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diff --git a/34751-8.txt b/34751-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e82d760 --- /dev/null +++ b/34751-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20000 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 8 + "Dubner" to "Dyeing" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 24, 2010 [EBook #34751] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH: "During the Hundred Days he + attained the rank of captain, and was employed in raising + fortifications at Grenoble." 'captain' amended from 'captian'. + + ARTICLE DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH: "... were acknowledged by a gift + of 60,000 francs from the diet and various honours from different + cities and cantons of the confederation." 'confederation' amended + from 'confederaton'. + + ARTICLE DÜHRING, EUGEN KARL: "In economics he is best known by his + vindication of the American writer H.C. Carey, who attracts him + both by his theory of value, which suggests an ultimate harmony of + the interests of capitalist and labourer ..." 'In' amended from + 'It'. + + ARTICLE DUNBLANE: "The first church is alleged to have been erected + by Blane, a saint of the 7th century, but the cathedral was founded + by David I. in 1141 ..." 'was' amended from 'as'. + + ARTICLE DUPONT, PIERRE: "... and in 1851 he paid the penalty of + having become the poet laureate of the socialistic aspirations of + the time by being condemned to seven years of exile from France." + 'condemned' amended from 'comdemned'. + + ARTICLE DURAN: "... and filled by men who derived their income from + a profession, especially medicine." 'especially' amended from + 'epecially'. + + ARTICLE DURANCE: "After passing through some narrow gorges near + Sisteron the bed of the river becomes wide, and spreads desolation + around, the frequent overflows being kept within bounds by numerous + dykes and embankments." 'embankments' amended from 'enbankments'. + + ARTICLE DÜRER, ALBRECHT: "This altarpiece was afterwards replaced + at Frankfort (all except the portraits of the donors, which + remained behind) by a copy, while the original was transported to + Munich, where it perished by fire in 1674." 'portraits' amended + from 'protraits'. + + ARTICLE DÜRER, ALBRECHT: "... but by means of an infinity of single + lines swept, with a miraculous certainty and fineness of touch, in + the richest and most intricate of decorative curves." 'and' amended + from 'amd'. + + ARTICLE DURHAM: "DURHAM, a city and municipal and parliamentary + borough, and the county town of Durham, England, 256 m. N. by W. + from London, on the North Eastern railway." 'municipal' amended + from 'muncipal'. + + ARTICLE DURHAM: "... and in 1889 a hostel was opened for the + accommodation of women, who may take any course of instruction + except the theological." 'accommodation' amended from + 'accomodation'. + + ARTICLE DURHAM: "Among other subjects may be mentioned the granting + of degrees in hygiene, and of diplomas in public health and + education ..." 'degrees' amended from 'degress'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VIII, SLICE VIII + + Dubner to Dyeing + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + DÜBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH DUNFERMLINE, JAMES ABERCROMBY + DUBOIS, FRANÇOIS THÉODORE DUNFERMLINE (burgh of Scotland) + DUBOIS, GUILLAUME DUNGANNON + DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE DUNGARPUR + DUBOIS, PAUL DUNGARVAN + DUBOIS, PIERRE DUNGENESS + DUBOIS (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) DUNGEON + DUBOIS-CRANCÉ, EDMOND ALEXIS DUNKELD + DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL DUNKIRK (France) + DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE DUNKIRK (New York, U.S.A.) + DUBUQUE DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN + DU CAMP, MAXIME DUNMORE + DU CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE DUNMOW + DUCANGE, VICTOR HENRI BRAHAIN DUNNE, FINLEY PETER + DUCAS (Byzantine family) DUNNOTTAR CASTLE + DUCAS (Byzantine historian) DUNOIS, JEAN + DUCASSE, PIERRE EMMANUEL ALBERT DUNOON + DUCAT DUNROBIN CASTLE + DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI DUNS + DUCHENNE, GUILLAUME AMAND DUNSINANE + DU CHESNE, ANDRÉ DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN + DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER DUNSTABLE + DUCIS, JEAN FRANÇOIS DUNSTAFFNAGE + DUCK DUNSTAN, SAINT + DUCKING and CUCKING STOOLS DUNSTER + DUCKWEED DUNTOCHER + DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS DUNTON, JOHN + DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F. DÜNTZER, JOHANN HEINRICH JOSEPH + DUCLOS, CHARLES PINOT DUNWICH + DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER DUOVIRI + DUCTLESS GLANDS DUPANLOUP, FÉLIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT + DUDERSTADT DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY + DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF DUPIN, ANDRÉ MARIE JEAN JACQUES + DUDLEY, EDMUND DU PIN, LOUIS ELLIES + DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT DUPLEIX, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS + DUDLEY, THOMAS DUPONT, PIERRE + DUDLEY (English county & town) DUPONT DE L'ÉTANG, PIERRE ANTOINE + DUDO DUPONT DE L'EURE, JACQUES CHARLES + DUDWEILER DU PONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL + DUEL DUPORT, ADRIEN + DUENNA DUPORT, JAMES + DUET DÜPPEL + DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS DU PRAT, ANTOINE + DUFF, ALEXANDER DUPRÉ, JULES + DUFFERIN AND AVA, FREDERICK DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANÇOIS + DUFF-GORDON, LUCIE DUPUY, CHARLES ALEXANDRE + DUFFTOWN DUPUY, PIERRE + DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN DUPUY DE LÔME, STANISLAS LAURENT + DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME + DUFRÉNOY, OURS PIERRE ARMAND DUQUE DE ESTRADA, DIEGO + DUFRESNY, CHARLES DUQUESNE, ARRAHAM + DUGAZON DUQUESNE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM DURAMEN + DUGONG DURAN + DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENÉ DURÁN, AGUSTÍN + DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND DURANCE + DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE DURAND, ASHER BROWN + DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS DURAND, GUILLAUME + DÜHRING, EUGEN KARL DURAND, GUILLAUME + DUIGENAN, PATRICK DURANDO, GIACOMO + DUIKER DURANGO (state of Mexico) + DUILIUS, GAIUS DURANGO (city of Mexico) + DUISBURG DURANI + DUK-DUK DURANTE, FRANCESCO + DUKE DURÃO, JOSÉ DE SANTA RITA + DUKE OF EXETER'S DAUGHTER DURAZZO + DUKER, CARL ANDREAS D'URBAN, SIR BENJAMIN + DUKERIES, THE DURBAN + DUKES, LEOPOLD DURBAR + DUKINFIELD DÜREN + DULCIGNO DURENE + DULCIMER DÜRER, ALBRECHT + DÜLKEN DURESS + DULONG, PIERRE LOUIS D'URFEY, THOMAS + DULSE DURFORT + DULUTH DURGA + DULWICH DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON + DUMAGUETE DURHAM (county of England) + DUMANJUG DURHAM (city of England) + DU MARSAIS, CÉSAR CHESNEAU DURHAM (North Carolina, U.S.A.) + DUMAS, ALEXANDRE DURIAN + DUMAS, ALEXANDRE (Fils) DURIS + DUMAS, GUILLAUME MATHIEU DÜRKHEIM + DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ DURLACH + DU MAURIER, GEORGE BUSSON DUROC, GÉRAUD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL + DUMBARTON DUROCHER, JOSEPH MARIE ELISABETH + DUMBARTONSHIRE DURRA + DUMB WAITER DURUY, JEAN VICTOR + DUM-DUM DU RYER, PIERRE + DUMESNIL, MARIE FRANÇOISE DUSE, ELEANORA + DUMFRIES DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG + DUMFRIESSHIRE DÜSSELDORF + DÜMICHEN, JOHANNES DUSSERAH + DÜMMLER, ERNST LUDWIG DUST + DUMONT DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE + DUMONT, ANDRÉ HUBERT DUTCH LANGUAGE + DUMONT, FRANÇOIS DUTCH LITERATURE + DUMONT, JEAN DUTCH WARS + DUMONT, PIERRE ÉTIENNE LOUIS DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY, THE + DUMONT D'URVILLE, JULES DUTENS, LOUIS + DUMORTIERITE DUTROCHET, RENÉ JOACHIM HENRI + DUMOULIN, CHARLES DUTT, MICHAEL MADHU SUDAN + DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANÇOIS DUTY + DUMP DU VAIR, GUILLAUME + DUNASH DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT PINEUX + DUNBAR, GEORGE DUVAL, CLAUDE + DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE DUVENECK, FRANK + DUNBAR, WILLIAM DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN + DUNBAR (seaport of Scotland) DUVEYRIER, HENRI + DUNBLANE DUX + DUNCAN (Scottish kings) DUXBURY + DUNCAN, ADAM DUNCAN DVINA + DUNCAN, PETER MARTIN DVINSK + DUNCAN, THOMAS DVORÁK, ANTON + DUNCE DWARAKA + DUNCKER, MAXIMILIAN WOLFGANG DWARF + DUNCKLEY, HENRY DWARS + DUNCOMBE, SIR CHARLES DWIGHT, JOHN + DUNDALK DWIGHT, JOHN SULLIVAN + DUNDEE, JOHN OF CLAVERHOUSE DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM + DUNDEE (city of Scotland) DWIGHT, TIMOTHY + DUNDERLANDSDAL DYAKS + DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE DYCE, ALEXANDER + DUNEDIN DYCE, WILLIAM + DUNES DYEING + DUNFERMLINE, ALEXANDER SETON + + + + +DÜBNER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1802-1867), German classical scholar +(naturalized a Frenchman), was born in Hör selgau, near Gotha, on the +20th of December 1802. After studying at the university of Göttingen he +returned to Gotha, where from 1827-1832 he held a post (_inspector +coenobii_) in connexion with the gymnasium. During this period he made +his name known by editions of Justin and Persius (after Casaubon). In +1832 he was invited by the brothers Didot to Paris, to co-operate in a +new edition of H. Etienne's Greek _Thesaurus_. He also contributed +largely to the _Bibliotheca Graeca_ published by the same firm, a series +of Greek classics with Latin translation, critical notes and valuable +indexes. One of Dübner's most important works was an edition of Caesar +undertaken by command of Napoleon III., which obtained him the cross of +the Legion of Honour. His editions are considered to be models of +literary and philological criticism, and did much to raise the standard +of classical scholarship in France. He violently attacked Burnouf's +method of teaching Greek, but without result. Dübner may have gone too +far in his zeal for reform, and his opinions may have been too harshly +expressed, but time has shown him to be right. The old text-books have +been discarded, and a great improvement in classical teaching has taken +place in recent years. Dübner died at Montreuil-sous-Bois, near Paris, +on the 13th of December 1867. + + See F. Godefroy, _Notice sur J.F. Dübner_ (1867); Sainte-Beuve, + _Discours à la mémoire de Dübner_ (1868); article in _Allgemeine + deutsche Biographic_. + + + + +DUBOIS, FRANÇOIS CLÉMENT THÉODORE (1837- ), French musical composer, +was born at Rosney (Marne) on the 24th of August 1837. He studied at the +Conservatoire under Ambroise Thomas, and won the Grand Prix de Rome in +1861 with his cantata _Atala_. After the customary sojourn in Rome, +Dubois returned to Paris and devoted himself to teaching. He was +appointed "maitre de Chapelle" at the church of Ste Clotilde, where +César Franck was organist, in 1863, and remained at this post for five +years, during which time he composed a quantity of sacred music, notably +_Les Sept Paroles du Christ_ (1867), a work which has become well known +in France. In 1868 he became "maitre de Chapelle" at the church of the +Madeleine, and nine years later succeeded Camille Saint-Saëns there as +organist. He became professor of harmony at the Conservatoire in 1871, +and was appointed professor of composition in succession to Léo Delibes +in 1891. At the death of Ambroise Thomas in 1896 he became director of +the Conservatoire. Dubois is an extremely prolific composer and has +written in a variety of forms. His sacred works include four masses, a +requiem, _Les Sept Paroles du Christ_, a large number of motets and +pieces for organ. For the theatre he has composed _La Guzla de l'Émir_, +an opéra comique in one act, played at the Théâtre Lyrique de l'Athénée +in 1873; _Le Pain bis_, an opéra comique in one act, given at the Opéra +Comique in 1879; _La Farandole_, a ballet in three acts, produced at the +Grand Opéra in 1883; _Aben-Hamet_, a four-act opera, heard at the +Théâtre Italien in 1884; _Xavière_, a dramatic idyll in three acts, +played at the Opéra Comique in 1895. His orchestral works include two +concert overtures, the overture to _Frithioff_ (1880), several suites, +_Marche héroïque de Jeanne d'Arc_ (1888), &c. He is also the author of +_Le Paradis perdu_, an oratorio which gained for him the prize offered +by the city of Paris in 1878; _L'Enlèvement de Proserpine_ (1879), a +_scène lyrique_; _Délivrance_ (1887), a cantata; _Hylas_ (1890), a +_scène lyrique_ for soli, chorus and orchestra; _Notre Dame de la mer_, +a symphonic poem (1897); and a musical setting of a Latin ode on the +baptism of Clovis (1899). In addition, he composed much for the piano +and voice. + + + + +DUBOIS, GUILLAUME (1656-1723), French cardinal and statesman, was born +at Brive, in Limousin, on the 6th of September 1656. He was, according +to his enemies, the son of an apothecary, his father being in fact a +doctor of medicine of respectable family, who kept a small drug store as +part of the necessary outfit of a country practitioner. He was educated +at the school of the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine at Brive, where +he received the tonsure at the age of thirteen. In 1672, having finished +his philosophy course, he was given a scholarship at the college of St +Michel at Paris by Jean, marquis de Pompadour, lieutenant-general of the +Limousin. The head of the college, the abbé Antoine Faure, who was from +the same part of the country as himself, befriended the lad, and +continued to do so for many years after he had finished his course, +finding him pupils and ultimately obtaining for him the post of tutor to +the young duke of Chartres, afterwards the regent duke of Orleans. +Astute, ambitious and unrestrained by conscience, Dubois ingratiated +himself with his pupil, and, while he gave him formal school lessons, at +the same time pandered to his evil passions and encouraged him in their +indulgence. He gained the favour of Louis XIV. by bringing about the +marriage of his pupil with Mademoiselle de Blois, a natural but +legitimated daughter of the king; and for this service he was rewarded +with the gift of the abbey of St Just in Picardy. He was present with +his pupil at the battle of Steinkirk, and "faced fire," says Marshal +Luxembourg, "like a grenadier." Sent to join the French embassy in +London, he made himself so active that he was recalled by the request of +the ambassador, who feared his intrigues. This, however, tended to raise +his credit with the king. When the duke of Orleans became regent (1715) +Dubois, who had for some years acted as his secretary, was made +councillor of state, and the chief power passed gradually into his +hands. + +His policy was steadily directed towards maintaining the peace of +Utrecht, and this made him the main opponent of the schemes of Cardinal +Alberoni for the aggrandizement of Spain. To counteract Alberoni's +intrigues, he suggested an alliance with England, and in the face of +great difficulties succeeded in negotiating the Triple Alliance (1717). +In 1719 he sent an army into Spain, and forced Philip V. to dismiss +Alberoni. Otherwise his policy remained that of peace. Dubois's success +strengthened him against the bitter opposition of a large section of the +court. Political honours did not satisfy him, however. The church +offered the richest field for exploitation, and in spite of his +dissolute life he impudently prayed the regent to give him the +archbishopric of Cambray, the richest in France. His demand was +supported by George I., and the regent yielded. In one day all the +usual orders were conferred on him, and even the great preacher +Massillon consented to take part in the ceremonies. His next aim was the +cardinalate, and, after long and most profitable negotiations on the +part of Pope Clement XI., the red hat was given to him by Innocent XIII. +(1721), whose election was largely due to the bribes of Dubois. It is +estimated that this cardinalate cost France about eight million francs. +In the following year he was named first minister of France (August). He +was soon after received at the French Academy; and, to the disgrace of +the French clergy, he was named president of their assembly. + +When Louis XV. attained his majority in 1723 Dubois remained chief +minister. He had accumulated an immense private fortune, possessing in +addition to his see the revenues of seven abbeys. He was, however, a +prey to the most terrible pains of body and agony of mind. His health +was ruined by his debaucheries, and a surgical operation became +necessary. This was almost immediately followed by his death, at +Versailles, on the 10th of August 1723. His portrait was thus drawn by +the duc de St Simon:--"He was a little, pitiful, wizened, herring-gutted +man, in a flaxen wig, with a weasel's face, brightened by some +intellect. All the vices--perfidy, avarice, debauchery, ambition, +flattery--fought within him for the mastery. He was so consummate a liar +that, when taken in the fact, he could brazenly deny it. Even his wit +and knowledge of the world were spoiled, and his affected gaiety was +touched with sadness, by the odour of falsehood which escaped through +every pore of his body." This famous picture is certainly biassed. +Dubois was unscrupulous, but so were his contemporaries, and whatever +vices he had, he gave France peace after the disastrous wars of Louis +XIV. + + In 1789 appeared _Vie privée du Cardinal Dubois_, attributed to one of + his secretaries, Mongez; and in 1815 his _Mémoires secrets et + correspondance inédite_, edited by L. de Sevelinges. See also A. + Cheruel, _Saint-Simon et l'abbé Dubois_; L. Wiesener, _Le Régent, + l'abbé Dubois et les Anglais_ (1891); and memoirs of the time. + + + + +DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE (1765-1848), French Catholic missionary in India, +was ordained in the diocese of Viviers in 1792, and sailed for India in +the same year under the direction of the Missions Étrangères. He was at +first attached to the Pondicherry mission, and worked in the southern +districts of the present Madras Presidency. On the fall of Seringapatam +in 1799 he went to Mysore to reorganize the Christian community that had +been shattered by Tipu Sultan. Among the benefits which he conferred +upon his impoverished flock were the founding of agricultural colonies +and the introduction of vaccination as a preventive of smallpox. But his +great work was his record of _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_. +Immediately on his arrival in India he saw that the work of a Christian +missionary should be based on a thorough acquaintance with the innermost +life and character of the native population. Accordingly he abjured +European society, adopted the native style of clothing, and made himself +in habit and costume as much like a Hindu as he could. He gained an +extraordinary welcome amongst people of all castes and conditions, and +is still spoken of in many parts of South India with affection and +esteem as "the prince's son, the noblest of Europeans." Although Dubois +modestly disclaimed the rank of an author, his collections were not so +much drawn from the Hindu sacred books as from his own careful and vivid +observations, and it is this, united to a remarkable prescience, that +makes his work so valuable. It is divided into three parts: (1) a +general view of society in India, and especially of the caste system; +(2) the four states of Brahminical life; (3) religion--feasts, temples, +objects of worship. Not only does the abbé give a shrewd, clear-sighted, +candid account of the manners and customs of the Hindus, but he provides +a very sound estimate of the British position in India, and makes some +eminently just observations on the difficulties of administering the +Empire according to Western notions of civilization and progress with +the limited resources that are available. Dubois's French MS. was +purchased for eight thousand rupees by Lord William Bentinck for the +East India Company in 1807; in 1816 an English translation was +published, and of this edition about 1864 a curtailed reprint was +issued. The abbé, however, largely recast his work, and of this revised +text (now in the India Office) an edition with notes was published in +1897 by H.K. Beauchamp. Dubois left India in January 1823, with a +special pension conferred on him by the East India Company, and on +reaching Paris was appointed director of the Missions Étrangères, of +which he afterwards became superior (1836-1839). He translated into +French the famous book of Hindu fables called _Panchatantra_, and also a +work called _The Exploits of the Guru Paramarta_. Of more interest were +his _Letters on the State of Christianity in India_, in which he +asserted his opinion that under existing circumstances there was no +human possibility of so overcoming the invincible barrier of Brahminical +prejudice as to convert the Hindus as a nation to any sect of +Christianity. He acknowledged that low castes and outcastes might be +converted in large numbers, but of the higher castes he wrote: "Should +the intercourse between individuals of both nations, by becoming more +intimate and more friendly, produce a change in the religion and usages +of the country, it will not be to turn Christians that they will forsake +their own religion, but rather ... to become mere atheists." He died in +1848. + + + + +DUBOIS, PAUL (1829-1905), French sculptor and painter, was born at +Nogent-sur-Seine on the 18th of July 1829. He studied law to please his +family, and art to please himself, and finally adopted the latter, and +placed himself under Toussaint. After studying at the École des +Beaux-Arts, Dubois went to Rome. His first contributions to the Paris +Salon (1860) were busts of "The Countess de B." and "A Child." For his +first statues, "St John the Baptist" and "Narcissus at the Bath" (1863), +he was awarded a medal of the second class. The statue of "The Infant St +John," which had been modelled in Florence in 1860, was exhibited in +Paris in bronze, and was acquired by the Luxemburg. "A Florentine Singer +of the Fifteenth Century," one of the most popular statuettes in Europe, +was shown in 1865; "The Virgin and Child" appeared in the Paris +Universal Exhibition in 1867; "The Birth of Eve" was produced in 1873, +and was followed by striking busts of Henner, Dr Parrot, Paul Baudry, +Pasteur, Gounod and Bonnat, remarkable alike for life, vivacity, +likeness, refinement and subtle handling. The chief work of Paul Dubois +was "The Tomb of General Lamoricière" in the cathedral of Nantes, a +brilliant masterpiece conceived in the Renaissance spirit, with +allegorical figures and groups representing Warlike Courage, Charity, +Faith and Meditation, as well as bas-reliefs and enrichments; the two +first-named works were separately exhibited in the Salon of 1877. The +medallions represent Wisdom, Hope, Justice, Force, Rhetoric, Prudence +and Religion. The statue of the "Constable Anne de Montmorency" was +executed for Chantilly, and that of "Joan of Arc" (1889) for the town of +Reims. The Italian influence which characterized the earlier work of +Dubois disappeared as his own individuality became clearly asserted. As +a painter he restricted himself mainly to portraiture. "My Children" +(1876) being probably his most noteworthy achievement. His drawings and +copies after the Old Masters are of peculiar excellence: they include +"The Dead Christ" (after Sebastian del Piombo) and "Adam and Eve" (after +Raphael). In 1873 Dubois was appointed keeper of the Luxemburg Museum. +He succeeded Guillaume as director of the École des Beaux-Arts, 1878, +and Perraud as member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts. Twice at the Salon +he obtained the medal of honour (1865 and 1876), and once at the +Universal Exhibition (1878). He also won numerous other distinctions, +and was appointed grand cross of the Legion of Honour. He was made a +member of several European orders, and in 1895 was elected an honorary +foreign academician of the Royal Academy of London. He died at Paris in +1905. + + + + +DUBOIS, PIERRE (c. 1250-c. 1312), French publicist in the reign of +Philip the Fair, was the author of a series of political pamphlets +embodying original and daring views. He was known to Jean du Tillet in +the 16th, and to Pierre Dupuy in the 17th century, but remained +practically forgotten until the middle of the 19th century, when his +history was reconstructed from his works. He was a Norman by birth, +probably a native of Coutances, where he exercised the functions of +royal advocate of the bailliage and procurator of the university. He was +educated at the university of Paris, where he heard St Thomas Aquinas +and Siger of Brabant. He was, nevertheless, no adherent of the +scholastic philosophy, and appears to have been conversant with the +works of Roger Bacon. Although he never held any important political +office, he must have been in the confidence of the court when, in 1300, +he wrote his anonymous _Summaria, brevis et compendiosa doctrina felicis +expedicionis et abbreviationis guerrarum et litium regni Francorum_, +which is extant in a unique MS., but is analysed by N. de Wailly in the +_Bibliothèque de l'École des Chartes_ (2nd series, vol. iii.). In the +contest between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII. Dubois identified +himself completely with the secularizing policy of Philip, and poured +forth a series of anti-clerical pamphlets, which did not cease even with +the death of Boniface. His _Supplication du pueble de France au roy +contre le pape Boniface le VIII^e_, printed in 1614 in _Acta inter +Bonifacium VIII. et Philippum Pulchrum_, dates from 1304, and is a +heated indictment of the temporal power. He represented Coutances in the +states-general of 1302, but in 1306 he was serving Edward I. as an +advocate in Guienne, without apparently abandoning his Norman practice +by which he had become a rich man. The most important of his works, his +treatise _De recuperatione terrae sanctae_,[1] was written in 1306, and +dedicated in its extant form to Edward I., though it is certainly +addressed to Philip. Dubois outlines the conditions necessary to a +successful crusade--the establishment and enforcement of a state of +peace among the Christian nations of the West by a council of the +church; the reform of the monastic, and especially of the military, +orders; the reduction of their revenues; the instruction of a number of +young men and women in oriental languages and the natural sciences with +a view to the government of Eastern peoples; and the establishment of +Philip of Valois as emperor of the East. The king of France was in fact, +when once the pope was deprived of the temporal power, to become the +suzerain of the Western nations, and in a later and separate memoir +Dubois proposed that he should cause himself to be made emperor by +Clement V. His zeal for the crusade was probably subordinate to the +desire to secure the wealth of the monastic orders for the royal +treasury, and to transfer the ecclesiastical jurisdiction to the crown. +His ideas on education, on the celibacy of the clergy, and his schemes +for the codification of French law, were far in advance of his time. He +was an early and violent "Gallican," and the first of the great French +lawyers who occupied themselves with high politics. In 1308 he attended +the states-general at Tours. He is generally credited with _Quaedam +proposita papae a rege super facto Templariorum_, a draft epistle +supposed to be addressed to Clement by Philip. This was followed by +other pamphlets in the same tone, in one of which he proposed that a +kingdom founded on the property of the Templars in the East should be +established on behalf of Philip the Tall. + + See an article by E. Renan in _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxvi. + pp. 471-536; P. Dupuy _Hist. de la condamnation ... des Templiers_ + (Brussels, 1713), and _Hist. du différend entre le pape Boniface VIII + et Philippe le Bel_ (Paris 1655); and _Notices et extraits de + manuscrits_, vol. xx. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Printed in _Collections à servir à l'étude de l'histoire_ (1891). + + + + +DUBOIS, a borough of Clearfield county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 129 m. by +rail N.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 6149, (1900) 9375, of whom 1655 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,623. It is served by the Pennsylvania, +the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg, and the Buffalo & Susquehanna +railways. The borough is built on a small plateau surrounded by hills, +on the west slope of the Alleghany Mountains, nearly 1400 ft. above +sea-level. Its chief importance is as a coal and lumber centre; among +its manufacturing establishments are blast furnaces, iron works, machine +shops, railway repair shops, tanneries, planing mills, flour mills, +locomotive works and a glass factory. Dubois was first settled in 1872, +was named in honour of its founder, John Dubois, and was incorporated in +1881. + + + + +DUBOIS-CRANCÉ, EDMOND LOUIS ALEXIS (1747-1814), French Revolutionist, +born at Charleville, was at first a musketeer, then a lieutenant of the +_maréchaux_, or guardsmen of the old régime. He embraced liberal ideas, +and in 1789 was elected deputy to the states-general by the third estate +of Vitry-le-François. At the Constituent Assembly, of which he was named +secretary in November 1789, he busied himself mainly with military +reforms. He wished to see the old military system, with its caste +distinctions and its mercenaries, replaced by an organization of +national guards in which all citizens should be admitted. In his report, +on the 12th of December 1789, he gave utterance for the first time to +the idea of _conscription_, which he opposed to the recruiting system of +the old régime. His report was not, however, adopted. He succeeded in +securing the Assembly's vote that any slave who touched French soil +should become free. After the Constituent, Dubois-Crancé was named +_maréchal de camp_, but he refused to be placed under the orders of +Lafayette and preferred to serve as a simple grenadier. Elected to the +Convention by the department of the Ardennes, he sat among the +_Montagnards_, but without following any one leader, either Danton or +Robespierre. In the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for death without delay +or appeal. On the 21st of February 1793 he was named president of the +Convention. Although he was a member of the two committees of general +defence which preceded that of public safety, he did not belong to the +latter at its creation. But he composed a remarkable report on the army, +recommending two measures which contributed largely to its success, the +rapid advancement of the lower officers, which opened the way for the +most famous generals of the Revolution, and the fusion of the volunteers +with the veteran troops. In August 1793 Dubois-Crancé was designated +"representative on mission" to the army of the Alps, to direct the siege +of Lyons, which had revolted against the republic. Accused of lack of +energy, he was replaced by G. Couthon. On his return he easily justified +himself, but was excluded from the Jacobin club at the instance of +Robespierre, before whom he refused to bend. Consequently he was +naturally drawn to participate in the revolution of the 9th of Thermidor +of the year II., directed against Robespierre. But he would not join the +Royalist reaction which followed, and was one of the committee of five +which had to oppose the Royalist insurrection of Vendémiaire (see FRENCH +REVOLUTION). It was also during this period that Dubois-Crancé was named +a member of the committee of public safety, then much reduced in +importance. After the Convention, under the Directory, Dubois-Crancé was +a member of the Council of the Five Hundred, and was appointed +inspector-general of infantry; then, in 1799, minister of war. Opposed +to the _coup d'état_ of the 18th of Brumaire, he lived in retirement +during the Consulate and the Empire. He died at Rethel on the 29th of +June 1814. His portrait stands in the foreground in J.L. David's +celebrated sketch of the "Oath of the Tennis Court." + + Among the numerous writings of Dubois-Crancé may be noticed his + _Observations sur la constitution militaire, ou bases du travail + proposé au comité militaire_. See H.F.T. Jung, _Dubois de Crancé. + L'armée et la Révolution, 1789-1794_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884). + + + + +DU BOIS-REYMOND, EMIL (1818-1896), German physiologist, was born in +Berlin on the 7th of November 1818. The Prussian capital was the place +both of his birth and of his life's work, and he will always be counted +among Germany's great scientific men; yet he was not of German blood. +His father belonged to Neuchâtel, his mother was of Huguenot descent, +and he spoke of himself as "being of pure Celtic blood." Educated first +at the French college in Berlin, then at Neuchâtel, whither his father +had returned, he entered in 1836 the university of Berlin. He seems to +have been uncertain at first as to the bent of his studies, for he sat +at the feet of the great ecclesiastical historian August Neander, and +dallied with geology; but eventually he threw himself into the study of +medicine, with such zeal and success as to attract the notice of the +great teacher of anatomy and physiology, who was then making Berlin +famous as a school for the sciences ancillary to medicine. Johannes +Müller may be regarded as the central figure in the history of modern +physiology. the physiology of the 19th century. Müller's earlier +studies had been distinctly physiological; but his inclination, no less +than his position as professor of anatomy as well as of physiology in +the university of Berlin, led him later on into wide studies of +comparative anatomy, and these, aided by the natural bent of his mind +towards problems of general philosophy, gave his views of physiology a +breadth and a depth which profoundly influenced the progress of that +science in his day. He had, about the time when the young Du +Bois-Reymond came to his lectures, published his great _Elements of +Physiology_, the dominant note of which may be said to be this:--"Though +there appears to be something in the phenomena of living beings which +cannot be explained by ordinary mechanical, physical or chemical laws, +much may be so explained, and we may without fear push these +explanations as far as we can, so long as we keep to the solid ground of +observation and experiment." Müller recognized in the Neuchâtel lad a +mind fitted to carry on physical researches into the phenomena of living +things in a legitimate way. He made him in 1840 his assistant in +physiology, and as a starting-point for an inquiry put into his hands +the essay which the Italian, Carlo Matteucci, had just published on the +electric phenomena of animals. This determined the work of Du +Bois-Reymond's life. He chose as the subject of his graduation thesis +"Electric Fishes," and so commenced a long series of investigations on +animal electricity, by which he enriched science and made for himself a +name. The results of these inquiries were made known partly in papers +communicated to scientific journals, but also and chiefly in his work +_Researches on Animal Electricity_, the first part of which appeared in +1848, the last in 1884. + +This great work may be regarded under two aspects. On the one hand, it +is a record of the exact determination and approximative analysis of the +electric phenomena presented by living beings. Viewed from this +standpoint, it represents a remarkable advance of our knowledge. Du +Bois-Reymond, beginning with the imperfect observations of Matteucci, +built up, it may be said, this branch of science. He did so by inventing +or improving methods, by devising new instruments of observation or by +adapting old ones. The debt which science owes to him on this score is a +large one indeed. On the other hand, the volumes in question contain an +exposition of a theory. In them Du Bois-Reymond put forward a general +conception by the help of which he strove to explain the phenomena which +he had observed. He developed the view that a living tissue, such as +muscle, might be regarded as composed of a number of electric molecules, +of molecules having certain electric properties, and that the electric +behaviour of the muscle as a whole in varying circumstances was the +outcome of the behaviour of these native electric molecules. It may +perhaps be said that this theory has not stood the test of time so well +as have Du Bois-Reymond's other more simple deductions from observed +facts. It was early attacked by Ludimar Hermann, who maintained that a +living untouched tissue, such as a muscle, is not the subject of +electric currents so long as it is at rest, is isoelectric in substance, +and therefore need not be supposed to be made up of electric molecules, +all the electric phenomena which it manifests being due to internal +molecular changes associated with activity or injury. Although most +subsequent observers have ranged themselves on Hermann's side, it must +nevertheless be admitted that Du Bois-Reymond's theory was of great +value if only as a working hypothesis, and that as such it greatly +helped in the advance of science. + +Du Bois-Reymond's work lay chiefly in the direction of animal +electricity, yet he carried his inquiries--such as could be studied by +physical methods--into other parts of physiology, more especially into +the phenomena of diffusion, though he published little or nothing +concerning the results at which he arrived. For many years, too, he +exerted a great influence as a teacher. In 1858, upon the death of +Johannes Müller, the chair of anatomy and physiology, which that great +man had held, was divided into a chair of human and comparative anatomy, +which was given to K.B. Reichert (1811-1883), and a chair of +physiology, which naturally fell to Du Bois-Reymond. This he held to his +death, carrying out his researches for many years under unfavourable +conditions of inadequate accommodation. In 1877, through his influence, +the government provided the university with a proper physiological +laboratory. In 1851 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences of +Berlin, and in 1867 became its perpetual secretary. For many years he +and his friend H. von Helmholtz, who like him had been a pupil of +Johannes Müller, were prominent men in the German capital. Acceptable at +court, they both used their position and their influence for the +advancement of science. Both, from time to time as opportunity offered, +stepped out of the narrow limits of the professorial chair and gave the +world their thoughts concerning things on which they could not well +dwell in the lecture room. Du Bois-Reymond, as has been said, had in his +earlier years wandered into fields other than those of physiology and +medicine, and in his later years he went back to some of these. His +occasional discourses, dealing with general topics and various problems +of philosophy, show that to the end he possessed the historic spirit +which had led him as a lad to listen to Neander; they are marked not +only by a charm of style, but by a breadth of view such as might be +expected from Johannes Müller's pupil and friend. He died in the city of +his birth and adoption on the 26th of November 1896. (M. F.) + + + + +DUBOS, JEAN-BAPTISTE (1670-1742), French author, was born at Beauvais in +December 1670. After studying for the church, he renounced theology for +the study of public law and politics. He was employed by M. de Torcy, +minister of foreign affairs, and by the regent and Cardinal Dubois in +several secret missions, in which he acquitted himself with great +success. He was rewarded with a pension and several benefices. Having +obtained these, he retired from political life, and devoted himself to +history and literature. He gained such distinction as an author that in +1720 he was elected a member of the French Academy, of which, in 1723, +he was appointed perpetual secretary in the room of M. Dacier. He died +at Paris on the 23rd of March 1742, repeating as he expired the +well-known remark of an ancient, "Death is a law, not a punishment." His +first work was _L'Histoire des quatre Gordiens prouvée et illustrée par +des médailles_ (Paris, 1695, 12mo), which, in spite of its ingenuity, +did not succeed in altering the common opinion, which only admits three +emperors of this name. About the commencement of the war of 1701, being +charged with different negotiations both in Holland and in England, with +the design to engage these powers if possible to adopt a pacific line of +policy, he, in order to promote the objects of his mission, published a +work entitled _Les Intérêts de l'Angleterre mal entendus dans la guerre +présente_ (Amsterdam, 1703, 12mo). But as this work contained indiscreet +disclosures, of which the enemy took advantage, and predictions which +were not fulfilled, a wag took occasion to remark that the title ought +to be read thus: _Les Intérêts de l'Angleterre mal entendus par l'abbé +Dubos_. It is remarkable as containing a distinct prophecy of the revolt +of the American colonies from Great Britain. His next work was +_L'Histoire de la Ligue de Cambray_ (Paris, 1709, 1728 and 1785, 2 vols. +12mo), a full, clear and interesting history, which obtained the +commendation of Voltaire. In 1734 he published his _Histoire critique de +l'établissement de la monarchie française dans les Gaules_ (3 vols. +4to)--a work the object of which was to prove that the Franks had +entered Gaul, not as conquerors, but at the request of the nation, +which, according to him, had called them in to govern it. But this +system, though unfolded with a degree of skill and ability which at +first procured it many zealous partisans, was victoriously refuted by +Montesquieu at the end of the thirtieth book of the _Esprit des lois_. +His _Réflexions critiques sur la poésie et sur la peinture_, published +for the first time in 1719 (2 vols. 12mo), but often reprinted in three +volumes, constitute one of the works in which the theory of the arts is +explained with the utmost sagacity and discrimination. Like his history +of the League of Cambray, it was highly praised by Voltaire. The work +was rendered more remarkable by the fact that its author had no +practical acquaintance with any one of the arts whose principles he +discussed. Besides the works above enumerated, a manifesto of +Maximilian, elector of Bavaria, against the emperor Leopold, relative to +the succession in Spain, has been attributed to Dubos, chiefly, it +appears, from the excellence of the style. + + + + +DUBUQUE, a city and the county-seat of Dubuque county, Iowa, U.S.A., on +the Mississippi river, opposite the boundary line between Wisconsin and +Illinois. Pop. (1890) 30,311; (1900) 36,297; (1905, state census) 41,941 +(including 6835 foreign-born, the majority of whom were German and +Irish); (1910 U.S. census) 38,494. Dubuque is served by the Illinois +Central, the Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul (which has repair shops +here), the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Chicago Great Western +railways; it also has a considerable river traffic. The river is spanned +here by a railway bridge and two wagon bridges. The business portion of +the city lies on the low lands bordering the river; many of the +residences are built on the slopes and summits of bluffs commanding +extensive and picturesque views. Among the principal buildings are the +Carnegie-Stout free public library (which in 1908 had 23,600 volumes, +exclusive of the valuable Senator Allison collection of public +documents), the public high school, and the house of the Dubuque Club. +Dubuque is a Roman Catholic archiepiscopal see, and is the seat of St +Joseph's College (1873), a small Roman Catholic institution; of Wartburg +Seminary (1854), a small Evangelical Lutheran theological school; of the +German Presbyterian Theological School of the North-west (1852); of St +Joseph's Ladies' Academy; and of Bayless Business College. Fifteen miles +from Dubuque is a monastery of Trappist monks. Among the city's +charitable institutions are the Finley and the Mercy hospitals, a home +for the friendless, a rescue home, a House of the Good Shepherd, and an +insane asylum. In 1900 Dubuque ranked fourth and in 1905 fifth among the +cities of the state as a manufacturing centre, the chief products being +those of the planing mills and machine shops, and furniture, sashes and +doors, liquors, carriages, wagons, coffins, clothing, boots and shoes, +river steam boats, barges, torpedo boats, &c., and the value of the +factory product being $9,279,414 in 1905 and $9,651,247 in 1900. The +city lies in a region of lead and zinc mines, quantities of zinc ore in +the form of black-jack being taken from the latter. Dubuque is important +as a distributing centre for lumber, hardware, groceries and dry-goods. + +As early as 1788 Julien Dubuque (1765-1810), attracted by the lead +deposits in the vicinity, which were then being crudely worked by the +Sauk and Fox Indians, settled here and carried on the mining industry +until his death. In June 1829 miners from Galena, Illinois, attempted to +make a settlement here in direct violation of Indian treaties, but were +driven away by United States troops under orders from Colonel Zachary +Taylor. Immediately after the Black Hawk War, white settlers began +coming to the mines. Dubuque was laid out under an act of Congress +approved on the 2nd of July 1836, and was incorporated in 1841. + + + + +DU CAMP, MAXIME (1822-1894), French writer, the son of a successful +surgeon, was born in Paris on the 8th of February 1822. He had a strong +taste for travel, which his father's means enabled him to indulge as +soon as his college days were over. Between 1844 and 1845, and again, in +company with Gustave Flaubert, between 1849 and 1851, he travelled in +Europe and the East, and made excellent use of his experiences in books +published after his return. In 1851 he was one of the founders of the +_Revue de Paris_ (suppressed in 1858), and was a frequent contributor to +the _Revue des deux mondes_. In 1853 he was made an officer of the +Legion of Honour. He served as a volunteer with Garibaldi in 1860, and +gave an account of his experiences in his _Expédition des deux Siciles_ +(1861). In 1870 he was nominated for the senate, but his election was +frustrated by the downfall of the Empire. He was elected a member of the +French Academy in 1880, mainly, it is said, on account of his history of +the Commune, published under the title of _Les Convulsions de Paris_ +(1878-1880). His writings include among others the _Chants modernes_ +(1855), _Convictions_ (1858); numerous works on travel, _Souvenirs et +paysages d'orient_ (1848), _Égypte, Nubie, Palestine, Syrie_ (1852); +works of art criticism, _Les Salons de 1857, 1859, 1861_; novels, +_L'Homme au bracelet d'or_ (1862), _Une Histoire d'amour_ (1889); +literary studies, _Théophile Gautier_ (1890). Du Camp was the author of +a valuable book on the daily life of Paris, _Paris, ses organes, ses +fonctions, sa vie dans la seconde moitié du XIX^e siècle_ (1869-1875). +He published several works on social questions, one of which, the +_Moeurs de mon temps_, was to be kept sealed in the Bibliothèque +Nationale until 1910. His _Souvenirs littéraires_ (2 vols., 1882-1883) +contain much information about contemporary writers, especially Gustave +Flaubert, of whom Du Camp was an early and intimate friend. He died on +the 9th of February 1894. Du Camp was one of the earliest amateur +photographers, and his books of travel were among the first to be +illustrated by means of what was then a new art. + + + + +DU CANGE, CHARLES DU FRESNE, SIEUR (1610-1688), one of the lay members +of the great 17th century group of French critics and scholars who laid +the foundations of modern historical criticism, was born at Amiens on +the 18th of December 1610. At an early age his father sent him to the +Jesuits' college at Amiens, where he greatly distinguished himself. +Having completed the usual course at this seminary, he applied himself +to the study of law at Orleans, and afterwards went to Paris, where in +1631 he was received as an advocate before the parliament. Meeting with +very slight success in his profession, he returned to his native city, +and in July 1638 married Catherine Dubois, daughter of a royal official, +the treasurer in Amiens; and in 1647 he purchased the office of +treasurer from his father-in-law, but its duties did not interfere with +the literary and historical work to which he had devoted himself since +returning to Amiens. Forced to leave his native city in 1668 in +consequence of a plague, he settled in Paris, where he resided until his +death on the 23rd of October 1688. In the archives of Paris Du Cange was +able to consult charters, diplomas, manuscripts and a multitude of +printed documents, which were not to be met with elsewhere. His industry +was exemplary and unremitting, and the number of his literary works +would be incredible, if the originals, all in his own handwriting, were +not still extant. He was distinguished above nearly all the writers of +his time by his linguistic acquirements, his accurate and varied +knowledge, and his critical sagacity. Of his numerous works the most +important are the _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae +latinitatis_ (Paris, 1678), and the _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et +infimae graecitatis_ (Lyons, 1688), which are indispensable aids to the +student of the history and literature of the middle ages. To the three +original volumes of the Latin _Glossarium_, three supplementary volumes +were added by the Benedictines of St Maur (Paris, 1733-1736), and a +further addition of four volumes (Paris, 1766), by a Benedictine, Pierre +Carpentier (1697-1767). There were other editions, and an abridgment +with some corrections was brought out by J.C. Adelung (Halle, +1772-1784). The edition in seven volumes edited by G.A.L. Henschel +(Paris, 1840-1850) includes these supplements and also further additions +by the editor, and this has been improved and published in ten volumes +by Léopold Favre (Niort, 1883-1887). An edition of the Greek +_Glossarium_ was published at Breslau in 1889. + +Du Cange took considerable interest in the history of the later empire, +and wrote _Historia Byzantina duplici commentario illustrato_ (Paris, +1680), and an introduction to his edition and translation into modern +French of Geoffrey de Villehardouin's _Histoire de l'empire de +Constantinople sous les empereurs français_ (Paris, 1657). He also +brought out editions of the Byzantine historians, John Cinnamus and John +Zonaras, as _Joannis Cinnami historiarum de rebus gestis a Joanne et +Manuele Comnenis_ (Paris, 1670) and _Joannis Zonarae Annales ab exordio +mundi ad mortem Alexii Comneni_ (Paris, 1686). He edited Jean de +Joinville's _Histoire de St Louis, roi de France_ (Paris, 1668), and his +other works which may be mentioned are _Traité historique du chef de St +Jean Baptiste_ (Paris, 1666); _Lettre du Sieur N., conseiller du roi_ +(Paris, 1682); _Cyrilli, Philoxeni, aliorumque veterum glossaria_, and +_Mémoire sur le projet d'un nouveau recueil des historiens de France, +avec le plan général de ce recueil_, which has been inserted by Jacques +Lelong in his _Bibliothèque historique de la France_ (Paris, +1768-1778). His last work, _Chronicon Paschale a mundo condito ad +Heraclii imperatoris annum vigesimum_ (Paris, 1689), was passing through +the press when Du Cange died, and consequently it was edited by Étienne +Baluze, and published with an _éloge_ of the author prefixed. + +His autograph manuscripts and his large and valuable library passed to +his eldest son, Philippe du Fresne, who died unmarried in 1692. They +then came to his second son, François du Fresne, who sold the +collection, the greater part of the manuscripts being purchased by the +abbé du Champs. The abbé handed them over to a bookseller named +Mariette, who resold part of them to Baron Hohendorf. The remaining part +was acquired by a member of the family of Hozier, the French +genealogists. The French government, however, aware of the importance of +all the writings of Du Cange, succeeded, after much trouble, in +collecting the greater portion of the manuscripts, which were preserved +in the imperial library at Paris. Some of these were subsequently +published, and the manuscripts are now found in various libraries. The +works of Du Cange published after his death are: an edition of the +Byzantine historian, Nicephorus Gregoras (Paris, 1702); _De imperatorum +Constantinopolitanorum seu inferioris aevi vel imperii uti vocant +numismatibus dissertatio_ (Rome, 1755); _Histoire de l'état de la ville +d'Amiens et de ses comtes_ (Amiens, 1840); and a valuable work _Des +principautés d'outre-mer_, published by E.G. Rey as _Les Familles +d'outre-mer_ (Paris, 1869). + + See H. Hardouin, _Essai sur la vie et sur les ouvrages de Ducange_ + (Amiens, 1849); and L.J. Feugère, in the _Journal de l'instruction + publique_ (Paris, 1852). + + + + +DUCANGE, VICTOR HENRI JOSEPH BRAHAIN (1783-1833), French novelist and +dramatist, was born on the 24th of November 1783 at the Hague, where his +father was secretary to the French embassy. Dismissed from the civil +service at the Restoration, Victor Ducange became one of the favourite +authors of the liberal party, and owed some part of his popularity to +the fact that he was fined and imprisoned more than once for his +outspokenness. He was six months in prison for an article in his journal +_Le Diable rose, ou le petit courrier de Lucifer_ (1822); for +_Valentine_ (1821), in which the royalist excesses in the south of +France were pilloried, he was again imprisoned; and after the +publication of _Hélène ou l'amour et la guerre_ (1823), he took refuge +for some time in Belgium. Ducange wrote numerous plays and melodramas, +among which the most successful were _Marco Loricot, ou le petit Chouan +de 1830_ (1836), and _Trente ans, ou la vie d'un joueur_ (1827), in +which Fréderick Lemaître found one of his best parts. Many of his books +were prohibited, ostensibly for their coarseness, but perhaps rather for +their political tendencies. He died in Paris on the 15th of October +1833. + + + + +DUCAS, DUKAS or DOUKAS, the name of a Byzantine family which supplied +several rulers to the Eastern Empire. The family first came into +prominence during the 9th century, but was ruined when Constantine +Ducas, a son of the general Andronicus Ducas, lost his life in his +effort to obtain the imperial crown in 913. Towards the end of the 10th +century there appeared another family of Ducas, which was perhaps +connected with the earlier family through the female line and was +destined to attain to greater fortune. A member of this family became +emperor as Constantine X. in 1059, and Constantine's son Michael VII. +ruled, nominally in conjunction with his younger brothers, Andronicus +and Constantine, from 1071 to 1078. Michael left a son, Constantine, +and, says Gibbon, "a daughter of the house of Ducas illustrated the +blood, and confirmed the succession, of the Comnenian dynasty." The +family was also allied by marriage with other great Byzantine houses, +and after losing the imperial dignity its members continued to take an +active part in public affairs. In 1204 Alexius Ducas, called Mourzoufle, +deposed the emperor Isaac Angelus and his son Alexius, and vainly tried +to defend Constantinople against the attacks of the Latin crusaders. +Nearly a century and a half later one Michael Ducas took a leading part +in the civil war between the emperors John V. Palaeologus and John VI. +Cantacuzenus, and Michael's grandson was the historian Ducas (see +below). Many of the petty sovereigns who arose after the destruction of +the Eastern Empire sought to gain prestige by adding the famous name of +Ducas to their own. + + + + +DUCAS (15th cent.), Byzantine historian, flourished under Constantine +XIII. (XI.) Dragases, the last emperor of the East, about 1450. The +dates of his birth and death are unknown. He was the grandson of Michael +Ducas (see above). After the fall of Constantinople, he was employed in +various diplomatic missions by Dorino and Domenico Gateluzzi, princes of +Lesbos, where he had taken refuge. He was successful in securing a +semi-independence for Lesbos until 1462, when it was taken and annexed +to Turkey by Sultan Mahommed II. It is known that Ducas survived this +event, but there is no record of his subsequent life. He was the author +of a history of the period 1341-1462; his work thus continues that of +Gregoras and Cantacuzene, and supplements Phrantzes and Chalcondyles. +There is a preliminary chapter of chronology from Adam to John +Palaeologus I. Although barbarous in style, the history of Ducas is both +judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the +closing years of the Greek empire. The account of the capture of +Constantinople is of special importance. Ducas was a strong supporter of +the union of the Greek and Latin churches, and is very bitter against +those who rejected even the idea of appealing to the West for assistance +against the Turks. + + The history, preserved (without a title) in a single Paris MS., was + first edited by I. Bullialdus (Bulliaud) (Paris, 1649); later editions + are in the Bonn _Corpus scriptorum Hist. Byz._, by I. Bekker (1834) + and Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, clvii. The Bonn edition contains a + 15th century Italian translation by an unknown author, found by + Leopold Ranke in one of the libraries of Venice, and sent by him to + Bekker. + + + + +DUCASSE, PIERRE EMMANUEL ALBERT, BARON (1813-1893), French historian, +was born at Bourges on the 16th of November 1813. In 1849 he became +aide-de-camp to Prince Jerome Bonaparte, ex-king of Westphalia, then +governor of the Invalides, on whose commission he wrote _Mémoires pour +servir à l'histoire de la campagne de 1812 en Russie_ (1852). +Subsequently he published _Mémoires du roi Joseph_ (1853-1855), and, as +a sequel, _Histoire des négociations diplomatiques relatives aux traités +de Morfontaine, de Lunéville et d'Amiens_, together with the unpublished +correspondence of the emperor Napoleon I. with Cardinal Fesch +(1855-1856). From papers in the possession of the imperial family he +compiled _Mémoires du prince Eugène_ (1858-1860) and _Réfutation des +mémoires du duc de Raguse_ (1857), part of which was inserted by +authority at the end of volume ix. of the _Mémoires_. He was attaché to +Jerome's son, Prince Napoleon, during the Crimean War, and wrote a +_Précis historique des opérations militaires en Orient, de mars 1854 à +octobre 1855_ (1857), which was completed many years later by a volume +entitled _La Crimée et Sébastopol de 1853 à 1856, documents intimes et +inédits_, followed by the complete list of the French officers killed or +wounded in that war (1892). He was also employed by Prince Napoleon on +the _Correspondance_ of Napoleon I., and afterwards published certain +letters, purposely omitted there, in the _Revue historique_. These +documents, subsequently collected in _Les Rois frères de Napoléon_ +(1883), as well as the _Journal de la reine Catherine de Westphalie_ +(1893), were edited with little care and are not entirely trustworthy, +but their publication threw much light on Napoleon I. and his entourage. +His _Souvenirs d'un officier du 2^e Zouaves_, and _Les Dessous du coup +d'état_ (1891), contain many piquant anecdotes, but at times degenerate +into mere tittle-tattle. Ducasse was the author of some slight novels, +and from the practice of this form of literature he acquired that levity +which appears even in his most serious historical publications. + + + + +DUCAT, the name of a coin, generally of gold, and of varying value, +formerly in use in many European countries. It was first struck by Roger +II. of Sicily as duke of Apulia, and bore an inscription "_Sit tibi, +Christe, datus, quem tu regis, iste ducatus_" (Lord, thou rulest this +duchy, to thee be it dedicated); hence, it is said, the name. Between +1280 and 1284 Venice also struck a gold coin, known first as the ducat, +afterwards as the zecchino or sequin, the ducat becoming merely a money +of account. The ducat was also current in Holland, Austria, the +Netherlands, Spain and Denmark (see NUMISMATICS). A gold coin termed a +ducat was current in Hanover during the reigns of George I. and George +III. A pattern gold coin was also struck by the English mint in 1887 for +a proposed decimal coinage. On the reverse was the inscription "one +ducat" within an oak wreath; above "one hundred pence," and below the +date between two small roses. There is a gold coin termed a ducat in the +Austria-Hungary currency, of the value of nine shillings and fourpence. + + + + +DU CHAILLU, PAUL BELLONI (1835-1903), traveller and anthropologist, was +born either at Paris or at New Orleans (accounts conflict) on the 31st +of July 1835. In his youth he accompanied his father, an African trader +in the employment of a Parisian firm, to the west coast of Africa. Here, +at a station on the Gabun, the boy received some education from +missionaries, and acquired an interest in and knowledge of the country, +its natural history, and its natives, which guided him to his subsequent +career. In 1852 he exhibited this knowledge in the New York press, and +was sent in 1855 by the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia on +an African expedition. From 1855 to 1859 he regularly explored the +regions of West Africa in the neighbourhood of the equator, gaining +considerable knowledge of the delta of the Ogowé river and the estuary +of the Gabun. During his travels he saw numbers of the great anthropoid +apes called the gorilla (possibly the great ape described by +Carthaginian navigators), then known to scientists only by a few +skeletons. A subsequent expedition, from 1863 to 1865, enabled him to +confirm the accounts given by the ancients of a pygmy people inhabiting +the African forests. Narratives of both expeditions were published, in +1861 and 1867 respectively, under the titles _Explorations and +Adventures in Equatorial Africa, with Accounts of the Manners and +Customs of the People, and of the Chace of the Gorilla, Crocodile, and +other Animals_; and _A Journey to Ashango-land, and further penetration +into Equatorial Africa_. The first work excited much controversy on the +score of its veracity, but subsequent investigation proved the +correctness of du Chaillu's statements as to the facts of natural +history; though possibly some of the adventures he described as +happening to himself were reproductions of the hunting stories of +natives (see _Proc. Zool. Soc._ vol. i., 1905, p. 66). The map +accompanying _Ashango-land_ was of unique value, but the explorer's +photographs and collections were lost when he was forced to flee from +the hostility of the natives. After some years' residence in America, +during which he wrote several books for the young founded upon his +African adventures, du Chaillu turned his attention to northern Europe, +and published in 1881 _The Land of the Midnight Sun_, in 1889 _The +Viking Age_, and in 1900 _The Land of the Long Night_. He died at St +Petersburg on the 29th of April 1903. + + + + +DUCHENNE, GUILLAUME BENJAMIN AMAND (1806-1875), French physician, was +born on the 17th of September 1806 at Boulogne, the son of a +sea-captain. He was educated at Douai, and then studied medicine in +Paris until the year 1831, when he returned to his native town to +practise his profession. Two years later he first tried the effect of +electro-puncture of the muscles on a patient under his care, and from +this time on devoted himself more and more to the medical applications +of electricity, thereby laying the foundation of the modern science of +electro-therapeutics. In 1842 he removed to Paris for the sake of its +wider clinical opportunities, and there he worked until his death over +thirty years later. His greatest work, _L'Électrisation localisée_ +(1855), passed through three editions during his lifetime, though by +many his _Physiologie des mouvements_ (1867) is considered his +masterpiece. He published over fifty volumes containing his researches +on muscular and nervous diseases, and on the applications of electricity +both for diagnostic purposes and for treatment. His name is especially +connected with the first description of locomotor ataxy, progressive +muscular atrophy, pseudo-hypertrophic paralysis, glosso-labio laryngeal +paralysis and other nervous troubles. He died in Paris on the 17th of +September 1875. + + For a detailed life see _Archives générales de médicine_ (December + 1875), and for a complete list of his works the 3rd edition of + _L'Électrisation localisée_ (1872). + + + + +DU CHESNE [Latinized DUCHENIUS, QUERNEUS, or QUERCETANUS], ANDRÉ +(1584-1640), French geographer and historian, generally styled the +father of French history, was born at Ile-Bouchard, in the province of +Touraine, in May 1584. He was educated at Loudun and afterwards at +Paris. From his earliest years he devoted himself to historical and +geographical research, and his first work, _Egregiarum seu selectarum +lectionum et antiquitatum liber_, published in his eighteenth year, +displayed great erudition. He enjoyed the patronage of Cardinal +Richelieu, a native of the same district with himself, through whose +influence he was appointed historiographer and geographer to the king. +He died in 1640, in consequence of having been run over by a carriage +when on his way from Paris to his country house at Verrière. Du Chesne's +works were very numerous and varied, and in addition to what he +published, he left behind him more than 100 folio volumes of manuscript +extracts now preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale (L. Delisle, _Le +Cabinet des manuscrits de la bibliothèque impériale_, t. L, 333-334). +Several of his larger works were continued by his only son François du +Chesne (1616-1693), who succeeded him in the office of historiographer +to the king. The principal works of André du Chesne are--_Les Antiquités +et recherches de la grandeur et majesté des rois de France_ (Paris, +1609), _Les Antiquités et recherches des villes, châteaux, &c., de toute +la France_ (Paris, 1609), _Histoire d'Angleterre, d'Écosse, et +d'Irelande_ (Paris, 1614), _Histoire des Papes jusqu'à Paul V_ (Paris, +1619), _Histoire des rois, ducs, et comtes de Bourgogne_ (1619-1628, 2 +vols. fol.), _Historiae Normanorum scriptores antiqui_ (1619, fol., now +the only source for some of the texts), and his _Historiae Francorum +scriptores_ (5 vols. fol., 1636-1649). This last was intended to +comprise 24 volumes, and to contain all the narrative sources for French +history in the middle ages; only two volumes were published by the +author, his son François published three more, and the work remained +unfinished. Besides these du Chesne published a great number of +genealogical histories of illustrious families, of which the best is +that of the house of Montmorency. His _Histoire des cardinaux français_ +(2 vols. fol. 1660-1666) and _Histoire des chanceliers et gardes des +sceaux de France_ (1630) were published by his son François. André also +published a translation of the _Satires_ of Juvenal, and editions of the +works of Alcuin, Abelard, Alain Chartier and Étienne Pasquier. + + + + +DUCHESNE, LOUIS MARIE OLIVIER (1843- ), French scholar and +ecclesiastic, was born at Saint Servan in Brittany on the 13th of +September 1843. Two scientific missions--to Mount Athos in 1874 and to +Asia Minor in 1876--appeared at first to incline him towards the study +of the ancient history of the Christian churches of the East. +Afterwards, however, it was the Western church which absorbed almost his +whole attention. In 1877 he received the degree of _docteur ès lettres_ +with two remarkable theses, a dissertation _De Macario magnete_, and an +_Étude sur le Liber pontificalis_, in which he explained with unerring +critical acumen the origin of that celebrated chronicle, determined the +different editions and their interrelation, and stated precisely the +value of his evidence. Immediately afterwards he was appointed professor +at the Catholic Institute in Paris, and for eight years presented the +example and model, then rare in France, of a priest teaching church +history according to the rules of scientific criticism. His course, bold +even to the point of rashness in the eyes of the traditionalist +exegetists, was at length suspended. In November 1885 he was appointed +lecturer at the École Pratique des Hautes Études. In 1886 he published +volume i. of his learned edition of the _Liber pontificalis_ (completed +in 1892 by volume ii.), in which he resumed and completed the results he +had attained in his French thesis. In 1888 he was elected member of the +Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, and was afterwards +appointed director of the French school of archaeology at Rome. Much +light is thrown upon the Christian origins, especially those of France, +by his _Origines du culte chrétien, étude sur la liturgie latine avant +Charlemagne_ (1889; Eng. trans. by M.L. McClure, _Christian Worship: +its Origin and Evolution_, London, 1902, 2nd ed. 1904); _Mémoire sur +l'origine des diocèses épiscopaux dans l'ancienne Gaule_ (1890), the +preliminary sketch of a more detailed work, _Fastes épiscopaux dans +l'ancienne Gaule_ (vol. i. _Les provinces du sud-est_, 1894, and vol. +ii. _L'Aquitaine et les Lyonnaises_, 1899); and _Catalogues épiscopaux +de la province de Tours_ (1898). When a proposal was set on foot to +bring about a reconciliation between the Roman Church and the Christian +Churches of the East, the Abbé Duchesne endeavoured to show that the +union of those churches was possible under the Roman supremacy, because +unity did not necessarily entail uniformity. His _Autonomies +ecclésiastiques; églises séparées_ (1897), in which he speaks of the +origin of the Anglican Church, but treats especially of the origin of +the Greek Churches of the East, was received with scant favour in +certain narrow circles of the pontifical court. In 1906 he began to +publish, under the title of _Histoire ancienne de l'église_, a course of +lectures which he had already delivered upon the early ages of the +Church, and of which a few manuscript copies were circulated. The second +volume appeared in 1908. In these lectures Duchesne touches cleverly +upon the most delicate problems, and, without any elaborate display of +erudition, presents conclusions of which account must be taken. His +incisive style, his fearless and often ruthless criticism, and his wide +and penetrating erudition, make him a redoubtable adversary in the field +of polemic. The _Bulletin critique_, founded by him, for which he wrote +numerous articles, has contributed powerfully to spread the principles +of the historical method among the French clergy. + + + + +DUCIS, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1733-1816), French dramatist and adapter of +Shakespeare, was born at Versailles on the 22nd of August 1733. His +father, originally from Savoy, was a linen-draper at Versailles; and all +through life he retained the simple tastes and straightforward +independence fostered by his bourgeois education. In 1768 he produced +his first tragedy, _Amélise_. The failure of this first attempt was +fully compensated by the success of his _Hamlet_ (1769), and _Roméo et +Juliette_ (1772). _Oedipe chez Admète_, imitated partly from Euripides +and partly from Sophocles, appeared in 1778, and secured him in the +following year the chair in the Academy left vacant by the death of +Voltaire. Equally successful was _Le Roi Lear_ in 1783. _Macbeth_ in +1783 did not take so well, and _Jean sans peur_ in 1791 was almost a +failure; but _Othello_ in 1792, supported by the acting of Talma, +obtained immense applause. Its vivid picturing of desert life secured +for _Abufas, ou la famille arabe_ (1795), an original drama, a +flattering reception. On the failure of a similar piece, _Phédor et +Vladimir ou la famille de Sibérie_ (1801), Ducis ceased to write for the +stage; and the rest of his life was spent in quiet retirement at +Versailles. He had been named a member of the Council of the Ancients in +1798, but he never discharged the functions of the office; and when +Napoleon offered him a post of honour under the empire, he refused. +Amiable, religious and bucolic, he had little sympathy with the fierce, +sceptical and tragic times in which his lot was cast. "Alas!" he said in +the midst of the Revolution, "tragedy is abroad in the streets; if I +step outside of my door, I have blood to my very ankles. I have too +often seen Atreus in clogs, to venture to bring an Atreus on the stage." +Though actuated by honest admiration of the great English dramatist, +Ducis is not Shakespearian. His ignorance of the English language left +him at the mercy of the translations of Pierre Letourneur (1736-1788) +and of Pierre de la Place (1707-1793); and even this modified +Shakespeare had still to undergo a process of purification and +correction before he could be presented to the fastidious criticism of +French taste. That such was the case was not, however, the fault of +Ducis; and he did good service in modifying the judgment of his fellow +countrymen. He did not pretend to reproduce, but to excerpt and +refashion; and consequently the French play sometimes differs from its +English namesake in everything almost but the name. The plot is +different, the characters are different, the _motif_ different, and the +scenic arrangement different. To _Othello_, for instance, he wrote two +endings. In one of them Othello was enlightened in time and Desdemona +escaped her tragic fate. _Le Banquet de l'amitié_, a poem in four cantos +(1771), _Au roi de Sardaigne_ (1775), _Discours de réception à +l'académie française_ (1779), _Épître à l'amitié_ (1786), and a _Recueil +de poésies_ (1809), complete the list of Ducis's publications. + + An edition of his works in three volumes appeared in 1813; _Oeuvres + posthumes_ were edited by Campenon in 1826; and _Hamlet_, _Oedipe chez + Admète_, _Macbeth_ and _Abufar_ are reprinted in vol. ii. of Didot's + _Chefs-d'oeuvre tragiques_. See Onésime Leroy, _Étude sur la personne + et les écrits de Ducis_ (1832), based on Ducis's own memoirs preserved + in the library at Versailles; Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, t. + vi., and _Nouveaux lundis_, t. iv.; Villemain, _Tableau de la litt. au + XVIII^e siècle_. + + + + +DUCK. (1) (From the verb "to duck," to dive, put the head under water, +in reference to the bird's action, cf. Dutch _duiker_, Ger. _Taucher_, +diving-bird, _duiken_, _tauchen_, to dip, dive, Dan. _dukand_, duck, and +Ger. _Ente_, duck; various familiar and slang usages are based on +analogy with the bird's action), the general English name for a large +number of birds forming the greater part of the family _Anatidae_ of +modern ornithologists. Technically the term duck is restricted to the +female, the male being called drake (cognate with the termination of +Ger. _Enterich_), and in one species mallard (Fr. _Malart_). + +The _Anatidae_ may be at once divided into six more or less well marked +subfamilies--(1) the _Cygninae_ or swans, (2) the _Anserinae_ or +geese--which are each very distinct, (3) the _Anatinae_ or +freshwater-ducks, (4) those commonly called _Fuligulinae_ or sea-ducks, +(5) the _Erismaturinae_ or spiny-tailed ducks, and (6) the _Merginae_ or +mergansers. + +The _Anatinae_ are the typical group, and it is these only that are +considered here. We start with the _Anas boschas_ of Linnaeus, the +common wild duck, which from every point of view is by far the most +important species, as it is the most plentiful, the most widely +distributed, and the best known--being indeed the origin of all the +British domestic breeds. It inhabits the greater part of the northern +hemisphere, reaching in winter so far as the Isthmus of Panama in the +New World, and in the Old being abundant at the same season in Egypt and +north-western India, while in summer it ranges throughout the +Fur-Countries, Greenland, Iceland, Lapland and Siberia. Most of those +which fill British markets are no doubt bred in more northern climes, +but a considerable proportion of them are yet produced in the British +Islands, though not in anything like the numbers that used to be +supplied before the draining of the great fen-country and other marshy +places. The wild duck pairs very early in the year--the period being +somewhat delayed by hard weather, and the ceremonies of courtship, which +require some little time. Soon after these are performed, the respective +couples separate in search of suitable nesting-places, which are +generally found, by those that remain with us, about the middle of +March. The spot chosen is sometimes near a river or pond, but often very +far removed from water, and it may be under a furze-bush, on a dry +heath, at the bottom of a thick hedge-row, or even in any convenient +hole in a tree. A little dry grass is generally collected, and on it the +eggs, from 9 to 11 in number, are laid. So soon as incubation commences +the mother begins to divest herself of the down which grows thickly +beneath her breast-feathers, and adds it to the nest-furniture, so that +the eggs are deeply imbedded in this heat-retaining substance--a portion +of which she is always careful to pull, as a coverlet, over her +treasures when she quits them for food. She is seldom absent from the +nest, however, but once, or at most twice, a day, and then she dares not +leave it until her mate, after several circling flights of observation, +has assured her she may do so unobserved. Joining him the pair betake +themselves to some quiet spot where she may bathe and otherwise refresh +herself. Then they return to the nest, and after cautiously +reconnoitring the neighbourhood, she loses no time in reseating herself +on her eggs, while he, when she is settled, repairs again to the waters, +and passes his day listlessly in the company of his brethren, who have +the same duties, hopes and cares. Short and infrequent as are the +absences of the duck when incubation begins, they become shorter and +more infrequent towards its close, and for the last day or two of the +28 necessary to develop the young it is probable that she will not stir +from the nest at all. When all the fertile eggs are hatched her next +care is to get the brood safely to the water. This, when the distance is +great, necessarily demands great caution, and so cunningly is it done +that but few persons have encountered the mother and offspring as they +make the dangerous journey.