight, as he had done at Sinsheim, to +prevent the junction of the two hostile armies. The Great +Elector was still in the Neckar valley when the battle of Enzheim +(8 m. from Strassburg) was fought on the 4th of October. This +time it was indecisive, and Bournonville’s superior forces, soon +augmented by the arrival of the elector, spread into Alsace. +Turenne steadily retired to his camp of Dettweiler, unable for +the moment to do more, and the Germans took up winter +quarters in all the towns from Belfort to Strassburg (October-November +1674). But Turenne was preparing for another +winter campaign, the most brilliant in the great commander’s +career.</p> + +<p>First he placed the fortresses of middle Alsace in a state of +defence, to deceive the enemy. Then he withdrew the whole of +the field army quietly into Lorraine. Picking up on his way +such reinforcements as were available, he marched southward +with all speed behind the Vosges, and in the last stages of the +movement he even split up his forces into many small bodies, +that the enemy’s spies might be misled. After a severe march +through hilly country and in the midst of snowstorms, the +French reunited near Belfort, and without a moment’s delay +poured into Alsace from the south. The scattered Imperialists +were driven towards Strassburg, every corps which tried to +resist being cut off. Bournonville stood to fight at Mülhausen +with such forces as he could collect (29th December 1674) but +Turenne’s men carried all before them. The advance continued +to Colmar, where the elector, who was now in command of the +Germans, stood on the defensive with forces equal to Turenne’s +own. The battle of Türkheim (5th of January 1675) nevertheless +resulted in another and this time a decisive victory for the +French; a few days after the battle Turenne could report that +there was not a soldier of the enemy left in Alsace. His army +now went into winter quarters about Strassburg, and drew +supplies from the German bank of the Rhine and even from the +Neckar valley (January 1675).</p> + +<p><i>1675.</i>—This opening of the campaign promised well, and +Louis as usual took the field as early as possible. In the course +of the spring (May-June) the king’s army recaptured some of +the lost fortresses of the Meuse and took in addition Liège and +Limburg. The expeditionary corps in Sicily also gained some +successes in this campaign, and Schomberg invaded Catalonia. +On the Rhine was fought the last campaign of Turenne and +Montecucculi. The elector having withdrawn his forces to +Brandenburg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>), Montecucculi resumed +command, and between Philipsburg and Strassburg the two +great commanders manœuvred for an advantage, each seeking +to cover his own country and to live upon that of the enemy. +At last Turenne prevailed and had the Imperialists at a disadvantage +on the Sasbach, where, in opening the action, he was +killed by a cannon-shot (July 27th). The sequel showed how +dependent was even the best organized army of the time upon +the personality of its commander.</p> + +<p>All the advantages won were hastily surrendered, and Montecucculi, +sharply following up the retreat of the French, drove +them over the Rhine and almost to the Vosges. At the same time +the duke of Lorraine defeated Marshal Créqui (August 11th) at +Conzer Brücke on the Moselle, and recaptured Trier (September +6th), which, as a set-off against Bonn, Turenne had taken in the +autumn of 1673. The situation was more than alarming for the +French, but Condé was destined to achieve a last success—for +once a success of careful strategy and prudent manœuvre. +Luxemburg was left in charge in Flanders, and the prince took +command of the remnant of Turenne’s old army and of the +fugitives of Créqui’s. Montecucculi’s skill failed completely +to shake his position, and in the end the prince compelled him +to retire over the Rhine. Condé and Montecucculi retired from +their commands at the close of the year, Turenne was dead, and +a younger generation of commanders henceforward carried on +the war.</p> + +<p><i>1676.</i>—In 1676 the naval successes of France in the Mediterranean +enabled the corps under Marshal Vivonne in Sicily to +make considerable progress, and he won an important victory +at Messina on the 25th of March. Vivonne was made viceroy of +Sicily. Louis himself, with his marshals and Vauban, conducted +the campaign in the north. The town of Condé fell on the +26th of April, and the king then manœuvred against the prince +of Orange in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes. An attempt +made by the latter in the summer to besiege Maastricht was +frustrated by Marshal Schomberg with a detachment of the +king’s army (August). Rochefort meanwhile covered the +Meuse country and Luxemburg. Créqui, who had now returned +from captivity (he had been taken after the battle of Conzer +Brücke) opposed the Imperialists in Lorraine, but he was unable +to prevent the fall of Philipsburg, which occurred on the 17th +of September. The French now laid waste the land between +the Meuse and Moselle for the same reason which brought about +the devastation of the Palatinate in 1674, and the year closed +with a war of manœuvre on the upper Rhine between the Imperialists +under the duke of Lorraine and the French under +Luxemburg.</p> + +<p><i>1677.</i>—The chief event of the campaign of 1677 in the Netherlands +was the siege of Valenciennes, which fortress was invested +by Louis in the first weeks of the campaigning season. Five +marshals of France served under the king in this enterprise, +but their advice was of less value than that of Vauban, +whose plans the king followed implicitly, even so far as to order +an assault <i>de vive force</i> against the unanimous opinion of the +marshals. This succeeded beyond Vauban’s own expectation; +the picked troops entrusted with the attack of an outwork forced +their way into the town itself (March 17th). The success was +followed by the siege of St Omer and the defeat of William’s +relieving army by the duke of Orleans (battle of Mont Cassel, +April 11th, 1677). The summer campaign was a contest of skill +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +between Luxemburg and William, which resulted in favour of +the French. The prince of Orange failed in an attempt to take +Charleroi, and Marshal D’Humières captured St Ghislain.</p> + +<p>In Germany the credit of the French successes was due to +Créqui, who was no longer the defeated general of Conzer Brücke, +but the most successful of Turenne’s pupils. He began by driving +back the duke of Lorraine to the Rhine. Another attempt by +the Lorraine family to reconquer their duchy was thus foiled, +and at the same time a second imperial army under the duke of +Saxe-Eisenach, which had crossed the Rhine by Philipsburg, +was shut up in an island of the Rhine and forced to make terms +with the French. A large reinforcement sent by the duke of +Lorraine to the assistance of Saxe-Eisenach was completely +defeated by Créqui in the battle of Kochersberg near Strassburg +(October 7th) and the marshal followed up his successes by the +capture of Freiburg on the 14th of November. During the year +there was a brisk war in the West Indies, and also in Catalonia, +where the French maintained the ground won by Schomberg +in the previous campaign.</p> + +<p><i>1678.</i>—In 1678 Louis took the field in February. The skilful +manœuvres of the French, whether due to Louis’ own generalship +or that of his advisers, resulted in the speedy capture of Ghent +and Ypres (March), and the retention of the prizes in the usual +war of posts which followed. The last battle of the war was +fought at St Denis (outside Mons) between William and Luxemburg +on the 14th of August, three days after the peace of Nijmwegen +had been concluded. William sustained another defeat, +but the battle was one of the most fiercely contested of the whole +war. On the Rhine, Créqui began by winning the battle of +Rheinfelden (July 6th), after which he inflicted upon the Imperialists +another defeat at Gengenbach (July 23rd) and took +Kehl. In the short campaign of 1679, before France and the +empire had concluded peace, he was equally successful.</p> + +<p>In Spain the French army under Marshal de Navailles had +also made steady progress, and thus the last campaign was +wholly in favour of the French. The peace of Nijmwegen gave +Louis many of the Netherlands frontier fortresses, and little +else. He was threatened by the intervention of England on the +side of the coalition, and would have made peace earlier but +for his reluctance to abandon his ally Sweden. The French army +had, however, well established its reputation. Vauban was +unique amongst the officers of his time, and Créqui and Luxemburg +were not unworthy successors of Turenne and Condé. +The two marshals added to their reputation in the “Reunion +War” of 1680-84. Créqui died in 1684 at the age of sixty-one, +Luxemburg’s greatest triumph was won ten years later (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grand Alliance, War of the</a></span>). Vauban retired from active +service as a marshal twenty-five years after the peace of Nijmwegen. +But the interest of the war does not reside wholly in +the personalities of the leaders. There were great commanders +before Turenne and Condé. It is as the début of a new method +of military organization and training—the first real test of the +standing army as created by Louvois—that the Dutch War of +1672-79 is above all instructive.</p> +<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Marshal Luxemburg, who was left in command of the army in +Holland during the winter of 1672-73, had indeed made a bold +attempt to capture Leiden and the Hague by marching a corps +from Utrecht across the frozen inundations. But a sudden thaw +imperilled his force and he had to make a painful retreat along the +dykes to Utrecht. Holland was again inundated in 1673.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY, THE<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (<i>De Westindische +Compagnie</i>), a company founded by letters-patent from the +Netherlands states-general dated the 3rd of June 1621. The +purpose for which the company was formed was to regulate and +protect the contraband trade already carried on by the Dutch +in the American and African possessions of Spain and Portugal, +and to establish colonies on both continents and their islands. +By the terms of the charter the company was to be composed of +five boards or branches, established in Amsterdam, Zealand, +the Meuse (Rotterdam), the North Department (Friesland and +Hoorn), and Groningen. Each was to be represented on the +general governing board according to the importance of the +capital contributed by it. Thus Amsterdam, which contributed +four-ninths of the capital, had eight directors on the board. +Zealand, which subscribed two-ninths, had four. Rotterdam +was represented by two directors, though it only contributed +one-ninth. The northern district and Groningen, which each +contributed one-ninth, appointed one director each. Another +director was appointed by the states-general. In 1629 a ninth +representative was given to Amsterdam, and the strength of +the whole board was fixed at nineteen.</p> + +<p>The company was granted the monopoly of the trade with +America and Africa and between them, from the Arctic regions +to the Straits of Magellan, and from the Tropic of Cancer to +the Cape of Good Hope. The policy the company proposed to +follow was to use its monopoly on the coast of Africa in order to +secure the cheap and regular supply of negro slaves for the +possessions it hoped to acquire in America. The trade was +thrown open by the voluntary action of the company in 1638. +The general board was endowed with ample power to negotiate +treaties, and make war and peace with native princes; to appoint +its officials, generals and governors; and to legislate in its +possessions subject to the laws of the Netherlands. The states-general +undertook to secure the trading rights of the company, +and to support it by a subvention of one million guilders (about +£100,000). In case of war the states-general undertook to contribute +sixteen vessels of 300 tons and upwards for the defence +of the company, which, however, was to bear the expense of +maintaining them. In return for these aids the states-general +claimed a share in the profits, stipulated that the company +must maintain sixteen large vessels (300 tons and upwards) and +fourteen “yachts” (small craft of 50 to 100 tons or so); required +that all the company’s officials should take an oath of allegiance +to themselves as well as to the board of directors; and that all +despatches should be sent in duplicate to themselves and to the +board.</p> + +<p>The history of the Dutch West India Company is one of less +prosperity than that of the Dutch East India Company. In early +days the trade was not sufficient to meet the heavy expense +of the armaments raised against Spain and Portugal. A compensation +was found in the plunder of Spanish and Portuguese +galleons and carracks. In 1628 the company’s admiral Piet +Heijn captured a vast booty in the Spanish treasure-ships. But +this source of profit was dried up by the success of the company’s +cruisers, which destroyed their enemy’s trade. Profit had to be +sought in the development of the colonies established on the +continent of America. In this field the successes of the company +were counterbalanced by not a few failures. The company was +never able to secure the control of the supply of slaves from +Africa. Its settlement of New Netherland was lost to England. +In the West Indies it gained a valuable footing among the islands. +It occupied St Eustatius in 1634, Curaçao with Bonaire and +Aruba in 1634 and 1635, Saba in 1640 and St Martin in 1648. +But its greatest conquests and its greatest losses were alike met +on the continent of South America. After a first unsuccessful +occupation in 1623 of Bahia, which was immediately retaken +by a combined Spanish and Portuguese armament, the company +obtained a firm footing in Pernambuco. The story of the wars +which arose out of this invasion belongs to the history of Brazil. +The company had been largely guided in its policy of assailing +the Portuguese possessions by the advice of the Jews, who were +numerous in Brazil, and who found means to communicate with +their fellows in religion, the refugees in Amsterdam. The most +prosperous period of the company was during the tolerant and +liberal administration of Count John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen +(1636-1644).</p> + +<p>The monopolist tendency of all Dutch colonization, the +religious hostility of the Roman Catholic Portuguese, and the +support given by France and England to Portugal after her +revolt from Spain, combined at last to make the position of +the company in Brazil untenable. It resigned all claim on the +country by the treaty of 1661. But though deprived of its +establishment in Brazil, the company found a compensation in +Surinam and Essequibo (Dutch Guiana), where there was no +Spanish or Portuguese population to resist it, and where the +resources of the country offered great profits. The advantages of +the settlement in Guiana were not, however, reaped by the +company founded in 1621. In 1674 it had become so embarrassed +that it was dissolved, and reconstructed in 1675. The newly +formed company continued to exploit the Dutch possessions in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +America till 1794, when they were all swept into the general +reorganization consequent on the French invasion of Holland. +The West India Company founded after the Napoleonic epoch in +1828 was only meant to develop trade, and was not successful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—P.M. Nitscher, <i>Les Hollandais au Brésil</i> (the +Hague, 1853), the work of a Dutch author writing in French. See +also Southey, <i>History of Brazil</i> (London, 1810), and E.B. O’Callaghan, +<i>History of New Netherland</i> (New York, 1846-1848).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTENS, LOUIS<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1730-1812), French writer, was born at +Tours, of Protestant parents, on the 15th of January 1730. He +went to London, where his uncle was a jeweller, and there +obtained a situation as tutor in a private family. In this position +he learnt Greek and mathematics, and studied oriental languages, +also Italian and Spanish. He took orders, and was appointed +chaplain and secretary to the English minister at the court of +Turin in October 1758. In 1760-1762 he was chargé d’affaires at +Turin. Lord Bute, before retiring from office in 1763, procured +him a pension. He again went to Turin as chargé d’affaires; and +during this second mission he collected and published a complete +edition of the works of Leibnitz (Geneva, 6 vols., 1768) and wrote +his <i>Recherches sur l’origine des découvertes attribuées aux modernes</i> +(1766). On his return to England the duke of Northumberland +procured him the living of Elsdon, in Northumberland, and made +him tutor to his son. In 1775 he became a member of the French +Academy of Inscriptions and a fellow of the Royal Society. +Dutens was for a third time chargé d’affaires at Turin. He was +in Paris in 1783, and returned to London the following year. +He died in London on the 23rd of May 1812.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal works of Dutens were his <i>Recherches sur l’origine +des découvertes attribuées aux modernes</i> (1766, 2 vols.); <i>Appel au +bon sens</i> (London, 1777, 8vo), directed in defence of Christianity +against the French philosophers, and published anonymously; +<i>Explication de quelques médailles de peuples, de rois et de villes +grecques et phéniciennes</i> (London, 1773); <i>Explication de quelques +médailles du cabinet de Duane</i> (1774); <i>Troisième dissertation sur +quelques médailles grecques et phéniciennes</i> (1776); <i>Logique, ou l’art +de raisonner</i> (1773); <i>Des pierres précieuses et des pierres fines, avec +les moyens de les connaître et de les évaluer</i> (Paris, 1776); <i>Itinéraire +des routes les plus fréquentées, ou journal d’un voyage aux principales +villes d’Europe</i> (Paris, 1775), frequently republished; <i>Considérations +théologiques sur les moyens de réunir toutes les églises chrétiennes</i> +(1798); <i>Œuvres mêlées</i>, containing his most important works published +up to the date (London, 1797, 4 vols.); <i>L’Ami des étrangers +qui voyagent en Angleterre</i> (1789, 8vo); <i>Histoire de ce qui s’est passé +pour le rétablissement d’une régence en Angleterre</i> (1789); <i>Recherches +sur le tems le plus reculé de l’usage des voûtes chez les anciens</i> (1795); +<i>Mémoires d’un voyageur qui se repose</i> (Paris, 1786, 3 vols.). The +first two volumes of the last-named work contain the life of the +author, written in a romantic style; the third bears the title of +<i>Dutensiana</i>, and is filled with remarks, anecdotes and bons mots. +(See memoir of Dutens in the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> for 1812.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTROCHET, RENÉ JOACHIM HENRI<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (1776-1847), French +physiologist, was born at Château de Néon (Indre) on the 14th of +November 1776, and died at Paris on the 4th of February 1847. +In 1799 he entered the military marine at Rochefort, but soon +left it to join the Vendean army. In 1802 he began the study of +medicine at Paris; and he was subsequently appointed chief +physician to the hospital at Burgos. After an attack of typhus +he returned in 1809 to France, where he devoted himself to the +study of the natural sciences. His scientific publications were +numerous, and covered a wide field, but his most noteworthy +work was embryological. His “Recherches sur l’accroissement et +la reproduction des végétaux,” published in the <i>Mémoires du +muséum d’histoire naturelle</i> for 1821, procured him in that year +the French Academy’s prize for experimental physiology. In +1837 appeared his <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire anatomique +et physiologique des végétaux et des animaux</i>, a collection of all his +more important biological papers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTT, MICHAEL MADHU SUDAN<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (1824-1873), the greatest +native poet of India in the 19th century, was born at Sagandari, +in the district of Jessore in Bengal, on the 25th of January 1824. +His father was a pleader in Calcutta, and young Madhu Sudan +received his education in the Hindu college of Calcutta, and was +the foremost among the distinguished young students of his day, +many of whom lived to make their mark in the literature and +social progress of their country. Madhu Sudan left the college in +1842, and in the following year ran away to avoid a marriage into +which his father wished to force him, and embraced the Christian +religion. Continuing his studies now in the Bishop’s college, +Madhu Sudan learnt Greek and Latin and some modern European +languages, and in 1848 went to Madras. There he wrote English +verses, and married the daughter of a European indigo-planter, +but was soon separated from her. He then united himself with an +English lady, the daughter of an educational officer; and she +remained true to him through life amidst all his misfortunes, and +was the mother of the children he left. With her Madhu Sudan +returned to Calcutta in 1856, and soon discovered that the +true way for winning literary distinction was by writing in his +own language, not by composing verses in English. His three +classical dramas—<i>Sarmishtha</i>, <i>Padmavati</i>, and <i>Krishna Kumari</i>—appeared +between 1858 and 1861, and were recognized as works of +merit. But his great ambition was to introduce blank verse into +Bengali. His knowledge of Sanskrit poetry, his appreciation of +the Greek and Latin epics, and his admiration of Dante and of +Milton, impelled him to break through the fetters of the Bengali +rhyme, and to attempt a spirited and elevated style in blank +verse. His first poem in blank verse, the <i>Tilottama</i>, was only a +partial success; but his great epic which followed in 1861, the +<i>Meghanad-Badha</i>, took the Indian world by surprise, and at once +established his reputation as the greatest poet of his age and +country. He took his story from the old Sanskrit epic, the +<i>Ramayana</i>, but the beauty of the poem is all his own, and he +imparted to it the pathos and sweetness of Eastern ideas combined +with the vigour and loftiness of Western thought. In 1862 +Madhu Sudan left for Europe. He lived in England for some +years, and was called to the bar; and in 1867 returned to his +country to practise as a barrister in Calcutta. But the poet was +unfitted for a lawyer’s vocation; his liabilities increased, his health +failed, his powers declined. He still wrote much, but nothing +of enduring merit. His brilliant but erratic life ended in a +Calcutta hospital on the 29th of June 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUTY<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> (from “due,” that which is owing, O. Fr. <i>deu</i>, <i>dû</i>, past +participle of <i>devoir</i>; Lat. <i>debere</i>, <i>debitum</i>; cf. “debt”), a term +loosely applied to any action or course of action which is regarded +as morally incumbent, apart from personal likes and dislikes or +any external compulsion. Such action must be viewed in relation +to a principle, which may be abstract in the highest sense (<i>e.g.</i> +obedience to the dictates of conscience) or based on local and +personal relations. That a father and his children have mutual +duties implies that there are moral laws regulating their relationship; +that it is the duty of a servant to obey his master within +certain limits is part of a definite contract, whereby he becomes a +servant engaging to do certain things for a specified wage. Thus +it is held that it is not the duty of a servant to infringe a moral +law even though his master should command it. For the nature +of duty in the abstract, and the various criteria on which it has +been based, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>.</p> + +<p>From the root idea of obligation to serve or give something in +return, involved in the conception of duty, have sprung various +derivative uses of the word; thus it is used of the services +performed by a minister of a church, by a soldier, or by any +employee or servant. A special application is to a tax, a payment +due to the revenue of a state, levied by force of law. Properly a +“duty” differs from a “tax” in being levied on specific commodities, +transactions, estates, &c., and not on individuals; thus +it is right to talk of import-duties, excise-duties, death-or succession-duties, +&c., but of income-tax as being levied on a person in +proportion to his income.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU VAIR, GUILLAUME<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1556-1621), French author and +lawyer, was born in Paris on the 7th of March 1556. Du Vair was +in orders, and, though during the greater part of his life he +exercised only legal functions, he was from 1617 till his death +bishop of Lisieux. His reputation, however, is that of a lawyer, a +statesman and a man of letters. He became in 1584 counsellor +of the parlement of Paris, and as deputy for Paris to the Estates of +the League he pronounced his most famous politico-legal discourse, +an argument nominally for the Salic law, but in reality directed +against the alienation of the crown of France to the Spanish infanta, +which was advocated by the extreme Leaguers. Henry IV. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +acknowledged his services by entrusting him with a special commission +as magistrate at Marseilles, and made him master of +requests. In 1595 appeared his treatise <i>De l’éloquence française +et des raisons pour quoi elle est demeurée si basse</i>, in which he +criticizes the orators of his day, adding by way of example some +translations of the speeches of ancient orators, which reproduce the +spirit rather than the actual words of the originals. He was sent +to England in 1596 with the marshal de Bouillon to negotiate a +league against Spain; in 1599 he became first president of the +parlement of Province (Aix); and in 1603 was appointed to the +see of Marseilles, which he soon resigned in order to resume the +presidency. In 1616 he received the highest promotion open to a +French lawyer and became keeper of the seals. He died at +Tonneins (Lot-et-Garonne) on the 3rd of August 1621. Both as +speaker and writer he holds a very high rank, and his character +was equal to his abilities. Like other political lawyers of the +time, Du Vair busied himself not a little in the study of philosophy. +The most celebrated of his treatises are <i>La Philosophie +morale des Stoïques</i>, translated into English (1664) by Charles +Cotton; <i>De la constance et consolation ès calamités publiques</i>,<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +which was composed during the siege of Paris in 1589, and +applied the Stoic doctrine to present misfortunes; and <i>La Sainte +Philosophie</i>, in which religion and philosophy are intimately +connected. Pierre Charron drew freely on these and other works +of Du Vair. F. de Brunetière points out the analogy of Du Vair’s +position with that afterwards developed by Pascal, and sees in him +the ancestor of the Jansenists. Du Vair had a great indirect +influence on the development of style in French, for in the south +of France he made the acquaintance of Malherbe, who conceived +a great admiration for Du Vair’s writings. The reformer of +French poetry learned much from the treatise <i>De l’éloquence +française</i>, to which the counsels of his friend were no doubt added.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Du Vair’s works were published in folio at Paris in 1641. See +Nicéron, <i>Mémoires</i>, vol. 43; and monographs by C.A. Sapey (1847 +and 1858).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Translated into English by Andrew Comt in 1622 as <i>A Buckler +against Adversitie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT PINEUX<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1767-1842), +French dramatist, was born at Rennes on the 6th of April 1767. +He was in turn sailor, architect, actor, theatrical manager and +dramatist. He is the characteristic dramatist of the Empire, but +the least ambitious of his dramas have best stood the test of +time. <i>Les Projets de ménage</i> (1790), <i>Les Tuteurs vengés</i> (1794) +and <i>Les Héritiers</i> (1796) have been revived on the modern French +stage. Others among his plays, which number more than sixty, +are <i>Le Menuisier de Livonie</i> (1805), <i>La Manie des grandeurs</i> (1817) +and <i>Le Faux Bonhomme</i> (1821). In 1812 he was elected to the +Academy. He died on the 1st of September 1842.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUVAL, CLAUDE<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1643-1670), a famous highwayman, +was born at Domfront, Normandy, in 1643. Having entered +domestic service in Paris, he came to England at the time of the +Restoration in attendance on the duke of Richmond, and soon +became a highwayman notorious for the daring of his robberies +no less than for his gallantry to ladies. Large rewards were +offered for his capture, and he was at one time compelled to seek +refuge in France. In the end he was captured in London, and +hanged at Tyburn on the 21st of January 1670. His body was +buried in the centre aisle of Covent Garden church, under a +stone with the following epitaph:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Here lies Du Vall: Reader if male thou art,</p> +<p class="i05">Look to thy purse: if female to thy heart.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">A full account of his adventures, ascribed to William Pope, +was reprinted in the <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>, and Samuel Butler +published a satirical ode <i>To the Happy Memory of the Most +Renowned Du Val</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUVENECK, FRANK<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1848-  ), American figure and +portrait painter, was born at Covington, Kentucky, on the 9th +of October 1848. He was a pupil of Diez in the Royal Academy +of Munich, and a prominent member of the group of Americans +who in the ’seventies overturned the traditions of the Hudson +River School and started a new art movement. His work shown +in Boston and elsewhere about 1875 attracted great attention, +and many pupils flocked to him in Germany and Italy, where he +made long visits. After returning from Italy to America, he +gave some attention to sculpture, and modelled a fine monument +to his wife, now in the English cemetery in Florence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1581-1643), abbot of +St Cyran, father of the Jansenist revival in France, was born +of wealthy parents at Bayonne in 1581, and studied theology at +the Flemish university of Louvain. After taking holy orders +he settled in Paris, where he became known as a mine of miscellaneous +erudition. In 1609 he distinguished himself by his +<i>Question royale</i>, an elaborate answer to a problem casually +thrown out by King Henry IV. as to the exact circumstances +under which a subject ought to give his life for his sovereign. +His learning was presently diverted into a more profitable +channel. The Louvain of his time was the scene of many +conflicts between the Jesuit party, which stood for scholasticism +and Church-authority, and the followers of Michael Baius (<i>q.v.</i>), +who upheld the mysticism of St Augustine. Into this controversy +Du Vergier was presently dragged by his friendship +with Cornelius Jansen, a young champion of the Augustinian +party, who had come to Paris to study Greek. The two divines +went off together to Du Vergier’s home at Bayonne, where he +became a canon of the cathedral, and Jansen a tutor in the +bishop’s seminary. Here they remained some years, intently +studying the fathers. Eventually, however, Jansen went back +to Louvain, while Du Vergier became confidential secretary to +the bishop of Poitiers, and was presently made sinecure abbot +of St Cyran. Thereafter he was generally called M. de St +Cyran. At Poitiers he was brought into contact with Richelieu—as +yet unknown to political fame, and simply the zealous +young bishop of the neighbouring diocese of Luçon. Western +Touraine being the headquarters of French Protestantism, the +two prelates turned St Cyran’s learning against the Huguenots. +He began to dream of reforming Catholicism on Augustinian +lines, and thus defeating the Protestants by their own weapons. +They appealed to primitive antiquity; he answered that his +Church understood antiquity better than theirs. They appealed to +the spirit of St Paul; he answered that Augustine had saved that +spirit from etherealizing away, by coupling it with a high sacramental +theory of the Church. They flung practical abuses in +the teeth of Rome; he entered on a bold campaign to bring +those abuses to an end. Before long, his reforming zeal involved +him in many quarrels—so much so that he left Poitiers and +settled down in Paris. Here he became widely known as a +director of consciences, forming a particular friendship with the +influential Arnauld family. But his general projects of reform +were by no means allowed to sleep, though here he worked hand +in hand with his old friend Jansen. Both traced the evils of +their time to the Jesuits and Schoolmen. Their dialectic had +corrupted theology; their hand-to-mouth utilitarianism had +played havoc with traditional church-institutions. Accordingly, +Jansen set to work to remedy one evil by writing a big book on +St Augustine, the great master of theological method. St +Cyran dealt with the other evil in an equally bulky treatise, +the <i>Petrus Aurelius</i> (1633). This indicts the Jesuits for every +sort and kind of misdemeanour. It deals much with what +Pascal will presently call their <i>dévotion aisée</i>; but still more +with crimes of a technical sort, especially their defiance of +episcopal authority. Thereby the book gained for its author’s +projects of reform a great deal of Gallican support. On the other +hand, it gave much annoyance to Richelieu, now the all-powerful +and extremely Erastian prime minister. After failing more than +once to stop St Cyran’s mouth with a bishopric, he had him +arrested as a disturber of ecclesiastical peace (14th of March +1638). He remained shut up in the castle of Vincennes until +Richelieu’s death (December 1642). Then he was at once set +free; but the long imprisonment had told heavily on his health, +and he died of a stroke of apoplexy in October 1643.</p> + +<p>St Cyran’s character has been always something of a puzzle. +Many excellent contemporary judges were profoundly impressed; +others, as one of them said, went away bewildered by this +strange abbé, who never argued a question out, but leapt from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +one point to another in broken, incoherent phrases. Grace of +expression he had none; perhaps no man of equal spiritual +insight ever found it so hard to make his meaning clear, whether +on paper or by word of mouth. On the other hand, Jansenism, +considered as a practical religious revival, is altogether his work. +He dragged the Augustinian mysticism out of the Louvain classrooms, +and made it a vital spiritual force in France. Without +him there would have been no Pascal—no Provincial Letters, +and no <i>Pensées</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is an excellent life of St Cyran by his secretary, Claude +Lancelot, published at Cologne in two volumes, 1738. A selection +of his <i>Lettres chrestiennes</i> was edited by his disciple, Robert Arnauld +d’Andilly (Paris, 1645). An entirely different collection of <i>Lettres +spirituelles</i> was printed at Cologne in 1744.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(St C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUVEYRIER, HENRI<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (1840-1892), French explorer of the +Sahara, was born in Paris on the 28th of February 1840. His +youth was spent partly in London, where he met Heinrich Barth, +then preparing the narrative of his travels in the western Sudan. +At the age of nineteen Duveyrier, who had already learnt Arabic, +began a journey in the northern parts of the Sahara which lasted +nearly three years. On returning to France he received, in 1863, +the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society, and in 1864 +published <i>Exploration du Sahara: les Touareg du nord</i>. In the +war of 1870 he was taken prisoner by the Germans. Subsequently +he made several other journeys in the Sahara, adding +considerably to the knowledge of the regions immediately south +of the Atlas, from the eastern confines of Morocco to Tunisia. +He also examined the Algerian and Tunisian <i>shats</i> and explored +the interior of western Tripoli. Duveyrier devoted special +attention to the customs and speech of the Tuareg, with whom +he lived for months at a time, and to the organization of the +Senussi. In 1881 he published <i>La Tunisie</i>, and in 1884 <i>La +Confrérie musselmane de Sidi Mohammed Ben Alî-Es-Senôusi et +son domaine géographique</i>. He died at Sevres on the 25th of +April 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUX<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (Czech <i>Duchcov</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 86 m. +N.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,921, three-fourths +German. It is situated in the centre of an extensive and well-worked +lignite deposit and manufactures glass, porcelain and +earthenware. In Dux is a castle belonging to Count Waldstein, +a kinsman of Wallenstein, which contains a picture gallery with +two portraits of Wallenstein by Van Dyck, and a museum with a +collection of arms and armour and several relics of the great +general.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DUXBURY,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, +on Massachusetts Bay, 36 m. S.S.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890) +1908; (1905, state census) 2028. Area, 25.5 sq. m. Duxbury is +served by the Old Colony system of the New York, New Haven & +Hartford railway. In the township are the villages of Duxbury, +South Duxbury, West Duxbury, North Duxbury, Island Creek +and Millbrook. The soil is sandy, the surface of the country +well wooded and broken by a number of ponds and creeks. +Duxbury is a summer resort, with a large hotel at Standish +Shore. Duxbury has a public library, and is the seat of the +Powder Point school for boys, and Partridge Academy, founded +in 1828 by a bequest of $10,000 from George Partridge of +Duxbury, and incorporated in 1830. On Captain’s Hill is the +Standish Monument (begun in 1872), a circular tower, on an +octagonal base, of rough Hallowell granite, surmounted by a +statue of Miles Standish, 124 ft. from the ground. The Standish +house, built in 1666 by Miles’s son, Alexander, is still in existence. +In South Duxbury is an old burying ground, in which the oldest +marked grave is that of Jonathan Alden (d. 1697), son of John +Alden. For many years there were important cod and mackerel +fisheries here and Duxbury clams were famous; there were large +shipyards in Duxbury in the 18th century and in the first half of +the 19th. At present cranberries are the only product of importance. +The first settlement was made here in 1631 by Miles +Standish (to whom Captain’s Hill was granted), William Brewster, +John Alden, and a few others. In 1632 a church was organized +and the present name was adopted from Duxbury Hall, Lancashire, +the old seat of the Standish family; the Indian name had +been Mattakeeset. The township was incorporated in 1637; it +originally included Bridgewater and parts of Pembroke and +Kingston.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Justin Winsor, <i>History of Duxbury</i> (Boston, 1849); and +Laurence Bradford, <i>Historic Duxbury in Plymouth County</i> (Boston, +1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DVINA,<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> the name of two rivers of European Russia.</p> + +<p>1. The <span class="sc">Northern Dvina</span>, or <i>Dvina Syevernaya</i>, belongs to +the basin of the White Sea, and is formed by the junction of the +Sukhona and the Yug, which, rising, the former in the south-west +and the latter in the south-east of the government of Vologda, +meet in the neighbourhood of Velikiy-Ustyug, at a height of +300 ft. above the sea, in 61° 20′ N. and 46° 20′ E. The conjoint +stream then flows N.W. to the Gulf of Archangel, which it reaches +50 m. below the city of Archangel. From its mouth to the confluence +of the co-tributary streams the distance is about 470 m., +and to the source of the Sukhona 780 m. The drainage area +is estimated at 141,000 sq. m. Except at the rapids the current +of the Dvina is comparatively slow, as the average fall per mile is +only 9 in. Till its union with the Vychegda, a river which exceeds +it in volume, it flows for the most part in a single, well-defined +and permanent channel; but below that point it often splits into +several branches, and not infrequently alters its course. In the +neighbourhood of Archangel it divides into three distinct arms, +which form a regular delta; but of these that of Berezov alone is +navigable for sea-going vessels, and even it is impeded by a bar at +the mouth, with not more than 14½ or 15½ ft. of water at full tide. +Just above the point where the delta begins the river is joined by +a large tributary, the Pinega, from the right. Above the confluence +of the Vychegda the breadth is about 1750 ft.; below +that point it widens out to 3500 ft.; and near Archangel it +attains more than three times that measure. The channel is free +from ice for about 174 days in the year. By means of the Duke +Alexander of Württemberg Canal, the river is connected with the +Neva and the Volga.</p> + +<p>2. The <span class="sc">Southern Dvina</span>, or <i>Dvina Zapadnaya</i>, in German +<i>Düna</i> and in Lettish <i>Daugava</i>, belongs to the Baltic basin, and +takes its rise in a small lake about 800 ft. above the level of the +sea, in the government of Tver, not far from the sources of the +Volga and the Dnieper. After dividing Tver in part from Pskov +in part, it skirts the east and south of the government of Vitebsk, +separates part of the latter from Vilna, and then divides Vitebsk +and Livonia from Courland, and disembogues in the southern end +of the Gulf of Riga. Its length is 640 m. and it drains an area of +32,960 sq. m. From Dvinsk (Dünaburg) to Riga, a distance of +135 m., there is altogether a fall of 295 ft., of which 105 ft. are in +the 40 m. from Jakobstadt to Friedrichstadt. In the lower part +of its course the river attains an ordinary depth of 30 ft. and +an average breadth of 1400 ft.; but during the spring flood +it sometimes rises 14 ft. above its usual level, and its waters +spread out to a mile in width. Near the mouth the river is +usually free from ice for 245 days in the year, and in the government +of Vitebsk for 229. It is navigable from the confluence of +the Mezha (<i>i.e.</i> from Vitebsk) downwards, but the number of +rapids and shallows greatly diminishes its value. Navigation +can also be carried on by the following tributaries: the Usvyat, +Mezha, Kasplya, Ulla, Disna and Bolder-aa. This river was +formerly called the Khezin or Turunt, and at the present day it +has the name of Polot among the White Russians. Salmon and +lampreys abound in its waters.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DVINSK,<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> the official name since 1893 of <span class="sc">Dünaburg</span>, a town and +fortress of western Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, 162 m. +by rail N.W. of the city of Vitebsk, on the right bank of the +Dvina (Düna), in 55° 53′ N. and 26° 23′ E., and at the intersection +of two main railway lines—Riga-Smolensk and Vilna-St Petersburg. +It is the chief strategic position for the defence of the +Dvina. It consists of four portions—the main town, or fortress, +the old suburb, the new suburb, and on the left bank of the river +the village of Griva. Among the industrial establishments are +tanneries and breweries, saw-mills, flour-mills, brick and tile +works and limekilns. The town is an important commercial +centre, especially for flax, hemp, tallow and timber. The +population increased from 25,764 in 1860 to 72,231 in 1900, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +consisting chiefly of Jews (about 30,000), Lithuanians and +Letts.</p> + +<p>Dünaburg was originally founded in 1278 by the Livonian +Knights of the Sword, about 12 m. farther down the river than +its present site, at a spot still known as the Old Castle or <i>Stariy +Zamok</i>. In 1559 it was mortgaged by the grand-master of the +Knights to Sigismund Augustus, king of Poland. Although +captured in 1576 by Ivan the Terrible of Russia, it was again +restored to Poland; and in 1582 Stephen Bathori, king of +Poland, transferred the fortress to its present site. In the 17th +century it was held alternately by the Swedes and the Russians. +It was finally incorporated with Russia in 1772 on the first +division of Poland. In July 1812 the <i>tête-de-pont</i> was vainly +stormed by the French under Oudinot, but a few weeks afterwards +the town was captured by them under Macdonald.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DVOŘÁK, ANTON<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (1841-1904), Bohemian musical composer, +born at Nelahozeves (otherwise Mühlhausen) in Bohemia on +the 8th of September 1841, was the son of Frantisek Dvořák, +a small publican and village butcher. At the door of his father’s +inn Dvořák first appeared as a practical musician, taking his +place among the fiddlers who scraped out their “furiants” and +other wild dances for the benefit of the holiday-making local +beaux and belles. At the village school he learnt from Josef +Spitz both to sing and to play the violin, with so much effect +that soon he was able to assist in the parish church services. +At twelve years old he was sent by his father to Zlonic, near +Schlan, to an uncle, with whom he lived while passing through +the higher-grade classes at school. Here, too, he was fortunate +enough to find a valuable friend in A. Liehmann, organist and +chief musician of the little town, a competent musician, who +instructed the boy in elementary theory, organ and pianoforte +playing. The theory studies, however, could not long be continued, +since Liehmann soon acknowledged in his own dialect +that the boy was extraordinarily full of promise (“Aus Tonda, +dem Sappermentsbuben ’mal ’was werden könnte”), at the same +time realizing that he could not do much to assist. But Dvořák +soon left Zlonic for Böhmisch-Kamnitz, where he learnt German +and advanced his musical studies under Hancke. A year later +he was summoned to return to Zlonic to assist his father, who +had set up in business there. But his craving for a musical +career was not to be checked, and after considerable trouble +with his father consent was obtained to his settling in Prague +in order to devote himself entirely to music.</p> + +<p>In October 1857 Dvořák entered the organ-school of the +<i>Gesellschaft der Kirchenmusik</i>, where he worked for three years. +The small financial aid his father was at first able to lend soon +ceased, and after being in Prague but a few months Dvořák +found himself practically thrown on his own resources. By +playing the viola in a private orchestra and in various inns +of the town he succeeded in obtaining a precarious livelihood. +On the opening in 1862 of the Bohemian Interimstheater, Dvořák, +with part of this band, formed the nucleus of the theatrical +orchestra, and remained connected with it for eleven years, +when he became organist of the church of St Adalbert. At this +time his small stipend was augmented slightly by the fees of a +few pupils, though the privations suffered by him and his wife (for +he had recently married) must have been great. But in spite +of financial worry and of the amount of time he had to devote +to his professional duties and private pupils, Dvořák found +leisure not only for his own studies of the classics, but also to +compose. His work, like his daily life, was beset with difficulties, +for he had not the means to provide himself with sufficient +music-paper, much less to hire a pianoforte; and it is possible +that several of his important early works would never have been +written had it not been for the generosity of Karel Bendl, the +composer, who helped him in many ways.</p> + +<p>Dvořák himself said afterwards that he retained no recollection +of much that he then composed. In and about 1864 two symphonies, +a host of songs, some chamber-music, and an entire +opera, <i>Alfred</i>, lay unheard in his desk. The libretto of this +opera was made up from materials found in an old almanack. +Most of these works were burnt long ago. In 1873 he made his +first bid for popularity by his patriotic hymn <i>Die Erben des +weissen Berges</i> (published many years later as Op. 30). Its +reception was enthusiastic, and Dvořák’s subsequent works +were eagerly awaited and warmly received on production. In +1874 his opera <i>König und Köhler</i> resulted in a fiasco at Prague, +owing to its mixture of styles. Nothing daunted, Dvořák +recomposed the whole work in three months. In 1875, on the +recommendation of Brahms and Hanslick, he obtained a stipend +from the Kultus-Ministerium at Vienna, which freed him from +care and enabled him to indulge in composition to his heart’s +content. Following on this success came a commission in 1877 +for a series of Slavic dances, which took the public by storm. +Immediately compositions, old and new, began to pour from the +publisher. English sympathy was entirely won by the <i>Stabat +Mater</i> in 1883, and increased by the symphonies in D, D mi., and +F, G, and E mi. (<i>The American</i>), and the cantata <i>The Spectre’s +Bride</i>, based on K.J. Erben’s elaboration of the Bohemian +version of the saga treated in Burger’s <i>Leonore</i>. The favourable +effect produced by these works was somewhat chilled by the +oratorio <i>St Ludmila</i>, a comparatively feeble work written “to +suit English taste” for the Leeds Festival of 1886. The three +overtures Opp. 91, 92, 93, failed to hold their place, but the +pseudo-American symphony has become one of Dvořák’s most +popular works, and much of his chamber-music, of which there +is abundance, seems quite permanent in its place in concert +programmes. In 1892, after having frequently visited England, +Dvořák became head of the National Conservatory of +Music of America in New York. There he remained till 1895, +when he returned to Prague, where he died on the 1st of May +1904.</p> + +<p>Dvořák’s music is characteristically national, though less +purely so than that of Smetana. But in spite of his industry +and dramatic talent not one of his operas has been really successful. +A master of the orchestra and a composer of real individuality, +he earned and deserved his place among the elect, not only +by his great gifts, but by his abnormal energy in their +development.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.H. Hadow, <i>Studies in Modern Music</i> (second series, +1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DWARAKA,<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> <span class="sc">Dwarka</span>, or <span class="sc">Jigat</span>, a town of British India, in +Baroda state, near the extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar, +Bombay. Pop. (1901) 7535. As the birthplace and residence of +Krishna, it is the most sacred spot in this part of India, and its +principal temple is visited annually by many thousand pilgrims. +The approach from the sea is by a fine flight of stone steps, and +the great spire rises to a height of 150 ft.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DWARF<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> (A.S. <i>dweorg</i>, D. <i>dwerg</i>, Icel. <i>dvergr</i>), the term generally +used to describe an extraordinarily under-sized individual of a +race of normal stature (for dwarf-races see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pygmy</a></span>.) In Scandinavian +mythology the word connoted smallness and deformity, +and was used of the elfins and goblins who were supposed to live +on the mountains or in the bowels of the earth, and to be kings +of metals and mines. The later use of the word certainly does +not imply deformity, for many of the dwarfs of history have been +singularly graceful and well formed. Dwarfishness is, however, +often accompanied by disproportion of the limbs.</p> + +<p>From the earliest historic times dwarfs attracted attention, +and there was much competition on the part of kings and the +wealthy to obtain the little folk as attendants. It is certain that +members of the tiny Akka race of Equatorial Africa figured at +the courts of the Pharaohs of the early dynasties and were much +valued. Philetas of Cos, poet and grammarian (circa 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +tutor of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was alleged to be so tiny that he +had to wear leaden shoes lest he should be blown away. The +Romans practised artificial dwarfing, and the Latin <i>nanus</i> or +<i>pumilo</i> were terms alternatively used to describe the natural +and unnatural dwarf. Julia, the niece of Augustus, had a +dwarf named Coropas 2 ft. 4 in. high, and a freed-maid Andromeda +who measured the same.</p> + +<p>Various recipes for dwarfing children have been from time to +time in vogue. The most effective, according to report, was to +anoint the backbone with the grease of moles, bats and dormice. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +The stunting of the growth of stable-boys who aspire to jockey’s +honours is in no sense true dwarfing.</p> + +<p>In later days there have been many dwarf-favourites at +European courts. British tradition has its earliest dwarf +mentioned in the old ballad which begins “In Arthur’s court +Tom Thumb did live”; and on this evidence the prototype of +the modern Tom Thumb is alleged to have lived at the court of +King Edgar. Of authentic English dwarfs the first appears to +be John Jarvis (2 ft. high), who was page to Queen Mary I. Her +brother Edward VI. had his dwarf Xit. But the first English +dwarf of whom there is anything like an authentic history is +Jeffery Hudson (1619-1682). He was the son of a butcher at +Oakham, Rutlandshire, who kept and baited bulls for George +Villiers, first duke of Buckingham. Neither of Jeffery’s parents +was under-sized, yet at nine years he measured scarcely 18 in., +though he was gracefully proportioned. At a dinner given by +the duke to Charles I. and his queen he was brought in to table +in a pie out of which he stepped, and was at once adopted by +Henrietta Maria. The little fellow followed the fortunes of the +court in the Civil War, and is said to have been a captain of +horse, earning the nickname of “strenuous Jeffery” for his +activity. He fought two duels—one with a turkey-cock, a +battle recorded by Davenant, and a second with Mr Crofts, +who came to the meeting with a squirt, but who in the more +serious encounter which ensued was shot dead by little Hudson, +who fired from horseback, the saddle putting him on a level with +his antagonist. Twice was Jeffery made prisoner—once by +the Dunkirkers as he was returning from France, whither he +had been on homely business for the queen; the second time +was when he fell into the hands of Turkish pirates. His sufferings +during this latter captivity made him, he declared, grow, and +in his thirtieth year, having been of the same height since he was +nine, he steadily increased until he was 3 ft. 9 in. At the Restoration +he returned to England, where he lived on a pension granted +him by the duke of Buckingham. He was later accused of +participation in the “Popish Plot,” and was imprisoned in the +Gate House. He was released and shortly after died in the +sixty-third year of his age.</p> + +<p>Contemporary with Hudson were the two other dwarfs of +Henrietta Maria, Richard Gibson and his wife Anne. They +were married by the queen’s wish; and the two together +measured only 2 in. over 7 ft. They had nine children, five of +whom, who lived, were of ordinary stature. Edmund Waller +celebrated the nuptials, Evelyn designated the husband as the +“compendium of a man,” and Lely painted them hand in hand. +Gibson was miniature painter to Charles I., and drawing-master +to the daughters of James II., Queens Mary and Anne, when they +were children. This Cumberland pygmy, who began his career as +a page, first in a “gentle,” next in the royal family, died in 1690, +in his seventy-fifth year, and is buried in St Paul’s, Covent +Garden. The last court dwarf in England was Coppernin, a +lively little imp in the service of the princess (Augusta) of Wales, +the mother of George III. The last dwarf retainer in a gentleman’s +family was the one kept by Mr Beckford, the author of +<i>Vathek</i> and builder of Fonthill. He was rather too big to be +flung from one guest to another, as used to be the custom at +dinners in earlier days when a dwarf was a “necessity” for +every noble family.</p> + +<p>Of European court dwarfs the most famous were those of +Philip IV. of Spain, the hunchbacks whose features have been +immortalized by Velazquez. Stanislas, king of Poland, owned +Nicholas Ferry (Bébé), who measured 2 ft. 9 in. He was one of +three dwarf children of peasant parents in the Vosges. He died +in his 23rd year (1764). But Bébé was not so remarkable as +Richebourg, who died in Paris in 1858, at the age of 90. He was +only 23 in. high. He began life as a servant in the Orleans +family. In later years he was their pensioner. He is said to +have been put to strange use in the Revolution—passing in and +out of Paris as an infant in a nurse’s arms, but with despatches, +dangerous to carry, in the little man’s baby-wrappings!</p> + +<p>Of dwarfs exhibited in England, the most celebrated was the +Pole, Borulwaski (1739-1837). At six he measured 17 in., and +he finally in his thirtieth year reached 39 in. He had a sister +shorter than himself by the head and shoulders. Borulwaski +was a handsome man, a wit, and something of a scholar. He +travelled over all Europe; and he—born in the reign of George +II.—died in his well-earned retirement near Durham, in the reign +of Victoria. Borulwaski lies buried at Durham by the side of +the Falstaffian Stephen Kemble. The companionship reminds +one of that of the dwarf skeleton of Jonathan Wild by the side +of that of the Irish Giant, at the Royal College of Surgeons, +London.</p> + +<p>In the year in which Borulwaski died, Charles Stratton, better +known as “General Tom Thumb,” was born. When twenty-five +he was 31 in. high. In 1844 he appeared in England, where he +had an extraordinary success. One result of his season at the +Egyptian Hall, London, was to kill Haydon the painter. The +latter presented his great work “The Banishment of Aristides” +for exhibition in the same building. The public rushed to see +the dwarf. He took £600 the first week, while Haydon’s masterpiece +drew but £7, 13s. The result was that the artist committed +suicide in despair. After extensive travel in both hemispheres, +Stratton again visited England in 1857, but the dwarf man, +despite many personal and intellectual qualities, was less +attractive than the dwarf boy. In the year 1863 the “General” +married the very minute American lady, Lavinia Warren (born +in 1842). He died on the 15th of July 1883.</p> + +<p>Other modern dwarfs include Signor Hervio Nano, who played +at the Olympic Theatre, London, in 1843; three Highlanders +named MacKinlay, children of a Scots shepherd, the shortest +of whom was 45 in.; a Spaniard, Don Francisco Hidalgo (29 in.); +a Dutchman, Jan Hannema (28 in.); and Mary Jane Youngman +(Australia), who at fifteen was 35 in. high. She was called the +“dwarf-giantess” because she was 3 ft. 6 in. round the shoulders, +4 ft. 3 in. round the waist, and 2 ft. round the leg. Much interest +was aroused by the so-called Aztec dwarfs who were exhibited in +London in 1853. In 1867 the pair were married, the ceremony +being publicly performed, and the bride’s robes are said to have +cost no less than £2000. The wedding-breakfast was held at +Willis’s Rooms. From time to time other dwarfs have been +exhibited, among whom the most remarkable has been Che-mah, +a Chinese, 42 years old and 25 in. high, who appeared in London +in 1880. George Prout (1774-1851), who was less than 3 ft. +high, was a well-known character in London in the early +Victorian period, as a messenger at the Houses of Parliament.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.J. Wood, <i>Giants and Dwarfs</i> (1860).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DWARS,<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> a tract of country in north-east India. It consists of +two divisions, the Western Dwars and the Eastern Dwars, both of +which belonged to Bhutan prior to the Bhutan War of 1864-65, as +a result of which they passed into possession of the British, when +the Eastern Dwars were assigned to Assam and the Western to +Bengal. Since 1905 both divisions have been in the province of +Eastern Bengal and Assam. The five Eastern Dwars, entitled +respectively Bijni, Sidli, Chirang, Ripu and Guma, are situated +in the Goalpara district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, forming +a strip of flat country lying beneath the Bhutan mountains. +It is an unhealthy country for natives as well as Europeans, +and is but slightly developed. The Western Dwars form a +region lying at the foot of the Himalayas in the north-east +of the Jalpaiguri district of Eastern Bengal and Assam, which +comprises nine <i>parganas</i>, namely, Bhalka, Bhatibari, Baxa, +Chakao-Kshattriya, Madari, Lakshmipur, Maraghat, Mainaguri +and Chengmari. The Western Dwars are an important centre +of the tea-planting industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DWIGHT, JOHN<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> (d. 1703), the first distinguished English +potter. One can only surmise as to his parentage, and the date +of his birth has been variously given from 1637 to 1640. Apparently +he was educated at Oxford, and in 1661 was appointed +registrar and scribe to the diocese of Chester, and the same year +he proceeded to the degree of B.C.L. of Christ Church, Oxford. +He resided at Chester for some time and acted as secretary to four +successive bishops. One of these, Bishop Hall, also held the +rectory of Wigan, Lancashire, and Dwight seems to have resided +in that town, for three of his children were baptized there between +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +1667 and 1671. In 1671, while he still apparently resided in +Wigan, he was granted his first patent for “the mistery of +transparent earthenware, commonly known by the names of +porcelain or china, and of stoneware, vulgarly called Cologne +ware.” It is not believed that much, if any, work was executed +at Wigan, and he probably removed to Fulham in 1672 or 1673, +as his name first appears on the rate books of Fulham, where he +was rated for a house in Bear Street, in 1674. He died in 1703, +and his business was carried on by his descendants for some time, +but with gradually diminishing success. It has been claimed that +Dwight made the first porcelain in England, but there is no proof +of this, though magnificent specimens of stoneware from his hands +are in existence. The British Museum contains a number of the +best of Dwight’s pieces, of which the finest is the bust of Prince +Rupert. Other specimens are in the Victoria and Albert Museum, +and they are sufficient to establish Dwight’s fame as a potter of +the first rank. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DWIGHT, JOHN SULLIVAN<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> (1813-1893), American writer on +music, was born at Boston and educated at Harvard. He +became a Unitarian minister, but abandoned this career and +joined the Brook Farm settlement as a teacher of music and other +subjects. In 1848 he settled as a musical critic at Boston, being +best known as founder and editor of the <i>Journal of Music</i> (1852-1881), +the most important musical periodical that has been +published in America. He died on the 5th of September 1893.</p> + +<p>G.W. Cooke edited his letters (1898) and also wrote a memoir +(1899).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span> (1822-1892), American +jurist and educationalist, cousin of Theodore Dwight Woolsey +and of Timothy Dwight, was born on the 18th of July 1822 in +Catskill, New York. His father, Benjamin Woolsey Dwight +(1780-1850), an abolitionist and reformer, removed to Clinton, +New York, in 1831. The son graduated at Hamilton College in +1840, studied physics under S.F.B. Morse and John William +Draper, taught classics in Utica Academy in 1840-1841, and +studied law for one year at Yale. He was tutor at Hamilton in +1841-1846, at the same time teaching law privately; was made +Maynard professor of law, history, civil polity, and political +economy in 1846; received recognition of his law school in 1853, +and in 1858 accepted an invitation to Columbia to teach law upon +his own condition that he should found a law school. He himself +<i>was</i> this school for many years and did not retire from it until +1891, about a year before his death, at Clinton, New York, on the +28th of June 1892. A man of broad culture, he was best known as +the founder of a famous school of law and a famous method of +legal teaching, which was broadly educational and which called +for class-room recitation on the text-book studied and opposed +mere “taking notes” on lectures. His questioning was illustrative +and its method Socratic. He was a non-resident professor +of law at Cornell (1869-1871) and at Amherst (1870-1872). +Dwight was an able jurist, frequently acted as referee in difficult +questions, in 1874-1875 was a judge of the New York commission +of appeals, appointed to clear the docket of the court of appeals, +and in 1886 was counsel for the five Andover professors charged +with heresy. He was a prominent figure in political and social +(notably prison) reforms; published in 1867 a <i>Report on the +Prisons and Reformatories of the United States and Canada</i>, the +result of his labours on a New York state prison commission with +Enoch Cobb Wines (1806-1879); favoured indeterminate sentences; +drew up the bill for the establishment of the Elmira +Reformatory; and organized the State Charities Aid Association. +He edited Sir Henry Maine’s <i>Ancient Law</i> (1864); was associate +editor of the <i>American Law Register</i> and legal editor of +<i>Johnson’s Cyclopaedia</i>; and published <i>Charitable Uses: Argument +in the Rose Will Case</i> (1863).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DWIGHT, TIMOTHY<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span> (1752-1817), American divine, writer, +and educationalist, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, +on the 14th of May 1752. His father, Timothy Dwight, a +graduate of Yale College (1744), was a merchant, and his mother +was the third daughter of Jonathan Edwards. He was remarkably +precocious, and is said to have learned the alphabet at a +single lesson, and to have been able to read the Bible before he +was four years old. In 1769 he graduated at Yale College, and +then for two years taught in a grammar school at New Haven. +He was a tutor in Yale College from 1771 to 1777; and then, +having been licensed to preach, was a chaplain for a year in a +regiment of troops engaged in the War of Independence, inspiring +the troops both by his sermons and by several stirring war songs, +the most famous of which is “Columbia.” From 1778 until 1783 +he lived at Northampton, studying, farming, preaching, and +dabbling in politics. From 1783 until 1795 he was pastor of the +Congregational church at Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, where he +opened an academy which at once acquired a high reputation and +attracted pupils from all parts of the Union. From 1795 until +his death at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 11th of January +1817, he was president of Yale College, and by his judicious +management, by his remarkable ability as a teacher—he taught +a variety of subjects, including theology, metaphysics, logic, +literature and oratory,—and by his force of character and +magnetic personality, won great popularity and influence, and +restored that institution to the high place from which it had +fallen before his appointment. President Dwight was also +well known as an author. In verse he wrote an ambitious epic in +eleven books, <i>The Conquest of Canaan</i>, finished in 1774, but not +published until 1785; a somewhat ponderous and solemn satire, +<i>The Triumph of Infidelity</i> (1788), directed against Hume, Voltaire +and others; <i>Greenfield Hill</i> (1794), the suggestion for which +seems to have been derived from John Denham’s <i>Cooper’s Hill</i>; +and a number of minor poems and hymns, the best known of which +is that beginning “I love thy kingdom, Lord.” Many of his +sermons were published posthumously under the titles <i>Theology +Explained and Defended</i> (5 vols., 1818-1819), to which a memoir +of the author by his two sons, W.T. and Sereno E. Dwight, is +prefixed, and <i>Sermons by Timothy Dwight</i> (2 vols., 1828), which +had a large circulation both in the United States and in England. +Probably his most important work, however, is his <i>Travels in +New England and New York</i> (4 vols., 1821-1822), which contains +much material of value concerning social and economic New +England and New York during the period 1796-1817.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.B. Sprague’s “Life of Timothy Dwight” in vol. iv. (second +series) of Jared Sparks’s <i>Library of American Biography</i>, and +especially an excellent chapter in Moses Coit Tyler’s <i>Three Men of +Letters</i> (New York, 1895).</p> +</div> + +<p>His fifth son, <span class="sc">Sereno Edwards Dwight</span> (1786-1850), born in +Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, graduated at Yale in 1803, was a +tutor there in 1806-1810, and successfully practised law in New +Haven in 1810-1816. Licensed to preach in 1816, he was the +chaplain of the United States Senate for one year, was pastor of +the Park Street church, Boston, in 1817-1826, and in 1833-1835 +was president of Hamilton College, Clinton, New York. His +career was wrecked by accidental mercury poisoning, which +interfered with his work in Boston and at Hamilton College, and +made his life after 1839 solitary and comparatively uninfluential. +His publications include <i>Life and Works of Jonathan Edwards</i> +(10 vols., 1830); <i>The Hebrew Wife</i> (1836), an argument against +marriage with a deceased wife’s sister; and <i>Select Discourses</i> +(1851); to which was prefixed a biographical sketch by his +brother William Dwight (1795-1865), who was also successively +a lawyer and a Congregational preacher.</p> + +<p>President Dwight’s grandson, <span class="sc">Timothy Dwight</span> (1828-  ), +a famous preacher and educationalist, was born at Norwich, +Connecticut, on the 16th of November 1828. He graduated at +Yale in 1849, continued his studies there and at Bonn and Berlin, +was professor of sacred literature and New Testament Greek in +the Yale Divinity School from 1858 to 1886, was licensed to +preach in 1861, and from 1886 to 1899 was president of Yale, +which during his administration greatly prospered and became in +name and in fact a university. Dr Dwight was also a member in +1876-1885 of the American committee for the revision of the +English Bible, was an editor from 1866 to 1874 of the <i>New +Englander</i>, which later became the <i>Yale Review</i>, and besides +editing and annotating several volumes of the English translation +of H.A.W. Meyer’s <i>Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen +Testament</i>, and writing many magazine articles, published a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +collection of sermons entitled <i>Thoughts of and for the Inner Life</i> +(1899).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DYAKS,<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dayaks</span>, the name given to the wild tribes found in +Borneo by the Malays on their first settlement there. Whether +they are the aborigines of the island or the successors of a Negrito +people whom they expelled is uncertain. If the latter, they are +descendants of an early pre-Malayan immigration. In any case, +though regarded by the Malays as aliens, the Dyaks are of the +same stock as the Malays. For themselves they have no general +name; but, broken as they are into numerous tribes, they are +distinguished by separate tribal names, many of which seem to be +merely those of the rivers on which their settlements are situated. +Sir Harry Keppel, who attempted to form a classification of the +Dyaks according to their ethnographical affinity, divides them +into five principal branches. The first of these, which he calls the +north-western, includes the natives of Sadong, Sarawak, Sambas, +Landak, Tayan, Melionow and Sangow. They all speak the +same language, and are remarkable for their dependence on the +Malay princes. The second branch, which is called emphatically +the Malayan from its greater retention of Malay characteristics, +occupies the north coast in Banting, Batang-Lupar, Rejang and +part of the valley of the Kapuas. To the third or Parian branch +belong the Dyaks of the rivers Kuti and Passir, who are said to +speak a language like that of Macassar. The fourth consists of +the Beyadjoes, who are settled in the valley of the Banjermassin; +and the fifth and lowest comprises the Manketans and Punans, +who are still nomadic and ignorant of agriculture.</p> + +<p>Physically the Dyaks differ little from the Malays except in +their slimmer figure, lighter colour, more prominent nose and +higher forehead. In disposition they are as cheerful as the +Malay is morose. The typical Dyak is rather slightly built, but +is active and capable of enduring great fatigue. His features +are distinctly marked and often well formed. The forehead is +generally high, and the eyes are dark; the cheek-bones are +broad; the hair is black, and the colour of the skin a pure +reddish brown, frequently, in the female, approaching the Chinese +complexion. The beard is generally scanty, and in many tribes +the men pull out all the hair of the face. Both sexes file, dye, and +sometimes bore holes in the teeth and insert gold buttons. In +dress there is considerable variety, great alterations having +resulted from foreign influence. The original and still prevailing +style is simple, consisting of a waistcloth, generally of blue cotton, +for the men, and a tight-fitting petticoat for the women, who +acquire a peculiar mincing gait from its interference with their +walking. The favourite ornaments of both sexes are brass rings +for the legs and arms, hoops of rattan decorated in various ways, +necklaces of white and black beads, and crescent-shaped ear-rings +of a large size. The lobes of the ears are distended sometimes +nearly to the shoulders by disks of metal and bits of stick. +Tattooing is practised by most of the tribes, and the skulls of +infants are artificially deformed. The men usually go bare-headed, +or wear a bright-coloured kerchief. The custom of +betel-chewing being most universal, the betel-pouch is always +worn at the side. The weapons in use are a curved sword and a +long spear. The bow is unknown, but its place among some +tribes is partly supplied by the blowpipe, in the boring of which +they show great skill. When going to war the Dyak wears a +strong padded jacket, which proves no bad defence. A curious +custom among some tribes is the imprisonment of young girls for +two or three years before puberty, during which time they are not +allowed to see even their mothers.</p> + +<p>The Dyak is decidedly intelligent, has a good memory and +keen powers of observation, is unsuspicious and hospitable, and +honest and truthful to a striking degree. The various tribes +differ greatly in religious ceremonies and beliefs. They have no +temples, priests or regular worship; but the father of each +family performs rites. A supreme god, Sang-Sang, seems +generally acknowledged, but subordinate deities are supposed to +watch over special departments of the world and human affairs. +Sacrifices both of animals and fruits—and in some cases even of +human beings—are offered to appease or invoke the gods; +divination of various kinds is resorted to for the purpose of +deciding the course to be pursued in any emergency; and +criminals are subjected to the ordeal by poison or otherwise. +Offerings are made to the dead, and there is a very strong belief in +the existence of evil spirits, and all kinds of calamities and +diseases are ascribed to their malignity. Thus almost the whole +medical system of the Dyaks consists in the application of +appropriate charms or the offerings of conciliatory sacrifices. +Many of those natives who have had much intercourse with the +Malays have adopted a kind of mongrel Mahommedanism, with a +mixture of Hindu elements. The transmigration of souls seems to +be believed in by some tribes; and some have a system of +successive heavens rising one above the other very much in the +style of the Hindu cosmogony. In the treatment of their dead +much variety prevails; they are sometimes buried, sometimes +burned, and sometimes elevated on a lofty framework. The +Dyaks have no exact calculation of the year, and simply name the +months first month, second month, and so on. They calculate +the time of day by the height of the sun, and if asked how far +distant a place is can only reply by showing how high the sun +would be when you reached it if you set out in the morning.