[1] If disturbed the young instantly hide as +they best can, while the mother quacks loudly, feigns lameness, and +flutters off to divert the attention of the intruder from her brood, who +lie motionless at her warning notes. Once arrived at the water they are +comparatively free from harm, though other perils present themselves +from its inmates in the form of pike and other voracious fishes, which +seize the ducklings as they disport in quest of insects on the surface +or dive beneath it. Throughout the summer the duck continues her care +unremittingly, until the young are full grown and feathered; but it is +no part of the mallard's duty to look after his offspring, and indeed he +speedily becomes incapable of helping them, for towards the end of May +he begins to undergo his extraordinary additional moult, loses the power +of flight, and does not regain his full plumage till autumn. About +harvest-time the young are well able to shift for themselves, and then +resort to the corn-fields at evening, where they fatten on the scattered +grain. Towards the end of September or beginning of October both old and +young unite in large flocks and betake themselves to the larger waters. +If long-continued frost prevail, most of the ducks resort to the +estuaries and tidal rivers, or even leave these islands almost entirely. +Soon after Christmas the return-flight commences, and then begins anew +the course of life already described. + +For the farmyard varieties, descending from _Anas boschas_, see POULTRY. +The domestication of the duck is very ancient. Several distinct breeds +have been established, of which the most esteemed from an economical +point of view are those known as the Rouen and Aylesbury; but perhaps +the most remarkable deviation from the normal form is the so-called +penguin-duck, in which the bird assumes an upright attitude and its +wings are much diminished in size. A remarkable breed also is that often +named (though quite fancifully) the "Buenos-Ayres" duck, wherein the +whole plumage is of a deep black, beautifully glossed or bronzed. But +this saturation, so to speak, of colour only lasts in the individual for +a few years, and as the birds grow older they become mottled with white, +though as long as their reproductive power lasts they "breed true." The +amount of variation in domestic ducks, however, is not comparable to +that found among pigeons, no doubt from the absence of the competition +which pigeon-fanciers have so long exercised. One of the most curious +effects of domestication in the duck, however, is, that whereas the wild +mallard is not only strictly monogamous, but, as Waterton believed, a +most faithful husband, remaining paired for life, the civilized drake is +notoriously polygamous. + +Very nearly allied to the common wild duck are a considerable number of +species found in various parts of the world in which there is little +difference of plumage between the sexes--both being of a dusky hue--such +as _Anas obscura_, the commonest river-duck of America, _A. +superciliosa_ of Australia, _A. poecilorhyncha_ of India, _A. melleri_ +of Madagascar, _A. xanthorhyncha_ of South Africa, and some others. + +Among the other genera of _Anatinae_, we must content ourselves by +saying that both in Europe and in North America there are the groups +represented by the shoveller, garganey, gadwall, teal, pintail and +widgeon--each of which, according to some systematists, is the type of a +distinct genus. Then there is the group _Aix_, with its beautiful +representatives the wood-duck (_A. sponsa_) in America and the +mandarin-duck (_A. galericulata_) in Eastern Asia. Besides there are the +sheldrakes (_Tadorna_), confined to the Old World and remarkably +developed in the Australian Region; the musk-duck (_Cairina_) of South +America, which is often domesticated and in that condition will produce +hybrids with the common duck; and finally the tree-ducks +(_Dendrocygna_), which are almost limited to the tropics. (For +duck-shooting, see SHOOTING.) (A. N.) + +2 (Probably derived from the Dutch _doeck_, a coarse linen material, cf. +Ger. _Tuch_, cloth), a plain fabric made originally from tow yarns. The +cloth is lighter than canvas or sailcloth, and differs from these in +that it is almost invariably single in both warp and weft. The term is +also used to indicate the colour obtained at a certain stage in the +bleaching of flax yarns; it is a colour between half-white and cream, +and this fact may have something to do with the name. Most of the flax +ducks (tow yarns) appear in this colour, although quantities are +bleached or dyed. Some of the ducks are made from long flax, dyed black, +and used for kit-bags, while the dyed tow ducks may be used for inferior +purposes. The fabric, in its various qualities and colours, is used for +an enormous variety of purposes, including tents, wagon and motor hoods, +light sails, clothing, workmen's overalls, bicycle tubes, mail and other +bags and pocketings. _Russian duck_ is a fine white linen canvas. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] When ducks breed in trees, the precise way in which the young get + to the ground is still a matter of uncertainty. The mother is + supposed to convey them in her bill, and most likely does so, but + they are often simply allowed to fall. + + + + +DUCKING and CUCKING STOOLS, chairs used for the punishment of scolds, +witches and prostitutes in bygone days. The two have been generally +confused, but are quite distinct. The earlier, the Cucking-stool[1] or +Stool of Repentance, is of very ancient date, and was used by the +Saxons, who called it the _Scealding_ or _Scolding Stool_. It is +mentioned in Domesday Book as in use at Chester, being called _cathedra +stercoris_, a name which seems to confirm the first of the derivations +suggested in the footnote below. Seated on this stool the woman, her +head and feet bare, was publicly exposed at her door or paraded through +the streets amidst the jeers of the crowd. The Cucking-stool was used +for both sexes, and was specially the punishment for dishonest brewers +and bakers. Its use in the case of scolding women declined on the +introduction in the middle of the 16th century of the Scold's Bridle +(see BRANKS), and it disappears on the introduction a little later of +the Ducking-stool. The earliest record of the use of this latter is +towards the beginning of the 17th century. It was a strongly made wooden +armchair (the surviving specimens are of oak) in which the culprit was +seated, an iron band being placed around her so that she should not fall +out during her immersion. Usually the chair was fastened to a long +wooden beam fixed as a seesaw on the edge of a pond or river. Sometimes, +however, the Ducking-stool was not a fixture but was mounted on a pair +of wooden wheels so that it could be wheeled through the streets, and at +the river-edge was hung by a chain from the end of a beam. In sentencing +a woman the magistrates ordered the number of duckings she should have. +Yet another type of Ducking-stool was called a tumbrel. It was a chair +on two wheels with two long shafts fixed to the axles. This was pushed +into the pond and then the shafts released, thus tipping the chair up +backwards. Sometimes the punishment proved fatal, the unfortunate woman +dying of shock. Ducking-stools were used in England as late as the +beginning of the 19th century. The last recorded cases are those of a +Mrs Ganble at Plymouth (1808); of Jenny Pipes, "a notorious scold" +(1809), and Sarah Leeke (1817), both of Leominster. In the last case the +water in the pond was so low that the victim was merely wheeled round +the town in the chair. + + See W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); A.M. Earle, + _Curious Punishments of Bygone Days_ (Chicago, 1896); W.C. Hazlitt, + _Faiths and Folklore_ (London, 1905); Llewellynn Jewitt in _The + Reliquary_, vols. i. and ii. (1860-1862); _Gentleman's Magazine_ for + 1732. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Probably from "cuck," to void excrement; but variously connected + with Fr. _coquin_, rascal. + + + + +DUCKWEED, the common botanical name for species of _Lemna_ which form a +green coating on fresh-water ponds and ditches. The plants are of +extremely simple structure and are the smallest and least differentiated +of flowering plants. They consist of a so-called "frond"--a flattened +green more or less oval structure which emits branches similar to itself +from lateral pockets at or near the base. From the under surface a root +with a well-developed sheath grows downwards into the water. The +flowers, which are rarely found in Britain, are developed in one of the +lateral pockets. The inflorescence is a very simple one, consisting of +one or two male flowers each comprising a single stamen, and a female +flower comprising a flask-shaped pistil. The order Lemnaceae to which +they belong is regarded as representing a very reduced type nearly +allied to the Aroids. It is represented in Britain by four species of +_Lemna_, and a still smaller and simpler plant, _Wolffia_, in which the +fronds are only one-twentieth of an inch long and have no roots. + +[Illustration: + + 1, _Lemna minor_ (Lesser Duckweed) nat. size. + 2, Plant in flower. + 3, Inflorescence containing two male flowers each of one stamen, and a + female flower, the whole enclosed in a sheath. + 4, _Wolffia arrhiza._ + + (2, 3, 4 enlarged.)] + + + + +DUCKWORTH, SIR JOHN THOMAS (1748-1817), British admiral, was born at +Leatherhead, in Surrey, on the 28th of February 1748. He entered the +navy in 1759, and obtained his commission as lieutenant in June 1770, +when he was appointed to the "Princess Royal," the flagship of Admiral +Byron, in which he sailed to the West Indies. While serving on board +this vessel he took part in the engagement with the French fleet under +Count D'Estaing. In July 1779 he became commander, and was appointed to +the "Rover" sloop; in June of the following year he attained the rank of +post-captain. Soon afterwards he returned to England in charge of a +convoy. The outbreak of the war with France gave him his first +opportunity of obtaining marked distinction. Appointed first to the +"Orion" and then to the "Queen" in the Channel Fleet, under the command +of Lord Howe, he took part in the three days' naval engagement with the +Brest fleet, which terminated in a glorious victory on the 1st of June +1794. For his conduct on this occasion he received a gold medal and the +thanks of parliament. He next proceeded to the West Indies, where he was +stationed for some time at St Domingo. In 1798 he commanded the +"Leviathan" in the Mediterranean, and had charge of the naval detachment +which, in conjunction with a military force, captured Minorca. Early in +1799 he was raised to the rank of rear-admiral, and sent to the West +Indies to succeed Lord Hugh Seymour. During the voyage out he captured a +valuable Spanish convoy of eleven merchantmen. In March 1801 he was the +naval commander of the combined force which reduced the islands of St +Bartholomew and St Martin, a service for which he was rewarded with the +order of the Bath and a pension of £1000 a year. Promoted to be +vice-admiral of the blue, he was appointed in 1804 to the Jamaica +station. Two years later, while cruising off Cadiz with Lord +Collingwood, he was detached with his squadron to pursue a French fleet +that had been sent to the relief of St Domingo. He came up with the +enemy on the 6th February 1806, and, after two hours' fighting, +inflicted a signal defeat upon them, capturing three of their five +vessels and stranding the other two. For this, the most distinguished +service of his life, he received the thanks of the Jamaica assembly, +with a sword of the value of a thousand guineas, the thanks of the +English parliament, and the freedom of the city of London. In 1807 he +was again sent to the Mediterranean to watch the movements of the Turks. +In command of the "Royal George" he forced the passage of the +Dardanelles, but sustained considerable loss in effecting his return, +the Turks having strengthened their position while he was being kept in +play by their diplomatists and Napoleon's ambassador General +Sebastiani. He held the command of the Newfoundland fleet for four years +from 1810, and at the close of that period he was made a baronet. In +1815 he was appointed to the chief command at Plymouth, which he held +until his death on the 14th of April 1817. Sir John Duckworth sat in +parliament for some time as member for New Romney. + + See _Naval Chronicle_, xviii.; Ralfe's _Naval Biography_, ii. + + + + +DUCLAUX, AGNES MARY F. (1856- ), English poet and critic, who first +became known in England under her maiden name of Mary F. Robinson, was +born at Leamington on the 27th of February 1856. She was educated at +University College, London, devoting herself chiefly to the study of +Greek literature. Her first volume of poetry, _A Handful of +Honeysuckle_, was published in 1879. Her next work was a translation +from Euripides, _The Crowned Hippolytus_ (1881). Monographs on Emily +Brontë (1883) and on Marguerite of Angoulême (1886) followed; and _The +New Arcadia and other Poems_ (1884) and _An Italian Garden_ (1886) +contain some of her best verses. Her poems attracted the attention of +the orientalist, James Darmesteter (q.v.), then in Peshawur, and he made +an admirable translation of them in French. The acquaintance led to +their marriage in 1888, and from that time a large part of her work was +done in French. Madame Darmesteter translated her husband's _Études +anglaises_ into English (1896). Her most considerable prose work is the +_Life of Ernest Renan_ (1897). She also wrote the _End of the Middle +Ages_ (1888); the volume on _Froissart_ (1894) in the _Grands écrivains +français_; essays on the Brontës, the Brownings and others, entitled +_Grands écrivains d'Outre-Manche_ (1901). After Darmesteter's death, she +married in 1901 Émile Duclaux, the associate of Pasteur, and director of +the Pasteur institute. He died in 1904. She published _Retrospect and +other Poems_ in 1893, and in 1904 appeared The _Return to Nature, Songs +and Symbols_. The qualities of Mary Robinson's work, its conciseness and +purity of expression, were only gradually recognized. Her _Collected +Poems, Lyrical and Narrative_ were published in 1902. + + + + +DUCLOS, CHARLES PINOT (1704-1772), French author, was born at Dinan, in +Brittany, in 1704. At an early age he was sent to study at Paris. After +some time spent in dissipation he began to cultivate the society of the +wits of the time, and became a member of the club or association of +young men who published their joint efforts in light literature under +the titles of _Recueil de ces messieurs_, _Étrennes de la St-Jean_, +_Oeufs de Pâques_, &c. His romance of _Acajou and Zirphile_, composed to +suit a series of plates which had been engraved for another work, was +one of the fruits of this association, and was produced in consequence +of a sort of wager amongst its members. Duclos had previously written +two other romances, which were more favourably received--_The Baroness +de Luz_ (1741), and the _Confessions of the Count de***_ (1747). His +first serious publication was the _History of Louis XI._, which is dry +and epigrammatical in style, but displays considerable powers of +research and impartiality. The reputation of Duclos as an author was +confirmed by the publication of his _Considérations sur les moeurs de ce +siècle_ (1751), a work justly praised by Laharpe, as containing a great +deal of sound and ingenious reflection. It was translated into English +and German. The _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire du dix-huitième +siècle_, intended by the author as a sort of sequel to the preceding +work, are much inferior in style and matter, and are, in reality, little +better than a kind of romance. In consequence of his _History of Louis +XI._, he was appointed historiographer of France, when that place became +vacant on Voltaire's retirement to Prussia. His _Secret Memoirs of the +Reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV._ (for which he was able to utilize +the _Mémoires_ of Saint Simon, suppressed in 1755), were not published +until after the Revolution. + +Duclos became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1739, and of +the French Academy in 1747, being appointed perpetual secretary in 1747. +Both academies were indebted to him not only for many valuable +contributions, but also for several useful regulations and improvements. +As a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, he composed several memoirs +on trial by combat, on the origin and revolutions of the Celtic and +French languages, and on scenic representations and the ancient drama. +As a member of the French Academy, he assisted in compiling the new +edition of the _Dictionary_, which was published in 1762; and he made +some just and philosophical remarks on the _Port Royal Grammar_. On +several occasions he distinguished himself by vindicating the honour and +prerogatives of the societies to which he belonged, and the dignity of +the literary character in general. He used to say of himself, "I shall +leave behind me a name dear to literary men." The citizens of Dinan, +whose interests he always supported with zeal, appointed him mayor of +their town in 1744, though he was resident at Paris, and in this +capacity he took part in the assembly of the estates of Brittany. Upon +the requisition of this body the king granted him letters of nobility. +In 1763 he was advised to retire from France for some time, having +rendered himself obnoxious to the government by the opinions he had +expressed on the dispute between the duc d'Aiguillon and M. de la +Chalotais, the friend and countryman of Duclos. Accordingly he set out +first for England (1763), then for Italy (1766); and on his return he +wrote his _Considerations on Italy_. He died at Paris on the 26th of +March 1772. The character of Duclos was singular in its union of +impulsiveness and prudence. Rousseau described him very laconically as a +man _droit et adroit_. In his manners he displayed a sort of bluntness +in society, which frequently rendered him disagreeable; and his caustic +wit on many occasions created enemies. To those who knew him, however, +he was a pleasant companion. A considerable number of his _bons mots_ +have been preserved by his biographers. + + A complete edition of the works of Duclos, including an unfinished + autobiography, was published by Auger (1821). See also Saint-Beuve, + _Causeries du lundi_, t. ix.; René Kerviler, _La Bretagne et + l'Académie française du XVIII^e siècle_ (1889); L. Mandon, _De la + valeur historique des mèmoires secrets de Duclos_ (1872). + + + + +DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER (1754-1816), French politician and director, was +born at Dax. He was an advocate when elected deputy to the Convention by +the department of the Landes. He sat in the "Plain," i.e. in the party +which had no opinion of its own, which always leaned to the stronger +side. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., without appeal or delay, but +played no noticeable part in the Convention. He was a member of the +Council of the Five Hundred, over which he presided on the 18th of +Fructidor in the year V. (see FRENCH REVOLUTION). At the end of his term +he became a judge of the peace, but after the parliamentary _coup +d'état_ of the 30th of Prairial of the year VIII. he was named a member +of the executive Directory, thanks to the influence of Barras, who +counted on using him as a passive instrument. Ducos accepted the _coup +d'état_ of Bonaparte on the 18th of Brumaire, and was one of the three +provisional consuls. He became vice-president of the senate. The Empire +heaped favours upon him, but in 1814 he abandoned Napoleon, and voted +for his deposition. He sought to gain the favour of the government of +the Restoration, but in 1816 was exiled in virtue of the law against the +regicides. He died in March 1816 at Ulm, from a carriage accident. In +spite of his absolute lack of talent, he attained the highest of +positions--an exceptional fact in the history of the French Revolution. + + + + +DUCTLESS GLANDS, in anatomy. A certain number of glands in the body, +often of great physiological importance, have no _ducts_ (Lat. _ductus_, +from _ducere_, to lead, i.e. vessels, tubes or canals for conveying away +fluid or other substance); and their products, known as internal +secretions, are at once carried away by the veins or lymphatics which +drain them. Among these structures are the _spleen_, the _adrenals_, the +_thyroid gland_, the _parathyroids_, the _thymus_ and the _carotid_ and +_coccygeal_ bodies. In addition to these the lymphatic glands are +described in the article on the lymphatic system (q.v.), and the pineal +and pituitary bodies in the article on the brain (q.v.). + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--The Spleen--Visceral Aspect. + +From D.J. Cunningham, Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_.] + + +THE SPLEEN + +The human _spleen_ (Gr. [Greek: splen]) is an oval, flattened gland, of +a dull purple colour, and about 5 in. long by 3 broad, situated in the +upper and back part of the left side of the abdominal cavity. If the +right hand is passed round the left side of its owner's body, as far as +it will reach, it approximately covers the spleen. The long axis of the +organ is obliquely placed so that the upper pole is much nearer the +vertebral column than the lower pole. For practical purposes the long +axis of the left tenth rib corresponds with that of the spleen. There is +an external or parietal surface and an internal or visceral, the latter +of which is again subdivided; these surfaces are limited by ventral and +dorsal borders. The external, parietal, or phrenic surface is convex to +adapt it to the concavity of the diaphragm, against the posterior part +of which it lies; external to the diaphragm is the pleural cavity, and +more externally still, the ninth, tenth and eleventh ribs. The internal +or visceral surface is divided by a prominent ridge into a gastric or +anterior and a renal or posterior surface. Sometimes a triangular +impression called the basal surface is formed at the lower part of the +visceral surface by the left end of the transverse colon, though at +other times no such impression is seen. It is probable that the exact +shape of the spleen depends a good deal on the amount of distension of +the surrounding hollow viscera at the time of death. (For details of the +basal surface see D.J. Cunningham, _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxix. +p. 501.) The gastric surface is concave and adapts itself to the fundus +of the stomach, while just in front of the ridge separating the gastric +and renal surfaces is the hilum, where the vessels enter and leave the +organ; in front of this the tail of the pancreas usually touches the +spleen. The renal surface is as a rule smaller than the gastric and, +like it, is concave; it is moulded on to the upper part of the outer +border of the left kidney and just reaches the left adrenal body. The +anterior or ventral border of the spleen has usually two or more notches +in it, though these are often also seen on the dorsal border. The whole +spleen is surrounded by peritoneum, which is reflected off on to the +stomach as the gastro-splenic omentum, and on to the kidney as the +lieno-renal ligament; occasionally the lesser sac reaches it near its +connexion with the pancreas. Small accessory spleens are fairly often +found in the neighbourhood of the spleen, though it is possible that +some of these may be haemo-lymph glands (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM). + + Microscopically the spleen has a fibro-elastic coat in which + involuntary muscle is found (fig. 2). This coat sends multitudes of + fine trabeculae into the interior of the organ, which subdivide it + into numbers of minute compartments, in which the red, highly + vascular, spleen pulp is contained. This pulp contains small spherical + masses of adenoid tissue, forming the Malpighian corpuscles, situated + on the terminal branches of the splenic blood-vessels, together with + numerous cells, some of which are red blood corpuscles, others lymph + corpuscles, others contain pigment granules or fat, while others have + in their interior numerous blood corpuscles. The arteries of the + spleen in part end in capillaries from which the veins arise, but more + frequently they open into lacunae or blood spaces, which give origin + to the veins. + + _Embryology._--The spleen is developed in the dorsal mesogastrium (see + COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES) from the mesenchyme, or that portion of + the mesoderm, the cells of which lie scattered in a matrix. Large + lymphoid cells are early seen among those of the mesenchyme, but + whether these migrate from the coelomic epithelium, or are originally + mesenchymal is doubtful, though the former seems more probable. The + network of the spleen seems certainly to be derived from cells of the + mesenchyme which lose their nuclei. + + _Comparative Anatomy._--The spleen is regarded as the remains of a + mass of lymphoid tissue which, in a generalized type of vertebrate, + stretched all along the alimentary canal. It is absent as a distinct + gland in the Acrania and Cyclostomata. In the fishes it is closely + applied to the U-shaped stomach, and in some of the Elasmobranchs, + e.g. the basking and porbeagle sharks (Selache and Lamna), it is + divided into small lobules. In Protopterus among the Dipnoi it is + enclosed within the walls of the stomach. In the Anura (frogs and + toads) among the Amphibia it is a spherical mass close to the rectum, + and this may be explained by regarding it as derived from a different + part of the original mass, already mentioned, to that which persists + in other vertebrates. In the Iguana among the reptiles the organ has + many notches, and each one corresponds to the point of entrance of a + vessel. In Mammals the notches, when they are present, so frequently + correspond to the points of entrance of arteries at the hilum that the + present writer believes that the former are determined by the latter + in many cases (see F.G. Parsons on the Notches of the Spleen, _J. + Anat. and Phys._ vol. 35, p. 416; also Charnock Bradley, _Proceedings + of R. Soc. Edin._, vol. 24, pt. 6, p. 521). The Monotremata and + Marsupialia have curious Y-shaped spleens. As a rule flesh-eating + animals have larger and more notched spleens than vegetable feeders, + though among the Cetacea the spleen is relatively very small. + +[Illustrtion: FIG. 2.--Section of the Spleen seen under a low power. + + A, Fibrous capsule. d, Blood-vessels. + b, Trabeculae. e, Spleen pulp. + c, Malpighian corpuscles.] + + +ADRENAL GLANDS + +The adrenal glands or suprarenal capsules are two conical bodies, +flattened from before backward, resting on the upper poles of the +kidneys close to the sides of the vertebral column; each has an anterior +and posterior surface and a concave base which is in contact with the +kidney. When viewed from in front the right gland is triangular and the +left crescentic. On the anterior surface there is a transverse sulcus or +hilum from which a large vein emerges. The arteries are less constant in +their points of entry, and are derived from three sources, the phrenic, +the abdominal aorta and the renal arteries. The glands are entirely +retro-peritoneal, though the right one, even on its anterior surface, is +very little covered by peritoneum. In a vertical transverse section each +gland is seen to consist of two parts, cortical and medullary. The +cortical substance is composed of bundles of cells, separated by a +stroma, which have a different appearance in different parts. Most +superficially is the zona glomerulosa, then the zona fascicularis, and +most deeply the zona reticularis. These names convey a fair idea of the +appearance of the bundles. To the naked eye the cortical part is yellow +while the medullary is red. The medullary part consists of small islets +of cells, which resemble columnar epithelium lying among venous sinuses; +these cells are said to be in close connexion with the sympathetic nerve +filaments from the great solar plexus. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--A, Anterior surface of right suprarenal capsule. +B, Anterior surface of left suprarenal capsule. The upper and inner +parts of each kidney are indicated in outline. On the right capsule the +dotted line indicates the upper limit of the peritoneal covering. + +From D.J. Cunningham, Cunningham's _Text-book of Anatomy_.] + + _Embryology._--The generally accepted opinion at present is that the + cortical substance is derived from the coelomic epithelium covering + the mesoderm of the upper (cephalic) portion of the Wolffian body, and + corresponds to the nephrostomes of mesonephridial tubules (see URINARY + SYSTEM), while the medullary part grows out from the sympathetic + ganglia and so is probably ectodermal in origin. J. Janosik, however + (_Archiv. f. mikrosk. Anat._ bd. xxii. 1883 and _Sitzungsber. d. + Wiener Akad._, 1885), thinks that the cortical part is derived from + the germ epithelium covering the upper part of the genital ridge. C. + S. Minot (_Human Embryology_, 1897) believes that the original cells + which grow in from the sympathetic disappear later, and that the adult + medullary cells are derived from the cortical. + + In the early human embryo the adrenals are larger than the kidneys, + and at birth they are proportionately much larger than in the adult. + (For literature see. _Development of the Human Body_, J.P. McMurrich, + London, 1906; and _Handbuch der Entwickelungslehre_, by O. Hertwig, + Jena.) + + _Comparative Anatomy._--Adrenals are unknown in Amphioxus and the + Dipnoi (mud fish). In the Cyclostomata (hags and lampreys) they are + said by some to arise in connexion with the cephalic part of the + pronephros, though other writers deny their presence at all (see W.E. + Collinge and Swale Vincent, _Anat. Anz._ bd. xii., 1896). In the + Elasmobranchs and Holocephali the medullary and cortical parts are + apparently distinct, the former being represented by a series of + organs situated close to the intercostal arteries, while the latter + may be either median or paired, and, as they are placed between the + kidneys, are often spoken of as interrenals. In the Amphibia the + glands are sunk into the surface of the kidney. In reptiles and birds + they are long lobulated bodies lying close to the testis or ovary and + receiving an adrenal portal vein. In the lower mammals they are not as + closely connected with the kidneys as they are in man, and their shape + is usually oval or spherical. + + +THE THYROID GLAND + +The thyroid body or gland is a deep red glandular mass consisting of two +lobes which lie one on each side of the upper part of the trachea and +lower part of the larynx; these are joined across the middle line by the +isthmus which lies in front of the second and third rings of the +trachea. Occasionally, from the top of the isthmus, a nearly but not +quite median pyramidal lobe runs up toward the hyoid bone, while in +other cases the isthmus may be absent. The gland is relatively larger in +women and children than in the adult male. It is enclosed in a capsule +of cervical fascia and is supplied by the superior and inferior thyroid +arteries on each side, though occasionally a median thyroidea ima artery +is present. On microscopical examination the gland shows a large number +of closed tubular alveoli, lined by columnar epithelial cells, +unsupported by a basement membrane, and filled with colloid or +jelly-like material. These are supported by fibrous septa growing in +from the true capsule, which is distinct from the capsule of cervical +fascia. The lymphatic vessels are large and numerous, and have been +shown by E.C. Baber (_Phil. Trans._, 1881) to contain the same colloid +material as the alveoli. Accessory thyroids, close to the main gland, +are often found. + + _Embryology._--The median part of the gland is developed from a tube + which grows down in the middle line from the junction of the buccal + and pharyngeal parts of the tongue (q.v.), between the first and + second branchial arches. This tube is called the thyro-glossal duct + and is entodermal in origin. The development of the hyoid bone + obliterates the middle part of the duct, leaving its upper part as the + foramen caecum of the tongue, while its lower part bifurcates, and so + the asymmetrical arrangement of the pyramidal lobe is accounted for. + A. Kanthack (_J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. xxv., 1891) has denied the + existence of this duct, but on slender grounds. The lateral parts of + the gland are developed from the entoderm of the fourth visceral + clefts, and, joining the median part, lose their pharyngeal connexion. + Nearly, but not quite, the whole of the lateral lobes probably belong + to this part. (For literature and further details see Quain's + _Anatomy_, London, 1892, and J.P. McMurrich's _Development of the + Human Body_, London, 1906.) + + _Comparative Anatomy._--The endostyle or hypobranchial groove of + Tunicata (sea squirts) and Acrania (Amphioxus) is regarded as the + first appearance of the median thyroid; this is a median entodermal + groove in the floor of the pharynx, secreting a glairy fluid in which + food particles become entangled and so pass into the intestine. In the + larval lamprey (Ammocoetes) among the Cyclostomata the connexion with + the pharynx is present, but in the adult lamprey (Petromyzon), as in + all adult vertebrates, this connexion is lost. In the Elasmobranchs + the single median thyroid lies close to the mandibular symphysis, but + in the bony fish (Teleostei) it is paired. In the mud fish (Dipnoi) + there is also an indication of a division into two lobes. In the + Amphibia the thyroid forms numerous vesicles close to the anterior end + of the pericardium. In Reptilia it lies close to the trachea, and in + the Chelonia and Crocodilia is paired. In birds it is also paired and + lies near the origin of the carotid arteries. In Mammalia the lateral + lobes make their first appearance. In the lower orders of this class + the isthmus is often absent. (For further details and literature see + R. Wiedersheim's _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere_, Jena, 1902, + and also for literature, Quain's _Anatomy_, London, 1896.) + + +PARATHYROID GLANDS + +These little oval bodies, of considerable physiological importance, are +two in number on each side. From their position they are spoken of as +postero-superior and antero-inferior; the postero-superior are embedded +in the thyroid at the level of the lower border of the cricoid +cartilage, while the antero-inferior may be embedded in the lower edge +of the lateral lobes of the thyroid or may be found a little distance +below in relation to the inferior thyroid veins. They are often very +difficult to find, but it is easiest to do so in a perfectly fresh, +full-term foetus or young child. Microscopically they consist of solid +masses of epithelioid cells with numerous blood-vessels between, while, +embedded in their periphery, are often found masses of thymic tissue +including the concentric corpuscles of Hassall. They have been regarded +as undeveloped portions of thyroid tissue in an embryonic state, but the +experiments of Gley (_Comptes rendus de la Soc. de Biol._ No. 11, 1895) +and of W. Edmunds (_Proc. Physiol. Soc.--Journ. Phys._ vol. xviii., +1895) do not confirm this. They are developed from the entoderm of the +third and fourth branchial grooves. + + Parathyroids have been found in the orders of Primates, Cheiroptera, + Carnivora, Ungulata and Rodentia among the Mammalia, and also in + Birds. In the other classes of vertebrates little is known of them. + The fullest and most recent account of these bodies is that of D.A. + Welsh in Journ. _Anat. and Phys._ vol. 32, 1898, pp. 292 and 380. + + +THE THYMUS GLAND + +The thymus gland (Gr. [Greek: thymos], from a fancied resemblance to the +corymbs of the Thyme) is a light pink gland, consisting of two unequal +lobes, which lies in the superior and anterior mediastina of the thorax +in front of the pericardium and great vessels; it also extends up into +the root of the neck to within a short distance of the thyroid gland. It +continues to grow until the second year of life, after which it remains +stationary until puberty, when it usually degenerates rapidly. The +writer has seen it perfectly well developed in a man between 40 and 50, +though such cases are rare; probably, however, some patches of its +tissue remain all through life. Each lobe is divided into a large number +of lobules divided by areolar tissue, and each of these, under the +microscope, is seen to consist of a cortical and medullary part. The +cortex is composed of lymphoid tissue and resembles the structure of a +lymphatic gland (see LYMPHATIC SYSTEM); it is imperfectly divided into a +number of follicles. In the medulla the lymphoid cells are fewer, and +nests of epithelial cells are found, called the concentric corpuscles of +Hassall. The vascular supply is derived from all the vessels in the +neighbourhood, the lymphatics are very large and numerous, but the +nerves, which come from the sympathetic and vagus, are few and small. H. +Watney (_Phil. Trans._, 1882) has discovered haemoglobin, and apparently +developing red blood corpuscles, in the thymus. (For further details see +Gray's or Quain's _Anatomy_.) + + _Embryology._--The thymus is formed from a diverticulum, on each side, + from the entoderm lining the third branchial groove, but the connexion + with the pharynx is soon lost. The lymphoid cells and concentric + corpuscles are probably the derivatives of the original cells lining + the diverticulum. + + _Comparative Anatomy._--The thymus is always a paired gland. In most + fishes it rises from the dorsal part of all five branchial clefts; in + Lepidosiren (Dipnoi), from all except the first; in Urodela from 3rd, + 4th and 5th, and in Anura from the 2nd only (see T.H. Bryce, + "Development of Thymus in Lepidosiren," _Journ. Anat. and Phys._ vol. + 40, p. 91). In all fishes, including the Dipnoi (mud fish) it is + placed dorsally to the gill arches on each side. In the Amphibia it is + found close to the articulation of the mandible. In the Reptilia it is + situated by the side of the carotid artery; but in young crocodiles it + is lobulated and extends all along the neck, as it does in birds, + lying close to the side of the oesophagus. In Mammals the Marsupials + are remarkable for having a well-developed cervical as well as + thoracic thymus (J. Symington, _J. Anat. and Phys._ vol. 32, p. 278). + In some of the lower mammals the gland does not disappear as early as + it does in man. The thymus of the calf is popularly known as "the + chest sweetbread." + + +CAROTID BODIES + +These are two small bodies situated, one on each side, between the +origins of the external and internal carotid arteries. Microscopically +they are divided into nodules or cell balls by connective tissue, and +these closely resemble the structure of the parathyroids, but are +without any thymic tissue. The blood-vessels in their interior are +extremely large and numerous. The modern view of their development is +that they are part of the sympathetic system, and the reaction of their +cells to chromium salts bears this out. (See Kohn, _Archiv f. mikr. +Anat._ lxx., 1907.) + +In the Anura there is a rete or network into which the carotid artery +breaks up in the position of the carotid body, and this has an important +effect on the course of the circulation. It is probable, however, that +this structure has nothing to do with the carotid body of Mammalia. + + +COCCYGEAL BODY + +This is a small median body, about the size of a pea, situated in front +of the apex of the coccyx and between the insertions of the levatores +ani muscles. It resembles the carotid body in its microscopical +structure, but is not so vascular. Concentric corpuscles, like those of +the thymus, have been recorded in it. It derives its arteries from the +middle sacral and its nerves from the sympathetic. Of its embryology and +comparative anatomy little is known, though J.W. Thomson Walker has +recently shown that numerous, outlying, minute masses of the same +structure lie along the course of the middle sacral artery (_Archiv f. +mikroscop. Anat._ Bd. lxiv.). The probability is that, like the carotid +body, it is sympathetic in origin. (Quain's _Anatomy_ gives excellent +illustrations of the histology of this as well as of all the other +ductless glands.) + + For the literature on and further details concerning the foregoing + structures the following works should be consulted: Quain's + _Anatomy_, vol. 1 (1908, London, Longman & Co.); McMurrich's + _Development of the Human Body_ (London, Rebman, 1906); Wiedersheim's + _Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1898). (F. G. P.) + + + + +DUDERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, +situated in a beautiful and fertile valley (formerly called _Goldene +Mark_) watered by the Hahle, and on the railway Wulften-Leinefelde. Pop. +(1905) 5327. It is an interesting medieval town with many ancient +buildings. Notable are the two Roman Catholic churches, beautiful Gothic +edifices of the 14th century, the Protestant church, and the handsome +town-hall. Its chief industries are woollen and cotton manufactures, +sugar-refining and cigar-making; it has also a trade in singing-birds. +Duderstadt was founded by Henry I. (the Fowler) in 929, passed later to +the monastery of Quedlinburg, and then to Brunswick. It was a member of +the Hanseatic League, and during the Thirty Years' War became a +stronghold of the Imperialists. It was taken by Duke William of Weimar +in 1632; in 1761 its walls were dismantled, and, after being alternately +Prussian and Hanoverian, it passed finally in 1866 with Hanover to +Prussia. + + + + +DUDLEY, BARONS AND EARLS OF. The holders of these English titles are +descended from John de Sutton (c. 1310-1359) of Dudley castle, +Staffordshire, who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1342. Sutton +was the son of another John de Sutton, who had inherited Dudley Castle +through his marriage with Margaret, sister and heiress of John de Somery +(d. 1321); he was called Lord Dudley, or Lord Sutton of Dudley, the +latter being doubtless the correct form. However, his descendants, the +Suttons, were often called by the name of Dudley; and from John Dudley +of Atherington, Sussex, a younger son of John Sutton, the 5th baron, the +earls of Warwick and the earl of Leicester of the Dudley family are +descended. + +John Sutton or Dudley (c. 1400-1487), the 5th baron, was first summoned +to parliament in 1440, having been viceroy of Ireland from 1428 to 1430. +He served Henry VI. as a diplomatist and also as a soldier, being taken +prisoner at the first battle of St Albans in 1455, but this did not +prevent him from enjoying the favour of Edward IV. He died on the 30th +of September 1487. He was succeeded as 6th baron by his grandson Edward +(c. 1459-1532), and one of his sons, William Dudley, was bishop of +Durham from 1476 until his death in 1483. His descendant Edward Sutton +or Dudley, the 9th baron (1567-1643), had several illegitimate sons. +Among them was Dud Dudley (1599-1684), who in 1665 published _Metallum +Martis_, describing a process of making iron with "pit-coale, sea-coale, +&c." which was put in operation at his father's ironworks at Pensnet, +Worcestershire, of which he was manager. His success aroused much +opposition on the part of other ironmasters, and his commercial ventures +at Himley, at Askew Bridge and at Bristol ended in loss and disaster. +During the Civil War he was a colonel in the army of Charles I. + +Dying without lawful male issue in June 1643, the 9th baron was +succeeded in the barony by his grand-daughter, Frances (1611-1697); she +married Humble Ward (c. 1614-1670), the son of a London goldsmith, who +was created Baron Ward of Birmingham in 1644. Their son Edward +(1631-1701) succeeded both to the barony of Dudley and to that of Ward, +but these were separated when his grandson William died unmarried in May +1740. The barony of Dudley passed to a nephew, Ferdinando Dudley Lea, +falling into abeyance on his death in October 1757; that of Ward passed +to the heir male, John Ward (d. 1774), a descendant of Humble Ward. In +1763 Ward was created Viscount Dudley, and in April 1823 his grandson, +John William Ward (1781-1833), became the 4th viscount. + +Educated at Oxford, John William Ward entered parliament in 1802, and +except for a few months he remained in the House of Commons until he +succeeded his father in the peerage. In 1827 he was minister for foreign +affairs under Canning and then under Goderich and under Wellington, +resigning office in May 1828. As foreign minister he was only a cipher, +but he was a man of considerable learning and had some reputation as a +writer and a talker. Dudley took an interest in the foundation of the +university of London, and his _Letters_ to the bishop of Llandaff were +published by the bishop (Edward Copleston) in 1840 (new ed. 1841). He +was created Viscount Ednam and earl of Dudley in 1827, and when he died +unmarried on the 6th of March 1833 these titles became extinct. His +barony of Ward, however, passed to a kinsman, William Humble Ward +(1781-1835), whose son, William (1817-1885), inheriting much of the dead +earl's great wealth, was created Viscount Ednam and earl of Dudley in +1860. The 2nd earl of Dudley in this creation was the latter's son +William Humble (b. 1866), who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1902 +to 1906, and in 1908 was appointed governor-general of Australia. + + See H.S. Grazebrook in the _Herald and Genealogist_, vols. ii., v. + and vi.; in _Notes and Queries_, 2nd series, vol. xi.; and in vol. ix. + of the publications of the William Salt Society (1888). + + + + +DUDLEY, EDMUND (c. 1462-1510), minister of Henry VII. of England, was a +son of John Dudley of Atherington, Sussex, and a member of the great +baronial family of Sutton or Dudley. After studying at Oxford and at +Gray's Inn, Dudley came under the notice of Henry VII., and is said to +have been made a privy councillor at the early age of twenty-three. In +1492 he helped to negotiate the treaty of Etaples with France and soon +became prominent in assisting the king to check the lawlessness of the +barons, and at the same time to replenish his own exchequer. He and his +colleague Sir Richard Empson (q.v.) are called _fiscales judices_ by +Polydore Vergil, and owing to their extortions they became very +unpopular. Dudley, who was speaker of the House of Commons in 1504, in +addition to aiding Henry, amassed a great amount of wealth for himself, +and possessed large estates in Sussex, Dorset and Lincolnshire. When +Henry VII. died in April 1509, he was thrown into prison by order of +Henry VIII. and charged with the crime of constructive treason, being +found guilty and attainted. After having made a futile attempt to escape +from prison, he was executed on the 17th or 18th of August 1510. +Dudley's nominal crime was that during the last illness of Henry VII. he +had ordered his friends to assemble in arms in case the king died, but +the real reason for his death was doubtless the unpopularity caused by +his avarice. During his imprisonment he sought to gain the favour of +Henry VIII. by writing a treatise in support of absolute monarchy called +_The Tree of Commonwealth_. This never reached the king's hands, and was +not published until 1859, when it was printed privately in Manchester. +Dudley's first wife was Anne, widow of Roger Corbet of Morton, +Shropshire, by whom he had a daughter, Elizabeth, who married William, +6th Lord Stourton. By his second wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Edward +Grey, Viscount Lisle, he had three sons: John, afterwards duke of +Northumberland (q.v.); Andrew (d. 1559), who was made a knight and held +various important posts during the reign of Edward VI.; and Jasper. + + See Francis Bacon, _History of Henry VII._, edited by J.R. Lumby + (Cambridge, 1881); and J.S. Brewer, _The Reign of Henry VIII._, + edited by J. Gairdner (London, 1884). + + + + +DUDLEY, SIR ROBERT (1573-1649), titular duke of Northumberland and earl +of Warwick, English explorer, engineer and author, was the son of Robert +Dudley, earl of Leicester (q.v.), the favourite of Queen Elizabeth. His +mother was Lady Douglas Sheffield, daughter of Thomas, first Baron +Howard of Effingham. Leicester, who deserted Lady Douglas Sheffield for +Lettice Knollys, widow of the first earl of Essex, denied that they were +married. She asserted that they were, at Esher in Surrey, but her +marriage with Sir Edward Stafford of Grafton, after her desertion by +Leicester, would seem to be a tacit confession that her claim had no +foundation. Her son Robert was born in May 1573, was recognized by +Leicester, and sent to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1587. He inherited all +Leicester's property under the earl's will at his death in 1588, and in +the following year the property of Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick. In +1594 he made a voyage to the West Indies, and in 1596 he took part in +the expedition to Cadiz and was knighted. In 1592 he had married a +sister of Thomas Cavendish the circumnavigator. On her death he married +Alicia Leigh in 1596, by whom he had four daughters. After the death of +Elizabeth he endeavoured to secure recognition of his legitimacy, and +of his right to inherit the titles of his father and uncle. The +proceedings were quashed by the Star Chamber. In 1605 he obtained leave +to travel abroad, and went to Italy accompanied by the beautiful Miss +Elizabeth Southwell, daughter of Sir Robert Southwell of Woodrising, in +the dress of a page. When ordered to return home and to provide for his +deserted wife and family, he refused, was outlawed, and his property was +confiscated. On the continent he avowed himself a Roman Catholic, +married Elizabeth Southwell at Lyons, and entered the service of Cosimo +II., grand-duke of Tuscany. In the service of the grand-duke he is said +to have done some fighting against the Barbary pirates, and he was +undoubtedly employed in draining the marshes behind Leghorn, and in the +construction of the port. In 1620 the emperor Ferdinand II. gave him a +patent recognizing his claim not only to the earldom of Warwick but to +the duchy of Northumberland, which had been held by his grandfather, who +was executed by Queen Mary Tudor. In Italy Dudley was known as Duca di +Nortombria and Conte di Warwick. He died near Florence on the 6th of +September 1649, leaving a large family of sons and daughters. His +deserted wife, Alicia, was created duchess of Dudley by Charles I. in +1644, and died in 1670, when the title became extinct. Through a +daughter who married the Marquis Paleotti, Dudley was the ancestor of +the wife of the first duke of Shrewsbury (of the revolution of 1688), +and of her brother who was executed at Tyburn for murder on the 17th of +March 1718. Dudley was the author of a pamphlet addressed to King James +I., showing how the "impertinences of parliament" could be bridled by +military force. But his chief claim to memory is the magnificent _Arcano +dell mare_, published in Italian at Florence in 1645-1646 in three +volumes folio. It is a collection of all the naval knowledge of the age, +and is particularly remarkable for a scheme for the construction of a +navy in five rates which Dudley designed and described. It was reprinted +in Florence in two volumes folio in 1661 without the charts of the first +edition. + + AUTHORITIES.--G.L. Craik, _Romance of the Peerage_ (London, + 1848-1850), vol. iii.; Sir N.H. Nicolas, _Report of Proceedings on + the Claim to the Barony of L'Isle_ (London, 1829); and _The Italian + Biography of Sir R. Dudley_, published anonymously, privately and + without date or name of place, but known to have been written by + Doctor Vaughan Thomas, vicar of Stoneleigh, who died in 1858. + (D. H.) + + + + +DUDLEY, THOMAS (1576-1653), British colonial governor of Massachusetts, +was born in Northampton, England, in 1576, a member of the elder branch +of the family to the younger branch of which Robert Dudley, earl of +Leicester, belonged. He was the son of a country gentleman of some means +and high standing, was captain of an English company in the French +expedition of 1597, serving under Henry of Navarre, and eventually +became the steward of the earl of Lincoln's estates, which he managed +with great success for many years. Having been converted to Puritanism, +he became a strict advocate of its strictest tenets. About 1627 he +associated himself with other Lincolnshire gentlemen who in 1629 entered +into an agreement to settle in New England provided they were allowed to +take the charter with them. This proposal the general court of the +Plymouth Company agreed to, and in April 1630 Dudley sailed to America +in the same ship with John Winthrop, the newly appointed governor, +Dudley himself at the last moment being chosen deputy-governor in place +of John Humphrey (or Humfrey), the earl of Lincoln's son-in-law, whose +departure was delayed. Dudley was for many years the most influential +man in the Massachusetts Bay colony, save Winthrop, with whose policy he +was more often opposed than in agreement. He was deputy-governor in +1629-1634, in 1637-1640, in 1646-1650 and in 1651-1653, and was governor +four times, in 1634, 1640, 1645 and 1650. Soon after his arrival in the +colony he settled at Newton (Cambridge), of which he was one of the +founders; he was also one of the earliest promoters of the plan for the +establishment of Harvard College. Winthrop's decision to make Boston the +capital instead of Newton precipitated the first of the many quarrels +between the two, Dudley's sterner and harsher Puritanism, being in +strong contrast to Winthrop's more tolerant and liberal views. He was an +earnest and persistent heresy-hunter--not only the Antinomians, but +even such a good Puritan as John Cotton, against whom he brought +charges, feeling the weight of his stern and remorseless hand. His +position he himself best expressed in the following brief verse found +among his papers: + + "Let men of God in courts and churches watch + O'er such as do a Toleration hatch, + Lest that ill egg bring forth a Cockatrice + To poison all with heresy and vice." + +He died at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 31st of July 1653. + + See Augustine Jones, _Life and Work of Thomas Dudley, the Second + Governor of Massachusetts_ (Boston, 1899); and the _Life of Mr Thomas + Dudley, several times Governor of the Colony of Massachusetts, written + as is supposed by Cotton Mather_, edited by Charles Deane (Cambridge, + 1870). Dudley's interesting and valuable "Letter to the Countess of + Lincoln," is reprinted in Alexander Young's _Chronicles of the + Planters of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay_ (Boston, 1846), and in + the New Hampshire Historical Society _Collections_, vol. iv. (1834). + +His son JOSEPH DUDLEY (1647-1720), colonial governor of Massachusetts, +was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of September 1647. He +graduated at Harvard College in 1665, became a member of the general +court, and in 1682 was sent by Massachusetts to London to prevent the +threatened revocation of her charter by Charles II. There, with an eye +to his personal advancement, he secretly advised the king to annul the +charter; this was done, and Dudley, by royal appointment, became +president of the provisional council. With the advent of the new +governor, Sir Edmund Andros, Dudley became a judge of the superior court +and censor of the press. Upon the deposition of Andros, Dudley was +imprisoned and sent with him to England, but was soon set free. In +1691-1692 he was chief-justice of New York, presiding over the court +that condemned Leisler and Milburn. Returning to England in 1693, he was +lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Wight and a member of parliament, and +in 1702, after a long intrigue, secured from Queen Anne a commission as +governor of Massachusetts, serving until 1715. His administration was +marked, particularly in the earlier years, by ceaseless conflict with +the general court, from which he demanded a regular fixed salary instead +of an annual grant. He was active in raising volunteers for the +so-called Queen Anne's War, and in 1707 sent a fruitless expedition +against Port Royal. He was accused by the Boston merchants, who +petitioned for his removal, of being in league with smugglers and +illicit traders, and in 1708 a bitter attack on his administration was +published in London, entitled _The Deplorable State of New England by +reason of a Covetous and Treacherous Governor and Pusillanimous +Counsellors_. His character may be best summed up in the words of one of +his successors, Thomas Hutchinson, that "he had as many virtues as can +consist with so great a thirst for honour and power." He died at Roxbury +on the 2nd of April 1720. + +Joseph Dudley's son, PAUL DUDLEY (1675-1751), graduated at Harvard in +1690, studied law at the Temple in London, and became attorney-general +of Massachusetts (1702 to 1718). He was associate justice of the +superior court of that province from 1718 to 1745, and chief justice +from 1745 until his death. He was a member of the Royal Society +(London), to whose _Transactions_ he contributed several valuable papers +on the natural history of New England, and was the founder of the +Dudleian lectures on religion at Harvard. + + The best extended account of Joseph Dudley's administration is in J. + G. Palfrey's _History of New England_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1875). + + + + +DUDLEY, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough and market-town of +Worcestershire, England, in a portion of that county enclaved in +Staffordshire, 8 m. W.N.W. of Birmingham, and 121 N.W. of London by the +London & North Western railway. The Great Western railway also serves +the town. Pop. (1891) 45,724; (1901) 48,733. Dudley lies on an elevated +ridge, in the midst of the district of the midlands known as the Black +Country, which is given up to ironworks and coal mines. The "ten-yard" +coal, in the neighbourhood, is the thickest seam worked in England. +Limestone is extensively quarried, fire-clay is abundant; and +iron-founding, brass-founding, engineering works, glass works and brick +works are comprised in the industries. Among the principal buildings are +the churches of the five parishes into which the town is divided, the +town hall, county court, free libraries, and school of art, grammar +school with university and foundation scholarships, technical school, +mechanics' institute, Guest hospital (founded by Joseph Guest, a +citizen, in 1868), and a dispensary. In the market-place stands a large +domed fountain, erected by the earl of Dudley (1867). There is a +geological society with a museum, for the neighbourhood of Dudley is +full of geological interest, the Silurian limestone abounding in +fossils. To the north of the town are extensive remains of an ancient +castle, surrounded by beautiful grounds. The hill on which it stands is +of limestone, which by quarrying has been hollowed out in extensive +chambers and galleries. The view from the castle is remarkable. The +whole district is seen to be set with chimneys, pit-buildings and +factories; and at night the glare of furnaces reveals the tireless +activity of the Black Country. Dudley and its environs are connected by +a tramway system, and water communication is afforded by the Dudley +canal with Birmingham and with the river Severn. + +Included in the parliamentary borough, but in Staffordshire, and 2½ m. +by rail S.W. of Dudley, is Brierley Hill, a market-town on the river +Stour and the Stourbridge and Birmingham Canals. Its chief buildings are +the modern church of St Michael, standing on a hill, the Roman Catholic +church of St Mary, by A.W. Pugin, the town hall and free library. +Between this and Dudley lie the great ironworks of Roundoak, and the +extensive suburb of Netherton in the enclaved portion of Worcestershire. +The industries are similar to those of Dudley. Three miles W. of Dudley +is Kingswinford, a mining township, with large brick works, giving name +to a parliamentary division of Staffordshire. The parliamentary borough +of Dudley returns one member. The town itself is governed by a mayor, 10 +aldermen and 30 councillors. Area 3546 acres. + +In medieval times the importance of Dudley (_Dudelei_) depended on the +castle, which is mentioned in the Domesday Survey. Before the Conquest +Earl Eadwine held the manor, which in 1086 belonged to William +FitzAnsculf, from whom it passed, probably by marriage, to Fulk Paynel, +afterwards to the Somerys, Suttons and Wards, whose descendants (earls +of Dudley) now hold it. The first mention of Dudley as a borough occurs +in an inquisition taken after the death of Roger de Somery in 1272. This +does not give a clear account of the privileges held by the burgesses, +but shows that they had probably been freed from some or all of the +services required from them as manorial tenants, in return for a fixed +rent. In 1865 Dudley was incorporated. Before that time it was governed +by a high and low bailiff appointed every year at the court leet of the +manor. Roger de Somery evidently held a market by prescription in Dudley +before 1261, in which year he came to terms with the dean of +Wolverhampton, who had set up a market in Wolverhampton to the +disadvantage of Roger's market at Dudley. According to the terms of the +agreement the dean might continue his market on condition that Roger and +his tenants should be free from toll there. Two fairs, on the 21st of +September and the 21st of April, were granted in 1684 to Edward Lord +Ward, lord of the manor. Dudley was represented in the parliament of +1295, but not again until the privilege was revived by the Reform Act of +1832. Mines of sea-coal in Dudley are mentioned as early as the reign of +Edward I., and by the beginning of the 17th century mining had become an +important industry. + + + + +DUDO, or DUDON (fl. c. 1000), Norman historian was dean of St Quentin, +where he was born about 965. Sent in 986 by Albert I. count of +Vermandois, on an errand to Richard I., duke of Normandy, he succeeded +in his mission, and, having made a very favourable impression at the +Norman court, spent some years in that country. During a second stay in +Normandy Dudo wrote his history of the Normans, a task which Duke +Richard I. had urged him to undertake. Very little else is known about +his life, except that he died before 1043. Written between 1015 and +1030, his _Historia Normannorum_, or _Libri III. de moribus et actis +primorum Normanniae ducum_, was dedicated to Adalberon, bishop of Laon. +Dudo does not appear to have consulted any existing documents for his +history, but to have obtained his information from oral tradition, much +of it being supplied by Raoul, count of Ivry, a half-brother of Duke +Richard I. Consequently the _Historia_ partakes of the nature of a +romance, and on this ground has been regarded as untrustworthy by such +competent critics as E. Dummler and G. Waitz. Other authorities, +however, e.g. J. Lair and J. Steenstrup, while admitting the existence +of a legendary element, regard the book as of considerable value for the +history of the Normans. Although Dudo was acquainted with Virgil and +other Latin writers, his Latin is affected and obscure. The _Historia_, +which is written alternately in prose and in verse of several metres, is +divided into four parts, and deals with the history of the Normans from +852 to the death of Duke Richard I. in 996. It glorifies the Normans, +and was largely used by William of Jumièges, Wace, Robert of Torigni, +William of Poitiers and Hugh of Fleury in compiling their chronicles, +and was first published by A. Duchesne in his _Historiae Normannorum +scriptores antiqui_, at Paris in 1619. Another edition is in the +_Patrologia Latina_, tome cxli. of J.P. Migne (Paris, 1844), but the +best is perhaps the one edited by J. Lair (Caen, 1865). + + See E. Dümmler, "Zur Kritik Dudos von St Quentin" in the _Forschungen + zur deutschen Geschichte_, Bande vi. and ix. (Göttingen, 1866); G. + Waitz, "Über die Quellen zur Geschichte der Begrundung der + normannischen Herrschaft in Frankreich," in the _Gottinger gel. + Anzeigen_ (Göttingen, 1866); J.C.H.R. Steenstrup, _Normannerne_, + Band i. (Copenhagen, 1876); J. Lair, _Étude critique et historique sur + Dudon_ (Caen, 1865); G. Kortung, _Über die Quellen des Roman de Rou_ + (Leipzig, 1867); W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen_, Band + i. (Berlin, 1904); and A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de + France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1902). + + + + +DUDWEILER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the +Sulzbach, 4 m. by rail N.E. from Saarbrücken. It has extensive coal +mines and ironworks and produces fire-proof bricks. Pop. (1905) 16,320. + + + + +DUEL (Ital. _duello_, Lat. _duellum_--old form of _bellum_--from _duo_, +two), a prearranged encounter between two persons, with deadly weapons, +in accordance with conventional rules, with the object of voiding a +personal quarrel or of deciding a point of honour. The first recorded +instance of the word occurs in Coryate's _Crudities_ (1611), but +Shakespeare has _duello_ in this sense, and uses "duellist" of Tybalt in +_Romeo and Juliet_. In its earlier meaning of a judicial combat we find +the word latinized in the Statute of Wales (Edw. I., Act 12), "_Placita +de terris in partibus istis non habent terminari per duellum_." + +Duels in the modern sense were unknown to the ancient world, and their +origin must be sought in the feudal age of Europe. The single combats +recorded in Greek and Roman history and legend, of Hector and Achilles, +Aeneas and Turnus, the Horatii and Curiatii, were incidents in national +wars and have nothing in common with the modern duel. It is, however, +noteworthy that in Tacitus (_Germania_, cap. x.) we find the rudiments +of the judicial duel (see WAGER, for the wager of battle). Domestic +differences, he tells us, were settled by a legalized form of combat +between the disputants, and when a war was impending a captive from the +hostile tribe was armed and pitted against a national champion, and the +issue of the duel was accepted as an omen. The judicial combat was a +Teutonic institution, and it was in fact an appeal from human justice to +the God of battles, partly a sanction of the current creed that might is +right, that the brave not only will win but deserve to win. It was on +these grounds that Gundobald justified, against the complaints of a +bishop, the famous edict passed at Lyons (A.D. 501) which established +the wager of battle as a recognized form of trial. It is God, he argued, +who directs the issue of national wars, and in private quarrels we may +trust His providence to favour the juster cause. Thus, as Gibbon +comments, the absurd and cruel practice of judicial duels, which had +been peculiar to some tribes of Germany, was propagated and established +in all the monarchies of Europe from Sicily to the Baltic. Yet in its +defence it may be urged that it abolished a worse evil, the compurgation +by oath which put a premium on perjury, and the ordeal, or judgment of +God, when the cause was decided by blind chance, or more often by +priestcraft. + + + The judicial combat. + +Those who are curious to observe the formalities and legal rules of a +judicial combat will find them described at length in the 28th book of +Montesquieu's _Esprit des lois_. On these regulations he well remarks +that, as there are an infinity of wise things conducted in a very +foolish manner, so there are some foolish things conducted in a very +wise manner. For our present purpose it is sufficient to observe the +development of the idea of personal honour from which the modern duel +directly sprang. In the ancient laws of the Swedes we find that if any +man shall say to another, "You are not a man equal to other men," or +"You have not the heart of a man," and the other shall reply, "I am a +man as good as you," they shall meet on the highway, and then follow the +regulations for the combat. What is this but the modern challenge? By +the law of the Lombards if one man call another arga, the insulted party +might defy the other to mortal combat. What is _arga_ but the _dummer +Junger_ of the German student? Beaumanoir thus describes a legal process +under Louis le Débonnaire:--The appellant begins by a declaration before +the judge that the appellee is guilty of a certain crime; if the +appellee answers that his accuser lies, the judge then ordains the duel. +Is not this the modern point of honour, by which to be given the lie is +an insult which can only be wiped out by blood? + +From Germany the judicial combat rapidly spread to France, where it +flourished greatly from the 10th to the 12th century, the period of +customary law. By French kings it was welcomed as a limitation of the +judicial powers of their half independent vassals. It was a form of +trial open to all freemen and in certain cases, as under Louis VI., the +privilege was extended to serfs. Even the church resorted to it not +unfrequently to settle disputes concerning church property. Abbots and +priors as territorial lords and high justiciaries had their share in the +confiscated goods of the defeated combatant, and Pope Nicholas when +applied to in 858 pronounced it "a just and legitimate combat." Yet only +three years before the council of Valence had condemned the practice, +imposing the severest penance on the victor and refusing the last rites +of the church to the vanquished as to a suicide. In 1385 a duel was +fought, the result of which was so preposterous that even the most +superstitious began to lose faith in the efficacy of such a judgment of +God. A certain Jacques Legris was accused by the wife of Jean Carrouge +of having introduced himself by night in the guise of her husband whom +she was expecting on his return from the Crusades. A duel was ordained +by the parlement of Paris, which was fought in the presence of Charles +VI. Legris was defeated and hanged on the spot. Not long after, a +criminal arrested for some other offence confessed himself to be the +author of the outrage. No institution could long survive so open a +confutation, and it was annulled by the parlement. Henceforward the duel +in France ceases to be an appeal to Heaven, and becomes merely a +satisfaction of wounded honour. Under Louis XII. and Francis I. we find +the first vestiges of tribunals of honour. The last instance of a duel +authorized by the magistrates, and conducted according to the forms of +law, was the famous one between François de Vivonne de la Châtaignerie +and Guy Chabot de Jarnac. The duel was fought on the 10th of July 1547 +in the courtyard of the château of St Germain-en-Laye, in the presence +of the king and a large assembly of courtiers. It was memorable in two +ways. It enriched the French language with a new phrase; a sly and +unforeseen blow, such as that by which de Jarnac worsted La +Châtaignerie, has since been called a _coup de Jarnac_. And Henry, +grieved at the death of his favourite, swore a solemn oath that he would +never again permit a duel to be fought. This led to the first of the +many royal edicts against duelling. By a decree of the council of Trent +(cap. xix.) a ban was laid on "the detestable use of duels, an invention +of the devil to compass the destruction of souls together with a bloody +death of the body." + +In England, it is now generally agreed, the wager of battle did not +exist before the time of the Norman Conquest. Some previous examples +have been adduced, but on examination they will be seen to belong rather +to the class of single combats between the champions of two opposing +armies. One such instance is worth quoting as a curious illustration of +the superstition of the time. It occurs in a rare tract printed in +London, 1610, _The Duello_, or _Single Combat_. "Danish irruptions and +the bad aspects of Mars having drencht the common mother earth with her +sonnes' blood streames, under the reigne of Edmund, a Saxon monarch, +_misso in compendium_ (so worthy Camden expresseth it) _bello utriusque +gentis fata Edmundo Anglorum et Canuto Danorum regibus commissa fuerunt, +qui singulari certamine de summa imperij in hac insula_ (that is, the +Eight in Glostershire) _depugnarunt."_ By the laws of William the +Conqueror the trial by battle was only compulsory when the opposite +parties were both Normans, in other cases it was optional. As the two +nations were gradually merged into one, this form of trial spread, and +until the reign of Henry II. it was the only mode for determining a suit +for the recovery of land. The method of procedure is admirably described +by Shakespeare in the opening scene in _Richard II._, where Henry of +Bolingbroke, duke of Hereford, challenges Thomas, duke of Norfolk; in +the mock-heroic battle between Horner the Armourer and his man Peter in +_Henry VI._; and by Sir W. Scott in the _Fair Maid of Perth_, where +Henry Gow appears before the king as the champion of Magdalen Proudfute. +The judicial duel never took root in England as it did in France. In +civil suits it was superseded by the grand assize of Henry II., and in +cases of felony by indictment at the prosecution of the crown. One of +the latest instances occurred in the reign of Elizabeth, 1571, when the +lists were actually prepared and the justices of the common pleas +appeared at Tothill Fields as umpires of the combat. Fortunately the +petitioner failed to put in an appearance, and was consequently +nonsuited (see Spelman, _Glossary_, s.v. "Campus"). As late as 1817 Lord +Ellenborough, in the case of _Thornton_ v. _Ashford_, pronounced that +"the general law of the land is that there shall be a trial by battle in +cases of appeal unless the party brings himself within some of the +exceptions." Thornton was accused of murdering Mary Ashford, and claimed +his right to challenge the appellant, the brother of the murdered girl, +to wager of battle. His suit was allowed, and, the challenge being +refused, the accused escaped. Next year the law was abolished (59 Geo. +III., c. 46). + + + The duel of honour. + + In France. + +In sketching the history of the judicial combat we have traced the +parentage of the modern duel. Strip the former of its legality, and +divest it of its religious sanction, and the latter remains. We are +justified, then, in dating the commencement of duelling from the +abolition of the wager of battle. To pursue its history we must return +to France, the country where it first arose, and the soil on which it +has most flourished. The causes which made it indigenous to France are +sufficiently explained by the condition of society and the national +character. As Buckle has pointed out, duelling is a special development +of chivalry, and chivalry is one of the phases of the protective spirit +which was predominant in France up to the time of the Revolution. Add to +this the keen sense of personal honour, the susceptibility and the +pugnacity which distinguish the French race. Montaigne, when touching on +this subject in his essays, says, "Put three Frenchmen together on the +plains of Libya, and they will not be a month in company without +scratching one another's eyes out." The third chapter of d'Audiguier's +_Ancien usage des duels_ is headed, "Pourquoi les seuls Français se +battent en duel." English literature abounds with allusions to this +characteristic of the French nation. Lord Herbert of Cherbury, who was +ambassador at the court of Louis XIII., says, "There is scarce a +Frenchman worth looking on who has not killed his man in a duel." Ben +Jonson, in his _Magnetic Lady_, makes Compass, the scholar and soldier, +thus describe France, "that garden of humanity":-- + + "There every gentleman professing arms + Thinks he is bound in honour to embrace + The bearing of a challenge for another, + Without or questioning the cause or asking + Least colour of a reason." + +Duels were not common before the 16th century. Hallam attributes their +prevalence to the barbarous custom of wearing swords as a part of +domestic dress, a fashion which was not introduced till the later part +of the 15th century. In 1560 the states-general at Orleans supplicated +Charles IX. to put a stop to duelling. Hence the famous ordinance of +1566, drawn up by the chancellor de l'Hôpital, which served as the basis +of the successive ordinances of the following kings. Under the frivolous +and sanguinary reign of Henry III., "who was as eager for excitement as +a woman," the rage for duels spread till it became almost an epidemic. +In 1602 the combined remonstrances of the church and the magistrates +extorted from the king an edict condemning to death whoever should give +or accept a challenge or act as second. But public opinion was revolted +by such rigour, and the statue remained a dead letter. A duel forms a +fit conclusion to the reign. A hair-brained youth named L'Isle Marivaux +swore that he would not survive his beloved king, and threw his cartel +into the air. It was at once picked up, and Marivaux soon obtained the +death he had courted. Henry IV. began his reign by an edict against +duels, but he was known in private to favour them; and, when de Créqui +asked leave to fight Don Philip of Savoy, he is reported to have said, +"Go, and if I were not a king I would be your second." Fontenay-Mareuil +says, in his _Mémoires_, that in the eight years between 1601 and 1609, +2000 men of noble birth fell in duels. In 1609 a more effective measure +was taken at the instance of Sully by the establishment of a court of +honour. The edict decrees that all aggrieved persons shall address +themselves to the king, either directly or through the medium of the +constables, marshals, &c.; that the king shall decide, whether, if an +accommodation could not be effected, permission to fight should be +given; that the aggressor, if pronounced in the wrong, shall in any case +be suspended from any public office or employment, and be mulcted of +one-third of his revenue till he has satisfied the aggrieved party; that +any one giving or receiving a challenge shall forfeit all right of +reparation and all his offices; that any one who kills his adversary in +an unauthorized duel shall suffer death without burial, and his children +shall be reduced to villanage; that seconds, if they take part in a +duel, shall suffer death, if not, shall be degraded from the profession +of arms. This edict has been pronounced by Henri Martin "the wisest +decree of the ancient monarchy on a matter which involves so many +delicate and profound questions of morals, politics, and religion +touching civil rights" (_Histoire de France_, x. 466). + +In the succeeding reign the mania for duels revived. Rostand's _Cyrano_ +is a life-like modern portraiture of French bloods in the first half of +the 17th century. De Houssaye tells us that in Paris when friends met +the first question was, "Who fought yesterday? who is to fight to-day?" +They fought by night and day, by moonlight and by torch-light, in the +public streets and squares. A hasty word, a misconceived gesture, a +question about the colour of a riband or an embroidered letter, such +were the commonest pretexts for a duel. The slighter and more frivolous +the dispute, the less were they inclined to submit them to the king for +adjudication. Often, like gladiators or prize-fighters, they fought for +the pure love of fighting. A misunderstanding is cleared up on the +ground. "N'importe," cry the principals, "puisque nous sommes ici, +battons-nous." Seconds, as Montaigne tells us, are no longer witnesses, +but must take part themselves unless they would be thought wanting in +affection or courage; and he goes on to complain that men are no longer +contented with a single second, "c'était anciennement des duels, ce sont +à cette heure rencontres et batailles." There is no more striking +instance of Richelieu's firmness and power as a statesman than his +conduct in the matter of duelling. In his _Testament politique_ he has +assigned his reasons for disapproving it as a statesman and +ecclesiastic. But this disapproval was turned to active detestation by a +private cause. His elder brother, the head of the house, had fallen in a +duel stabbed to the heart by an enemy of the cardinal. Already four +edicts had been published under Louis XIII. with little or no effect, +when in 1626 there was published a new edict condemning to death any one +who had killed his adversary in a duel, or had been found guilty of +sending a challenge a second time. Banishment and partial confiscation +of goods were awarded for lesser offences. But this edict differed from +preceding ones not so much in its severity as in the fact that it was +the first which was actually enforced. The cardinal began by imposing +the penalties of banishment and fines, but, these proving ineffectual to +stay the evil, he determined to make a terrible example. To quote his +own words to the king, "Il s'agit de couper la gorge aux duels ou aux +édits de votre Majesté." The count de Boutteville, a renommist who had +already been engaged in twenty-one affairs of honour, determined out of +pure bravado to fight a twenty-second time. The duel took place at +midday on the Place Royale. Boutteville was arrested with his second, +the count de Chapelles; they were tried by the parlement of Paris, +condemned and, in spite of all the influence of the powerful house of +Montmorenci, of which de Boutteville was a branch, they were both +beheaded on the 21st of June 1627. For a short time the ardour of +duellists was cooled. But the lesson soon lost its effect. Only five +years later we read in the _Mercure de France_ that two gentlemen who +had killed one another in a duel were, by the cardinal's orders, hanged +on a gallows, stripped and with their heads downwards, in the sight of +all the people. This was a move in the right direction, since, for +fashionable vices, ridicule and ignominy is a more drastic remedy than +death. It was on this principle that Caraccioli, prince of Melfi, when +viceroy of Piedmont, finding that his officers were being decimated by +duelling, proclaimed that all duels should be fought on the parapet of +the Ponte Vecchio, and if one of the combatants chanced to fall into the +river he should on no account be pulled out. + +Under the long reign of Louis XIV. many celebrated duels took place, of +which the most remarkable were that between the duke of Guise and Count +Coligny, the last fought on the Place Royale, and that between the dukes +of Beaufort and Nemours, each attended by four friends. Of the ten +combatants, Nemours and two others were killed on the spot, and none +escaped without some wound. No less than eleven edicts against duelling +were issued under le Grand Monarque. That of 1643 established a supreme +court of honour composed of the marshals of France; but the most famous +was that of 1679, which confirmed the enactments of his predecessors, +Henry IV. and Louis XII. At the same time a solemn agreement was entered +into by the principal nobility that they would never engage in a duel on +any pretence whatever. A medal was struck to commemorate the occasion, +and the firmness of the king, in refusing pardon to all offenders, +contributed more to restrain this scourge of society than all the +efforts of his predecessors. + +The subsequent history of duelling in France may be more shortly +treated. In the preamble to the edict of 1704 Louis XIV. records his +satisfaction at seeing under his reign an almost entire cessation of +those fatal combats which by the inveterate force of custom had so long +prevailed. Addison (_Spectator_, 99) notes it as one of the most +glorious exploits of his reign to have banished the false point of +honour. Under the regency of Louis XV. there was a brief revival. The +last legislative act for the suppression of duels was passed on the 12th +of April 1723. Then came the Revolution, which in abolishing the _ancien +régime_ fondly trusted that with it would go the duel, one of the +privileges and abuses of an aristocratic society. Dupleix, in his +_Military Law concerning the Duel_ (1611), premises that these have no +application to lawyers, merchants, financiers or justices. This explains +why in the legislation of the National Assembly there is no mention of +duels. Camille Desmoulins when challenged shrugged his shoulders and +replied to the charge of cowardice that he would prove his courage on +other fields than the Bois de Boulogne. The two great Frenchmen whose +writings preluded the French Revolution both set their faces against it. +Voltaire had indeed, as a young man, in obedience to the dictates of +society, once sought satisfaction from a nobleman for a brutal insult, +and had reflected on his temerity in the solitude of the Bastille.