</p> + +<p>In agriculture, navigation, and manufactures they have made +some progress. In a few districts a slight sort of plough is used, +but the usual instrument of tillage is a kind of cleaver. Two +crops, one of rice and the other of maize or vegetables, are taken, +and then the ground is allowed to lie fallow for eight or ten +years. The inland Dyaks collect the forest products, rattan, +gutta-percha, beeswax and edible birds’ nests, and exchange +them for clothing or ornaments, especially brass wire or brass +guns in which consists the wealth of every chief. They spin and +weave their own cotton, and dye the cloth with indigo of their +own growing. Their iron and steel instruments are excellent, +the latter far surpassing European wares in strength and fineness +of edge. Their houses are neatly built of bamboos, and raised +on piles a considerable height from the ground; but perhaps +their most remarkable constructive effort is the erection of +suspension bridges and paths over rivers and along the front of +precipices, in which they display a boldness and ingenuity that +surprise the European traveller. In the centre of most villages +is the communal house where the unmarried men live, which +serves as a general assembly hall. Some have a circuit of no +less than 1000 ft. One on the banks of the Lundi was 600 ft. +long and housed 400 persons.</p> + +<p>The Dyaks have always been notorious for head-hunting, a +custom which has now been largely suppressed. It is essentially +a religious practice, the Dyak seeking a consecration for every +important event of his life by the acquisition of one or more +skulls. A child is believed ill-fated to whose mother the father +has not at its birth presented skulls. The young man is not +admitted to full tribal rights, nor can he woo a bride with any +hope of success, until he has a skull or more to adorn his hut; +a chief’s authority would not be acknowledged without such +trophies of his prowess. The strictest rules govern head-hunting; +a period of fasting and confession, of isolation in a taboo hut, +precedes the expedition, for which the Dyak clothes himself in +the skins of wild beasts and puts on an animal mask. The Dyak +curiously enough prefers the head of a fellow-tribesman, and the +hunt is usually one of ambush rather than of open combat. +Among some tribes it was not sufficient to kill the victim. He +was tortured first, his body sprinkled with his own blood, and +even his flesh eaten under the eyes of priests and priestesses +who presided over the rites. Skulls, especially those of enemies, +were held in great veneration. At meals the choicest morsels +were offered them: they were supplied with betel and tobacco: +fulsome compliments and prayers for success in battle addressed +to them. Head-hunting at one time threatened the very +existence of the race; but in spite of their reformation in this +respect the Dyaks are not on the increase, a fact for which +A.R. Wallace accounts by the hard life the women lead and their +consequent slight fecundity.</p> + +<p>The Dyaks speak a variety of dialects, most of which are still +very slightly known. The tribes on the coast have adopted a +great number of pure Malay words into common use, and it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +often hard to ascertain their own proper synonyms. The +American missionaries have investigated the dialects of the west +coast (Landak, &c.), and their Rhenish brethren have devoted +their attention to those of the south, into one of which (that of +Pulu Petak) a complete translation of the Bible has been made. +Mr Hardeland, the translator, has also published a Dyak-German +dictionary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DYCE, ALEXANDER<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span> (1798-1869), English dramatic editor +and literary historian, was born in Edinburgh on the 30th of +June 1798. After receiving his early education at the high school +of his native city, he became a student at Exeter College, Oxford, +where he graduated B.A. in 1819. He took holy orders, and +became a curate at Lantegloss, in Cornwall, and subsequently +at Nayland, in Suffolk; in 1827 he settled in London. His first +books were <i>Select Translations from Quintus Smyrnaeus</i> (1821), +an edition of Collins (1827), and <i>Specimens of British Poetesses</i> +(1825). He issued annotated editions of George Peele, Robert +Greene, John Webster, Thomas Middleton, Marlowe, and Beaumont +and Fletcher, with lives of the authors and much illustrative +matter. He completed, in 1833, an edition of James Shirley +left unfinished by William Gifford, and contributed biographies +of Shakespeare, Pope, Akenside and Beattie to Pickering’s +Aldine Poets. He also edited (1836-1838) Richard Bentley’s +works, and <i>Specimens of British Sonnets</i> (1833). His carefully +revised edition of John Skelton, which appeared in 1843, did +much to revive interest in that trenchant satirist. In 1857 his +edition of Shakespeare was published by Moxon; and the second +edition, a great improvement on the old one, was issued by +Chapman & Hall in 1866. He also published <i>Remarks on +Collier’s and Knight’s Editions of Shakespeare</i> (1844); <i>A Few +Notes on Shakespeare</i> (1853); and <i>Strictures on Collier’s new +Edition of Shakespeare</i> (1859), a contribution to the Collier +controversy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Collier, John Payne</a></span>), which ended a long +friendship between the two scholars. He was intimately connected +with several literary societies, and undertook the publication +of Kempe’s <i>Nine Days’ Wonder</i> for the Camden Society; +and the old plays of <i>Timon</i> and <i>Sir Thomas More</i> were published +by him for the Shakespeare Society. He was associated with +Halliwell-Phillips, John Payne Collier and Thomas Wright as +one of the founders of the Percy Society, for publishing old +English poetry. Dyce also issued <i>Recollections of the Table Talk +of Samuel Rogers</i> (1856). He died on the 15th of May 1869. +He had collected a valuable library, containing amongst other +treasures many rare Elizabethan books, and this collection he +bequeathed to the South Kensington Museum. He displayed +untiring industry, abundant learning, and admirable critical +acumen in his editions of the old English poets. His wide +reading in Elizabethan literature enabled him to explain much +that was formerly obscure in Shakespeare; while his sound +judgment was a check to extravagance in emendation. While +preserving all that was valuable in former editions, Dyce added +much fresh matter. His <i>Glossary</i>, a large volume of 500 pages, +was the most exhaustive that had appeared.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DYCE, WILLIAM<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span> (1806-1864), British painter, was born in +Aberdeen, where his father, a fellow of the Royal Society, was +a physician of some repute. He attended Marischal College, +took the degree of M.A. at sixteen years of age, and was destined +for one of the learned professions. Showing a turn for design +instead, he studied in the school of the Royal Scottish Academy +in Edinburgh, then as a probationer (not a full student) in the +Royal Academy of London, and thence, in 1825, he proceeded +to Rome, where he spent nine months. He returned to Aberdeen +in 1826, and painted several pictures; one of these, “Bacchus +nursed by the Nymphs of Nysa,” was exhibited in 1827. In the +autumn of that year he went back to Italy, showing from the +first a strong sympathy with the earlier masters of the Florentine +and allied schools. A “Virgin and Child” which he painted +in Rome in 1828 was much noticed by Overbeck and other +foreign artists. In 1829 Dyce settled in Edinburgh, taking at +once a good rank in his profession, and showing considerable +versatility in subject-matter. Portrait-painting for some years +occupied much of his time; and he was particularly prized for +likenesses of ladies and children. In February 1837 he was +appointed master of the school of design of the Board of Manufactures, +Edinburgh. In the same year he published a pamphlet +on the management of schools of this description, which led +to his transfer from Edinburgh, after eighteen months’ service +there, to London, as superintendent and secretary of the then +recently established school of design at Somerset House. Dyce +was sent by the Board of Trade to the continent to examine the +organization of foreign schools; and a report which he eventually +printed, 1840, led to a remodelling of the London establishment. +In 1842 he was made a member of the council and inspector of +provincial schools, a post which he resigned in 1844. In this +latter year, being appointed professor of fine art in King’s College, +London, he delivered a remarkable lecture, <i>The Theory of the +Fine Arts</i>. In 1835 he had been elected an associate of the Royal +Scottish Academy; this honour he relinquished upon settling +in London, and he was then made an honorary R.S.A. In 1844 +he became an associate, in 1848 a full member, of the London +Royal Academy; he also was elected a member of the Academy +of Arts in Philadelphia. He was active in the deliberations of the +Royal Academy, and it is said that his tongue was the dread of +the urbane President, Sir Charles Eastlake, for Dyce was keen +in speech as in visage; it was on his proposal that the class of +retired Academicians was established. In January 1850 Dyce +married Jane, daughter of Mr James Brand, of Bedford Hill, +Surrey. He died at Streatham on the 14th of February 1864, +leaving two sons and two daughters.</p> + +<p>Dyce was one of the most learned and accomplished of British +painters—one of the highest in aim, and most consistently self-respecting +in workmanship. His finest productions, the frescoes +in the robing-room in the Houses of Parliament, did honour to +the country and time which produced them. Generally, however, +there is in Dyce’s work more of earnestness, right conception, +and grave, sensitive, but rather restricted powers of realization, +than of authentic greatness. He has elevation, draughtsmanship, +expression, and on occasion fine colour; along with all these, +a certain leaning on precedent, and castigated semi-conventionalized +type of form and treatment, which bespeak rather the +scholarly than the originating mind in art. The following are +among his principal or most interesting works (oil pictures, +unless otherwise stated). 1829: “The Daughters of Jethro +defended by Moses”; “Puck.” 1830: “The Golden Age”; +“The Infant Hercules strangling the Serpents” (now in the +National Gallery, Edinburgh); “Christ crowned with Thorns.” +1835: “A Dead Christ” (large lunette altarpiece). 1836: +“The Descent of Venus,” from Ben Jonson’s <i>Triumph of Love</i>; +“The Judgment of Solomon,” prize cartoon in tempera for +tapestry (National Gallery, Edinburgh). 1837: “Francesca da +Rimini” (National Gallery, Edinburgh). 1838, and again 1846: +“The Madonna and Child.” 1839: “Dunstan separating Edwy +and Elgiva.” 1844: “Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance” +(the finest perhaps of the oil-paintings). 1850: “The Meeting +of Jacob and Rachel.” 1851: “King Lear and the Fool in +the Storm.” 1855: “Christabel.” 1857: “Titian’s first essay +in Colouring.” 1859: “The Good Shepherd.” 1860: “St +John bringing Home his Adopted Mother”; “Pegwell Bay” +(a coast scene of remarkably minute detail, showing the painter’s +partial adhesion to the “pre-Raphaelite” movement). 1861: +“George Herbert at Bemerton.” Dyce executed some excellent +cartoons for stained glass:—that for the choristers’ window, +Ely Cathedral, and that for a vast window at Alnwick in memory +of a duke of Northumberland; the design of “Paul rejected by +the Jews,” now at South Kensington, belongs to the latter. In +fresco-painting his first work appears to have been the “Consecration +of Archbishop Parker,” painted in Lambeth palace. +In one of the Westminster Hall competitions for the decoration +of the Houses of Parliament, he displayed two heads from this +composition; and it is related that the great German fresco-painter +Cornelius, who had come over to England to give advice, +with a prospect of himself taking the chief direction of the +pictorial scheme, told the prince consort frankly that the English +ought not to be asking for him, when they had such a painter of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +their own as Mr Dyce. The cartoon by Dyce of the “Baptism +of Ethelbert” was approved and commissioned for the House of +Lords, and is the first of the works done there, 1846, in fresco. +In 1848 he began his great frescoes in the Robing-room—subjects +from the legend of King Arthur, exhibiting chivalric virtue. +The whole room was to have been finished in eight years; but +ill-health and other vexations trammelled the artist, and the +series remains uncompleted. The largest picture figures “Hospitality, +the admission of Sir Tristram into the fellowship of +the Round Table.” Then follow—“Religion,” the Vision of +Sir Galahad and his Companions; “Generosity,” Arthur +unhorsed, and spared by the Victor; “Courtesy,” Sir Tristram +harping to la Belle Yseult; “Mercy,” Sir Gawaine’s Vow. The +frescoes of sacred subjects in All Saints’ church, Margaret Street, +London; of “Comus,” in the summer-house of Buckingham +Palace; and of “Neptune and Britannia,” at Osborne House, +are also by this painter.</p> + +<p>Dyce was an elegant scholar in more ways than one. In 1828 +he obtained the Blackwell prize at Aberdeen for an essay on +animal magnetism. In 1843-1844 he published an edition of +the Book of Common Prayer, with a dissertation on Gregorian +music, and its adaptation to English words. He founded the +Motett Society, for revival of ancient church-music, was a fine +organist, and composed a “non nobis” which has appropriately +been sung at Royal Academy banquets. His last considerable +writing relating to his own art was published in 1853, <i>The +National Gallery: its Formation and Management</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Redgrave’s <i>Dictionary of Artists</i> (1878), and <i>Dictionary of +National Biography</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DYEING<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>deágian</i>, <i>deáh</i>; Mid. Eng. <i>deyen</i>), the art of +colouring textile and other materials in such a manner that the +colours will not be readily removed by those influences to which +they are likely to be submitted—<i>e.g.</i> washing, rubbing, light, &c. +The materials usually dyed are those made from the textile fibres, +silk, wool, cotton, &c., and intended for clothing or decoration; +but in addition to these may be mentioned straw, fur, leather, +paper, &c.</p> + +<p>The art of dyeing dates from prehistoric times, and its practice +probably began with the first dawn of civilization. Although we +cannot trace the successive stages of its development +from the beginning, we may suppose they were somewhat +<span class="sidenote">Historical sketch.</span> +similar to those witnessed among certain uncivilized +tribes to-day—<i>e.g.</i> the Maoris of New Zealand. At first +the dyes were probably mere fugitive stains obtained by means of +the juices of fruits, and the decoctions of flowers, leaves, barks and +roots; but in course of time methods were discovered, with the +aid of certain kinds of earth and mud containing alumina or iron, +whereby the stains could be rendered permanent, and then it was +that the true art of dyeing began. There is no doubt that dyeing +was, in the early period of its history, a home industry practised +by the women of the household, along with the sister arts of +spinning and weaving, for the purpose of embellishing the +materials manufactured for clothing.</p> + +<p>Historical evidence shows that already at a remote period a +high state of civilization existed in Persia, India, and China, and +the belief is well founded that the arts of dyeing and printing have +been practised in these countries during a long succession of ages. +In early times the products and manufactures of India were +highly prized throughout Southern Asia, and in due course they +were introduced by Arabian merchants to Phoenicia and Egypt, +with which countries commercial intercourse, by way of the +Persian and Arabian Gulfs, seems to have existed from time +immemorial. Eventually the Egyptians themselves began to +practise the arts of dyeing and printing, utilizing no doubt both +the knowledge and the materials derived from India. Pliny the +historian has left us a brief record of the methods employed in +Egypt during the first century, as well as of the Tyrian purple dye +celebrated already 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, while the chemical examination of +mummy cloths by Thomson and Schunck testifies to the use by +the Egyptian dyers of indigo and madder. The Phoenician and +Alexandrian merchants imported drugs and dyestuffs into Greece, +but we know little or nothing of the methods of dyeing pursued by +the Greeks and Romans, and such knowledge as they possessed +seems to have been almost entirely lost during the stormy period +of barbarism reigning in Europe during the 5th and succeeding +centuries. In Italy, however, some remnants of the art +fortunately survived these troublous times, and the importation +of Oriental products by the Venetian merchants about the +beginning of the 13 th century helped to revive the industry. +From this time rapid progress was made, and the dyers formed +important guilds in Florence, Venice and other cities. It was +about this time, too, that a Florentine named Rucellai rediscovered +the method of making the purple dye orchil from +certain lichens of Asia Minor. In 1429 there was published at +Venice, under the title of <i>Mariegola dell’ arte de tentori</i>, the first +European book on dyeing, which contained a collection of the +various processes in use at the time. From Italy a knowledge of +dyeing gradually extended to Germany, France and Flanders, +and it was from the latter country that the English king Edward +III. procured dyers for England, a Dyers’ Company being incorporated +in 1472 in the city of London.</p> + +<p>A new impetus was given to the industry of dyeing by the +discovery of America in 1492, as well as by the opening up of the +way to the East Indies round the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. A +number of new dyestuffs were now introduced, and the dyewood +trade was transferred from Italy to Spain and Portugal, for the +East Indian products now came direct to Europe round the Cape +instead of by the old trade routes through Persia and Asia Minor. +Eastern art-fabrics were introduced in increasing quantity, and +with them came also information as to the methods of their +production. In Europe itself the cultivation of dye-plants +gradually received more and more attention, and both woad and +madder began to be cultivated, about 1507, in France, Germany +and Holland. Under the influence of Spain the Dutch largely +developed their industries and made considerable progress in +dyeing. The Spaniards, on their first arrival in Mexico (1518), +noticed the employment of the red dyestuff cochineal by the +natives, and at once imported it to Europe, where an increasing +demand for the new colouring matter gradually developed in the +course of the century. A further impetus was given to the trade +by the Dutch chemist Drebbel’s accidental discovery, in 1630, of +the method of dyeing a brilliant scarlet on wool by means of +cochineal and tin solutions. The secret was soon communicated +to other dyers, and the new scarlet was dyed as a speciality at the +Gobelin dyeworks in Paris, and some time later (1643) at a +dyeworks in Bow, near London.</p> + +<p>In 1662 the newly established Royal Society in London took a +useful step in advancing the art of dyeing, and in order to +inform and assist practical dyers, caused the publication of the +first original account, in the English language, of the methods +employed in dyeing, entitled “An apparatus to the history of the +common practices of Dyeing.” Ten years later the French +Minister Colbert sought to improve as well as control the operations +of dyeing, by publishing a code of instructions for the use of +the woollen dyers and manufacturers in France. From this time, +too, a succession of eminent chemists were appointed by the +French government to devote some of their attention to the study +of the industrial arts, including dyeing, with a view to their +progress and improvement. Dufay, Hellot, Macquer, Berthollet, +Roard and Chevreul (1700-1825) all rendered excellent service to +the art, by investigating the chemical principles of dyeing, by +publishing accounts of the various processes in vogue, by examining +the nature and properties of the dyestuffs employed, and by +explaining the cause of the several phenomena connected with +dyeing. With the advent of the 18th century, certain old +prejudices against the use of foreign dyewoods gradually disappeared, +and very rapid progress was made owing to the birth +of the modern chemistry and the discovery of several useful +chemical products and processes—<i>e.g.</i> Prussian Blue (1710), +Saxony Blue or Indigo Extract (1740), sulphuric acid (1774), +murexide (1776), picric acid (1788), carbonate of soda (1793), +bleaching powder (1798). Experiments on the practical side of +bleaching and dyeing were made during this period, in England +by Thomas Henry, Home and Bancroft, and in France by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +Dambourney, Gonfreville and others, each of whom has left +interesting records of his work.</p> + +<p>Down to the middle of the 19th century natural dyestuffs +alone, with but few exceptions, were at the command of the dyer. +But already in the year 1834 the German chemist Runge noticed +that one of the products obtained by distilling coal-tar, namely, +aniline, gave a bright blue coloration under the influence of +bleaching powder. No useful colouring matter, however, was +obtained from this product, and it was reserved for the English +chemist Sir W.H. Perkin to prepare the first aniline dye, namely, +the purple colouring matter Mauve (1856). The discovery of +other brilliant aniline dyestuffs followed in rapid succession, and +the dyer was in the course of a few years furnished with Magenta, +Aniline Blue, Hofmann’s Violet, Iodine Green, Bismarck Brown, +Aniline Black, &c. Investigation has shown that the products +of the distillation of coal-tar are very numerous, and some of +them are found to be specially suitable for the preparation of +colouring matters. Such, for example, are benzene, naphthalene +and anthracene, from each of which distinct series of colouring +matters are derived. In 1869 the German chemists Graebe and +Liebermann succeeded in preparing Alizarin, the colouring matter +of the madder-root, from the coal-tar product anthracene, a +discovery which is of the greatest historical interest, since it is +the first instance of the artificial production of a vegetable +dyestuff. Another notable discovery is that of artificial Indigo +by Baeyer in 1878. Since 1856, indeed, an ever-increasing +number of chemists has been busily engaged in pursuing scientific +investigations with the view of preparing new colouring matters +from coal-tar products, and of these a few typical colours, with +the dates of their discovery, may be mentioned: Cachou de +Laval (1873); Eosin (1874); Alizarin Blue (1877); Xylidine +Scarlet (1878); Biebrich Scarlet (1879); Congo Red (1884); +Primuline Red (1887); Rhodamine (1887); Paranitraniline +Red (1889); Alizarin Bordeaux (1890); Alizarin Green (1895). +At the present time it may truly be said that the dyer +is furnished with quite an embarrassing number of coal-tar +dyestuffs which are capable of producing every variety of colour +possessing the most diverse properties. Many of the colours +produced are fugitive, but a considerable number are permanent +and withstand various influences, so that the general result for +some years has been the gradual displacement of the older +natural dyestuffs by the newer coal-tar colours.</p> + +<p>During this period of discovery on the part of the chemist, +the mechanical engineer has been actively engaged in devising +machines suitable for carrying out, with a minimum of manual +labour, all the various operations connected with dyeing. This +introduction of improved machinery into the dyeing trade has +resulted in the production of better work, it has effected considerable +economy, and may be regarded as an important feature +in modern dyeing.</p> + +<p>The art of dyeing is a branch of applied chemistry in which +the dyer is continually making use of chemical and physical +principles in order to bring about a permanent union +between the material to be dyed and the colouring +<span class="sidenote">General principles.</span> +matter applied. If cotton or wool is boiled in water +containing finely powdered charcoal, or other insoluble coloured +powder, the material is not dyed, but merely soiled or stained. +This staining is entirely due to the entanglement of the coloured +powder by the rough surface of the fibre, and a vigorous washing +and rubbing suffices to remove all but mere traces of the colour. +True dyeing can only result when the colouring matter is presented +to the fibre in a soluble condition, and is then, by some +means or other, rendered insoluble while it is absorbed by, or is +in direct contact with, the fibre. There must always be some +marked physical or chemical affinity existing between fibre and +colouring matter, and this depends upon the physical and +chemical properties of both. It is well known that the typical +fibres, wool, silk and cotton, behave very differently towards +the solution of any given colouring matter, and that the method +of dyeing employed varies with each fibre. As a general rule +wool has the greatest attraction for colouring matters, and dyes +most readily; cotton has the least attraction, while silk occupies +in this respect an intermediate position. These differences may +be to some extent due to differences of physical structure in +the fibres, but they are mainly due to their different chemical +composition.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, a given fibre, <i>e.g.</i> cotton, behaves quite +differently in dyeing towards various colouring matters. Some +of these are not at all attracted by it, and are incapable of being +used as dyestuffs for cotton. For others cotton exhibits a marked +attraction, so that it is readily dyed by mere steeping in a hot +solution of the colouring matter. Again, for other colouring +matters cotton has little or no attraction, and cannot be dyed +with them until it has been previously impregnated or prepared +with a metallic salt, tannic acid or some other agent which is +capable of combining with the colouring matter and precipitating +it as an insoluble coloured compound within or upon the fibre. +Such differences of behaviour are to be ascribed to differences +in the chemical constitution or atomic arrangement of the various +colouring matters.</p> + +<p>In the case of the coal-tar colours we are, for the most part, +well acquainted with their chemical constitution, and in accordance +with this knowledge the chemist has arranged +them in the following groups:—(1) Nitro Colours. +<span class="sidenote">Classification of colouring matters.</span> +(2) Azo Colours, including Amido-azo, Oxy-azo, +Tetrazo and Polyazo Colours. (3) Hydrazone Colours. +(4) Oxy-quinone Colours, including Quinone-oxime Colours. +(5) Diphenylmethane and Triphenylmethane Colours, including +Rosaniline, Rosolic acid and Phthaleïne Colours. (6) +Quinoneimide Colours, including Indamine, Indophenol, Thiazime, +Thiazone, Oxazime, Oxazone, Azine, Induline, Quinoxaline +and Fluorindine Colours. (7) Aniline Black. (8) Quinoline +and Acridine Colours. (9) Thiazol Colours. (10) Oxy-ketone, +Xanthone, Flavone and Cumarine Colours. (11) Indigo. (12) +Colours of unknown constitution.</p> + +<p>This arrangement of the colouring matters in natural chemical +groups is well suited for the requirements of the chemist, but +another classification is that based on the mode of their application +in dyeing. This is much simpler than the previous one, +and being better adapted for the practical purposes of the dyer, +as well as for explaining the various methods of dyeing, it is +preferred for this article. According to this arrangement +colouring matters are classified under the following groups:—(1) +<i>Acid Colours.</i> (2) <i>Basic Colours.</i> (3) <i>Direct Colours.</i> (4) +<i>Developed Colours.</i> (5) <i>Mordant Colours.</i> (6) <i>Miscellaneous +Colours.</i> (7) <i>Mineral Colours.</i> It is well to state that there is +no sharp line of division between some of these groups, for many +colours are applicable by more than one method, and might +quite well be placed in two, or even three, of the above groups. +This may be due either to the kind of fibre to which the colouring +matter is to be applied, or to certain details in the chemical +constitution of the latter which give it a twofold character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Acid Colours.</span>—These dyestuffs are so called because they dye +the animal fibres wool and silk in an acid bath; they do not dye +cotton. From a chemical point of view the colouring matters +themselves are of an acid character, this being due to the presence +in the molecule of nitro (NO<span class="su">2</span>) or sulphonic acid (HSO<span class="su">3</span>) groups. +According to their origin and constitution they may be distinguished +as nitro compounds, sulphonated azo compounds and +sulphonated basic colours. The acid colours are usually sold in +the form of their alkali salts, as variously coloured powders soluble +in water. For the alkali salts in neutral or alkaline solution wool +and silk have little or no affinity, but dyeing rapidly occurs if the +solution is acidified with sulphuric acid whereby the colour-acid is +liberated. This addition of acid, however, is necessary not only to +set free the colour-acid of the dyestuff, but also to alter partially +the chemical composition of the fibre, and thus render it capable +of uniting more readily with the free colour-acid. It has been +shown, namely, that if wool is boiled with dilute sulphuric acid, +and then thoroughly washed with boiling-water till free from acid, +it acquires the property of being dyed with acid colours even in +neutral solution. By this treatment a portion of the wool substance +is converted into so-called <i>lanuginic acid</i>, which has a strong attraction +for the colour-acid of the dyestuff, with which it forms an +insoluble coloured compound. For dyeing <i>wool</i>, the general rule is +to charge the dyebath with the amount of dyestuff necessary to give +the required colour, say from ½ to 2 or 6 % on the weight of wool +employed, along with 10% sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt) and +4% sulphuric acid (1.84 sp. gr.). The woollen material is then +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +introduced and continually handled or moved about in the solution, +while the temperature of the latter is gradually raised to the boiling +point in the course of ¾ to 1 hour; after boiling for ¼ to ½ hour longer, +the operation is complete, and the material is washed and dried.</p> + +<p>In practice, modifications of this normal process may be introduced, +in order to ensure the dyeing of an even colour, <i>i.e.</i> free +from such irregularities as cloudiness, streaks, &c., which may be +due to the quality of the material or to the special properties of +the acid colour employed. Materials of a firm, close texture, also +the existence of a strong affinity between fibre and colouring +matter, do not generally lend themselves to the dyeing of even +colours, or to a satisfactory penetration of the material. Some acid +colours dye even colours without any difficulty; others, however, +do not. The addition of sodium sulphate to the dyebath exerts +a restraining action; the dyeing therefore proceeds more slowly and +regularly, and a more equal distribution and better absorption +of the colouring matter takes place. Other devices to obtain even +colours are: the use of old dye-liquors, a diminished amount of +acid, the employment of weaker acids, <i>e.g.</i> acetic or formic acid or +ammonium acetate, and the entering of the material at a low +temperature.</p> + +<p>In the application of so-called Alkali Blue the process of dyeing +in an acid bath is impossible, owing to the insolubility of the colour-acid +in an acid solution. Wool and silk, however, possess an affinity +for the alkali salt of the colouring matter in neutral or alkaline +solution, hence these fibres are dyed with the addition of about +5% borax; the material acquires only a pale colour, that of the +alkali salt, in this dyebath, but by passing the washed material +into a cold or tepid dilute solution of sulphuric acid a full bright blue +colour is developed, due to the liberation of the colour-acid within +the fibre. In the case of other acid colours, <i>e.g.</i> Chromotrope, +Chrome Brown, Chromogen, Alizarin Yellow, &c., the dyeing in an +acid bath is followed by a treatment with a boiling solution of +bichromate of potash, alum, or chromium fluoride, whereby the +colouring matter on the fibre is changed into insoluble oxidation +products or colour-lakes. This operation of developing or fixing +the colour is effected either in the same bath at the end of the dyeing +operation, or in a separate bath. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artificial Mordant Colours</a></span>.</p> + +<p>When dyeing with certain acid colours, <i>e.g.</i> Eosine, Phloxine and +other allied bright pink colouring matters derived from resorcin, +the use of sulphuric acid as an assistant must be avoided, since the +colours would thereby be rendered paler and duller, and only acetic +acid must be employed.</p> + +<p>The properties of the dyes obtained with the acid colours are +extremely varied. Many are fugitive to light; on the other hand, +many are satisfactorily fast, some even being very fast in this +respect. As a rule, they do not withstand the operations of milling +and scouring very well, hence acid colours are generally unsuitable +for tweed yarns or for loose wool. They are largely employed, +however, in dyeing other varieties of woollen yarn, silk yarn, union +fabrics, dress materials, leather, &c. Previous to the discovery +of the coal-tar colours very few acid colours were known, the most +important one being Indigo Extract. Prussian Blue as applied to +wool may also be regarded as belonging to this class, also the purple +dyestuff known as Orchil or Cudbear.</p> + +<p>The following list includes some of the more important acid +colours now in use, arranged according to the colour they yield in +dyeing:—</p> + +<p><i>Red.</i>—Wool scarlet, brilliant scarlet, erythrine, croceïn scarlet, +brilliant croceïn, violamine G, scarlet 3R, crystal scarlet, new coccine, +chromotrope 2R, azo acid magenta, Victoria scarlet, xylidine scarlet, +Palatine scarlet, Biebrich scarlet, pyrotine, orchil red, Bordeaux B, +milling red, azo carmine, acid magenta, fast acid violet A 2R, +naphthylamine red, fast red, claret red, eosine, erythrosine, rose +Bengale, phloxine, cyanosine, cloth red, lanafuchsine, rosinduline, +erio carmine.</p> + +<p><i>Orange.</i>—Diphenylamine orange, methyl orange, naphthol orange, +croceïn orange, brilliant orange, orange G, orange N, mandarin G R.</p> + +<p><i>Yellow.</i>—Picric acid, naphthol yellow S, fast yellow, brilliant +yellow S, azoflavine, metanil yellow, resorcine yellow, tartrazine, +quinoline yellow, milling yellow, azo yellow, Victoria yellow, +brilliant yellow S, citronine, Indian yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Green.</i>—Acid green, guinea green, fast green, patent green, cyanol +green, erio green, brilliant acid green 6 G.</p> + +<p><i>Blue.</i>—Alkali blue, soluble blue, opal blue, methyl blue, Höchst +new blue, patent blue, ketone blue, cyanine, thiocarmine, fast blue, +induline, violamine 3 B, azo acid blue, wool blue, indigo extract, +erio glaucine, erio cyanine, erio blue, lanacyl blue, sulphon-azurine, +sulphon-cyanine.</p> + +<p><i>Violet.</i>—Acid violet, red violet, regina violet, formyl violet, +violamine B, fast violet, azo acid violet, erio violet, lanacyl violet.</p> + +<p><i>Brown.</i>—Fast brown, naphthylamine brown, acid brown, resorcine +brown, azo brown, chrome brown, chromogene.</p> + +<p><i>Black.</i>—Naphthol black, azo black, wool black, naphthylamine +black, jet black, anthracite black, Victoria black, azo acid black, +brilliant black, union black, brilliant black B.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Basic Colours.</span>—These colouring matters are the salts of organic +colour-bases, their name being derived from the fact that their +dyeing power resides entirely in the basic part of the salt. In the +free state the bases are colourless and insoluble, but in combination +with acids they form salts which are coloured and for the most +part soluble in water. They are usually sold in the form of powder +or crystals, the latter exhibiting frequently a beautiful metallic +lustre. <i>Wool</i> and <i>silk</i> are dyed in a neutral bath, <i>i.e.</i> without any +addition, the material not requiring any previous preparation. +During the dyeing operation the animal fibres appear to play the part +of an acid, for they decompose the colouring matter and unite with +the colour-base to form an insoluble coloured salt or lake, while the +acid of the colouring matter is liberated and remains in solution. +Although, as a rule, a neutral dyebath is employed in dyeing wool, +a slight addition (2%) of soap is sometimes made in order to give +a brighter colour, while in other cases, <i>e.g.</i> with Victoria Blue, the +dyebath must of necessity be made distinctly acid with acetic or +sulphuric acid. Silk is usually dyed in a bath containing “boiled-off +liquor” (<i>i.e.</i> the spent soap-liquor from the operation of scouring) +neutralized or slightly acidified with acetic or tartaric acid. For +a full colour use 2 or 3% colouring matter, enter the wool at a low +temperature, heat gradually to near the boiling point in the course +of ¾ hour, and continue dyeing for ¼ hour. Owing to the slight +solubility of many basic colours, it is important to take the precaution +of filtering the colour solution into the dyebath through +a flannel filter, also to neutralize the alkalinity of calcareous water +with a little acetic acid, to prevent decomposition of the colouring +matter and precipitation of the colour-base.</p> + +<p>Unlike the animal fibres, <i>cotton</i> has little or no affinity for the +basic colours; hence the cotton dyer makes use of the fact that +cotton has a natural attraction for tannic acid, and that the latter +forms insoluble lakes with the bases of basic colours. Previous +to dyeing, the cotton is prepared with tannic acid by steeping in +a cold solution of the latter for several hours; cotton pieces are run +at full width through a solution containing 2 to 6 oz. per gallon of +tannic acid, and after being evenly squeezed are dried on steam +cylinders. The cotton is then worked in a solution of tartar emetic +or stannic chloride, so that the tannic acid absorbed by the fibre +may be fixed upon it as insoluble tannate of antimony or tin. +Although the tannic acid is thus united with metallic oxide, it still +has the power of attracting the base of the colouring matter, and +there is fixed upon the fibre an insoluble colour-lake, namely, a +tannate of antimony and colour-base, which constitutes the dye. In +this process the tannic acid is called the <i>mordant</i>, the tartar emetic +acts as the <i>fixing-agent</i> for the tannic acid, and the cotton as finally +prepared for dyeing is said to be <i>mordanted</i>. The proportions employed, +reckoned on the weight of cotton, may vary from 2 to 10% +tannic acid, or the equivalent in a decoction of sumach, myrabolans, +or other tannin matter, and ½ to 3% tartar emetic. After mordanting +and fixing of the mordant, the cotton is well washed and dyed +in the cold or at 60° C. for ½ to 1 hour with the necessary colouring +matter. Applied in this manner, basic colours are moderately fast +to soap, but generally not to the action of light.</p> + +<p><i>Linen</i> is dyed in the same manner as cotton. Jute is dyed without +any previous preparation, since it behaves like a tannin-mordanted +fibre, attracting the basic colours direct.</p> + +<p>The basic colours, to which class most of the earlier coal-tar +colours belonged, are remarkable for their great colouring power, +and in most cases for the brilliancy of the colours they yield. With +the exception of certain dark colours, they are fugitive to light. It +is interesting to note that only one vegetable colouring matter is at +present recognized as belonging to this class, namely, the yellow +dyestuff barberry bark and root (<i>Berberis vulgaris</i>) which contains +the alkaloid berberine.</p> + +<p>The following is a list of the more important basic colours derived +from coal-tar:—</p> + +<p><i>Red.</i>—Magenta, safranine, rhodamine, pyronine red, rhoduline +red, rosazeïn, induline scarlet.</p> + +<p><i>Orange.</i>—Chrysoïdine, phosphine, acridine orange, tannin orange.</p> + +<p><i>Yellow.</i>—Auramine, benzoflavine, thioflavine T, acridine yellow, +homophosphine, rhoduline yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Green.</i>—Malachite green, emerald green, imperial green, China +green, brilliant green, Victoria green, diamond green, methylene +green, azine green.</p> + +<p><i>Blue.</i>—Methylene blue, new methylene blue, toluidine blue, +thionine blue, indamine blue, Victoria blue, night blue, Nile blue, +turquoise blue, marine blue, indoine blue, metamine blue, Capri +blue, indazine, metaphenylene blue, paraphenylene blue, toluylene +blue, indigene, indol blue, diphene blue, setopaline, setocyanine, +setoglaucine, Helvetia blue.</p> + +<p><i>Violet.</i>—Methyl violet, crystal violet, ethyl purple, methylene +violet, mauve, paraphenylene violet, rhoduline violet, methylene +heliotrope.</p> + +<p><i>Brown.</i>—Bismarck brown.</p> + +<p><i>Black.</i>—Diazine black.</p> + +<p><i>Grey.</i>—Methylene grey, nigrisine, new grey.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Direct Colours.</span>—The characteristic feature of the dyestuffs +belonging to this class is that they dye cotton “direct”—<i>i.e.</i> without +the aid of mordants. Two distinct series of colouring matters of this +group may be distinguished—namely, <i>Direct Cotton Colours</i> and +<i>Sulphide Colours</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Direct Cotton Colours.</i>—The colours of this class are frequently +called the Substantive Cotton Colours, Benzo Colours, Diamine +Colours, Congo Colours. Considered from the chemical point of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page747" id="page747"></a>747</span> +view, they are mostly alkali salts of sulphonated tetrazo colours +obtained by diazotizing certain diamido compounds, <i>e.g.</i> benzidine, +diamido-stilbene, &c., and uniting the products thus obtained with +various amines or phenols. The first colouring matter of this class +was the so-called Congo red, discovered in 1884, and since that time +a very great number have been introduced which yield almost every +variety of colour. The method of dyeing <i>cotton</i> consists in merely +boiling the material in a solution of the dyestuff, when the cotton +absorbs and retains the colouring matter by reason of a special +natural affinity. The concentration of the dyebath is of the greatest +importance, since the amount of colour taken up by the fibre is in +an inverse ratio to the amount of dye liquor present in the bath. +The addition of 1 to 3 oz. sodium sulphate and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> oz. carbonate +of soda per gallon gives deeper colours, since it diminishes the solubility +of the colouring matter in the water and increases the affinity +of the cotton for the colouring matter. An excess of sodium sulphate +is to be avoided, otherwise precipitation of the colouring matter +and imperfect dyeing result. With many dyestuffs it is preferable +to use <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> oz. soap instead of soda. On cotton the dyed colours +are usually not very fast to light, and some are sensitive to alkali +or to acid, but their most serious defect is that they are not fast to +washing, the colour tending to run and stain neighbouring fibres. +Their fastness to light and washing is, however, greatly improved +by a short (½ hour) after-treatment with a boiling solution of copper +sulphate (3%), with or without the addition of bichromate of potash +(1%). <i>Wool</i> and <i>silk</i> are dyed with the direct colours either neutral +or with the addition of a little acetic acid to the dyebath. On these +fibres the dyed colours are usually faster than on cotton to washing, +milling and light; some are very fast even to light—<i>e.g.</i> Diamine +fast red, chrysophenine, Hessian yellow, &c. Many of the Direct +Colours are very useful for dyeing plain shades on union fabrics +composed of wool and cotton, silk and cotton, or wool and silk. +Owing to the facility of their application, they are also very suitable +for use as household dyes, especially for cotton goods.</p> + +<p>A few vegetable dyestuffs belong to this class, notably Turmeric, +saffron, annatto and safflower, but they all yield colours which +are fugitive to light, and they are now of little importance. <i>Turmeric</i> +is the underground stem or tuber of <i>Curcuma tinctoria</i>, a plant +growing abundantly in the East Indies. It dyes cotton, wool and +silk in a bath acidified with acetic acid or alum, yielding a bright +yellow colour which is turned brown by alkalis. <i>Saffron</i> consists +of the stigmata of the flower of <i>Crocus sativus</i>, which is grown in +Austria, France and Spain. It dyes a bright orange-yellow colour. +<i>Annatto</i> is the pulpy mass surrounding the seeds of <i>Bixa orellana</i>, +a plant which grows in South America—<i>e.g.</i> Brazil, Cayenne, &c. +It dyes cotton and silk in an alkaline or soap bath an orange colour, +which is turned red by acids. <i>Safflower</i> consists of the dried florets +of <i>Carthamus tinctorius</i>, which is grown in the East Indies, Egypt +and southern Europe. Cotton is dyed a brilliant pink colour by +working it in a cold alkaline (sodium carbonate) extract of the +colouring matter, while gradually acidifying the solution with citric +acid (lime-juice).</p> + +<p>The Direct Colours which are derived from coal-tar products are +very numerous indeed; they are largely employed, and occupy a +very important position among dyestuffs. The following list includes +the principal coal-tar colours of this group:—</p> + +<p><i>Red.</i>—Congo red, brilliant Congo, benzopurpurine, brilliant +purpurine, deltapurpurine, diamine scarlet, diamine fast red, +rosazurine, salmon red, erica, Titan pink, St Denis red, Columbia red, +naphthylene red, Congo rubine, acetopurpurine, dianol red, thiamine +crimson, geranine, brilliant geranine, Columbia fast scarlet, benzo fast +scarlet, thiamine red, diamine rose, Dongola red, rosophenine.</p> + +<p><i>Orange.</i>—Congo orange, benzo orange, toluylene orange, mikado +orange, brilliant orange, Columbia orange, diamine orange, pyramine +orange, benzo fast orange.</p> + +<p><i>Yellow.</i>—Chrysamine, cresotin yellow, diamine yellow, carbazol +yellow, chrysophenine, Hessian yellow, curcumine yellow, thiazol +yellow, thioflavine S, oriol, mimosa yellow, Columbia yellow, cotton +yellow, chloramine yellow, direct yellow, diamine fast yellow, diamine +gold, sun yellow, stilbene yellow, chlorophenine, oxyphenine.</p> + +<p><i>Green.</i>—Benzo olive, Columbia green, benzo green, diamine green, +direct green, diphenyl green, oxamine green, eboli green.</p> + +<p><i>Blue.</i>—Azo blue, benzoazurine, brilliant azurine, sulphon-azurine, +diamine blue, benzo indigo blue, benzo black blue, Chicago blue, +Columbia blue, Erie blue, Zambezi blue, benzo cyanine, Congo blue, +diamine sky blue, brilliant benzo blue, benzo chrome black blue, +oxamine blue, diphenyl blue, diamineral blue, diaminogene, benzo +fast blue, diazo indigo blue, brilliant chlorazol blue.</p> + +<p><i>Violet.</i>—Hessian purple, Congo Corinth, heliotrope, Congo violet, +diamine violet, Hessian violet, azo violet, benzo violet, violet black, +diamine Bordeaux, chlorantine lilac, diphenyl violet, triazol violet, +Columbia violet.</p> + +<p><i>Brown.</i>—Benzo brown, Congo brown, toluylene brown, diamine +brown, cotton brown, Hessian brown, terra-cotta, mikado brown, +catechu brown, wool brown, Columbia brown, Zambezi brown, +benzo chrome brown, direct fast brown, direct bronze brown, +chloramine brown, triazol brown, toluylene brown, dianol brown, +Crumpsall direct fast brown.</p> + +<p><i>Black.</i>—Diamine black, Columbia black, Nyanza black, Tabora +black, Zambezi black, chromanil black, benzo black, benzo fast +black, direct blue black, Pluto black, oxydiamine black, diamine +jet black, polyphenyl black, union black, triazol black, Titan black, +cotton black, oxamine black.</p> + +<p><i>Grey.</i>—Benzo grey, benzo black, azo mauve, diaminogene, neutral +grey.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Sulphide Colours.</i>—These dyestuffs are only suitable for dyeing +the vegetable fibres, since they must be applied in a strongly alkaline +bath. The dyestuff Cachou de Laval, discovered in 1873, was the +first member of this group, and was obtained by melting a mixture +of sodium sulphide and various organic substances—<i>e.g.</i> bran, sawdust, +&c. In recent years numerous other dyestuffs have been added +to the list, namely, grey, blue, green, brown, and especially black +colours, by submitting certain definite amido compounds of the +aromatic series to a similar treatment with sodium sulphide or +sodium thiosulphate, and subsequent oxidation. The mode of +dyeing with these colours is based on the fact that they are soluble +in an alkaline reducing agent, and if the cotton is worked in the +solution, subsequent oxidation develops the colour, which is fixed +upon the fibre in an insoluble condition. The material is boiled +for about one hour in a solution of the colour (10 to 15%), with the +addition of sodium carbonate (1 to 10%), common salt (10 to 20%), +and sodium sulphide (5 to 30%); it is then washed in water, and +may be developed by heating in a bath containing 2 to 5% of bichromate +of soda, and 3 to 6% acetic acid. A final washing with +water containing a little soda to remove acidity is advisable. The +sulphide colours are remarkable for their fastness to light, alkalis, +acids and washing, but unless proper care is exercised the cotton is +apt to be tendered on being stored for some time.</p> + +<p>The following list includes some of the most important of the +colours of this class:—</p> + +<p><i>Yellow.</i>—Immedial yellow, pyrogene yellow, sulphur yellow, +thion yellow, thiogene yellow.</p> + +<p><i>Orange.</i>—Eclipse phosphine, immedial orange, pyrogene orange, +thion orange, thiogene orange.</p> + +<p><i>Green.</i>—Pyrogene green, Italian green, eclipse green, pyrol green, +immedial green, katigene green, thionol green.</p> + +<p><i>Blue.</i>—Immedial blue, immedial sky blue, eclipse blue, katigene +indigo, pyrogene blue, sulphur blue, thion blue, thiogene blue.</p> + +<p><i>Violet.</i>—Katigene violet, thiogene heliotrope, thiogene purple.</p> + +<p><i>Brown.</i>—Pyrogene brown, pyrogene yellow, Cachou de Laval, +thiocatechine, katigene black brown, eclipse brown, immedial +brown, katigene brown, dianol brown.</p> + +<p><i>Grey and Black.</i>—Pyrogene grey, Vidal black, immedial black, +katigene black, anthraquinone black, St Denis black, amidazol +black, cross dye black, eclipse black, carbide black, thiogene black, +sulphaniline black, sulfogene black, pyrogene black, dianol black, +sulphur black, thion black, kryogene black.