[1] +Henceforward he inveighed against the practice, not only for its +absurdity, but also for its aristocratic exclusiveness. Rousseau had +said of duelling, "It is not an institution of honour, but a horrible +and barbarous custom, which a courageous man despises and a good man +abhors." Napoleon was a sworn foe to it. "Bon duelliste mauvais soldat" +is one of his best known sayings; and, when the king of Sweden sent him +a challenge, he replied that he would order a fencing-master to attend +him as plenipotentiary. After the battle of Waterloo duels such as Lever +loves to depict were frequent between disbanded French officers and +those of the allies in occupation. The restoration of the Bourbons +brought with it a fresh crop of duels. Since then duels have been +frequent in France--more frequent, however, in novels than in real +life--fought mainly between politicians and journalists, and with rare +exceptions bloodless affairs. If fought with pistols, the distance and +the weapons chosen render a hit improbable; and, if fought with rapiers, +honour is generally satisfied with the first blood drawn. Among +Frenchmen famous in politics or letters who have "gone out" may be +mentioned Armand Carrel, who fell in an encounter with Émile Girardin; +Thiers, who thus atoned for a youthful indiscretion; the elder Dumas; +Lamartine; Ste Beuve, who to show at once his sangfroid and his sense of +humour, fought under an umbrella; Ledru Rollin; Edmond About; Clément +Thomas; Veuillot, the representative of the church militant; Rochefort; +and Boulanger, the Bonapartist _fanfaron_, whose discomfiture in a duel +with Floquet resulted in a notable loss of popular respect. + + + In England. + +Duelling did not begin in England till some hundred years after it had +arisen in France. There is no instance of a private duel fought in +England before the 16th century, and they are rare before the reign of +James I. A very fair notion of the comparative popularity of duelling, +and of the feeling with which it was regarded at various periods, might +be gathered by examining the part it plays in the novels and lighter +literature of the times. The earliest duels we remember in fiction are +that in the _Monastery_ between Sir Piercie Shafton and Halbert +Glendinning, and that in _Kenilworth_ between Tressilian and Varney. +(That in _Anne of Geierstein_ either is an anachronism or must reckon as +a wager by battle.) Under James I. we have the encounter between Nigel +and Lord Dalgarno. The greater evil of war, as we observed in French +history, expels the lesser, and the literature of the Commonwealth is in +this respect a blank. With the Restoration there came a reaction against +Puritan morality, and a return to the gallantry and loose manners of +French society, which is best represented by the theatre of the day. The +drama of the Restoration abounds in duels. Passing on to the reign of +Queen Anne, we find the subject frequently discussed in the _Tatler_ and +the _Spectator_, and Addison points in his happiest way the moral to a +contemporary duel between Mr Thornhill and Sir Cholmeley Dering. "I come +not," says Spinomont to King Pharamond, "I come not to implore your +pardon, I come to relate my sorrow, a sorrow too great for human life to +support. Know that this morning I have killed in a duel the man whom of +all men living I love best." No reader of _Esmond_ can forget +Thackeray's description of the doubly fatal duel between the duke of +Hamilton and Lord Mohun, which is historical, or the no less life-like +though fictitious duel between Lord Mohun and Lord Castlewood. The duel +between the two brothers in Stevenson's _Master of Ballantrae_ is one of +the best conceived in fiction. Throughout the reigns of the Georges they +are frequent. Richardson expresses his opinion on the subject in six +voluminous letters to the _Literary Repositor_. Sheridan, like Farquhar +in a previous generation, not only dramatized a duel, but fought two +himself. Byron thus commemorates the bloodless duel between Tom Moore +and Lord Jeffrey:-- + + "Can none remember that eventful day, + That ever glorious almost fatal fray, + When Little's leadless pistols met the eye, + And Bow Street myrmidons stood laughing by?" + +There are no duels in Miss Austen's novels, but in those of Miss +Edgeworth, her contemporary, there are three or four. As we approach the +19th century they become rarer in fiction. Thackeray's novels, indeed, +abound in duels. "His royal highness the late lamented commander-in-chief" +had the greatest respect for Major Macmurdo, as a man who had conducted +scores of affairs for his acquaintance with the greatest prudence and +skill; and Rawdon Crawley's duelling pistols, "the same which I shot +Captain Marker," have become a household word. Dickens, on the other hand, +who depicts contemporary English life, and mostly in the middle classes, +in all his numerous works has only three; and George Eliot never once +refers to a duel. Tennyson, using a poet's privilege, laid the scene of a +duel in the year of the Crimean War, but he echoes the spirit of the times +when he stigmatizes "the Christless code that must have life for a blow." +Browning, who delights in cases of conscience, has given admirably the +double moral aspect of the duel in his two lyrics entitled "Before" and +"After." + +To pass from fiction to fact we will select the most memorable English +duels of the last century and a half. Lord Byron killed Mr Chaworth in +1765; Charles James Fox and Mr Adams fought in 1779; duke of York and +Colonel Lennox, 1789; William Pitt and George Tierney, 1796; George +Canning and Lord Castlereagh, 1809; Mr Christie killed John Scott, +editor of the _London Magazine_, 1821; duke of Wellington and earl of +Winchelsea, 1829; Mr Roebuck and Mr Black, editor of _Morning +Chronicle_, 1835; Lord Alvanley and a son of Daniel O'Connell in the +same year; Earl Cardigan wounded Captain Tuckett, was tried by his +peers, and acquitted on a legal quibble, 1840. + +The year 1808 is memorable in the annals of duelling in England. Major +Campbell was sentenced to death and executed for killing Captain Boyd in +a duel. In this case it is true that there was a suspicion of foul play; +but in the case of Lieutenant Blundell, who was killed in a duel in +1813, though all had been conducted with perfect fairness, the surviving +principal and the seconds were all convicted of murder and sentenced to +death, and, although the royal pardon was obtained, they were all +cashiered. The next important date is the year 1843, when public +attention was painfully called to the subject by a duel in which Colonel +Fawcett was shot by his brother-in-law, Lieutenant Monro. The survivor, +whose career was thereby blasted, had, it was well known, gone out most +reluctantly, in obedience to the then prevailing military code. A full +account of the steps taken by the prince consort, and of the +correspondence which passed between him and the duke of Wellington, will +be found in the _Life of the Prince_ by Sir Theodore Martin. The duke, +unfortunately, was not an unprejudiced counsellor. Not only had he been +out himself, but, in writing to Lord Londonderry on the occasion of the +duel between the marquess and Ensign Battier in 1824, he had gone so far +as to state that he considered the probability of the Hussars having to +fight a duel or two a matter of no consequence. In the previous year +there had been formed in London the association for the suppression of +duelling. It included leading members of both houses of parliament and +distinguished officers of both services. The first report, issued in +1844, gives a memorial of the association presented to Queen Victoria +through Sir James Graham, and in a debate in the House of Commons (15th +of March 1844) Sir H. Hardinge, the secretary of war, announced to the +House that Her Majesty had expressed herself desirous of devising some +expedient by which the barbarous practice of duelling should be as much +as possible discouraged. In the same debate Mr Turner reckoned the +number of duels fought during the reign of George III. at 172, of which +91 had been attended with fatal results; yet in only two of these cases +had the punishment of death been inflicted. But though the proposal of +the prince consort to establish courts of honour met with no favour, yet +it led to an important amendment of the articles of war (April 1844). +The 98th article ordains that "every person who shall fight or promote a +duel, or take any steps thereto, or who shall not do his best to prevent +duel, shall, if an officer, be cashiered, or suffer such other penalty +as a general court-martial may award." These articles, with a few verbal +changes, were incorporated in the consolidated Army Act of 1879 (section +38), which is still in force. + + + In Germany. + +In the German army duels are still authorized by the military code as a +last resort in grave cases. A German officer who is involved in a +difficulty with another is bound to notify the circumstance to a council +of honour at the latest as soon as he has either given or received a +challenge. A council of honour consists of three officers of different +ranks and is instructed, if possible, to bring about a reconciliation. +If unsuccessful it must see that the conditions of the duel are not out +of proportion to the gravity of the quarrel. Public opinion was greatly +roused by a tragic duel fought by two officers of the reserve in 1896; +and the German emperor in a cabinet order of 1897, confirmed in 1901, +enforced the regulation of the military court of honour, and gave +warning that any infringement would be visited with the full penalties +of the law. It is, notwithstanding, still the fact that a German officer +who is not prepared to accept a challenge and fight, if the opinion of +his regiment demands it, must leave the service. The German penal code +(_Reichsstrafgesetzbuch_, pars. 101-110) only punishes a duel when it is +fought with lethal weapons; and much controversy has raged round the +question of the _Mensuren_ or students' duels, which, as being conducted +with sharpened rapiers, have, despite the precautions taken, in the way +of bandaging the vital parts of the body which a cut would reach, to +reduce the risk of a fatal issue to a minimum, been declared by the +Supreme Court of the Empire to fall under the head of duels, and as such +to be punishable. + +The _Mensuren_ (German students' duels) above referred to are frequently +misunderstood. They bear little resemblance, save in form, to the duel +_à outrance_, and should rather be considered in the light of athletic +games, in which the overflow of high animal spirits in young Germany +finds its outlet. These combats are indulged in principally by picked +representatives of the "corps" (recognized clubs), and according to the +position and value of the _Schmisse_ (cuts which have landed) points are +awarded to either side. Formerly these so-called duels could be openly +indulged in at most universities without let or hindrance. Gradually, +however, the academic authorities took cognizance of the illegality of +the practice, and in many cases inflicted punishment for the offence. +Nowadays, owing to the decision of the supreme court reserving to the +common law tribunals the power to deal with such cases, the governing +bodies at the universities have only a disciplinary control, which is +exercised at the various seats of learning in various degrees: in some +the practice is silently tolerated, or at most visited by reprimand; in +others, again, by relegation or _carcer_--with the result that the +students of one university frequently visit another, in order to be able +to fight out their battles under less rigorous surveillance. + + + Modern views. + +Any formal discussion of the morality of duelling is, in England at +least, happily superfluous. No fashionable vice has been so unanimously +condemned both by moralists and divines, and in tracing its history we +are reminded of the words of Tacitus, "in civitate nostra et vetabitur +semper et retinebitur." Some, however, of the problems, moral and +social, which it suggests may be shortly noticed. That duelling +flourished so long in England the law is, perhaps, as much to blame as +society. It was doubtless from the fact that duels were at first a form +of legal procedure that English law has refused to take cognizance of +private duels. A duel in the eye of the law differs nothing from an +ordinary murder. The greatest English legal authorities, from the time +of Elizabeth downwards, such as Coke, Bacon and Hale, have all +distinctly affirmed this interpretation of the law. But here as +elsewhere the severity of the penalty defeated its own object. The +public conscience revolted against a Draconian code which made no +distinction between wilful murder and a deadly combat wherein each party +consented to his own death or submitted to the risk of it. No jury could +be found to convict when conviction involved in the same penalty a Fox +or a Pitt and a Turpin or a Brownrigg. Such, however, was the +conservatism of English publicists that Bentham was the first to point +out clearly this defect of the law, and propose a remedy. In his +_Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation_, published in +1789, Bentham discusses the subject with his usual boldness and logical +precision. In his exposition of the absurdity of duelling considered as +a branch of penal justice, and its inefficiency as a punishment, he only +restates in a clearer form the arguments of Paley. So far there is +nothing novel in his treatment of the subject. But he soon parts company +with the Christian moralist, and proceeds to show that duelling does, +however rudely and imperfectly, correct and repress a real social evil. +"It entirely effaces a blot which an insult imprints upon the honour. +Vulgar moralists, by condemning public opinion upon this point, only +confirm the fact." He then points out the true remedy for the evil. It +is to extend the same legal protection to offences against honour as to +offences against the person. The legal satisfactions which he suggests +are some of them extremely grotesque. Thus for an insult to a woman, the +man is to be dressed in a woman's clothes, and the retort to be +inflicted by the hand of a woman. But the principle indicated is a sound +one, that in offences against honour the punishment must be analogous to +the injury. Doubtless, if Bentham were now alive, he would allow that +the necessity for such a scheme of legislation had in a great measure +passed away. That duels have since become extinct is no doubt +principally owing to social changes, but it may be in part ascribed to +improvements in legal remedies in the sense which Bentham indicated. A +notable instance is Lord Campbell's Act of 1843, by which, in the case +of a newspaper libel, a public apology coupled with a pecuniary payment +is allowed to bar a plea. In the Indian Code there are special +enactments concerning duelling, which is punishable not as murder but as +homicide. + +Suggestions have from time to time been made for the establishment of +courts of honour, but the need of such tribunals is doubtful, while the +objections to them are obvious. The present tendency of political +philosophy is to contract rather than extend the province of law, and +any interference with social life is justly resented. Real offences +against reputation are sufficiently punished, and the rule of the +lawyers, that mere scurrility or opprobrious words, which neither of +themselves import nor are attended with any hurtful effects, are not +punishable, seems on the whole a wise one. What in a higher rank is +looked upon as a gross insult may in a lower rank be regarded as a mere +pleasantry or a harmless joke. Among the lower orders offences against +honour can hardly be said to exist; the learned professions have each +its own tribunal to which its members are amenable; and the highest +ranks of society, however imperfect their standard of morality may be, +are perfectly competent to enforce that standard by means of social +penalties without resorting either to trial by law or trial by battle. + +The duel, which in a barbarous age may be excused as "a sort of wild +justice," was condemned by Bacon as "a direct affront of law and tending +to the dissolution of magistracy." It survived in more civilized times +as a class distinction and as an ultimate court of appeal to punish +violations of the social code. In a democratic age and under a settled +government it is doomed to extinction. The military duels of the +European continent, and the so-called American duel, where the lot +decides which of the two parties shall end his life, are singular +survivals. For real offences against reputation law will provide a +sufficient remedy The learned professions will have each its own +tribunal to which its members are amenable. Social stigma is at once a +surer and a juster defence against conduct unworthy of a gentleman. Yet +the duel dies hard, and even to-day it is approved or palliated by some +notable publicists and professors in France and Germany. M.H. Marion +(_La Grande Encyclopédie_), in an article strongly condemnatory of +duels, still holds that the wrongdoer is bound to accept a challenge, +though he may not take the offensive, and further allows that obligatory +duels may be the only way of evoking a sense of honour and of +maintaining discipline in the army. Dr Paulsen goes much further, and +not only defends the duels of university students (_Mensuren_) as an +encouragement of physical exercise, a proof of courage and a protest of +worth against wealth, but maintains generally that the duel should be +retained as an expedient in those exceptional cases when a man cannot +bring himself to drag before a law court the outrage done to his +personal honour. But in such cases Dr Paulsen would have the courts hold +the injured person scathless, whether he be challenger or challenged, +and visit the aggressor with condign punishment. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Castillo, _Tractatus de duello_ (Turin, 1525); J.P. + Pigna, _Il Duello_ (1554); Muzio Girolamo, _Traité du duel_ (Venice, + 1553): Boyssat, _Recherches sur les duels_ (Lyons, 1610); J. Savaron, + _Traité contre les duels_ (Paris, 1610); Brantôme, _Mémoire sur les + duels rodomontades_; F. Bacon, _Charge concerning Duels_, &c. (1614); + d'Audiguier, _Le Vray et ancien usage des duels_ (Paris, 1617); _His + Majesties Edict and severe Censure against private combats_ (London, + 1618); Cockburn, _History of Duels_ (London, 1720); Brillat Savarin, + _Essai sur le duel_ (1819); Châteauvillard, _Essai sur le duel_ + (1836); Colombey, _Histoire anecdotique du duel_ (Paris); Fourgeroux + de Champigneules, _Histoire des duels anciens et modernes_ (2 vols., + Paris, 1835-1837); Millingen, _History of Duelling_ (London, 1841); L. + Sabine, _Notes on Duels_ (Boston, 1855); Steinmetz, _Romance of + Duelling_ (London, 1868). See also Eugène Cauchy, _Du duel_, &c. + (1846), a learned and philosophic treatise by a French lawyer; G. + Letainturier-Fradin, _Le Duel à travers les âges_ (Paris, 1892); + Mackay, _History of Popular Delusions, Duels and Ordeals_; and for a + valuable list of authorities, Buckle, _History of Civilization in + England_, ii. 137, note 71. For judicial combats see Gibbon, _Decline + and Fall_, ch. xxxviii. For courts of honour see _Armed Strength of + the German Empire_ (1876). For _Mensur_, see Paulsen, _The German + Universities_ (1906), ch. vi. (F. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Voltaire met the chevalier Rohan-Chabot at the house of the + Marquis of Sully. The chevalier, offended by Voltaire's free speech, + insolently asked the marquis, "Who is that young man?" "One," replied + Voltaire, "who if he does not parade a great name, honours that he + bears." The chevalier said nothing at the time, but, seizing his + opportunity, inveigled Voltaire into his coach, and had him beaten by + six of his footmen. Voltaire set to work to learn fencing, and then + sought the chevalier in the theatre, and publicly challenged him. A + _bon-mot_ at the chevalier's expense was the only satisfaction that + the philosopher could obtain. "Monsieur, si quelque affaire d'intérêt + ne vous a point fait oublier l'outrage dont j'ai à me plaindre, + j'espère que vous m'en rendrez raison." The chevalier was said to + employ his capital in petty usury. + + + + +DUENNA (Span. _dueña_, a married lady or mistress, Lat. _domina_), +specifically the chief lady-in-waiting upon the queen of Spain. The word +is more widely applied, however, to an elderly lady in Spanish and +Portuguese households (holding a position midway between a governess and +companion) appointed to take charge of the young girls of the family; +and "duenna" is thus used in English as a synonym for chaperon (q.v.). + + + + +DUET (an adaptation of the Ital. _duetto_, from Lat. _duo_, two), a term +in music for a composition for two performers, both either vocal or +instrumental. The term is not properly applied to a composition for one +voice and one instrument, the latter being regarded as an accompaniment, +though in the modern evolution of this latter form of composition it +often has the same character. Both parts must be of equal importance; if +one is subordinated to the other it becomes an accompaniment and the +work ceases to be a duet. Instrumental duets are written either for two +different instruments, such as Mozart's duets for violin and piano, or +for two similar instruments. Duets written for the pianoforte are either +for two performers on two separate instruments or for two performers on +the same instrument, when they are termed "_duets à quatre mains_." + + + + +DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS (1798-1881), French statesman, was born +at Saujon (Charente-Inférieure) on the 4th of December 1798. He became +an advocate at Bordeaux, where he won a great reputation by his +oratorical gifts, but soon abandoned law for politics, and in 1834 was +elected deputy. In 1839 he became minister of public works in the Soult +ministry, and succeeded in freeing railway construction in France from +the obstacles which till then had hampered it. Losing office in 1840, +Dufaure became one of the leaders of the Opposition, and on the outbreak +of the revolution of 1848 he frankly accepted the Republic, and joined +the party of moderate republicans. On October 13th he became minister of +the interior under G. Cavaignac, but retired on the latter's defeat in +the presidential election. During the Second Empire Dufaure abstained +from public life, and practised at the Paris bar with such success that +he was elected _bâtonnier_ in 1862. In 1863 he succeeded to Pasquier's +seat in the French Academy. In 1871 he became a member of the Assembly, +and it was on his motion that Thiers was elected President of the +Republic. Dufaure became the minister of justice as chief of the party +of the "left-centre," and his tenure of office was distinguished by the +passage of the jury-law. In 1873 he fell with Thiers, but in 1875 +resumed his former post under L.J. Buffet, whom he succeeded on the 9th +of March 1876 as president of the council. In the same year he was +elected a life senator. On December the 12th he withdrew from the +ministry owing to the attacks of the republicans of the left in the +chamber and of the conservatives in the senate. After the check which +the conservatives received on the 16th of May he returned to power on +the 24th of December 1877. Early in 1879 Dufaure took part in compelling +the resignation of Marshal MacMahon, but immediately afterwards (1st +February), worn out by opposition, he himself retired. He died in Paris +on the 28th of June 1881. + + See G. Picot, _M. Dufaure, sa vie et ses discours_ (Paris, 1883). + + + + +DUFF, ALEXANDER (1806-1878), Scottish missionary in India, was born on +the 26th of April 1806, at Auchnahyle in the parish of Moulin, +Perthshire. At St Andrews University he came under the influence of Dr +Chalmers. He then accepted an offer made by the foreign mission +committee of the general assembly to become their first missionary to +India. He was ordained in August 1829, and started at once for India, +but was twice shipwrecked before he reached Calcutta in May 1830, and +lost all his books and other property. Making Calcutta the base of his +operations, he at once identified himself with a policy which had +far-reaching results. Up to this time Protestant missions in India had +been successful only in reaching low-caste and outcaste peoples, +particularly in Tinevelly and south Travancore. The Hindu and Mahommedan +communities had been practically untouched. Duff saw that, to reach +these communities, educational must take the place of evangelizing +methods, and he devised the policy of an educational mission. The +success of his work had the effect (1) of altering the policy of the +government of India in matters of education, (2) of securing the +recognition of education as a missionary agency by Christian churches at +home, and (3) of securing entrance for Christian ideas into the minds of +high-caste Hindus. He first opened an English school in which the Bible +was the centre of the school work, and along with it all kinds of +secular knowledge were taught from the rudiments upwards to a university +standard. The English language was used on the ground that it was +destined to be the great instrument of higher education in India, and +also as giving the Hindu the key of Western knowledge. The school soon +began to expand into a missionary college, and a government minute was +adopted on the 7th of March 1835, to the effect that in higher education +the object of the British government should be the promotion of European +science and literature among the natives of India, and that all funds +appropriated for purposes of education would be best employed on English +education alone. Duff wrote a pamphlet on the question, entitled "A New +Era of the English Language and Literature in India." He returned home +in 1834 broken in health, but succeeded in securing the approval of his +church for his educational plans, and also in arousing much interest in +the work of foreign missions. + +In 1840 he returned to India. In the previous year the earl of Auckland, +governor-general, had yielded to the "Orientalists" who opposed Duff, +and adopted a policy which was a compromise between the two. At the +Disruption of 1843 Duff sided with the Free Church, gave up the college +buildings, with all their effects, and with unabated courage set to work +to provide a new institution. He had the support of Sir James Outram and +Sir Henry Lawrence, and the encouragement of seeing a new band of +converts, including several young men of high caste. In 1844 Viscount +Hardinge opened government appointments to all who had studied in +institutions similar to Duff's foundation. In the same year Duff took +part in founding the _Calcutta Review_, of which from 1845 to 1849 he +was editor. In 1849 he returned home. He was moderator of the Free +Church assembly in 1851. He gave evidence before various Indian +committees of parliament on matters of education. This led to an +important despatch by Viscount Halifax, president of the board of +control, to the marquess of Dalhousie, the governor-general, authorizing +an educational advance in primary and secondary schools, the provision +of technical and scientific teaching, and the establishment of schools +for girls. + +In 1854 Duff visited the United States, where what is now New York +University gave him the degree of LL.D.; he was already D.D. of +Aberdeen. In 1856 he returned to India, where the mutiny soon broke out; +his descriptive letters were collected in a volume entitled _The Indian +Mutiny, its Causes and Results_ (1858). Duff gave much thought and time +to the university of Calcutta, which owes its examination system and the +prominence given to physical sciences to his influence. In 1863 Sir +Charles Trevelyan offered him the post of vice-chancellor of the +University, but his health compelled him to leave India. As a memorial +of his work the Duff Hall was erected in the centre of the educational +buildings of Calcutta; and a fund of £11,000 was raised for his +disposal, the capital of which was afterwards to be used for invalided +missionaries of his own church. In 1864 Duff visited South Africa, and +on his return became convener of the foreign missions committee of the +Free Church. He raised £10,000 to endow a missionary chair at New +College, Edinburgh, and himself became first professor. Among other +missionary labours of his later years, he helped the Free Church mission +on Lake Nyassa, travelled to Syria to inspect a mission at Lebanon, and +assisted Lady Aberdeen and Lord Polwarth to establish the Gordon +Memorial Mission in Natal. In 1873 the Free Church was threatened with a +schism owing to negotiations for union with the United Presbyterian +Church. Duff was called to the chair, and guided the church happily +through this crisis. He also took part in forming the alliance of +Reformed Churches holding the Presbyterian system. He died on the 12th +of February 1878. By his will he devoted his personal property to found +a lectureship on foreign missions on the model of the Bampton Lectures. + + See his _Life_, by George Smith (2 vols.). (D. Mn.) + + + + +DUFFERIN AND AVA, FREDERICK TEMPLE HAMILTON-TEMPLE-BLACKWOOD, 1ST +MARQUESS OF (1826-1902), British diplomatist, son of Price Blackwood, +4th Baron Dufferin, was born at Florence, Italy, on the 21st of June +1826. The Irish Blackwoods were of old Scottish stock,[1] tracing their +descent back to the 14th century. John Blackwood of Bangor (1591-1663), +the ancestor of the Irish line, made a fortune and acquired landed +property in county Down, and his great-grandson Robert was created a +baronet in 1763. Sir Robert's son, Sir John, married the heiress of the +Hamiltons, earls of Clanbrassil and viscounts of Clandeboye ("clan of +yellow Hugh"), and thus brought into the family a large property in the +borough of Killyleagh and barony of Dufferin, county Down. Sir John +Blackwood (d. 1799) declined a peerage, and so did his heir James at the +time of the Union, but the Irish title of Baroness Dufferin was +conferred (1800) on Sir John's widow, and James (d. 1836) succeeded as +second baron in 1808. His brother Hans (d. 1839) became third baron, and +by his marriage with Miss Temple (a descendant of the Temples of Stowe) +was the father of Price Blackwood, 4th baron. Among other distinguished +members of the family was Admiral Sir Henry Blackwood, Bart. +(1770-1832)--a brother of James and Hans--one of Nelson's captains, who +commanded the "Euryalus" at Trafalgar. Price Blackwood, too, was in the +Navy; his marriage in 1825 with Helen Selina Sheridan, a daughter of +Thomas Sheridan, and granddaughter of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the +dramatist and politician, was against his parents' wishes, but his young +wife's talents and beauty soon won them over. + +Frederick went to Eton (1839-1843) and Christ Church, Oxford +(1845-1847), where he took a pass school and was President of the Union. +His father died in 1841, and the influence of his mother--one of three +unusually accomplished sisters, the other two being the duchess of +Somerset and Mrs Norton (q.v.)--was very marked on his mental +development; she lived till 1867 and is commemorated by the "Helen's +Tower" erected by her son in her honour at Clandeboye (the Irish seat of +the Blackwoods) in 1861, and adorned with epigraphical verses written by +Tennyson, Browning and others. On leaving Oxford Lord Dufferin busied +himself for some little while with the management of his Irish estates. +In 1846-1848 he was active in relieving the distress in Ireland due to +the famine, and he was always generous and liberal in his relations with +his tenants. In 1855 he already advocated compensation for disturbance +and for improvements; but while supporting reasonable reform, he +demanded justice for the landowners. In later years (1868-1881) he wrote +much, in opposition to J.S. Mill, on behalf of Irish landlordism, and, +when Gladstone adopted Home Rule, Lord Dufferin, who had been attached +throughout his career to the Liberal party, regarded the new policy as +fatal both to Ireland and to the United Kingdom, though, being then an +ambassador, he took no public part in opposing it. + +Starting with every personal and social advantage, Lord Dufferin quickly +became a favourite both at Court and in London society; and in 1849 he +was made a lord-in-waiting. In political life he followed Lord John +Russell, and in 1850 was further attached to the party by being created +a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Clandeboye. In 1855 Lord John +Russell took him as attaché on his special mission to the Vienna +Conference. Meanwhile Lord Dufferin was enlarging his experience by +foreign travel, and in 1856 he went on a yachting-tour to Iceland, which +he described with much humour and graphic power in his successful book, +_Letters from High Latitudes_; this volume made his reputation as a +writer, though his only other purely literary publication was his +memorial edition (1894) of his mother's _Poems and Verses_. In 1860 Lord +John Russell sent him as British representative on a joint commission of +the powers appointed to inquire into the affairs of the Lebanon (Syria), +where the massacres of Christian Maronites by the Mussulman Druses had +resulted in the landing of a French force and the possibility of a +French occupation. Lord Dufferin was associated with French, Russian, +Prussian and Turkish colleagues, and his difficult diplomatic position +was made none the less delicate by his conscientious endeavour to be +just to all parties. Even if he had not satisfied himself that the +Mahommedans were by no means wholly to blame, the question of punishment +was in any case complicated by the problem of future administration. His +own proposal to put the whole Syrian province under a responsible +governor, appointed by the sultan for a term of years, with unfettered +jurisdiction, was rejected; but at last it was agreed to place a +Christian governor, subordinate to the Porte, over the Lebanon district, +and to set up local administrative councils. In May 1861 the French +forces departed, and Lord Dufferin was thanked for his services by the +government. + +In 1862 he married Hariot, daughter of Captain A. Rowan Hamilton, of +Killyleagh Castle, Down. He held successively the posts of +under-secretary for India (1864-1866) and under-secretary for war (1866) +in Lord Palmerston's and Earl Russell's ministries; and he was +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, outside the cabinet, under Mr +Gladstone (1868-1872). In 1871 he was created earl of Dufferin. + +In 1872 he was appointed governor-general of Canada. There his tact and +personal charm and genial hospitality were invaluable. He had already +become known as a powerful and graceful orator, and a man of culture and +political distinction; and his abilities were brilliantly displayed in +dealing with the problems of the newly united provinces of the Canadian +Dominion. At a time when a weak or unattractive governor-general might +easily have damaged the imperial connexion, he admittedly strengthened +and consolidated it. Lord Dufferin left Canada in 1878, and in 1879, +rather to the annoyance of his old party leader, he accepted from the +conservative prime minister, Lord Beaconsfield, the appointment of +ambassador to Russia. At St Petersburg he did useful diplomatic work for +a couple of years, and then, in 1881, was transferred to Constantinople +as ambassador to Turkey. He was soon involved in the negotiations +connected with the situation in Egypt caused by Arabi's revolt and the +intervention of Great Britain. It was Lord Dufferin's task to arrange +matters at Constantinople, so that no international friction should be +created by any inconvenient assertion by the sultan of his position as +suzerain, while it was also necessary to avoid offending either the +sultan or the other powers by any appearance of ignoring their rights. +He was considerably helped by Turkish ineptitude, and by the +accomplished fact of British military successes in Egypt, but his own +diplomacy was responsible for securing the necessary freedom of action +for the British government. + +From October 1882 to May 1883 he was himself in Egypt as British +commissioner to report on a scheme of reorganization; and his +recommendations--drawn up in a somewhat elaborate State paper--formed +the basis of the subsequent reforms. In 1884 he was appointed viceroy of +India, succeeding Lord Ripon, whose zeal on behalf of the natives had +created a good deal of antagonism among the officials and the +Anglo-Indian community. Lord Dufferin, though agreeing in the main with +Lord Ripon's policy, was excellently fitted for the task of restoring +confidence without producing any undesirable reaction, and in domestic +affairs his viceroyalty was a period of substantial progress, in the +reform of the evils of land tenure and in other directions. He was +responsible also for initiating stable relations with Afghanistan, and +settling the crisis with Russia arising out of the Panjdeh incident +(1885), which led to the delimitation of the north-west frontier (1887). +The most striking event of his administration was, however, the +annexation of Burma, resulting from the Burmese War of 1885; and this +procured him, on his resignation, the title of marquess of Dufferin and +Ava (1888). His viceroyalty was also memorable for Lady Dufferin's work, +and the starting of a fund called by her name, for providing better +medical treatment for native women. In 1888 he was made ambassador at +Rome, and in 1892 he was promoted to be ambassador in Paris, a post +which he retained till 1896, when he retired from the public service. + +Lord Dufferin was one of the most admired public servants of his time. A +man of great natural gifts, he had a special talent for diplomacy, +though he has no claim to a place in the first rank of statesmen. He was +remarkable for tact and amiability, and had a florid and rather +elaborately literary style of oratory, which also characterized his +despatches and reports. For purposes of ceremony his courtliness, +dignity and charm of manner were invaluable, and both in public and in +private life he was a conspicuous "great gentleman." His last years, +spent mainly at his Irish home, were clouded by the death of his eldest +son, the earl of Ava, at Ladysmith in the Boer War (1900), and by +business troubles. He was so ill-advised as to become chairman in 1897 +of the "London and Globe Finance Corporation," a financial company which +most good judges in the city of London thought to be too much in the +hands of its managing director, Mr Whitaker Wright, whose methods had +been a good deal criticized. At last there came a complete crash, and an +exposure before the liquidator, which ultimately led to Mr Whitaker +Wright's trial for fraud in 1904, and his suicide within the precincts +of the court on being found guilty. Lord Dufferin did not live to see +this final catastrophe. The affairs of the company were still under +investigation in bankruptcy when, on the 12th of February 1902, he died. +He had been in failing health for two or three years, but, having once +become chairman of the "London and Globe," he had insisted upon standing +by his colleagues when difficulties arose. Incautious as he had been in +accepting the position, no reflections were felt to be possible on Lord +Dufferin's personal honour; he was a serious loser by the failure, and +he had followed his predecessor in the chairmanship, Lord Loch, in +confiding too wholly in the masterful personality of Mr Wright. He was +succeeded in the title by his second son Terence (b. 1866). + + The official _Life_ of Lord Dufferin, by Sir Alfred Lyall, appeared in + 1905. There are two Canadian histories of his Canadian administration, + one by George Stewart (1878), the other by W. Leggo (1878). Lady + Dufferin brought out _Our Viceregal Life in India_ in 1889, and _My + Canadian Journal_ in 1891. See also the articles on INDIA; _History_; + CANADA: _History_; and EGYPT: _History_. (H. Ch.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] One branch of the Blackwood family emigrated to France; the head + of this line being Adam Blackwood (d. 1613), jurist, poet and divine, + and senator of the presidial court of Poitiers. + + + + +DUFF-GORDON, LUCIE (1821-1869), English woman of letters, daughter of +John and Sarah Austin (q.v.), was born on the 24th of June 1821. Her +chief playfellows as a child were her cousin, Henry Reeve, and John +Stuart Mill, who lived next door in Queen Square, London. In 1834 the +Austins went to Boulogne, and at table d'hôte Lucie found herself next +to Heinrich Heine. The poet and the little girl became fast friends, and +years afterwards she contributed to Lord Houghton's _Monographs Personal +and Social_ a touching account of a renewal of their friendship when +Heine lay dying in Paris. Her parents went to Malta in 1836, and Lucie +Austin was left in England at school, but her unconventional education +made the restrictions of a girls' school exceedingly irksome. She showed +her independence of character by joining the English Church, though this +step was certain to cause pain to her parents, who were Unitarians, and +to many of her friends. She married in 1840 Sir Alexander Duff-Gordon +(1811-1872). With her mother's beauty she had inherited her social +gifts, and she gathered round her a brilliant circle of friends. George +Meredith has analysed and described her extraordinary success as a +hostess, and the process by which she reduced too ardent admirers to +"happy crust-munching devotees." "In England, in her day," he says, +"while health was with her, there was one house where men and women +conversed. When that house perforce was closed, a light had gone out in +our country." After her father's death, she fell into weak health and +was obliged to seek sunnier climes. She went in 1860 to the Cape of Good +Hope, and later to Egypt, where she died on the 14th of July 1869. She +had translated among other works _Ancient Grecian Mythology_ (1839) from +the German of Niebuhr; _Mary Schweidler_; _The Amber Witch_ (1844) from +the German of Wilhelm Meinhold; and _Stella and Vanessa_ (1850) from the +French of A.F.L. de Wailly. Her _Letters from the Cape_ (1862-1863) +appeared in 1865; and in 1865 her _Letters from Egypt_, edited by her +mother, attracted much attention. _Last Letters from Egypt_ (1875) +contained a memoir by her daughter, Mrs Janet Ross. Lady Duff-Gordon won +the hearts of her Arab dependents and neighbours. She doctored their +sick, taught their children, and sympathized with their sorrows. + + The _Letters front Egypt_ were not originally published in a complete + form. A fuller edition than had before been possible, with an + introduction by George Meredith, was edited in 1902 by Mrs Janet Ross. + See also Mrs Ross's _Three Generations of Englishwomen_ (1886). + + + + +DUFFTOWN, a municipal and police burgh of Banffshire, Scotland, on the +Fiddich, 64 m. W.N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great North of Scotland +railway. Pop. (1901) 1823. It dates from 1817 and bears the name of its +founder, James Duff, 4th earl of Fife. Although planned in the shape of +a cross, with a square and tower in the middle, the arms of the cross +are not straight, the constructor holding the ingenious opinion that, in +order to prevent little towns from being taken in at a glance, their +streets should be crooked. The leading industries are lime-works and +distilleries, the water being specially fitted for the making of whisky. +The town has considerable repute as a health resort, owing partly to its +elevation (737 ft.) and partly to the natural charms of the district. +The parish of Mortlach, in which Dufftown is situated, is rich in +archaeological and historical associations. What is called the Stone of +Mortlach is traditionally believed to have been erected to commemorate +the success of Malcolm II. over the Danes in 1010. The three large +stones known as "The King's Grave," a hill-fort, and cairns are of +interest to the antiquary. The old church of Mortlach, though restored +and almost renewed, still contains some lancet windows and a +round-headed doorway, besides monuments dating from 1417. A portion of +old Balvenie Castle, a ruin, is considered to be of Pictish origin, but +most of it is in the Scots Baronial. It has associations with Alexander +Stewart, earl of Buchan and lord of Badenoch (1343-1405), son of Robert +II., whose ruffianly conduct in Elginshire earned him the designation of +the Wolf of Badenoch, the Comyns, the Douglases (to whom it gave the +title of baron in the 15th century), the Stuarts and the Duffs. The new +castle, an uninteresting building, was erected in 1724 by the earl of +Fife, and though untenanted is maintained in repair. Two miles to the +S.E. of Dufftown is the ruined castle of Auchindown, finely situated on +a limestone crag, 200 ft. high, of which three sides are washed by the +Fiddich and the fourth was protected by a moat. It dates from the 11th +century, and once belonged to the Ogilvies, from whom it passed in 1535 +to the Gordons. The Gothic hall with rows of fluted pillars is in fair +preservation. Ben Rinnes (2755 ft.) and several other hills of lesser +altitude all lie within a few miles of Dufftown. About 4 m. to the N.W. +is Craigellachie--Gaelic for "the rock of alarm"--(pop. 454), on the +confines of Elginshire. It is situated on the Spey amidst scenery of +surpassing loveliness. The slogan of the Grants is "Stand fast +Craigellachie!" The place has become an important junction of the Great +North of Scotland railway system. + + + + +DUFFY, SIR CHARLES GAVAN (1816-1903), Irish and colonial politician, was +born in Monaghan, Ireland, on the 12th of April 1816. At an early age he +became connected with the press, and was one of the founders (1842) of +the _Nation_, a Dublin weekly which was remarkable for its talent, for +its seditious tendencies, and for the fire and spirit of its political +poetry. In 1844 Duffy was included in the same indictment with +O'Connell, and shared his conviction in Dublin and his acquittal by the +House of Lords upon a point of law. His ideas, nevertheless, were too +revolutionary for O'Connell; a schism took place in 1846, and Duffy +united himself to the "Young Ireland" party. He was tried for +treason-felony in 1848, but the jury were unable to agree. Duffy +continued to agitate in the press and in parliament, to which he was +elected in 1852, but his failure to bring about an alliance between +Catholics and Protestants upon the land question determined him in 1856 +to emigrate to Victoria. There he became in 1857 minister of public +works, and after an active political career, in the course of which he +was prime minister from 1871 to 1873, when he was knighted, he was +elected speaker of the House of Assembly in 1877, being made K.C.M.G. in +the same year. In 1880 he resigned and returned to Europe, residing +mostly in the south of France. He published _The Ballad Poetry of +Ireland_ (1845), several works on Irish history, _Conversations with +Carlyle_ (1892), _Memoirs_ (1898), &c. In 1891 he became first president +of the Irish Literary Society. He was married three times, his third +wife dying in 1889. He died on the 9th of February 1903. + + + + +DUFOUR, WILHELM HEINRICH [GUILLAUME HENRI] (1787-1875), Swiss general, +was born at Constance of Genevese parents temporarily in exile, on the +15th of September 1787. In 1807 he went to the École Polytechnique at +Paris, Switzerland being then under French rule, taking the 140th place +only in his entrance examination. By two years' close study he so +greatly improved his position that he was ranked fifth in the exit +examination. Immediately on leaving the school he received a commission +in the engineers, and was sent to serve in Corfu, which was blockaded by +the English. During the Hundred Days he attained the rank of captain, +and was employed in raising fortifications at Grenoble. After the peace +that followed Waterloo he resumed his status as a Swiss citizen, and +devoted himself to the military service of his native land. From 1819 to +1830 he was chief instructor in the military school of Thun, which had +been founded mainly through his instrumentality. Among other +distinguished foreign pupils he instructed Louis Napoleon, afterwards +emperor of the French. In 1827 he was raised to the rank of colonel, and +commanded the Federal army in a series of field manoeuvres. In 1831 he +became chief of the staff, and soon afterwards he was appointed +quartermaster-general. Two years later the diet commissioned him to +superintend the execution of a complete trigonometrical survey of +Switzerland. He had already made a cadastral survey of the canton of +Geneva, and published a map of the canton on the scale of 1/25000. The +larger work occupied thirty-two years, and was accomplished with +complete success. The map in 25 sheets on the scale of 1/100000 was +published at intervals between 1842 and 1865, and is an admirable +specimen of cartography. In recognition of the ability with which Dufour +had carried out his task, the Federal Council in 1868 ordered the +highest peak of Monte Rosa to be named Dufour Spitze. In 1847 Dufour was +made general of the Federal Army, which was employed in reducing the +revolted Catholic cantons. The quickness and thoroughness with which he +performed the painful task, and the wise moderation with which he +treated his vanquished fellow-countrymen, were acknowledged by a gift of +60,000 francs from the diet and various honours from different cities +and cantons of the confederation. In politics he belonged to the +moderate conservative party, and he consequently lost a good deal of his +popularity in 1848. In 1864 he presided over the international +conference which framed the Geneva Convention as to the treatment of the +wounded in time of war, &c. He died on the 14th of July 1875. His _De la +fortification permanente_ (1850) is an important and original +contribution to the science of fortification, and he was also the author +of a _Mémoire sur l'artillerie des anciens et sur celle du moyen âge_ +(1840), _Manuel de tactique pour les officiers de toutes armes_ (1842), +and various other works in military science. His memoir, _La Campagne du +Sonderbund_ (Paris, 1876), is prefaced by a biographical notice. An +equestrian statue of General Dufour was erected after his death at +Geneva by national subscription. + + + + +DUFRÉNOY, OURS PIERRE ARMAND PETIT (1792-1857), French geologist and +mineralogist, was born at Sevran, in the department of Seine-et-Oise, in +France, on the 5th of September 1792. After leaving the Imperial Lyceum, +in 1811, he studied till 1813 at the École Polytechnique, and then +entered the Corps des Mines. He subsequently assisted in the management +of the École des Mines, of which he was professor of mineralogy and +afterwards director. He was also professor of geology at the École des +Ponts et Chaussés. In conjunction with Élie de Beaumont he in 1841 +published a great geological map of France, the result of investigations +carried on during thirteen years (1823-1836). Five years (1836-1841) +were spent in writing the text to accompany the map, the publication of +the work with two quarto vols. of text extending from 1841-1848; a third +volume was issued in 1873. The two authors had already together +published _Voyage métallurgique en Angleterre_ (1827, 2nd ed. +1837-1839), _Mémoires pour servir à une description géologique de la +France_, in four vols. (1830-1838), and a _Mémoire_ on Cantal and +Mont-Dore (1833). Other literary productions of Dufrénoy are an account +of the iron mines of the eastern Pyrenees (1834), and a treatise on +mineralogy (3 vols. and atlas, 1844-1845; 2nd ed., 4 vols. and atlas, +1856-1859), in which the geological relations as well as the physical +and chemical properties of minerals were dealt with; he likewise +contributed numerous papers to the Annales des mines and other +scientific publications, one of the most interesting of which is +entitled _Des terrains volcaniques des environs de Naples_. Dufrénoy was +a member of the Academy of Sciences, a commander of the Legion of +Honour, and an inspector-general of mines. He died in Paris on the 20th +of March 1857. + + + + +DUFRESNY, CHARLES, SIEUR DE LA RIVIÈRE (1648-1724), French dramatist, +was born in Paris in 1648. The allegation that his grandfather was an +illegitimate son of Henry IV. procured him the liberal patronage of +Louis XIV., who gave him the post of _valet de chambre_, and affixed his +name to many lucrative privileges. Dufresny's expensive habits +neutralized all efforts to enrich him, and as if to furnish a piquant +commentary on the proverb that poverty makes us acquainted with strange +bedfellows, he married, as his second wife, a washerwoman, in discharge +of her bill--a whimsicality which supplied Le Sage with an episode in +the _Diable boiteux_, and was made the subject of a comedy by J.M. +Deschamps (_Charles Rivière Dufresny, ou le mariage impromptu_). He died +in Paris on the 6th of October 1724. His plays, destitute for the most +part of all higher qualities, abound in sprightly wit and pithy sayings. +In the six volumes of his _Théâtre_ (Paris, 1731), some of the best are +_L'Esprit de contradiction_ (1700), _Le Double Veuvage_ (1701), _La +Joueuse_ (1709), _La Coquette de village_ (1715), _La Réconciliation +normande_ (1719) and _Le Mariage fait et rompu_ (1721). A volume of +_Poésies diverses_, two volumes of _Nouvelles historiques_ (1692), and +_Les Amusements sérieux et comiques d'un Siamois_ (1705), a work to +which Montesquieu was indebted for the idea of his _Lettres persanes_, +complete the list of Dufresny's writings. The best edition of his works +is that of 1747 (4 vols.). His _Théâtre_ was edited (1882) by Georges +d'Heylli. + + + + +DUGAZON [JEAN HENRI GOURGAUD] (1746-1809), French actor, was born in +Marseilles on the 15th of November 1746, the son of the director of +military hospitals there. He began his career in the provinces, making +his début in 1770 at the Comédie Française, where he aspired to leading +comedy roles. He pleased the public at once and was made _sociétaire_ in +1772. Dugazon was an ardent revolutionist, helped the schism which +divided the company, and went with Talma and the others to what became +the Théâtre de la République. After the closing of this theatre, and the +dissolution of the Comédie Française, he took refuge at the Théâtre +Feydeau until (1799) he returned to the restored Comédie. He retired in +1807, and died insane at Sandillon in 1809. Dugazon wrote three mediocre +comedies of a political character, performed at the Théâtre de la +République. He married, in 1776, Louis Rose Lefèvre, but was soon +divorced and then married again. The first Madame Dugazon (1755-1821), +the daughter of a Berlin dancing master, was a charming actress. Her +first appearance on the stage was made at the age of twelve as a dancer. +It was as an actress "with songs" that she made her début at the Comédie +Italienne in 1774 in Grétry's _Sylvain_. She was at once admitted +_pensionnaire_ and in 1776 _sociétaire_. Madame Dugazon delighted all +Paris, and nightly crowded the Comédie Italienne for more than twenty +years. The two kinds of parts with which she was especially +identified--young mothers and women past their first youth--are still +called "_dugazons_" and "_mères dugazons_." Examples of the first are +Jenny in _La Dame blanche_ and Berthe de Simiane in _Les Mousquetaires +de la reine_; of the second, Marguerite in _Le Pré aux clercs_ and the +queen in _La Part du diable_. + +Dugazon's sister, MARIE ROSE GOURGAUD (1743-1804), was an actress who +first played at Stuttgart, where she married Angelo, brother of Gaétano +Vestris, the dancer. Under the protection of the dukes of Choiseul and +Duras, she was commanded to make her début at the Comédie Française in +1768, where she created important parts in a number of tragedies. + + + + +DUGDALE, SIR WILLIAM (1605-1686), English antiquary, was born at +Shustoke, near Coleshill, in Warwickshire, on the 12th of September +1605, the son of a country gentleman of an old Lancashire stock; he was +educated at Coventry. To please his father, who was old and infirm, he +married at seventeen. He lived with his wife's family until his father's +death in 1624, when he went to live at Fillongley, near Shustoke, an +estate formerly purchased for him by his father. In 1625 he purchased +the manor of Blythe, Shustoke, and removed thither in 1626. He had early +shown an inclination for antiquarian studies, and in 1635, meeting Sir +Symon Archer (1581-1662), himself a learned antiquary, who was then +employed in collecting materials for a history of Warwickshire, he +accompanied him to London. There he made the acquaintance of Sir +Christopher (afterwards Lord) Hatton, comptroller of the household, and +Thomas, earl of Arundel, then earl marshal of England. In 1638 Dugdale +was created a pursuivant of arms extraordinary by the name of Blanch +Lyon, and in 1639 rouge croix pursuivant in ordinary. He now had a +lodging in the Heralds' Office, and spent much of his time in London +examining the records in the Tower and the Cottonian and other +collections of MSS. In 1641 Sir Christopher Hatton, foreseeing the war +and dreading the ruin and spoliation of the Church, commissioned him to +make exact drafts of all the monuments in Westminster Abbey and the +principal churches in England, including Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, +Lincoln. Newark, Beverley, Southwell, Kingston-upon-Hull, York, Selby, +Chester, Lichfield, Tamworth and Warwick. In June 1642 he was summoned +to attend the king at York. When war broke out Charles deputed him to +summon to surrender the castles of Banbury and Warwick, and other +strongholds which were being rapidly filled with ammunition and rebels. +He went with Charles to Oxford, remaining there till its surrender in +1646. He witnessed the battle of Edgehill, where he made afterwards an +exact survey of the field, noting how the armies were drawn up, and +where and in what direction the various movements took place, and +marking the graves of the slain. In November 1642 he was admitted M.A. +of the university, and in 1644 the king created him Chester herald. +During his leisure at Oxford he collected material at the Bodleian and +college libraries for his books. In 1646 Dugdale returned to London and +compounded for his estates, which had been sequestrated, by a payment of +£168. After a visit to France in 1648 he continued his antiquarian +researches in London, collaborating with Richard Dodsworth in his +_Monasticon Anglicanum_, which was published successively in single +volumes in 1655, 1664 and 1673. At the Restoration he obtained the +office of Norroy king-at-arms, and in 1677 was created garter principal +king-at-arms, and was knighted. He died "in his chair" at Blythe Hall on +the 10th of February 1686. + + Dugdale's most important works are _Antiquities of Warwickshire_ + (1656); _Monasticon Anglicanum_ (1655-1673); _History of St Paul's + Cathedral_ (1658); and _Baronage of England_ (1675-1676). His _Life_, + written by himself up to 1678, with his diary and correspondence, and + an index to his manuscript collections, was edited by William Hamper, + and published in 1827. + + + + +DUGONG, one of the two existing generic representatives of the Sirenia, +or herbivorous aquatic mammals. Dugongs are distinguished from their +cousins the manatis by the presence in the upper jaw of the male of a +pair of large tusks, which in the female are arrested in their growth, +and remain concealed. There are never more than five molar teeth on each +side of either jaw, or twenty in all, and these are flat on the grinding +surface. The flippers are unprovided with nails, and the tail is broad, +and differs from that of the manati in being crescent-shaped instead of +rounded. The bones are hard and firm, and take a polish equal to that of +ivory. Dugongs frequent the shallow waters of the tropical seas, +extending from the east coast of Africa north of the mouth of the +Zambezi, along the shores of the Indian, Malayan and Australian seas, +where they may be seen basking on the surface of the water, or browsing +on submarine pastures of seaweed, for which the thick obtuse lips and +truncated snout pre-eminently fit them. They are gregarious, feeding in +large numbers in localities where they are not often disturbed. The +female produces a single young one at a birth, and is remarkable for the +great affection it shows for its offspring, so that when the young +dugong is caught there is no difficulty in capturing the mother. Three +species--the Indian dugong (_Halicore dugong_), the Red Sea dugong (_H. +tabernaculi_) and the Australian dugong (_H. australis_)--are commonly +recognized. The first is abundant along the shores of the Indian Ocean, +and is captured in large numbers by the Malays, who esteem its flesh a +great delicacy; the lean portions, especially of young specimens, are +regarded by Europeans as excellent eating. It is generally taken by +spearing, the main object of the hunter being to raise the tail out of +the water, when the animal becomes perfectly powerless. It seldom +attains a length of more than 8 or 10 ft. The Australian dugong is a +larger species, attaining sometimes a length of 15 ft.; it occurs along +the Australian coast from Moreton Bay to Cape York, and is highly valued +by the natives, who hunt it with spears, and gorge themselves with its +flesh, when they are fortunate enough to secure a carcase. Of late years +the oil obtained from the blubber of this species has been largely used +in Australia as a substitute for cod-liver oil. It does not contain +iodine, but is said to possess all the therapeutic qualities of +cod-liver oil without its nauseous taste. A full-grown dugong yields +from 10 to 12 gallons of oil, and this forms in cold weather a thick +mass, and requires to be melted before a fire previous to being used. +The flesh of the Australian dugong is easy of digestion, the muscular +fibre when fresh resembling beef, and when salted having the flavour of +bacon. In the earliest Australian dugong-fishery natives were employed +to harpoon these animals, which soon, however, became too wary to allow +themselves to be approached near enough for this purpose, and the +harpoon was abandoned for the net. The latter is spread at night, and in +its meshes dugongs are caught in considerable numbers. (R. L.*) + +[Illustration: The Dugong.] + + + + +DUGUAY-TROUIN, RENÉ (1673-1736), French sea captain, belonged to a +well-known family of merchants and sea captains of St Malo. He was born +at St Malo on the 10th of June 1673. He was originally intended for the +church, and studied with that view at Rennes and Caen; but on the +breaking out of the war with England and Holland in 1689 he went to sea +in a privateer owned by his family. During the first three months his +courage was tried by a violent tempest, an imminent shipwreck, the +boarding of an English ship, and the threatened destruction of his own +vessel by fire. The following year, as a volunteer in a vessel of 28 +guns, he was present in a bloody combat with an English fleet of five +merchant vessels. The courage he then showed was so remarkable that in +1691, at the age of eighteen, his family gave him a corsair of 14 guns; +and having been thrown by a tempest on the coast of Ireland, he burned +two English ships in the river Limerick. In 1694 his vessel of 40 guns +was captured by the English, and, being taken prisoner, he was confined +in the castle of Plymouth. He escaped, according to his own account, by +the help of a pretty shopwoman and her lover, a French refugee in the +English service. He then obtained command of a vessel of 48 guns, and +made a capture of English vessels on the Irish coast. In 1696 he made a +brilliant capture of Dutch vessels, and the king hearing an account of +the affair gave him a commission as _capitaine de frégate_ (commander) +in the royal navy. In 1704-1705 he desolated the coasts of England. In +1706 he was raised to the rank of captain of a vessel of the line. In +1707 he was made chevalier of the order of St Louis, and captured off +the Lizard the greater part of an English convoy of troops and munitions +bound for Portugal. His most glorious action was the capture in 1711 of +Rio Janeiro, on which he imposed a heavy contribution. In 1715 he was +made _chef d'escadre_, the rank which in the French navy answered to the +English commodore, and in 1728 commander of the order of St Louis and +_lieutenant général des armées navales_. In 1731 he commanded a squadron +for the protection of French commerce in the Levant. He died on the 27th +of September 1736. + + See his own _Mémoires_ (1740); and J. Poulain, _Duguay-Trouin_ (1882). + + + + +DU GUESCLIN, BERTRAND (c. 1320-1380), constable of France, the most +famous French warrior of his age, was born of an ancient but +undistinguished family at the castle of La Motte-Broons (Dinan). The +date of his birth is doubtful, the authorities varying between 1311 and +1324. The name is spelt in various ways in contemporary records, e.g. +Claquin, Klesquin, Guescquin, Glayaquin, &c. The familiar form is found +on his monument at St Denis, and in some legal documents of the time. In +his boyhood Bertrand was a dull learner, spending his time in open-air +sports and exercises, and could never read or write. He was remarkable +for ugliness, and was an object of aversion to his parents. He first +made himself a name as a soldier at the tournament held at Rennes in +1338 to celebrate the marriage of Charles of Blois with Jeanne de +Penthièvre, at which he unseated the most famous competitors. In the war +which followed between Charles of Blois and John de Montfort, for the +possession of the duchy of Brittany, he served his apprenticeship as a +soldier (1341). As he was not a great baron with a body of vassals at +his command, he put himself at the head of a band of adventurers, and +fought on the side of Charles and of France. He distinguished himself by +a brilliant action at the siege of Vannes in 1342; and after that he +disappears from history for some years. + +In 1354, having shortly before been made a knight, he was sent into +England with the lords of Brittany to treat for the ransom of Charles of +Blois, who had been defeated and captured by the English in 1347. When +Rennes and Dinan were attacked by the duke of Lancaster in 1356, Du +Guesclin fought continuously against the English, and at this time he +engaged in a celebrated duel with Sir Thomas Canterbury. He finally +forced his way with provisions and reinforcements into Rennes, which he +successfully defended till June 1357, when the siege was raised in +pursuance of the truce of Bordeaux. For this service he was rewarded +with the lordship of Pontorson. Shortly afterwards he passed into the +service of France, and greatly distinguished himself at the siege of +Melun (1359), being, however, taken prisoner a little later by Sir +Robert Knollys. In 1360, 1361 and 1362 he was continually in the field, +being again made prisoner in 1360. In 1364 he married, but was soon +again in the field, this time against the king of Navarre. In May 1364 +he won an important victory over the Navarrese at Cocherel, and took the +famous Captal de Buch prisoner. He had previously been made lord of La +Roche-Tesson (1361) and chamberlain (1364); he was now made count of +Longueville and lieutenant of Normandy. Shortly afterwards, in aiding +Charles of Blois, Du Guesclin was taken prisoner by Sir John Chandos at +the battle of Auray, in which Charles was killed. The close of the +general war, however, had released great numbers of mercenaries (the +great companies) from control, and, as they began to play the part of +brigands in France, it was necessary to get rid of them. Du Guesclin was +ransomed for 100,000 crowns, and was charged to lead them out of France. +He marched with them into Spain, supported Henry of Trastamara against +Pedro the Cruel, set the former upon the throne of Castile (1366), and +was made constable of Castile and count of Trastamara. In the following +year he was defeated and captured by the Black Prince, ally of Pedro, at +Navarette, but was soon released for a heavy ransom. Once more he fought +for Henry, won the battle of Montiel (1369), reinstated him on the +throne, and was created duke of Molinas. + +In May 1370, at the command of Charles V., who named him constable of +France, he returned to France. War had just been declared against +England, and Du Guesclin was called to take part in it. For nearly ten +years he was engaged in fighting against the English in the south and +the west of France, recovering from them the provinces of Poitou, +Guienne and Auvergne, and thus powerfully contributing to the +establishment of a united France. In 1373, when the duke of Brittany +sought English aid against a threatened invasion by Charles V., Du +Guesclin was sent at the head of a powerful army to seize the duchy, +which he did; and two years later he frustrated the attempt of the duke +with an English army to recover it. Finding in 1379 that the king +entertained suspicions of his fidelity to him, he resolved to give up +his constable's sword and retire to Spain. His resolution was at first +proof against remonstrance; but ultimately he received back the sword, +and continued in the service of France. In 1380 he was sent into +Languedoc to suppress disturbances and brigandage, provoked by the harsh +government of the duke of Anjou. His first act was to lay siege to the +fortress of Châteauneuf-Randon, but on the eve of its surrender the +constable died on the 13th of July 1380. His remains were interred, by +order of the king, in the church of St Denis. Du Guesclin lost his first +wife in 1371, and married a second in 1373, but he left no legitimate +children. + + See biography by D.F. Jamison (Charleston, 1863), which was + translated into French (1866) by order of Marshal Count Randon, + minister of war; also S. Luce, _Histoire de B. du Guesclin_ (Paris, + 1876). + + + + + +DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1624-1706), French physicist, was born in 1624 +at Vire in Normandy. He studied at Caen and Paris; wrote at eighteen a +tract on the _Spherics_ of Theodosius of Tripolis; then became an +Oratorian priest, and fulfilled with great devotion for ten years +(1653-1663) the duties of _curé_ at Neuilly-sur-Marne. He was appointed +in 1656 almoner to the king, and in 1666 perpetual secretary to the +newly founded Academy of Sciences. He died on the 6th of August 1706. He +published among other works: _Astronomia physica_ (1660) and _De +meteoris et fossilibus_ (1660), both in dialogue form; _De consensu +veteris et novae philosophiae_ (1663); _De corporum affectionibus_ +(1672); _De mente humana_ (1673); _Regiae scientiarum Academiae +historia_, 1666-1696 (1698), new edition brought down to 1700 (1701); +_Institutiones biblicae_ (1698); followed by annotated editions of the +Psalms (1701), of the Book of Wisdom, &c. (1703), and of the entire +Bible in 1705. + + + + +DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, HENRI LOUIS (1700-1782), French botanist and +engineer, son of Alexandre Duhamel, lord of Denainvilliers, was born at +Paris in 1700. Having been requested by the Academy of Sciences to +investigate a disease which was destroying the saffron plant in +Gâtinais, he discovered the cause in a parasitical fungus which attached +itself to the roots, and this achievement gained him admission to the +Academy in 1728. From then until his death he busied himself chiefly +with making experiments in vegetable physiology. Having learned from Sir +Hans Sloane that madder possesses the property of giving colour to the +bones, he fed animals successively on food mixed and unmixed with +madder; and he found that their bones in general exhibited concentric +strata of red and white, whilst the softer parts showed in the meantime +signs of having been progressively extended. From a number of +experiments he was led to believe himself able to explain the growth of +bones, and to demonstrate a parallel between the manner of their growth +and that of trees. Along with the naturalist Buffon, he made numerous +experiments on the growth and strength of wood, and experimented also on +the growth of the mistletoe, on layer planting, on smut in corn, &c. He +was probably the first, in 1736, to distinguish clearly between the +alkalis, potash and soda. From the year 1740 he made meteorological +observations, and kept records of the influence of the weather on +agricultural production. For many years he was inspector-general of +marine, and applied his scientific acquirements to the improvement of +naval construction. He died at Paris on the 13th of August 1782. + + His works are nearly ninety in number, and include many technical + handbooks. The principal are:--_Traité des arbres et arbustes qui se + cultivent en France en pleine terre_; _Éléments de l'architecture + navale_; _Traité général des pêches maritimes et fluviatiles_; + _Éléments d'agriculture_; _La Physique des arbres_; _Des Semis et + plantations des arbres et de leur culture_; _De l'exploitation des + bois_; _Traité des arbres fruitiers_. + + + + +DÜHRING, EUGEN KARL (1833-1901), German philosopher and political +economist, was born on the 12th of January 1833 at Berlin. After a legal +education he practised at Berlin as a lawyer till 1859. A weakness of +the eyes, ending in total blindness, occasioned his taking up the +studies with which his name is now connected. In 1864 he became _docent_ +of the university of Berlin, but, in consequence of a quarrel with the +professoriate, was deprived of his licence to teach in 1874. Among his +works are _Kapital und Arbeit_ (1865); _Der Wert des Lebens_ (1865); +_Natürliche Dialektik_ (1865); _Kritische Geschichte der Philosophie_ +(1869); _Kritische Geschichte der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik_ +(1872)--one of his most successful works; _Kursus der National- und +Sozialökonomie_ (1873); _Kursus der Philosophie_ (1875), entitled in a +later edition _Wirklichkeitsphilosophie; Logik und Wissenschaftstheorie_ +(1878); _Der Ersatz der Religion durch Vollkommeneres_ (1883). He +published his autobiography in 1882 under the title _Sache, Leben und +Feinde_; the mention of "Feinde" (enemies) is characteristic. Dühring's +philosophy claims to be emphatically the philosophy of reality. He is +passionate in his denunciation of everything which, like mysticism, +tries to veil reality. He is almost Lucretian in his anger against +religion which would withdraw the secret of the universe from our direct +gaze. His "substitute for religion" is a doctrine in many points akin +to Comte and Feuerbach, the former of whom he resembles in his +sentimentalism. Dühring's opinions changed considerably after his first +appearance as a writer. His earlier work, _Natürliche Dialektik_, in +form and matter not the worst of his writings, is entirely in the spirit +of the Critical Philosophy. Later, in his movement towards Positivism, +he strongly repudiates Kant's separation of phenomenon from noumenon, +and affirms that our intellect is capable of grasping the whole reality. +This adequacy of thought to things is due to the fact that the universe +contains but one reality, i.e. matter. It is to matter that we must look +for the explanation both of conscious and of physical states. But matter +is not, in his system, to be understood with the common meaning, but +with a deeper sense as the substratum of all conscious and physical +existence; and thus the laws of being are identified with the laws of +thought. In this materialistic or quasi-materialistic system Dühring +finds room for teleology; the end of Nature, he holds, is the production +of a race of conscious beings. From his belief in teleology he is not +deterred by the enigma of pain; he is a determined optimist. Pain exists +to throw pleasure into conscious relief. In ethics Dühring follows Comte +in making sympathy the foundation of morality. In political philosophy +he teaches an ethical communism, and attacks the Darwinian principle of +struggle for existence. In economics he is best known by his vindication +of the American writer H.C. Carey, who attracts him both by his theory +of value, which suggests an ultimate harmony of the interests of +capitalist and labourer, and also by his doctrine of "national" +political economy, which advocates protection on the ground that the +morals and culture of a people are promoted by having its whole system +of industry complete within its own borders. His patriotism is fervent, +but narrow and exclusive. He idolized Frederick the Great, and denounced +Jews, Greeks, and the cosmopolitan Goethe. Dühring's clear, incisive +writing is disfigured by arrogance and ill-temper, failings which may be +extenuated on the ground of his physical affliction. He died in 1901. + + See H. Druskowitz, _Eugen Dühring_ (Heidelberg, 1888); E. Döll, _Eugen + Dühring_ (Leipzig, 1892); F. Engels, _Eugen D.'s Umwalzung der + Wissenschaft_ (3rd ed., Stuttgart, 1894); H. Vaihinger, _Hartmann, + Dühring und Lange_ (1876). (H. St.) + + + + +DUIGENAN, PATRICK (1735-1816), Irish lawyer and politician, was the son +of a Leitrim Roman Catholic farmer named O'Duibhgeannain. Through the +tuition of the local Protestant clergyman, who was interested in the +boy, he got a scholarship in 1756 at Trinity College, Dublin, and +subsequently became a fellow. He was called to the Irish bar in 1767 and +obtained a rich practice. He is remembered, however, mainly as a +politician, on account of his opposition to Grattan, his support of the +Union, and his violent antagonism to Catholic emancipation. He was +elected member for Armagh in the first united parliament, and was a +well-known character at Westminster till he died on the 11th of April +1816. + + + + +DUIKER (diver), or DUIKERBOK, the Dutch name of a small S. African +antelope, scientifically known as _Cephalophus grimmi_; the popular name +alluding to its habit of diving into and threading its way through thick +bush. Scientifically the name is extended to include all the members of +the African genus _Cephalophus_, which, together with the Indian +chousingha, or four-horned antelope (_Tetraceros_), constitutes the +subfamily _Cephalophinae_. Duikers are animals of small or medium size, +usually frequenting thick forest. The horns, usually present in both +sexes, are small and straight, situated far back on the forehead; and +between them rises the crest-like tuft of hair from which the genus +takes its scientific name. The common or true duiker (_C. grimmi_) is +found in bush-country from the Cape to the Zambezi and Nyasaland, and +ranges northward on the west coast to Angola. The banded duiker (_C. +doriae_) from West Africa is golden brown with black transverse bands on +the back and loins. _C. sylvicultor_, of West Africa, is the largest +species, and approaches a donkey in size. (See ANTELOPE.) (R. L.