</p> + +<p>This class of colours is continually increasing in number, and for +certain purposes in cotton dyeing the group has acquired great +importance.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Developed Colours.</span>—This group includes certain azo colours +which are developed or produced upon the fibre itself (usually +<i>cotton</i>) by the successive application of their constituent elements. +It may be conveniently divided into the following sub-groups:—Insoluble +Azo Colours, Developed Direct Colours, Benzo Nitrol Colours.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) The <i>Insoluble Azo Colours</i> are produced as insoluble +coloured precipitates by adding a solution of a diazo compound +to an alkaline solution of a phenol, or to an acid solution of an +amido compound. The necessary diazo compound is prepared by +allowing a solution containing nitrous acid to act upon a solution +of a primary aromatic amine. It is usually desirable to keep the +solutions cool with ice, owing to the very unstable nature of the diazo +compounds produced. The colour obtained varies according to +the particular diazo compound, as well as the amine or phenol +employed, β-naphthol being the most useful among the latter. +The same coloured precipitates are produced upon the <i>cotton</i> fibre +if the material is first impregnated with an alkaline solution of the +phenol, then dried and passed into a cold solution of the diazo +solution. The most important of these colours is <i>para-nitraniline</i> +<i>red</i>, which is dyed in enormous quantities on cotton pieces. The +pieces are first “prepared” by running them on a padding machine +through a solution made up of 30 grms. β-naphthol, 20 grms, +caustic soda, 50 grms. Turkey red oil, and 5 grms. tartar emetic in +1000 grms. (1 litre) water. They are then dried on the drying-machine, +and are passed, after being allowed to cool, into the diazo +solution, which is prepared as follows: 15 grms. para-nitraniline are +dissolved in 53 c.c. hydrochloric acid (34° Tw.) and a sufficiency of +water. To the cold solution a solution of 10½ grms. sodium nitrite +is added while stirring. The whole is then made up to 1200 c.c., +and just before use 60 grms. sodium acetate are added. The colour +is developed almost immediately, but it is well to allow the cotton +to remain in contact with the solution for a few minutes. The dyed +cotton is squeezed, washed, soaped slightly, and finally rinsed in +water and dried. A brilliant red is then obtained which is fast +to soap but not to light. If the para-nitraniline used in the foregoing +process is replaced by meta-nitraniline, a yellowish-orange +colour is obtained; with α-naphthylamine, a claret-red; with amido-azo-toluene, +a brownish red; with benzidine, a dark chocolate; +with dianisidine, a dark blue; and so on. The dyed colours are +fast to washing and are much used in practice, particularly the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page748" id="page748"></a>748</span> +para-nitraniline red, which serves as a substitute for Turkey-red, +although it is not so fast to light as the latter.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Developed Direct Colours.</i>—The primuline colours were the +first representatives of this class and are derived from the yellow +dyestuff known as primuline, which dyes cotton in the same manner +as the direct colours. The primuline yellow thus obtained is fugitive +to light and of little practical value, but since the colouring matter +is an amido base it can be diazotized in the fibre and then developed +in solutions of phenols or amines, whereby azo dyes of various +hues may be obtained, according to the developer employed; thus, +β-naphthol develops a bright red colour, resorcin develops an +orange, phenol a yellow, naphthylamine a brown, &c. The <i>dyeing</i> +of the primuline yellow is effected by boiling the cotton for one hour +in a solution of primuline (5%) and common salt (10 to 20%). The +diazotizing operation consists in passing the dyed and rinsed cotton +for 5 to 10 minutes into a cold solution of nitrous acid—<i>i.e.</i> a solution +of ¾ oz. sodium nitrite per gallon of water, slightly acidified with +sulphuric acid. The diazotized material should not be exposed to +light, but at once washed in cold water and passed into the developer. +The <i>developing</i> process consists in working the diazotized material +for 5 to 10 minutes in a cold solution of the necessary phenol, and +finally washing with water. The only developer of any practical +importance is a solution of β-naphthol in caustic soda, which +produces primuline red. The primuline colours are best adapted +for <i>cotton</i> dyeing, and the colours obtained are fast to washing and +to moderate soaping, but they are not very fast to light.</p> + +<p>If <i>cotton</i> is dyed with other direct colours containing free amido +groups, the colour can be diazotized on the dyed fibre exactly in +the same manner as in the case of primuline-dyed cotton, and then +developed by passing into the solution of an amine or phenol, or by +treating it with a warm solution of sodium carbonate. In this +manner a new azo dye is produced upon the fibre, which differs from +the original one not only in colour, but also by being faster to washing +and other influences. A treatment with copper sulphate solution +after development is frequently beneficial in rendering the colour +faster to light. Some Direct Colours, indeed, are of little value, +owing, for example, to their sensibility to acids, until they have been +diazotized and developed, the usual developers being β-naphthol, +resorcinol, phenol and phenylene-diamine.</p> + +<p>The following Direct Colours, after being applied to cotton, may +be submitted to the above treatment, the colours produced being +chiefly blue, brown and black:—</p> + +<p><i>Blue.</i>—Diazurine, diazo blue, diamine blue, diaminogene.</p> + +<p><i>Red.</i>—Rosanthiene.</p> + +<p><i>Brown.</i>—Diazo brown, diamine cutch, diamine brown, cotton +brown.</p> + +<p><i>Grey and Black.</i>—Senzo blue, diazo blue black, diazo black, +diamine black, diazo brilliant black.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Benzo Nitrol Colours.</i>—These are certain Direct Colours, +dyed on <i>cotton</i> in the ordinary manner, which are then developed +by passing into a diazo solution—<i>e.g.</i> diazotized para-nitraniline, +&c. The dyed colour here plays the part of a phenol or amine, +and reacts with the diazo compound to produce a new colour. +The process is similar to the production of the Insoluble Azo Colours, +the β-naphthol which is there applied to the fibre being here +replaced by a Direct Colour. The colour of the latter is rendered +much deeper by the process, and also faster to washing and to the +action of acids. The dyestuffs recommended for application in the +manner described are: Benzo nitrol brown, toluylene brown, direct +fast brown, Pluto black, direct blue black.</p> + +<p><i>”Topping” Direct Colours.</i>—The direct colours possess the +remarkable property of precipitating the basic colours from aqueous +solution. Use is frequently made of this property for “topping” +cotton dyed with direct colours either with a view to obtain compound +shades or to brighten the colour. Thus by dyeing cotton +first yellow in chrysamine and then dyeing it again in a cold bath of +methylene blue a brilliant shade of green results. If, on the other +hand, a direct blue is topped with methylene blue, its brilliancy +may be enhanced.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Mordant Colours.</span>—The colouring matters of this class include +some of the most important dyestuffs employed, since they furnish +many colours remarkable for their fastness to light, washing and +other influences. Employed by themselves, Mordant Colours are +usually of little or no value as dyestuffs, because, with few exceptions, +either they are not attracted by the fibre, particularly in the +case of cotton, or they only yield a more or less fugitive stain. +Their importance and value as dyestuffs are due to the fact that +they act like weak acids and have the property of combining with +metallic oxides to form insoluble coloured compounds termed +“lakes,” which vary in colour according to the metallic oxide or +salt employed. The most stable lakes are those in which the colouring +matter is combined with two metallic oxides, a sesquioxide and +a monoxide—<i>e.g.</i> alumina and lime. In applying colouring matters +of this class the object of the dyer is to precipitate and fix these +coloured lakes upon and within the fibre, for which purpose two +operations are necessary, namely, <i>mordanting</i> and <i>dyeing</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>mordanting operation</i> aims at fixing upon the fibre the necessary +metallic oxide or insoluble basic salt, which is called the <i>mordant</i>, +although the term is also applied to the original metallic salt employed. +In the subsequent dyeing operation the mordanted material +is boiled with a solution of the colouring matter, during which the +metallic oxide attracts and chemically combines with the colouring +matter, producing the coloured lake <i>in situ</i> on the fibre, which thus +becomes dyed. The mode of applying the mordants varies according +to the nature of the fibre and the metallic salt employed, the +chief mordants at present in use being salts of chromium, aluminium, +tin, copper and iron. The method of mordanting <i>wool</i> depends upon +its property of decomposing metallic salts, and fixing upon itself an +insoluble metallic compound, when boiled in their solutions. This +decomposition is facilitated by the heating and by the dilution of the +solution, but it is chiefly due to the action of the fibre itself. The +exact nature of the substance fixed upon the fibre has not in all cases +been determined; probably it is a compound of the metallic oxide +with the wool-substance itself, which has the character of an amido-acid. +The mordant most largely employed for wool is bichromate +of potash, since, besides being simply applied, and leaving the +wool with a soft feel, it yields with the various mordant-dyestuffs +a large variety of fast colours. The wool is boiled for 1 to 1½ hours +in a solution containing 2 to 3% bichromate of potash on the weight +of the wool employed. During this operation the wool at first +attracts chromic acid, which is gradually reduced to chromium +chromate, so that the mordanted fibre has finally a pale olive-yellow +tint. In the dyebath, under the influence of a portion of the dyestuff, +further complete reduction to chromic hydrate occurs before it +combines with the colouring matter. Not unfrequently certain +so-called “assistants” are employed in small amount along with +the bichromate of potash—<i>e.g.</i> sulphuric acid, cream of tartar, +tartaric acid, lactic acid, &c. The use of the organic acids here +mentioned ensures the complete reduction of the chromic acid on +the wool to chromic hydrate already in the mordant bath, and the +pale greenish mordanted wool is better adapted for dyeing with +colours which are susceptible to oxidation—<i>e.g.</i> alizarin blue. +For special purposes chromium fluoride, chrome alum, &c., are employed. +Alum or aluminium sulphate (8%), along with acid potassium +tartrate (cream of tartar) (7%), is used for brighter colours—<i>e.g.</i> +reds, yellows, &c. The object of the tartar is to retard the +mordanting process and ensure the penetration of the wool by the +mordant, by preventing superficial precipitation through the action +of ammonia liberated from the wool; it ensures the ultimate production +of clear, bright, full colours. For still brighter colours, +notably yellow and red, stannous chloride was at one time largely +employed, now it is used less frequently; and the same may be said +of copper and ferrous sulphate, which were used for dark colours. +<i>Silk</i> may be often mordanted in the same manner as wool, but as a +rule it is treated like cotton. The silk is steeped for several hours in +cold neutral or basic solutions of chromium chloride, alum, ferric +sulphate, &c., then rinsed in water slightly, and passed into a cold +dilute solution of silicate of soda, in order to fix the mordants on +the fibre as insoluble silicates. <i>Cotton</i> does not, like wool and silk, +possess the property of decomposing metallic salts, hence the +methods of mordanting this fibre are more complex, and vary +according to the metallic salts and colouring matters employed, +as well as the particular effects to be obtained. One method is to +impregnate the cotton with a solution of so-called “sulphated oil” +or “Turkey-red oil”; the oil-prepared material is then dried and +passed into a cold solution of some metallic salt—<i>e.g.</i> aluminium +acetate, basic chromium chloride, &c. The mordant is thus fixed +on the fibre as a metallic oleate, and after a passage through water +containing a little chalk or silicate of soda to remove acidity, and +a final rinsing, the cotton is ready for dyeing. Another method of +mordanting cotton is to fix the metallic salt on the fibre as a tannate +instead of an oleate. This is effected by first steeping the cotton in +a cold solution of tannic acid or in a cold decoction of some tannin +matter, <i>e.g.</i> sumach, in which operation the cotton attracts a considerable +amount of tannic acid; after squeezing, the material is steeped +for an hour or more in a solution of the metallic salt, and finally +washed. The mordants employed in this case are various—<i>e.g.</i> +basic aluminium or ferric sulphate, basic chromium chloride, stannic +chloride (cotton spirits), &c. There are other methods of mordanting +cotton besides those mentioned, but the main object in all cases is +to fix an insoluble metallic compound on the fibre. It is interesting +to note that whether the metallic oxide is united with the substance +of the fibre, as in the case of wool and silk, or precipitated as a +tannate, oleate, silicate, &c., as in the case of cotton or silk, it still +has the power of combining with the colouring matter in the dyebath +to form the coloured “lake” or dye on the material.</p> + +<p>The <i>dyeing operation</i> consists in working the mordanted material +in a solution of the necessary colouring matter, the dyebath being +gradually raised to the boiling point. With many colouring matters, +<i>e.g.</i> with alizarin, it is necessary to add a small percentage of calcium +acetate to the dyebath, and also acetic acid if wool is being dyed. +In wool-dyeing, also, the mordanting operation may follow that of +dyeing instead of preceding it, in which case the boiling of the wool +with dyestuff is termed “stuffing,” and the subsequent developing +of the colour by applying the mordant is termed “saddening,” +because this method has in the past been usually carried out with +iron and copper mordants, which give dull or sad colours. The +method of “stuffing and saddening” may, however, be carried out +with other mordants, even for the production of bright colours, +and it is now frequently employed with certain alizarin dyestuffs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page749" id="page749"></a>749</span> +for the production of pale shades which require to be very even and +regular in colour. There is still another method of applying Mordant +Colours in wool-dyeing, in which the dyestuff and the mordant are +applied simultaneously from the beginning; it is known as the +"single-bath method." It is only successful, however, in the case of +certain colouring matters and mordants, to some of which reference will +be made in the following paragraphs.</p> + +<p><i>The Natural Mordant Colours.</i>—It is interesting to note that nearly all the natural or vegetable +dyestuffs employed belong to the class of Mordant Colours, the most +important of these being included in the following list:—<i>Madder, +Cochineal, Peachwood, Sapanwood, Limawood, Camwood, Barwood, +Sanderswood, Old Fustic, Young Fustic, Quercitron Bark, Persian Berries, +Weld, Logwood</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Madder</i> consists of the dried ground roots of <i>Rubia +tinctorum</i>, a plant of Indian origin. Formerly cultivated largely in +France and Holland, it was long one of the most important dyestuffs +employed, chiefly in the production of Turkey-red and in calico-printing, +also in wool-dyeing. With the different mordants it yields very distinct +colours, all fast to light and soap, namely, red with aluminium, orange +with tin, reddish brown with chromium, purple and black with iron. +Madder contains two closely allied colouring matters, namely, alizarin +and purpurin. The former, which is by far the more important, is now +prepared artificially from the coal-tar product anthracene, and has +almost entirely superseded madder.</p> + +<p><i>Cochineal</i> is the dried scale-insect +<i>Coccus cacti</i>, which lives on certain of the cactus plants of Mexico and +elsewhere. The rearing of cochineal was once a large and important +industry, and although still pursued, it has seriously declined, in +consequence of the discovery of the azo scarlets derived from coal-tar. +The colouring matter of cochineal, carminic acid, is believed by +chemists to be a derivative of naphthalene, but its artificial +production has not yet been accomplished. Cochineal dyes a purple colour +with chromium mordant, crimson with aluminium, scarlet with tin, and +grey or slate with iron. Its chief employment is for the purpose of +dyeing crimson, and more especially scarlet, on wool. Crimson is dyed by +mordanting the wool with alum and tartar and dyeing in a separate bath +with ground cochineal. Scarlet on wool is obtained by the single-bath +method, namely, by dyeing the wool with a mixture of stannous chloride +(or nitrate of tin), oxalic acid, and cochineal. It is usual to add also +a small amount of the yellow dyestuff flavine in order to obtain a +yellower shade of scarlet. The cochineal colours are very fast to light, +but somewhat susceptible to the action of alkalis.</p> + +<p><i>Peachwood, Sapanwood</i> +and <i>Limawood</i> are usually referred to as the "soluble red-woods," +because of the solubility in water of the colouring principle they +contain. They consist of the ground wood of various species of +<i>Caesalpinia</i> found in Central America, the East Indies and Peru. They all +yield more or less similar colours with the different mordants—claret-brown +with chromium, red with aluminium, bright red with tin, +dark slate with iron. Owing to the fugitive character of all the colours +to light, these dyewoods are now comparatively little employed in +dyeing.</p> + +<p><i>Camwood, Barwood</i> and <i>Sanderswood</i> represent the so-called "insoluble +red-woods," their colouring principles being sparingly soluble even in +boiling water. They are obtained from certain species of <i>Pterocarpus</i> and +<i>Baphia</i>, large trees growing in the interior of West Africa. Their +general dyeing properties are similar, a claret-brown being obtained +with chromium mordant, a brownish red with aluminium, a brighter red +with tin, and purplish brown with iron. Their chief employment is in +wool-dyeing, for the production of various shades of brown, being best +applied by the "stuffing and saddening" method above described; but +since the colours are fugitive to light, they are now very largely +replaced by alizarin. A brown on wool is obtained by first boiling for +one to two hours in a decoction of the ground wood (50%), and then +boiling in a separate bath in solution of bichromate of potash (2%) for +half an hour. These dye-woods are also employed by the indigo-dyer, in +order to give a brownish ground colour to the wool previous to dyeing in +the indigo vat, and thus obtain a deeper, fuller blue. The colouring +matters contained in these dyewoods have not been exhaustively examined.</p> + +<p><i>Fustic</i> is a yellow dyestuff, and consists of the wood of the dyer's +mulberry tree, <i>Morus tinctoria</i>, which grows in Cuba, Jamaica, &c. It is +still an important and largely used dyestuff, being cheap, and the +colours obtained from it being satisfactorily fast to light and other +influences. With chromium mordant it yields an olive-yellow or +"old-gold" shade; with aluminium, yellow; with tin, a brighter yellow; +with iron, an olive-green. It is chiefly employed in wooldyeing along +with other dyestuffs, and furnishes the yellow in compound shades. Two +colouring principles exist in Old Fustic, namely, morin and maclurin, +the former being the most important, and generally regarded as the true +colouring matter.</p> + +<p><i>Quercitron Bark</i> consists of the inner bark of an oak-tree, <i>Quercus +tinctoria</i>, which grows in the North American States. It dyes somewhat +like Old Fustic, but gives with aluminium and tin mordants brighter +yellows, for which colours it is chiefly used. The colouring principle +of Quercitron Bark is called quercitrin, which by the action of boiling +mineral acid solutions is decomposed, with the production of the true +colouring matter termed quercetin.</p> + +<p>So-called <i>Flavine</i> is a commercial preparation of Quercitron Bark +consisting of quercitrin or of quercetin; it is much used by wool-dyers +for the production of bright yellow and orange colours. Wool is dyed in +single bath by boiling with a mixture of Flavine (8%), stannous chloride +(4%) and oxalic acid (2%). Flavine is used in small quantity along with +cochineal for dyeing scarlet on wool.</p> + +<p><i>Persian Berries</i> are the dried unripe fruit of various species of <i>Rhamnus</i> +growing in the Levant. The general dyeing properties are similar to +those of Quercitron Bark, the orange colour given with tin mordant being +particularly brilliant. The high price of this dyestuff causes its +employment to be somewhat limited. The colouring matter of Persian +Berries is called xanthorhamnin, which by the action of fermentation and +acids yields the true dyestuff rhamnetin.</p> + +<p><i>Weld</i> is the dried plant <i>Reseda luteola</i>, a species of wild mignonette, +formerly largely cultivated in Europe. Its dyeing properties resemble +those of Quercitron Bark, but the yellows with aluminium and tin +mordants are much brighter and purer, and also faster to light. It is +still used to a limited extent for dyeing a bright yellow on woollen +cloth and braid for the decoration of military uniforms. Quite recently +the colouring matter of Weld, namely, luteolin, has been prepared +artificially, but the process is too expensive to be of practical use.</p> + +<p><i>Logwood</i> is the heart-wood of <i>Haematoxylon campechianum</i>, a tree growing +in Central America. It is the most important natural dyewood at present +employed, being largely used for dyeing dark blues and black on silk, +wool and cotton. With chromium and aluminium mordants logwood dyes a +dark blue, and even black; with tin, a dark purple; and with iron, +black. The colours are only moderately fast to light. On wool the +mordant is bichromate of potash; on cotton and silk an iron mordant is +employed. Before use by the dyer the logwood is ground and aged or +oxidized, by allowing moistened heaps of the ground wood to ferment +slightly, and by frequently turning it over to expose it freely to the +air. By this means the colouring principle haematoxylin which logwood +contains is changed into the true colouring matter haemateïn. The +constitution of this colouring matter has been recently discovered; it +is very closely allied to the brazilin of peachwood, sapanwood and +limawood, and is also a member of the γ-pyrone group of colouring +matters.</p> + +<p>The importance of the above-mentioned natural dyestuffs is gradually +diminishing in favour of mordant dyestuffs and others derived from +coal-tar. Fustic and logwood are perhaps the most largely used, and may +continue to be employed for many years, no satisfactory artificial +substitutes having hitherto come into the market.</p> + +<p>The <i>Artificial Mordant</i> Colours are well represented by alizarin, the +colouring matter of the madder root, which was the first natural +dyestuff prepared artificially from the coal-tar product anthracene +(1868). For this reason many of these colours are frequently referred to +as the Alizarin Colours. At the present time, however, there are +numerous Mordant Colours which are prepared from other initial materials +than anthracene; they are not chemically related to alizarin, and for +these the term Alizarin Colours is therefore inappropriate. The +property, which Mordant Colours possess in common, of combining with +metals and producing lakes, which readily adhere to the fibre, depends +upon their chemical constitution, more particularly upon the general and +relative position in the molecule of certain side atomic groups. In +alizarin there are, for example, two characteristic hydroxyl groups (OH) +occupying a special (ortho) position in the molecule, <i>i.e.</i> they are next +to each other, and also next to one of the socalled ketone groups (C : O). +In other Mordant Colours there are carboxyl (COOH) as well as +hydroxyl groups, which are all-important in this respect. In addition to +this, the general dyeing property is influenced by the constitution of +the molecule itself, and by the presence of other side-groups, <i>e.g.</i> NH<span class="su">2</span>, +HSO<span class="su">3</span>, &c., which modify the colour as to solubility or hue. Hence it is +that the members of this group, while possessing the mordant-dyeing +property in common, differ materially in other points. Some, like +alizarin, are not in themselves to be regarded as colouring matters, but +rather as colouring principles, because they only yield useful dyes in +combination with metallic oxides. According to their constitution, these +may yield one or many colours with the various metallic oxides employed, +and they are used for cotton as well as for wool and silk. Other Mordant +Colours, <i>e.g.</i> many of the Direct Colours and others, are capable of +dyeing either the vegetable or animal fibres without the aid of a +mordant; they are fully developed colouring matters in themselves, and +possess the mordantdyeing property as an additional feature, in +consequence of the details of their chemical constitution, to which +reference has been made in the foregoing paragraphs. As a rule these +yield, at most, various shades of one colour with the different oxides, +and are only suitable for the animal fibres, particularly wool.</p> + +<p>In the following list, the most important artificial Mordant Colours are +arranged according to the colour they give in conjunction with the +aluminium mordant, unless otherwise indicated. Some of those named here +dye the animal fibres, even without mordants; some are Direct Colours +possessing mordant-dyeing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page750" id="page750"></a>750</span> +properties, others are sulphonic acid derivatives of Alizarin Colours, +suitable for wool but not for cotton.</p> + +<p><i>Red.</i>—Alizarin, anthrapurpurin, flavopurpurin, purpurin, +alizarin Bordeaux, alizarin garnet R, alizarin maroon, alizarin S, +cloth red, diamine fast red, anthracene red, chrome red, chrome +Bordeaux, salicine red, erio chrome red, emin red, milling red.</p> + +<p><i>Orange and Yellow.</i>—Alizarin orange, alizarin orange G, alizarin +yellow paste, alizarin yellow A, alizarin yellow C, anthracene +yellow, galloflavin, alizarin yellow GG, alizarin yellow R, diamond +flavin G, chrome yellow D, Crumpsall yellow, fast yellow, diamond +yellow, benzo orange R, cloth orange, carbazol yellow, chrysamine, +milling orange.</p> + +<p><i>Green.</i>—Coeruleïn, coeruleïn S, alizarin green S, fast green (Fe), +naphthol green (Fe), Dioxin (Fe), Gambine (Fe), azo green, gallanil +green, alizarin green G and B, acid alizarin green, alizarin cyanine +green, alizarin viridine, diamond green, chrome green, Domingo green.</p> + +<p><i>Blue.</i>—Alizarin blue, alizarin blue S, alizarin cyanine, anthracene +blue, brilliant alizarin blue, alizarin indigo blue S, gallanilic indigo, +acid alizarin blue, brilliant alizarin cyanine, alizarin grisole, alizarin +sky blue, alizarin saphirole, gallanilide blue, delphine blue, gallamine +blue, celestine blue, chrome blue, gallazine A, phenocyanine, coreïne.</p> + +<p><i>Purple and Violet.</i>—Galleïn, alizarin heliotrope, anthraquinone +violet, chrome prime, gallocyanine, chrome violet, anthracene +chrome violet.</p> + +<p><i>Brown.</i>—Anthracene brown, chromogen, cloth brown, diamond +brown, alizarin brown, fast brown, alizarin acid brown, chrome +brown, palatine chrome brown, erio chrome brown.</p> + +<p><i>Black.</i>—Alizarin black, diamond black, alizarin blue black, +alizarin cyanine black, alizarin fast grey, chromotrope, chrome +black, erio chrome black, anthracite black, acid alizarin black, +anthracene chrome black.</p> + +<p>A brief description of the application of a few of the more important +of the above colouring matters will suffice.</p> + +<p><i>Alizarin</i>, <i>Anthrapurpurin</i> and <i>Flavopurpurin</i> give somewhat +similar shades with the different mordants, namely, brown with +chromium, red with aluminium, orange with tin, and purple with +iron.</p> + +<p>In <i>wool</i>-dyeing they are applied along with other Mordant Colours +on chromium mordant for the production of a large variety of +compound shades, browns, drabs, greys, &c., the presence of acetic +acid in the dyebath being advantageous. When alum and tartar +mordant is employed, for the production of reds, it is necessary to +add a small amount (4%) of calcium acetate to the dyebath, in order +to neutralize the strong acidity of the mordanted wool, and to furnish +the calcium of the colour-lake fixed upon the fibre, which is regarded +as an aluminium-calcium compound of the colouring matter.</p> + +<p>In <i>cotton</i>-dyeing the above colouring matters are chiefly used for +the production of so-called Turkey-red, a colour remarkable for its +brilliancy and its fastness to light and soap. These properties are +due to the preparation of the cotton with oil, in addition to the +ordinary mordanting and dyeing, whereby there is fixed on the +fibre a permanent and stable lake, in which aluminium and calcium +are combined with alizarin and some form of fatty oxy-acid. In +the older processes employed, the preparation of the cotton with +oil was effected by passing the material several times through +emulsions of olive oil and potassium carbonate solution; at a +later date, and even now in the case of cloth, the cotton is first +impregnated with hot oil (Steiner's process), then passed through +solutions of alkali carbonate. After the preparation with oil or +oil-emulsions, the cotton is "stoved," <i>i.e.</i> heated for several hours +in special chambers or stoves to a temperature of about 70° C., +during which operation the oil is decomposed and oxidized and +becomes indelibly attached to the fibre. The oil-prepared cotton +is steeped in cold solutions of basic aluminium sulphate or acetate, +washed, dyed with alizarin, and finally boiled for several hours +with soap solution under pressure in order to brighten the colour. +In the more recent and much more expeditious "sulphated-oil +process," castor oil is employed instead of olive oil, and before use +it is submitted to a treatment with sulphuric acid, the sulphated oil +thus obtained being finally more or less neutralized with alkali. +The cotton is impregnated with this sulphated-oil solution, dried, +mordanted with aluminium acetate, dyed, dried, steamed and +soaped. The operation of steaming plays an important part in +brightening and fixing the colour-lake on the fibre. In these and +all other Turkey-red processes, the oil, probably in the form of a +fatty oxy-acid, acts as a fixing agent for the aluminium and enters +into the composition of the red lake, imparting to it both brilliancy +and permanency.</p> + +<p><i>Alizarin S</i> is a sulphonic acid derivative of alizarin, and since +it is much more soluble, it readily yields level colours. Silk is +dyed in a similar manner to wool, the fibre being mordanted by +the ordinary methods and then dyed in a separate bath.</p> + +<p><i>Diamine Fast Red</i> is applied to cotton as a Direct Colour, with +the addition of soda or soap to the dyebath. By treating the dyed +colour with a solution of fluoride of chromium, its fastness to washing +is materially increased. Wool is dyed in a similar manner, sodium +sulphate being added to the dyebath, and the dyed colour treated +with fluoride of chromium or bichromate of potash. On wool, the +colour is so extremely fast to light and to milling that it may well +serve as a substitute for alizarin.</p> + +<p><i>Alizarin Orange</i> is employed in the same manner as alizarin. +In wool-dyeing it is usually applied on chromium mordant for +browns and a variety of compound shades in combination with +other Alizarin Colours and dyewood extracts, less frequently on +aluminium mordant.</p> + +<p><i>Galloflavin</i> is used in wool and silk dyeing on chromium mordant +as a substitute for fustic and other yellow dyewoods, to furnish +the yellow part of compound shades.</p> + +<p>The alizarin yellows, R and GG, anthracene yellow, diamond +flavine, chrome yellow, diamond yellow, carbazol yellow, chrysamine, +&c., are Direct Colours with mordant-dyeing properties. +They also serve as substitutes for fustic in wool or silk dyeing, and +are dyed either on a chromium mordant, or first in an acid bath +and afterwards saddened with bichromate of potash.</p> + +<p><i>Coeruleïn</i> is employed in dyeing wool, silk or cotton with +aluminium or chromium mordants, either as a self-colour or for +compound shades. With aluminium mordant the colour is a +moderately bright green, more particularly on silk; with chromium +mordant, an olive-green. Coeruleïn S is the more soluble bisulphite +compound of the ordinary coeruleïn. It is applied in the same +manner, care being taken, however, to dye for some time (one +hour) at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. until the bath is nearly +exhausted, and then only raising the temperature to the boiling +point. Without this precaution coeruleïn S is decomposed, and the +ordinary insoluble coeruleïn is precipitated. The colours obtained +are very fast to light.</p> + +<p><i>Fast Green</i>, <i>Dioxine</i> and <i>Gambine</i> are chiefly of use in calico-printing +and in wool-dyeing. With iron mordant they yield olive-greens, +which on wool are extremely fast to light. Cotton is impregnated +with ferrous acetate, dried, aged and fixed with silicate +of soda, then dyed in a neutral bath. Wool is mordanted with +ferrous sulphate and tartar (3% of each) and dyed in a neutral +bath.</p> + +<p><i>Acid Alizarin Green</i>, <i>Alizarin Cyanine Green</i> and <i>Diamond Green</i> +all dye wool direct in a bath acidified with acetic or sulphuric acid, +and the dyed colour may be afterwards fixed or saddened with +bichromate of potash, or they may be dyed on chromium-mordanted +wool. The first method is very useful for pale shades, since the +colours are very level or regular.</p> + +<p><i>Alizarin Blue</i> is a dark blue dyestuff which, owing to the fastness +of the colours it yields, has for many years been regarded as a worthy +substitute for indigo in wool-dyeing. It is applied in the same +manner as alizarin, the chromium mordant being alone employed. +Alizarin blue S is the soluble sodium bisulphite compound of alizarin +blue; it corresponds, therefore, to the above-mentioned coeruleïn S, +and in its application the same precautions as to the temperature +of the dyebath are necessary. The fastness of the dyed colours to +light, milling and acid satisfy the highest requirements.</p> + +<p><i>Alizarin Cyanine</i>, <i>Anthracene Blue</i> and <i>Brilliant Alizarin Blue</i> +were discovered later than the above-mentioned alizarin blues, +and, owing to their greater solubility and other advantages, they +have largely replaced them as substitutes for indigo. They are +dyed on chromium-mordanted wool, silk or cotton, and yield dark +purplish or greenish blues, according to the particular brand employed. +The fastness of the dyed colours to light, and general +durability, are very satisfactory, but in fastness to milling and acids +they are to some extent inferior to alizarin blue.</p> + +<p><i>Celestine Blue</i> and <i>Chrome Blue</i> dye purplish blue and bright +blue respectively, and are dyed in the ordinary way upon a chromium +mordant. The colours they yield are inferior to the Alizarin Colours +in fastness to light, but on account of their clear shades they are often +used for brightening other colours.</p> + +<p><i>Brilliant Alizarin Cyanine</i>, <i>Alizarin Viridine</i> and <i>Alizarin +Saphirole</i> are true Alizarin Colours, and possess the same fastness +to light as other colours of this class. Unlike most of the Alizarin +Colours, they are capable of dyeing wool satisfactorily without the +aid of a metallic mordant—namely, with the addition of sulphuric +acid to the dyebath, in the same manner as the Acid Colours. If +necessary, the dyed colours may be treated with bichromate of +potash. The colours thus produced are very fast to light and very +level, hence these dyestuffs are valuable in the production of the +most delicate compound shades, such as drabs, slates, greys, &c., +which are desired to be fast to light. Alizarin saphirole dyes clear +blue, the colour produced being much more brilliant even than those +of brilliant alizarin cyanine.</p> + +<p><i>Galleïn</i>, <i>Gallocyanine</i>, and especially <i>Chrome Violet</i>, dye somewhat +bright purple shades, and are hence frequently employed +for brightening other colours, but they are only moderately fast to +light. They are applied in the usual manner on a chromium +mordant.</p> + +<p><i>Anthracene Brown</i> is largely employed in the production of +compound shades. It dyes a dark, somewhat reddish, brown on +chromium mordant, the colour being very even and extremely fast +to light.</p> + +<p><i>Alizarin Black</i> is dyed on chromium mordant in the same +manner as alizarin, and is used as a self-colour or in combination +with other Alizarin Colours.</p> + +<p><i>Diamond Black</i> is very useful for dyeing good blacks on wool, +fast to light and acids. The wool is first dyed with the addition of +acetic and finally sulphuric acid. When the dyebath is exhausted, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page751" id="page751"></a>751</span> +bichromate of potash (2%) is added, and boiling is continued for +half an hour longer.</p> + +<p>The <i>erio chrome colours</i> (black, brown, red, &c.) are applied in +wool dyeing like diamond black.</p> + +<p><i>Chromotrope</i>, of which there are several brands, is an Acid Colour +which is applied to wool in an acid bath in the usual manner. The +red or purple colours thus obtained are saddened in the same bath +with bichromate of potash and changed into black, the colouring +matter being oxidized and simultaneously combined with chromium.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Miscellaneous Colours.</span>—Under this head there may be arranged +a few dyestuffs which, although capable of inclusion under one or +other of the foregoing groups, it is more convenient to treat of +separately. Indigo, Aniline Black and Catechu, for example, +might be placed in the class of Developed Colours, since they are +all developed on the fibre, and indeed by the same method, namely, +by oxidation.</p> + +<p><i>Indigo</i> is one of our most important blue dyestuffs, which has +been employed from the earliest times. Indigo, being insoluble in +water, would be of no use in dyeing if it were not capable of being +rendered soluble. This is effected in two ways, corresponding to +which there are two methods of dyeing with indigo. One method +consists in dissolving the indigo in very strong sulphuric acid, whereby +it is converted into indigotin-disulphonic acid (Indigo Extract), +which is readily soluble in water. This substance belongs to the +group of Acid Colours; hence it is applied to the animal fibres, +wool and silk, by boiling in a solution of the colouring matter slightly +acidified with sulphuric acid. The second and most important +method is based on the fact that under the influence of reducing +agents (<i>i.e.</i> substances capable of yielding nascent hydrogen) indigo +blue is changed into indigo white, which is soluble in alkali, the +solution thus obtained being called a "vat." If textile materials +are steeped in a clear yellow solution of the reduced indigo and then +exposed to air, the indigo white absorbed by the fibre is oxidized +and reconverted into indigo blue within and upon the fibre, which +thus becomes dyed blue; this is the so-called "indigo-vat" method +of dyeing. Comparing the two methods, the "indigo-extract" +method is only applicable to the animal fibres, and although it +gives brighter colours, they are fugitive to light and are decolourized +by washing with alkaline solutions; the "vat method" is applicable +to all fibres, and gives somewhat dull blues, which are very fast to +light, washing, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Cotton</i> is dyed by means of the "<i>lime and copperas vat</i>," the +"<i>zinc powder vat</i>," or the "<i>hydrosulphite vat</i>." In the first-mentioned +vat the ingredients are quicklime, ferrous sulphate and +finely ground indigo; the lime decomposes the ferrous sulphate +and precipitates ferrous hydrate; this quickly reduces the indigo +to indigo white, which dissolves in the excess of lime present. The +ingredients of the zinc powder vat are zinc powder, lime and indigo; +in the presence of the lime and indigo the zinc takes up oxygen from +the water, liberating the hydrogen necessary to reduce the indigo, +as in the previous vat. The constituents of the hydrosulphite vat +are hydrosulphite of soda, lime and indigo. The requisite hydrosulphite +of soda is prepared by allowing zinc powder (13 ℔) to act +upon a cold concentrated solution of bisulphite of soda (17 gallons +of sp. gr. 1.225), taking care to avoid, as much as possible, access of +air and any heating of the mixture, to prevent decomposition. The +solution thus obtained is thoroughly neutralized by the addition of +lime; and after settling, the clear liquor is used for the vat, along +with indigo and lime. Here again the hydrosulphite takes up oxygen +from the water and liberates the necessary hydrogen. It is found +convenient to prepare, in the first instance, a very concentrated +standard of reduced indigo, and to add as much of this to the dye-vat +as may be required, along with lime and a little hyposulphite of soda. +The advantages of this vat are that it is easily prepared and that +there is very little sediment; moreover, it can be employed in +dyeing wool, as well as cotton, and it is now very generally in use. +The vat usually employed for dyeing <i>wool</i> is the so-called "woad +vat," which differs from the foregoing in that the hydrogen necessary +to reduce the indigo and bring it into solution is furnished, not by the +action of chemical agents, but by means of fermentation. The +ingredients of the woad vat are indigo, woad, bran, madder and +lime. The woad here employed is prepared by grinding the leaves +of the woad plant (<i>Isatis tinctoria</i>) to a paste, which is allowed to +ferment and then partially dried. It serves as the ferment to +excite lactic and butyric fermentation with the aid of the bran +and madder, the necessary hydrogen being thus evolved. Excessive +fermentation is avoided by making timely additions of lime; +sluggish fermentation is accelerated by additions of bran and +slightly raising the temperature. When the reduction and complete +solution of the indigo is effected, the vat is allowed to settle, +and the woollen material is immersed and moved about in the +clear liquor for half an hour to two hours, according to the shade +required, then squeezed and exposed to the air in order to develop +the blue colour on the fibre.</p> + +<p><i>Thioindigo red</i> is an artificial colouring matter belonging to the +indigo series and comes into the market in the form of a paste. +It is used in dyeing in exactly the same way as indigo, yielding +shades which range from a somewhat dull pink to a full claret shade +of red. The colours obtained are remarkable for their fastness.</p> + +<p><i>Indanthrene</i>. This colouring matter, which is also sold as a paste, +is an anthracene derivative, being formed by the action of caustic +potash on β-amidoanthraquinone. It is reduced by hydrosulphite +of soda yielding a blue vat, in which cotton and other vegetable +fibres are dyed in the same way as in the indigo vat. Since a fair +amount of caustic soda is necessary for the setting of the vat, the +dyestuff is not suitable for animal fibres. Indanthrene yields on +cotton reddish shades of blue which are extremely fast to all external +influences; in fact the colour is so fast that when once fixed on +cotton it cannot be removed again from the fibre by any known +means.</p> + +<p>Other vat colours belonging to this series, which are similarly +applied, are flavanthrene (yellow), viridanthrene (green), fuscanthrene +(grey-brown), violanthrene (dull violet) and melanthrene +(grey to black). The <i>algol colours</i> resemble the indanthrene colours +in their properties and application.</p> + +<p><i>Aniline Black</i> differs from other dyes in that it is not sold as a +ready-made dyestuff, but is produced <i>in situ</i> upon the fibre by +the oxidation of aniline. It is chiefly used for cotton, also for +silk and cotton-silk union fabrics, but seldom or not at all for wool. +Properly applied, this colour is one of the most permanent to light +and other influences with which we are acquainted. One method +of dyeing cotton is to work the material for about two hours in a +cold solution containing aniline (10 parts), hydrochloric acid (20 +parts), bichromate of potash (20 parts), sulphuric acid (20 parts), +and ferrous sulphate (10 parts). The ferrous sulphate here employed +is oxidized by the chromic acid to a ferric salt, which serves +as a carrier of oxygen to the aniline. This method of dyeing is +easily carried out, and it gives a good black; but since much of +the colouring matter is precipitated on the fibre superficially as +well as in the bath itself, the colour has the defect of rubbing off. +Another method is to impregnate the cotton with a solution containing +aniline hydrochloride (35 parts), neutralized with addition +of a little aniline oil, sodium chlorate (10 parts), ammonium chloride +(10 parts). Another mixture is 1.8 part aniline salt, 12 parts potassium +ferrocyanide, 200 parts water, 3.5 parts potassium chlorate +dissolved in water. After squeezing, the material is passed through +a special oxidation chamber, the air of which is heated to about +50° C. and also supplied with moisture. This oxidizing or ageing +is continuous, the material passing into the chamber at one end +in a colourless condition, and after about 20 minutes passing out +again with the black fully developed, a final treatment with hot +chromic acid solution and soaping being necessary to complete the +process. In this method, employing the first-mentioned solution, +chlorate of copper is formed, and this being a very unstable compound, +readily decomposes, and the aniline is oxidized by the +liberated chlor-oxygen compounds. The presence in the mixture +of a metallic salt is very important in aiding the development of +the black, and for this purpose salts of vanadium, cerium and copper +have proved to be specially useful. The chemistry of aniline black +is still incomplete, but it would appear that there are several oxidation +products of aniline. The first product is so-called emeraldine, +a dark green substance of the nature of a salt, which by treatment +with alkali yields a dark blue base called azurine. The further +oxidation of emeraldine yields nigraniline, also a dark green salt, +but the free base of which has a violet black colour. The latter +becomes greenish under the influence of acids, especially sulphuric +acid, and this explains the defect known as "greening" which is +developed in ordinary aniline blacks during exposure to air. By +a supplementary oxidation with chromic acid such a black is rendered +ungreenable, the nigraniline being probably changed into the more +stable chromate of nigraniline.</p> + +<p><i>Catechu</i> is a valuable brown dyestuff, obtained from various +species of <i>Acacia</i>, <i>Areca</i> and <i>Uncaria</i> growing in India. The wood, +leaves and fruit of these plants are extracted with boiling water; +the decoction is then evaporated to dryness or to a pasty consistency. +Catechu is largely used by the cotton dyer for the production of +brown, drab and similar colours. It is seldom employed for wool. +Cotton is usually dyed by boiling it for about one hour in a decoction +of catechu (100%) containing copper sulphate (5%). After +squeezing, the material is boiled for about fifteen minutes in a solution +of bichromate of potash (¼ oz. per gal.), then washed and dried. +By repeating the operations two or three times deeper shades are +obtained. During the boiling with catechu the cotton attracts the +active principles catechin and catechu-tannic acid, but it thus +acquires only a pale brown colour; in the bichromate of potash, +however, these are oxidized to form insoluble japonic acid, which +permeates the fibre, and a deep brown colour is thus developed. +Catechu browns are fast to a variety of influences, <i>e.g.</i> washing, +alkalis, acids, &c., but less so to light. Catechu has been recently +much employed, in conjunction with copper sulphate, for dyeing +the so-called khaki-brown on woollen material for military clothing. +On silk, catechu is much used for weighting purposes in dyeing black.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Mineral Colours.</span>—Those include Chrome Yellow, Iron Buff, +Prussian Blue and Manganese Brown.</p> + +<p><i>Chrome Yellow</i> is only useful in cotton-dyeing as a self-colour, +or for conversion into chrome orange, or, in conjunction with +indigo, for the production of fast green colours. The cotton is first +impregnated with a solution of lead acetate or nitrate, squeezed, +and then passed through a solution of sodium sulphate or lime +water to fix the lead on the fibre as sulphate or oxide of lead. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page752" id="page752"></a>752</span> +material is then passed through a solution of bichromate of potash. +The colour is changed to a rich orange by a short, rapid passage +through boiling milk of lime, and at once washing with water, a basic +chromate of lead being thus produced. The colour is fast to light, +but has the defect of being blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen.</p> + +<p><i>Iron Buff</i> is produced by impregnating the cotton with a solution +of ferrous sulphate, squeezing, passing into sodium hydrate or +carbonate solution, and finally exposing to air, or passing through +a dilute solution of bleaching powder. The colour obtained, which +is virtually oxide of iron, or iron-rust, is fast to light and washing, +but is readily removed by acids.</p> + +<p><i>Prussian Blue</i> is applicable to wool, cotton and silk, but since +the introduction of coal-tar blues its employment has been very +much restricted. The colour is obtained on cotton by first dyeing +an iron buff, according to the method just described, and then +passing the dyed cotton into an acidified solution of potassium +ferrocyanide, when the blue is at once developed. A similar method +is employed for silk. Wool is dyed by heating it in a solution containing +potassium ferricyanide and sulphuric acid. The colour is +developed gradually as the temperature rises; it may be rendered +brighter by the addition of stannous chloride. On wool and silk +Prussian blue is very fast to light, but alkalis turn it brown (ferric +oxide).