*) + + + + +DUILIUS (or DUELLIUS), GAIUS, Roman general during the first +Carthaginian War and commander in the first Roman naval victory. In 260 +B.C., when consul in command of the land forces in Sicily, he was +appointed to supersede his colleague Cn. Cornelius Scipio Asina, +commander of the fleet, who had been captured in the harbour of Lipara. +Recognizing that the only chance of victory lay in fighting under +conditions as similar as possible to those of a land engagement, he +invented a system of grappling irons (_corvi_) and boarding bridges, and +gained a brilliant victory over the Carthaginian fleet off Mylae on the +north coast of Sicily. He was accorded a triumph and the distinction of +being accompanied, when walking in the streets during the evening, by a +torchbearer and a flute-player. A memorial column (_columna rostrata_), +adorned with the beaks of the captured ships, was set up in honour of +his victory. The inscription upon it (see LATIN LANGUAGE, section 3, +"The Language as Recorded") has been preserved in a restored form in +pseudo-archaic language, ascribed to the reign of Claudius. + + See _Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, i. No. 195; Polybius i. 22; + Diod. Sic. xvii. 44; Frontinus, _Strat._ ii. 3; Florus ii. 2; Cicero, + _De senectute_, 13; Silius Italicus vi. 667; and PUNIC WARS. + + + + +DUISBURG, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Prussia, 15 m. by rail N. +from Düsseldorf, between the Rhine and the Ruhr, with which rivers it +communicates by a canal. It is an important railway centre. Pop. (1885) +47,519; (1900) 92,729; (1905), including many outlying townships then +recently incorporated, 191,551. It has six Roman Catholic and six +Protestant churches, among the latter the fine Gothic Salvatorkirche, of +the 15th century. It is well furnished with schools, which include a +school of machinery. Of modern erections, the concert hall, the law +courts and a memorial fountain to the cartographer Gerhard Kremer +(Mercator) are worthy of mention. There are important foundries, rolling +mills for copper, steel and brass plates, chemical works, saw-milling, +shipbuilding, tobacco, cotton, sugar, soap and other manufactures. + +Duisburg was known to the Romans as _Castrum Deutonis_, and mentioned +under the Frankish kings as _Dispargum_. In the 12th century it attained +the rank of an imperial free town, but on being mortgaged in 1290 to +Cleves it lost its privileges. At the beginning of the 17th century it +was transferred to Brandenburg, and during the Thirty Years' War was +alternately occupied by the Spaniards and the Dutch. In 1655 the elector +Frederick William of Brandenburg founded here a Protestant university, +which flourished until 1802. + + + + +DUK-DUK, a secret society of New Britain or New Pomerania, Bismarck +Archipelago, in the South Pacific. The society has religious and +political as well as social objects. It represents a rough sort of law +and order through its presiding spirit Duk-Duk, a mysterious figure +dressed in leaves to its waist, with a helmet like a gigantic +candle-extinguisher made of network. Upon this figure women and children +are forbidden to look. Women, who are entitled in New Britain to their +own earnings and work harder than men, are the special victims of +Duk-Duk, who levies blackmail upon them if they are about during its +visits. These are generally timed to coincide with the hours at which +the women are out in the fields and therefore cannot help seeing the +figure. Justice is executed, fines extorted, taboos, feasts, taxes and +all tribal matters are arranged by the Duk-Duk members, who wear hideous +masks or chalk their faces. In carrying out punishments they are allowed +to burn houses and even kill people. Only males can belong to Duk-Duk, +the entrance fees of which vary from 50 to 100 fathoms of _dewarra_ +(small cowrie shells strung on strips of cane). The society has its +secret signs and ritual, and festivals at which the presence of a +stranger would mean his death. Duk-Duk only appears with the full moon. +The society is now much discredited and is fast dying out. + + See "Duk-Duk and other Customs or Forms of Expression of the + Melanesian's Intellectual Life," by Graf von Pfeil (_Journ. of + Anthrop. Instit._ vol. 27, p. 181). + + + + +DUKE (corresponding to Fr. _duc_, Ital. _duca_, Ger. _Herzog_), the +title of one of the highest orders of the European nobility, and of some +minor sovereign princes. The word "duke," which is derived from the Lat. +_dux_, a leader, or general, through the Fr. _duc_ (O. Fr. _dusc_, +_ducs_, _dus_), originally signified a leader, and more especially a +military chief, and in this latter sense was the equivalent of the A.S. +_heretoga_ (_here_, an army, and _teon_, from _togen_, to draw; Ger. +_ziehen_, _zog_; Goth, _tiuhan_; Lat. _ducere_) and the old Ger. +_herizog_. In this general sense the word survived in English literature +until the 17th century, but is now obsolete. + +The origin of modern dukes is twofold. The _dux_ first appears in the +Roman empire under the emperor Hadrian, and by the time of the Gordians +has already a recognized place in the official hierarchy. He was the +general appointed to the command of a particular expedition and his +functions were purely military. In the 4th century, after the separation +of the civil and military administrations, there was a duke in command +of the troops quartered in each of the frontier provinces of the empire, +e.g. the _dux Britanniarum_. The number of dukes continually increased, +and in the 6th and 7th centuries there were _duces_ at Rome, Naples, +Rimini, Venice and Perugia. Gradually, too, they became charged with +civil as well as military functions, and even exercised considerable +authority in ecclesiastical administration. Under the Byzantine emperors +they were the representatives in all causes of the central power. The +Roman title of duke was less dignified than that of count (_comes_, +companion) which implied an honourable personal relation to the emperor +(see COUNT). Both titles were borrowed by the Merovingian kings for the +administrative machinery of the Frank empire, and under them the +functions of the duke remained substantially unaltered. He was a great +civil and military official, charged to watch, in the interests of the +crown, over groups of several _comitatus_, or countships, especially in +the border provinces. The sphere of the dukes was never rigidly fixed, +and their commission was sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary. Under +the Carolingians the functions of the dukes remained substantially the +same; but with the decay of the royal power in the 10th century, both +dukes and counts gained in local authority; the number of dukes became +for the time fixed, and finally title and office were made hereditary, +the relation to the crown being reduced to that of more or less shadowy +vassalage. (See FEUDALISM.) + +Side by side with these purely official dukedoms, however, there had +continued to exist, or had sprung up, either independently or in more or +less of subjection to the Frank rulers, national dukedoms, such as those +of the Alemanni, the Aquitanians, and, later, of the Bavarians and +Thuringians. These were developed from the early Teutonic custom by +which the _herizog_ was elected by the nation as leader for a particular +campaign, as in the case of the _heretogas_ who had led the first Saxon +invaders into Britain. Tacitus says of the ancient Germans _reges ex +nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt_; i.e. they elected their dukes for +their warlike prowess only, and as purely military chiefs, whereas their +kings were chosen from a royal family of divine descent. Sometimes the +dukes so chosen succeeded in making their power permanent without taking +the style of king. To this national category belong, besides the great +German dukedoms, the dukes of Normandy, and the Lombard dukes of Spoleto +and Benevento, who traced their origin, not to an administrative office, +but to the leadership of Teutonic war bands. With the development of the +feudal system the distinction between the official and the national +dukedoms was more and more obliterated. By the 13th and 14th centuries +the title had become purely territorial, and implied no necessary +overlordship over counts and other nobles, who existed side by side with +the dukes as tenants-in-chief of the crown. From this time the +significance of the ducal title varies widely in different countries. +Whenever the crown got the better of the feudal spirit of independence, +as in France or Naples, it sank from being a sovereign title to a mere +social distinction, implying no political power, and not necessarily any +territorial influence. In northern Italy and in Germany, on the other +hand, where the crown had proved too weak to combat the forces of +disruption, it came ultimately to imply independent sovereignty. + +The abolition of the Holy Empire in 1806 removed even the shadow of +vassalage from the German reigning dukes, who retain their sovereign +status under the new empire. Only one, however, the grand duke of +Luxemburg, is now both sovereign and independent. Besides the sovereign +dukes in Germany there are certain "mediatized" ducal houses, e.g. that +of Ratibor, which share with the dispossessed families of the Italian +sovereign duchies certain royal privileges, notably that of equality of +blood (_Ebenbürtigkeit_). In Italy, where titles of nobility give no +precedence at court, that of duke (_duca_) has lost nearly all even of +its social significance owing to lavish creations by the popes and minor +sovereigns, and to the fact that the title often passes by purchase with +a particular estate. Political significance it has none. Some great +Italian nobles are dukes, notably the heads of the great Roman ducal +families, but not all Italian dukes are great nobles. + +In France the title duke at one time implied vast territorial power, as +with the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy, Aquitaine and Brittany, who +asserted a practical independence against the crown, though it was not +till the 12th century that the title duke was definitely regarded as +superior to others. At first (in the 10th and 11th centuries) it had no +defined significance, and even a baron of the higher nobility called +himself in charters duke, count or even marquis, indifferently. In any +case the strengthening of the royal power gradually sapped the +significance of the title, until on the eve of the Revolution it implied +no more than high rank and probably territorial wealth. + +There were, under the _ancien régime_, three classes of dukes in France: +(1) dukes who were peers (see PEERAGE) and had a seat in the parlement +of Paris; (2) hereditary dukes who were not peers; (3) "brevet" dukes, +created for life only. The French duke ranks in Spain with the "grandee" +(q.v.), and vice versa. In republican France the already existing titles +are officially recognized, but they are now no more than the badges of +distinguished ancestry. Besides the descendants of the feudal +aristocracy there are in France certain ducal families dating from +Napoleon I.'s creation of 1806 (e.g. ducs d'Albufera, de Montebello, de +Feltre), from Louis Philippe (duc d'Isly, and duc d'Audiffret-Pasquier), +and from Napoleon III. (Malakoff, Magenta, Morny). + +In England the title of duke was unknown till the 14th century, though +in Saxon times the title ealdorman, afterwards exchanged for "earl," was +sometimes rendered in Latin as _dux_,[1] and the English kings till +John's time styled themselves dukes of Normandy, and dukes of Aquitaine +even later. In 1337 King Edward III. erected the county of Cornwall into +a duchy for his son Edward the Black Prince, who was thus the first +English duke. The second was Henry, earl of Lancaster, Derby, Lincoln +and Leicester, who was created duke of Lancaster in 1351. In Scotland +the title of duke was first bestowed in 1398 by Robert III. on his +eldest son David, who was made duke of Rothesay, and on his brother, who +became duke of Albany. + +British dukes rank next to princes and princesses of the blood royal, +the two archbishops of Canterbury and York, the lord Chancellor, &c., +but beyond this precedence they have no special privileges which are not +shared by peers of lower rank (see PEERAGE). Though their full style as +proclaimed by the herald is "most high, potent and noble prince," and +they are included in the _Almanach de Gotha_, they are not recognized as +the equals in blood of the crowned or mediatized dukes of the continent, +and the daughter of an English duke marrying a foreign royal prince can +only take his title by courtesy, or where, under the "house-laws" of +certain families, a family council sanctions the match. The eldest son +of an English duke takes as a rule by courtesy the second title of his +father, and ranks, with or without the title, as a marquess. The other +sons and daughters bear the titles "Lord" and "Lady" before their +Christian names, also by courtesy. A duke in the British peerage, if not +royal, is addressed as "Your Grace" and is styled "the Most Noble." (See +ARCHDUKE, GRAND DUKE, and, for the ducal coronet, CROWN AND CORONET.) + (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] So _Ego Haroldus dux, Ego Tostinus dux_, in a charter of Edward + the Confessor (1060), Hist. MSS. Comm. 12th rep. app. pt. ix. p. 581. + + + + +DUKE OF EXETER'S DAUGHTER, a nickname applied to a 15th-century +instrument of torture resembling the rack (q.v.). Blackstone says +(_Commentaries_, ii. sec. 326): "The trial by rack is utterly unknown to +the law of England, though once when the dukes of Exeter and Suffolk, +and other ministers of Henry VI., had laid a design to introduce the +civil (i.e. Roman) law into the kingdom as the rule of government, for a +beginning thereof they erected a rack for torture, which was called in +derision the duke of Exeter's daughter, and still remains in the Tower +of London, where it was used as an engine of state, not of law, more +than once in Queen Elizabeth's reign. But when, upon the assassination +of Villiers, duke of Buckingham, by Felton, it was proposed in the privy +council to put the assassin to the rack, in order to discover his +accomplices, the judges being consulted, declared unanimously that no +such proceeding was allowable by the laws of England." + + + + +DUKER, CARL ANDREAS (1670-1752), German classical scholar and jurist, +was born at Unna in Westphalia. He studied at the university of Franeker +under Jacob Perizonius. In 1700 he was appointed teacher of history and +eloquence at the Herborn gymnasium, in 1704 vice-principal of the school +at the Hague, and in 1716 he succeeded (with Drakenborch as colleague) +to the professorship formerly held by Peter Burmann at Utrecht. After +eighteen years' tenure he resigned his post, and lived in retirement at +Ysselstein and Vianen. His health finally broke down under excessive +study, and he died, almost blind, at the house of a relative in +Meiderich near Duisburg, on the 5th of November 1752. His chief +classical works were editions of Florus (1722) and Thucydides (1731, +considered his best). He brought out the 2nd edition of Perizonius's +_Origines Babylonicae et Aegyptiacae_ (1736) and his commentary on +Pomponius Mela (1736-1737). Duker was also an authority on ancient law, +and published _Opuscula varia de latinitate veterum jurisconsultorum_ +(1711), and a revision of the _Leges Atticae_ of S. Petit (1741). + + See C. Saxe, _Onomasticon litterarium_, vi. 267; articles in + _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ and in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine + Encyklopadie_. + + + + +DUKERIES, THE, a name given to a district in the N.W. of +Nottinghamshire, England; included within the ancient Sherwood Forest +(q.v.). The name is taken from the existence of several adjacent +demesnes of noblemen, and the character of the Forest is to some extent +preserved here. On the north is the Sheffield-Retford branch of the +Great Central railway, serving the town of Worksop, connecting at +Retford with the Great Northern railway, while on the south the Great +Central railway serves the small market town of Ollerton, and connects +with the Great Northern at Dukeries Junction. The following demesnes are +comprised in the district. Worksop Manor formerly belonged to the dukes +of Norfolk. Welbeck Abbey is the seat of the dukes of Portland, to whom +it came from the Cavendish family (dukes of Newcastle); the mansion is +mainly classic in style, dating from the early 17th century, but with +many subsequent additions; the fifth duke of Portland (d. 1879) built +the curious series of subterranean corridors and chambers beneath the +grounds. Clumber House, the seat of the dukes of Newcastle, is +beautifully placed above a lake in a fine park. Thoresby House is the +seat of the earls Manvers, to whom it came on the extinction of the +dukedom of Kingston; part of this demesne is a splendid tract of wild +woodland. + + + + +DUKES, LEOPOLD (1810-1891), Hungarian critic of Jewish literature. He +spent about twenty years in England, and from his researches in the +Bodleian library and the British Museum (which contain two of the most +valuable Hebrew libraries in the world) Dukes was able to complete the +work of Zunz (q.v.). The most popular work of Dukes was his _Rabbinische +Blumenlese_ (1844), in which he collected the rabbinic proverbs and +illustrated them from the gnomic literatures of other peoples. Dukes +made many contributions to philology, but his best work was connected +with the medieval Hebrew poetry, especially Ibn Gabirol. (I. A.) + + + + +DUKINFIELD, a municipal borough of Cheshire, England, within the +parliamentary borough of Stalybridge, 6 m. E. of Manchester. Pop. +(1901) 18,929. It lies in the densely populated district in the +north-east of the county, between Stalybridge and Ashton-under-Lyne, and +is served by the London & North Western and Great Central railways. +There are extensive collieries, and the other industries include cotton +manufactures, calico-printing, hat-making, iron-founding, engineering +and the manufacture of firebricks and tiles. A portion remains of the +old timbered Dukinfield Hall, in the chapel of which Samuel Eaton (d. +1665) taught the first congregational church in the north of England. +The chapel, much enlarged, is still used by this denomination. The +borough, incorporated in 1899, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 +councillors. Area, 1405 acres. + + + + +DULCIGNO (Servian, _Ultsin_, Turk. _Olgun_), a seaport of Montenegro, on +the Adriatic Sea, 8 m. W. of the Albanian frontier. Pop. (1900) about +5000. Shut in by hills and forests, and built partly on a promontory +overlooking its bay, partly along the shore, Dulcigno is the prettiest +of Montenegrin towns. Its narrow crooked lanes, however, with its +bazaars, mosques, minarets and veiled women, give to its picturesqueness +a decidedly Turkish air. The old quarter, on the promontory, is walled, +and has a medieval castle, once of great strength. Turks form the bulk +of the inhabitants, although their numbers decreased steadily after +1880, when the population numbered about 8000. Albanians and Italians +are fairly numerous. Dulcigno has a Roman Catholic cathedral and an +ancient Latin church. The Austrian Lloyd steamers call at intervals, and +some shipbuilding and fishing are carried on; but the harbour lacks +shelter and is liable to deposits of silt. + +To the Romans, who captured it in 167 B.C., Dulcigno was known as +_Ulcinium_ or _Olcinium_; in the middle ages it was a noted haunt of +pirates; in the 17th century it was the residence of Sabbatai Zebi (d. +1676), a Jew who declared himself to be the Messiah but afterwards +embraced Islam. In 1718 Dulcigno was the scene of a great Venetian +defeat. It belonged to the Turks until 1880, when its cession, according +to the terms of the treaty of Berlin (1878), was enforced by the +"Dulcigno demonstration," in which the fleets of Great Britain, France, +Germany, Austria and Russia took part. + + + + +DULCIMER (Fr. _tympanon_; Ger. _Hackbrett_, _Cymbal_; Ital. _cembalo_, +_timpanon_ or _salterio tedesco_), the prototype of the pianoforte, an +instrument consisting of a horizontal sound-chest over which are +stretched a varying number of wire strings set in vibration by strokes +of little sticks or hammers. The dulcimer differed from the psalterium +or psaltery chiefly in the manner of playing, the latter having the +strings plucked by means of fingers or plectrum. The shape of the +dulcimer is a trapeze or truncated triangle, having the bass strings +stretched parallel with the base, which measures from 3 to 4 ft.; the +strings decrease gradually in length, the shortest measuring from about +18 to 24 in. at the truncated apex. The sound-board has one or two rose +sound-holes; the strings are attached on one side to hitch pins and at +the other to the larger tuning pins firmly fixed in the wrest plank. The +strings of fine brass or iron wire are in groups of two to five unisons +to each note; the vibrating lengths of the strings are determined by +means of two bridges. The dulcimer is placed upon a table in front of +the performer, who strikes the strings with a little hammer mounted on a +metal rod and covered on one side with hard and on the other with soft +leather for forte and piano effects. The compass, now chromatic +throughout, varies according to the size of the instrument; the large +cymbalom of the Hungarian gipsies has a range of four chromatic octaves, +[Illustration: musical notes]. + +The origin of the dulcimer is remote, and must be sought in the East. In +the bas-reliefs from Kuyunjik, now in the British Museum, are to be seen +musicians playing on dulcimers of ten strings with long sticks curved at +the ends, and damping the strings with their hands. This is the pisantir +of the days of Nebuchadrezzar, translated "psaltery" in Dan. iii. 5, +&c., and rendered "psalterion" in the Septuagint, a confusion which has +given rise to many misconceptions.[1] In the Septuagint no less than +four different instruments are rendered _psalterion_ (from Gr. [Greek: +psallô], pluck, pull), i.e. _ugab_, _nebel_, _pisantir_ and _toph_, two +stringed, one wind and one percussion. The use of the word in Greek for +a musical instrument is not recorded before the 4th century B.C. The +modern santir of the Persians, almost identical with the German +hackbrett, has a compass from [Illustration: musical notes] according to +Fétis.[2] The Persians place its origin in the highest antiquity. Carl +Engel[3] gives an illustration said to be taken from a very old +painting.[4] + +The dulcimer was extensively used during the middle ages in England, +France, Italy, Germany, Holland and Spain, and although it had a +distinctive name in each country, it was everywhere regarded as a kind +of psalterium. The importance of the method of setting the strings in +vibration by means of hammers, and its bearing on the acoustics of the +instrument, were recognized only when the invention of the pianoforte +had become a matter of history. It was then perceived that the +psalterium in which the strings were plucked, and the dulcimer in which +they were struck, when provided with keyboards, gave rise to two +distinct families of instruments, differing essentially in tone quality, +in technique and in capabilities: the evolution of the psalterium +stopped at the harpsichord, that of the dulcimer gave us the pianoforte. +The dulcimer is described and illustrated by Mersenne,[5] who calls it +_psaltérion_; it has thirteen courses of pairs of unisons or octaves; +the first strings were of brass wire, the others of steel. The curved +stick was allowed to fall gently on to the strings and to rebound many +times, which, Mersenne remarks, produces an effect similar to the +trembling or tremolo of other instruments. Praetorius[6] figures a +hackbrett having a body in the shape of a truncated triangle, with a +bridge placed between two rose sound-holes, and played by means of two +sticks. Another kind of hackbrett[7] (a psaltery), which was played with +the fingers, was known to Praetorius. The pantaleon, a double dulcimer, +named after the inventor, Pantaleon Hebenstreit of Eisleben, a +violinist, had two sound-boards, 185 strings, one scale of overspun +catgut, the other of wire. Hebenstreit travelled to Paris with his +monster dulcimer in 1705 and played before Louis XIV., who baptized it +_Pantaléon_. Quantz[8] and Quirin of Blankenburg[9] both gave +descriptions of the instrument. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The names of the musical instruments in those verses of the Book + of Daniel have formed the basis of a controversy as to the + authenticity of the book. + + [2] _Histoire de la musique_ (Paris, 1869), vol. ii. p. 131. + + [3] _Music of the most Ancient Nations_ (London, 1864), pp. 42-3. + + [4] Hommaire de Hell, _Voyage en Perse_, p. lxii. + + [5] _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre iii. p. 174. + + [6] _Syntagma musicum_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), pl. 18 (3). + + [7] Pl. 36 (1). + + [8] "Herrn Joh. Joachim Quantzens Lebenslauf von ihm selbst + entworfen," in Fr. W. Marpurg's _Histor. kritische Beytrage_, Bd. i + p. 207 (1754-1755). + + [9] _Elementa musica_, chap. xxvi. + + + + +DÜLKEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 11 m. by rail +S.W. from Crefeld. Pop. 10,000. It has a (Roman Catholic) Gothic parish +church. There are manufactures of linen, cotton, silk and velvet, &c., +ironworks and foundries. + + + + +DULONG, PIERRE LOUIS (1785-1838), French chemist and physicist, was born +at Rouen on the 12th (or 13th) of February 1785. He began as a doctor in +one of the poorest districts of Paris, but soon abandoned medicine for +scientific research. After acting as assistant to Berthollet, he became +successively professor of chemistry at the faculty of sciences and the +normal and veterinary schools at Alfort, and then (1820) professor of +physics at the École Polytechnique, of which he was appointed director +in 1830. He died in Paris on the 18th (or 19th) of July 1838. His +earliest work was chemical in character. In 1811 he discovered chloride +of nitrogen; during his experiments serious explosions occurred twice, +and he lost one eye, besides sustaining severe injuries to his hand. He +also investigated the oxygen compounds of phosphorus and nitrogen, and +was one of the first to hold the hydrogen theory of acids. In 1815, in +conjunction with Alexis Thérèse Petit (1791-1820), the professor of +physics at the École Polytechnique, he made careful comparisons between +the mercury and the air thermometer. The first published research (1816) +dealt with the dilatation of solids, liquids and gases and with the +exact measurement of temperature, and it was followed by another in 1818 +on the measurement of temperature and the communication of heat, which +was crowned by the French Academy. In a third, "On some important points +in the theory of heat" (1819), they stated that the specific heats of +thirteen solid elements which they had investigated were nearly +proportional to their atomic weights--a fact otherwise expressed in the +"law of Dulong and Petit" that the atoms of simple substances have equal +capacities for heat. Subsequent papers by Dulong were concerned with +"New determinations of the proportions of water and the density of +certain elastic fluids" (1820, with Berzelius); the property possessed +by certain metals of facilitating the combination of gases (1823 with +Thénard); the refracting powers of gases (1826); and the specific heats +of gases (1829). In 1830 he published a research, undertaken with Arago +for the academy of sciences, on the elastic force of steam at high +temperatures. For the purposes of this determination he set up a +continuous column of mercury, constructed with 13 sections of glass tube +each 2 metres long and 5 mm. in diameter, in the tower of the old church +of St Geneviève in the Collège Henri IV. The apparatus was first used to +investigate the variation in the volume of air with pressure, and the +conclusion was that up to twenty-seven atmospheres, the highest pressure +attained in the experiments, Boyle's law holds good. In regard to steam, +the old tower was so shaky that it was considered unwise to risk the +effects of an explosion, and therefore the mercury column was removed +bodily to a court in the observatory. The original intention was to push +the experiments to a pressure equivalent to thirty atmospheres, but +owing to the signs of failure exhibited by the boiler the limit actually +reached was twenty-four atmospheres, at which pressure the thermometers +indicated a temperature of about 224°C. In his last paper, published +posthumously in 1838, Dulong gave an account of experiments made to +determine the heat disengaged in the combination of various simple and +compound bodies, together with a description of the calorimeter he +employed. + + + + +DULSE (Ir. and Gael. _duileasg_), in botany, _Rhodymenia palmata_, one +of the red seaweeds, consisting of flat solitary or tufted purplish-red +fronds, fan-shaped in general outline and divided into numerous +segments, which are often again and again divided in a forked manner. It +varies very much in size and degree of branching, ranging from 5 or 6 to +12 or more inches long. It grows on rocks, shell-fish or larger +seaweeds, and is used by the poor in Scotland and Ireland as a relish +with their food. It is commonly dried and eaten raw, the flavour being +brought out by long chewing. In the Mediterranean it is used cooked in +ragouts and made dishes. + + See W.H. Harvey, _Phycologica Britannica_, vol. ii. plates 217, 218. + + + + +DULUTH, a city and the county-seat of St Louis county, Minnesota, +U.S.A., at the W. end of Lake Superior, at the mouth of the St Louis +river, about 150 m. N.E. of Minneapolis and St Paul. Pop. (1880) 3483; +(1890) 33,115; (1900) 52,969, of whom 20,983 were foreign-born and 357 +were negroes; (1910 census) 78,466. Of the 20,983 foreign-born in 1900, +5099 were English-Canadians, 5047 Swedes, 2655 Norwegians, 1685 Germans, +and 1285 French-Canadians. Duluth is served by the Duluth and Iron +Range, the Duluth, Missabe & Northern, the Duluth, South Shore & +Atlantic, the Chicago & North-Western (the North-Western line), the +Great Northern, and the Northern Pacific railways. Situated attractively +on the side and along the base of a high bluff rising 600 ft. above the +lake level, Duluth lies at the W. end of Superior Bay (here called +Duluth Harbour), directly opposite the city of Superior, Wisconsin. A +narrow strip of land known as Minnesota Point, 7 m. in length and +extending toward Wisconsin Point, which projects from the Wisconsin +shore, separates the bay from the lake and forms with St Louis Bay one +of the finest natural harbours in the world. The natural entrance to the +harbour is the narrow channel between the two points, but there is also +a ship-canal across Minnesota Point, spanned by a curious aerial bridge +400 ft. long and 186 ft. above the water. + +The unusually favourable position for lake transportation, and the +extensive tributary region in the N.W., with ample rail connexions, make +Duluth-Superior one of the greatest commercial ports in the country. The +two cities constitute the largest coal-distributing centre in the N.W., +and have some of the largest coal-docks in the world. Upwards of twenty +grain elevators, with a net capacity of nearly 35,000,000 bushels, which +receive enormous quantities of grain from the Red River Valley, +Manitoba, and the Dakotas, either for home manufacture or for +transhipment to the East, are among the noteworthy sights of the place; +and extensive ore-docks are required for handling the enormous and +steadily increasing shipments of iron ore from the rich Vermilion and +Mesabi iron ranges first opened about 1890. In 1907 more than 29,000,000 +tons of iron ore were shipped from this port. Duluth is also an +important hay market. There are flour and lumber mills, foundries and +machine shops, wooden ware, cooperage, sash, door and blind, lath and +shingle factories, and shipyards. In 1909 great mills of the Minnesota +Steel Co. were begun here. In 1905 the factory product of Duluth was +valued at $10,139,009, an increase of 29.8% over that of 1900. The St +Louis river furnishes one of the finest water-powers in the United +States. + +The commanding heights upon which the principal residential section of +the city is built render it at once attractive in appearance and +healthful; there is a fine system of parks and boulevards, the chief of +the former being Lester, Fairmount, Portland, Cascade, Lincoln and +Chester. The popular Boulevard drive at the back of Duluth commands +excellent views of city and lake. Among the principal buildings are the +court house, the Masonic temple, chamber of commerce, board of trade, +Lyceum theatre, Federal, Providence, Lonsdale, Torrey, Alworth, Sellwood +and Wolvin buildings, St. Mary's hospital, St. Luke's hospital and +Spalding Hotel. There is a public (Carnegie) library with 50,000 volumes +in 1908. The building of the central high school (classical), one of the +finest in the United States, erected at a cost of about $500,000, has a +square clock tower 230 ft. high, and an auditorium seating 2000. The +city also has a technical high school, and in addition to the regular +high school courses there are departments of business, manual training +and domestic science. At Duluth also is a state normal school, erected +in 1902. The federal government maintains here a life-saving station on +Minnesota Point, and an extensive fish hatchery. + +The first Europeans to visit the site of Duluth were probably French +_coureurs-des-bois_, possibly the adventurous Radisson and Groseilliers. +The first visitor certainly known to have been here was Daniel +Greysolon, Sieur Du Lhut (d. 1709), a French trader and explorer, who +about 1678 skirted Lake Superior and built a stockaded trading-post at +the mouth of Pigeon river on the N. shore. From him the place received +its name. A trading-post was established near the present city, at Fond +du Lac, about 1752, and this eventually became a depôt of Astor's +American Fur Company. There was no permanent settlement at Duluth +proper, however, until 1853, and in 1860 there were only 80 inhabitants. +Incorporated in 1870, in which year railway connexion with the South was +established, its growth was slow for some years, the increase for the +decade 1870-1880 being very slight (from 3131 to 3483); but the +extension of railways into the north-western wheat region, the opening +up of Lake Superior to commerce, and finally the development of the +Vermilion and Mesabi iron ranges, brought on a period of almost +unparalleled growth, marked by the remarkable increase in population of +more than 850% between 1880 and 1890; between 1890 and 1900 the increase +was 60%. + + See J.R. Carey, _History of Duluth and Northern Minnesota_ (Duluth, + 1898); Leggett and Chipman, _Duluth and its Environs_ (Duluth, 1895); + and J.D. Ensign, _History of St Louis County_ (Duluth, 1900). + + + + +DULWICH, a district in the metropolitan borough of Camberwell, London, +England. The manor, which had belonged to the Cluniac monks of +Bermondsey, passed through various hands to Edward Alleyn (q.v.) in +1606. His foundation of the College of God's Gift, commonly called +Dulwich College, was opened with great state on the 13th of September +1619, in the presence of Lord Chancellor Bacon, Lord Arundell, Inigo +Jones and other distinguished men. According to the letters patent the +almspeople and scholars were to be chosen in equal proportions from the +parishes of St Giles (Camberwell), St Botolph without Bishopsgate, and +St Saviour's (Southwark), and "that part of the parish of St Giles +without Cripplegate which is in the county of Middlesex." By a series of +statutes signed in 1626, a few days before his death, Alleyn ordained +that his school should be for the instruction of 80 boys consisting of +three distinct classes:--(1) the twelve poor scholars; (2) children of +inhabitants of Dulwich, who were to be taught freely; and (3) "towne or +foreign schollers," who were "to pay such allowance as the master and +wardens shall appoint." The almspeople consisted of six "poor brethren" +and six "poor sisters," and the teaching and governing staff of a master +and a warden, who were always to be of the founder's surname, and four +fellows, all "graduates and divines," among whom were apportioned the +ministerial work of the chapel, the instruction of the boys, and the +supervision of the almspeople. That it was the founder's intention to +establish a great public school upon the model of Westminster and St +Paul's, with provision for university training, is shown by the +statutes; but for more than two centuries the educational benefits of +God's Gift College were restricted to the twelve poor scholars. +Successive actions at law resulted in the ruling that it was not within +the competence of the founder to divert any portion of the revenues of +his foundation to the use of others than the members thereof, as +specified in the letters patent. In 1842, however, some effort was made +towards the realization of Alleyn's schemes, and in 1858 the foundation +was entirely reconstituted by act of parliament. It comprises two +schools, the "Upper" and the "Lower," now called respectively Dulwich +College and Alleyn's school. In the Upper school, now one of the +important English "public schools," there are classical, modern, science +and engineering sides. The Lower school is devoted to middle-class +education. The buildings of the Upper school, by Charles Barry, contain +a fine hall. The college possesses a splendid picture gallery, +bequeathed by Sir P.F. Bourgeois, R.A., in 1811, with a separate +endowment. The pictures include some exquisite Murillos and choice +specimens of the Dutch school. The surplus income of the gallery fund is +devoted to instruction in drawing and design in the two schools. + + See W.H. Blanch, _Dulwich College and Edward Alleyn_ (London, 1877); + R. Hovenden, _The History of Dulwich College, with a short biography + of its founder_ (London, 1873). + + + + +DUMAGUETE, the capital town of the province of Negros Oriental, island +of Negros, Philippine Islands, on Tañón Strait. Pop. (1903) 14,894. The +town of Sibulan (pop. in 1903, 8413) was annexed to Dumaguete in 1903, +after the census had been taken. Dumaguete lies in the midst of a +fertile agricultural district. The inhabitants are chiefly natives, but +the shops are kept by Chinese merchants. The public buildings, which +include an interesting watch-tower and belfry, are large, substantial +and well cared for. + + + + +DUMANJUG, a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, Philippine +Islands, on the W. coast, at the mouth of the Dumanjug river, about 40 +m. S.W. of the town of Cebú. Pop. (1903) 22,203. In 1903, after the +census had been taken, the adjacent town of Ronda (pop. 9662) was +annexed to Dumanjug. Dumanjug is in communication with the town of +Sibonga, on the opposite shore of one of the few passes through the +mountains of the interior. Indian corn and sugar-cane are grown +successfully in the neighbouring country, and the town has an important +coast trade. + + + + +DU MARSAIS, CÉSAR CHESNEAU, SIEUR (1676-1756), French philologist, was +born at Marseilles on the 17th of July 1676. He was educated in his +native town by the Fathers of the Oratory, into whose congregation he +entered; but he left it at the age of twenty-five and went to Paris, +where he married and was admitted an advocate (1704). He was tutor to +the sons successively of the président de Maisons, of John Law, the +projector, and of the marquis de Bauffremont. He then opened a boarding +school in the faubourg St Victor, which scarcely afforded him the means +of subsistence. He made contributions of great value on philological and +philosophical subjects to the _Encyclopédie_, and after vain attempts to +secure a competence from the court he was insured against want by the +generosity of a private patron. He died in Paris on the 11th of June +1756. The researches of Du Marsais are distinguished by considerable +individuality. He held sensible views on education and elaborated a +system of teaching Latin, which, although open to grave criticism, was a +useful protest against current methods of teaching. His best works are +his _Principes de grammaire_ and his _Des tropes, ou des différents sens +dans lesquels on peut prendre un mot_ (1730). + + An edition of his works (7 vols.) was collected by Duchosal and + Millon, and was published with an éloge on Du Marsais by D'Alembert at + Paris in 1797. + + + + +DUMAS, ALEXANDRE [ALEXANDRE DAVY DE LA PAILLETERIE] (1802-1870), French +novelist and dramatist, was born at Villers-Cotterets (Aisne) on the +24th of July 1802. His father, the French general, Thomas Alexandre +Dumas (1762-1806)--also known as Alexandre Davy de la Pailleterie--was +born in Saint Domingo, the natural son of Antoine Alexandre Davy, +marquis de la Pailleterie, by a negress, Marie Cessette Dumas, who died +in 1772. In 1780 he accompanied the marquis to France, and there the +father made a mésalliance which drove the son into enlisting in a +dragoon regiment. Thomas Alexandre Dumas was still a private at the +outbreak of the revolution, but he rose rapidly and became general of +division in 1793. He was general-in-chief of the army of the western +Pyrenees, and was transferred later to commands in the Alps and in La +Vendée. Among his many exploits was the defeat of the Austrians at the +bridge of Clausen on the 22nd of April 1797, where he commanded +Joubert's cavalry. He lost Napoleon's favour by plain speaking in the +Egyptian campaign, and presently returned to France to spend the rest of +his days in retirement at Villers Cotterets, where he had married in +1792 Marie Élisabeth Labouret. + +The novelist, who was the offspring of this union, was not four years +old when General Dumas died, leaving his family with no further resource +than 30 acres of land. Mme Dumas tried to obtain help from Napoleon, but +in vain, and lived with her parents in narrow circumstances. Alexandre +received the rudiments of education from a priest, and entered the +office of a local solicitor. His chief friend was Adolphe de Leuven, the +son of an exiled Swedish nobleman implicated in the assassination of +Gustavus III. of Sweden, and the two collaborated in various vaudevilles +and other pieces which never saw the footlights. Leuven returned to +Paris, and Dumas was sent to the office of a solicitor at Crépy. When in +1823 Dumas contrived to visit his friend in Paris, he was received to +his great delight by Talma. He returned home only to break with his +employer, and to arrange to seek his fortune in Paris, where he sought +help without success from his father's old friends. An introduction to +the deputy of his department, General Foy, procured for him, however, a +place as clerk in the service of the duke of Orleans at a salary of 1200 +francs. He set to work to rectify his lack of education and to +collaborate with Leuven in the production of vaudevilles and melodramas. +Madame Dumas presently joined her son in Paris, where she died in 1838. + +Soon after his arrival in Paris Dumas had entered on a liaison with a +dressmaker, Marie Catherine Labay, and their son, the famous Alexandre +Dumas _fils_ (see below), was born in 1824. Dumas acknowledged his son +in 1831, and obtained the custody of him after a lawsuit with the +mother. + +The first piece by Dumas and Leuven to see the footlights was _La Chasse +et l'amour_ (Ambigu-Comique, 22nd of Sept. 1825), and in this they had +help from other writers. Dumas had a share in another vaudeville, _La +Noce et l'enterrement_ (Porte Saint-Martin, 21st of Nov. 1826). It was +under the influence of the Shakespeare plays produced in Paris by +Charles Kemble, Harriet Smithson (afterwards Mme Berlioz) and an +English company that the romantic drama of _Christine_ was written. The +subject was suggested by a bas relief of the murder of Monaldeschi +exhibited at the Salon of 1827. The piece was accepted by Baron Taylor +and the members of the Comédie Française with the stipulation that it +should be subject to revision by another dramatist because of its +innovating tendencies. But the production of the piece was deferred. +Meanwhile Dumas had met with the story of the ill-fated Saint-Mégrin and +the duchess of Guise in Anquetil's history, and had written, in prose, +_Henri III. et sa cour_, which was immediately accepted by the Comédie +Française and produced on the 11th of February 1829. It was the first +great triumph of the romantic drama. The brilliant stagecraft of the +piece and its admirable historical setting delighted an audience +accustomed to the decadent classical tragedy, and brought him the +friendship of Hugo[1] and Vigny. His literary efforts had met with +marked disapproval from his official superiors, and he had been +compelled to resign his clerkship before the production of _Henri III._ +The duke of Orleans had, however, been present at the performance, and +appointed him assistant-librarian at the Palais Royal. _Christine_ was +now recast as a romantic trilogy in verse in five acts with a prologue +and epilogue, with the sub-title of _Stockholm_, _Fontainebleau_, +_Rome_, and was successfully produced by Harel at the Odéon in March +1830. + +The revolution of 1830 temporarily diverted Dumas from letters. The +account of his exploits should be read in his _Mémoires_, where, though +the incidents are true in the main, they lose nothing in the telling. +During the fighting in Paris he attracted the attention of La Fayette, +who sent him to Soissons to secure powder. With the help of some +inhabitants he compelled the governor to hand over the magazine, and on +his return to Paris was sent by La Fayette on a mission to raise a +national guard in La Vendée. The advice he gave to Louis Philippe on +this subject was ill-received, and after giving offence by further +indiscretions he finally alienated himself from the Orleans government +by being implicated in the disturbances which attended the funeral of +General Lamarque in June 1832, and he received a hint that his absence +from France was desirable. A tour in Switzerland undertaken on this +account furnished material for the first of a long series of amusing +books of travel. Dumas remained, however, on friendly and even +affectionate terms with the young duke of Orleans until his death in +1842. + +Meanwhile he had produced _Napoléon Bonaparte_ (Odéon, 10th of Jan +1831), his unwillingness to make a hero of the man who had slighted his +father having been overcome by Harel, who put him under lock and key +until the piece was finished. His next play, _Antony_, had a real +importance in the history of the romantic theatre. It was put in +rehearsal by Mlle Mars, but so unsatisfactorily that Dumas transferred +it to Bocage and Mme Dorval, who played it magnificently at the Porte +Saint-Martin theatre on the 3rd of May 1831. The Byronic hero Antony was +a portrait of himself in his relations with Mme Mélanie Waldor, the wife +of an officer, and daughter of the journalist M.G. T. de Villenave, +except of course in the extravagantly melodramatic _dénouement_, when +Antony, to save his mistress's honour, kills her and exclaims, "Elle me +résistait, je l'ai assassinée." He produced more than twenty more plays +alone or in collaboration before 1845, exclusive of dramatizations from +his novels. _Richard Darlington_ (Porte Saint Martin, 10th of Dec 1831), +the first idea of which was drawn from Sir Walter Scott's _Chronicles of +the Canongate_, owed part of its great success to the admirable acting +of Frédérick Lemaître. _La Tour de Nesle_ (Porte Saint-Martin, 29th of +May 1832), announced as by MM. X X X and Gaillardet, was the occasion of +a duel and a law-suit with the original author, Frédéric Gaillardet, +whose MS. had been revised, first by Jules Janin and then by Dumas. In +rapidity of movement, and in the terror it inspired, the piece surpassed +_Henri III._ and _Antony_. A lighter drama, _Mademoiselle de +Belle-Isle_ (Théâtre Français, 2nd of April 1839), still remains in the +repertory. + +In 1840 Dumas married Ida Ferrier, an actress whom he had imposed on the +theatres that took his pieces. The amiable relations which had subsisted +between them for eight years were disturbed by the marriage, which is +said to have been undertaken in consequence of a strong hint from the +duke of Orleans, and Mme Dumas lived in Italy separated from her +husband. + +As a novelist Dumas began by writing short stories, but his happy +collaboration with Auguste Maquet,[2] which began in 1839, led to the +admirable series of historical novels in which he proposed to +reconstruct the whole course of French history. In 1844 he produced, +with Maquet's help, that most famous of "cloak and sword" romances, _Les +Trois Mousquetaires_ (8 vols.), the material for which was discovered in +the _Mémoires de M. d'Artagnan_ (Cologne, 1701-1702) of Courtils de +Sandras. The adventures of d'Artagnan and the three musketeers, the +gigantic Porthos, the clever Aramis, and the melancholy Athos, who unite +to defend the honour of Anne of Austria against Richelieu and the +machinations of "Milady," are brought down to the murder of Buckingham +in 1629. Their admirers were gratified by two sequels, _Vingt ans après_ +(10 vols., 1845) and _Dix ans plus tard, ou le vicomte de Bragelonne_ +(26 pts., 1848-1850), which opens in 1660, showing us a mature +d'Artagnan, a respectable captain of musketeers, and contains the +magnificent account of the heroic death of Porthos. The three musketeers +are as famous in England as in France. Thackeray could read about Athos +from sunrise to sunset with the utmost contentment of mind, and R.L. +Stevenson and Andrew Lang have paid tribute to the band in _Memories and +Portraits_ and _Letters to Dead Authors_. Before 1844 was out Dumas had +completed a second great romance in 12 volumes, _Le Comte de +Monte-Cristo_, in which he had help from Fiorentino as well as from +Maquet. The idea of the intrigue was suggested by Peuchet's _Police +dévoilée_, and the stress laid on the earlier incidents, Dantès, +Danglars and the Château d'If, is said to have been an afterthought. +Almost as famous as these two romances is the set of Valois novels of +which Henri IV. is the central figure, beginning with _La Reine Margot_ +(6 vols., 1845), which contains the history of the struggle between +Catherine of Medicis and Henry of Navarre; the history of the reign of +Henry III. is told in _La Dame de Monsoreau_ (8 vols., 1846), generally +known in English as _Chicot the Jester_, from its principal character; +and in _Les Quarante-cinq_ (10 vols., 1847-1848), in which Diane de +Monsoreau avenges herself on the duke of Anjou for the death of her +former lover, Bussy d'Amboise. + +Much has been written about the exact share which Dumas had in the +novels which bear his name. The Dumas-Maquet series is undoubtedly the +best, but Maquet alone never accomplished anything to approach them in +value. The MSS. of the novels still exist in Dumas's handwriting, and +the best of them bear the unmistakable stamp of his unrivalled skill as +a narrator. The chief key to his enormous output is to be found in his +untiring industry and amazing fertility of invention, not in the system +of wholesale collaboration which was exposed with much exaggeration by +Quérard in his _Superchéries littéraires_ and by "Eugène de Mirecourt" +(C.B.J. Jacquot) in his misleading _Fabrique de romans, maison +Alexandre Dumas et c^ie_ (1845). His assistants, in fact, supplied him +with outlines of romances on plans drawn up by himself, and he then +rewrote the whole thing. That this method was never abused it would be +impossible to say; _Les Deux Diane_, for instance, a prelude to the +Valois novels, is said to have been written entirely by Paul Meurice, +although Dumas's name appears on the title-page. + +The latter part of Dumas's life is a record of excessive toil to meet +prodigal expenditure and accumulated debts. His disasters began with the +building of a house in the Renaissance style, with a Gothic pavilion and +an "English" park, at Saint Germain-en-Laye. This place, called +Monte-Cristo, was governed by a crowd of hangers-on of both sexes, who +absorbed Dumas's large earnings and left him penniless. Dumas also +founded the Théâtre Historique chiefly for the performance of his own +works. The enterprise was under the patronage of the duc de Montpensier, +and was under the management of Hippolyte Hostein, who had been the +secretary of the Comédie Française. The theatre was opened in February +1847 with a dramatic version of _La Reine Margot_. Meanwhile Dumas had +been the guest of the duc de Montpensier at Madrid, and made a +quasi-official tour to Algeria and Tunis in a government vessel, which +caused much comment in the press. Dumas had never changed his republican +opinions. He greeted the revolution of 1848 with delight, and was even a +candidate for electoral honours in the department of the Yonne. But the +change was fatal to his theatrical enterprise, for the failure of which +in 1850 he was made financially responsible. His son, Alexandre Dumas, +was at that time living with his mother Mlle Labay, who was eventually +reconciled with the elder Dumas. Father and son, though always on +affectionate terms when they met, were too different in their ideas to +see much of one another. After the _coup d'état_ of 1851 Dumas crossed +the frontier to Brussels, and two years of rapid production, and the +economy of his secretary, Noël Parfait, restored something like order to +his affairs. On his return to Paris in the end of 1853 he established a +daily paper, _Le Mousquetaire_, for the criticism of art and letters. It +was chiefly written by Dumas, whose _Mémoires_ first appeared in it, and +survived until 1857, when it was succeeded by a weekly paper, the +_Monte-Cristo_ (1857-1860). In 1858 Dumas travelled through Russia to +the Caucasus, and in 1860 he joined Garibaldi in Sicily. After an +expedition to Marseilles in search of arms for the insurgents, he +returned to Naples, where Garibaldi nominated him keeper of the museums. +After four years' residence in Naples he returned to Paris, and after +the war of '66 he visited the battlefields and produced his story of _La +Terreur prussienne_. But his powers were beginning to fail, and in spite +of the 1200 volumes which he told Napoleon he had written, he was at the +mercy of his creditors, and of the succession of theatrical ladies who +tyrannized over him and feared nothing except the occasional visits of +Dumas _fils_. He was finally rescued from these by his daughter, Mme +Petel, who came to live with him in 1868; and two years later, on the +5th of December 1870, he died in his son's house at Puys, near Dieppe. + +Dumas was never an actual candidate for academic honours, but he had +more than once taken steps to investigate his chances of success. A +statue of him was erected on the Place Malesherbes, Paris, in 1883, and +the figure of d'Artagnan finds a place on the pedestal. + +Auguste Maquet was Dumas's chief collaborator. Others were Paul Lacroix +(the bibliophile "P.L. Jacob"), Paul Bocage, J.P. Mallefille and P.A. +Fiorentino. The novels of Dumas may be conveniently arranged in a +historical sequence. The Valois novels and the musqueteers series +brought French history down to 1672. Contributions to later history +are:--_La Dame de volupté_ (2 vols., 1864), being the memoirs of Mme de +Luynes, and its sequel _Les Deux Reines_ (2 vols., 1864); _La Tulipe +noire_ (3 vols., 1850), giving the history of the brothers de Witt; _Le +Chevalier d'Harmental_ (4 vols., 1853), and _Une Fille du régent_ (4 +vols., 1845), the story of two plots against the regent, the duke of +Orleans; two books on Mme du Deffand, _Mémoires d'une aveugle_ (8 vols., +1856-1857) and _Les Confessions de la marquise_ (8 vols., 1857), both of +doubtful authorship; _Olympe de Clèves_ (9 vols., 1852), the story of an +actress and a young Jesuit novice in the reign of Louis XV., one of his +most popular novels; five books on the beginning of the Revolution down +to the execution of Marie Antoinette: the _Mémoires d'un médecin_, +including _Joseph Balsamo_ (19 pts., 1846-1848), in which J.J. +Rousseau, Mme du Barry and the dauphiness Marie Antoinette figure, with +its sequels; _Le Collier de la reine_ (9 vols., 1849-1850), in which +Balsamo appears under the alias of Cagliostro; _Ange Pitou_ (8 vols., +1852), known in English as "The Taking of the Bastille"; _La Comtesse de +Charny_ (19 vols., 1853-1855), describing the attempts to save the +monarchy and the flight to Varennes; and _Le Chevalier de maison rouge_ +(6 vols., 1846), which opens in 1793 with the hero's attempt to save the +queen. Among the numerous novels dealing with the later revolutionary +period are:--_Les Blancs et les bleus_ (3 vols., 1868) and _Les +Compagnons de Jéhu_ (7 vols., 1857). _Les Louves de Machecoul_ (10 +vols., 1859) deals with the rising in 1832 in La Vendée. Other famous +stories are:--_Les Frères corses_ (2 vols., 1845); _La Femme au collier +de velours_ (2 vols., 1851); _Les Mohicans de Paris_ (19 vols., +1854-1855), detective stories with which may be classed the series of +_Crimes célèbres_ (8 vols., 1839-1841), which are, however, of doubtful +authorship; _La San Félice_ (9 vols., 1864-1865), in which Lady Hamilton +played a prominent part, with its sequels _Emma Lyonna_ and _Souvenirs +d'une favorite_. Of his numerous historical works other than fiction the +most important is his _Louis XIV et son siècle_ (4 vols., 1845). _Mes +Mémoires_ (20 vols., 1852-1854; Eng. trans. of selections by A.F. +Davidson, 2 vols., 1891) is an account of his father and of his own life +down to 1832. There are collective editions of his plays (6 vols., +1834-1836, and 15 vols., 1863-1874), but of the 91 pieces for which he +was wholly or partially responsible, 24 do not appear in these +collections. + + The complete works of Dumas were issued by Michel Lévy _frères_ in 277 + volumes (1860-1884). The more important novels have been frequently + translated into English. There is a long list of writings on his life + and his works both in English and French. The more important French + authorities are: his own memoirs, already cited; C. Glinel, _Alexandre + Dumas et son oeuvre_ (Reims, 1884); H. Parigot, _Dumas père_ (Grands + écrivains français series, 1902), and _Le Drame d'Alexandre Dumas_ + (1899); H. Blaze de Bury, _Alexandre Dumas_ (1885); Philibert + Andebrand, _Alexandre Dumas à la maison d'or_ (1888); G. Ferry, + _Dernières Années d'Alexandre Dumas_ (1883); and L.H. Lecomte, + _Alexandre Dumas_ (1904). Of the English lives of Dumas perhaps the + best is that by Arthur F. Davidson, _Alexandre Dumas Père, his Life + and Works_ (1902), which contains an extensive bibliography. See also + lives by P. Fitzgerald (2 vols., 1873) and H.A. Spurr (1902), and + essays by Andrew Lang (_Letters to Dead Authors_), Brander Matthews + (_French Dramatists_), R.L. Stevenson (_Memories and Portraits_). + (M. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] His friendship with Victor Hugo was interrupted in 1833-1834 by + the articles contributed to the _Journal des débats_ by a friend and + protégé of the poet, Granier de Cassagnac, who brought against Dumas + charges of wholesale plagiarism from other dramatists. + + [2] The details of this collaboration were brought to light in a suit + brought against Dumas by Maquet with regard to his share in the + profits. See the _Gazette des tribunaux_ (January 21, 22, 28, and + February 4, 1858). + + + + +DUMAS, ALEXANDRE ["DUMAS _FILS_"] (1824-1895), French dramatist and +novelist, was born in Paris on the 27th of July 1824, the natural son of +Alexandre Dumas (see above) and the dressmaker Marie Labay. His father +at that date was still a humble clerk and not much more than a boy. +"Happily," writes the son, "my mother was a good woman, and worked hard +to bring me up"; while of his father he says, "by a most lucky chance he +happened to be well-natured," and "as soon as his first successes as a +dramatist" enabled him to do so, "recognized me and gave me his name." +Nevertheless, the lad's earlier school-life was made bitter by his +illegitimacy. The cruel taunts and malevolence of his companions rankled +through life (see preface to _La Femme de Claude_ and _L'Affaire +Clémenceau_), and left indelible marks on his character and thoughts. +Nor was his paternity, however distinguished, without peril. Alexandre +the younger and elder saw life together very thoroughly, and Paris can +have had few mysteries for them. Suddenly the son, who had been led to +regard his prodigal father's resources as inexhaustible, was rudely +undeceived. Coffers were empty, and he had accumulated debts to the +amount of two thousand pounds. + +Thereupon he pulled himself together. To a son of Dumas the use of the +pen came naturally. Like most clever young writers--and report speaks of +him as specially brilliant at that time--he opened with a book of verse, +_Péchés de jeunesse_ (1847). It was succeeded in 1848 by a novel, _La +Dame aux camélias_, a sort of reflection of the world in which he had +been living. The book had considerable success, and was followed, in +fairly quick succession, by _Le Roman d'une femme_ (1848) and _Diane de +Lys_ (1851). All this, however, did not deliver him from the load of +debt, which, as he tells us, remained odious. In 1849 he dramatized _La +Dame aux camélias_, but for various reasons, the rigour of the +censorship being the most important, it was not till the 2nd of February +1852, and then only by the intervention of Napoleon's all-powerful +minister, Morny, that the play could be produced at the Vaudeville. It +succeeded then, and has held the stage ever since, less perhaps from +inherent superiority to other plays which have foundered than to the +great opportunities it affords to any actress of genius. + +Thenceforward Dumas's career was that of a brilliant and prosperous +dramatist. _Diane de Lys_ (1853), _Le Demi-Monde_ (1855), _La Question +d'argent_ (1857), _Le Fils naturel_ (1858), _Le Père prodigue_ (1859) +followed rapidly. Debts became a thing of the past, and Dumas a wealthy +man. The didactic habit was always strong upon him. "Alexandre loves +preaching overmuch," wrote his father; and in most of his plays he +assumes the attitude of a rigid and uncompromising moralist commissioned +to impart to a heedless world lessons of deep import. The lessons +themselves are mostly concerned with the "eternal feminine," by which +Dumas was haunted, and differ in ethical value. Thus in _Les Idées de +Madame Aubray_ (1867) he inculcates the duty of the seducer to marry the +woman he has seduced; but in _La Femme de Claude_ (1873) he argues the +right of the husband to take the law into his own hand and kill the wife +who is unfaithful and worthless--a thesis again defended in his novel, +_L'Affaire Clémenceau_, and in his pamphlet, _L'Homme-femme_; while in +_Diane de Lys_ he had taught that the betrayed husband was entitled to +kill--not in a duel, but summarily--the man who had taken his honour; +and in _L'Étrangère_ (1876) the bad husband is the victim. Nor did he +preach only in his plays. He preached in voluminous introductions, and +pamphlets not a few. And when, in 1870 and 1872, France was going +through bitter hours of humiliation, he called her to repentance and +amendment in a _Nouvelle Lettre de Junius_ and two _Lettres sur les +choses du jour_. + +As a moralist Dumas _fils_ took himself very seriously indeed. As a +dramatist, didacticism apart, he had great gifts. He knew his business +thoroughly, possessed the art of situation, interest, crisis--could +create characters that were real and alive. His dialogue also is +admirable, the repartee rapier-like, the wit most keen. He was +singularly happy, too, in his dramatic interpreters. The cast of +_L'Étrangère_, for instance, comprised Sarah Bernhardt, Sophie +Croizette, Madeleine Brohan, in the female characters; and Coquelin, +Got, Mounet-Sully and Fébvre in the male characters; and Aimée Desclée, +whom he discovered, gave her genius to the creation of the parts of the +heroine in _Une Visite de noces_, the _Princesse Georges_ and _La Femme +de Claude_. His wit has been mentioned. He possessed it in abundance, of +a singularly trenchant kind. It shows itself less in his novels, which, +however, do not contain his best work; but in his introductions, whether +to his own books or those of his friends, and what may be called his +"occasional" writings, there is an admirable brightness. At work of this +kind he showed the highest literary skill. His style is that of the best +French traditions. Towards his father Dumas acted a kind of brother's +part, and while keeping strangely free from his literary influence, both +loved and admired him. The father never belonged to the French Academy. +The son was elected into that august assembly on the 30th of January +1874. He died on the 27th of November 1895. + + See also Jules Claretie, _A. Dumas fils_ (1883); Paul Bourget, + _Nouveaux Essais de psychologie contemporaine_ (1885); "La Comédie de + moeurs," by René Doumic, in L. Petit de Julleville's _Histoire de la + langue et de la littérature française_, viii. pp. 82 et seq.; R. + Doumic, _Portraits d'écrivains_ (1892), Émile Zola, _Documents + littéraires, études et portraits_ (1881). (F. T. M.) + + + + +DUMAS, GUILLAUME MATHIEU, COUNT (1753-1837), French general, was born at +Montpellier, of a noble family, on the 23rd of November 1753. He joined +the army in 1773, and entered upon active service in 1780, as +aide-de-camp to Rochambeau in the American War. He had a share in all +the principal engagements that occurred during a period of nearly two +years. On the conclusion of peace in 1783 he returned to France as a +major. He was engaged from 1784 to 1786 in exploring the archipelago and +the coasts of Turkey. He was present at the siege of Amsterdam in 1787, +where he co-operated with the Dutch against the Prussians. At the +Revolution he acted with Lafayette and the constitutional liberal party. +He was entrusted by the Assembly with the command of the escort which +conducted Louis XVI. to Paris from Varennes. In 1791 as a _maréchal de +camp_ he was appointed to a command at Metz, where he rendered important +service in improving the discipline of the troops. Chosen a member of +the Legislative Assembly in the same year by the department of +Seine-et-Oise, he was in the following year elected president of the +Assembly. When the extreme republicans gained the ascendancy, however, +he judged it prudent to make his escape to England. Returning after a +brief interval, under the apprehension that his father-in-law would be +held responsible for his absence, he arrived in Paris in the midst of +the Reign of Terror, and had to flee to Switzerland. Soon after his +return to France he was elected a member of the Council of Ancients. +After the 18th Fructidor (1797) Dumas, being proscribed as a monarchist, +made his escape to Holstein, where he wrote the first part of his +_Précis des événements militaires_ (published anonymously at Hamburg, +1800). + +Recalled to his native country when Bonaparte became First Consul, he +was entrusted with the organization of the "Army of Reserve" at Dijon. +In 1801 he was nominated a councillor of state. He did good service at +Austerlitz, and went in 1806 to Naples, where he became minister of war +to Joseph Bonaparte. On the transfer of Joseph to the throne of Spain, +Dumas rejoined the French army, with which he served in Spain during the +campaign of 1808, and in Germany during that of 1809. After the battle +of Wagram, Dumas was employed in negotiating the armistice. In 1810 he +became grand officer of the Legion of Honour and a count of the empire. +In the Russian campaign of 1812 he held the post of intendant-general of +the army, which involved the charge of the administrative department. +The privations he suffered in the retreat from Moscow brought on a +dangerous illness. Resuming, on his recovery, his duties as +intendant-general, he took part in the battles of 1813, and was made +prisoner after the capitulation of Dresden. On the accession of Louis +XVIII., Dumas rendered his new sovereign important services in connexion +with the administration of the army. When Napoleon returned from Elba, +Dumas at first kept himself in retirement, but he was persuaded by +Joseph Bonaparte to present himself to the emperor, who employed him in +organizing the National Guard. Obliged to retire when Louis XVIII. was +restored, he devoted his leisure to the continuation of his _Précis des +événements militaires_, of which nineteen volumes, embracing the history +of the war from 1798 to the peace of 1807, appeared between 1817 and +1826. A growing weakness of sight, ending in blindness, prevented him +from carrying the work further, but he translated Napier's _Peninsular +War_ as a sort of continuation to it. In 1818 Dumas was restored to +favour and admitted a member of the council of state, from which, +however, he was excluded in 1822. After the revolution of 1830, in which +he took an active part, Dumas was created a peer of France, and +re-entered the council of state. He died at Paris on the 16th of October +1837. + + Besides the _Précis des événements militaires_, which forms a valuable + source for the history of the period, Dumas wrote _Souvenirs du + lieut.-général Comte Mathieu Dumas_ (published posthumously by his + son, Paris, 1839). + + + + +DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRÉ (1800-1884), French chemist, was born at +Alais (Gard) on the 15th of July 1800. Disappointed in his early hope of +entering the navy, he became apprentice to an apothecary in his native +town; but seeing little prospect of advancement in that calling, he soon +moved to Geneva (in 1816). There he attended the lectures of such men as +M.A. Pictet in physics, C.G. de la Rive in chemistry, and A.P. de +Candolle in botany, and before he had reached his majority he was +engaged with Pierre Prévost in original work on problems of +physiological chemistry, and even of embryology. In 1823, acting on the +advice of A. von Humboldt, he left Geneva for Paris, which he made his +home for the rest of his life. There he gained the acquaintance of many +of the foremost scientific men of the day, and quickly made a name for +himself both as a teacher and an investigator, attaining within ten +years the honour of membership of the Academy of Sciences. When +approaching his fiftieth year he entered political life, and became a +member of the National Legislative Assembly. He acted as minister of +agriculture and commerce for a few months in 1850-1851, and subsequently +became a senator, president of the municipal council of Paris, and +master of the French mint; but his official career came to a sudden end +with the fall of the Second Empire. He died at Cannes on the 11th of +April 1884. Dumas is one of the most prominent figures in the chemical +history of the middle part of the 19th century. He was one of the first +to criticize the electro-chemical doctrines of J.J. Berzelius, which at +the time his work began were widely accepted as the true theory of the +constitution of compound bodies, and opposed a unitary view to the +dualistic conception of the Swedish chemist. In a paper on the atomic +theory, published so early as 1826, he anticipated to a remarkable +extent some ideas which are frequently supposed to belong to a later +period; and the continuation of these studies led him to the ideas about +substitution ("metalepsis") which were developed about 1839 into the +theory ("Older Type Theory") that in organic chemistry there are certain +types which remain unchanged even when their hydrogen is replaced by an +equivalent quantity of a haloid element. Many of his well-known +researches were carried out in support of these views, one of the most +important being that on the action of chlorine on acetic acid to form +trichloracetic acid--a derivative of essentially the same character as +the acetic acid itself. In the 1826 paper he described his famous method +for ascertaining vapour densities, and the redeterminations which he +undertook by its aid of the atomic weights of carbon and oxygen proved +the forerunners of a long series which included some thirty of the +elements, the results being mostly published in 1858-1860. He also +devised a method of great value in the quantitative analysis of organic +substances for the estimation of nitrogen, while the classification of +organic compounds into homologous series was advanced as one consequence +of his researches into the acids generated by the oxidation of the +alcohols. Dumas was a prolific writer, and his numerous books, essays, +memorial addresses, &c., show him to have been gifted with a clear and +graceful style. His earliest large work was a treatise on applied +chemistry in eight volumes, the first of which was published in 1828 and +the last twenty years afterwards. In the _Essai de statique chimique des +êtres organisés_ (1841), written jointly with J.B.J.D. Boussingault +(1802-1887), he treated the chemistry of life, both plant and animal; +this book brought him into conflict with Liebig, who conceived that some +of his prior work had been appropriated without due acknowledgment. In +1824, in conjunction with J.V. Audouin and A.T. Brongniart, he founded +the _Annales des sciences naturelles_, and from 1840 he was one of the +editors of the _Annales de chimie et de physique_. As a teacher Dumas +was much sought after for his lectures at the Sorbonne and other +institutions both on pure and applied science; and he was one of the +first men in France to realize the importance of experimental laboratory +teaching. + + + + +DU MAURIER, GEORGE LOUIS PALMELLA BUSSON (1834-1896), British artist and +writer, was born in Paris. His father, a naturalized British subject, +was the son of _émigrés_ who had left France during the Reign of Terror +and settled in London. In _Peter Ibbetson_, the first of the three books +which won George Du Maurier late in life a reputation as novelist almost +as great as he had enjoyed as artist and humorist for more than a +generation, the author tells in the form of fiction the story of his +singularly happy childhood. He was brought to London, indeed, when three +or four years old, and spent in Devonshire Terrace and elsewhere two +colourless years; but vague memories of this period were suddenly +exchanged one beautiful day in June--"the first day of his conscious +existence"--for the charming realities of a French garden and "an old +yellow house with green shutters and mansard roofs of slate." Here, at +Passy, with his "gay and jovial father" and his young English mother, +the boy spent "seven years of sweet priceless home-life--seven times +four changing seasons of simple genial prae-Imperial Frenchness." The +second chapter of Du Maurier's life had for scene a Paris school, very +much in the style of that "Institution F. Brossard" which he describes, +at once so vividly and so sympathetically, in _The Martian_; and like +"Barty Josselin's" schoolfellow and biographer, he left it (in 1851) to +study chemistry at University College, London, actually setting up as an +analytical chemist afterwards in Bucklersbury. But this was clearly not +to be his _métier_, and the year 1856 found him once more in Paris, in +the Quartier Latin this time, in the core of that art-world of which in +_Trilby_, forty years later, he was to produce with pen and pencil so +idealistic and fascinating a picture. Then, like "Barty Josselin" +himself, he spent some years in Belgium and the Netherlands, +experiencing at Antwerp in 1857, when he was working in the studio of +van Lerius, the one great misfortune of his life--the gradual loss of +sight in his left eye, accompanied by alarming symptoms in his right. It +was a period of tragic anxiety, for it seemed possible that the right +eye might also become affected; but this did not happen, and the dismal +cloud was soon to show its silver lining, for, about Christmastime 1858, +there came to the forlorn invalid a copy of _Punch's Almanac_, and with +it the dawn of a new era in his career. + +There can be little doubt that the study of this _Almanac_, and +especially of Leech's drawings in it, fired him with the ambition of +making his name as a graphic humorist; and it was not long after his +return to London in 1860 that he sent in his first contribution (very +much in Leech's manner) to _Punch_. Mark Lemon, then editor, appreciated +his talent, and on Leech's death in 1865 appointed him his successor, +counselling him with wise discrimination not to try to be "too funny," +but "to undertake the light and graceful business" and be the "romantic +tenor" in Mr Punch's little company, while Keene, as Du Maurier puts it, +"with his magnificent highly-trained basso, sang the comic songs." These +respective rôles the two artists continued to play until the end, seldom +trespassing on each other's province; the "comic songs" finding their +inspiration principally in the life of the homely middle and lower +middle classes, while the "light and graceful business" enacted itself +almost exclusively in "good Society." To a great extent, also, Du +Maurier had to leave outdoor life to Keene, his weak sight making it +difficult for him to study and sketch in the open air and sunshine, thus +cutting him off, as he records regretfully, from "so much that is so +popular, delightful and exhilarating in English country life"--hunting +and shooting and fishing and the like. He contrived, however, to give +due attention to milder forms of outdoor recreation, and turned to good +account his familiarity with Hampstead Heath and Rotten Row, and his +holidays with his family at Whitby and Scarborough, Boulogne and Dieppe. + +Of Du Maurier's life during the thirty-six years of his connexion with +_Punch_ there is not, apart from his work as an artist, much to record. +In the early 'sixties he lived at 85 Newman Street in lodgings, which he +shared with his friend Lionel Henley, afterwards R.B.A., working hard at +his _Punch_ sketches and his more serious contributions to _Once a Week_ +and the _Cornhill Magazine_. After his marriage with Miss Emma Wightwick +in 1862 he took a spacious and pleasant house near Hampstead Heath, in +surroundings made familiar in his drawings. Shortly before he died he +moved to a house in Oxford Square. About 1866 he struck out a new line +in his admirable illustrations to Jerrold's _Story of a Feather_. In +1869 he realized a long-cherished aspiration, the illustrating of +Thackeray's _Esmond_, and in 1879 he drew twelve additional vignettes +for it, in the same year providing several illustrations for the +_Ballads_. From time to time he sent pretty and graceful pictures to the +exhibitions of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colour, to which +he was elected in 1881. In 1885 the first exhibition of his works at the +Fine Art Society took place. Thus occupied in the practice of his art, +spending his leisure in social intercourse with his many friends and at +home with his growing family, hearing all the new singers and musicians, +seeing all the new plays, he lived the happiest of lives. He died +somewhat suddenly on the 8th of October 1896, and was buried in the +Hampstead parish churchyard. He left a family of two sons--the elder, +Major Guy Du Maurier (b. 1865), a soldier who became more widely known +in 1909 as author of the military play _An Englishman's Home_, and the +younger, Gerald, a well-known actor--and three daughters. + +It is impossible, in considering Du Maurier's work, to avoid comparing +it with that of Leech and Keene, the more so that in his little book on +_Social Pictorial Satire_ he himself has set forth or suggested the +points both of resemblance and of difference. Like Keene, though Keene's +marvellous technique was his despair, Du Maurier was a much more +finished draughtsman than John Leech, but in other respects he had less +in common with the younger than with the older humorist. He shows +himself, in the best sense, a man of feeling in all his work. He is +clearly himself in love with "his pretty woman," as he calls her--every +pen-stroke in his presentment of her is a caress. How affectionate, too, +are his renderings of his fond young mothers and their big, handsome, +simple-minded husbands; his comely children and neat nurserymaids; even +his dogs--his elongated dachshunds and magnificent St Bernards! And how +he scorns the snobs and philistines--Sir Gorgius Midas and Sir Pompey +Bedell, Grigsby and Cadby, Soapley and Toadson! How merciless is his +ridicule of the aesthetes of the 'eighties--Maudle and Postlethwaite and +Mrs Cimabue Brown! Even to Mrs Ponsonby de Tomkyns, his most conspicuous +creation, his satire is scarcely tempered, despite her prettiness. He +shows up unsparingly all her unscrupulous little ways, all her cynical, +cunning little wiles. Like Leech, he revelled in the lighter aspects of +life--the humours of the nursery, the drawing-room, the club, the +gaieties of the country house and the seaside--without being blind to +the tragic and dramatic. Just as Leech could rise to the height of the +famous cartoon "General Février turned Traitor," so it was Du Maurier +who inspired Tenniel in that impressive drawing on the eve of the +Franco-German War, in which the shade of the great Napoleon is seen +warning back the infatuated emperor from his ill-omened enterprise. In +his tender drawings in _Once a Week_, also, and in his occasional +excursions into the grotesque in _Punch_, such as his picture of "Old +Nickotin stealing away the brains of his devotees," he has given ample +proof of his faculty for moving and impressive art. The technique of Du +Maurier's work in the 'eighties and the 'nineties, though to the average +man it seems a marvel of finish and dexterity, is considered by artists +a falling off from what was displayed in some of his earlier _Punch_ +drawings, and especially in his contributions to the _Cornhill Magazine_ +and _Once a Week_. His later work is undoubtedly more mannered, more +"finicking," less simple, less broadly effective. But it is to his +fellow-craftsmen only and to experts that this is noticeable. + +A quaint tribute has been paid to the literary talent shown in Du +Maurier's inscriptions to his drawings by Mr F. Anstey (Guthrie), author +of _Vice Versa_, and Du Maurier's colleague on the staff of _Punch_. "In +these lines of letterpress," says Mr Anstey, "he has brought the art of +précis-writing to perfection." They are indeed singularly concise and to +the point. It is the more curious, therefore, to note that in his novels, +and even in his critical essays, Du Maurier reveals very different +qualities: the précis-writer has become an _improvisatore_, pouring out +his stories and ideas in full flood, his style changing with every +mood--by turn humorous, eloquent, tender, gay, sometimes merely +"skittish," sometimes quite solemn, but never for long; sometimes, again, +breaking into graceful and haunting verse. He writes with apparent +artlessness; but, in his novels at least, on closer examination, it is +found that he has in fact exerted all his ingenuity to give them--what +such flagrantly untrue tales most require--verisimilitude. It is hard to +say which of the three stories is the more impossible: that of Trilby, +the tone-deaf artist's model who becomes a _prima donna_, that of Barty +Josselin and his guardian angel from Mars, or that of the dream-existence +of Peter Ibbetson and the duchess of Towers. They are all equally +preposterous, and yet plausible. The drawings are cunningly made to serve +the purpose of evidence, circumstantial and direct. These books cannot be +criticized by the ordinary canons of the art of fiction. They are a +_genre_ by themselves, a blend of unfettered day-dream and rose-coloured +reminiscence. For the dramatic version of _Trilby_ by Mr Paul Potter Du +Maurier would accept no credit. The play was produced in 1895 by Herbert +Beerbohm Tree, at the Haymarket, with immense popular success. + + Some striking examples of Du Maurier's work for _Once a Week_ and the + _Cornhill Magazine_ are included in Gleeson White's _English + Illustrators of the Sixties_. The following is a list of the chief + works which he illustrated: Foxe's _Book of Martyrs_ (1865), Mrs + Gaskell's _Wives and Daughters_ (1866), Jerrold's _Story of a Feather_ + (1867), Owen Meredith's _Lucile_ (1868), _The Book of Drawing room + Plays_, by H. Dalton (1868), _Sooner or Later_, by C.A.G. Brooke + (1868), Thackeray's _Esmond_ (1869 and 1879), and _Ballads_ (1879), + _Misunderstood_, by Florence Montgomery (1874), _Round about the + Islands_, by C.W. Scott (1874), _Hurlock Chase_, by G.E. Sargent + (1876), _Songs of many Seasons_, by J. Browne (in collaboration) + (1876), _Pegasus Re-saddled_, by H.C. Pennell (1877), _Ingoldsby + Legends_ (in collaboration), by R. Barham (1877), _Prudence_, by L.C. + Lillie (1882), _As in a Looking-glass_ by F.C. Phillips (1889), _Luke + Ashleigh_, by A. Elwes (1891), and his own three novels, which + appeared serially in _Harper's Magazine_: _Peter Ibbetson_ (1892), + _Trilby_ (1894), _The Martian_ (1897), and published after his death. + In 1897 also there was published, under the title _English Society_, + with an introduction by W.D. Howells, a collection of full page + drawings which he had contributed regularly to _Harper's Magazine_. + + Some of his _Punch_ drawings have been reproduced also in _The + Collections of Mr Punch_ (1880), _Society Pictures from Punch_ (1890), + _A Legend of Camelot_ (1890). To his _Social Pictorial Satire_ (1890) + reference has been made. He contributed two essays upon book + illustration to the _Magazine of Art_ (1890). See also the _Magazine + of Art_ for 1892, for an article upon his work by W. Delaplaine Scull, + with illustrations. Other volumes containing information about his + life and work are: _The History of Punch_ by M.H. Spielmann, _In + Bohemia with Du Maurier_, by Felix Moscheles, Henry James's "Du + Maurier and London Society," _Century Magazine_ (1883), and "Du + Maurier," _Harper's Magazine_ (September 1897, June 1899). See also + Ruskin's _Art of England_ Lecture 5, Pennell's _Pen-Drawing and + Pen-Draughtsmen_, and Muther's _Modern Painting_ vol. ii. + (F. W. W.) + + + + +DUMBARTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, seaport, and county town +of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, situated on the river Leven, near its +confluence with the Clyde, 15½ m. W. by N. of Glasgow by the North +British and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1891) 17,625, (1901) 19,985. The +Alcluith ("hill of the Clyde") of the Britons, and Dunbreatan ("fort of +the Britons") of the Celts, it was the capital of the district of +Strathclyde. Here, too, the Romans had a naval station which they called +Theodosia. Although thus a place of great antiquity, the history of the +town practically centres in that of the successive fortresses on the +Rock of Dumbarton, a twin peaked mount, 240 ft. high and a mile in +circumference at the base. The fortress was often besieged and sometimes +taken, the Picts seizing it in 736 and the Northmen in 870, but the most +effectual surprise of all was that accomplished, in the interests of the +young King James VI., by Thomas Crawford of Jordanhill on March 31, +1571. The castle was held by Queen Mary's adherents, and as it gave them +free communication with France, its capture was deemed essential. +Crawford decided to climb the highest point, concluding that, owing to +its imagined security, it would be carelessly guarded. Favoured with a +dark and foggy night the party of 150 men and a guide reached the first +ledge of rock undiscovered. In scaling the second precipice one of the +men was seized with an epileptic fit on the ladder. Crawford bound him +to the ladder and then turned it over and was thus enabled to ascend to +the summit. At this moment the alarm was given, but the sentinel and the +sleepy soldiers were slain and the cannon turned on the garrison. +Further resistance being useless, the castle was surrendered. During the +governorship of Sir John Menteith, William Wallace was in 1305 +imprisoned within its walls before he was removed to London. The higher +of the two peaks is known as Wallace's seat, a tower, perhaps the one in +which he was incarcerated, being named after him. On the portcullis +gateway may still be seen rudely carved heads of Wallace and his +betrayer, the latter with his finger in his mouth. Queen Mary, when a +child, resided in the castle for a short time. It is an ugly +barrack-like structure, defended by a few obsolete guns, although by the +Union Treaty it is one of the four fortresses that must be maintained. +The rock itself is basalt, with a tendency to columnar formation, and +some parts of it have a magnetic quality. + +The town arms are the elephant and castle, with the motto _Fortitudo et +fidelitas_. Dumbarton was of old the capital of the earldom of Lennox, +but was given up by Earl Maldwyn to Alexander II., by whom it was made a +royal burgh in 1221 and declared to be free from all imposts and burgh +taxes. Later sovereigns gave it other privileges, and the whole were +finally confirmed by a charter of James VI. It had the right to levy +customs and dues on all vessels on the Clyde between Loch Long and the +Kelvin. "Offers dues" on foreign ships entering the Clyde were also +exacted. In 1700 these rights were transferred to Glasgow by contract, +but were afterwards vested in a special trust created by successive acts +of parliament. + +Most of the town lies on the left bank of the Leven, which almost +converts the land here into a peninsula, but there is communication with +the suburb of Bridgend on the right bank by a five-arched stone bridge, +300 ft. long. The public buildings include the Burgh Hall, the academy +(with a graceful steeple), the county buildings, the Denny Memorial, a +Literary and a Mechanics' institute, Masonic hall, two cottage +hospitals, a fever hospital, a public library and the combination +poorhouse. There are two public parks--Broad Meadow (20 acres), part of +ground reclaimed in 1859, and Levengrove (32 acres), presented to the +corporation in 1885 by Peter Denny and John McMillan, two ship-builders +who helped lay the foundation of the town's present prosperity. The old +parish kirkyard was closed in 1856, but a fine cemetery was constructed +in its place outside the town. Dumbarton is controlled by a provost and +a council. With Port-Glasgow, Renfrew, Rutherglen and Kilmarnock it +unites in returning one member to parliament. The principal industry is +shipbuilding. The old staple trade of the making of crown glass, begun +in 1777, lapsed some 70 years afterwards when the glass duty was +abolished. There are several great engineering works, besides iron and +brass foundries, saw-mills, rope-yards and sail-making works. There are +quays, docks and a harbour at the mouth of the Leven, and a pier for +river steamers runs out from the Castle rock. The first steam navigation +company was established in Dumbarton in 1815, when the "Duke of +Wellington" (built in the town) plied between Dumbarton and Glasgow. But +it was not till 1844, consequent on the use of iron for vessels, that +shipbuilding became the leading industry. + + + + +DUMBARTONSHIRE, a western county of Scotland, bounded N. by Perthshire, +E. by Stirlingshire, S.E. by Lanarkshire, S. by the Clyde and its +estuary, and W. by Loch Long and Argyllshire. There is also a detached +portion, comprising the parish of Kirkintilloch and part of that of +Cumbernauld enclosed between the shires of Stirling and Lanark. This +formerly formed part of Stirlingshire, but was annexed in the 14th +century when the earl of Wigtown, to whom it belonged, became heritable +sheriff of Dumbartonshire. Dumbartonshire has an area of 170,762 acres +or 267 sq. m. The north-west and west are mountainous, the chief summits +being Ben Vorlich (3092 ft.), Ben Vane (3004), Doune Hill (2409), Beinn +Chaorach (2338), Beinn a Mhanaich (2328), Beinn Eich (2302), Cruach ant +Suthein (2244), Ben Reoch (2168), Beinn Tharsuinn (2149), Beinn Dubh +(2018), Balcnock (2092) and Tullich Hill (2075). In the south are the +Kilpatrick Hills, their highest points being Duncomb and Fynloch (each +1313 ft.). The Clyde, the Kelvin and the Leven are the only rivers of +importance. The Leven flows out of Loch Lomond at Balloch and joins the +Clyde at Dumbarton after a serpentine course of about 7 m. Most of the +other streams are among the mountains, whence they find their way to +Loch Lomond, the principal being the Inveruglas, Douglas, Luss, Finlas +and Fruin. Nearly all afford good sport to the angler. Of the inland +lakes by far the largest and most magnificent is Loch Lomond (q.v.). The +boundary between the shires of Dumbarton and Stirling follows an +imaginary line through the lake from the mouth of Endrick Water to a +point opposite the isle of Vow, giving about two-thirds of the loch to +the former county. Loch Sloy on the side of Ben Vorlich is a long, +narrow lake, 812 ft. above the sea amid wild scenery. From its name the +Macfarlanes took their slogan or war-cry. The shores of the Gareloch, a +salt-water inlet 6½ m. long and 1 m. wide, are studded with houses of +those whose business lies in Glasgow. Garelochhead has grown into a +favourite summer resort; Clynder is famed for its honey. The more +important salt-water inlet, Loch Long, is 17 m. in length and varies in +width from 2 m. at its mouth to about ½ a mile in its upper reach. It is +the dumping-place for the dredgers which are constantly at work +preserving the tide-way of the Clyde from Dumbarton to the +Broomielaw--its use for this purpose being a standing grievance to +anglers. The scenery on both shores is very beautiful. Only a mile +separates Garelochhead from Loch Long, and at Arrochar the distance from +Tarbet on Loch Lomond is barely 1¾ m. Nearly all the glens are situated +in the Highland part of the shire, the principal being Glen Sloy, Glen +Douglas, Glen Luss and Glen Fruin. The last is memorable as the scene of +the bloody conflict in 1603 between the Macgregors and the Colquhouns, +in which the latter were almost exterminated. It was this savage +encounter that led to the proscription of the Macgregors, including the +famous Rob Roy. + + _Geology._--Like the other counties along the eastern border of the + Highlands, Dumbartonshire is divided geologically into two areas, the + boundary between the two being defined by a line extending from + Rossdhu on Loch Lomond south-west by Row and Roseneath to Kilcreggan. + The mountainous region lying to the north of this line is composed of + rocks belonging to the metamorphic series of the Eastern Highlands and + representing several of the groups met with in the adjoining counties + of Perth and Argyll. Immediately to the north of the Highland border + the Aberfoyle slates and grits appear, repeated by isoclinal folds + trending north-east and south-west and dipping towards the north-west. + These are followed by a great development of the Ben Ledi grits and + schists--the representatives of the Beinn Bheula grits and ablite + schists of Argyllshire, which, by means of rapid plication, spread + over the high grounds northwards to beyond the head of Loch Lomond. + Along the line of section between Luss and Ardlui important evidence + is obtained of the gradual increase of metamorphism as we proceed + northwards from the Highland border. The original clastic characters + of the strata are obscured and the rocks between Arrochar and + Inverarnan in Glen Falloch merge into quartz-biotite gneisses and + albite schists. In the extreme north between Ardlui and the head of + Glen Fyne in Argyllshire there is a large development of plutonic + rocks piercing the Highland schists and producing marked contact + metamorphism. These range from acid to ultrabasic types and include + granite, augite-diorite, picrite and serpentine. On the hill-slopes to + the west of Ardlui and Inverarnan the diorite appears, while farther + west, between the watershed and Glen Fyne, there is a large mass of + granite. Boulders of plutonic rocks from this area have been widely + distributed by the ice during the glacial period. Immediately to the + south of the Highland border line there is a belt of Upper Old Red + Sandstone strata which stretches from the shores of Loch Lomond + westwards by Helensburgh and Roseneath Castle to Kilcreggan. These + sandstones and conglomerates are succeeded by the sandstones, shales, + clays and cementstones at the base of the Carboniferous formation + which occupy a narrow strip between Loch Lomond and Gareloch and are + cut off by a fault along their south-east margin. East of this + dislocation there is a belt of Lower Old Red Sandstone strata + extending from the mouth of the Endrick Water south-westwards by + Balloch to the shore of the Clyde west of Cardross, which is bounded + on either side by the upper division of that system. Still farther + east beyond Dumbarton the Upper Old Red Sandstone is again surmounted + by the representatives of the Cementstone group, which are followed by + the lavas, tuffs and agglomerates of the Kirkpatrick Hills, + intercalated in the Calciferous Sandstone series. Here the terraced + features of the volcanic plateau, produced by the denudation of the + successive flows is well displayed. Eastwards by Kilpatrick and + Bearsden to the margin of the county near Maryhill the rocks of + Calciferous Sandstone age are followed in normal order by the + Carboniferous Limestone series; the Hurlet Limestone and Hurlet Coal + of the lower limestone group being prominently developed. In the + detached portion of the county between Kirkintilloch and Cumbernauld + there is an important coalfield embracing the seams in the middle or + coal-bearing group of the Carboniferous Limestone series. In this + county there are several striking examples of the east and west + dolerite dykes which are probably of late Carboniferous age. These + traverse the Highland schists between Loch Long and Loch Lomond, the + Old Red Sandstone area between Alexandria and the Blane Valley, and + the Carboniferous tract near Cumbernauld. The ice which radiated from + the Dumbartonshire Highlands moved south-east and east towards the + central plain of Carboniferous rocks. Hence the boulder clay of the + lowland districts is abundantly charged with boulders of schistose + grit, slate, gneiss and granite derived from areas lying far to the + north-west. Along the shores of the Clyde the broad terraced features + indicate the limits of successive raised beaches. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--There is excessive rainfall in the +Highlands, averaging 53 in. at Helensburgh up to nearly 70 in. in the +north. The temperature, with an average for the year of 47½° F., varies +from 38° in January to 58° in July, but in the valleys the heat in +midsummer is often oppressive. The prevailing winds are from the west +and south-west, but easterly winds are frequent in the spring. Frosts +are seldom severe, and, except on the mountains, snow never lies long. +The arable lands extend chiefly along the Clyde and the Leven, and are +composed of rich black loam, gravelly soil and clay. From the proximity +to Glasgow and other large towns the farmers have the double advantage +of good manure and a ready market for all kinds of stock and produce, +and under this stimulus high farming and dairying on a considerable +scale prosper. Black-faced sheep and Highland cattle are pastured on the +hilly lands and Cheviots and Ayrshires on the low grounds. Oats and +wheat are the principal cereals, but barley and potatoes in abundance, +and turnips and beans are also grown. + +_Other Industries_.--Turkey-red dyeing has long been the distinctive +industry of the county. The water of the Leven being not only constant +but also singularly soft and pure, dyers and bleachers have constructed +works at many places in the Vale of Leven. Bleaching has been carried on +since the early part of the 18th century, and cotton-printing at +Levenfield dates from 1768. The establishments at Alexandria, Bonhill, +Jamestown, Renton and other towns for all the processes connected with +the bleaching, dyeing and printing of cottons, calicoes and other +cloths, besides yarns, are conducted on the largest scale. At Milton the +first power-loom mill was erected. The engineering works and +shipbuilding yards at Clydebank are famous, and at Dumbarton there are +others almost equally busy. The extensive Singer sewing-machine works +are at Kilbowie, and the Clyde Trust barge-building shops are at +Dalmuir. There are distilleries and breweries at Duntocher, Bowling, +Dumbarton, Milngavie (pronounced _Milguy_) and other towns. In fact the +Vale of Leven and the riverside towns east of Dumbarton form a veritable +hive of industry. In the detached portion, Kirkintilloch and Cumbernauld +are seats of great activity in the mining of coal and ironstone, and +there are besides chemical works and saw-mills in the former town. There +is some fishing at Helensburgh and along the Gareloch. + +The populous districts of the county are served almost wholly by the +North British railway. From Helensburgh to Inverarnan the Highland +railway runs through scenery of the most diversified and romantic +character. The Caledonian railway has access to Balloch from Glasgow, +and its system also traverses the detached portion. Portions of the +Forth and Clyde Canal, which connects with the Clyde at Bowling, and was +opened for traffic in 1775, pass through the shire. There is regular +steamer communication between Glasgow and the towns and villages on the +coast, and on Loch Lomond steamers call at several points between +Balloch and Ardlui. + +_Population and Government._--The population of Dumbartonshire in 1891 +was 98,014 and in 1901 113,865, of whom 3101 spoke both Gaelic and +English and 14 Gaelic only. The principal towns, with populations in +1901, are--Alexandria (8007), Bonhill (3333), Clydebank (21,591), +Dumbarton (19,985), Duntocher (2122), Helensburgh (8554), Jamestown +(2080), Kirkintilloch (11,681), Milngavie (3481), New Kilpatrick or +Bearsden (2705) and Renton (5067). The county returns one member to +parliament. Dumbarton, the county town, is the only royal burgh, and +belongs to the Kilmarnock group of parliamentary burghs. The municipal +and police burghs are Clydebank, Cove and Kilcreggan, Dumbarton, +Helensburgh, Kirkintilloch and Milngavie. Dumbartonshire forms a +sheriffdom with the counties of Stirling and Clackmannan, and there is a +resident sheriff-substitute at Dumbarton, who sits also at +Kirkintilloch. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, but there +are several voluntary schools, besides St Peter's Roman Catholic College +in New Kilpatrick. Science, art and technical classes are subsidized out +of the whole of the county "residue" and, if necessary, out of part of +the burgh "residue" also. Agricultural lectures and the travelling +expenses and fees of county students at Glasgow Technical College are +also paid for from the same source. + +_History._--The country is rich in antiquities connected with the +aborigines and also with the Romans. The Caledonians and Picts have left +their traces in rude forts and tumuli, but of greater interest are +remains in several places of the wall of Antoninus, built from the Forth +to the Clyde, and running along the north of the detached portion of the +shire and through the south-eastern corner of the county to Kilpatrick. +Other Roman relics have been found at Duntocher, Cumbernauld and +elsewhere. The shire forms part of the old Scottish territory of Lennox +(_Levenachs_, "fields of the Leven"), which embraced the Vale of the +Leven and the basin of Loch Lomond, or all modern Dumbartonshire, most +of Stirling and parts of the shires of Renfrew and Perth. It gave the +title of the earldom created in 1174 by William the Lion and of the +dukedom conferred by Charles II. on his natural son, Charles, duke of +Richmond and Lennox. In 1702 the Lennox estates were sold to the marquis +of Montrose. The captive Wallace was conveyed in chains to Dumbarton +Castle, whence he was taken to his death in London. Robert Bruce is said +to have mustered his forces at Dullatur prior to the battle of +Bannockburn, and died at Cardross Castle in 1329. The Covenanters in +their flight from the bloody field of Kilsyth, where in 1645 Montrose +had defeated them with great slaughter, made their way through the +southern districts. When the Forth and Clyde Canal was being excavated +swords, pistols, and other weapons dropped by the fugitives were found +at Dullatur, together with skeletons of men and horses. In the Highland +country the clans of Macgregor and Macfarlane made their home in the +fastnesses, whence they descended in raids upon the cattle, the goods +and sometimes the persons of their Lowland neighbours. + + See J. Irving, _History of Dumbartonshire_ (Dumbarton, 1860); _Book of + Dumbartonshire_ (Edinburgh, 1879); Sir W. Fraser, _Chiefs of + Colquhoun_ (Edinburgh, 1869); _The Lennox_ (Edinburgh, 1874); D. + Macleod, _Castle and Town of Dumbarton_ (Dumbarton, 1877); _Dumbarton_ + (Dumbarton, 1884); _Dumbarton: Ancient and Modern_ (Glasgow, 1893); + _Ancient Records of Dumbarton_ (Dumbarton, 1896); J. Glen, _History of + Dumbarton_ (Dumbarton, 1876). + + + + +DUMB WAITER,[1] a small oblong or circular table to hold reserve plates, +knives and forks, and other necessaries for a meal. This piece of +furniture originated in England towards the end of the 18th century, and +some exceedingly elegant examples were designed by Sheraton and his +school. They were usually circular, with three diminishing tiers, +sometimes surrounded by a continuous or interrupted pierced gallery in +wood or brass. The smaller varieties are now much used in England for +the display of small silver objects in drawing-rooms. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The term "dumb," strictly meaning mute or destitute of speech + (see DEAF AND DUMB), is applied in this and other analogous cases + (e.g. dumb-bell, dumb-barge) as connoting the absence of some normal + capacity in the term with which it is associated. + + + + +DUM-DUM, a town and cantonment in British India at the head of an +administrative subdivision in the district of the Twenty-four Parganas, +in the presidency division of Bengal, with a station on the Eastern +Bengal railway, 4½ m. N.E. of Calcutta. It was the headquarters of the +Bengal artillery from 1783 to 1853, when they were transferred to Meerut +as a more central station; and its possession of a cannon foundry and a +percussion-cap factory procured for it the name of the Woolwich of +India. The barracks--still occupied by small detachments--are +brick-built and commodious; and among the other buildings are St +Stephen's Protestant church, a Roman Catholic chapel, a European and +native hospital, a large bazaar and an English school. The population in +1901 of North Dum-Dum was 9916, and of South Dum-Dum 10,904. It was at +Dum-Dum that the treaty of 1757 was signed by which the nawab of Bengal +ratified the privileges of the English, allowed Calcutta to be +fortified, and bestowed freedom of trade. On the 7th of December 1908 a +serious explosion occurred by accident at the Dum-Dum arsenal, resulting +in death or serious injury to about 50 native workmen. + +At the Dum-Dum foundry the hollow-nosed "Dum-Dum" (Mark IV.) bullets +were manufactured, the supposed use of which by the British during the +Boer War caused considerable comment in 1899. Their peculiarity +consisted in their expanding on impact and thus creating an ugly wound, +and they had been adopted in Indian frontier fighting owing to the +failure of the usual type of bullets to stop the rushes of fanatical +tribesmen. They were not, in fact, used during the Boer War. Other and +improvised forms of expanding bullet were used in India and the Sudan, +the commonest methods of securing expansion being to file down the point +until the lead core was exposed and to make longitudinal slits in the +nickel envelope. All these forms of bullet have come to be described +colloquially, and even in diplomatic correspondence, as "dum-dum +bullets," and their alleged use by Russian troops in the Russo-Japanese +War of 1904-1905 formed the subject of a protest on the part of the +Japanese government. The proposals made at the second Hague Conference +to forbid the use of these bullets by international agreement were +agreed to by all the powers except Great Britain and the United States. + + + + +DUMESNIL, MARIE FRANÇOISE (1713-1803), French actress, whose real name +was Marchand, was born in Paris on the 2nd of January 1713. She began +her stage career in the provinces, whence she was summoned in 1737 to +make her _début_ at the Comédie Française as Clytemnestre in _Iphigénie +en Tauride_. She at once came into the front rank, playing Cléopâtre, +Phèdre, Athalie and Hermione with great effect, and when she created +Mérope (1743) Voltaire says that she kept the audience in tears for +three successive acts. She retired from the stage in 1776, but lived +until the 20th of February 1803. Her rival, Clairon, having spoken ill +of her, she authorized the publication of a _Mémoire de Marie Françoise +Dumesnil, en réponse aux mémoires d'Hippolyte Clairon_ (1800). + + + + +DUMFRIES (Gaelic, "the fort in the copse"), a royal and parliamentary +burgh and capital of the county, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. It lies on the +left bank of the Nith, about 8 m. from the Solway Firth and 81 m. S.E. +of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Pop. (1891) 16,675; +(1901) 17,079. Dumfries is beautifully situated and is one of the +handsomest county towns in Scotland. The churches and chapels of the +Presbyterian and other communions are, many of them, fine buildings. St +Michael's (1746), a stately pile, was the church which Robert Burns +attended, and in its churchyard he was buried, his remains being +transferred in 1815 to the magnificent mausoleum erected in the +south-east corner, where also lie his wife, Jean Armour, and several +members of his family. The Gothic church of Greyfriars (1866-1867) +occupies the site partly of a Franciscan monastery and partly of the old +castle of the town. On the site of St Mary's (1837-1839), also Gothic, +stood the small chapel raised by Christiana, sister of Robert Bruce, to +the memory of her husband, Sir Christopher Seton, who had been executed +on the spot by Edward I. St Andrew's (1811-1813), in the Romanesque +style, is a Roman Catholic church, which also serves as the +pro-cathedral of the diocese of Galloway. + +Besides numerous schools, there is an admirably equipped Academy. The +old infirmary building is now occupied by St Joseph's College, a +commercial academy of the Marist Brotherhood, in connexion with which +there is a novitiate for the training of members of the order for +missionary service at home or abroad. In the middle of the market-place +stands the old town hall, with red tower and cupola, known from its +situation as the Mid Steeple, built by Tobias Bachup of Alloa (1708). +The new town hall and post-office are near the uppermost bridge. The +county buildings, in Buccleuch Street, are an imposing example of the +Scots Baronial style. To Mr Andrew Carnegie and Mr and Mrs M'Kie of Moat +House was due the free library. The charitable institutions include +Moorhead's hospital (1753) for reduced householders; the Dumfriesshire +and Galloway royal infirmary, dating from 1778, but now housed in a fine +edifice in the northern Italian style; the Crichton royal institution +for the insane, founded by Dr James Crichton of Friars Carse, and +supplemented in 1848 by the Southern Counties asylum; the new infirmary, +a handsome building; the contagious diseases hospital, the industrial +home for orphan and destitute girls and a nurses' home. The Theatre +Royal, reconstructed in 1876, dates from 1787. Burns composed several +prologues and epilogues for some of its actors and actresses. Among +other public buildings are the assembly rooms, St George's hall, the +volunteer drill hall, and the Crichton Institution chapel, completed at +a cost of £30,000. The corporation owns the water supply, public baths +and wash-houses and the gasworks. In front of Greyfriars church stands a +marble statue of Burns, unveiled in 1882, and there is also a monument +to Charles, third duke of Queensberry. The Nith is crossed by three +bridges and the railway viaduct. The bridge, which is used for vehicular +traffic, dates from 1790-1794. Devorgilla's bridge, below it, built of +stone in 1280, originally consisted of nine arches (now reduced to +three), and is reserved in spite of its massive appearance for foot +passengers only, as is also the suspension bridge opened in 1875. + +Dumfries, Annan, Kirkcudbright, Lochmaben and Sanquhar--the "Five +Carlins" of Burns's Election Ballads--combine to return one member to +Parliament. As a parliamentary burgh Dumfries includes Maxwelltown, on +the opposite side of the river, which otherwise belongs to +Kirkcudbrightshire. + +The leading industries comprise manufactures of tweeds, hosiery, clogs, +baskets and leather, besides the timber trade, nursery gardening and the +making of machinery and iron implements. Dumfries markets for cattle and +sheep, held weekly, and for horses, held five times annually, have +always ranked with the best, and there is also a weekly market for pork +during the five months beginning with November. The sea-borne trade is +small compared with what it was before the railway came. + +Although Dumfries was the site of a camp of the Selgovian Britons, +nothing is known of its history until long after the withdrawal of the +Romans. William the Lion (d. 1214) made it a royal burgh, but the oldest +existing charter was granted by Robert II. in 1395. The town became +embroiled in the struggles that ended in the independence of Scotland. +It favoured the claims to the throne, first of John Baliol--whose mother +Devorgilla, daughter of Alan, lord of Galloway, had done much to promote +its prosperity by building the stone bridge over the Nith--and then of +the Red Comyn, as against those of Robert Bruce, who drew his support +from Annandale. When Edward I. besieged Carlaverock Castle in 1300 he +lodged in the Franciscan monastery, which, six years later (10th of +February 1306), was the scene of the murder of Comyn (see ROBERT THE +BRUCE). From this time to nearly the close of the 16th century the burgh +was exposed to frequent raids, both from freebooters on the English side +and from partisans of the turbulent chiefs--Douglases, Maxwells, +Johnstones. The Scottish sovereigns, however, did not wholly neglect +Dumfries. James IV., James V., Mary and her son each visited it. James +VI. was royally entertained on the 3rd of August 1617, and afterwards +presented the seven incorporated trades with a silver gun to encourage +the craftsmen in the practice of musketry. The competition for this +cannon-shaped tube, now preserved in the old town hall, took place +annually--with a great festival every seven years--until 1831. John +Mayne (1759-1836), a native of Dumfries, commemorated the gathering in +an excellent humorous poem called "The Siller Gun." Though in sympathy +with the Covenanters, the town was the scene of few incidents comparable +to those which took place in the northern parts of the shire. The Union +with England was so unpopular that not only did the provost vote against +the measure in the Scottish parliament, but the articles were burned +(20th of November 1706) at the Market Cross by a body of Cameronians, +amidst the approving cheers of the inhabitants. In both 1715 and 1745 +Dumfries remained apathetic. Prince Charles Edward indeed occupied the +town, holding his court in a building afterwards known as the Commercial +Hotel, levying £2000 tribute money and requisitioning 1000 pairs of +shoes for his Highlanders, by way of punishing its contumacy. But, in a +false alarm, the Jacobites suddenly retreated, and a few years later the +town was reimbursed by the State for the Pretender's extortions. The +most interesting event in the history of Dumfries is its connexion with +Burns, for the poet resided here from December 1791 till his death on +the 21st of July 1796. The house in which he died is still standing. + +The picturesque ruins of Carlaverock Castle--the "Ellangowan" of _Guy +Mannering_--are 8 m. to the south. Above the entrance are the arms of +the Maxwells, earls of Nithsdale, to whose descendant, the duchess of +Norfolk, it belongs. The castle, which is in an excellent state of +preservation, is built of red sandstone, on the site of a fortress +supposed to have been erected in the 6th century, of which nothing now +remains. In plan it is a triangle, protected by a double moat, and has +round towers at the angles. Part of the present structure is believed to +date from 1220 and once sheltered William Wallace. It withstood Edward +I.'s siege in 1300 for two days, although garrisoned by only sixty men. +In the troublous times that followed it often changed hands. In 1570 it +fell into disrepair, but was restored, and in 1641 was besieged for the +last time by the Covenanters. + +A mile and a half to the north-west of Dumfries lies Lincluden Abbey, +"an old ruin," says Burns, "in a sweet situation at the confluence of +the Cluden and the Nith." Originally the abbey was a convent, founded in +the 12th century, but converted two centuries later into a collegiate +church by Archibald, earl of Douglas. The remains of the choir and south +transept disclose rich work of the Decorated style. + + + + +DUMFRIESSHIRE, a border county of Scotland, bounded S. by the Solway +Firth, S.E. by Cumberland, E. by Roxburghshire, N. by the shires of +Lanark, Peebles and Selkirk, and W. by Ayrshire and Kirkcudbrightshire. +Its area is 686,302 acres or 1072 sq. m. The coast line measures 21 m. +The county slopes very gradually from the mountainous districts in the +north down to the sea, lofty hills alternating in parts with stretches +of tableland or rich fertile holms. At various points within a few miles +of the Solway are tracts of moss land, like Craigs Moss, Lochar Moss and +Longbridge Moor in the west, and Nutberry Moss in the east, all once +under water, but now largely reclaimed. The principal mountains occur +near the northern boundaries, the highest being White Coomb (2695 ft.), +Hart Fell (2651), Saddle Yoke (2412), Swatte Fell (2389), Lowther Hills +(2377), Queensberry (2285), which gives his secondary title to the duke +of Buccleuch and the title of marquess to a branch of the house of +Douglas, and Ettrick Pen (2269). The three longest rivers are the Nith, +the Annan and the Esk, the basins of which form the great dales by which +the county is cleft from north to south--Nithsdale, Annandale and +Eskdale. From the point where it enters Dumfriesshire, 16 m. from its +source near Enoch Hill in Ayrshire, the course of the Nith is mainly +south-easterly till it enters the Solway, a few miles below Dumfries. +Its total length is 65 m., and its chief affluents are, on the right, +the Kello, Euchan, Scar, Cluden and Cargen, and, on the left, the +Crawick, Carron and Campie. The Annan rises near the Devil's Beef Tub, a +remarkable chasm in the far north, and after flowing about 40 m., mainly +in a southerly course, it enters the Solway at Barnkirk headland. It +receives, on the right, the Kinnel (reinforced by the Ae), and, on the +left, the Moffat, the Dryfe and the Milk. From the confluence of the +White Esk (rising near Ettrick Pen) and the Black Esk (rising near +Jock's Shoulder, 1754 ft.) the Esk flows in a gradually south-easterly +direction till it crosses the Border, whence it sweeps to the S.W. +through the extreme north-western territory of Cumberland and falls into +the Solway. Of its total course of 42 m., 12 belong to the White Esk, 20 +are of the Esk proper on Scottish soil and 10 are of the stream in its +English course. On the right the Wauchope is the chief affluent, and on +the left it receives the Megget, Ewes, Tarras and Line--the last being +an English tributary. Other rivers are the Lochar (18 m.), the Kirtle +(17) and the Sark (12), all flowing into the Solway. For one mile of its +course the Esk, and for 7 m. of its course the Sark, form the boundaries +between Dumfriesshire and Cumberland. Loch Skene in the north (1750 ft. +above the sea), the group of lochs around Lochmaben, and Loch Urr in the +west, only part of which belongs to Dumfriesshire, are the principal +lakes. There are few glens so named in the shire, but the passes of +Dalveen, Enterkin and Menock, leading up from Nithsdale to the Lowther +and other hills, yield to few glens in Scotland in the wild grandeur of +their scenery. For part of the way Enterkin Pass runs between mountains +rising sheer from the burn to a height of nearly 2000 ft. Loch Skene +finds an outlet in Tail Burn, the water of which at a short distance +from the lake leaps from a height of 200 ft. in a fine waterfall, known +as the Grey Mare's Tail. A much smaller but picturesque fall of the same +name, also known as Crichope Linn, occurs on the Crichope near +Thornhill. Mineral waters are found at Moffat, Hartfell Spa, some three +miles farther north, Closeburn and Brow on the Solway. + + _Geology._--The greater portion of the county of Dumfries belongs to + the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland which contains + representatives of all the divisions of that system from the Arenig to + the Ludlow rocks. By far the largest area is occupied by strata of + Tarannon and Llandovery age which cover a belt of country from 20 to + 25 m. across from Drumlanrig Castle in the north to Torthorwald in the + south. Consisting of massive grits, sometimes conglomeratic, + greywackes, flags and shales, these beds are repeated by innumerable + folds frequently inverted, striking N.E. and S.W. and usually dipping + towards the N.W. In the midst of this belt there are lenticular bands + of older strata of Arenig, Llandeilo, Caradoc and Llandovery age + composed of fine sediments such as cherts, black and grey shales, + white clays and flags, which come to the surface along anticlinal + folds and yield abundant graptolites characteristic of these + divisions. These black shale bands are typically developed in + Moffatdale, indeed the three typical sections chosen by Professor + Lapworth to illustrate his three great groups--(1) the Glenkill shales + (Upper Llandeilo), (2) the Hartfell shales (Caradoc), (3) Birkhill + shales (Lower Llandovery)--occur respectively in the Glenkill Burn + north of Kirkmichael, on Hartfell and in Dobbs Linn near St Mary's + Loch in the basin of the river Annan. In the extreme N.W. of the + county between Drumlanrig Castle and Dalveen Pass in the S. and the + Spango and Kello Waters on the N., there is a broad development of + Arenig, Llandeilo and Caradoc strata, represented by Radiolarian + cherts, black shales, grits, conglomerates, greywackes and shales + which rise from underneath the central Tarannon belt and are repeated + by innumerable folds. In the cores of the arches of Arenig cherts + there are diabase lavas, tuffs and agglomerates which are typically + represented on Bail Hill E. of Kirkconnel. Along the southern margin + of the Tarannon belt, the Wenlock and Ludlow rocks follow in normal + order, the boundary between the two being defined by a line extending + from the head of the Ewes Water in Eskdale, S.W. by Lockerbie to + Mouswald. These consist of greywackes, flags and shales with bands of + dark graptolite shales, the finer sediments being often well cleaved. + They are likewise repeated by inverted folds, the axial planes being + usually inclined to the S.E. The Silurian tableland in the N.W. of the + county is pierced by intrusive igneous rocks in the form of dikes and + bosses, which are regarded as of Lower Old Red Sandstone age. Of + these, the granite mass of Spango Water, N.E. of Kirkconnel, is an + excellent example. Along the N.W. margin of the county, on the N. side + of the fault bounding the Silurian tableland, the Lower Old Red + Sandstone occurs, where it consists of sandstones and conglomerates + associated with contemporaneous volcanic rocks. The Upper Old Red + Sandstone forms a narrow strip on the south side of the Silurian + tableland, resting unconformably on the Silurian rocks and passing + upwards into the Carboniferous formation. It stretches from the county + boundary E. of the Ewes Water, S.W. by Langholm to Birrenswark. Along + this line these Upper Red sandstones and shales are overlaid by a thin + zone of volcanic rocks which point to contemporaneous volcanic action + in this region at the beginning of the Carboniferous period. Some of + the vents from which these igneous materials may have been discharged + are found along the watershed between Liddesdale and Teviotdale in + Roxburghshire. The strata of Carboniferous age are found in three + areas: (1) between Sanquhar and Kirkconnel, (2) at Closeburn near + Thornhill, (3) in the district between Liddesdale and Ruthwell. In the + first two instances (Sanquhar and Thornhill) the Carboniferous + sediments lie in hollows worn out of the old Silurian tableland. In + the Sanquhar basin the strata belong to the Coal Measures, and include + several valuable coal-seams which are probably the southern + prolongations of the members of this division in Ayrshire. At the S.E. + limit of the Sanquhar Coalfield there are patches of the Carboniferous + Limestone series, but towards the N. these are overlapped by the Coal + Measures which thus rest directly on the Silurian platform. At + Closeburn and Barjarg there are beds of marine limestone, associated + with sandstones and shales which probably represent marine bands in + the Carboniferous Limestone series. The most important development of + Carboniferous strata occurs between Liddesdale and Ruthwell. In the + valleys of the Liddel and the Esk the following zones are represented + which are given in ascending order: (1) The Whita Sandstone, (2) the + Cementstone group, (3) the Fell Sandstones, (4) the Glencartholm + volcanic group, (5) Marine limestone group with Coal seams, (6) + Millstone Grit, (7) Rowanburn coal group, (8) Byreburn coal group, (9) + Red Sandstones of Canonbie yielding plants characteristic of the Upper + Coal Measures. The coal-seams of the Rowanburn field have been chiefly + wrought, and in view of their exhaustion bores have been sunk to prove + the coals beneath the red sandstone of upper Carboniferous age. From + a palaeontological point of view the Glencartholm volcanic zone is of + special interest, as the calcareous shale associated with the tuffs + has yielded a large number of new species of fishes, decapod + crustaceans, phyllopods and scorpions. The Triassic rocks rest + unconformably on all older formations within the county. In the tract + along the Solway Firth they repose on the folded and eroded edges of + the Carboniferous strata, and when traced westwards to the Dumfries + basin they rest directly on the Silurian platform. They occur in five + areas, (1) between Annan and the mouth of the Esk, (2) the Dumfries + basin, (3) the Thornhill basin, (4) at Lochmaben and Corncockle Moor, + (5) at Moffat. The strata consist of breccias, false-bedded sandstones + and marls, the sandstones being extensively quarried for building + purposes. In the sandstones of Corncockle Moor reptilian footprints + have been obtained. In the Thornhill basin there is a thin zone of + volcanic rocks at the base of this series which are evidently on the + horizon of the lavas beneath the Mauchline sandstones in Ayrshire. In + the Sanquhar basin there are small outliers of lavas probably of this + age and several vents filled with agglomerate from which these igneous + materials in the Thornhill basin may have been derived. There are + several striking examples of basalt dikes of Tertiary age, one having + been traced from the Lead Hills south-east by Moffat, across + Eskdalemuir to the English border. + +_Climate and Industries._--The climate is mild, with a mean yearly +temperature of 48° F. (January, 38.5°; July, 59.5°), and the average +annual rainfall is 53 ins. Towards the middle of the 18th century +farmers began to raise stock for the south, and a hundred years later +20,000 head of heavy cattle were sent annually to the English markets. +The Galloways, which were the breed in vogue at first, have been to a +large extent replaced by shorthorns and Ayrshire dairy cattle. Sheep +breeding, of later origin, has attained to remarkable dimensions, the +walks in the higher hilly country being given over to Cheviots, and the +richer pasture of the low-lying farms being reserved for half-bred +lambs, a cross of Cheviots and Leicesters or other long-woolled rams. +Pig-feeding, once important, has declined before the imports of bacon +from foreign countries. Horse-breeding is pursued on a considerable +scale. Grain crops, of which oats are the principal, show a downward +tendency. Arable farms range from 100 acres to 300 acres, and pastoral +from 300 to 3000 acres. + +In general the manufactures are only of local importance and mostly +confined to Dumfries and a few of the larger towns. Langholm is famous +for its tweeds; breweries and distilleries are found at Annan, Sanquhar +and elsewhere; some shipping is carried on at Annan and Dumfries; and +the salmon fisheries of the Nith and Annan and the Solway Firth are of +value. + +_Communications._--The Glasgow & South-Western railway from Glasgow to +Carlisle runs through Nithsdale, practically following the course of the +river, and lower Annandale to the Border. The Caledonian railway runs +through Annandale, throwing off at Beattock a small branch to Moffat, at +Lockerbie a cross-country line to Dumfries, and at Kirtlebridge a line +that ultimately crosses the Solway to Bowness. From Dumfries westwards +there is communication with Castle Douglas, Kirkcudbright, Newton +Stewart, Stranraer and Portpatrick. The North British railway sends a +short line to Langholm from Riddings Junction in Cumberland, giving +access to Carlisle and, by the Waverley route, to Edinburgh. There is +also coach service between various points, as from Dumfries to New Abbey +and Dalbeattie, and from Langholm to Eskdalemuir. + +_Population and Government._--The population in 1891 was 74,245, and in +1901, 72,571, when there were 176 persons who spoke Gaelic and English. +The chief towns are Annan (pop. in 1901, 4309), Dumfries (14,444), +Langholm (3142), Lockerbie (2358) and Moffat (2153). The county returns +one member to parliament. Dumfries, the county town, Annan, Lochmaben +and Sanquhar are royal burghs; Dumfries forms a sheriffdom with the +shires of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, and there is a resident +sheriff-substitute at Dumfries, who sits also at Annan, Langholm and +Lockerbie. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, and some of the +public schools earn grants for higher education. The county council and +most of the borough councils give the bulk of the "residue" grant to the +county committee on secondary education, which is thus enabled, besides +assisting building schemes, to subsidize high schools, to provide +bursaries and apparatus, and to carry on science and technical classes, +embracing agriculture, dairying (at Kilmarnock Dairy school) and +practical chemistry. There are academies at Dumfries, Annan, Moffat and +other centres. + +_History._--The British tribe which inhabited this part of Scotland was +called by the Romans Selgovae. They have left many signs of their +presence, such as hill forts in the north, stone circles (as in Dunscore +and Eskdalemuir), camps (Dryfesdale), tumuli and cairns (Closeburn), and +sculptured stones (Dornock). The country around Moffat especially is +rich in remains. At Holywood, near Dumfries, there stand the relic of +the grove of sacred oaks from which the place derived its name, and a +stone circle known locally as the Twelve Apostles. In the parish church +of Ruthwell (pron. Rivvel: the "rood, or cross, well") is preserved an +ancient cross which tells in Runic characters the story of the +Crucifixion. There are traces of the Roman roads which ran by Dalveen +Pass into Clydesdale and up the Annan to Tweeddale, and at Birrens is +one of the best-preserved examples of a Roman camp. Roman altars, urns +and coins are found in many places. Upon the withdrawal of the Romans, +the Selgovae were conquered by Scots from Ireland, who, however, fused +with the natives. The Saxon conquest of Dumfriesshire does not seem to +have been thorough, the people of Nithsdale and elsewhere maintaining +their Celtic institutions up to the time of David I. + +As a Border county Dumfriesshire was the scene of stirring deeds at +various epochs, especially in the days of Robert Bruce. Edward I. +besieged Carlaverock Castle, and the factions of Bruce (who was lord of +Annandale), John Comyn and John Baliol were at constant feud. The Border +clans, as haughty and hot-headed as the Gaels farther north, were always +at strife. There is record of a bloody fight in Dryfesdale in 1593, when +the Johnstones slew 700 Maxwells, and, overtaking the fugitives at +Lockerbie, there massacred most of the remnant. These factions embroiled +the dalesmen until the 18th century. The highlands of the shire afforded +retreat to the persecuted Covenanters, who, at Sanquhar, published in +1680 their declaration against the king, anticipating the principles of +the "glorious Revolution" by several years. Prince Charles Edward's +ambition left the shire comparatively untouched, for the Jacobite +sentiment made little appeal to the people. + +Dumfriesshire is inseparably connected with the name of Robert Burns, +who farmed at Ellisland on the Nith for three years, and spent the last +five years of his life at Dumfries. Thomas Carlyle was born at +Ecclefechan, in a house still standing, and was buried beside his +parents in the kirkyard of the old Secession church (now the United +Free). His farm of Craigenputtock was left to Edinburgh University in +order to found the John Welsh bursaries in classics and mathematics. + + See W. M'Dowall, _History of the Burgh of Dumfries_ (Edinburgh, 1887); + Sir Herbert Maxwell, _Dumfries and Galloway_ (Edinburgh and London, + 1897); J. Macdonald and J. Barbour, _Birrens and its Antiquities_ + (Dumfries, 1897); Sir William Fraser, _The Book of Carlaverock_ + (Edinburgh, 1873); _The Douglas Book_ (Edinburgh, 1885); _The + Annandale Book_ (Edinburgh, 1894); G. Neilson, _Annandale under the + Bruces_ (Annan, 1887); C.T. Ramage, _Drumlanrig Castle and the + Douglases_ (Dumfries, 1876). + + + + +DÜMICHEN, JOHANNES (1833-1894), German Egyptologist, was born near +Grossglogau. He studied philology and theology in Berlin and Breslau. +Subsequently he became a pupil of Lepsius and Brugsch, and devoted +himself to the study of Egyptian inscriptions. He travelled widely in +Egypt, and published his results in a number of important books. In 1872 +he was chosen professor of Egyptology at Strassburg. The value of his +work consists not only in the stores of material which he collected, but +also in the success with which he dealt with many of the problems raised +by the inscriptions. + + Among his works are _Bauurkunde des Tempels von Dendera_ (1865); + _Geographische Inschriften altagyptischer Denkmaler_ (4 vols., + 1865-1885); _Altagyptische Kalenderinschriften_ (1866); _Altagypt. + Tempelinschriften_ (2 vols., 1867); _Historische Inschriften altagypt. + Denkmaler_ (2 vols., 1867-1869); _Baugeschichte und Beschreibung des + Denderatempels_ (Strassburg, 1877); _Die Oasen der libyschen Wüste_ + (1878); _Die kalendarischen Opferfestlisten von Medinet-Habu_(1881); + _Gesch. des alten Äegypten_ (1878-1883); _Der Grabpalast des + Patuamenap in der thebanischen Nekropolis_ (1884-1894). + + + + +DÜMMLER, ERNST LUDWIG (1830-1902), German historian, the son of +Ferdinand Dümmler (1777-1846), a Berlin bookseller, was born in Berlin, +on the 2nd of January 1830. He studied at Bonn under J.W. Löbell +(1786-1863), under L. von Ranke and W. Wattenbach, and his doctor's +dissertation, _De Arnulfo Francorum rege_ (Berlin, 1852), was a notable +essay. He entered the faculty at Halle in 1855, and started an +historical _Seminar_. In 1858 he became professor extraordinary, in 1866 +full professor. In 1875 he became a member of the revised committee +directing the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, himself undertaking the +direction of the section _Antiquitates_, and in 1888 became president of +the central board in Berlin. This was an official recognition of +Dümmler's leading position among German historians. In addition to +numerous critical works and editions of texts, he published _Piligrim +von Passau und das Erzbistum Lorch_ (1854), _Über die älteren Slawen in +Dalmatien_ (1856), _Das Formelbuch des Bischofs Salomo III. von +Konstanz_ (1857) and _Anselm der Peripatetiker_ (1872). But his great +work was the _Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches_ (Berlin, 1862-1865, +in 2 vols.; 2nd ed. 1887-1888, in 3 vols.). In conjunction with +Wattenbach he completed the _Monumenta Alcuiniana_ (Berlin, 1873), which +had been begun by Philipp Jaffé, and with R. Köpke he wrote _Kaiser Otto +der Grosse_ (Leipzig, 1876). He edited the first and second volumes of +the _Poëtae latini aevi Carolini_ for the _Monumenta Germaniae +historica_ (Berlin, 1881-1884). Dümmler died in Berlin on the 11th of +September 1902. + +His son, Ferdinand (1859-1896), who won some reputation as an +archaeologist and philologist, was professor at the university of Basel +from 1890 until his death on the 15th of November 1896. + + + + +DUMONT, the name of a family of prominent French artists. François +Dumont (1688-1726), a sculptor, best known for his figures in the church +of Saint Sulpice, Paris, was the brother of the painter Jacques +Dumont,[1] known as "le Romain" (1701-1781), whose chief success was +gained with a great allegorical composition for the Paris +_hôtel-de-ville_ in 1761. François's son Edme (1720-1775), the latter's +son Jacques Edme (1761-1844), and the last-named's son Augustin +Alexander (1801-1884) were also famous sculptors. + + See G. Vattier, _Une Famille d'artistes_ (1890). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Not to be confounded with his contemporary Jean Joseph Dumons + (1687-1779), sometimes called Dumont, best known for his designs for + the Aubusson tapestries. + + + + +DUMONT, ANDRÉ HUBERT (1809-1857), Belgian geologist, was born at Liége +on the 15th of February 1809. His first work was a masterly _Mémoire_ on +the geology of the province of Liége published in 1832. A few years +later he became professor of mineralogy and geology and afterwards +rector in the university of Liége. His attention was now given to the +mineralogical and stratigraphical characters of the geological +formations in Belgium--and the names given by him to many subdivisions +of Cretaceous and Tertiary ages have been adopted. His _Mémoire sur les +terrains ardennais et rhénan de l'Ardenne, du Brabant et du Condroz_ +(1847-1848) is notable for the care with which the mineral characters of +the strata were described, but the palaeontological characters were +insufficiently considered, and neither the terms "Silurian" nor +"Devonian" were adopted. During twenty years he laboured at the +preparation of a geological map of Belgium (1849). He spared no pains to +make his work as complete as possible, examining on foot almost every +area of importance in the country. Journeying to the more southern parts +of Europe, he investigated the shores of the Bosphorus, the mountains of +Spain and other tracts, and gradually gathered materials for a +geological map of Europe: a work of high merit which was "one of the +first serious attempts to establish on a larger scale the geological +correlation of the various countries of Europe." The Geological Society +of London awarded him in 1840 the Wollaston medal. He died at Liége on +the 28th of February 1857. + + See Memoir by Major-General J.E. Portlock in _Address to Geol. Soc._ + (London, 1858). + + + + +DUMONT, FRANÇOIS (1751-1831), French miniature painter, was born at +Lunéville (Meurthe), and was left an orphan when quite young, with five +brothers and sisters to support. He was for a while a student under Jean +Girardet, and then, on the advice of a Lunéville Academician, Madame +Coster, set up a studio for himself. In 1784 he journeyed to Rome, +returning after four years' careful study, and in 1788 was accepted as +an Academician and granted an apartment in the Louvre. He married the +daughter of Antoine Vestier, the miniature painter, and had two sons, +Aristide and Bias, both of whom became painters. He was one of the three +greatest miniature painters of France, painting portraits of Louis XVI. +and Marie Antoinette, Louis XVIII. and Charles X., and of almost all the +important persons of his day. His own portrait was engraved both by +Audouin and by Tardieu. He resided the greater part of his life in +Paris, and there he died. A younger brother, known as Tony Dumont, was +also a miniature painter, a pupil of his brother, a frequent exhibitor +and the recipient of a medal from the Academy in 1810. Each artist +signed with the surname only, and there is some controversy concerning +the attribution to each artist of his own work. Tony was an expert +violinist and delighted in painting portraits of persons who were +playing upon the violin. Many of Dumont's finest paintings came into the +collection of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan, but others are in the Louvre, +presented by the heir of Bias Dumont. The work of both painters is +distinguished by breadth, precision and a charming scheme of colouring, +and the unfinished works of the elder brother are amongst some of the +most beautiful miniatures ever produced. + + See _The History of Portrait Miniatures_, by G.C. Williamson (London, + 1904); also the privately printed _Catalogue of the Collection of + Miniatures of Mr J. Pierpont Morgan_, vol. iv. (G. C. W.) + + + + +DUMONT, JEAN (d. 1726), French publicist, was born in France in the 17th +century, the precise date being unknown. He followed the profession of +arms; but, not obtaining promotion so rapidly as he expected, he quitted +the service and travelled through different parts of Europe. He stopped +in Holland with the intention of publishing an account of his travels. +But in the interval, at the request of his bookseller, he wrote and +published several pamphlets, which were eagerly sought after, owing to +the unceremonious manner in which he treated the ministry of France. +This freedom having deprived him of all hope of employment in his own +country, he thought of forming a permanent establishment in that where +he resided, and accordingly commenced a course of lectures on public +law. The project succeeded far beyond his expectations; and some useful +compilations which he published about the same period made him +favourably known in other countries. The emperor appointed him his +historiographer, and some time afterwards conferred on him the title of +baron de Carlscroon. He died at Vienna in 1726, at an advanced age. + + The following is a list of his publications:--(1) _Voyages en France, + en Italie, en Allemagne, à Malte, et en Turquie_ (Hague, 1699, 4 vols. + 12mo); (2) _Mémoires politiques pour servir à la parfaite intelligence + de l'histoire de la Paix de Ryswick_ (Hague, 1699, 4 vols. 12mo); (3) + _Recherches modestes des causes de la présente guerre, en ce qui + concerne les Provinces Unies_ (1713, 12mo); (4) _Recueil de traités + d'alliance, de pai, et de commerce entre les rois, princes, et états, + depuis la Paix de Münster_ (Amsterdam, 1710, 2 vols. 12mo); (5) + _Soupirs de l'Europe à la vue du projet de paix contenu dans la + harangue de la reine de la Grande-Bretagne_ (1712, 12mo); (6) _Corps + universel diplomatique du droit des gens, contenant un recueil des + traités de paix, d'alliance, &c., faits en Europe, depuis Charlemagne + jusqu'à présent_ (Amsterdam, 1626, and following years, 8 vols. fol., + continued after Dumont's death by J. Rousset); and (7) _Batailles + gagnées par le Prince Eugène de Savoie_ (Hague, 1723). Dumont was also + the author of _Lettres historiques contenant ce qui se passe de plus + important en Europe_ (12mo). This periodical, which was commenced in + 1692, two volumes appearing annually, Dumont conducted till 1710, from + which time it was continued by Basnage and others until 1728. The + earlier volumes are much prized. + + + + +DUMONT, PIERRE ÉTIENNE LOUIS (1759-1829), French political writer, was +born on the 18th of July 1759 at Geneva, of which his family had been +citizens of good repute from the days of Calvin. He was educated for the +ministry at the college of Geneva, and in 1781 was chosen one of the +pastors of the city. The political troubles which disturbed Geneva in +1782, however, suddenly turned the course of his life. He belonged to +the liberals or democrats, and the triumph of the aristocratic party, +through the interference of the courts of France and Sardinia, made +residence in his native town impossible, though he was not among the +number of the proscribed. He therefore went to join his mother and +sisters at St Petersburg. In this he was probably influenced in part by +the example of his townsman Pierre Lefort, the first tutor, minister, +and general of the tsar. At St Petersburg he was for eighteen months +pastor of the French church. In 1785 he removed to London, Lord +Shelburne, then a minister of state, having invited him to undertake the +education of his sons. It was at the house of Lord Shelburne, now 1st +marquess of Lansdowne, where he was treated as a friend or rather member +of the family, that he became acquainted with many illustrious men, +amongst others Fox, Sheridan, Lord Holland and Sir Samuel Romilly. With +the last of these he formed a close and enduring friendship, which had +an important influence on his life and pursuits. + +In 1788 Dumont visited Paris with Romilly. During a stay of two months +in that city he had almost daily intercourse with Mirabeau, and a +certain affinity of talents and pursuits led to an intimacy between two +persons diametrically opposed to each other in habits and in character. +On his return from Paris Dumont made the acquaintance of Jeremy Bentham. +Filled with admiration for the genius of Bentham, Dumont made it one of +the chief objects of his life to recast and edit the writings of the +great English jurist in a form suitable for the ordinary reading public. +This literary relationship was, according to Dumont's own account, one +of a somewhat peculiar character. All the fundamental ideas and most of +the illustrative material were supplied in the manuscripts of Bentham; +Dumont's task was chiefly to abridge by striking out repeated matter, to +supply lacunae, to secure uniformity of style, and to improve the +French. The following works of Bentham were published under his +editorship: _Traité de législation civile et pénale_ (1802), _Théorie +des peines et des récompenses_ (1811), _Tactique des assemblées +législatives_ (1815), _Traité des preuves judiciaires_ (1823) and _De +l'organization judiciaire et de la codification_ (1828). + +In the summer of 1789 Dumont went to Paris. The object of the journey +was to obtain through Necker, who had just returned to office, an +unrestricted restoration of Genevese liberty, by cancelling the treaty +of guarantee between France and Switzerland, which prevented the +republic from enacting new laws without the consent of the parties to +this treaty. The proceedings and negotiations to which this mission gave +rise necessarily brought Dumont into connexion with most of the leading +men in the Constituent Assembly, and made him an interested spectator, +sometimes even a participator, indirectly, in the events of the French +Revolution. The same cause also led him to renew his acquaintance with +Mirabeau, whom he found occupied with his duties as a deputy, and with +the composition of his journal, the _Courier de Provence_. For a time +Dumont took an active and very efficient part in the conduct of this +journal, supplying it with reports as well as original articles, and +also furnishing Mirabeau with speeches to be delivered or rather read in +the assembly, as related in his highly instructive and interesting +posthumous work entitled _Souvenirs sur Mirabeau_ (1832). In fact his +friend George Wilson used to relate that one day, when they were dining +together at a _table d'hôte_ at Versailles, he saw Dumont engaged in +writing the most celebrated paragraph of Mirabeau's address to the king +for the removal of the troops. He also reported such of Mirabeau's +speeches as he did not write, embellishing them from his own stores, +which were inexhaustible. But this co-operation soon came to an end; +for, being attacked in pamphlets as one of Mirabeau's writers, he felt +hurt at the notoriety thus given to his name in connexion with a man +occupying Mirabeau's peculiar position, and returned to England in 1791. + +In 1801 he travelled over various parts of Europe with Lord Henry Petty, +afterwards 3rd marquess of Lansdowne, and on his return settled down to +the editorship of the works of Bentham already mentioned. In 1814 the +restoration of Geneva to independence induced Dumont to return to his +native place, and he soon became the leader of the supreme council. He +devoted particular attention to the judicial and penal systems of his +native state, and many improvements on both are due to him. He died at +Milan when on an autumn tour on the 29th of September 1829. + + + + +DUMONT D'URVILLE, JULES SÉBASTIEN CÉSAR (1790-1842), French navigator, +was born at Condé-sur-Noireau, in Normandy, on the 23rd of May 1790. The +death of his father, who before the revolution had held a judicial post +in Condé, devolved the care of his education on his mother and his +maternal uncle, the Abbé de Croizilles. Failing to pass the entrance +examination for the École Polytechnique, he went to sea in 1807 as a +novice on board the "Aquilon." During the next twelve years he gradually +rose in the service, and added a knowledge of botany, entomology, +English, German, Spanish, Italian and even Hebrew and Greek to the +professional branches of his studies. In 1820, while engaged in a +hydrographic survey of the Mediterranean, he was fortunate enough to +recognize the Venus of Milo (Melos) in a Greek statue recently +unearthed, and to secure its preservation by the report he presented to +the French ambassador at Constantinople. A wider field for his energies +was furnished in 1822 by the circumnavigating expedition of the +"Coquille" under the command of his friend Duperrey; and on its return +in 1825 his services were rewarded by promotion to the rank of +_capitaine de frégate_, and he was entrusted with the control of a +similar enterprise, with the especial purpose of discovering traces of +the lost explorer La Pérouse, in which he was successful. The +"Astrolabe," as he renamed the "Coquille," left Toulon on the 25th of +April 1826, and returned to Marseilles on the 25th of March 1829, having +traversed the South Atlantic, coasted the Australian continent from King +George's Sound to Port Jackson, charted various parts of New Zealand, +and visited the Fiji Islands, the Loyalty Islands, New Caledonia, New +Guinea, Amboyna, Van Diemen's Land, the Caroline Islands, Celebes and +Mauritius. Promotion to the rank of _capitaine de vaisseau_ was bestowed +on the commander in August 1829; and in August of the following year he +was charged with the delicate task of conveying the exiled king Charles +X. to England. His proposal to undertake a voyage of discovery to the +south polar regions was discouraged by Arago and others, who criticized +the work of the previous expedition in no measured terms; but at last, +in 1837, all difficulties were surmounted, and on the 7th of September +he set sail from Toulon with the "Astrolabe" and its convoy "La Zélée." +On the 15th of January 1838 they sighted the Antarctic ice, and soon +after their progress southward was blocked by a continuous bank, which +they vainly coasted for 300 m. to the east. Returning westward they +visited the South Orkney Islands and part of the New Shetlands, and +discovered Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land, but were compelled +by scurvy to seek succour at Talcahuano in Chile. Thence they proceeded +across the Pacific and through the Asiatic archipelago, visiting among +others the Fiji and the Pelew Islands, coasting New Guinea, and +circumnavigating Borneo. In 1840, leaving their sick at Hobart Town, +Tasmania, they returned to the Antarctic region, and on the 21st of the +month were rewarded by the discovery of Adélie Land, which D'Urville +named after his wife, in 140° E. The 6th of November found them at +Toulon. D'Urville was at once appointed _contre-amiral_, and in 1841 he +received the gold medal of the Société de Géographie. On the 8th of May +1842 he was killed, with his wife and son, in a railway accident near +Meudon. + +His principal works are--_Enumeratio plantarum quas in insulis +Archipelagi aut littoribus Ponti Euxini_, &c. (1822); _Voyage de la +corvette "l'Astrolabe," 1826-1829_ (Paris, 1830-1835), and _Voyage au +pôle sud et dans l'Océanie, 1837-1840_ (Paris, 1842-1854), in each of +which his scientific colleagues had a share; _Voyages autour du monde; +résumé général des voyages de Magellan_, &c. (Paris, 1833 and 1844). An +island (also called Kairu) off the north coast of New Guinea, and a cape +on the same coast, bear the name of D'Urville. + + + + +DUMORTIERITE, a mineral described in 1881 by M.F. Gonnard, who named it +after Eugène Dumortier, a palaeontologist of Lyons, France. It is +essentially a basic aluminium borosilicate, belonging to the +orthorhombic system; it occurs usually in fibrous forms, of smalt-blue, +greenish-blue, lavender or almost black colour, and exhibits strong +pleochroism. According to W.T. Schaller (_Amer. Journ. Sci._, 1905 +(iv.), 19, p. 211) a purple colour may be due to the presence of +titanium. Analyses of some specimens point to the formula +(SiO4)3Al(AlO)7(BO)H, which, written in this form, explains the analogy +with andalusite and the alteration into muscovite. Dumortierite occurs +in gneiss at Chaponost, near Lyons, and at a few other European +localities; it is found also in the United States, being known from near +New York City, from Riverside and San Diego counties, California, and +from Yuma county, Arizona. The last-named locality yields the mineral in +some quantity in the form of dense fibres embedded in quartz, to which +it imparts a blue colour. The mineral aggregate is polished as an +ornamental stone, rather resembling lapis-lazuli. + + + + +DUMOULIN, CHARLES [MOLINAEUS] (1500-1566), French jurist, was born in +Paris in 1500. He began practice as an advocate before the parlement of +Paris. Dumoulin turned Calvinist, and when the persecution of the +Protestants began he went to Germany, where for a long time he taught +law at Strassburg, Besançon and elsewhere. He returned to France in +1557. Dumoulin had, in 1552, written _Commentaire sur l'édit du roi +Henri II sur les petites dates_, which was condemned by the Sorbonne, +but his _Conseil sur le fait du concile de Trente_ created a still +greater stir, and aroused against him both the Catholics and the +Calvinists. He was imprisoned by order of the parlement until 1564. It +was as a jurist that Dumoulin gained his great reputation, being +regarded by his contemporaries as the "prince of jurisconsults." His +remarkable erudition and breadth of view had a considerable effect on +the subsequent development of French law. He was a bitter enemy of +feudalism, which he attacked in his _De feudis_ (Paris, 1539). Other +important works were his commentaries on the customs of Paris (Paris, +1539, 1554; Frankfort, 1575; Lausanne, 1576), valuable as the only +commentary on those in force in 1510, and the _Extricatio labyrinthi +dividui et individui_, a treatise on the law of surety. + + A collected edition of Dumoulin's works was published in Paris in 1681 + (5 vols.). + + + + +DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANÇOIS (1739-1823), French general, was born at +Cambray in 1739. His father was a commissary of the royal army, and +educated his son most carefully in various branches of learning. The boy +continued his studies at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and in 1757 +began his military career as a volunteer in the campaign of Rossbach. He +received a commission for good conduct