</p> + +<p><i>Manganese brown</i> or <i>bronze</i> is applied in wool, silk and cotton +dyeing. The animal fibres are readily dyed by boiling with a +solution of potassium permanganate, which, being at first absorbed +by the fibre, is readily reduced to insoluble brown manganic hydrate. +Since caustic potash is generated from the permanganate and is +liable to act detrimentally on the fibre, it is advisable to add some +magnesium sulphate to the permanganate bath in order to counteract +this effect. Imitation furs are dyed in this manner on wool-plush, +the tips or other parts of the fibres being bleached by the +application of sulphurous acid. Cotton is dyed by first impregnating +it with a solution of manganous chloride, then dyeing and passing +into a hot solution of caustic soda. There is thus precipitated on +the fibre manganous hydrate, which by a short passage into a cold +dilute solution of bleaching powder is oxidized and converted into +the brown manganic hydrate. This manganese bronze or brown +colour is very susceptible to, and readily bleached by, reducing +agents; hence when exposed to the action of an atmosphere in +which gas is freely burnt, the colour is liable to be discharged, +especially where the fabric is most exposed. In other respects +manganese bronze is a very fast colour.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Dyeing on a large Scale.</i>—It is not possible to give here more +than a bare outline of the methods which are used on the large +scale for dyeing textile fibres, yarns and fabrics. In principle, +dyeing is effected by allowing an aqueous<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> solution of the dye-stuff, +with or without additions (alkalis, acids, salts, &c.), to act, +usually at an elevated temperature, on the material to be dyed. +During the process it is necessary, in order to ensure the uniform +distribution of the dyestuff in the material, that the latter should +either be moved more or less continuously in the dye liquor or +that the dye liquor should be circulated through the material. +The former mode of operation is in general use for hank, warp +and piece dyeing, but for textile fibres in the loose condition +or in the form of "slubbing," "sliver" or "cops" (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinning</a></span>) +the latter method has, in consequence of the introduction of +improved machinery, come more and more into vogue within +recent years.</p> + +<p><i>Loose Material.</i>—Cotton and wool are frequently dyed in the +loose state, <i>i.e.</i> before being subjected to any mechanical treatment. +The simplest method of effecting this is to treat the +material in open vessels (boilers) which can be heated either by +means of steam or direct fire. Since, however, a certain amount +of felting or matting of the fibres cannot be avoided, it is frequently +found to be more advantageous to effect these treatments +in specially constructed apparatus in which the dye liquors are +circulated through the material.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:250px" src="images/img752a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Dye-vat for Yarn.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:256px" src="images/img752b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Yarn.</i>—Yarn may be dyed either in the hank, in the warp or in +the cop, <i>i.e.</i> in the form in which the yarn leaves the spinning +frame. The dyeing in the <i>hank</i> is carried out in rectangular +dye-vats constructed of wood or stone like that shown in fig. 1, +in which the hanks are suspended from smooth wooden poles +or rods resting on the sides, and are thus immersed almost entirely +in the dye liquor. The heating of the vat is effected either by +means of live steam, <i>i.e.</i> by blowing steam into the dye solution +from a perforated pipe which runs along the bottom of the vat, +or by means of a steam coil similarly situated. In order to expose +the hanks as uniformly as possible to the action of the dye liquor, +they are turned by hand at regular intervals until the operation +is finished. Washing off is effected in the same or in a similar +vessel, after which excess of water is removed by wringing by +hand, through squeezing rollers or, what is generally preferred, +in a hydro-extractor (centrifugal machine). The drying of the +dyed and washed yarn is generally effected by suspending it +on poles in steam-heated drying chambers. Yarn in the <i>warp</i> +is dyed in vats or "boxes" like that shown in fig. 2, through +which it is caused to pass continuously. The warps to be dyed +pass slowly up and down over the loose rollers in the first box B, +then through squeezing rollers S into the next, and the same +thing occurs in the second (also third and fourth in a four-box +machine) box A, whence they are delivered through a second +pair of squeezing rollers S<span class="su">1</span> into the wagon W. The boxes may +contain the same or different liquors, according to the nature +of the dyestuff employed. Washing is done in the same machine, +while drying is effected on a cylinder drying machine like that +shown in figs. 8 and 9 of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>. Latterly, machines have +been introduced for dyeing warps on the beam, the dye liquor +being caused to circulate through the material, and the system +appears to be meeting with considerable success. Large quantities +of yarn, especially cotton, are now dyed in the cop. +When the dyed yarn is to be used as weft the main advantage +of this method is at once apparent, inasmuch as the labour, +time and waste of material incurred by reeling into hanks and then +winding back into the compact form so as to fit into the shuttle +are avoided. On the other hand the number of fast dyestuffs +suitable for cop dyeing is very limited. In the original cop-dyeing +machine constructed by Graemiger a thin tapering +perforated metallic tube is inserted in the hollow of each cop. +The cops are then attached to a perforated disk (which constitutes +the lid of a chamber or box) by inserting the protruding +ends of the tubes into the perforations. The chamber is now +immersed in the dye-bath and the hot liquor is drawn through +the cops by means of a centrifugal pump and returned continuously +to the dye-bath. This principle, which is known as the +skewer or spindle system, is the one on which most modern cop-dyeing +machines are based. In the so-called "compact" system +of cop dyeing the cops are packed as closely as possible in a box, +the top and bottom (or the two opposite sides) of which are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page753" id="page753"></a>753</span> +perforated, the interstices between the cops being filled up with +loose cotton, ground cork or sand. The dye liquor is then drawn +by suction or forced by pressure through the box, thus permeating +and dyeing the cops.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:288px; height:339px" src="images/img753a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Dye-jigger.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Pieces.</i>—Plain shades are usually dyed in the piece, this being +the most economical and at the same time the most expeditious +means of obtaining the desired +effect. The dyeing of +piece goods may be effected +by running them through the +dye liquor either at full +breadth or in rope form. +The machine in most common +use for the first method +is the Lancashire "jigger," +which is simple in principle +and is shown in section in +fig. 3. It consists essentially +of a dye-vessel constructed +of wood or cast iron and +containing loose guide rollers, +<i>r</i> and <i>r</i>, at the top and +bottom. By coupling up the +roller B with the driving gear +the pieces which are batched +on A are drawn through the dye liquor and rolled on to B. A +band brake (not shown in the figure) applied to the axis of A gives +the pieces the required amount of tension in passing through +the dye-bath. As soon as the whole of the pieces have passed +through in this way from A to B, the machine is reversed, and +roller A draws them back again through the bath in a similar +way on to roller A. This alternating process goes on until the +dyeing is finished, when the goods are washed off, squeezed and +dried. The jigger is especially useful in cotton piece dyeing, +one great advantage being that it is suited for what is known +as a "short bath," <i>i.e.</i> a bath containing a minimum amount of +dye liquor, this being of great importance in the application of +dyestuffs which do not exhaust well, like the direct colours and +the sulphide colours. The padding machine is similar in principle +to the jigger, the pieces running over loose guide rollers through +the mordant or dye solution contained in a trough of suitable +shape and size, but on leaving the machine they pass through a +pair of squeezing rollers +which uniformly +express the excess of +liquor and cause it to +be returned to the +bath. The padding +machine is used more +for preparing (mordanting, +&c.) than +for dyeing.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:334px; height:419px" src="images/img753b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Dye-vat for Piece Goods.</td></tr></table> + +<p>For the dyeing of +pieces in rope form +a so-called "dye-beck" +is used, which +is a machine of larger +dimensions than the +jigger. Across the +dye-bath is attached +a winch W (see fig. 4), +by means of which +the pieces, sewn together +at the ends +so as to form an endless +band, are caused to circulate through the machine, being +drawn up on the front side of the machine and allowed to drop +back into the dye liquor on the other. This form of machine is +particularly suited for the mordanting and dyeing of heavy +goods. Washing off may be done in the same machine.</p> + +<p>The drying of piece goods is done on steam-heated cylinders +like those used for the drying of bleached goods (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The operations which precede dyeing vary according to the +material to be dyed and the effects which it is desired to produce. +Loose wool, woollen and worsted yarn and piece goods of the +same material are almost invariably scoured (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>) +before dyeing in order to remove the oily or greasy impurities +which would otherwise interfere with the penetration of the +dye solution. Silk is subjected to the process of discharging +or boiling off (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>) in order to remove the silk gum +or sericine. Cotton which is to be dyed in dark shades does not +require any preparatory treatment, but for light or very bright +shades it is bleached before dyeing. Wool and silk are seldom +bleached before dyeing. Cotton, wool and union (cotton warp +and worsted weft) fabrics are frequently singed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bleaching</a></span>) +before dyeing. Worsted yarn, especially two-fold yarn, is very +liable to curl and become entangled when scoured, and in order +to avoid this it is necessary to stretch and "set" it. To this +end it is stretched tight on a specially constructed frame, placed +in boiling water, and then cooled. Similarly, union fabrics are +liable to "cockle" when wetted, and although this defect may +be put right in finishing, spots of water or raindrops will give +an uneven appearance of a permanent character to the goods. +To avoid this, the pieces are subjected previous to dyeing to the +so-called "crabbing" process, in which they are drawn under +great tension through boiling water and wound on to perforated +hollow cylinders. Steam is then blown through the goods and +they are allowed to cool.</p> + +<p>With respect to the question of colour, we meet with two kinds +of substances in nature, those which possess colour and those +which do not. Why this difference? The physicist +says the former are bodies which reflect all the coloured +<span class="sidenote">Theory of dyeing.</span> +rays of the spectrum composing white light—if opaque, +they appear white; if transparent, they are colourless. The +latter are bodies which absorb some of the spectrum rays only, +reflecting the remainder, and these together produce the impression +of colour. A black substance is one which absorbs all the +spectrum rays. The fundamental reason, however, of this +difference of action on the part of substances towards light +remains still unknown. All substances which possess colour +are not necessarily dyestuffs, and the question may be again +asked, Why? It is a remarkable circumstance that most of +the dyestuffs at present employed occur among the so-called +aromatic or benzene compounds derived from coal-tar, and a +careful study of these has furnished a general explanation of +the point in question, which briefly is, that the dyeing property +of a substance depends upon its chemical constitution. Speaking +generally, those colouring matters which have the simplest +constitution are yellow, and as the molecular weight increases +their colour passes into orange, red, violet and blue. In recent +years chemists have begun to regard the constitution of nearly +all dyestuffs as similar to that of Quinone, and some even believe +that all coloured organic compounds have a quinonoid structure. +According to O.N. Witt, a colourless hydrocarbon, <i>e.g.</i> benzene, +becomes coloured by the introduction of one or more special +groups of atoms, which he terms the colour-bearing or <i>chromophorous +groups</i>, <i>e.g.</i> NO<span class="su">2</span>, — N : N —, &c. Benzene, for example, +is colourless, whereas nitro-benzene and azo-benzene are yellow. +Such compounds containing chromophorous groups are termed +chromogens, because, although not dyestuffs themselves, they +are capable of generating such by the further introduction of +salt-forming atomic groups, <i>e.g.</i> OH, NH<span class="su">2</span>. These Witt terms +<i>auxochromous</i> groups. In this way the chromogen <i>tri-nitro-benzene</i>, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">3</span>(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, becomes the dyestuff <i>tri-nitro-phenol</i> +(picric acid), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>(OH), and the chromogen <i>azo-benzene</i>, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·N : N·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, is changed into the dyestuff <i>amido-azo-benzene</i> +(Fast Yellow), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·N : N·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(NH<span class="su">2</span>). These two dyestuffs +are typical of a large number which possess either an acid or a +basic character according as they contain hydroxyl (OH) or +amido (NH<span class="su">2</span>) groups, and correspond to the Acid Colours and +Basic Colours to which reference has already been made. Other +important atomic groups which frequently occur, in addition +to the above, are the carboxyl (COOH) and the sulphonic acid +(HSO<span class="su">3</span>) groups; these either increase the solubility of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page754" id="page754"></a>754</span> +colouring matter or assist in causing it to be attracted by the +fibre, &c. In many cases the free colour-acid or free colour-base +has little colour, this being only developed in the salt. The free +base rosaniline, for example, is colourless, whereas the salt +magenta (rosaniline hydrochloride) has a deep crimson colour +in solution. The free acid Alizarin is orange, while its alumina-salt +is bright red. It may be here stated that the scientific +classification of colouring matters into Nitro-colours, Azo-colours, +&c., already alluded to, is based on their chemical constitution, +or the chromophorous groups they contain, whereas the classification +according to their mode of application is dependent upon +the character and arrangement of the auxochromous groups. +The question of the mordant-dyeing property of certain colouring +matters containing (OH) and (COOH) groups has already been +explained under the head of <i>Artificial Mordant Colours</i>.</p> + +<p>The peculiar property characteristic of dyestuffs, as distinguished +from mere colouring matters, namely, that of being +readily attracted by the textile fibres, notably the animal fibres, +appears then to be due to their more or less marked acid or basic +character. Intimately connected with this is the fact that these +fibres also exhibit partly basic and partly acid characters, due +to the presence of carboxyl and amido groups. The behaviour +of magenta is typical of the Basic Colours. As already indicated, +rosaniline, the base of magenta, is colourless, and only becomes +coloured by its union with an acid, and yet wool and silk can be +as readily dyed with the colourless rosaniline (base) as with the +magenta (salt). The explanation is that the base rosaniline has +united with the fibre, which here plays the part of an acid, to +form a coloured salt. It has also been proved that in dyeing +the animal fibres with magenta (rosaniline hydrochloride), +the fibre unites with the rosaniline only, and liberates the hydrochloric +acid. Further, magenta will not dye cotton unless the +fibre is previously prepared, <i>e.g.</i> with the mordant tannic acid, +with which the base rosaniline unites to form an insoluble salt. +In dyeing wool it is the fibre itself which acts as the mordant. +In the case of the Acid Colours the explanation is similar. In +many of these the free colour-acid has quite a different colour from +that of the alkali-salt, and yet on dyeing wool or silk with the free +colour-acid, the fibre exhibits the colour of the alkali-salt and +not of the colour-acid. In this case the fibre evidently plays the +part of a base. Another fact in favour of the view that the union +between fibre and colouring matter is of a chemical nature, is +that by altering the chemical constitution of the fibre its dyeing +properties are also altered; oxycellulose and nitrocellulose, +for example, have a greater attraction for Basic Colours than +cellulose. Such facts and considerations as these have helped +to establish the view that in the case of dyeing animal fibres +with many colouring matters the operation is a <i>chemical</i> process, +and not merely a mechanical absorption of the dyestuff. A +similar explanation does not suffice, however, in the case of dyeing +cotton with the Direct Colours. These are attracted by cotton +from their solutions as alkali salts, apparently without decomposition. +The affinity existing between the fibre and colouring +matter is somewhat feeble, for the latter can be removed from +the dyed fibre by merely boiling with water. The depth of colour +obtained in dyeing varies with the concentration of the colour +solution, or with the amount of some neutral salt, <i>e.g.</i> sodium +chloride, added as an assistant to the dye-bath; moreover, the +dye-bath is not exhausted. The colouring matter is submitted +to the action of two forces, the solvent power of the water and +the affinity of the fibre, and divides itself between the fibre and +the water. After dyeing for some time, a state of equilibrium +is attained in which the colouring matter is divided between the +fibre and the water in a given ratio, and prolonged dyeing does +not intensify the dyed colour.</p> + +<p>Some investigators hold the view that in some cases the fibres +exert a purely physical attraction towards colouring matters, and +that the latter are held in an unchanged state by the fibre. The +phenomenon is regarded as one of purely mechanical surface-attraction, +and is compared with that exercised by animal charcoal +when employed in decolourizing a solution of some colouring +matter. Some consider such direct dyeing as mere diffusion of +the colouring matter into the fibre, and others that the colouring +matter is in a state of "solid solution" in the fibre, similar to +the solution of a metallic oxide in coloured glass. According to +this latter view, the cause of the dyeing of textile fibres is similar +to the attraction or solvent action exerted by ether when it withdraws +colouring matter from an aqueous solution by agitation. +Latterly the view has been advanced that dyeing is due to precipitation +of the colloid dyestuffs by the colloid substance of the fibre.</p> + +<p>In the case of colours which are dyed on mordants, the question +is merely transferred to the nature of the attraction which exists +between the fibre and the mordant, for it has been conclusively +established that the union between the colouring matter and the +mordant is essentially chemical in character.</p> + +<p>From our present knowledge it will be seen that we are unable +to give a final answer to the question of whether the dyeing +process is to be regarded as a chemical or a mechanical process. +There are arguments and facts which favour both views; but +in the case of wool and silk dyeing, the prevailing opinion in +most cases is in favour of the chemical theory, whereas in cotton-dyeing, +the mechanical theory is widely accepted. Probably +no single theory can explain satisfactorily the fundamental +cause of attraction in all cases of dyeing, and further investigation +is needed to answer fully this very difficult and abstruse question.</p> + +<p>The poisonous nature or otherwise of the coal-tar dyes has been +frequently discussed, and the popular opinion, no doubt dating +from the time when magenta and its derivatives were +contaminated with arsenic, seems to be that they are +<span class="sidenote">Conclusion.</span> +for the most part really poisonous, and ought to be +avoided for colouring materials worn next the skin, for articles +of food, &c. It is satisfactory to know that most of the colours +are not poisonous, but some few are—namely, Picric acid, +Victoria Orange, Aurantia, Coralline, Metanil Yellow, Orange II. +and Safranine. Many coal-tar colours have, indeed, been +recommended as antiseptics or as medicinal remedies, <i>e.g.</i> +Methyl Violet, Auramine and Methylene Blue, because of their +special physiological action. In histology and bacteriology +many coal-tar colours have rendered excellent service in staining +microscopic preparations, and have enabled the investigator +to detect differences of structure, &c., previously unsuspected. +In photography many of the more fugitive colouring matters, +<i>e.g.</i> Cyanine, Eosine, Quinoline Red, &c., are employed in the +manufacture of ortho-chromatic plates, by means of which the +colours of natural objects can be photographed in the same +degrees of light and shade as they appear to the eye—blue, for +example, appearing a darker grey, yellow, a lighter grey, in the +printed photograph.</p> + +<p>Since the year 1856, in which the first coal-tar colour, mauve, +was discovered, the art of dyeing has made enormous advances, +mainly in consequence of the continued introduction of coal-tar +colours having the most varied properties and suitable for nearly +every requirement. The old idea that the vegetable dyestuffs +are superior in fastness to light is gradually being given up, and, +if one may judge from the past, it seems evident that in the +future there will come a time when all our dyestuffs will be +prepared by artificial means.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Macquer, Hellot and le Pileur d'Apligny, <i>The +Art of Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton</i> (London, 1789); Bancroft, +<i>Philosophy of Permanent Colours</i> (2 vols., London, 1813); Berthollet-Ure, +<i>Elements of the Art of Dyeing</i> (2 vols., London, 1824); Chevreul, +<i>Recherches chimiques sur la teinture</i> (Paris, 1835-1861); O'Neill, +<i>The Chemistry of Calico Printing, Dyeing and Bleaching</i> (Manchester, +1860); <i>Dictionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing</i> (London, 1862); +Schützenberger, <i>Traité des matières colorantes</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1867); +Bolley, <i>Die Spinnfasern und die im Pflanzen- und Thierkörper +vorkommenden Farbstoffe</i> (1867); Crookes, <i>A Practical Handbook +of Dyeing and Calico-Printing</i> (London, 1874); Jarmain, <i>Wool-Dyeing</i> +(1876); O'Neill, <i>Textile Colourist</i> (4 vols., Manchester, 1876); +Calvert, <i>Dyeing and Calico Printing</i> (Manchester, 1876); Moyret, +<i>Traité de la teinture des soies</i> (Lyon, 1877); O'Neill, <i>The Practice +and Principles of Calico Printing, Bleaching and Dyeing</i> (Manchester, +1878); Girardin, <i>Matières textiles et matières tinctoriales</i> (Paris, +1880); Hummel, <i>The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics</i> (London, 1885); +Sansone, <i>Dyeing</i> (Manchester, 1888); Witt, <i>Chemische Technologie +der Gespinnstfasern</i> (Brunswick, 1888); Benedikt and Knecht, +<i>The Chemistry of the Coal-Tar Colours</i> (London, 1889); Hurst, <i>Silk +Dyeing, Printing and Finishing</i> (London, 1892); Noelting and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page755" id="page755"></a>755</span> +Lehne, <i>Anilinschwarz</i> (Berlin, 1892); Knecht, Rawson and Loewenthal, +<i>Manual of Dyeing</i> (London, 1908); Steinbeck, <i>Bleichen und +Färben der Seide und Halbseide</i> (Berlin, 1895); Gardner, <i>Wool-Dyeing</i> +(Manchester, 1896); Rawson, Gardner and Laycock, <i>A +Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, &c.</i> (London, 1901); Gros-Renaud, +<i>Les Mordants en teinture et en impression</i> (Paris, 1898); Georgievics, +<i>The Chemical Technology of Textile Fabrics</i> (London, 1902); +Paterson, <i>The Science of Colour Mixing</i> (London, 1900); Paterson, +<i>Colour Matching on Textiles</i> (London, 1901); Beech, <i>The Dyeing +of Cotton Fabrics</i> (London, 1901); Beech, <i>The Dyeing of Woollen +Fabrics</i> (London, 1902); <i>The Journal of the Society of Dyers and +Colourists</i> (Bradford, 1885-1908) and the publications of the colour +manufacturers.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. J. H.; E. K.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The term "dry dyeing," which is carried out only to a very +limited extent, relates to the dyeing of fabrics with the dyestuff +dissolved in liquids other than water, <i>e.g.</i> benzene, alcohol, &c.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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