in action, and served in the +later German campaigns of the Seven Years' War with distinction; but at +the peace he was retired as a captain, with a small pension and the +cross of St Louis. Dumouriez then visited Italy and Corsica, Spain and +Portugal, and his memorials to the duc de Choiseul on Corsican affairs +led to his re-employment on the staff of the French expeditionary corps +sent to the island, for which he gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. +After this he became a member of the _Secret du roi_, the secret service +under Louis XV., where his fertility of diplomatic resource had full +scope. In 1770 he was sent on a mission into Poland, where in addition +to his political business he organized a Polish militia. The fall of +Choiseul brought about his recall, and somewhat later he was imprisoned +in the Bastille, where he spent six months, occupying himself with +literary pursuits. He was then removed to Caen, where he was detained +until the accession of Louis XVI. + +Upon his release in 1774 he married his cousin Mlle de Broissy, but he +was neglectful and unfaithful, and in 1789 the pair separated, the wife +taking refuge in a convent. Meanwhile Dumouriez had devoted his +attention to the internal state of his own country, and amongst the very +numerous memorials which he sent in to the government was one on the +defence of Normandy and its ports, which procured him in 1778 the post +of commandant of Cherbourg, which he administered with much success for +ten years. He became _maréchal de camp_ in 1788; but his ambition was +not satisfied, and at the outbreak of the Revolution, seeing the +opportunity for carving out a career, he went to Paris, where he joined +the Jacobin Club. The death of Mirabeau, to whose fortunes he had +attached himself, was a great blow to him; but, promoted to the rank of +lieutenant-general and commandant of Nantes, his opportunity came after +the flight to Varennes, when he attracted attention by offering to march +to the assistance of the Assembly. He now attached himself to the +Girondist party, and on the 15th of March 1792 was appointed minister of +foreign affairs. He was mainly responsible for the declaration of war +against Austria (April 20), and the invasion of the Low Countries was +planned by him. On the dismissal of Roland, Clavière and Servan (June +13), he took the latter's post of minister of war, but resigned it two +days later on account of the king's refusal to come to terms with the +Assembly, and went to join the army of Marshal Lückner. After the +_émeute_ of August 10 and Lafayette's flight he was appointed to the +command of the "Army of the Centre," and at the same moment the +Coalition assumed the offensive. Dumouriez acted promptly. His +subordinate Kellermann repulsed the Prussians at Valmy (September 20, +1792), and he himself severely defeated the Austrians at Jemappes +(November 6). Returning to Paris, he was received with a popular +ovation; but he was out of sympathy with the extremists in power, his +old-fashioned methodical method of conducting war exposed him to the +criticism of the ardent Jacobins, and a defeat would mean the end of his +career. Defeat coming to him at Neerwinden in January 1793, he ventured +all on a desperate stroke. Arresting the commissaries of the Convention +sent to inquire into his conduct, he handed them over to the enemy, and +then attempted to persuade his troops to march on Paris and overthrow +the revolutionary government. The attempt failed, and Dumouriez, with +the duc de Chartres (afterwards King Louis Philippe) and his brother the +duc de Montpensier, fled into the Austrian camp. + +He now wandered from country to country, occupied in ceaseless intrigues +with Louis XVIII., or for setting up an Orleanist monarchy, until in +1804 he settled in England, where the government conferred on him a +pension of £1200 a year. He became a valuable adviser to the War Office +in connexion with the struggle with Napoleon, though the extent to which +this went was only known in public many years later. In 1814 and 1815 he +endeavoured to procure from Louis XVIII. the bâton of a marshal of +France, but was refused. He died at Turville Park, near +Henley-on-Thames, on the 14th of March 1823. His memoirs were published +at Hamburg in 1794. An enlarged edition, _La Vie et les mémoires du +Général Dumouriez_, appeared at Paris in 1823. Dumouriez was also the +author of a large number of political pamphlets. + + See A. von Boguslawski, _Das Leben des Generals Dumouriez_ (Berlin, + 1878-1879); _Revue des deux mondes_ (15th July, 1st and 15th August + 1884); H. Welschinger, _Le Roman de Dumouriez_ (1890); A. Chuquet, _La + Première Invasion, Valmy, La Retraite de Brunswick, Jemappes, La + Trahison de Dumouriez_ (Paris, 1886-1891); A. Sorel, _L'Europe et la + Révolution française_ (1885-1892); J. Holland Rose and A.M. Broadley, + _Dumouriez and the Defence of England_ (1908); E. Daudet, _La + Conjuration de Pichegru et les complots royalistes du midi et du + l'est, 1795-1797_ (Paris, 1901). + + + + +DUMP. (1) (Of obscure origin; corresponding in form and possibly +connected with the word, are the Mid. Dutch _domp_, mist or haze, and +the Ger. _dumpf_, dull or dazed), a state of wonder, perplexity or +melancholy. The word thus occurs particularly in the plural, in such +phrases as "doleful dumps." It was also formerly used for a tune, +especially one of a mournful kind, a dirge. (2) (Connected with "dumpy," +but appearing later than that word, and also of obscure origin), +something short and thick, and hence used of many objects such as a lead +counter or medal, of a coin formerly used in Australia, formed by +punching a circular piece out of a Spanish dollar, and of a short thick +bolt used in shipbuilding. (3) (Probably of Norse origin, cf. Nor. +_dumpa_, and Dan. _dumpe_, meaning "to fall" suddenly, with a bump), to +throw down in a heap, and hence particularly applied to the depositing +of any large quantity of material, to the shooting of rubbish, or +tilting a load from a cart. It is thus used of the method of disposal of +the masses of gravel, &c., disintegrated by water in the hydraulic +method of gold mining. A "dump" or "dumping-ground" is thus the place +where such waste material is deposited. The use of the term "dumping" in +the economics of international trade has come into prominence in the +tariff reform controversy in the United Kingdom. It is sometimes used +loosely of the importing of foreign goods at prices below those ruling +in the importing country; but strictly the term is applied to the +importing, at a price below the cost of production, of the surplus of +manufactures of a foreign country over and above what has been disposed +of in its home market. The ability to sell such a surplus in a foreign +market below the cost of production depends on the prices of the home +market being artificially sustained at a sufficiently high level by a +monopoly or by a tariff or by bounties. An essential factor in the +operation of "dumping" is the lessening of the whole cost of production +by manufacture on a large scale. + + + + +DUNASH, the name of two Jewish scholars of the 10th century. + +1. DUNASH BEN LABRAT, grammarian and poet, belonged to the brilliant +circle attracted to Cordova by Hasdai, and took a large share in +promoting the Jewish "Golden Age" under the Moors in Andalusia. Dunash +not only helped in the foundation of a school of scientific philology, +but adapted Arabian metres to Hebrew verse, and thereby gave an impulse +to the neo-Hebraic poetry, which reached its highest level in Spain. + +2. DUNASH IBN TAMIM was, like the preceding, a leader in the critical +study of language among Arabic-speaking Jews. Professor Bacher says of +him: "In the history of Hebrew philology, Ibn Tamim ranks as one of the +first representatives of the systematic comparison of Hebrew and +Arabic." The philological researches of the 10th century were closely +associated with the Spanish-Moorish culture of the period. (I. A.) + + + + +DUNBAR, GEORGE (1774-1851), English classical scholar and lexicographer, +was born at Coldingham in Berwickshire. In early life he followed the +humble profession of gardening, but, having been permanently injured by +an accident, devoted himself to the study of the classics. When about +thirty years of age, he settled in Edinburgh, where he obtained a +tutorship in the family of Lord Provost Fettes. In 1807 he succeeded +Andrew Dalzel as professor of Greek in the university. Dunbar held his +appointment till his death on the 6th of December 1851. Although a man +of great energy and industry, Dunbar did not produce anything of +permanent value. He deserves mention, however, for his Greek-English and +English-Greek lexicon (1840), on the compilation of which he spent eight +years. Although now superseded, it was the best work of its kind that +had appeared in England. + + The little that is known of Dunbar's life will be found in the + _Caledonian Mercury_ (8th of December 1851). + + + + +DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE (1872-1906), American author, of negro descent, +was born in Dayton, Ohio, on the 27th of June 1872. He graduated (1891) +from the Dayton high school, had a varied experience as elevator boy, +mechanic and journalist, and in 1897-1898 held a position on the staff +of the Library of Congress, resigning in December 1898 to devote himself +to literary work. He died of consumption at his home in Dayton on the +8th of February 1906. His poetry was brought to the attention of +American readers by William Dean Howells, who wrote an appreciative +introduction to his _Lyrics of Lowly Life_ (1896). Subsequently Dunbar +published eleven other volumes of verse, three novels and five +collections of short stories. Some of his short stories and sketches, +especially those dealing with the American negro, are charming; they are +far superior to his novels, which deal with scenes in which the author +is not so much at home. His most enduring work, however, is his poetry. +Some of this is in literary English, but the best is in the dialect of +his people. In it he has preserved much of their very temperament and +outlook on life, usually with truth and freshness of feeling, united +with a happy choice of language and much lyrical grace and sweetness, +and often with rare humour and pathos. These poems of the soil are a +distinct contribution to American literature, and entitle the author to +be called pre-eminently the poet of his race in America. + + See _Life and Works of Paul Laurence Dunbar_ (Naperville, Ill., 1907), + with a biography by L.K. Wiggins. + + + + +DUNBAR, WILLIAM (c. 1460-c. 1520), Scottish poet, was probably a native +of East Lothian. This is assumed from a satirical reference in the +_Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedie_, where, too, it is hinted that he was a +member of the noble house of Dunbar. His name appears in 1477 in the +Register of the Faculty of Arts at St Andrews, among the Determinants or +Bachelors of Arts, and in 1479 among the masters of the university. +Thereafter he joined the order of Observantine Franciscans, at St +Andrews or Edinburgh, and proceeded to France as a wandering friar. He +spent a few years in Picardy, and was still abroad when, in 1491, +Bothwell's mission to secure a bride for the young James IV. reached the +French court. There is no direct evidence that he accompanied +Blackadder, archbishop of Glasgow, on a similar embassy to Spain in +1495. On the other hand, we know that he proceeded with that prelate to +England on his more successful mission in 1501. Dunbar had meanwhile +(about 1500) returned to Scotland, and had become a priest at court, and +a royal pensioner. His literary life begins with his attachment to +James's household. All that is known of him from this date to his death +about 1520 is derived from the poems or from entries in the royal +registers of payments of pension and grants of livery. He is spoken of +as the Rhymer of Scotland in the accounts of the English privy council +dealing with the visit of the mission for the hand of Margaret Tudor, +rather because he wrote a poem in praise of London, than because, as has +been stated, he held the post of laureate at the Scottish court. In 1511 +he accompanied the queen to Aberdeen and commemorated her visit in +verse. Other pieces such as the _Orisoun_ ("Quhen the Gouernour past in +France"), apropos of the setting out of the regent Albany, are of +historical interest, but they tell us little more than that Dunbar was +alive. The date of his death is uncertain. He is named in Lyndsay's +_Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo_ (1530) with poets then dead, +and the reference precedes that to Douglas who had died in 1522. He +certainly survived his royal patron. We may not be far out in saying +that he died about 1520. + +Dunbar's reputation among his immediate successors was considerable. By +later criticism, stimulated in some measure by Scott's eulogy that he is +"unrivalled by any which Scotland has produced," he has held the highest +place among the northern makars. The praise, though it has been at times +exaggerated, is on the whole just, certainly in respect of variety of +work and mastery of form. He belongs, with James I., Henryson and +Douglas, to the Scots Chaucerian school. In his allegorical poems +reminiscences of the master's style and literary habit are most +frequent. Yet, even there, his discipleship shows certain limitations. +His wilder humour and greater heat of blood give him opportunities in +which the Chaucerian tradition is not helpful, or even possible. His +restlessness leads us at times to a comparison with Skelton, not in +respect of any parallelism of idea or literary craftsmanship, but in his +experimental zeal in turning the diction and tuning the rhythms of the +chaotic English which only Chaucer's genius had reduced to order. The +comparison must not, however, be pushed too far. Skelton's work carries +with it the interest of attempt and failure. Dunbar's command of the +medium was more certain. So that while we admire the variety of his +work, we also admire the competence of his effort. + +One hundred and one poems have been ascribed to Dunbar. Of these at +least ninety are generally accepted as his: of the eleven attributed to +him it would be hard to say that they should not be considered +authentic. Most doubt has clung to his verse tale _The Freiris of +Berwik_. + +Dunbar's chief allegorical poems are _The Goldyn Targe_ and _The +Thrissil and the Rois_. The motif of the former is the poet's futile +endeavour, in a dream, to ward off the arrows of Dame Beautee by +Reason's "scheld of gold." When wounded and made prisoner, he discovers +the true beauty of the lady: when she leaves him, he is handed over to +Heaviness. The noise of the ship's guns, as the company sails off, wakes +the poet to the real pleasures of a May morning. Dunbar works on the +same theme in a shorter poem, known as _Beauty and the Prisoner_. _The +Thrissil and the Rois_ is a prothalamium in honour of James IV. and +Margaret Tudor, in which the heraldic allegory is based on the familiar +beast-parliament. + +The greater part of Dunbar's work is occasional--personal and social +satire, complaints (in the style familiar in the minor verse of +Chaucer's English successors), orisons and pieces of a humorous +character. The last type shows Dunbar at his best, and points the +difference between him and Chaucer. The best specimen of this work, of +which the outstanding characteristics are sheer whimsicality and +topsy-turvy humour, is _The Ballad of Kynd Kittok_. This strain runs +throughout many of the occasional poems, and is not wanting in odd +passages in Dunbar's contemporaries; and it has the additional interest +of showing a direct historical relationship with the work of later +Scottish poets, and chiefly with that of Robert Burns. Dunbar's satire +is never the gentle funning of Chaucer: more often it becomes invective. +Examples of this type are _The Satire on Edinburgh_, _The General +Satire_, the _Epitaph on Donald Owre_, and the powerful vision of _The +Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Synnis_. In the _Flyting of Dunbar and +Kennedie_, an outstanding specimen of a favourite northern form, +analogous to the continental _estrif_, or _tenzone_, he and his rival +reach a height of scurrility which is certainly without parallel in +English literature. This poem has the additional interest of showing the +racial antipathy between the "Inglis"-speaking inhabitants of the +Lothians and the "Scots" or Gaelic-speaking folk of the west country. + +There is little in Dunbar which may be called lyrical, and little of the +dramatic. His _Interlud of the Droichis [Dwarf's] part of the Play_, one +of the pieces attributed to him, is supposed to be a fragment of a +dramatic composition. It is more interesting as evidence of his turn for +whimsicality, already referred to, and may for that reason be safely +ascribed to his pen. If further selection be made from the large body of +miscellaneous poems, the comic poem on the physician Andro Kennedy may +stand out as one of the best contributions to medieval Goliardic +literature; _The Two Mariit Wemen and the Wedo_, as one of the richest +and most effective _pastiches_ in the older alliterative style, then +used by the Scottish Chaucerians for burlesque purposes; _Done is a +battell on the Dragon Blak_, for religious feeling expressed in +melodious verse; and the well-known _Lament for the Makaris_. The main +value of the last is historical, but it too shows Dunbar's mastery of +form, even when dealing with lists of poetic predecessors. + + The chief authorities for the text of Dunbar's poems are:--(a) the + Asloan MS. (c. 1515); (b) the Chepman and Myllar Prints (1508) + preserved in the Advocates' library, Edinburgh; (c) Bannatyne MS. + (1568) in the same; (d) the Maitland Folio MS. (c. 1570-1590) in the + Pepysian library, Magdalene College, Cambridge. Some of the poems + appear in the Makculloch MS. (before 1500) in the library of the + university of Edinburgh; in MS. Cotton Vitellius A. xvi., appendix to + Royal MSS. No. 58, and Arundel 285, in the British Museum; in the + Reidpath MS. in the university library of Cambridge; and in the + Aberdeen Register of Sasines. The first complete edition was published + by David Laing (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1834) with a supplement + (Edinburgh, 1865). This has been superseded by the Scottish Text + Society's edition (ed. John Small, Aeneas J.G. Mackay and Walter + Gregor, 3 vols., Edinburgh, 1893), and by Dr Schipper's 1 vol. edition + (Vienna; Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften, 1894). The editions by James + Paterson (Edinburgh, 1860) and H.B. Baildon (Cambridge, 1907) are of + minor value. Selections have been frequently reprinted since Ramsay's + _Ever-Green_ (1724) and Hailes's _Ancient Scottish Poems_ (1817). For + critical accounts see Irving's _History of Scottish Poetry_, + Henderson's _Vernacular Poetry of Scotland_, Gregory Smith's + _Transition Period_, J.H. Millar's _Literary History of Scotland_, + and the _Cambridge History of English Literature_, vol. ii. (1908). + Professor Schipper's _William Dunbar, sein Leben und seine Gedichte_ + (with German translations of several of the poems), appeared at Berlin + in 1884. (G. G. S.) + + + + +DUNBAR (Gaelic, "the fort on the point"), a royal, municipal and police +burgh, and seaport of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3581. It is +situated on the southern shore of the entrance to the Firth of Forth, +29¼ m. E. by N. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. Dunbar is +said to have the smallest rainfall in Scotland and is a favourite summer +resort. The ruins of the castle, and the remains of the Grey Friars' +monastery, founded in 1218, at the west end of the town, and Dunbar +House in High Street, formerly a mansion of the Lauderdales, but now +used as barracks, are of historic interest. The parish church, a fine +structure in red sandstone, the massive tower of which, 107 ft. high, is +a landmark for sailors, dates only from 1819, but occupies the site of +what was probably the first collegiate church in Scotland, and contains +the large marble monument to Sir George Home, created earl of Dunbar and +March by James VI. in 1605. Among other public buildings are the town +hall, assembly rooms, St Catherine's hall, the Mechanics' institute and +library. + +There are two harbours, difficult of access owing to the number of reefs +and sunken rocks. Towards the cost of building the eastern or older +harbour Cromwell contributed £300. The western or Victoria harbour is a +refuge for vessels between Leith Roads and the Tyne. On the advent of +steam the shipping declined, and even the herring fishery, which +fostered a large curing trade, has lost much of its prosperity. The +industries are chiefly those of agricultural-implement making, +rope-making, brewing and distilling, but a considerable business is done +in the export of potatoes. Dunbar used to form one of the Haddington +district group of parliamentary burghs, but its constituency was merged +in that of the county in 1885. + +About 4 m. S.W. is the village of Biel, where, according to some +authorities, William Dunbar the poet was born. One mile to the S.E. of +the town is Broxmouth Park (or Brocksmouth House), the first position of +the English left wing in the battle of 1650, now belonging to the duke +of Roxburghe. + +The site of Dunbar is so commanding that a castle was built on the +cliffs at least as early as 856. In 1070 Malcolm Canmore gave it to +Cospatric, earl of Northumberland, ancestor of the earls of Dunbar and +March. The fortress was an important bulwark against English invasion, +and the town--which was created a royal burgh by David II.--grew up +under its protection. The castle was taken by Edward I., who defeated +Baliol in the neighbourhood in 1296, and it afforded shelter to Edward +II. after Bannockburn. In 1336 it was besieged by the English under +William, Lord Montacute, afterwards 1st earl of Salisbury, but was +successfully defended by Black Agnes of Dunbar, countess of March, a +member of the Murray family. Joanna Beaufort, widow of James I., chose +it for her residence, and in 1479, after his daring escape from +Edinburgh Castle, the duke of Albany concealed himself within its walls, +until he contrived to sail for France. In 1567 Mary made Bothwell keeper +of the castle, and sought its shelter herself after the murder of Rizzio +and again after her flight from Borthwick Castle. When she surrendered +at Carberry Hill the stronghold fell into the hands of the regent Moray, +by whom it was dismantled in 1568, but its ruins are still a picturesque +object on the hill above the harbour. + +The BATTLE OF DUNBAR was fought on the 3rd (13th) of September 1650 +between the English army under Oliver Cromwell and the Scots under David +Leslie, afterwards Lord Newark. It took place about 3 m. S.E. of the +centre of the town, where between the hills and the sea coast there is a +plain about 1 m. wide, through the middle of which the main road from +Dunbar to Berwick runs. The plain and the road are crossed at right +angles by the course of the Brocksburn, or Spott Burn, which at first +separated the hostile armies. Rising from the right bank of the Brock is +Doon Hill (650 ft.), which overlooks the lower course of the stream and +indeed the whole field. For the events preceding the battle, see GREAT +REBELLION. + +Cromwell, after a war of manoeuvre near Edinburgh, had been compelled by +want of supplies to withdraw to Dunbar; Leslie pursued and took up a +position on Doon Hill, commanding the English line of retreat on +Berwick. The situation was more than difficult for Cromwell. Some +officers were for withdrawing by sea, but the general chose to hold his +ground, though his army was enfeebled by sickness and would have to +fight on unfavourable terrain against odds of two to one. Leslie, +however, who was himself in difficulties on his post among the bare +hills, and was perhaps subjected to pressure from civil authorities, +descended from the heights on the 2nd of September and began to edge +towards his right, in order first to confront, and afterwards to +surround, his opponent. The cavalry of his left wing stood fast, west of +Doon Hill, as a pivot of manoeuvre, the northern face of Doon (where the +ground rises from the burn at an average slope of fifteen degrees and is +even steeper near the summit) he left unoccupied. The centre of infantry +stood on the forward slope of the long spur which runs east from Doon, +and beyond them, practically on the plain, was the bulk of the Scottish +cavalry. In the evening Cromwell drew up his army, under 11,000 +effective men, along the ravine, and issued orders to attack the Scots +at dawn of the 3rd (13th). The left of the Scots was ineffective, as was +a part of their centre of foot on the upper part of the hillside, and +the English commander proposed to deal with the remainder. Before dawn +the English advanced troops crossed the ravine, attacked Doon, and +pinned Leslie's left; under cover of this the whole army began its +manoeuvre. The artillery was posted on the Dunbar side of the burn, +directly opposite and north of Doon, the infantry and cavalry crossed +where they could, and formed up gradually in a line south of and roughly +parallel to the Berwick road, the extreme left of horse and foot, acting +as a reserve, crossed at Brocksmouth House on the outer flank. The Scots +were surprised in their bivouacs, but quickly formed up, and at first +repulsed both the horse and the foot. But ere long Cromwell himself +arrived with his reserve, and the whole English line advanced again. The +fresh impulse enabled it to break the Scottish cavalry and repulse the +foot, and Leslie's line of battle was gradually rolled up from right to +left. In the words of an English officer, "The sun appearing upon the +sea, I heard Nol say, 'Now let God arise, and let His enemies be +scattered,' and following us as we slowly marched I heard him say, 'I +profess they run.'" Driven into the broken ground, and penned between +Doon Hill and the ravine, the Scots were indeed helpless. "They routed +one another after we had done their work on their right wing," says the +same officer. Ten thousand men, including almost the whole of the +Scottish foot, surrendered, and their killed numbered three thousand. +Few of the English were killed. "I do not believe," wrote Cromwell, +"that we have lost twenty men." + +[Illustration: Map of Dunbar.] + + The account of the battle of Dunbar here followed is that of C.H. + Firth, for which see his _Cromwell_, pp. 281 ff. and references there + given. For other accounts see Carlyle, _Cromwell's Letters and + Speeches_, letter cxl.; Hoenig, _Cromwell_; Baldock, _Cromwell as a + Soldier_; and Gardiner, _Hist. of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_, + vol. i. + + + + +DUNBLANE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, on the left bank of +Allan Water, a tributary of the Forth, 5 m. N. by W. of Stirling by the +Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2516. It is a place of great antiquity, +with narrow streets and old-fashioned houses. The leading industry is +the manufacture of woollens. The cathedral is situated by the side of +the river, and was one of the few ecclesiastical edifices that escaped +injury at the hands of the Reformers. The first church is alleged to +have been erected by Blane, a saint of the 7th century, but the +cathedral was founded by David I. in 1141, and almost entirely rebuilt +about 1240 by Bishop Clemens. Excepting the tower, which is Early Norman +and was probably incorporated from the earlier structure, the building +is of the Early Pointed style. It consists of a nave (130 ft. long, 58 +ft. wide, 50 ft. high), aisles, choir (80 ft. long by 30 ft. wide), +chapter-house and tower. Ruskin considered that there was "nothing so +perfect in its simplicity" as the west window, the design of which +resembles a leaf. After the decline of episcopacy the building was +neglected for a long period, but the choir, which contains some carved +oak stalls of the 16th century, was restored in 1873, and the nave +roofed and restored in 1892-1895, under the direction of Sir Rowand +Anderson, the architect. From the time of the Reformation the choir had +been used as the parish church, but since its restoration the whole +cathedral has been devoted to this purpose. The new oak roof is +emblazoned with the arms of the Scottish and later British monarchs, and +of the old earls of Strathearn. Several members of the families of +Strathearn and Strathallan were buried in the cathedral, and three +stones of blue marble in the floor of the choir are supposed to mark the +graves of Lady Margaret Drummond (b. 1472), mistress of James IV., and +her two sisters, daughters of Lord Drummond, who were mysteriously +poisoned in 1501. An ancient Celtic cross, 6½ ft. high, stands in the +north-western corner of the nave. Robert Leighton was the greatest of +the bishops of Dunblane, and held the see from 1661 to 1670. The library +of 1500 volumes which he bequeathed to the clergy of the diocese is +housed in a building with an outside stair, standing near the cathedral, +and the Bishop's Walk by the river also perpetuates his memory. Of the +bishop's palace only a few ruins remain. The battlefield of Sheriffmuir +is about 2½ m. E. of the town. A mile and a half S. of Dunblane is the +estate of Keir which belonged to Sir William Stirling-Maxwell, the +historian and art critic. The duke of Leeds derives the title of one of +his viscounties from Dunblane. + + + + +DUNCAN, the name of two Scottish kings. + +DUNCAN I. (d. 1040) was a son of Crinan or Cronan, lay abbot of Dunkeld, +and became king of the Scots in succession to his maternal grandfather, +Malcolm II., in 1034, having previously as _rex Cumbrorum_ ruled in +Strathclyde. His accession was "the first example of inheritance of the +Scottish throne in the direct line." Duncan is chiefly known through his +connexion with Macbeth, which has been immortalized by Shakespeare. The +feud between these two princes originated probably in a dispute over the +succession to the throne; its details, however, are obscure, and the +only fact which can be ascertained with any certainty is that Duncan was +slain by Macbeth in 1040. Two of Duncan's sons, Malcolm III. Canmore and +Donald V. Bane, were afterwards kings of the Scots. + +DUNCAN II. (d. 1094) was a son of Malcolm III. and therefore a grandson +of Duncan I. For a time he lived as a hostage in England and became king +of the Scots after driving out his uncle, Donald Bane, in 1093, an +enterprise in which he was helped by some English and Normans. He was +killed in the following year. + + See W.F. Skene, _Celtic Scotland_ (1876-1880), and A. Lang, _History + of Scotland_, vol. i. (1900). + + + + +DUNCAN, ADAM DUNCAN, 1ST VISCOUNT (1731-1804), British naval commander, +was born on the 1st of July 1731, at Lundie, in Forfarshire, Scotland. +After receiving the rudiments of his education at Dundee, he was in 1746 +placed under Captain Haldane, of the "Shoreham" frigate, and in 1749 he +became a midshipman in the "Centurion." In 1755 he was appointed second +lieutenant of the "Norwich," but on the arrival of that ship in America, +whither, with the rest of Keppel's squadron, it had convoyed General +Braddock's forces, he was transferred to the "Centurion." Once again in +England, he was promoted to be second lieutenant of the "Torbay," and +after three years on the home station he assisted in the attack on the +French settlement of Goree, on the African coast, in which he was +slightly wounded. He returned to England as first lieutenant of the +"Torbay"; and in 1759 was made a commander, and in 1761 a post-captain. +His vessel, the "Valiant" (74), was Commodore Keppel's flag-ship in the +expedition against Belle-Ile en Mer in that year, and also in 1762, when +it took an important part in the capture of Havana. In 1778, on the +recommencement of war with France, Captain Duncan was appointed to the +"Suffolk" (74), whence before the close of the year he removed to the +"Monarch" (74), one of the Channel Fleet. On the 16th of January 1780, +in an action off Cape St Vincent, between a Spanish squadron under Don +Juan de Langara and the British fleet under Sir George Rodney, Captain +Duncan in the "Monarch" was the first to engage the enemy; and in 1782, +as captain of the "Blenheim" (90), he took part in Lord Howe's relief of +Gibraltar. From the rank of rear-admiral of the blue, received in 1789, +he was gradually promoted until, in 1799, he became admiral of the +white. In February 1795 he hoisted his flag as commander-in-chief of the +North Sea fleet, appointed to harass the Batavian navy. Towards the end +of May 1797, though, in consequence of the widespread mutiny in the +British fleet, he had been left with only the "Adamant" (50), besides +his own ship the "Venerable" (74), Admiral Duncan proceeded to his usual +station off the Texel, where lay at anchor the Dutch squadron of fifteen +sail of the line, under the command of Vice-Admiral de Winter. From time +to time he caused signals to be made, as if to the main body of a fleet +in the offing, a stratagem which probably was the cause of his freedom +from molestation until, in the middle of June, reinforcements arrived +from England. On the 3rd of October the admiral put into Yarmouth Roads +to refit and victual his ships, but, receiving information early on the +9th that the enemy was at sea, he immediately hoisted the signal for +giving him chase. On the morning of the 11th de Winter's fleet, +consisting of 4 seventy-fours, 7 sixty-fours, 4 fifty-gun ships, 2 +forty-four-gun frigates, and 2 of thirty-two guns, besides smaller +vessels, was sighted lying about 9 m. from shore, between the villages +of Egmont and Camperdown. The British fleet numbered 7 seventy-fours, 7 +sixty-fours, 2 fifties, 2 frigates, with a sloop and several cutters, +and was slightly superior in force to that of the Dutch. Shortly after +mid-day the British ships, without waiting to form in order, broke +through the Dutch line, and an engagement commenced which, after heavy +loss on both sides, resulted in the taking by the British of eleven of +the enemy's vessels. When the action ceased the ships were in nine +fathoms water, within 5 m. of a lee shore, and there was every sign of +an approaching gale. So battered were the prizes that it was found +impossible to fit them for future service, and one of them, the "Delft," +sank on her way to England. In recognition of this victory, Admiral +Duncan was, on the 21st of October, created Viscount Duncan of +Camperdown and baron of Lundie, with an annual pension of £3000 to +himself and the two next heirs to his title. The earldom of Camperdown +was created for his son Robert (1785-1859) in 1831, and is still in the +possession of his descendants. In 1800 Lord Duncan withdrew from naval +service. He died on the 4th of August 1804. + + See Charnock, _Biog. Nav._ (1794-1796); Collins, _Peerage of England_, + p. 378 (1812); W. James, _Naval History of Great Britain_ (1822); + Yonge, _History of the British Navy_, vol. i. (1863); Earl of + Camperdown, _Admiral Duncan_ (1898), vol. xvi. of the Navy Record Soc. + Publications, contains the logs of the ships engaged in the battle of + Camperdown. + + + + +DUNCAN, PETER MARTIN (1824-1891), English palaeontologist, was born on +the 20th of April 1824 at Twickenham, and was educated partly at the +local grammar school and partly in Switzerland. Having entered the +medical department of King's College, London, in 1842, he obtained the +degree of M.B. (Lond.) in 1846, and then acted for a short time as +assistant to a doctor at Rochester. Subsequently he practised at +Colchester (1848-1860), and during this period he served for a year as +mayor of the city. Returning to London in 1860 he practised for a few +years at Blackheath, and then gave his time entirely to scientific +research, first in botany, and later in geology and palaeontology. His +attention was directed especially to fossil corals, and in 1863 he +contributed to the Geological Society of London the first of a series of +papers on the fossil corals of the West Indian Islands in which he not +only described the species, but discussed their bearings on the physical +geography of the Tertiary period. Corals from various parts of the world +and from different geological formations were subsequently dealt with by +Duncan, and he came to be regarded as a leading authority on these +fossils. He prepared also for the Palaeontographical Society (1866-1872) +an important work on British fossil corals, as a supplement to the +monograph by Henri Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime. He was elected F.R.S. +in 1868. In 1870 he was chosen professor of geology at King's College. +He was president of the Geological Society (1876-1877), and in 1881 was +awarded the Wollaston medal. In addition to papers on fossil corals, he +dealt with some of the living forms, also with the Echinoidea and other +groups, recent and fossil. He edited the six volumes of Cassell's +_Natural History_ (1877, &c.). He died at Gunnersbury on the 28th of May +1891. + + + + +DUNCAN, THOMAS (1807-1845), Scottish portrait and historical painter, +was born at Kinclaven, in Perthshire. He was educated at the Perth +Academy, and began the study of the law, but abandoned it for art. +Beginning under the instruction of Sir William Allan, he early attained +distinction as a delineator of the human figure; and his first pictures +established his fame so completely, that at a very early age he was +appointed professor of colouring, and afterwards of drawing, in the +Trustees' Academy of Edinburgh. In 1840 he painted one of his finest +pictures, "Prince Charles Edward and the Highlanders entering Edinburgh +after the Battle of Prestonpans," which secured his election as an +associate of the Royal Academy in 1843. In the same year he produced his +picture of "Charles Edward asleep after Culloden, protected by Flora +MacDonald," which, like many other of his works, has been often +engraved. In 1844 appeared his "Cupid" and his "Martyrdom of John Brown +of Priesthill." His last work was a portrait of himself, now in the +National Gallery in Edinburgh. He particularly excelled in his portraits +of ladies and children. He died in Edinburgh on the 25th of May 1845. + + + + +DUNCE, a slow or stupid person, one incapable of learning. The word is +derived from the name of the great schoolman, John Duns Scotus, whose +works on logic, theology and philosophy were accepted text-books in the +universities from the 14th century. "Duns" or "Dunsman" was a name early +applied by their opponents to the followers of Duns Scotus, the +Scotists, and hence was equivalent to one devoted to sophistical +distinctions and subtleties. When, in the 16th century, the Scotists +obstinately opposed the "new learning," the term "duns" or "dunce" +became, in the mouths of the humanists and reformers, a term of abuse, a +synonym for one incapable of scholarship, a dull blockhead. + + + + +DUNCKER, MAXIMILIAN WOLFGANG (1811-1886), German historian and +politician, eldest son of the publisher Karl Duncker, was born at Berlin +on the 15th of October 1811. He studied at the universities of Bonn and +Berlin till 1834, was then accused of participation in the students' +societies, which the government was endeavouring to suppress, and was +condemned to six years' imprisonment, afterwards reduced to six months. +He had already begun his labours as a historian, but after serving his +sentence in 1837, found himself debarred till 1839 from completing his +course at Halle, where in 1842 he obtained a professorship. Elected to +the National Assembly at Frankfort in 1848, he joined the Right Centre +party, and was chosen reporter of the projected constitution. He sat in +the Erfurt assembly in 1850, and in the second Prussian chamber from +1849 to 1852. During the crisis in Schleswig and Holstein in 1850 he +endeavoured in person to aid the duchies in their struggles. An +outspoken opponent of the policy of Manteuffel, he was refused +promotion by the Prussian government, and in 1857 accepted the +professorship of history at Tubingen. In 1859, however, he was recalled +to Berlin as assistant in the ministry of state in the Auerswald +cabinet, and in 1861 was appointed councillor to the crown prince. In +1867 he became director of the Prussian archives, with which it was his +task to incorporate those of Hanover, Hesse and Nassau. He retired on +the 1st of January 1875, and died at Ansbach on the 21st of July 1886. +Duncker's eminent position among German historians rests mainly on his +_Geschichte des Alterthums_ (1st ed., 1852-1857); 5th ed. in 9 vols., +1878-1886; (English translation by Evelyn Abbott, 1877-1882). He edited, +with J.G. Droysen, _Preussische Staatsschriften_, _Politische +Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen_, and _Urkunden und Actenstucke zur +Geschichte des Kurfursten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg_. To the +period of his political activity belong _Zur Geschichte der deutschen +Reichsversammlung in Frankfurt_ (1849); _Heinrich von Gagern_ (1850), in +the series of _Manner der Gegenwart_; and the anonymous _Vier Monate +auswartiger Politik_ (1851). His other works include _Origines +Germanicae_ (1840); the lectures _Die Krisis der Reformation_ (1845) and +_Feudalitat und Aristokratie_ (1858); _Aus der Zeit Friedrichs des +Grossen und Friedrich Wilhelms III. Abhandlungen zur preussischen +Geschichte_ (1876); followed after his death by _Abhandlungen aus der +griechischen Geschichte_ and _Abhandlungen aus der neueren Geschichte_ +(1887). + + + + +DUNCKLEY, HENRY (1823-1896), English journalist, was born at Warwick on +the 24th of December 1823. Educated at the Baptist college at +Accrington, Lancashire, and at Glasgow University, he became in 1848 +minister of the Baptist church at Salford, Lancashire. Here he closely +investigated the educational needs of the working-classes, embodying the +results of his inquiries in an essay, _The Glory and the Shame of +Britain_ (1851), which gained a prize offered by the Religious Tract +Society. In 1852 he won the Anti-Corn-law League's prize with an essay +on the results of the free-trade policy, published in 1854 under the +title _The Charter of the Nations_. In 1855 he abandoned the ministry to +edit the _Manchester Examiner and Times_, a prominent Liberal newspaper, +in charge of which he remained till 1889. For twenty years he wrote, +over the signature "Verax," weekly letters to the Manchester papers; +those on _The Crown and the Cabinet_ (1877) and _The Crown and the +Constitution_ (1878) evoked so much enthusiasm that a public +subscription was set on foot to present the writer with a handsome +testimonial for his public services. In 1878 Dunckley, who had often +declined to stand for parliament, was elected a member of the Reform +Club in recognition of his services to the Liberal party, and in 1883 he +was made an LL.D. by Glasgow University. He died at Manchester on the +29th of June 1896. + + + + +DUNCOMBE, SIR CHARLES (c. 1648-1711), English politician, was a London +apprentice, who became a goldsmith and a banker; he amassed great wealth +in his calling and was chosen an alderman of the city of London in 1683. +Duncombe's parliamentary career began in 1685, when he was elected +member of parliament for Hedon, and he was afterwards one of the +representatives of Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight and of Downton in +Wiltshire. He was made receiver of the customs, and upon the flight of +James II. from England in 1688 refused to forward to him the sum of +£1500 as requested; accordingly his name alone was excepted from the +pardon issued by the exiled king in 1692. A strong Tory, Duncombe held +for a short time the office of receiver of the excise, and in this +capacity he profited slightly by a transaction over some exchequer bills +which had been falsely endorsed. Consequently he was imprisoned by the +House of Commons, and expelled from parliament; and having been released +by order of the House of Lords, where his friends were more powerful, he +was again imprisoned by the Commons. Tried before the court of king's +bench he was found "not guilty" on two occasions and the matter was +allowed to drop. Duncombe made three unsuccessful attempts to enter +parliament as member for the city of London, and then represented +Downton a second time from 1702 until his death. In 1699 he was +knighted, and in 1709 he served as lord mayor of London. Upon retiring +from business in 1695 Duncombe caused some stir by giving the +representatives of the duke of Buckingham a high price for an estate at +Helmsley in Yorkshire, where he built a magnificent house. + +He died at his residence at Teddington on the 9th of April 1711, and +much of his great wealth passed to his sister, Ursula, wife of Thomas +Browne, who took the name of Duncombe. Ursula's great-grandson, Charles +Duncombe (1764-1841), was created Baron Feversham in 1826, and in 1868 +his grandson, William Ernest, the 3rd baron (b. 1829), was made earl of +Feversham. Sir Charles Duncombe's nephew, Anthony Duncombe (c. +1695-1763), who was made a baron in 1747, left an only daughter, Anne +(1757-1829), who married Jacob Pleydell-Bouverie, 2nd earl of Radnor, by +whom she was the ancestress of the succeeding earls of Radnor. + +A celebrated member of the Duncombe family was THOMAS SLINGSBY DUNCOMBE +(1796-1861), a Radical politician, who was member of parliament for +Hertford from 1826 to 1832 and for Finsbury from 1834 until his death. +Duncombe defended Lord Durham's administration of Canada; he sought to +obtain the release of John Frost and other Chartists, whose immense +petition he presented to parliament in 1842; and he interested himself +in the affairs of Charles II., the deposed duke of Brunswick. He showed +a practical sympathy with Mazzini, whose letters had been opened by +order of the English government, by urging for an inquiry into this +occurrence; and also with Kossuth. He died at Lancing on the 13th of +November 1861. + + See _Life and Correspondence of T.S. Duncombe_, edited by T.H. + Duncombe (1868). + + + + +DUNDALK, a seaport of Co. Louth, Ireland, in the north parliamentary +division, on the Castletown river near its mouth in Dundalk Bay. Pop. of +urban district (1901), 13,076. It is an important junction on the Great +Northern railway, by the main line of which it is 54 m. N. from Dublin. +The company has its works here, and a line diverges to the north-west of +Ireland. Dundalk is connected with the port of Greenore (for Holyhead) +by a line owned by the London & North-Western railway company of +England. The parish church is an old and spacious edifice with a curious +wooden steeple covered with copper; and the Roman Catholic chapel is a +handsome building in the style of King's College chapel, Cambridge. +There are ruins of a Franciscan priory, with a lofty tower. Adjacent to +the town are several fine parks and demesnes. Until 1885 a member was +returned to parliament. A brisk trade, chiefly in agricultural and dairy +produce, is carried on, and the town contains some manufactories. +Distilling and brewing are the principal industrial works, and there are +besides a flax and jute-spinning mill, salt works, &c. The port is the +seat of a considerable trade, mainly in agricultural produce and live +stock. It is also the centre of a sea-fishery district and of salmon +fisheries. Dundalk was a borough by prescription, and received charters +from Edward III. and successive monarchs. Edward Bruce, having invaded +Ireland from Scotland in 1315, proceeded south from his landing-place in +Antrim, ravaging as he came, to Dundalk, which he stormed, and +proclaimed himself king here. In this neighbourhood, too, he was +defeated and killed by the English under Sir John de Bermingham in 1318, +and at Faughart near Dundalk, near the ruined church of St Bridget, he +is buried. + + + + +DUNDEE, JOHN GRAHAM OF CLAVERHOUSE, VISCOUNT (c. 1649-1689), Scottish +soldier, was the elder son of Sir William Graham and Lady Madeline +Carnegie. Of his youth little record has been kept; but in the year 1665 +he became a student at the university of St Andrews. His education was +upon the whole good, as appears from the varied and valuable +correspondence of his later years. Young Graham was destined for a +military career; and after about four years he proceeded abroad as a +volunteer in the service of France. In 1673 or 1674 he went to Holland, +and obtained a cornetcy, and he was soon raised to the rank of captain, +as a reward for having saved the life of the prince of Orange at the +battle of Seneff. A few years later, being disappointed in his hopes of +obtaining a regiment, Graham resigned his commission. In the beginning +of 1677 he returned to England, bearing, it is said, letters of strong +recommendation from the prince to Charles II. and the duke of York. In +1678 he became a lieutenant, and soon afterwards captain of a troop, in +the regiment commanded by his relative the marquis of Montrose. The task +before him was the suppression of the Covenanters' rebellion. To this he +brought, over and above the feelings of romantic loyalty and the +cavalier spirit, which in his case was free from its usual defects, a +hatred of the Covenanters which was based largely on his hero-worship of +the great Montrose. Further, his uncompromising disposition and +unmistakable capacity at once marked him out as a leader upon whom the +government could rely. But the difficulties of his task, the open or +secret hostility of the whole people, and the nature and extent of the +country he was required to watch, were too great for the leader of a +small body of cavalry, and in spite of his vigorous and energetic +action, Graham accomplished but little. He entered, however, upon his +occupation with zest, and interpreted consistently the orders he +received. There is evidence, also, that his efforts were appreciated at +headquarters in his appointment, jointly with the laird of Earlshall, +his subaltern, to the office of sheriff-depute of Dumfries and Annandale +in March 1679, with powers--specially narrated in his commission--anent +"separation," conventicles, "disorderly baptisms and marriages," and the +like. + +For some years thereafter the position of Graham was in the highest +degree difficult and delicate. In the midst of enemies, and in virtue of +the most erroneous but direct orders of his government, he combined the +functions of soldier, spy, prosecutor and judge. Shortly after the +murder of Archbishop Sharp (1679), he was summoned to increased +activity. There were reports of rebels gathering near Glasgow, and +Graham went in pursuit. On the 1st of June, the Covenanters being in a +well-protected position upon the marshy ground of Drumclog, Graham +advanced to the attack. Hindered by the ground, he had to wait till the +impatience of his adversaries induced them to commence an impetuous +attack. The charge of the Covenanters routed the royal cavalry, who +turned and fled, Graham himself having a narrow escape. This was the +only regular engagement he had with the Covenanters. The enthusiasm +raised by this victory was the beginning of a serious and open +rebellion. + +On the 22nd of June Graham was present at the battle of Bothwell Bridge, +at the head of his own troop. Immediately thereafter he was commissioned +to search the south-western shires for those who had taken part in the +insurrection. In this duty he seems to have been engaged till the early +part of 1680, when he disappears for a time from the record of these +stringent measures. The wide powers given to him by his commission were +most sparingly used, and the gravest accusation made against him in +reference to this period is that he was a robber. + +He was, in any case, an advocate of rigorous measures, and his own +systematic and calculated terrorism, directed principally against the +ringleaders, proved far more efficacious than the irregular and +haphazard brutalities of other commanders. During these months he was +despatched to London, along with Lord Linlithgow, to influence the mind +of Charles II. against the indulgent method adopted by Monmouth with the +extreme Covenanting party. The king seems to have been fascinated by his +loyal supporter, and from that moment Graham was destined to rise in +rank and honours. Early in 1680 he obtained a royal grant of the barony +of the outlawed Macdougal of Freuch, and the grant was after some delay +confirmed by subsequent orders upon the exchequer in Scotland. In April +1680 it appears that his roving commission had been withdrawn by the +privy council. He is thus free from all concern with the severe measures +which followed the Sanquhar Declaration of the 22nd of June 1680. + +The turbulence occasioned by the passing of the Test Act of 1681 +required to be quelled by a strong hand; and in the beginning of the +following year Graham was again commissioned to act in the disaffected +districts. In the end of January he was appointed to the sheriffships of +Wigtown, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright and Annandale. He retained his +commission in the army--the pernicious combination of his offices being +thus repeated. He appears further to have had powers of life and death +in virtue of a commission of justiciary granted to him about the same +time. These powers he exercised strictly and in conformity with the +tenor of his orders, which were not more severe than he himself desired. +He quartered on the rebels, rifled their houses, and, to use his own +words, "endeavoured to destroy them by eating up their provisions." The +effect of his policy, if we believe his own writ, is not overstated as + + "Death, desolation, ruin and decay." + +The result of a bitter quarrel between Graham and Sir John Dalrymple, +who, with many others of the gentry, was far from active in the +execution of the government's orders, confirmed his prestige. Graham was +acquitted by the privy council of the charges of exaction and oppression +preferred against him, and Sir John condemned to fine and imprisonment +for interference with his proceedings. In December 1682 Graham was +appointed colonel of a new regiment raised in Scotland. He had still +greater honours in view. In January 1683 the case of the earl of +Lauderdale, late Maitland of Hatton, was debated in the House of Lords. +Maitland was proprietor of the lands and lordship of Dundee and Dudhope, +and the decree of the Lords against him was in March 1683 issued for the +sum of £72,000. Graham succeeded in having part of the property of the +defaulter transferred to him by royal grant, and in May he was nominated +to the privy council of Scotland. + +Shortly afterwards Claverhouse was appointed to be present at the +sittings of the Circuit Court of Justiciary in Stirling, Glasgow, +Dumfries and Jedburgh, recently instituted for the imposition of the +test and the punishment of rebels. Several were sentenced to death. +During the rest of the year he attended the meetings of council, in +which he displayed the spirit of an obedient soldier rather than that of +a statesman capable of independent views. There is, however, one record +of his direct and efficacious interference. He declared decisively +against the proposal to let loose the Highland marauders upon the south +of Scotland. + +In June 1684 he was again at his old employment--the inspection of the +southern shires; and in August he was commissioned as second in command +of the forces in Ayr and Clydesdale to search out the rebels. By this +time he was in possession of Dudhope, and on the 10th of June he married +Lady Jean, daughter of William, Lord Cochrane. As constable of Dundee he +recommended the remission of extreme punishment in the case of many +petty offences. He issued from his retirement to take part in a +commission of lieutenancy which perambulated the southern districts as a +criminal court; and in the end of the year he was again in the same +region on the occasion of disturbances in the town of Kirkcudbright. + +Shortly after the death of Charles II. (February 1685) Graham incurred a +temporary disgrace by his deposition from the office of privy +councillor; but in May he was reinstated, although his commission of +justiciary, which had expired, was not renewed. + +In May 1685 he was ordered with his cavalry to guard the borders, and to +scour the south-west in search of rebels. By act of privy council, a +certificate was required by all persons over sixteen years of age to +free them from the hazard of attack from government officials. Without +that they were at once liable to be called upon oath to abjure the +declaration of Renwick, which was alleged to be treasonable. While on +this mission he pursued and overtook two men, one of whom, John Brown, +called the "Christian carrier," having refused the abjuration oath, was +shot dead. The order was within the authorized powers of Graham. + +In 1686 he was promoted to the rank of major-general, and had added to +his position of constable the dignity of provost of Dundee. In 1688 he +was second in command to General Douglas in the army which had been +ordered to England to aid the falling dynasty of the Stuarts. + +His influence with James II. was great and of long standing, and amid +the hurry of events in this critical time he was created Viscount Dundee +on the 12th of November 1688. Throughout the vexed journeyings of the +king, Dundee is found accompanying or following him, endeavouring in +vain to prompt him to make his stand in England, and fight rather than +flee from the invader. At last James announced his resolve to go to +France, promising that he would send Dundee a commission to command the +troops in Scotland. + +Dundee returned to Scotland in anticipation of the meeting of the +convention, and at once exerted himself to confirm the waning resolution +of the duke of Gordon with regard to holding Edinburgh Castle for the +king. The convention proving hostile (March 16th, 1688), he conceived +the idea of forming another convention at Stirling to sit in the name of +James II., but the hesitancy of his associates rendered the design +futile, and it was given up. Previous to this, on the 18th of March, he +had left Edinburgh at the head of a company of fifty dragoons, who were +strongly attached to his person. He was not long gone ere the news was +brought to the alarmed convention that he had been seen clambering up +the castle rock and holding conference with the duke of Gordon. In +excitement and confusion order after order was despatched in reference +to the fugitive. Dundee retired to Dudhope. On the 30th of March he was +publicly denounced as a traitor, and in the latter half of April +attempts were made to secure him at Dudhope, and at his residence in +Glen Ogilvy. But the secrecy and speed of his movements outwitted his +pursuers, and he retreated to the north. + +In the few years which had elapsed since 1678 he had risen, despite the +opposition of his superiors in rank, from the post of captain and the +social status of a small Scottish laird to positions as a soldier and +statesman and the favourite of his sovereigns, of the greatest dignity, +influence and wealth. In this period he had, justly or unjustly, earned +the reputation of being a cruel and ruthless oppressor. When the ruling +dynasty changed, and he had himself become an outlaw and a rebel, he +supported the cause of his exiled monarch with such skill and valour +that his name and death are recorded as heroic. + +In the Highlands his diplomatic skill was used with effect amongst the +chieftains. General Hugh Mackay was now in the field against him, and a +Highland chase began. The campaign resembled those of Montrose forty +years earlier. The regular troops were at a great disadvantage in the +wild Highland country, and Dundee, like Montrose, invariably anticipated +his enemy. But, as usual, the army of the clans required the most +careful management. After the first few weeks of operations, Dundee's +army melted away, and Mackay, unable to follow his opponent, retired +also. + +Throughout the whole of the campaign Dundee was indefatigable in his +exertions with the Highland chiefs and his communications with his +exiled king. To the day of his death he believed that formidable succour +for his cause was about to arrive from Ireland and France. He justly +considered himself at the head of the Stewart interest in Scotland, and +his despatches form a record of the little incidents of the campaign, +strangely combined with a revelation of the designs of the statesman. It +mattered little to him that on the 24th of July a price of £20,000 had +been placed upon his head. The clans had begun to reassemble; he was now +in command of a considerable force, and in July both sides took the +field again. A contest for the castle of Blair forced on the decision. +Mackay, in his march towards that place, entered the pass of +Killiecrankie, the battleground selected by Dundee and his officers. +Here, on the 17th-27th of July 1689, was fought the battle of +Killiecrankie (q.v.). The Highlanders were completely victorious, but +their leader, in the act of encouraging his men, was pierced beneath the +breastplate by a bullet of the enemy, and fell dying from his horse. +Dundee asked "How goes the day?" of a soldier, who replied, "Well for +King James, but I am sorry for your lordship." The dying general +replied, "If it goes well for him, it matters the less for me." Dundee +was conveyed to the castle of Blair, where he died on the night of the +battle. Within an hour or two of his death he wrote a short account of +the engagement to King James. The battle, disastrous as it was to the +government forces, was in reality the end of the insurrection, for the +controlling and commanding genius of the rebellion was no more. The +death of Dundee, in the mist and the confusion of a cavalry charge, +formed the subject of numerous legends, the best known of which is the +long prevalent tradition that he was invulnerable to all bullets and was +killed by a silver button from his own coat. + + See Mark Napier, _Memorials and Letters of Graham of Claverhouse_ + (1859-1862); Bannatyne Club, _Letters of the Viscount Dundee_ (1826); + C.S. Terry, _John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee_; and + authorities quoted in _Dict. Nat. Biogr._, s.v. "Graham of + Claverhouse." + + + + +DUNDEE, a royal, municipal and police burgh, county of a city, and +seaport of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 153,587; (1901) 161,173. +It lies on the north shore of the Firth of Tay, 59¼ m. N. by E. of +Edinburgh by the North British railway via the Forth and Tay bridges. +The Caledonian railway finds access to the city by way of Perth, which +is distant about 22 m. W. by S. The general disposition of the town is +from east to west, with a frontage on the water of 4 m. The area +northwards that has already been built over varies in depth from half a +mile to nearly 2½ m. (from Esplanade Station to King's Cross). The city +rises gradually from the river to Dundee Law and Balgay Hill. Since the +estuary to the E. of Tay bridge is 1½ m. wide, and the commodious +docks--in immediate contact with the river at all stages of the +tide--are within 12 m. of the sea, the position of the city eminently +adapts it to be the emporium of a vast trade by land and sea. But its +prosperity is due in a far greater measure to its manufactures of jute +and linen--of which it is the chief seat in the United Kingdom--than to +its shipping. + +_Public Buildings._--The town-hall, built in 1734 from the designs of +Robert Adam, stands in High Street. It is surmounted by a steeple 140 +ft. high, carrying a good peal of bells, and beneath it is a piazza. The +old Town Cross, a shaft 15 ft. high, bearing a unicorn with the date of +1586, once stood in High Street also, but was re-erected within the +enclosure on the S.W. of Town Churches (see below). Albert Square, with +statues of Robert Burns, George Kinloch, the first member for Dundee in +the Reform Parliament (both by Sir John Steell), and James Carmichael +(1776-1853), inventor of the fan-blast (by John Hutchison, R.S.A.), +contains several good buildings, among them the Royal Exchange in +Flemish Pointed (erected in 1853-1856), the Eastern Club-house, and the +Albert Institute, founded in memory of the prince consort. The last, +built mainly from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, is one of the most +important edifices in the city, since it embraces the art gallery, free +library, reference library, museum and several halls. On the north side +of the building is the seated figure, in bronze, of Queen Victoria, on a +polished red granite pedestal containing bas-reliefs of episodes in Her +Majesty's life, the work of Harry Bates, A.R.A. The custom house, near +the docks, is in Classical style and dates from 1843. The Sheriff Court +buildings and Police Chambers, a structure of Grecian design, with a +bold portico, was erected in 1864-1865. The halls used for great public +meetings are the Volunteer Drill Hall in Parker Square, and Kinnaird +Hall in Bank Street. Of the newer streets, Commercial, Reform, +Whitehall, Bank and Lindsay contain many buildings of good design and +the principal shops. In Bank Street are the offices of the _Dundee +Advertiser_, the leading newspaper in the north-east of Scotland; and in +Lindsay Street the headquarters of the _Dundee Courier_. In Dock Street +stands the Royal Arch, an effective structure, erected to commemorate +the visit of Queen Victoria in 1844. Among places of amusement are the +Theatre Royal, the People's Palace theatre, the Music Hall, the Circus +and the Gymnasium. The cattle market and slaughter-houses, both on an +extensive scale, are in the east end of the city, not far from +Camperdown Dock. Dudhope Castle, once the seat of the Scrymgeours, +hereditary constables of the burgh--one of whom (Sir Alexander) was a +companion-in-arms of Wallace,--was granted by James II. to John Graham +of Claverhouse. On his death it reverted to the crown, and at a later +date was converted into barracks. When the new barracks at Dudhope Park +were occupied, the Castle was transformed into an industrial museum. +Though Dundee was once a walled town, the only relic of its walls is the +East Port, the preservation of which was due to the tradition that +George Wishart preached from the top of it during the plague of 1544. + +_Churches._--Of the many churches and chapels the most interesting is +Town Churches--St Mary's, St Paul's and St Clement's, the three under +one roof--surmounted by the noble square tower, 156 ft. high, called the +Old Steeple, once the belfry of the church which was erected on this +spot by David, earl of Huntingdon, as a thank-offering for his escape +from shipwreck on the shoals at the mouth of the Tay (1193). The church +perished, but the bell-tower remained and was restored in 1871-1873 by +Sir Gilbert Scott. The fine Roman Catholic pro-cathedral of St Andrew's +is in Early English style, and St Paul's Episcopal church, in Decorated +Gothic style, with a spire 211 ft. high, from designs by Sir Gilbert +Scott, was due to the zeal of Bishop Forbes (1817-1875), who transferred +the headquarters of the see of Brechin to Dundee. It occupies the site +of the old castle. Memorial churches commemorate the work of Robert +Murray McCheyne (1813-1843) and of George Gilfillan (1813-1878), long +ministers in Dundee. John Glas (1695-1773), founder of the Glasites +(q.v.), ministered here from 1730 to 1733. + +_Cemeteries._--The ancient burying-ground in the centre of the city is +called the Howff. It has long been closed, but contains several +interesting monuments and epitaphs. Not far from it the New Cemetery was +laid out in West Bell Street; to the east of Baxter Park lies the +Eastern Cemetery; and the Western Cemetery was constructed in Perth +Road. The most beautifully situated of all the burying-grounds, however, +is the Western Necropolis, which occupies the western portion of the +hill of Balgay. A bridge over the ravine connects it with Balgay Park. + +_Public Parks and Open Spaces._--On the N. of the city rises Dundee Law +(571 ft.), the property of the Corporation, a prominent landmark, on the +summit of which are traces of an old vitrified fort. The surrounding +park covers 18 acres. Near the eastern boundary of the city lies Baxter +Park, of 37 acres, presented to the town by Sir David Baxter +(1793-1872), a leading manufacturer, and his sisters. It was laid out by +Sir Joseph Paxton, and contains a statue of Sir David by Sir John +Steell, erected by public subscription. In the west the finely wooded +hill of Balgay was acquired in 1869 and 36 acres of the area were +converted into a park. Immediately adjoining it on the north is Lochee +Park, of 25 acres, given to the city in 1891 by Messrs Cox Brothers of +Camperdown Works. In the extreme north lies the park of Fair Muir, of 12 +acres, which was secured in 1890, and nearer to the heart of the town is +Dudhope or Barrack Park, purchased in 1893. Near the north end of the +Tay bridge is Magdalen Green, an old common of 17 acres, and along the +shore of the estuary there runs for a distance of 2½ m. from Magdalen +Point to beyond Craig Pier a promenade called the Esplanade. + +_Education._--University College in Nethergate, founded in 1880 by Miss +Baxter of Balgavies (d. 1884) and Dr John Boyd Baxter, was opened in +1883, and united to the university of St Andrews in 1890. The +affiliation was cancelled in 1895 owing to divergence of view in the +governing body, but this was overcome and the college finally +incorporated in 1897. The staff consists of a principal, professors and +lecturers, and the curriculum, which may be taken by students of both +sexes, is especially concerned with medicine and natural and applied +science. The endowments exceed £250,000. Adjoining the buildings is the +Technical Institute, built and endowed by Sir David Baxter and opened in +1888. In connexion with the high school, a building in the Doric style, +dating from 1833, there is a museum which was endowed in 1880 by Mr +William Harris. Morgan hospital, a structure in the Scots Baronial +style, situated immediately to the north of Baxter Park, was founded in +1868 by John Morgan, a native of Dundee, for the board and education of +a hundred boys, sons of indigent tradesmen, but was acquired by the +school board and transformed into a secondary school. Besides a high +school for girls and Roman Catholic and Episcopalian schools, there are +numerous efficient and thoroughly equipped board schools. + +_Charitable Institutions._--One of the most conspicuous buildings in the +city, occupying a prominent position in the centre, is the Royal +Infirmary, a fine structure in the Tudor style. On the southern face of +Balgay Hill stands the Royal Victoria hospital for incurables, opened in +1889. In addition to the maternity hospital and nurses' home, there are +several institutions devoted to special afflictions and diseases--among +them the Blind and the Deaf and Dumb institutions, the Royal asylum, the +fever hospital at King's Cross, and, in the parish of Mains--beyond the +municipal boundary--the Baldovan asylum for imbeciles, founded in 1854 +by Sir John Ogilvy and said to be the earliest of its kind in Scotland, +besides the smallpox and cholera hospital. The large Dundee hospital +adjoins the poorhouse, and an epidemic hospital has been built in the +Fair Muir district. One of the convalescent homes is situated at +Broughty Ferry. Among other institutions are the Royal Orphan and the +Wellburn Charitable institutions, the rescue home for females, the +sailors' home and Lady Jane Ogilvy's orphanage in Mains. + +_Trade._--Hector Boece, in his _History and Croniklis of Scotland_, thus +quaintly writes of the manufactures of Dundee in the opening of the 16th +century--"Dunde, the toun quhair we wer born; quhair mony virtewus and +lauborius pepill ar in, making of claith." Jute is, _par excellence_, +the industry of the city. Enormous quantities of the raw +material--estimated at 300,000 tons a year--are imported directly from +India in a fleet solely devoted to this trade, and many of the factories +in Bengal are owned by Dundee merchants. Fabrics in jute range from the +roughest sacking to carpets of almost Oriental beauty. Another staple +industry is the linen manufacture, which is also one of the oldest, +although it was not till the introduction of steam power that headway +was made. Bell Mill, erected in 1806, was the first work of any +importance, and the first power-loom factory dates from 1836. Now +factories and mills are to be counted by the score, and the jute, hemp +and flax manufactures alone employ about 50,000 hands, while the value +of the combined annual output exceeds £6,000,000. Some of the works are +planned on a colossal scale, and many of the buildings in respect of +design and equipment are among the finest and most complete in the +world. In the thriving quarter of Lochee are situated the Camperdown +Linen Works, covering an immense area and employing more than 5000 +hands. The chimney-stalk (282 ft. high), in the style of an Italian +campanile, built of parti-coloured bricks with stone cornices, is a +conspicuous feature. The chief textile products are drills, ducks, +canvas (for which the British navy is the largest customer), ropes, +sheetings, sackings and carpets. Dundee is also celebrated for its +confectionery and preserves, especially marmalade. Among other prominent +industries are bleaching and dyeing, engineering, shipbuilding, tanning, +the making of boots and shoes and other goods in leather, foundries, +breweries, corn and flour mills, and the construction of motor-cars. + +_Shipping._--By reason of its excellent docking facilities Dundee can +cope with a shipping trade of the largest proportions. On the front +wharves and harbour works extend for 2 m., and the docks cover an area +of 35½ acres, made up thus--Earl Grey Dock, 5¼ acres; King William IV. +Dock, 6¼ acres; Tidal Harbour, 4¾ acres; Victoria Dock, 10¾ acres; +Camperdown Dock, 8½ acres. There are, besides, graving docks, the Ferry +harbour and timber ponds. The warehouses are capacious and the ample +quays equipped with steam cranes and other modern appliances. In 1898 +there entered and cleared 2914 vessels of 1,390,331 tons; in 1904 the +numbers were 2428 vessels of 1,227,429 tons. At the close of 1904 the +registered shipping of the port was 131 vessels of 109,885 tons. Dundee +is the seat of the Arctic fishery, once an important and lucrative +business, but now shrunk to the most meagre dimensions in consequence of +the increasing scarcity of whales and seals. There is regular +communication by steamer with London, Hull, Newcastle, Liverpool and +Leith, besides Rotterdam, Hamburg and other continental ports. Of the +local excursions the two hours' run to Perth is the favourite summer +trip. + +_Local Government._--Dundee returns two members to parliament. The city +council consists of the lord provost, bailies and councillors. The +corporation owns the gas and water supplies (the latter drawn from the +loch of Lintrathen, 18 m. to the N.W.) and the electric tramcars. + +_History._--There appears to be some doubt as to the origin of the name +of Dundee. It is extravagant to trace it to the Latin _Donum Dei_, "the +gift of God," as some have done, or the Celtic _Dun Dhia_, "the hill of +God." More probably it is the Gaelic _Dun Taw_, "the fort of the Tay," +of which the Latin _Taodunum_ is a transliteration--the derivation +pointing to the fact of a Pictish settlement on the site. The earliest +authentic mention of the city is in a deed of gift by David, earl of +Huntingdon, younger brother of William the Lion, dated about 1200, in +which it is designated as "Dunde." Shortly afterwards it was erected +into a royal burgh by William the Lion. When Edward I. visited it, +however, as he did twice (in 1296 and 1303) with hostile intent, he is +said to have removed its charter. Consequently Robert Bruce and +successive kings confirmed its privileges and rights, and Charles I. +finally granted it its great charter. Dundee played a prominent part in +the War of Scottish Independence. Here Wallace finished his education, +and here he slew young Selby, son of the English constable, in 1291, for +which deed he was outlawed. In that year the town fell into the hands of +the English, and it was whilst engaged in besieging the castle in 1297 +that Wallace withdrew to fight the battle of Stirling Bridge. In their +incursion into Scotland under John of Gaunt the English captured and +partially destroyed the town in 1385, but retreated to meet a +counter-invasion of their own country. The English seized it again for a +brief space during one of the 1st earl of Hertford's devastating raids +in the reign of Edward VI. Dundee bore such a prominent part in +propagating the Reformed doctrines that it was styled "the Scottish +Geneva." It saw more trouble at the time of the Civil War, for the +marquess of Montrose sacked it in 1645, and then gave a considerable +portion of it to the flames. Charles II. spent a few days in the castle +after his crowning at Scone (January 1st, 1651). In the same year +General Monk demanded the submission of the town to Cromwell, and on its +refusal captured it after an obstinate resistance and visited it with +condign punishment. More than one-sixth of the inhabitants and garrison, +including its governor Lumsden, were put to the sword, and no fewer than +60 vessels were seized and filled with plunder; but the ships, says +Gumble in his _Life of Monk_, "were cast away within sight of the town +and that great wealth perished." In 1684 John Graham of +Claverhouse--whose family derived its name from the lands of Claverhouse +in the parish of Mains immediately to the north of the town--became +constable, and in 1688 provost. In the same year James II. created him +Viscount Dundee. Thenceforward the annals of the town cease to touch +national history, save at very rare intervals. The greatest local +disaster of modern times was the destruction of the first Tay bridge +(see TAY). + +Many interesting old documents have been preserved in the Town House, +such as certain characteristic despatches from Edward I. and Edward II., +the original charter of Robert Bruce, dated 1327, a papal order from Leo +X., and a letter from Queen Mary, dated 1564, providing for extra-mural +interments. It may be mentioned that to describe Claverhouse himself as +"bonnie Dundee" is a modern invention, the old song from which Sir +Walter Scott borrowed a hint for his refrain referring solely to the +town. + +Since the middle and particularly during the last quarter of the 19th +century many of the more unsightly districts have been demolished. In +the process several picturesque but insanitary buildings, narrow winding +streets and unsavoury closes disappeared, along with a few structures of +more or less historic interest, like the castle, the mint and numerous +convents. The wholesale clearances, however, improved both the public +health and the appearance of the city, some of the new thoroughfares +vieing with the finest business streets of the largest commercial +centres in the United Kingdom. Queen Victoria granted a charter to +Dundee, dated the 25th of January 1889, erecting it to the status of a +city, and since 1892 its chief magistrate has been styled lord provost. + +Among men more or less eminent who were born in Dundee may be named +Hector Boece (1465-1536), the historian; George Dempster of Dunnichen +(1732-1818), the agriculturist, a former owner of Skibo; Thomas Dick +(1774-1857), the author of _The Christian Philosopher_; Admiral Lord +Duncan (1731-1804); Viscount Dundee (1643-1689); James Halyburton +(1518-1589), the Scottish Reformer, who was provost of the town for +thirty-three years; Sir James Ivory (1765-1842), the mathematician, who +bequeathed his science library to the town, and his nephew Lord Ivory +(1792-1866), the judge; Sir George Mackenzie (1636-1691), the celebrated +lawyer; Sir Alexander Scrymgeour (d. 1310), Wallace's standard-bearer, +and many of the Scrymgeours, his successors, who were constables of the +town; James (1495-1553), John (1500-1556) and Robert Wedderburn +(1510-1557), the poets, who were all concerned in the authorship or +collection of the book of _Gude and Godlie Ballatis_ published in 1578; +Sir John Wedderburn (1599-1679), the physician; and Sir Peter Wedderburn +(1616-1679), the judge. Many well-known persons lived for longer or +shorter periods in the town. James Chalmers (1782-1853), the inventor of +the adhesive postage stamp (1834), was a bookseller in Castle Street. +George Constable of Wallace Craigie, the prototype of Jonathan Oldbuck +in Sir Walter Scott's _Antiquary_, had a residence in the east end of +Seagate, the house standing until about 1820. Thomas Hood's father was a +native and the poet spent part of his youth in the town, his first +literary effort appearing in the _Dundee Advertiser_ about 1816. James +Bowman Lindsay (1799-1862), electrician and philologist, carried on his +experiments for many years in Dundee, where he died. Robert Nicoll +(1814-1837), the poet, kept a circulating library in Castle Street; and +William Thom (1798-1848), the writer of _The Rhymes of a Handloom +Weaver_, was buried in the Western Cemetery. + +_Suburbs._--Close to the municipal boundaries on the N.W. lies Benvie, +where John Playfair (1748-1819), the mathematician, was born, and which +has a mineral well that once enjoyed considerable repute. Camperdown +House, the seat of the earl of Camperdown, a fine building of Greek +design, standing in beautiful grounds, is situated in the parish. +Fowlis, 5 m. N.W., is remarkable for its church, which dates from the +15th century, but has even been assigned to the 12th. It contains a +carved ambry and rood-screen (with a curious representation of the +Crucifixion), decorated font, crocketed door canopy and several +pictures. The ruined castle adjoining the church ultimately became a +dwelling for labourers. The Dell of Balruddery is rich in geological and +botanical specimens. Lundie, 3 m. farther out in the same direction, +contains several lakelets, and its kirkyard is the burial-place of the +earls of Camperdown. Tealing, 4 m. N. of Dundee, was the scene of the +ministry of John Glas before he was deposed for heresy. + + AUTHORITIES.--David Barrie, _The City of Dundee Illustrated_ (Dundee, + 1890); Alexander Maxwell, _Old Dundee_ (Dundee, 1891); A.C. Lamb, + _Dundee: its Quaint and Historic Buildings_ (Dundee, 1895); A.H. + Millar, _Roll of Eminent Burgesses of Dundee_ (Dundee, 1887). + + + + +DUNDERLANDSDAL, a valley of northern Norway, in Nordland _amt_ (county), +draining south-westward from the neighbouring glaciers to the Ranenfjord +(lat. 66° 20´ N.). There are deposits of iron ore, the working of which +was undertaken in 1902 by the Dunderland Iron Ore Company, water-power +being provided by the strong Dunderland river. There are also pyrites +mines. At the mouth of the river is Mo, a considerable trading village. +The valley is remarkable for several stalactite caverns in the +limestone, some of the tributary streams flowing for considerable +distances underground. From Mo a fine road crosses the mountains to the +head-lake of the great Ume river, draining to the Baltic, and from the +head of Dunderlandsdal a sequestered bridle-path runs to Saltdal on the +Skjerstadfjord, with a branch through the magnificent Junkersdal. + + + + +DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE, 10TH EARL OF (1775-1860), British admiral, +was born at Annsfield in Lanarkshire on the 14th of December 1775. He +came of an old Scottish family, the first earl having been Sir William +Cochrane (d. 1686), a soldier who was created Baron Cochrane in 1647 and +earl of Dundonald in 1669. He was the son of Archibald Cochrane, 9th +Earl (1749-1831), who is remembered as a most ingenious, but also most +unfortunate, scientific speculator and inventor, who was before his time +in suggesting and attempting new processes of alkali manufacture, and +various other uses of applied science. The family was greatly +impoverished owing to his losses over these schemes, but still possessed +a good deal of interest. By the help of friends Thomas was provided with +a commission in an infantry regiment, and at the same time put on the +books of a man-of-war by his uncle, Captain A.F.I. Cochrane +(1758-1832), while still a boy. He finally chose the navy, and went to +sea in his uncle's ship, the "Hind," in 1793. He could already count +nearly five years' nominal service, an example of those naval abuses +which he was to denounce (and to profit by) during a large part of his +career. His promotion was rapid. He became a lieutenant in 1796. While +in that rank he was led by his self-assertive temper into a quarrel with +his superior, Lieutenant Philip Beaver (1766-1813), for which he was +sent before a court-martial. A warning to avoid flippancy in future was, +however, the worst that happened to him. + +In 1800 he was appointed to the command of the "Speedy" brig, a small +vessel in which he gained a great and deserved reputation as a daring +and skilful officer. His capture of the Spanish frigate "El Gamo" (32) +on the 6th of May 1801 was indeed a feat of unparalleled audacity. His +promotion to post rank followed on the 8th of August. Though he was apt +to represent himself as disliked and neglected by the admiralty, and was +frequently insolent towards his superiors, he was, as a matter of fact, +pretty constantly employed, and he more than justified his appointments +by his activity and success as captain of the "Pallas" (32) and +"Impérieuse" (38) on the ocean and in the Mediterranean. Unfortunately +for himself he secured his return to parliament as member for Honiton in +1806 and for Westminster in 1807. In the House of Commons he soon made +his mark as a radical, and as a denouncer of naval abuses. But his views +did not prevent him from profiting to the utmost by one very bad abuse, +for he did his utmost to secure the retention of his frigate in port, in +order that he might be able to attend parliament. In spite of his +radical opinions he made a furious attack on the admiralty for the new +prize money regulations which diminished the shares of the captains to +the advantage of the men. In April 1809 he was engaged in the attack on +the French squadron in the Basque Roads, which was very ill conducted by +Lord Gambier. The conduct of Lord Cochrane, as he was called till the +death of his father, was brilliant and was rewarded by the order of the +Bath, but his aggressive temper led him into making attacks on the +admiral which necessitated a court-martial on Gambier. The admiral was +acquitted, and Cochrane naturally fell into disfavour with the +admiralty. He was not employed again till 1813, when he was named to the +command of the "Tonnant," which was ordered for service as flagship on +the coast of America. In the interval he was restlessly active in +parliament in denouncing naval abuses, and was also, most disastrously +for himself, led into speculations on the Stock Exchange, by which he +was brought at the beginning of 1814 into pressing danger of total ruin. + +At this moment a notorious fraud was perpetrated on the Stock Exchange +by an uncle of his and by other persons with whom he habitually acted in +his speculations. Lord Cochrane was brought to trial with the others +before Lord Ellenborough on the 8th of June 1814 and all were condemned. +He was sentenced to an hour in the pillory, which was remitted, and to +fine and imprisonment, which were enforced. He continued to assert his +innocence, and to protest that he had been unjustly condemned, but he +was expelled from parliament and the order of the Bath. He was, however, +almost immediately re-elected member for Westminster, but he had to +serve his term (one year) of imprisonment, and, after escaping and being +recaptured, he regained his liberty in 1815 on payment of the fine of +£1000 to which he had been sentenced. + +In 1817 he accepted the invitation of the Chileans, who were then in +revolt against Spain, to take command of their naval forces, and +remaining in their service until 1822 contributed largely to their +success. His capture of the Spanish frigate "Esmeralda" (40) in the +harbour of Callao, on the 5th of November 1820, was an achievement of +signal daring. In 1823 he transferred his services to Brazil, where he +helped the emperor Dom Pedro I. to shake off the yoke of Portugal; but +by the end of 1825 he had fallen out with the Brazilians, and he +returned to Europe. His activity was next devoted to the aid of the +Greeks, then at the end of their struggle with the Turks, but he found +no opportunity for distinguishing himself, and in 1828 he returned home. +His efforts were now steadily directed to securing his restoration to +the navy, and in this he succeeded in 1832; but though he was granted a +"free pardon" he failed to obtain the new trial for which he was +anxious, or to secure the arrears of pay he claimed.[1] He was restored +to his place in the order of the Bath in 1847. In 1848 he was appointed +to the command of the North American and West India station, which he +retained till 1851. At various periods of his life he occupied himself +with scientific invention. He took out patents for lamps to burn oil of +tar, for the propulsion of ships at sea, for facilitating excavation, +mining and sinking, for rotary steam-engines and for other purposes; and +so early as 1843 he was an advocate of the employment of steam and the +screw propeller in war-ships. During the Crimean War he revived his +"secret war plan" for the total destruction of an enemy's fleet, and +offered to conduct in person an attack on Sevastopol and destroy it in a +few hours without loss to the attacking force. This plan, the details of +which have never been divulged, he had proposed so far back as 1811, and +the committee which was then appointed to consider it reported on it as +effective but inhuman. Lord Dundonald died in London on the 30th of +October 1860, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. No one ever excelled +him in daring and resource as a naval officer, but he suffered from +serious defects of character, and even those who think him guiltless of +the charge on which he was convicted in 1814 must feel that he had his +own imprudence and want of self-command to thank for many of his +misfortunes. + +He was succeeded in the title by his son Thomas as 11th earl (d. 1885), +and the latter by his son Douglas (b. 1852) as 12th earl, a +distinguished cavalry officer who became a lieutenant-general in 1907. + + The 10th earl's _Autobiography of a Seaman_ (2 vols., 1860-1861), the + main source for his _Life_ (1869, by his son and heir), is written + with spirit, but it was composed at the end of his career when his + memory was failing, and was chiefly executed by others. He also wrote + _Notes on the Mineralogy, Government and Condition of the British West + India Islands_ (1851), and a _Narrative of Services in the Liberation + of Chili, Peru and Brazil_ (1858). The whole story of his trial and of + the Stock Exchange fraud for which he was condemned has been examined + by Mr J.B. Atlay in _The Trial of Lord Cochrane before Lord + Ellenborough_ (1897). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In 1878, as the result of the report of a select committee of the + House of Commons appointed in 1877, a grant of £5000 was made to the + then Lord Cochrane "in respect of the distinguished services of his + grandfather, the late earl of Dundonald." + + + + +DUNEDIN, a city of New Zealand, capital of the provincial district of +Otago, and the seat of a bishop, in Taieri county. Pop (1906) 36,070, +including suburbs, 56,020. It lies 15 m. from the open sea, at the head +of Otago harbour, a narrow inlet (averaging 2 m. in width) on the +south-eastern coast of South Island. The situation was chosen on the +consideration of this harbour alone, for the actual site offered many +difficulties, steep forest-clad hills rising close to the sea, and +rendering reclamation necessary. The hills give the town a beautiful +appearance, as the forest was allowed to remain closely embracing it, +being preserved in the public ground named the Town Belt. The principal +thoroughfare is comprised in Prince's Street and George Street, running +straight from S.W. to N.E., and passing through the Octagon, which is +surrounded by several of the principal buildings. From these streets +others strike at right angles down to the harbour, while others again +lead obliquely up towards the Belt, beyond which are extensive suburbs. +There are several handsome commercial and banking houses. The town +hall, Athenaeum and museum are noteworthy buildings, the last having a +fine biological collection. The university, founded in 1869, built +mainly of basalt, has schools of arts, medicine, chemistry and +mineralogy. It is in reality a university college, for though it was +originally intended to have the power of conferring degrees, it was +subsequently affiliated to the New Zealand University. The churches are +numerous and some are particularly handsome; such as the First church, +which overlooks the harbour, and is so named from its standing on the +site of the church of the original settlers; St Paul's, Knox church and +the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Joseph. Finally, one of the most +striking buildings in the city is the high school (1885) with its +commanding tower. The white Oamaru stone is commonly used in these +buildings. The primary and secondary schools of the town are excellent, +and there is a small training college for state teachers. Besides the +Belt there are several parks and reserves, including botanical and +acclimatization gardens, the so-called Ocean Beach, and two +race-courses. + +Dunedin is connected by rail with Christchurch northward and +Invercargill southward, with numerous branches. Electric tramways serve +the principal thoroughfares and suburbs. The most important internal +industries are in wool and frozen meat. The harbour is accessible, owing +to extensive dredging, to vessels drawing 19 ft., at high tide; and +Dunedin is the headquarters of the coasting services of the Union +Steamship Co. Port Chalmers, however (9 m. N.E. by rail) though +incapacitated by its site from growing into a large town, is more +readily accessible for shipping, and has extensive piers and a graving +dock. Dunedin is governed by a mayor and corporation, and most of its +numerous suburbs are separate municipalities. + +The colony of Otago (from a native word meaning ochre, which was found +here and highly prized by the Maoris as a pigment for the body when +preparing for battle) was founded as the chief town of the Otago +settlement by settlers sent out under the auspices of the lay +association of the Free Church of Scotland in 1848. The discovery of +large quantities of gold in Otago in 1861 and the following years +brought prosperity, a great "rush" of diggers setting in from Australia. +Gold-dredging, in the hands of rich companies, remains a primary source +of wealth in the district. + + + + +DUNES,[1] or DUNKIRK DUNES, BATTLE OF, was fought near Dunkirk on the +24th of May (3rd of June) 1658, between the French and English army +under the command of Marshal Turenne and the Spanish army under Don Juan +of Austria and the prince of Condé. The severest part of the fighting +was borne by the English contingents on either side. Six thousand +English infantry under General Lockhart were sent by Cromwell to join +the army of Turenne, and several Royalist corps under the command of the +duke of York (afterwards James II.) served in the Spanish forces. The +object of the Spaniards was to relieve Dunkirk, which Turenne was +besieging, and the complete victory of the French and English caused the +speedy surrender of the fortress. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the word "dune" see DOWN. + + + + +DUNFERMLINE, ALEXANDER SETON, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1555-1622), was the fourth +son of George, 5th Lord Seton, and younger brother of Robert, 1st earl +of Winton. He was sent as a boy to Rome, where he studied at the +Jesuits' College with a view to becoming a priest. He turned, however, +to the study of law, and after some years' residence in France was +called to the bar about 1577. He was suspected of Romanist leanings by +the officials of the Scottish kirk, and was temporarily deprived of the +priory of Pluscardine, which had been granted to him by his god-mother, +Queen Mary. In 1583 he accompanied his father, Lord Seton, on an embassy +to Henry III. of France. His promotion was now rapid: he was made +extraordinary lord of session in 1586 as prior of Pluscardine, ordinary +lord of session in 1588 as lord Urquhart, judge in 1593, lord president +of the court session in 1598, Baron Fyvie in 1597 and chancellor in +1604. In 1595 he was one of the commission formed by James VI. to +control the royal finance. The eight commissioners were known from their +number as the Octavians, and were relieved of their functions about two +years later. Urquhart's continued influence was, however, assured, in +spite of the animosity of the kirk, by his appointment as lord provost +of Edinburgh of nine successive years. He showed considerable +independence in his relations with James VI., and dissuaded him from his +intention of forming a standing army in readiness to enforce his claims +to the English crown. He was entrusted with the care of Prince Charles, +afterwards Charles I., after the king's departure for England, and +arranged the details of the union between Scotland and England. He +became chancellor of Scotland in 1604, and on the 4th of March 1605 he +was created earl of Dunfermline. He died at Pinkie House, near +Musselburgh, on the 16th of June 1622. + +His son CHARLES, 2nd earl of Dunfermline (c. 1608-1672), was the +offspring of his third marriage with Margaret Hay, sister of John, 1st +earl of Tweeddale. He signed the National Covenant and was one of the +leaders of the Presbyterian party, but as one of the "Engagers" of 1648 +he was prevented from holding any public office, and after the execution +of Charles I. he joined Charles II. on the continent. He was made privy +councillor at the Restoration, extraordinary lord of session and lord of +the articles in 1667, and in 1671 lord privy seal. He died in May 1672. +The earldom was then held successively by his sons Alexander (d. 1675) +and James; but at the latter's death, at St Germains on the 26th of +December 1694, the title became extinct. + + See G. Seton, _Memoir of Alex. Seton, first Earl of Dunfermline_ + (1882); and Sir Robert Douglas, _Scots Peerage_, vol. ii. (1906, + edited by Sir J.B. Paul). + + + + +DUNFERMLINE, JAMES ABERCROMBY, 1ST BARON (1776-1858), third son of +General Sir Ralph Abercromby, was born on the 7th of November 1776. He +was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1801, and became a +commissioner in bankruptcy, and subsequently steward for the estates of +the 5th duke of Devonshire. In 1807 he was chosen member of parliament +for the borough of Midhurst, and in 1812 was returned for Calne by the +influence of the 3rd marquess of Lansdowne. He attached himself to the +Whigs, but his chief interest was reserved for Scottish questions, and +on two occasions he sought to change the method of electing +representatives to parliament for the city of Edinburgh. When the Whigs +under George Canning came into power in 1827, Abercromby was made +judge-advocate-general, and became chief baron of the exchequer of +Scotland in 1830, when he resigned his seat in parliament. This office +was abolished in 1832, and Abercromby received a pension of £2000 a +year, and was sent as member for Edinburgh to the reformed parliament. +After being an unsuccessful candidate for the office of speaker he +joined the cabinet of Earl Grey in 1834 as master of the mint. Again a +candidate for the speakership in the new parliament of 1835, Abercromby +was elected to this office after an exceptionally keen contest by a +majority of ten votes. As speaker he was not very successful in quelling +disorder, but he introduced several important reforms in the management +of private bills. Resigning his office in May 1839 he was created Baron +Dunfermline of Dunfermline, and granted a pension of £4000 a year. He +continued his interest in the affairs of Edinburgh, and was one of the +founders of the United Industrial school. He died at Colinton House, +Midlothian, on the 17th of April 1858, and was succeeded in the title by +his only son, Ralph. His wife was Marianne, daughter of Egerton Leigh of +West Hall, High Leigh, Cheshire. He wrote a life of his father, Sir +Ralph Abercromby, which was published after his death (Edinburgh, 1861). + + See Spencer Walpole, _History of England_ (London, 1890); _Greville + Memoirs_, edited by H. Reeve (London, 1896); Lord Cockburn's _Journal_ + (Edinburgh, 1874). + + + + +DUNFERMLINE (Gaelic, "the fort on the crooked linn"), a royal, municipal +and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 22,157; (1901) +25,250. It is situated on high ground 3 m. from the shore of the Firth +of Forth, with two stations on the North British railway--Lower +Dunfermline 16¾ m., and Upper Dunfermline 19¼ m. N.W. of Edinburgh, via +the Forth Bridge. The town is intersected from north to south by +Pittencrieff Glen, a deep, picturesque and tortuous ravine, from which +the town derives its name and at the bottom of which flows Lyne Burn. + +The history of Dunfermline goes back to a remote period, for the early +Celtic monks known as Culdees had an establishment here; but its fame +and prosperity date from the marriage of Malcolm Canmore and his queen +Margaret, which was solemnized in the town in 1070. The king then lived +in a tower on a mound surrounded on three sides by the glen. A fragment +of this castle still exists in Pittencrieff Park, a little west of the +later palace. Under the influence of Queen Margaret in 1075 the +foundations were laid of the Benedictine priory, which was raised to the +rank of an abbey by David I. Robert Bruce gave the town its charter in +1322, though in his _Fife: Pictorial and Historical_ (ii. 223), A.H. +Millar contends that till the confirming charter of James VI. (1588) all +burghal privileges were granted by the abbots. + +In the 18th century Dunfermline impressed Daniel Defoe as showing the +"full perfection of decay," but it is now one of the most prosperous +towns in Scotland. Its staple industry is the manufacture of table +linen. The weaving of damask was introduced in 1718 by James Blake, who +had learned the secret of the process in the workshops at Drumsheugh +near Edinburgh, to which he gained admittance by feigning idiocy; and +since that date the linen trade has advanced by leaps and bounds, much +of the success being due to the beautiful designs produced by the +manufacturers. Among other industries that have largely contributed to +the welfare of the town are dyeing and bleaching, brass and iron +founding, tanning, machine-making, brewing and distilling, milling, +rope-making and the making of soap and candles, while the collieries in +the immediate vicinity are numerous and flourishing. + +The town is well supplied with public buildings. Besides the New Abbey +church, the United Free church in Queen Anne Street founded by Ralph +Erskine, and the Gillespie church, named after Thomas Gillespie +(1708-1774), another leader of the Secession movement, possess some +historical importance. Erskine is commemorated by a statue in front of +his church and a sarcophagus over his grave in the abbey churchyard; +Gillespie by a marble tablet on the wall above his resting-place within +the abbey. The Corporation buildings, a blend of the Scots Baronial and +French Gothic styles, contain busts of several Scottish sovereigns a +statue of Robert Burns, and Sir Noel Paton's painting of the "Spirit of +Religion." Other structures are the County buildings, the Public, St +Margaret's, Music and Carnegie halls, the last in the Tudor style, +Carnegie public baths, high school (founded in 1560), school of science +and art, and two hospitals. Several distinguished men have been +associated with Dunfermline. Robert Henryson (1430-1506), the poet, was +long one of its schoolmasters. John Row (1568-1646), the Church +historian, held the living of Carnock, 3 m. to the E., and David +Ferguson (d. 1598) who made the first collection of Scottish proverbs +(not published till 1641), was parish minister; Robert Gilfillan +(1798-1850), the poet, and Sir Joseph Noel Paton (1821-1901), painter +and poet--whose father was a designer of patterns for the damask +trade--were all born here. Andrew Carnegie (b. 1837), however, is in a +sense the most celebrated of all her sons, as he is certainly her +greatest benefactor. He gave to his birthplace the free library and +public baths, and, in 1903, the estate of Pittencrieff Park and Glen, +rich in historical associations as well as natural charm, together with +bonds yielding £25,000 a year, in trust for the maintenance of the park, +the support of a theatre for the production of plays of the highest +merit, the periodical exhibitions of works of art and science, the +promotion of horticulture among the working classes and the +encouragement of technical education in the district. The town is +governed by a provost, bailies and council, and, with Stirling, Culross, +Inverkeithing and Queensferry (the Stirling group), combines in +returning a member to parliament. + +Dunfermline Abbey is one of the most important remains in Scotland. +Excepting Iona it has received more of Caledonia's royal dead than any +other place in the kingdom. Within its precincts were buried Queen +Margaret and Malcolm Canmore; their sons Edgar and Alexander I., with +his queen; David I. and his two queens; Malcolm IV.; Alexander III., +with his first wife and their sons David and Alexander; Robert Bruce, +with his queen Elizabeth and their daughter Matilda; and Annabella +Drummond, wife of Robert III. and mother of James I. Bruce's heart rests +in Melrose, but his bones lie in Dunfermline Abbey, where (after the +discovery of the skeleton in 1818) they were reinterred with fitting +pomp below the pulpit of the New church. In 1891 the pulpit was moved +back and a monumental brass inserted in the floor to indicate the royal +vault. The tomb of St Margaret and Malcolm, within the ruined walls of +the Lady chapel, was restored and enclosed by command of Queen Victoria. +During the winter of 1303 the court of Edward I. was held in the abbey, +and on his departure next year most of the buildings were burned. When +the Reformers attacked the abbey church in March 1560, they spared the +nave, which served as the parish church till the 19th century, and now +forms the vestibule of the New church. This edifice, in the +Perpendicular style, opened for public worship in 1821, occupies the +site of the ancient chancel and transepts, though differing in style and +proportions from the original structure. The old building was a fine +example of simple and massive Norman, as the nave testifies, and has a +beautiful doorway in its west front. Another rich Norman doorway was +exposed in the south wall in 1903, when masons were cutting a site for +the memorial to the soldiers who had fallen in the South African War. A +new site was found for this monument in order that the ancient and +beautiful entrance might be preserved. The venerable structure is +maintained by the commissioners of woods and forests, and private +munificence has provided several stained-glass windows. Of the monastery +there still remains the south wall of the refectory, with a fine window. +The palace, a favourite residence of many of the kings, occupying a +picturesque position near the ravine, was of considerable size, judging +from the south-west wall, which is all that is left of it. Here James +IV., James V. and James VI. spent much of their time, and within its +walls were born three of James VI.'s children--Charles I., Robert and +Elizabeth. After Charles I. was crowned he paid a short visit to his +birthplace, but the last royal tenant of the palace was Charles II., who +occupied it just before the battle of Pitreavie (20th of July 1650), +which took place 3 m. to the south-west, and here also he signed the +National League and Covenant. + + See A.H. Millar's _Fife: Pictorial and Historical_ (2 vols., 1895); + and Sheriff Æneas Mackay's _History of Fife and Kinross_ (1896). + + + + +DUNGANNON, a market town of Co. Tyrone, Ireland, in the east +parliamentary division, on an acclivity 8 m. W. of the south-western +shore of Lough Neagh. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3694. It is 103 m. +N.N.W. from Dublin by the Great Northern railway, and a branch line runs +thence to Cookstown. The only public buildings of note are the parish +church, with an octagonal spire, and a royal school founded in 1614 and +settled in new buildings at the end of the 18th century; it is now +managed by the county Protestant Board of Education. Linens, muslin and +coarse earthenware are manufactured, tanning is prosecuted, and there is +trade in corn and timber. The early history of the place is identified +with the once powerful family of the O'Neills, whose chief residence was +here, and a large rath or earthwork north of the town was the scene of +the inauguration of their chiefs, but of the castle and abbey founded by +this family there are no remains. In Dungannon the independence of the +Irish parliament (to which the town returned two members) was proclaimed +in 1782. The town was formerly corporate, and was a parliamentary +borough returning one member to the Imperial parliament until 1885. + + + + +DUNGARPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, in the +extreme south of Rajputana. A large portion is hilly, and inhabited by +Bhils. Its area is 1447 sq. m. In 1901 the total population was 100,103, +showing an increase of 2% in the decade. The revenue is £15,100, and the +tribute £2276. An annual fair is held at Baneswar. Kherwara is the +headquarters of the Mewar Bhil corps. + +The chiefs of Dungarpur, who bear the title of maharawal, are descended +from Mahup, eldest son of Karan Singh, chief of Mewar in the 12th +century, and claim the honours of the elder line of Mewar. Mahup, +disinherited by his father, took refuge with his mother's family, the +Chauhans of Bagar, and made himself master of that country at the +expense of the Bhil chiefs. The town of Dungarpur (pop. 6094 in 1901), +the capital of the state, was founded towards the end of the 14th +century by his descendant Rawal Bir Singh, who named it after Dungaria, +an independent Bhil chieftain whom he had caused to be assassinated. +After the death of Rawal Udai Singh of Bagar at the battle of Khanua in +1527, his territories were divided into the states of Dungarpur and +Banswara, the name of Bagar being still often applied to the tract +covered by these states. Dungarpur fell under the sway of the Moguls and +Mahrattas in turn, and was taken under British protection by treaty in +1818. + + + + +DUNGARVAN, a market town and seaport of Co. Waterford, Ireland, in the +west parliamentary division, 28½ m. W.S.W. from Waterford by the +Waterford and Mallow branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. +Pop. of urban district (1901) 4850. It is situated on the south coast, +on the Bay of Dungarvan, at the mouth of the Colligan, which divides the +town into two parts, connected by a bridge of a single arch. The eastern +suburb is called Abbeyside, where the remains of an ancient keep, +erected by the M'Graths, still exist, together with portions of an +Augustinian friary, founded by the same family in the 14th century and +incorporated with a Roman Catholic chapel. In the main portion of the +town a part of the keep of a castle of King John remains. Brewing is +carried on, and there are woollen mills. The exports consist chiefly of +agricultural produce. Dungarvan was incorporated in the 15th century, +was represented by two members in the Irish parliament until the Union, +and returned a member to the Imperial parliament until 1885. It was +fortified with walls by John when the castle was built. A story is told +that Cromwell spared the town from bombardment owing to the wit of a +woman who drank his health at the town-gate. + + + + +DUNGENESS, a promontory of the south coast of England, in the south of +Kent, near the town of Lydd. It is a low-lying broad bank of shingle, +forming the seaward apex of the great level of the Romney Marshes. Its +seaward accretion is estimated at 6 ft. annually. Its formation is +characteristic, consisting of a series of ridges forming a succession of +curves from a common centre. It is unique, however, among the great +promontories of the south coast of England, the accretion of gravel +banks falling into deep water contrasting with the cliff-bound headlands +of the North Foreland, Beachy Head and the Lizard, and with the low +eroded Selsey Bill, off which the sea is shallow. A lighthouse (50° 55´ +N., 0° 58´ E.) stands on the ness, which has been the scene of many +shipwrecks, and has been lighted since the time of James I. There are +also here Lloyds' signalling station, coast-guard stations, and the +terminus of a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. + +The name Dungeness has also been applied elsewhere; thus the point on +the north side of the eastern entrance to Magellan Strait is so called, +and there is a town of Dungeness near a promontory on the coast of +Washington, U.S.A. (Strait of Juan de Fuca). + + + + +DUNGEON, the prison in a castle keep, so called because the Norman name +for the latter is donjon (q.v.), and the dungeons or prisons (q.v.) are +generally in its lowest storey. (See KEEP.) + + + + +DUNKELD, a town of Perthshire, Scotland, on the left bank of the Tay, +15½ m. N.W. of Perth by the Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 586. The river +is crossed by a bridge of seven arches which was designed by Thomas +Telford in 1805 and opened in 1808. The town lies in the midst of +luxuriant trees, and the noble sweep of the Tay, the effectively +situated bridge, the magnificent grounds of Dunkeld House, and the +protecting mountains combine to give it a very romantic appearance. The +town hall is the principal modern building, and the fountain erected in +Market Square to the memory of the 6th duke of Atholl (d. 1864) occupies +the site of the old cross. + +As early as 729--some authorities fix the date a hundred and fifty years +before--the Culdees possessed a monastery at Dunkeld, which was +converted into a cathedral by David I. in 1127. This structure stood +until the Reformation, when it was unroofed and suffered to fall into +ruin. The building consists of the nave (120 ft. long, 60 ft. wide, 40 +ft. high), aisles (12 ft. wide), choir, chapter-house and tower. The +nave is the most beautiful portion. The Pointed arches rest upon +pillars, possibly Norman, and above them, below the Decorated clerestory +windows, is a series of semicircular arches with flamboyant tracery, a +remarkable feature. The choir, founded by Bishop William Sinclair (d. +1337), has been repaired, and serves as the parish church, a blue marble +slab in the floor marking the bishop's grave. The chapter-house, +adjoining the choir, was built by Bishop Thomas Lauder (1395-1481) in +1469, and the vault beneath is the burial-place of the Atholl Murrays. +Lauder also began the tower, completed in 1501. In the porch of the +church is the most interesting of the extant old tombs, namely, the +recumbent effigy of Alexander Stewart, the Wolf of Badenoch (1343-1405; +the inscription refers his death to 1394, but this is said to be an +error). The most famous of the Bishops was Gavin Douglas (1474-1522), +translator of the _Aeneid_. One of the most heroic exploits in the +annals of warfare is associated with the cathedral. Shortly after the +battle of Killiecrankie (1689), the Cameronian regiment, enrolled in the +same year (afterwards the 26th Foot), was despatched to hold Dunkeld +prior to another invasion of the Highlands. It was under the command of +Colonel William Cleland (b. 1661), a poet of some merit. On the 26th of +August a force of 5000 Highlanders suddenly appearing, Cleland posted +his men in the church and behind the wall of the earl of Atholl's +mansion. Still flushed with their victory under Dundee, and animated by +bitterest hatred of their Whiggamore foes, the Highlanders assaulted the +position of the Covenanters, who were 1200 strong, with the most +desperate valour. Sustained by their enthusiasm, however, the recruits +displayed equal courage, and, at the end of four hours' stubborn +fighting, their defence was still intact. Fearing lest victory, even if +won, might be purchased too dearly, the Highlanders gradually withdrew. +While leading a sortie Cleland was shot dead, and was buried in the +churchyard. + +Adjoining the cathedral is Dunkeld House, a seat of the duke of Atholl, +the grounds of which are estimated to contain 50 m. of walks and 30 m. +of drives. On the lawn near the cathedral stand two of the earliest +larches grown in Great Britain, having been introduced from Tirol by the +2nd duke in 1738. The 4th duke planted several square miles of the +estate with this tree, of which he had made a special study. + +A mile south of Dunkeld, on the left bank of the Tay, is the village of +Birnam (pop. 389), where Sir John Everett Millais, the painter, made his +summer residence. It lies at the foot of Birnam Hill (1324 ft.), once +covered with a royal forest that has been partly replaced by +plantations. The oak and sycamore in front of Birnam House, the famed +twin trees of Birnam, are believed to be more than 1000 years old, and +to be the remnant of the wood of Birnam which Shakespeare immortalized +in _Macbeth_. The Pass of Birnam, where the river narrows, was the path +usually taken by the Highlanders in their forays. In the vicinity are +the castles of Murthly, one a modern mansion in the Elizabethan style, +erected about 1838 from designs by James Gillespie Graham (1777-1855), +and the other the old castle, still occupied, which was occasionally +used as a hunting-lodge by the Scottish kings. + +At Little Dunkeld, almost opposite to Dunkeld, the Bran joins the Tay, +after a run of 11 m. from its source in Loch Freuchie. It is celebrated +for its falls about 2 m. from the mouth. The upper fall is known as the +Rumbling Bridge from the fact that the stream pours with a rumbling +noise through a deep narrow gorge in which a huge fallen rock has become +wedged, forming a rude bridge or arch. Inver, near the mouth of the +Bran, was the birthplace of the two famous fiddlers, Niel Gow +(1727-1807) and his son Nathaniel (1766-1831). + + + + +DUNKIRK (Fr. _Dunkerque_), a seaport of northern France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Nord, on the Straits of Dover, 53 m. +N.W. of Lille on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 35,767. Dunkirk is +situated in the low but fertile district of the Wateringues. It lies, +amidst a network of canals, immediately to the west and south of its +port, which disputes with Bordeaux the rank of third in importance in +France. The populous suburbs of Rosendaël and St Pol-sur-Mer lie +respectively to the east and west of the town; to the north-east is the +bathing resort of Malo-les-Bains. The streets of Dunkirk are wide and +well paved, the chief of them converging to the square named after Jean +Bart (born at Dunkirk in 1651), whose statue by David d'Angers stands at +its centre. Close to the Place Jean Bart rises the belfry (290 ft. high) +which contains a fine peal of bells and also serves as a signalling +tower. It was once the western tower of the church of St Eloi, from +which it is now separated by a street. St Eloi, erected about 1560 in +the Gothic style, was deprived of its first two bays in the 18th +century; the present façade dates from 1889. The chapel of Notre-Dame +des Dunes possesses a small image, which is the object of a well-known +pilgrimage. The chief civil buildings are a large Chamber of Commerce, +including the customs and port services, and a fine modern town hall. +Dunkirk is the seat of a sub-prefect; its public institutions include +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of +trade-arbitrators, an exchange, a branch of the Bank of France and a +communal college; and it has a school of drawing, architecture and +music, a library and a rich museum of paintings. Dunkirk forms with +Bergues, Bourbourg and Gravelines a group of fortresses enclosed by +inundations and canals. A chain of forts to the eastward is designed to +facilitate the deployment of an army, concentrated within the fortified +region, towards the Belgian frontier. + +The harbour of Dunkirk (see DOCK) is approached by a fine natural +roadstead entered on the east and west, and protected on the north by +sand-banks. From the roadstead, entrance is by a channel into the outer +harbour, which communicates with seven floating basins about 115 acres +in area and is accessible to the largest vessels. The port is provided +with four dry docks and a gridiron, and its quays exceed 5 m. in length. +Its commerce is much facilitated by the system of canals which bring it +into communication with Belgium, the coal-basins of Nord and +Pas-de-Calais, the rich agricultural regions of Flanders and Artois, and +the industrial towns of Lille, Armentières, Roubaix, Tourcoing, +Valenciennes, &c. The roadstead is indicated by lightships and the +entrance channel to the port by a lighthouse which, at an altitude of +193 ft., is visible at a distance of 19 m. + +Dunkirk annually despatches a fleet to the Icelandic cod-fisheries, and +takes part in the herring and other fisheries. It imports great +quantities of wool from the Argentine and Australia, and is in regular +communication with New York, London and the chief ports of the United +Kingdom, Brazil and the far East. Besides wool, leading imports are +jute, cotton, flax, timber, petroleum, coal, pitch, wine, cereals, +oil-seeds and oil-cake, nitrate of soda and other chemical products, and +metals. The principal exports are sugar, coal, cereals, wool, forage, +cement, chalk, phosphates, iron and steel, tools and metal-goods, thread +and vegetables. The average annual value of the imports for the years +1901-1905 was £23,926,000 (£22,287,000 for 1896-1900), of exports +£6,369,000 (£4,481,000 for 1896-1900). The industries include the +spinning of jute, flax, hemp and cotton, iron-founding, brewing, and the +manufacture of machinery, fishing-nets, sailcloth, sacks, casks, and +soap. There are also saw- and flour-mills, petroleum refineries and +oil-works. Ship-building is carried on, and the preparation of fish and +cod-liver oil occupies many hands. + +Dunkirk is said to have originated in a chapel founded by St Eloi in the +7th century, round which a small village speedily sprang up. In the 10th +century it was fortified by Baldwin III., count of Flanders; together +with that province it passed successively to Burgundy, Austria and +Spain. In the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries its possession was disputed +by French and Spaniards. In 1658 Turenne's victory of the Dunes (q.v.) +gave it into the hands of the French and it was ceded to England. After +the Restoration, Charles II., being in money difficulties, sold it to +the French king Louis XIV., who fortified it. By the terms of the peace +of Utrecht (1713) the fortifications were demolished and its harbour +filled up, a sacrifice demanded by England owing to the damage inflicted +on her shipping by Jean Bart and other corsairs of the port. In 1793 it +was besieged by the English under Frederick Augustus, duke of York, who +was compelled to retire after the defeat of Hondschoote. + + See A. de St Leger, _La Flandre maritime et Dunkerque_ (Paris, 1900). + + + + +DUNKIRK, a city and a port of entry of Chautauqua county, New York, +U.S.A., on the S. shore of Lake Erie, 40 m. S.W. of Buffalo. Pop. (1890) +9416; (1900) 11,616, of whom 3338 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +17,221. The city is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Lake Shore +& Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago & St Louis, and the Dunkirk, +Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg railways, by the electric line of the +Buffalo & Lake Erie Traction Co., and by several lines of freight and +passenger steamships. Dunkirk is attractively situated high above the +lake, and has several parks, including Point Gratiot and Washington; in +the city are the Dunkirk free library, the Brooks Memorial hospital +(1891), and St Mary's academy. The city lies in an agricultural and +grape-growing region, and has a fine harbour and an extensive lake +trade; the manufactures include locomotives, radiators, lumber, springs, +shirts, axes, wagons, steel, silk gloves and concrete blocks. The value +of factory products increased from $5,225,996 in 1900 to $9,909,260 in +1905, or 89.6%. Large numbers of food-fish are caught in the lake. The +municipality owns and operates the water works and the electric lighting +plant. Dunkirk was first settled about 1805. It was incorporated as a +village in 1837, and was chartered as a city in 1880. + + + + +DUNLOP, JOHN COLIN (1785-1842), Scottish man of letters, was born on the +30th of December 1785. In 1816 he became sheriff of Renfrewshire, and +retained this office until his death at Edinburgh, on the 26th of +January (according to others, in February) 1842. The work by which he is +best known, and which will always hold an honourable place in English +literature, is his _History of Fiction_ (1814; new edition, 1888, with +notes by H. Wilson, in Bohn's "Standard Library"). In spite of the +somewhat contemptuous notices in _Blackwood's Magazine_ (September 1824) +and the _Quarterly Review_ (July 1815), it may be pronounced the best +book on the subject in English. F. Liebrecht, by whom it was translated +into German (1851) with valuable notes, describes it as the only work of +its kind. Dunlop was also the author of _A History of Roman Literature_ +(1823-1828), and of _Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. +and Charles II._ (1834). + + + + +DUNMORE, a borough of Lackawanna county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., adjoining +Scranton on the N.E. and about 20 m. N.E. of Wilkesbarre. Pop. (1890) +8315; (1900) 12,583, of whom 3103 were foreign-born; (1910 census) +17,615. It is served by the Erie, the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, +and the Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley (electric) railways. Its chief +industry is the mining of anthracite coal; the principal establishments +are railway repair shops, which in 1905 gave employment to 48.9% of all +wage-earners engaged in manufacturing. Among the borough's manufactures +are stoves and furnaces, malt liquors and silk. Dunmore is the seat of +the state oral school for the deaf. The town was first settled in 1783 +and was incorporated in 1862. Its growth was accelerated by the +establishment here, in 1863, of the shops of the railway from Pittston +to Hawley built in 1849-1850 by the Pennsylvania Coal Company. Dunmore +became a station of the Scranton post office in 1902. + + + + +DUNMOW (properly GREAT DUNMOW), a market town in the Epping (W.) +parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the river Chelmer, 40 m. +N.E. by N. from London on a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. +(1901) 2704. The church of St Mary is Decorated and Perpendicular. The +town was corporate from the 16th century until 1886. Roman remains have +been discovered. Two miles E. is the village of LITTLE DUNMOW, formerly +the seat of a priory, remarkable for the custom of presenting a flitch +of bacon to any couple who could give proof that they had spent the +first year of married life in perfect harmony, and had never at any +moment wished they had tarried. In place of the monastic judicature a +jury of six bachelors and six maidens appear in the 16th century. A +rhyming oath, quoted by Fuller, was taken. The institution of this +strange matrimonial prize--which had its parallel at Whichanoure (or +Wichnor) in Staffordshire, at St Moleine in Brittany, and apparently +also at Vienna--appears to date from the reign of John. The first +instance of its award recorded is in 1445, and there are a few others. +But there are references which suggest its previous award in _Piers +Plowman_ and Chaucer. The Chaucerian couplet conveys the idea of an +award to a patient husband, without reference to the wife. A revival of +the custom was effected in 1855 by Harrison Ainsworth, author of the +novel _The Flitch of Bacon_, but the scene of the ceremony was +transferred to the town hall of Great Dunmow. It has since been +maintained in altered form. (For details see Chambers's _Book of Days_, +ii. 748-751; and W. Andrews, _History of the Dunmow Flitch of Bacon +Customs_, 1877.) Close to Little Dunmow is Felsted (q.v.) or Felstead; +and Easton Lodge (with a railway station), a seat of the earl of +Warwick, is in the vicinity. + + + + +DUNNE, FINLEY PETER (1867- ), American journalist and humorist, was +born, of Irish descent, in Chicago, Illinois, on the 10th of July 1867. +After a public school education he became a newspaper reporter (1885); +he was city editor of the Chicago _Times_ (1891-1892), a member of the +editorial staff of the Chicago _Evening Post_ and of the Chicago +_Times-Herald_ (1892-1897), and editor of the Chicago _Journal_ +(1897-1900). In 1900 he removed to New York city. Although for several +years he had been contributing humorous sketches in Irish brogue to the +daily papers, he did not come into prominence until he wrote for the +Chicago _Journal_ a series of satirical observations and reflections +attributed to an honest Irish-American, Martin Dooley, the shrewd +philosopher of Archey Road, on social and political topics of the day. +These were widely copied by the press of America and England. The first +published collection, _Mr Dooley in Peace and in War_ (1898), was +followed by several others, similar in subject-matter and method, +including _Mr Dooley in the Hearts of his Countrymen_ (1899), _Mr +Dooley's Philosophy_ (1900), _Mr Dooley's Opinions_ (1901), +_Observations by Mr Dooley_ (1902), and _Dissertations by Mr Dooley_ +(1906). These books made their author widely known as the creator of a +delightfully original character, and as a humorist of shrewd insight. In +1906 he became associate editor of the _American Magazine_. + + + + +DUNNOTTAR CASTLE, a ruined stronghold, on the east coast of +Kincardineshire, Scotland, about 2 m. S. of Stonehaven. It stands on a +rock 160 ft. high, with a summit area of 4 acres, and surrounded on +three sides by the sea. It is accessible from the land by a winding path +leading across a deep chasm, to the outer gate in a wall of enormous +thickness. It is supposed that a fortress stood here since perhaps the +7th century, but the existing castle dates from 1392, when it was begun +by Sir William Keith (d. 1407), great marischal of Scotland. The keep +and chapel are believed to be the oldest structures, most of the other +buildings being two centuries later. It was the residence of the earls +marischal and was regarded as impregnable. Here the seventh earl +entertained Charles II. before the battle of Worcester. When Cromwell +became Protector, the Scottish regalia were lodged in the castle for +greater security, and, in 1651, when the Commonwealth soldiers laid +successful siege to it, they were saved by a woman's wit. Mrs Granger, +wife of the minister of Kinneff, a parish about 6 m. to the S., was +allowed to visit the wife of the governor, Ogilvy of Barras, and when +she rode out she was spinning lint on a distaff. The crown was concealed +in her lap, and the distaff consisted of the sword and sceptre. The +regalia were hidden beneath the flagstones in the parish church, whence +they were recovered at the Restoration. In 1685 the castle was converted +into a Covenanters' prison, no fewer than 167 being confined in a +dungeon, called therefrom the Whigs' Vault. On the attainder of George, +tenth and last marischal, for his share in the earl of Mar's rising in +1715 the castle was dismantled (1720). + + + + +DUNOIS, JEAN, COUNT OF (1403-1468), commonly called the "Bastard of +Orleans," a celebrated French commander, was the natural son of the duke +of Orleans (brother of Charles VI.) and Mariette d'Enghien, Madame de +Canny. He was brought up in the house of the duke, and in the company +of his legitimate sons, and it appears that he was present at the battle +of Beaugé in 1421 and Verneuil in 1424. His earliest feat of arms was +the surprise and rout in 1427 of the English, who were besieging +Montargis--the first successful blow against the English power in France +following a long series of French defeats. In 1428 he defended Orleans +with the greatest spirit, and enabled the place to hold out until the +arrival of Joan of Arc, when he shared with her the honour of defeating +the enemy there in 1429. He then accompanied Joan to Reims and shared in +the victory of Patay. After her death he raised the siege of Chartres +and of Lagny (1432) and engaged in a series of successful campaigns +which ended in his triumphal entry into Paris on the 13th of April 1436. +He continued to carry on the war against the English, and gradually +drove them to the northward, though his work was to some extent +interrupted by the civil disorders of the time, in which he played a +conspicuous part. Finally in 1450 he completed the reconquest of +northern France, and in 1451 he attacked them in Guienne, taking among +other towns Bordeaux, which the English had held for three hundred +years, and Bayonne. After the expulsion of the English he was constantly +engaged in the highest diplomatic and military missions. In 1465 he +joined the league of revolted princes, but, assuming the function of +negotiator, he was after a time reinstated in his offices. Dunois was +thenceforward in the greatest favour with the court. He died on the 24th +of November 1468. + + + + +DUNOON, a police and municipal burgh of Argyllshire, Scotland, on the +western shore of the Firth of Clyde, opposite to Gourock. Pop. (1901) +6779. Including Kirn and Hunter's Quay, it presents a practically +continuous front of seaside villas. The mildness of its climate and the +beauty of its situation have made it one of the most prosperous +watering-places on the west coast. The principal buildings are the +parish church, well-placed on a hill overlooking the pier, convalescent +homes, Cottage and Victoria fever hospitals, and the town house. On a +conical hill above the pier stand the remains of Dunoon Castle, the +hereditary keepership of which was conferred by Robert Bruce on the +family of Sir Colin Campbell of Loch Awe, an ancestor of the duke of +Argyll. It was visited by Queen Mary in 1563, and in 1643 was the scene +of the massacre of the Lamonts by the Campbells. The grounds have been +laid out as a recreation garden. Near the hill stands the modern castle. +Facing the pier a statue was erected in 1898 of Mary Campbell, Burns's +"Highland Mary," who was a native of Dunoon. The town itself is of +modern growth, having been a mere fishing village at the beginning of +the 19th century. There is frequent communication daily by steamer with +the railway piers at Craigendoran and Gourock, and Glasgow merchants are +thus enabled to reside here all the year round. Hunter's Quay is the +yachting headquarters, the Royal Clyde Yacht Club's house adjoining the +pier. Kilmun, on the northern shore of Holy Loch, a portion of the +parish of Dunoon and Kilmun, contains the ruins of a Collegiate chapel +founded in 1442 by Sir Duncan Campbell of Loch Awe and used as the +burial-ground of the Argyll family. + + + + +DUNROBIN CASTLE, a seat of the duke of Sutherland, picturesquely +situated on the north-eastern shore of Dornoch Firth, Sutherlandshire, +Scotland, about 2 m. N.E. of Golspie, with a private station on the +Highland railway. The name is said to have originally meant the fort of +Raffu, the "law-man," or crown agent for the district in 1222, but it +was renamed out of compliment to Robert (or Robin), 6th earl of +Sutherland, who died in 1389. The ancient portion, dating from the end +of the 13th century, was a square structure with towers at the corners, +but in 1856 there was added a wing, a main north-eastern tower, and +front, with numerous bartizan turrets, and dormer windows in the roof. +The stately entrance porch recalls that of Windsor Castle, and the +interior is designed and decorated on a sumptuous scale. In April 1746 +George Mackenzie, the 3rd earl of Cromarty, thinking that Prince Charles +Edward had prevailed at Culloden, seized the castle in his interests, +but the Sutherland militia surrounded the building and captured the earl +in an apartment which was afterwards called the Cromartie room. The +beautiful gardens contain a wealth of trees, which grow with remarkable +luxuriance for the latitude of 58° N. The 3rd duke of Sutherland erected +a museum in the grounds in which are many specimens of the antiquities +of the shire, such as querns, stone tools and weapons, silver brooches +and the like, found in brochs and elsewhere. There is a graceful +waterfall in Dunrobin glen, through which flows Golspie Burn, near the +left bank of which are remains of Pictish towers. About 1 m. N.W. of +Golspie rises Ben Bhragie (1256 ft.), crowned by a colossal statue of +the 1st duke of Sutherland, by Chantrey. + + + + +DUNS, a police burgh and county town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. +(1901) 2206. It is situated 44 m. E.S.E. of Edinburgh by road, with a +station on the branch line of the North British railway from Reston to +St Boswells. The principal buildings are the town-hall, county +buildings, corn exchange, mechanics' institute and the public library. +There is a woollen mill, and stock sales are held at frequent intervals. +The alternative spelling of Dunse seems to have been in vogue from 1740 +till 1882. It was on Duns Law (700 ft.) that the Covenanters, under +Alexander Leslie, were encamped in 1639, and the Covenanters' Stone on +the top of the hill has been enclosed to preserve it from relic-hunters. +Duns castle, adjoining the town on the W., includes the Tower erected by +Thomas Randolph, earl of Moray (d. 1332), and about 3 m. S.W. is the +village of Polwarth. + + + + +DUNSINANE, a peak of the Sidlaw Hills, in the parish of Collace, +Perthshire, Scotland, 8 m. N.E. of Perth. It is 1012 ft. high, and +commands a fine view of the Carse of Gowrie and the valley of the Tay. +Its chief claim to mention, however, is due to its association with +Birnam Wood (about 12 m. N.W.) in two well-known passages in +Shakespeare's _Macbeth_. An old fort on the summit, of which faint +traces are still discernible, is traditionally called Macbeth's Castle. + + + + +DUNS SCOTUS, JOHN (1265 or 1275-1308), one of the foremost of the +schoolmen. His birthplace has been variously given as Duns in +Berwickshire, Dunum (Down) in Ulster, and Dunstane in Northumberland, +but there is not sufficient evidence to settle the question. He joined +the Franciscan order in early life, and studied at Merton College, +Oxford, of which he is said to have been a fellow. He became remarkably +proficient in all branches of learning, but especially in mathematics. +When his master, William Varron, removed to Paris in 1301, Duns Scotus +was appointed to succeed him as professor of philosophy, and his +lectures attracted an immense number of students. Probably in 1304 he +went to Paris, in 1307 he received his doctor's degree from the +university, and in the same year was appointed regent of the theological +school. His connexion with the university was made memorable by his +defence of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, in which he +displayed such dialectical ingenuity as to win for himself the title +_Doctor Subtilis_. The doctrine long continued to be one of the main +subjects in dispute between the Scotists and the Thomists, or, what is +almost the same thing, between the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The +university of Paris was so impressed by his arguments, that in 1387 it +formally condemned the Thomist doctrine, and a century afterwards +required all who received the doctor's degree to bind themselves by an +oath to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. In 1308 Duns +Scotus was sent by the general of his order to Cologne, with the twofold +object of engaging in a controversy with the Beghards and of assisting +in the foundation of a university; according to some, his removal was +due to jealousy. He was received with enthusiasm by the inhabitants but +died suddenly (it was said, of apoplexy) on the 8th of November in the +same year. There was also a tradition that he had been buried alive. + +His philosophical position was determined, or at least very greatly +influenced, by the antagonism between the Dominicans and the +Franciscans. Further, while the genius of Aquinas was constructive, that +of Duns Scotus was destructive; Aquinas was a philosopher, Duns a +critic. The latter has been said to stand to the former in the relation +of Kant to Leibnitz. In the matter of Universals, Duns was more of a +realist and less of an eclectic than Aquinas. Theologically, the +Thomistic system approximates to pantheism, while that of Scotus +inclines distinctly to Pelagianism. The doctrine of the Immaculate +Conception was the great subject in dispute between the two parties; it +was strenuously opposed by Aquinas, and supported by Duns Scotus, +although not without reserve. There were, however, differences of a +wider and deeper kind. In opposition to Aquinas, who maintained that +reason and revelation were two independent sources of knowledge, Duns +Scotus held that there was no true knowledge of anything knowable apart +from theology as based upon revelation. In conformity with this +principle he denied that the existence of God was capable of being +proved, or that the nature of God was capable of being comprehended. He +therefore rejected as worthless the ontological proof offered by +Aquinas. Another chief point of difference with Aquinas was in regard to +the freedom of the will, which Duns Scotus maintained absolutely. He +reconciled free-will and necessity by representing the divine decree not +as temporarily antecedent, but as immediately related to the action of +the created will. He maintained, in opposition to Aquinas, that the will +was independent of the understanding, that only will could affect will. +From this difference as to the nature of free-will followed by necessary +consequence a difference with the Thomists as to the operation of divine +grace. In ethics the distinction he drew between natural and theological +virtues is common to him with the rest of the schoolmen. (Cf. AQUINAS.) +Duns Scotus strongly upheld the authority of the church, making it the +ultimate authority on which that of Scripture depends. (See also +SCHOLASTICISM.) + + The most important of his works consisted of questions and + commentaries on the writings of Aristotle, and on the _Sentences_ of + Lombard, the so-called _Opus Oxoniense_ or _Anglicanum_. Complete + works, edited by Luke Wadding (13 vols., Lyons, 1639) and at Paris (26 + vols., 1891-1895). There is an edition of his _De modis significandi_ + or _Grammatica speculativa_, the first attempt to investigate the + general laws of language, by F.M. Fernández García (Quaracchi, + Florence, 1902). + + On Duns Scotus generally, see life by Wadding in vol. i. of the works + (full, however, of legendary absurdities); J. Müller, _Biographisches + über Duns Scotus_ (progr., Cologne, 1881); W.J. Townsend, _The Great + Schoolmen_ (1881); K. Werner, _Die Scholastik des späteren + Mittelalters_, i. (1881); J.M. Rigg, in _Dictionary of National + Biography_. On his theology: C. Frassen, _Scotus Academicus_ (1744, + new edition, 1900); Hieronymus de Montefortino (Jerome de Fortius), + _Scoti summa theologica_ (1728-1738, new edition, 1900); L.F.O. + Baumgarten-Crusius, _De theologia Scoti_ (1826); R. Seeberg, _Die + Theologie des J. Duns Scotus_ (1900), and in Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie_ (1898), with bibliog. + refs; F. Morin, _Dictionnaire de philosophie et de théologie + scolastiques_ [= J.P. Migne, _Troisième encyclopédie théologique_, + xxi., xxii., 1857]; C.R. Hagenbach, _History of Doctrines_ (Eng. tr., + ii., 1880). On his philosophy: E. Pluzanski, _Essai sur la philosophie + de Duns Scot_ (1887); A. Schmid, _Die Thomistische und Scotistische + Gewissheitlehre_ (1859); M. Schneid, _Die Körperlehre des J. Duns + Scotus_--its relation to Thomism and Atomism (1879); P. Minges, "Ist + Duns Scotus Indeterminist?" in _Beiträge zur Geschichte der + Philosophie des Mittelalters_, Bd. v. Heft 4 (1905); W. Kahl, _Die + Lehre vom Primat des Willens bei Augustinus, Duns Scotus, und + Descartes_ (1886). + + + + +DUNSTABLE, a municipal borough and market town in the southern +parliamentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 37 m. N.W. of London, +on branches of the Great Northern and London & North-Western railways. +Pop. (1901) 5157. It lies at an elevation of about 500 ft. on the bleak +northward slope of the Chiltern Hills. The church of St Peter and St +Paul is a fine fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory founded +by Henry I. in 1131. The building was cruciform, but only the west front +and part of the nave remain. The front has a large late Norman portal of +four orders, with rich Early English arcading above; the nave arcade is +ornate Norman. The original triforium is transformed into a clerestory, +the original clerestory being lost. The north-west tower has a +Perpendicular upper portion, but the south-west tower is destroyed. The +church contains various monuments of the 18th century. Foundations of a +palace of Henry I. are traceable near the church. The main part of the +town extends for a mile along the broad straight Roman road, Watling +Street; the high road from Luton to Tring, which crosses it in the +centre of the town, representing the ancient Icknield Way. The chief +industry is straw hat manufacture; there are also printing, stationery +and engineering works. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 +councillors. Area, 453 acres. + +There may have been a Romano-British village on this site on the Watling +Street. Dunstable (_Dunestaple_, _Donestaple_) first appears as a royal +borough in the reign of Henry I., who, according to tradition, on +account of the depredations of robbers, cleared the forest where Watling +Street and the Icknield Way met, and encouraged his subjects to settle +there by various grants of privileges. He endowed the priory by charter +with the lordship of the manor and borough, which it retained till its +dissolution in 1536-1537. The Dunstable Annals deal exhaustively with +the history of the monastery and town in the 13th century. In 1219 the +prior secured the right of holding a court there for all crown pleas and +of sitting beside the justices itinerant, and this led to serious +collision between the monks and burgesses. The body of Queen Eleanor +rested here for a night on its journey to Westminster, and a cross, of +which there is now no trace, was subsequently erected in the +market-place. At Dunstable Cranmer held the court which, in 1533, +declared Catherine of Aragon's marriage invalid. At the dissolution a +plan was set on foot for the creation of a new bishopric from the spoils +of the religious houses, which was to include Bedfordshire and +Buckinghamshire with Dunstable as cathedral city. The scheme was never +realized, though plans for the cathedral were actually drawn up. + +From the earliest time Dunstable has been an agricultural town. The +Annals abound with references to the prices and comparative abundance or +scarcity of the two staple products, wool and corn. The straw hat +manufacture has flourished since the 18th century. Henry I. granted a +market held twice a week, and a three days' fair on the feast of St +Peter ad Vincula. John made a further grant of a three days' fair from +the 10th of May. A market is still held weekly, also fairs in May and +August correspond to these grants. Dunstable had also a gild merchant +and was affiliated to London. In 1864 the town was made a municipal +borough by royal charter. + + + + +DUNSTAFFNAGE, a ruined castle of Argyllshire, Scotland, 3 m. N.N.E. of +Oban. It is situated on a platform of conglomerate rock forming a +promontory at the south-west of the entrance to Loch Etive and is +surrounded on three sides by the sea. It dates from the 13th century, +occupying the site of the earlier stronghold in which was kept the Stone +of Destiny prior to its removal to Scone (q.v.) in 843. The castle is a +quadrangular structure of great strength, with rounded towers at three +of the angles, and has a circumference of about 400 ft. The walls are 60 +ft. high and 10 ft. thick, affording a safe promenade, which commands a +splendid view. Brass cannon recovered from wrecked vessels of the +Spanish Armada are mounted on the walls. In 1308 Robert Bruce captured +the fortress from the original owners, the MacDougalls, and gave it to +the Campbells. It was garrisoned at the period of the Jacobite +rebellions of 1715 and 1745, fell into decay early in the 19th century, +and is now the property of the crown, the duke of Argyll being +hereditary keeper. The adjoining chapel, in a very ruinous state, was +the burial-place of the Campbells of Dunstaffnage. + +There are other interesting places on Loch Etive, an arm of the sea, +measuring 19¼ m. in length and from 1/8 m. to fully 1 m. in width. Near +the mouth, where the lake narrows to a strait, are the rapids which +Ossian called the Falls of Lora, the ebbing and flowing tides, as they +rush over the rocky bar, creating a roaring noise audible at a +considerable distance. In the parish of Ardchattan, on the north shore, +stands the beautiful ruin of St Modan's Priory, founded in the 13th +century for Cistercian monks of the order of Vallis Caulium. It is said +that Robert Bruce held within its walls the last parliament in which the +Gaelic language was used. On the coast of Loch Nell, or Ardmucknish Bay, +is the vitrified fort of Beregonium, not to be confounded with +Rerigonium (sometimes miscalled Berigonium) on Loch Ryan in +Wigtownshire--a town of the Novantae Picts, identified with Innermessan. +The confusion has arisen through a textual error in an early edition of +Ptolemy's _Geography_. + + + + +DUNSTAN, SAINT (924 or 925-988),[1] English archbishop, entered the +household of King Æthelstan when still quite a boy. Here he soon excited +the dislike of his young companions, who procured his banishment from +the court. He now took refuge with his kinsman Alphege, bishop of +Winchester, whose persuasion, seconded by a serious illness, induced him +to become a monk. Æthelstan's successor, Edmund, recalled him to the +court and made him one of his counsellors. Through the machinations of +enemies he was again expelled from the royal presence; but shortly +afterwards Edmund revoked the sentence and made him abbot of +Glastonbury. His successor Edred showed him greater favour still. On the +accession of Edwig, however, in 955, Dunstan's fortunes underwent a +temporary eclipse. Having offended the influential Ælfgifu, he was +outlawed and compelled to flee to Flanders. But in 957 the Mercians and +Northumbrians revolted and chose Edgar as their king. The new king at +once recalled Dunstan, who was made a bishop. At first apparently he was +without a see; but that of Worcester falling vacant, he was appointed to +fill it. In 959 he received the bishopric of London as well. In the same +year Edwig died and Edgar became sole king, Dunstan shared his triumph, +and was appointed archbishop of Canterbury. On Edgar's death in 975 the +archbishop's influence secured the crown for his elder son Edward. But +with the accession of Æthelred in 979 Dunstan's public career came to an +end. He retired to Canterbury, and died on the 19th of May 988. + +Dunstan is of more importance as a lay than as an ecclesiastical +statesman. The great church movement of his time--the reformation of +English monasticism on Benedictine lines--found in him a sympathizer, +but in no sense an active participant. But as a secular statesman he +occupies a high place. He guided the state successfully during the nine +years' reign of the invalid Edred. Through that of Edgar, he was the +king's chief minister and most trusted adviser; and to him a great share +in its glories must be assigned. + + See _Memorials of St Dunstan_, edited by W. Stubbs (London, 1874); + _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, edited by C. Plummer (Oxford, 1892-1899). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The date of Dunstan's birth here given is that given in the + Anglo-Saxon chronicle and hitherto accepted. In an appendix to the + _Bosworth Psalter_, edited by Mr Edmund Bishop and Abbot Gasquet + (1908), Mr Leslie A. St L. Toke gives reason to believe that the date + must be set back at least as early as 910. + + + + +DUNSTER, a market town in the Western parliamentary division of +Somersetshire, England, 1½ m. from the shore of the Bristol Channel, on +the Minehead branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1182. Its +streets, sloping sharply, contain many old houses. On an eminence stands +the ancient castle, entered by a gateway of the 13th century. There are +portions of later date, but still ancient, in the main building, but it +has been considerably modernized as a residence. The church of St George +has Norman portions, but the building is in the main Perpendicular. The +fine tower in this style is characteristic of this part of England. +There are traces of monastic buildings near the church, for it belonged +to a Benedictine house of early Norman foundation. The church is +cruciform and the altar stands beneath the eastern lantern arch, a fine +rood screen separating off the choir, which was devoted to monastic use, +while the nave was kept for the parishioners, in consequence of a +dispute between the vicar and the monastery in 1499. The Yarn Market, a +picturesque octagonal building with deep sloping roof, in the main +street, dates from c. 1600, and is a memorial of Dunster's former +important manufacture of cloth. + +There were British, Roman and Saxon settlements at Dunster (_Torre +Dunestorre_, _Dunester_), fortified against the piracies of the Irish +Northmen. The Saxon fort of Alaric was replaced by a Norman castle built +by William de Mohun, first lord of Dunster, who founded the priory of St +George. Before 1183, Dunster had become a mesne borough, owned by the de +Mohuns until the 14th century when it passed to the Luttrells, the +present owners. Reginald de Mohun granted the first charter between 1245 +and 1247, which diminished fines and tolls, limited the lord's "mercy," +and provided that the burgesses should not against their will be made +bailiffs or farmers of the seaport. John de Mohun granted other charters +in 1301 and 1307. Dunster was only represented in parliament in +conjunction with Minehead, one of its tithings being part of that +borough. Representation began in 1562, and was lost in 1832. Feudal in +origin, Dunster's later importance was commercial, and the port had a +considerable wool, corn and cattle trade with Ireland. During the middle +ages the Friday market and fair in Whit week, granted by the first +charter, were centres for the sale of yarn and cloth called "Dunsters," +made in the town. The market day is still Friday. The manufacture of +cloth had disappeared, the harbour is silted up, and there is no special +local industry. + + See Sir H.C. Maxwell Lyte, _Dunster and its Lords_ (1882); _Victoria + County History, Somerset_, vol. ii. + + + + +DUNTOCHER (Gaelic, "The Fort of ill hap"), a town on Dalmuir Burn, +Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 9 m. from Glasgow. Pop. (1901) 2122. The +district contains coal, limestone and ironstone, but there is not much +mining. Many of the inhabitants are employed at the Singer factory in +Kilbowie and at the Clyde Trust yards in Dalmuir. There are considerable +Roman remains in the neighbourhood. Antoninus' Wall passed immediately +to the south; the burn is crossed by a bridge alleged to be of Roman +origin (which at least is doubtful); subterranean remains indicate a +Roman structure; a Roman camp has been traced, and the vicinity has +yielded a number of altars, urns, vases, coins and tablets, which are +now in the custody of Glasgow University. + + + + +DUNTON, JOHN (1659-1733), English bookseller and author, was born at +Graffham, in Huntingdonshire, on the 4th of May 1659. His father, +grandfather and great-grandfather had all been clergymen. At the age of +fifteen he was apprenticed to Thomas Parkhurst, bookseller, at the sign +of the Bible and Three Crowns, Cheapside, London. Dunton ran away at +once, but was soon brought back, and began to "love books." During the +struggle which led to the Revolution, Dunton was the treasurer of the +Whig apprentices. He became a bookseller at the sign of the Raven, near +the Royal Exchange, and married Elizabeth Annesley, whose sister married +Samuel Wesley. His wife managed his business, so that he was left free +in a great measure to follow his own eccentric devices. In 1686, +probably because he was concerned in the Monmouth rising, he visited New +England, where he stayed eight months selling books and observing with +interest the new country and its inhabitants. Dunton had become security +for his brother's debts, and to escape the creditors he made a short +excursion to Holland. On his return to England, he opened a new shop in +the Poultry in the hope of better times. Here he published weekly the +_Athenian Mercury_ which professed to answer all questions on history, +philosophy, love, marriage and things in general. His wife died in 1697, +and he married a second time; but a quarrel about property led to a +separation; and being incapable of managing his own affairs, he spent +the last years of his life in great poverty. He died in 1733. He wrote a +great many books and a number of political squibs on the Whig side, but +only his _Life and Errors of John Dunton_ (1705), on account of its +naïveté, its pictures of bygone times, and of the literary history of +the period, is remembered. His letters from New England were published +in America in 1867. + + + + +DÜNTZER, JOHANN HEINRICH JOSEPH (1813-1901), German philologist and +historian of literature, was born at Cologne on the 12th of July 1813. +After studying philology and especially ancient classics and Sanskrit at +Bonn and Berlin (1830-1835), he took the degree of doctor of philosophy +and established himself in 1837 at Bonn as _Privat docent_ for classical +literature. He had already, in his Goethes _Faust in seiner Einheit und +Ganzheit_ (1836) and _Goethe als Dramatiker_ (1837), advocated a new +critical method in interpreting the German classics, which he wished to +see treated like the ancient classics. He subsequently turned his +attention almost exclusively to the poets of the German classical +period, notably Goethe and Schiller. Düntzer's method met with much +opposition and he consequently failed to obtain the professorship he +coveted. In 1846 he accepted the post of librarian at the Roman Catholic +gymnasium in Cologne, where he died on the 16th of December 1901. +Düntzer was a painstaking and accurate critic, but lacking in +inspiration and finer literary taste; consequently his work as a +biographer and commentator has, to a great extent, been superseded and +discredited. + + Among his philological writings may be mentioned _Die Lehre von der + lateinischen Wortbildung_ (1836); _Die Deklination der + indogermanischen Sprachen_ (1839); _Homer und der epische Kyklos_ + (1839); _Die homerischen Beiworter des Gotter- und + Menschengeschlechts_ (1859). Of his works on the German classical + poets, especially Goethe, Schiller and Herder, the following are + particularly worthy of note, _Erlauterungen zu den deutschen + Klassikern_ (1853-1892); _Goethes Prometheus und Pandora_ (1850); + _Goethes Faust_ (2 vols., 1850-1851; 2nd ed. 1857); _Goethes Gotz und + Egmont_ (1854); _Aus Goethes Freundeskreise_ (1868); _Abhandlungen zu + Goethes Leben und Werken_ (2 vols., 1885); _Goethes Tagebucher der + sechs ersten weimarischen Jahre_ (1889); _Goethes Leben_ (1880; 2nd + ed. 1883; Engl. transl. by T. Lyster, London, 1884); _Schillers Leben_ + (1881); _Schiller und Goethe; Übersicht und Erlauterung zum + Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe_ (1859); _Herders Reise nach + Italien_ (1859); _Aus Herders Nachlass_ (3 vols., 1856-1857), and + further, _Charlotte von Stein_ (1874). + + + + +DUNWICH, a village in the Eye parliamentary division of Suffolk, +England, on the coast between Southwold and Aldeburgh, 5 m. S.S.W. of +Southwold. Pop. (1901) 157. This was in Anglo-Saxon days the most +important commercial centre and port of East Anglia. It was probably a +Romano-British site. The period of its highest dignity was the Saxon +era, when it was called Dommocceaster and Dunwyk. Early in the 7th +century, when Sigebert became king of East Anglia, Dunwich was chosen +his capital and became the nursery of Christianity in Eastern Britain. A +bishopric was founded (according to Bede in 630, while the Anglo-Saxon +chronicle gives 635), the name of the first bishop being Felix. +Sigebert's reign was notable for his foundation of a school modelled on +those he had seen in France; it was probably at Dunwich, but formed the +nucleus of what afterwards became the university of Cambridge. By the +middle of the 11th century (_temp._ Edward the Confessor) Dunwich was +declining, as it had already suffered from an evil which later caused +its total ruin, namely the inroads of the sea on the unstable coast. At +the Norman Conquest the manor was granted to Robert Malet; but the +history of the place remains blank until the reign of Henry II., when it +re-emerged into prosperity. In 1173 the sight of its strength caused +Robert earl of Leicester to despair of besieging it. The town received a +charter from King John. In the reign of Edward I. it is recorded to have +possessed 36 ships and "barks," trading to the North Seas, Iceland and +elsewhere, with 24 fishing boats, besides maintaining 11 ships of war. +But early in the reign of Edward III. the attacks of the sea began to +make headway again. In 1347 over 400 houses were destroyed. In 1570, +after a terrible storm, appeal was made to Elizabeth, who parsimoniously +granted money obtained by the sale of lead and other materials from +certain neighbouring churches. But the doomed town was gradually +engulfed, and now the only outward evidence of the old wealthy port is +the ruined fragment of the church of All Saints, overhanging a low +cliff, which, as it crumbles, exposes the coffins and bones in the +former churchyard, the greater part of which has disappeared. A small +white flower growing wild among the ruins is called the Dunwich Rose, +and is traditionally said to have been planted and cultivated by monks. +Many relics have been discovered by excavation, and even from beneath +the waves. Until 1832 Dunwich returned 2 members to parliament. + + + + +DUOVIRI, less correctly DUUMVIRI (from Lat. _duo_ two, and _vir_, man), +in ancient Rome, the official style of two joint magistrates. Such pairs +of magistrates were appointed at various periods of Roman history both +in Rome itself and in the colonies and municipia. (1) _Duumviri iuri +(iure) dicundo_, municipal magistrates, whose chief duties were +concerned with the administration of justice. Sometimes there were four +of these magistrates (_Quattuorviri_). (2) _Duumviri quinquennales_, +also municipal officers, not to be confused with the above, who were +elected every fifth year for one year to exercise the function of the +censorship which was in abeyance for the intervening four years. (3) +_Duumviri sacrorum_, officers who originally had charge of the +Sibylline books; they were afterwards increased to ten (_decemviri +sacris faciundis_), and in Sulla's time to fifteen (_quindecimviri_). +(4) _Duumviri aedi locandae_, originally officers specially appointed to +supervise the erection of a temple. There were also _duumviri aedi +dedicandae_. (5) _Duumviri navales_, extraordinary officers appointed +_ad hoc_ for the equipping of a fleet. Originally chosen by consuls or +dictator, they were elected by the people after 311 B.C. (Livy ix. 30; +xl. 18; xli. 1). (6) _Duumviri perduellionis_, the earliest criminal +court for trying offences against the state (see TREASON: _Roman Law_). +(7) _Duumviri viis extra urbem purgandis_, subordinate officers under +the aediles, whose duty it was to look after those streets of Rome which +were outside the city walls. Apparently in 20 B.C., certainly by 12 +B.C., their duties were transferred to the _Curatores viarum_. From at +least as early as 45 B.C. (cf. the Lex Iulia Municipalis) the streets of +the city were superintended by _Quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis_, +later called _Quattuorviri viarum purgandarum_. + + See Fiebiger and Liebenam in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyc._ v. pt. 2. + + + + +DUPANLOUP, FÉLIX ANTOINE PHILIBERT (1802-1878), French ecclesiastic, was +born at St Félix in Savoy on the 3rd of January 1802. In his earliest +years he was confided to the care of his brother, a priest in the +diocese of Chambéry. In 1810 he was sent to a _pensionnat +ecclésiastique_ at Paris. Thence he went to the seminary of St Nicolas +de Chardonnel in 1813, and was transferred to the seminary of St Sulpice +at Paris in 1820. In 1825 he was ordained priest, and was appointed +vicar of the Madeleine at Paris. For a time he was tutor to the Orleans +princes. He became the founder of the celebrated academy at St +Hyacinthe, and received a letter from Gregory XVI. eulogizing his work +there, and calling him _Apostolus juventutis_. His imposing height, his +noble features, his brilliant eloquence, as well as his renown for zeal +and charity, made him a prominent feature in French life for many years. +Crowds of persons attended his addresses, on whom his energy, command of +language, powerful voice and impassioned gestures made a profound +impression. When made bishop of Orleans in 1849, he pronounced a fervid +panegyric on Joan of Arc, which attracted attention in England as well +as France. Before this he had been sent by Archbishop Affre to Rome, and +had been appointed Roman prelate and protonotary apostolic. For thirty +years he remained a notable figure in France, doing his utmost to arouse +his countrymen from religious indifference. In ecclesiastical policy his +views were moderate; thus he opposed the definition of the dogma of +papal infallibility both before and during the Vatican council, but was +among the first to accept the dogma when decreed. He was a distinguished +educationist who fought for the retention of the Latin classics in the +schools and instituted the celebrated catechetical method of St Sulpice. +Among his publications are _De l'éducation_ (1850), _De la haute +éducation intellectuelle_ (3 vols., 1866), _Oeuvres choisies_ (1861, 4 +vols.); _Histoire de Jésus_ (1872), a counterblast to Renan's _Vie de +Jésus_. He died on the 11th of October 1878. + + See _Life_ by F. Lagrange (Eng. tr. by Lady Herbert, London, 1885). + + + + +DUPERRON, JACQUES DAVY (1556-1618), French cardinal, was born at St Lô, +in Normandy, on the 15th of November 1556. His father was a physician, +who on embracing the doctrines of the Reformation became a Protestant +minister, and to escape persecution settled at Bern, in Switzerland. +Here Jacques Davy received his education, being taught Latin and +mathematics by his father, and learning Greek and Hebrew and the +philosophy then in vogue. Returning to Normandy he was presented to the +king by Jacques of Matignon; after he had abjured Protestantism, being +again presented by Philip Desportes, abbot of Tiron, as a young man +without equal for knowledge and talent, he was appointed reader to the +king. He was commanded to preach before the king at the convent of +Vincennes, when the success of his sermon on the love of God, and of a +funeral oration on the poet Ronsard, induced him to take orders. On the +death of Mary queen of Scots he was chosen to pronounce her eulogy. On +the death of Henry III., after having supported for some time the +cardinal de Bourbon, the head of the league against the king, Duperron +became a faithful servant of Henry IV., and in 1591 was created by him +bishop of Evreux. He instructed Henry in the Catholic religion; and in +1594 was sent to Rome, where with Cardinal d'Ossat (1536-1604) he +obtained Henry's absolution. On his return to his diocese, his zeal and +eloquence were largely instrumental in withstanding the progress of +Calvinism, and among others he converted Henry Sponde, who became bishop +of Pamiers, and the Swiss general Sancy. At the conference at +Fontainebleau in 1600 he argued with much eloquence and ingenuity +against Du Plessis Mornay (1549-1623). In 1604 he was sent to Rome as +_chargé d'affaires de France_; when Clement VIII. died, he largely +contributed by his eloquence to the election of Leo XI. to the papal +throne, and, on the death of Leo twenty-four days after, to the election +of Paul V. While still at Rome he was made a cardinal, and in 1606 +became archbishop of Sens. After the death of Henry IV. he took an +active part in the states-general of 1614, when he vigorously upheld the +ultramontane doctrines against the Third Estate. He died in Paris on the +6th of September 1618. + + See _Les Diverses Oeuvres de l'illustrissime cardinal Duperron_ + (Paris, 1622); Pierre Féret, _Le Cardinal Duperron_ (Paris, 1877). + + + + +DUPIN, ANDRÉ MARIE JEAN JACQUES (1783-1865), commonly called Dupin the +Elder, French advocate, president of the chamber of deputies and of the +Legislative Assembly, was born at Varzy, in Nièvre, on the 1st of +February 1783. He was educated by his father, who was a lawyer of +eminence, and at an early age he became principal clerk of an attorney at +Paris. On the establishment of the _Académie de Législation_ he entered +it as pupil from Nièvre. In 1800 he was made advocate, and in 1802, when +the schools of law were opened, he received successively the degrees of +licentiate and doctor from the new faculty. He was in 1810 an +unsuccessful candidate for the chair of law at Paris, and in 1811 he also +failed to obtain the office of advocate-general at the court of +cassation. About this time he was added to the commission charged with +the classification of the laws of the empire, and, after the interruption +caused by the events of 1814 and 1815, was charged with the sole care of +that great work. When he entered the chamber of deputies in 1815 he at +once took an active part in the debates as a member of the Liberal +Opposition, and strenuously opposed the election of the son of Napoleon +as emperor after his father's abdication. At the election after the +second restoration Dupin was not re-elected. He defended with great +intrepidity the principal political victims of the reaction, among +others, in conjunction with Nicolas Berryer, Marshal Ney; and in October +1815 boldly published a tractate entitled _Libre Défense des accusés_. In +1827 he was again elected a member of the chamber of deputies and in 1830 +he voted the address of the 221, and on the 28th of February he was in +the streets exhorting the citizens to resistance. At the end of 1832 he +became president of the chamber, which office he held successively for +eight years. On Louis Philippe's abdication in 1848 Dupin introduced the +young count of Paris into the chamber, and proposed him as king with the +duchess of Orleans as regent. This attempt failed, but Dupin submitted to +circumstances, and, retaining the office of _procureur-général_, his +first act was to decide that justice should henceforth be rendered to the +"name of the French people." In 1849 he was elected a member of the +Assembly, and became president of the principal committee--that on +legislation. After the _coup d'état_ of the 2nd of December 1851 he still +retained his office of _procureur-général_, and did not resign it until +effect was given to the decrees confiscating the property of the house of +Orleans. In 1857 he was offered his old office by the emperor, and +accepted it, explaining his acceptance in a discourse, a sentence of +which may be employed to describe his whole political career. "I have +always," he said, "belonged to France and never to parties." He died on +the 8th of November 1865. Among Dupin's works, which are numerous, may be +mentioned _Principia Juris Civilis_, 5 vols. (1806); _Mémoires et +plaidoyers de 1806 au 1^er Janvier 1830_, in 20 vols.; and _Mémoires ou +souvenirs du barreau_, in 4 vols. (1855-1857). + +His brother, FRANÇOIS PIERRE CHARLES DUPIN (1784-1873), wrote several +geometrical works, treating of descriptive geometry after the manner of +Monge, and of the theory of curves. + + + + +DU PIN, LOUIS ELLIES (1657-1719), French ecclesiastical historian, came +of a noble family of Normandy, and was born at Paris on the 17th of June +1657. When ten years old he entered the college of Harcourt, where he +graduated M.A. in 1672. He afterwards became a pupil of the Sorbonne, +and received the degree of B.D. in 1680 and that of D.D. in 1684. About +this time he conceived the idea of his _Bibliothèque universelle de tous +les auteurs ecclésiastiques_, the first volume of which appeared in +1686. The liberty with which he there treated the doctrines of the +Fathers aroused ecclesiastical prejudice, and the archbishop of Paris +condemned the work. Although Du Pin consented to a retractation, the +book was suppressed in 1693; he was, however, allowed again to continue +it on changing its title by substituting _nouvelle_ for _universelle_. +He was subsequently exiled to Châtellerault as a Jansenist, but the +sentence of banishment was repealed on a new retractation. In 1718 he +entered into a correspondence with William Wake, archbishop of +Canterbury, with a view to a union of the English and Gallican churches; +being suspected of projecting a change in the dogmas of the church, his +papers were seized in February 1719, but nothing incriminating was +found. The same zeal for union induced him, during the residence of +Peter the Great in France, and at that monarch's request, to draw up a +plan for uniting the Greek and Roman churches. He died at Paris on the +6th of June 1719. + +Du Pin was a voluminous author. Besides his great work (Paris, +1686-1704, 58 vols. 8vo; Amsterdam, 19 vols. 4to; in the last of which +he gives much autobiographical information), mention may be made of +_Bibliothèque universelle des historiens_ (2 vols., 1707); _L'Histoire +de l'église en abrégé_ (1712); and _L'Histoire profane depuis le +commencement du monde jusqu'à présent_ (4 vols., 1712). + + + + +DUPLEIX, JOSEPH FRANÇOIS (1697-1763), governor-general of the French +establishment in India, the great rival of Clive (q.v.), was born at +Landrecies, France, on the 1st of January 1697. His father, François +Dupleix, a wealthy farmer-general, wished to bring him up as a merchant, +and, in order to distract him from his taste for science, sent him on a +voyage to India in 1715 on one of the French East India Company's +vessels. He made several voyages to America and India, and in 1720 was +named a member of the superior council at Pondicherry. He displayed +great business aptitude, and, in addition to his official duties, made +large ventures on his own account, and acquired a fortune. In 1730 he +was made superintendent of French affairs in Chandernagore, the town +prospering under his energetic administration and growing into great +importance. His reputation procured him in 1742 the appointment of +governor-general of all French establishments in India. His ambition now +was to acquire for France vast territories in India; and for this +purpose he entered into relations with the native princes, and adopted a +style of oriental splendour in his dress and surroundings. The British +took the alarm. But the danger to their settlements and power was partly +averted by the bitter mutual jealousy which existed between Dupleix and +La Bourdonnais, French governor of the isle of Bourbon. When Madras +capitulated to the French in 1764, Dupleix opposed the restoration of +the town to the British, thus violating the treaty signed by La +Bourdonnais. He then sent an expedition against Fort St David (1747), +which was defeated on its march by the nawab of Arcot, the ally of the +British. Dupleix succeeded in gaining over the nawab, and again +attempted the capture of Fort St David, but unsuccessfully. A midnight +attack on Cuddalore was repulsed with great loss. In 1748 Pondicherry +was besieged by the British; but in the course of the operations news +arrived of the peace concluded between the French and the British at +Aix-la-Chapelle. Dupleix next entered into negotiations which had for +their object the subjugation of southern India, and he sent a large body +of troops to the aid of two claimants of the sovereignty of the Carnatic +and the Deccan. The British were engaged on the side of their rivals. +After temporary successes the scheme failed. Dupleix was a great +organizer, but did not possess the genius for command in the field that +was shown by Clive. The conflicts between the French and the British in +India continued till 1754, when the French government, anxious to make +peace, sent out to India a special commissioner with orders to supersede +Dupleix and, if necessary, to arrest him. These orders were carried out +with needless harshness, what survived of Dupleix's work was ruined at a +blow, and he himself was compelled to embark for France on the 12th of +October 1754. He had spent his private fortune in the prosecution of his +public policy; the company refused to acknowledge the obligation; and +the government would do nothing for a man whom they persisted in +regarding as an ambitious and greedy adventurer. The greatest of French +colonial governors died in obscurity and want on the 10th of November +1763. In 1741 he had married Jeanne Albert, widow of one of the +councillors of the company, a woman of strong character and intellect, +known to the Hindus as Joanna Begum, who proved of great use to her +husband in his negotiations with the native princes. She died in 1756, +and two years later he married again. + + See Tibulle Hamont, _Dupleix, d'après sa correspondance inédite_ + (Paris, 1881); H. Castonnet, _Dupleix, ses expéditions et ses projets_ + (Paris, 1888) and _La Chute de Dupleix_ (Angers, 1888); G.B. + Malleson, _Dupleix_ (Rulers of India series, 1890); and E. Guérin, + _Dupleix_ (1908). + + + + +DUPONT, PIERRE (1821-1870), French song-writer, the son of a blacksmith, +was born at Lyons on the 23rd of April 1821. His parents both died +before he was five years old, and he was brought up in the country by +his godfather, a village priest. He was educated at the seminary of +L'Argentière, and was afterwards apprenticed to a notary at Lyons. In +1839 he found his way to Paris, and some of his poems were inserted in +the _Gazette de France_ and the _Quotidienne_. Two years later he was +saved from the conscription and enabled to publish his first +volume--_Les Deux Anges_--through the exertions of a kinsman and of +Pierre Lebrun. In 1842 he received a prize from the Academy, and worked +for some time on the official dictionary. Gounod's appreciation of his +peasant song, _J'ai deux grands boeufs dans mon étable_ (1846), settled +his vocation as a song-writer. He had no theoretical knowledge of music, +but he composed both the words and the melodies of his songs, the two +processes being generally simultaneous. He himself remained so innocent +of musical knowledge that he had to engage Ernest Reyer to write down +his airs. He sang his own songs, as they were composed, at the workmen's +concerts in the Salle de la Fraternité du Faubourg Saint-Denis; the +public performance of his famous _Le Pain_ was forbidden; _Le Chant des +ouvriers_ was even more popular; and in 1851 he paid the penalty of +having become the poet laureate of the socialistic aspirations of the +time by being condemned to seven years of exile from France. The +sentence was cancelled, and the poet withdrew for a time from +participation in politics. He died at Lyons, where his later years were +spent, on the 24th of July 1870. His songs have appeared in various +forms--_Chants et chansons_ (3 vols., with music, 1852-1854), _Chants et +poésies_ (7th edition, 1862), &c. Among the best-known are _Le +Braconnier_, _Le Tisserand_, _La Vache blanche_, _La Chanson du blé_, +but many others might be mentioned of equal spontaneity and charm. His +later works have not the same merit. + + See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, iv.; Ch. Baudelaire, + _Notice sur P. Dupont_ (1849); Déchaut, _Biographie de Pierre Dupont_ + (1871); and Ch. Lenient, _Poésie patriotique en France_ (1889), ii. + 352 et seq. + + + + +DUPONT DE L'ÉTANG, PIERRE ANTOINE, COUNT (1765-1840), French general, +first saw active service as a member of Maillebois' legion in Holland, +and in 1791 was on the staff of the Army of the North under Dillon. He +distinguished himself at Valmy, and in the fighting around Menin in 1793 +he forced an Austrian regiment to surrender. Promoted general of brigade +for this feat, he soon received further advancement from Carnot, who +recognized his abilities. In 1797 he became general of division. The +rise of Napoleon, whom he warmly supported in the _coup d'état_ of 18th +Brumaire, brought him further opportunities. In the campaign of 1800 he +was chief of the staff to Berthier, the nominal commander of the "Army +of Reserve of the Alps", which won the battle of Marengo. After the +battle he sustained a brilliant combat, against greatly superior forces, +at Pozzolo. In the campaign on the Danube in 1805, as the leader of one +of Ney's divisions, he earned further distinction, especially at the +action of Albeck-Haslach, in which he prevented the escape of the +Austrians from Ulm, and so contributed most effectively to the isolation +and subsequent capture of Mack and his whole army (see NAPOLEONIC +CAMPAIGNS). At Friedland he won further fame. With a record such as but +few of Napoleon's divisional commanders possessed, he entered Spain in +1808 at the head of a corps. After the occupation of Madrid, Dupont, +newly created count by Napoleon, was sent to subdue Andalusia. After a +few initial successes he had to retire on the passes of the Sierra +Morena. Pursued and cut off by the Spanish army under Castaños, his +corps was defeated and he felt himself constrained to capitulate +(Baylen, 19th-23rd July; see PENINSULAR WAR). The disgrace which fell +upon the general was not entirely merited. His troops were for the most +part raw levies, and ill-luck contributed materially to the catastrophe, +but, after his return to France, Dupont was sent before a court-martial, +deprived of his rank and title, and imprisoned from 1812 to 1814. +Released only by the fall of Napoleon, he was employed by Louis XVIII. +in a military command, which he lost on the return of Napoleon. But the +Second Restoration saw him restored to the army, and appointed a member +of the _conseil privé_ of Louis XVIII. From 1815 to 1830 he was deputy +for the Charente. He lived in retirement from 1832 till his death in +1840. Amongst the writings Dupont left are some poems, including _L'Art +de la guerre_ (1838), and verse translations from Horace (1836), and the +following military works: _Opinion sur le nouveau mode de recrutement_ +(1818), _Lettres sur l'Espagne en 1808_ (1823), _Lettre sur la campagne +d'Autriche_ (1826). At the time of his death he was on the point of +publishing his memoirs. + + See Lieut.-Col. Titeux, _Le Général Dupont: une erreur historique_ + (Paris, 1903). + + + + +DUPONT DE L'EURE, JACQUES CHARLES (1767-1855), French lawyer and +statesman, was born at Neubourg (Eure), in Normandy, on the 27th of +February 1767. In 1789 he was an advocate at the parlement of Normandy. +During the republic and the empire he filled successively judicial +offices at Louviers, Rouen and Evreux. He had adopted the principles of +the Revolution, and in 1798 he commenced his political life as a member +of the Council of Five Hundred. In 1813 he became a member of the Corps +Legislatif. During the Hundred Days he was vice-president of the chamber +of deputies, and when the allied armies entered Paris he drew up the +declaration in which the chamber asserted the necessity of maintaining +the principles of government that had been established at the +Revolution. He was chosen one of the commissioners to negotiate with the +allied sovereigns. From 1817 till 1849 he was uninterruptedly a member +of the chamber of deputies, and he acted consistently with the liberal +opposition, of which at more than one crisis he was the virtual leader. +For a few months in 1830 he held office as minister of justice, but, +finding himself out of harmony with his colleagues, he resigned before +the close of the year and resumed his place in the opposition. At the +revolution of 1848 Dupont de l'Eure was made president of the +provisional assembly as being its oldest member. In the following year, +having failed to secure his re-election to the chamber, he retired into +private life. He died in 1855. The consistent firmness with which he +adhered to the cause of constitutional liberalism during the many +changes of his times gained him the highest respect of his countrymen, +by whom he was styled the Aristides of the French tribune. + + + + +DU PONT DE NEMOURS, PIERRE SAMUEL (1739-1817), French political +economist and statesman, was born at Paris on the 14th of September +1739. He studied for the medical profession, but did not enter upon +practice, his attention having been early directed to economic questions +through his friendship with François Quesnay, Turgot and other leaders +of the school known as the Economists. To this school he rendered +valuable service by several pamphlets on financial questions, and +numerous articles representing and advocating its views in a popular +style in the _Journal de l'agriculture, du commerce, et des finances_, +and the _Éphémérides du citoyen_, of which he was successively editor. +In 1772 he accepted the office of secretary of the council of public +instruction from Stanislas Poniatowski, king of Poland. Two years later +he was recalled to France by the advent of his friend Turgot to power. +After assisting the minister in his wisely-conceived but unavailing +schemes of reform during the brief period of his tenure of office, Du +Pont shared his dismissal and retired to Gâtinais, in the neighbourhood +of Nemours, where he employed himself in agricultural improvements. +During his leisure he wrote a translation of Ariosto (1781), and +_Mémoires sur la vie de Turgot_ (1782). He was drawn from his retirement +by C.G. de Vergennes, minister of foreign affairs, who employed him in +1782 in negotiating, with the English commissioner Dr James Hutton, for +recognition of the independence of the United States (1782), and in +preparing a treaty of commerce with Great Britain (1786). Under Calonne +he became councillor of state, and was appointed commissary-general of +commerce. + +During the Revolution period he advocated constitutional monarchy, and +was returned as deputy by the Third Estate of the _bailliage_ of Nemours +to the states-general, and then to the Constituent Assembly, of which he +was elected president on the 16th of October 1790. But his conservative +opinions rendered him more and more unpopular, and after the 10th of +August 1792, when he took the side of the king, he was forced to lie +concealed for some weeks in the observatory of the Mazarin College, from +which he contrived to escape to the country. During the time that +elapsed before he was discovered and arrested he wrote his _Philosophie +de l'univers_. Imprisoned in La Force (1794), he was one of those who +had the good fortune to escape the guillotine till the death of +Robespierre set them free. As a member of the Council of Five Hundred, +Du Pont carried out his policy of resistance to the Jacobins, and made +himself prominent as a member of the reactionary party. After the +republican triumph on the 18th Fructidor (4th of September) 1797 his +house was sacked by the mob, and he himself only escaped transportation +to Cayenne through the influence of M.J. Chénier. In 1799 he found it +advisable for his comfort, if not for his safety, to emigrate with his +family to the United States. Jefferson's high opinion of Du Pont was +shown in using him in 1802 to convey to Bonaparte unofficially a threat +against the French occupation of Louisiana; and also, earlier, in +requesting him to prepare a scheme of national education, which was +published in 1800 under the title _Sur l'éducation nationale dans les +États-Unis d'Amérique_. Though the scheme was not carried out in the +United States, several of its features have been adopted in the existing +French code. On his return to France in 1802 he declined to accept any +office under Napoleon, devoted himself almost exclusively to literary +pursuits, and was elected to the _Institut_. On the downfall of Napoleon +in 1814 Du Pont became secretary to the provisional government, and on +the restoration he was made a councillor of state. The return of the +emperor in 1815 determined him to quit France, and he spent the close of +his life with his younger son, Eleuthère Irénée (1771-1834), who had +established a powder manufactory in Delaware. He died at Eleutherian +Mills near Wilmington, Delaware, on the 6th of August 1817. + +His family continued to conduct the powder-mills, which brought them +considerable wealth. The business was subsequently converted into the E. +I. Du Pont de Nemours Powder Company. His grandson, Admiral Samuel +Francis Du Pont (1803-1865), played a conspicuous part as a U.S. naval +officer in the American Civil War. His great-grandson, Henry Algernon Du +Pont (b. 1838), president of the Wilmington & Northern railway, was a +soldier in the Civil War, and afterwards a United States senator. + + Du Pont's most important works, besides those mentioned above, were + his _De l'origine et des progrès d'une science nouvelle_ (London and + Paris, 1767); _Physiocratie, ou constitution naturelle du gouvernement + le plus avantageux au genre humain_ (Paris, 1768); and his + _Observations sur les effets de la liberté du commerce des grains_ + (1760). They are gathered together in vol. ii. of the _Collection des + économistes_ (1846). See notices of his life (1818) by Silvestre and + Baron de Gerando; also Schelle, _Du Pont de Nemours et l'école + physiocratique_ (1888). + + + + +DUPORT, ADRIEN (1759-1798), French politician, was born in Paris. He +became an influential advocate in the parlement, becoming prominent in +opposition to the ministers Calonne and Loménie de Brienne. Elected in +1789 to the states-general by the _noblesse_ of Paris, he soon revealed +a remarkable eloquence. A learned jurist, he contributed during the +Constituent Assembly to the organization of the judiciary of France. His +report of the 29th of March 1790 is especially notable. In it he +advocated trial by jury; but he was unable to obtain the jury system in +civil cases. Duport had formed with Barnave and Alexandre de Lameth a +group known as the "triumvirate," which was popular at first. But after +the flight of the king to Varennes, Duport sought to defend him; as +member of the commission charged to question the king, he tried to +excuse him, and on the 14th of July 1791 he opposed the formal +accusation. He was thus led to separate himself from the Jacobins and to +join the Feuillant party. After the Constituent Assembly he became +president of the criminal tribunal of Paris, but was arrested during the +insurrection of the 10th of August 1792. He escaped, thanks probably to +the complicity of Danton, returned to France after the 9th of Thermidor +of the year II., left it in exile again after the republican _coup +d'état_ of the 18th of Fructidor of the year V., and died at Appenzell +in Switzerland in 1798. + + See F.A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris, + 1905, 8vo). + + + + +DUPORT, JAMES (1606-1679), English classical scholar, was born at +Cambridge. His father, John Duport, who was descended from an old Norman +family (the Du Ports of Caen, who settled in Leicestershire during the +reign of Henry IV.), was master of Jesus College. The son was educated +at Westminster and at Trinity College, where he became fellow and +subsequently vicemaster. In 1639 he was appointed regius professor of +Greek, in 1664 dean of Peterborough, and in 1668 master of Magdalene +College. He died at Peterborough on the 17th of July 1679. Throughout +the troublous times of the Civil War, in spite of the loss of his +clerical offices and eventually of his professorship, Duport quietly +continued his lectures. He is best known by his _Homeri gnomologia_ +(1660), a collection of all the aphorisms, maxims and remarkable +opinions in the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, illustrated by quotations from +the Bible and classical literature. His other published works chiefly +consist of translations (from the Bible and Prayer Book into Greek) and +short original poems, collected under the title of _Horae subsecivae_ or +_Stromata_. They include congratulatory odes (inscribed to the king); +funeral odes; _carmina comitialia_ (tripos verses on different theses +maintained in the schools, remarkable for their philosophical and +metaphysical knowledge); sacred epigrams; and three books of +miscellaneous poems (_Sylvae_). The character of Duport's work is not +such as to appeal to modern scholars, but he deserves the credit of +having done much to keep alive the study of classical literature in his +day. + + The chief authority for the life of Duport is J.H. Monk's "Memoir" + (1825); see also Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ (1908), ii. 349. + + + + +DÜPPEL, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Schleswig-Holstein, opposite the town of Sonderburg (on the island of +Alsen). (Pop. 600.) The position of Düppel, forming as it does a +bridge-head for the defenders of the island of Alsen, played a +conspicuous part in the wars between Denmark and the Germans. On the +28th of May 1848 the German federal troops were there defeated by the +Danes under General Hedemann, and a second battle was fought on the 6th +of June 1848. On the 13th of April 1849 an indecisive battle was fought +between the federal troops under von Prittwitz and the Danes under von +Bulow. The most important event in the military history of Düppel was, +however, the siege by the Prussians of the Danish position in 1864. The +flanks of the defenders' line rested upon the Alsen Sund and the sea, +and it was strengthened by ten redoubts. A second line of trenches with +lunettes at intervals was constructed behind the front attacked, and a +small réduit opposite Sonderburg to cover the bridges between Alsen and +the mainland. The Prussian siege corps was commanded by Prince +Frederick Charles (headquarters, Düppel village), and after three weeks' +skirmishing a regular siege was begun, the batteries being opened on the +15th of March. The first parallel was completed fifteen days later, the +front of attack being redoubts II. to VI., forming the centre of the +Danish entrenchments on the road Düppel-Sonderburg. The siege was pushed +rapidly from the first parallel and the assault delivered on the 18th of +April, against the redoubts I. to VI., each redoubt being attacked by a +separate column. The whole line was carried after a brief but severe +conflict, and the Prussians had penetrated to and captured the réduit +opposite Sonderburg by 2 P.M. The loss of the Danes, half of whose +forces were not engaged, included 1800 killed and wounded and 3400 +prisoners. This operation was followed by the daring passage of the +Alsen Sund, effected by the Prussians in boats almost under the guns of +the Danish war-ships, and resulting in the capture of the whole island +of Alsen (June 29th, 1864). After being still further strengthened and +linked with similar defences at Sonderburg, the Düppel entrenchments +were abandoned in 1881 in favour of landward fortifications around Kiel. + + See R. Neumann, _Über den Angriff der Düppeler Schanzen in der Zeit + vom 15. März bis 18. April 1864_ (Berlin, 1865); and _Der + deutschdänische Krieg 1864_, published by the Prussian General Staff + (Berlin, 1887). + + + + +DU PRAT, ANTOINE (1463-1535), chancellor of France and cardinal, was +born at Issoire on the 17th of January 1463. He began life as a lawyer, +and rose rapidly in the legal hierarchy owing to the influence of his +cousin Antoine Bohier, cardinal archbishop of Bourges. The first office +which he held was that of lieutenant-general in the _bailliage_ of +Montferrand; in 1507 he became first president of the parlement of +Paris. Louise of Savoy had employed him as her adviser in her affairs, +and had made him tutor to her son. When Francis I. ascended the throne +he made Du Prat chancellor of France, in which capacity he played an +important part in the government. It was he who negotiated with Leo X. +concerning the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction and the establishment +of a concordat. After the meeting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold +(1520) he was engaged in unsuccessful negotiations with Wolsey. During +the regency of Louise of Savoy he, together with Florimond Robertet, was +at the head of affairs. He took an active part in the suit brought by +Louise of Savoy against the Constable de Bourbon, and in 1532 completed +the work of uniting Brittany to France. After the death of his wife in +1507 Du Prat had taken orders; he received the bishoprics of Valence, +Die, Meaux and Albi, and the archbishopric of Sens (1525); in 1527 he +became cardinal, and in 1530 papal legate. He was a determined adversary +of the Reformation. He died on the 9th of July 1535. + + See the marquis Du Prat, _Vie d'Antoine Du Prat_ (Paris, 1857). + + + + +DUPRÉ, JULES (1812-1889), French painter, was one of the chief members +of the Barbizon group of romantic landscape painters. If Corot stands +for the lyric and Rousseau for the epic aspect of the poetry of nature, +Dupré is the exponent of her tragic and dramatic aspects. He was the son +of a porcelain manufacturer, and started his career in his father's +works, whence he went to his uncle's china factory at Sèvres. After +studying for some time under Diébold, a painter of clock faces, he had +to pass through a short period of privation, until he attracted the +attention of a wealthy patron, who came to his studio and bought all the +studies on the walls at the price demanded by the artist--20 francs +apiece. Dupré exhibited first at the Salon in 1831, and three years +later was awarded a second-class medal. In the same year he came to +England, where he was deeply impressed by the genius of Constable. From +him he learnt how to express movement in nature; and the district of +Southampton and Plymouth, with its wide, unbroken expanses of water, sky +and ground, gave him good opportunities for studying the tempestuous +motion of storm-clouds and the movement of foliage driven by the wind. +He received the cross of the Legion of Honour in 1848. Dupré's colour is +sonorous and resonant; the subjects for which he showed marked +preference are dramatic sunset effects and stormy skies and seas. Late +in life he changed his style and gained appreciably in largeness of +handling and arrived at greater simplicity in his colour harmonies. +Among his chief works are the "Morning" and "Evening" at the Louvre, and +the early "Crossing the Bridge" in the Wallace Collection. + + + + +DUPUIS, CHARLES FRANÇOIS (1742-1809), French scientific writer and +politician, was born of poor parents at Trye-Château, between Gisors and +Chaumont, on the 26th of October 1742. His father, who was a teacher, +instructed him in mathematics and land-surveying. While he was engaged +in measuring a tower by a geometrical method, the duc de la +Rochefoucauld met him and was so taken by the lad's intelligence that he +gave him a bursary in the college of Harcourt. Dupuis made such rapid +progress that, at the age of twenty-four, he was appointed professor of +rhetoric at the college of Lisieux, where he had previously passed as a +licentiate of theology. In his hours of leisure he studied law, and in +1770 he abandoned the clerical career and became an advocate. Two +university discourses which he delivered in Latin were printed, and laid +the foundation of his literary fame. His chief attention, however, was +devoted to mathematics, the object of his early studies; and for some +years he attended the astronomical lectures of Lalande, with whom he +formed an intimate friendship. In 1778 he constructed a telegraph on the +principle suggested by Guillaume Amontons (q.v.), and employed it in +keeping up a correspondence with his friend Jean Fortin in the +neighbouring village of Bagneux, until the Revolution made it necessary +to destroy his machine to avoid suspicion. About the same time Dupuis +formed his theory as to the origin of the Greek months. He endeavoured +to account for the want of any resemblance between the groups of stars +and the names by which they are known, by supposing that the zodiac was, +for the people who invented it, a sort of calendar at once astronomical +and rural, and that the figures chosen for the constellations were such +as would naturally suggest the agricultural operations of the season. It +seemed only necessary, therefore, to discover the clime and the period +in which the constellation of Capricorn must have arisen with the sun on +the day of the summer solstice, and the vernal equinox must have +occurred under Libra. It appeared to Dupuis that this clime was Upper +Egypt, and that the perfect correspondence between the signs and their +significations had existed in that country at a period of between +fifteen and sixteen thousand years before the present time; that it had +existed only there; and that this harmony had been disturbed by the +effect of the precession of the equinoxes. He therefore ascribed the +invention of the signs of the zodiac to the people who then inhabited +Upper Egypt or Ethiopia. This was the basis on which Dupuis established +his mythological system, and endeavoured to explain fabulous history and +the whole system of the theogony and theology of the ancients. Dupuis +published several detached parts of his system in the _Journal des +savants_ for 1777 and 1781. These he afterwards collected and published, +first in Lalande's _Astronomy_, and then in a separate volume in 4to, +1781, under the title of _Mémoire sur l'origine des constellations et +sur l'explication de la fable par l'astronomie_. The theory propounded +in this memoir was refuted by J.S. Bailly in his _Histoire de +l'astronomie_, but, at the same time, with a just acknowledgment of the +erudition and ingenuity exhibited by the author. + +Condorcet proposed Dupuis to Frederick the Great of Prussia as a fit +person to succeed Thiébault in the professorship of literature at +Berlin; and Dupuis had accepted the invitation, when the death of the +king cancelled the engagement. The chair of humanity in the College of +France having at the same time become vacant, it was conferred on +Dupuis; and in 1788 he became a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. +He now resigned his professorship at Lisieux, and was appointed by the +administrators of the department of Paris one of the four commissioners +of public instruction. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary troubles +Dupuis sought safety at Évreux; and, having been chosen a member of the +National Convention by the department of Seine-et-Oise, he distinguished +himself by his moderation. In the third year of the republic he was +elected secretary to the Assembly, and in the fourth he was chosen a +member of the Council of Five Hundred. After Bonaparte's _coup d'état_ +of the 18th Brumaire he was elected by the department of Seine-et-Oise a +member of the Legislative Body, of which he became the president. He was +proposed as a candidate for the senate, but resolved to abandon +politics, devoting himself during the rest of his life to his favourite +studies. + +In 1795 he published the work by which he is best known, entitled +_Origine de tous les cultes, ou la religion universelle_ (3 vols. 4to, +with an atlas, or 12 vols. 12mo). This work, of which an edition revised +by P.R. Auguis was published in 1822 (10th ed., 1835-1836), became the +subject of much bitter controversy, and the theory it propounded as to +the origin of mythology in Upper Egypt led to the expedition organized +by Napoleon for the exploration of that country. In 1798 Dupuis +published an abridgment of his work in one volume 8vo, which met with no +better success than the original. Another abridgment of the same work, +executed upon a much more methodical plan, was published by M. de Tracy. +The other works of Dupuis consist of two memoirs on the Pelasgi, +inserted in the _Memoirs of the Institute_; a memoir "On the Zodiac of +Tentyra," published in the _Revue philosophique_ for May 1806; and a +_Mémoire explicatif du zodiaque chronologique et mythologique_, +published the same year, in one volume 4to. He died on the 29th of +September 1809. + + + + +DUPUY, CHARLES ALEXANDRE (1851- ), French statesman, was born at Le +Puy on the 5th of November 1851, his father being a local official. +After being a professor of philosophy in the provinces, he was appointed +a school inspector, and thus obtained a practical acquaintance with the +needs of French education. In 1885 he was elected to the chamber as an +Opportunist Republican. After acting as "reporter" of the budget for +public instruction, he became minister for the department, in M. Ribot's +cabinet, in 1892. In April 1893 he formed a ministry himself, taking as +his office that of minister of the interior, but resigned at the end of +November, and on 5th December was elected president of the chamber. +During his first week of office an anarchist, Vaillant, who had managed +to gain admission to the chamber, threw a bomb at the president, and M. +Dupuy's collected bearing, and his historic words: "Messieurs, la séance +continue," gained him much credit. In May 1894 he again became premier +and minister of the interior; and he was by President Carnot's side when +the latter was stabbed to death at Lyons in June. He then became a +candidate for the presidency, but was defeated, and his cabinet remained +in office till January 1895; it was under it that Captain Dreyfus was +arrested and condemned (23rd of December 1894). The progress of +_l'affaire_ then cast its shadow upon M. Dupuy, along with other French +"ministrables," but in November 1898, after M. Brisson had at last +remitted the case to the judgment of the court of cassation, he formed a +cabinet of Republican concentration. In view of the apparent likelihood +that the judges of the criminal division of the court of cassation--who +formed the ordinary tribunal for such an appeal--would decide in favour +of Dreyfus, it was thought that M. Dupuy's new cabinet would be strong +enough to reconcile public opinion to such a result; but, to the +surprise of outside observers, it was no sooner discovered how the +judges were likely to decide than M. Dupuy proposed a law in the chamber +transferring the decision to a full court of all the divisions of the +court of cassation. This arbitrary act, though adopted by the chamber, +was at once construed as a fresh attempt to maintain the judgment of the +first court-martial; but in the interval President Faure (an +anti-Dreyfusard) died, and the accession of M. Loubet doubtless had some +effect in quieting public feeling. At all events, the whole court of +cassation decided that there must be a new court-martial, and M. Dupuy +at once resigned (June 1899). In June 1900 he was elected senator for +the Haute Saône. + + + + +DUPUY, PIERRE (1582-1651), French scholar, otherwise known as PUTEANUS, +was born at Agen (Lot-et-Garonne) on the 27th of November 1582. In 1615 +he was commissioned by Mathieu Molé, first president of the parlement of +Paris, to draw up an inventory of the documents which constituted what +at that time was known as the _Trésor des chartes_. This work occupied +eleven years. His MS. inventory is preserved in the original and in copy +in the Bibliothèque Nationale, and transcriptions are in the national +archives in Paris, at the record office in London, and elsewhere. +Dupuy's classification is still regarded with respect, but the inventory +has been partially replaced by the publication of the _Layettes du +trésor_ (four volumes, coming down to 1270; 1863-1902). Dupuy also +published, with his brother Jacques, and their friend Nicolas Rigault, +the _History_ of Aug. de Thou (1620, 1626). The two brothers then bought +from Rigault the post of keeper of the king's library, and drew up a +catalogue of the library (Nos. 9352-9354 and 10366-10367 of the Latin +collection in the Bibliothèque Nationale). In the course of this work, +Dupuy became acquainted with and copied an enormous mass of unpublished +documents, which furnished him with the material for some excellent +works: _Traité des droits et des libertés de l'église gallicane, avec +les preuves_ (1639), _Histoire de l'ordre militaire des Templiers_ +(1654), _Histoire générale du schisme qui a été dans l'église depuis +1378 jusqu'à 1428_ (1654), and _Histoire du différend entre le pape +Boniface VIII et le roi Philippe le Bel_ (1655). These works, especially +the last, are important contributions to the history of the relations of +church and state in the middle ages. They were written from the Gallican +standpoint, i.e. in favour of the rights of the crown in temporal and +political matters, and this explains the delay in their publication +until after Dupuy's death. He wrote also _Traité des régences et des +majorités des rois de France_ (1655) and _Recueil des droits du roi_ +(1658). Dupuy's papers, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale, were +inventoried by Léon Dorez (_Catalogue de la collection Dupuy_, 1899). +See also L. Delisle's _Le Cabinet des manuscrits de la bibliothèque +impériale_. Dupuy died in Paris on the 14th of December 1651. + + + + +DUPUY DE LÔME, STANISLAS CHARLES HENRI LAURENT (1816-1885), French naval +architect, the son of a retired naval officer, was born at Ploemeur, +near Lorient, on the 15th of October 1816. He entered the École +Polytechnique in 1835, and in 1842 was sent to England to study and +report on iron shipbuilding. Acting on his report, which was published +in 1844, the government built their first iron vessels under his +supervision. He planned and built the steam line-of-battle ship +"Napoleon" (1848-1852), and devised the method of altering sailing ships +of the line into steamers, which was afterwards extensively practised in +both France and England. He also showed the practicability of armouring +the sides of a ship, and the frigate "Gloire" gave a very clear +demonstration of his views. It was the beginning of the great change in +the construction of ships of war which has been going on ever since. In +1857 Dupuy de Lôme was appointed "chef de la direction du matériel," at +Paris; and in 1861, "inspecteur général du matériel de la marine." In +1866 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. At the +beginning of the Franco-German War he was appointed a member of the +committee of defence, and during the siege of Paris occupied himself +with planning a steerable balloon, for carrying out which he was given a +credit of 40,000 fr.; but the balloon was not ready till a few days +before the capitulation. The experiments that were afterwards made with +it did not prove entirely satisfactory. In 1875 he was busy over a +scheme for embarking a railway train at Calais, and exhibited plans of +the improved harbour and models of the "bateaux porte-trains" to the +Academy of Sciences in July. In 1877 he was elected a senator for life. +He received the cross of the Legion of Honour in 1845, was made a +commander in 1858, and grand officer in December 1863. He died at Paris +on the 1st of February 1885. + + + + +DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, BARON (1777-1835), French anatomist and surgeon, +was born on the 6th of October 1777 at Pierre Buffière (Haute Vienne). +He studied medicine in Paris at the newly established École de Médecine, +and was appointed by competition prosector when only eighteen years of +age. His early studies were directed chiefly to morbid anatomy. In 1803 +he was appointed assistant-surgeon at the Hôtel-Dieu, and in 1811 +professor of operative surgery in succession to R.B. Sabatier +(1732-1811). In 1815 he was appointed to the chair of clinical surgery, +and became head surgeon at the Hôtel-Dieu. Dupuytren's energy and +industry were alike remarkable. He visited the Hôtel-Dieu morning and +evening, performing at each time several operations, lectured to vast +throngs of students, gave advice to his outdoor patients, and fulfilled +the duties consequent upon one of the largest practices of modern times. +By his indefatigable activity he amassed a fortune of £300,000, the bulk +of which he bequeathed to his daughter, with the deduction of +considerable sums for the endowment of the anatomical chair in the École +de Médecine, and the establishment of a benevolent institution for +distressed medical men. The most important of Dupuytren's writings is +his _Treatise on Artificial Anus_, in which he applied the principles +laid down by John Hunter. In his operations he was remarkable for his +skill and dexterity, and for his great readiness of resource. He died in +Paris on the 8th of February 1835. + + + + +DUQUE DE ESTRADA, DIEGO (1589-?), Spanish memoir writer, soldier and +adventurer, son of Juan Duque de Estrada, also a soldier of rank, was +born at Toledo on the 15th of August 1589. Having been left an orphan +when very young, he was educated by a cousin. While still young he was +betrothed to his cousin's daughter. One night he found an intruder in +the house, a gentleman with whom he was acquainted, and in a fit of +jealousy killed both him and the young lady. The prevailing code of +honour was considered a sufficient justification for Duque de Estrada's +violence, but the law looked upon the act as a vulgar assassination, and +he had to flee. After leading a vagabond life in the south of Spain, he +was arrested at Ecija, was brought to Toledo, and was there put to the +torture with extreme ferocity, in order to extort a general confession +as to his life during the past months. He had the strength not to yield +to pain, and was finally able to escape from prison, partly by the help +of a nun in a religious house which faced the prison, and partly by the +intervention of friends. He made his way to Naples, where he entered the +service of the duke of Osuna (q.v.), at that time viceroy. Duque de +Estrada saw a good deal of fighting both with the Turks and the +Venetians; but he is mainly interesting because he was employed by the +viceroy in the conspiracy against Venice. He was one of the disguised +Spanish soldiers who were sent into the town to destroy the arsenal, and +who were warned in time that the conspiracy had been betrayed, and +therefore escaped. After the fall of his patron, Duque de Estrada +resumed his vagabond life, served under Bethlen Gabor in Transylvania, +and in the Thirty Years' War. In 1633 he entered the order of San Juan +de Dios, and died at some time after 1637 in Sardinia, where he is known +to have taken part in the defence of the island against an attack by the +French. He left a book of memoirs, entitled _Comentarios de el +desengeñado de si Mismo prueba de todos estados, y eleccion del Mejor de +ellos_--"The Commentaries of one who knew his own little worth, the +touchtstone of all the state of man, and the choice of the best." They +were written at different times, and part has been lost. The style is +incorrect, and it would be unsafe to trust them in every detail, but +they are amazingly vivid, and contain a wonderful picture of the moral +and intellectual state of a large part of Spanish society at the time. + + The memoirs have been reprinted by Don Pascual de Gayangos in the + _Memorial histórico español_, vol. xii. (Madrid, 1860). + + + + +DUQUESNE, ARRAHAM, MARQUIS (1610-1688), French naval officer, was born +at Dieppe in 1610. Born in a stirring seaport, the son of a +distinguished naval officer, he naturally adopted the profession of a +sailor. He spent his youth in the merchant service, and obtained his +first distinction in naval warfare by the capture of the island of +Lerins from the Spaniards in May 1637. About the same time his father +was killed in an engagement with the Spaniards, and the news raised his +hatred of the national enemy to the pitch of a personal and bitter +animosity. For the next five years he sought every opportunity of +inflicting defeat and humiliation on the Spanish navy, and he +distinguished himself by his bravery in the engagement at Guetaria +(1638), the expedition to Corunna (1639), and in battles at Tarragona +(1641), Barcelona (1643), and the Cabo de Gata. The French navy being +left unemployed during the minority of Louis XIV., Duquesne obtained +leave to offer his services to the king of Sweden, who gave him a +commission as vice-admiral in 1643. In this capacity he defeated the +Danish fleet near Gothenburg and thus raised the siege of the city. The +Danes returned to the struggle with increased forces under the command +of King Christian in person, but they were again defeated--their admiral +being killed and his ship taken. Peace having been concluded between +Sweden and Denmark in 1645, Duquesne returned to France. The revolt at +Bordeaux, supported as it was by material aid from Spain, gave him the +opportunity of at once serving his country and gratifying his +long-cherished hatred of the Spaniards. In 1650 he fitted out at his own +expense a squadron with which he blockaded the mouth of the Gironde, and +compelled the city to surrender. For this service he was promoted in +rank, and received a gift of the castle and isle of Indre, near Nantes. +Peace with Spain was concluded in 1659, and for some years afterwards +Duquesne was occupied in endeavours to suppress piracy in the +Mediterranean. On the revolt of Messina from Spain, he was sent to +support the insurgents, and had to encounter the united fleets of Spain +and Holland under the command of the celebrated Admiral de Ruyter. After +several battles, in which the advantage was generally on the side of the +French, a decisive engagement took place near Catania, on the 20th of +April 1676, when the Dutch fleet was totally routed and de Ruyter +mortally wounded. The greater part of the defeated fleet was afterwards +burned in the harbour of Palermo, where it had taken refuge, and the +French thus secured the undisputed command of the Mediterranean. For +this important service Duquesne received a letter of thanks from Louis +XIV., together with the title of marquis and the estate of Bouchet. His +last achievements were the bombardment of Algiers (1682-1683), in order +to effect the deliverance of the Christian captives, and the bombardment +of Genoa in 1684. He retired from service in 1684, on the ground of age +and ill-health. It is probable also that he foresaw the revocation of +the edict of Nantes, which took place in the following year. He died in +Paris on the 2nd of February 1688. + + See Jal, _Abraham Duquesne, et la marine de son temps_ (1873). + + + + +DUQUESNE, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the +Monongahela river, about 12 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1900) 9036, of +whom 3451 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 15,727. It is served by the +Pennsylvania railway. Its most prominent buildings are the Carnegie free +library and club (opened in 1904 and containing 17,500 volumes in 1908), +and the city hall. A short distance N. of the borough limits Kennywood +Park, with a large auditorium and pavilion, is an attractive resort. By +far the most important industry of the borough is the manufacture of +steel. The value of the borough's factory products increased from +$20,333,476 in 1900 to $28,494,303 in 1905, or 40.1%. The municipality +owns and operates its water-works. Duquesne was settled in 1885 and was +incorporated in 1891. + + + + +DURAMEN (a rare Latin word, meaning hardness, from _durus_, hard), a +botanical term for the inner, harder wood of a tree, the heart-wood. + + + + +DURAN, a Jewish Provençal family of rabbis and scholars, of whom the +following are the most important. + +1. PROFIAT DURAN, called also EPHODI. He was in 1391 compelled to +profess Christianity, but remained devoted to Judaism. His chief works +were grammatical and philosophical. In the former realm his most +important contribution was the _Ma'aseh 'Ephod_ (completed in 1403); in +the latter, his commentary to the _Guide of the Perplexed_ by Maimonides +(q.v.). + +2. SIMON BEN ZEMAH DURAN (1361-1441), rabbi of Algiers. He was one of +the first of the medieval rabbis to be a salaried official of the +synagogue. Before the 14th century the rabbinical post had been almost +invariably honorary, and filled by men who derived their income from a +profession, especially medicine. Duran wrote a systematic work on +theology, _Magen 'Aboth_, but is chiefly famous for his numerous +_Responsa_ (known as _Tashbaz_) published in three vols. in 1738-1739. +These _Responsa_, "Answers to questions sent from many lands," give +valuable information as to social and religious conditions in the +earlier part of the 15th century. (I. A.) + + + + +DURÁN, AGUSTÍN (1789-1862), Spanish scholar, was born in 1789 at Madrid, +where his father was court physician. He was sent to the seminary at +Vergara, whence he returned learned in the traditions of Spanish +romance. In 1817 he began the study of philosophy and law at the +university of Seville, and in due course was admitted to the bar at +Valladolid. From 1821 to 1823 he held a post in the education department +at Madrid, but in the latter year he was suspended on account of his +political opinions. In 1834 he became secretary of the board for the +censorship of the press, and shortly afterwards obtained a post in the +national library at Madrid. The revolution of 1840 led to his dismissal; +but he was reinstated in 1843, and in 1854 was appointed chief +librarian. Next year, however, he retired to devote himself to his +literary work. In 1828, shortly after his first discharge from office, +he published anonymously his _Discurso sobre el influjo que ha tenido la +crítica moderna en la decadencia del teatro antiguo_; this treatise +greatly influenced the younger dramatists of the day. He next +endeavoured to interest his fellow-countrymen in their ancient, +neglected ballads, and in the forgotten dramas of the 17th century. Five +volumes of a _Romancero general_ appeared from 1828 to 1832 +(republished, with considerable additions, in 2 vols. 1849-1851), and +_Talia española_ (1834), a reprint of old Spanish comedies. Durán's +_Romancero general_ is the fullest collection of the kind and is +therefore unlikely to be superseded, though the texts are inferior to +those edited by Menendez y Pelayo. + + + + +DURANCE (anc. _Druentia_), one of the principal rivers descending from +the French slope of the Alps towards the Mediterranean. Its total length +from its source to its junction with the Rhone (of which it is one of +the principal affluents), a little below Avignon, is 217½ m. For the +greater part of its course it flows in a south-westerly direction, but +near Pertuis gradually bends N.W. and thenceforth preserves this +direction. It passes through the departments of Hautes-Alpes, of +Basses-Alpes, and between those of Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhône. It is +commonly said to take its origin in some small lakes a little south of +the summit plateau of the Mont Genèvre Pass. But really this stream is +surpassed both in volume and length of course by two others which it +joins beneath Briançon:--the Clairée, flowing in from the north, through +the smiling Névache glen, at the head of which, not far from the foot of +the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), it rises in some small lakes, on the east +side of the Col des Rochilles; and the Guisane (flowing in from the +north-west and rising near the Col du Lautaret, 6808 ft.). The united +stream soon receives its first affluent, the Cerveyrette (left), and, +after having passed through some fine deep-cut gorges, the Gyronde +(right). It then runs through a stony plain, where it frequently +overflows and causes great damage, this being indeed the main +characteristic of the Durance throughout its course. At the foot of the +fortress of Mont Dauphin it receives (left) the Guil, which flows +through the Queyras valley from near the foot of Monte Viso. Some way +beyond it passes beneath Embrun, the first important town on its banks. +It soon becomes the boundary for a while between the departments of the +Hautes-Alpes and of the Basses-Alpes, and receives successively the +considerable Ubaye river, flowing from near the foot of Monte Viso past +Barcelonnette (left), and then the small stream of the Luye (right), on +which, a few miles above, is Gap. It enters the Basses-Alpes shortly +before reaching Sisteron, where it is joined (right) by the wild torrent +of the Buëch, flowing from the desolate region of the Dévoluy, and +receives the Bléone (left) (on which Digne, the capital of the +department, is situated) and the Asse (left), before quitting the +department of the Basses-Alpes just as it is reinforced (left) by the +Verdon, flowing from the lower summits of the Maritime Alps past +Castellane. After passing through some narrow gorges near Sisteron the +bed of the river becomes wide, and spreads desolation around, the +frequent overflows being kept within bounds by numerous dykes and +embankments. These features are especially marked when the river, after +leaving the Basses-Alpes, soon bends N.W. and, always serving as the +boundary between the departments of Vaucluse (N.) and of the +Bouches-du-Rhône (S.), passes Cavaillon before it effects its junction +with the Rhône. The drainage area of the Durance is about 5166 sq. m., +while the height it descends is 6550 ft., if reckoned from the lakes on +the Mont Genèvre, or 7850 ft. if we take those at the head of the +Névache valley as the true source of the river. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +DURAND, ASHER BROWN (1796-1886), American painter and engraver, was born +at South Orange, New Jersey, on the 21st of August 1796. He worked with +his father, a watchmaker; was apprenticed in 1812 to an engraver named +Peter Maverick; and his first work, the head of an old beggar after +Waldo, attracted the attention of the artist Trumbull. Durand +established his reputation by his engraving of Trumbull's "Declaration +of Independence." After 1835, however, he devoted himself chiefly to +portrait painting. He painted several of the presidents of the United +States and many other men of political and social prominence. In 1840 he +visited Europe, where he studied the work of the old masters; after his +return he devoted himself almost entirely to landscape. He died at South +Orange on the 17th of September 1886. He had been one of the founders of +the National Academy of Design in 1826, and was its president in +1845-1861. Durand may be called the father of the Hudson River School. +Although there was something hard and unsympathetic about his +landscapes, and unnecessary details and trivialities were +over-prominent, he was a well-trained craftsman, and his work is marked +by sincerity. + + + + +DURAND, GUILLAUME (GUILLELMUS DURANDUS), also known as DURANTI or +DURANTIS, from the Italian form of _Durandi filius_, as he sometimes +signed himself (c. 1230-1296), French canonist and liturgical writer, +and bishop of Mende, was born at Puimisson, near Beziers, of a noble +family of Languedoc. He studied law at Bologna, especially with +Bernardus of Parma, and about 1264 was teaching canon law with success +at Modena. Clement IV., his fellow-countryman, called him to the +pontifical court as a chaplain and auditor of the palace, and in 1274 he +accompanied Clement's successor Gregory X. to the council of Lyons, the +constitutions of which he drew up, along with some other prelates. As +spiritual and temporal legate of the patrimony of St Peter, he received +in 1278, in the name of the pope, the homage of Bologna and of the other +cities of Romagna. Martin IV. made him vicar spiritual in 1281, then +governor of Romagna and of the March of Ancona (1283). In the midst of +the struggles between Guelfs and Ghibellines, Durandus successfully +defended the papal territories, both by diplomacy and by arms. Honorius +IV. retained him in his offices, and although elected bishop of Mende in +1286, he remained in Italy until 1291. In 1295 he refused the +archbishopric of Ravenna, offered him by Boniface VIII., but accepted +the task of pacifying again his former provinces of Romagna and the +March of Ancona. In 1296 he withdrew to Rome, where he died on the 1st +of November. + +Durandus' principal work is the _Speculum judiciale_, which was drawn up +in 1271, and revised in 1286 and 1291. It is a general explanation of +civil, criminal and canonical procedure, and also includes a survey of +the subject of contracts. It is a remarkable synthesis of Roman and +ecclesiastical law, distinguished by its clarity, its method, and +especially its practical sense, in a field in which it was pioneer, and +its repute was as great and lasting in the courts as in the schools. It +won for Durandus the name of "The Speculator." It was commented upon by +Giovanni Andrea (in 1346), and by Baldus, and in 1306 Cardinal Béranger +drew up an alphabetical table of its contents (_Inventorium_). There are +many manuscripts of the _Speculum_, and several editions, of which the +most usual is that of Turin in 1578 in 2 volumes, containing all +additions and tables. This edition was reproduced at Frankfort in 1612 +and 1668. The next important work of Durandus is the _Rationale divinorum +officiorum_, a liturgical treatise written in Italy before 1286, on the +origin and symbolic sense of the Christian ritual. It presents a picture +of the liturgy of the 13th century in the West, studied in its various +forms, its traditional sources, and its relation to the church buildings +and furniture. With Martène's _De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus_ it is the +main authority on Western liturgies. It has run through various editions, +from its first publication in 1459 to the last edition at Naples, 1866. +The other important works of Durandus comprise a _Repertorium juris +canonici_ (_Breviarium aureum_), a collection of citations from canonists +on questions of controversy--often published along with the _Speculum_; a +_Commentarius in sacrosanctum Lugdunense concilium_ (ed. Fano, 1569), of +especial value owing to the share of Durandus in the elaboration of the +constitutions of this council (1274), and inserted by Boniface VIII. in +the _Sextus_. + +A nephew of "The Speculator," also named GUILLAUME DURAND (d. 1330), and +also a canonist, was rector of the university of Toulouse and succeeded +his uncle as bishop of Mende. He wrote in 1311, in connexion with the +council of Vienne, _De modo celebrandi concilii et corruptelis in +Ecclesia reformandis_. It attacks the abuses of the Church with extreme +sincerity and vigour. + + On the elder Durand see V. Leclerc in _Histoire littéraire de la + France_, vol. xx. pp. 411-497 (1842); Schulte, _Geschichte der Quellen + des canonischen Rechts_ (1877); E. Male, _L'Art religieux au XIII^e + siècle en France_ (1898). On the nephew see B. Hauréau, in _Journal + des savants_ (1892), 64. + + + + +DURAND, GUILLAUME (d. 1334), French scholastic theologian, known also by +the Latin form of his name as DURANDUS of St Pourçain (_de Sancto +Porciano_), and as _Doctor Resolutissimus_, was born at St +Pourçain-sur-Sioule in the Bourbonnois. He entered the Dominican order +at Clermont, and in 1313 was made a doctor in Paris, where he taught +till Pope John XXII. called him to Avignon as master of the sacred +palace, i.e. theological adviser and preacher to the pope. He +subsequently became bishop of Limoux (1317), of Le Puy (1318) and of +Meaux (1326). He composed a commentary on the Sentences of Peter +Lombard, in which, breaking with the realism of St Thomas Aquinas, he +anticipated the _terminism_ of William of Occam, and gave up the attempt +to show that dogmas can be demonstrated by reason. In the question of +the beatific vision, arising out of opinions promulgated by John XXII. +(q.v.), he sided with Thomas Walleis, Armand de Bellovisu and the +doctors of the faculty of theology in Paris against the pope, and +composed his _De statu animarum post separationem a corpore_. Mention +should also be made of his _De origine jurisdictionum quibus populus +regitur, sive de jurisdictione ecclesiastica et de legibus_. + + See B. Hauréau, _Histoire de la philosophie scolastique_ (2nd ed., + Paris, 1872); C. Werner, _Die Scholastik des spateren Mittelalters_, + vol. ii. (Vienna, 1883); H.S. Denifle, in _Archiv f. Litteratur und + Kirchengeschichte_, ii. (1886); U. Chevalier, _Rép. des sources hist. + du moyen âge_, s.v. Durand de St Pourçain. + + + + +DURANDO, GIACOMO (1807-1894), Italian general and statesman, was born at +Mondovì in Piedmont. He was implicated in the revolutionary movements of +1831 and 1832, after which he was obliged to take refuge abroad. He +served in the Belgian army, taking part in the war of 1832, and fought +in Portugal in 1833. The following year he entered the service of Spain, +when he fought in various campaigns, and was promoted colonel in 1838. +After a short stay in France he returned to Italy and identified himself +with the Liberal movement; he became an active journalist, and founded a +newspaper called _L'Opinione_ in 1847. In 1848 he was one of those who +asked King Charles Albert for the constitution. On the outbreak of the +war with Austria he took command of the Lombard volunteers as +major-general, and in the campaign of 1849 he was aide-de-camp to the +king. He was elected member of the first Piedmontese parliament and was +a strenuous supporter of Cavour; during the Crimean campaign he took +General La Marmora's place as war minister. In 1855 he was nominated +senator, lieutenant-general in 1856, ambassador at Constantinople in +1859, and minister for foreign affairs in the Rattazzi cabinet two years +later. He was president of the senate from 1884 to 1887, after which +year he retired from the army. He died in 1894. + +His brother, GIOVANNI DURANDO (1804-1869), was in early life driven into +exile on account of his Liberal opinions. He served in the armies of +Belgium, Portugal and Spain, distinguishing himself in many +engagements. Returning to Italy on the outbreak of the revolution of +1848, he was appointed commander of a division of the pontifical forces, +and fought against the Austrians in Venetia until the fall of Vicenza, +when he returned to Piedmont as major-general. In the campaign of 1849 +he commanded the first Piedmontese division; he subsequently served in +the Crimea, in the war of 1859, and in that of 1866 as commander of the +I. Army Corps. In 1867 he was appointed president of the supreme +military and naval tribunal. + + + + +DURANGO, a state of northern Mexico, bounded N. by Chihuahua, E. and +S.E. by Coahuila, S. by Zacatecas and the territory of Tepic, and W. by +Sinaloa. Pop. (1895) 292,549; (1900) 370,294. Area 38,009 sq. m. Durango +is a continuation southward of the high, semi-arid plateau of Chihuahua, +with the Sierra Madre extending along its western side. The Bolsón de +Mapimí covers its N.E. angle, and in the S. there are peculiar volcanic +hills, covering about 1000 sq. m. and known as La Breña. The Bolsón de +Mapimí, previous to the building of the Mexican Central railway across +it, had been considered an uninhabitable desert, but irrigation +experiments have demonstrated that its soil is highly fertile and well +adapted to the production of cotton and fruit. The rainfall is very +light in the eastern part of the state, a succession of years sometimes +passing without any precipitation whatever, but in the W. it is +sufficient to produce good pasturage and considerable areas of forest. +There are no rivers of any magnitude in the state. The largest is the +Rio Nazas, which flows eastward into the lakes of the Mapimí depression, +and the Mezquital, which flows S.W. through the sierras to the Pacific +coast. The climate is generally dry and healthful. Cotton is produced to +a limited extent, especially where irrigation is employed, and wheat, +Indian corn, tobacco, sugar-cane and grapes are also grown. In the +elevated valleys of the sierras stock-raising is successful. The +principal industry of Durango, however, is mining, and some of the +richest and best known mines of Mexico are found in the state. Besides +silver, which has been extensively mined since the first arrival of the +Spanish under Francisco de Ibarra (1554-1562), gold, copper, iron, +cinnabar, tin, coal and rubies are found. The famous Cerro del Mercado, +2 m. from the city of Durango, is a hill composed in great part of +remarkably pure iron ore, and is estimated to contain 300,000,000 tons +of that metal. Near it are iron and steel works. The principal mining +districts of Durango include San Dimas (on the western slope of the main +sierra), Guarisamey, Buenavista, Gavilanes, Guanaceví, Mapimí, El Oro +and Indé. In the first-named is the celebrated Candelaria mine, where +the ores (largely argentite) assay between $70 and $140 a ton, the +aggregate output being estimated as over $100,000,000 before the close +of the 19th century. With the exception of silver, the mineral resources +of the state have been but slightly developed because of difficult and +expensive transportation. The Mexican Central railway crosses the +eastern side of the state, and the Mexican International crosses N.E. to +S.W. through the state capital on its way to the port of Mazatlán. The +history of Durango is similar to that of Chihuahua, the state originally +forming part of the province of Nueva Viscaya. The capital is Durango, +and among the principal towns are Guanaceví (pop. 6859), El Oro, Nombre +de Dios (the first Spanish settlement in the state), San Juan de +Guadalupe, San Dimas and Villa Lerdo. These are comparatively small +mining towns. Mapimí lies 130 m. N.N.E. of Durango and gives its name to +the great arid depression situated still farther north. + + + + +DURANGO, sometimes called CIUDAD DE VICTORIA, a city of Mexico, capital +of the state of Durango, 574 m. N.W. of the federal capital, in lat. 24° +25´ N., long. 105° 55´ W. Pop. (1900) 31,092. Durango is served by the +Mexican International railway. The city stands in the picturesque +Guadiana valley formed by easterly spurs of the Sierra Madre, about 6850 +ft. above the sea. It has a mild, healthy climate, and is surrounded by +a district of considerable fertility. Durango is an important mining and +commercial centre, and was for a time one of the most influential towns +of northern Mexico. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a handsome +cathedral, ten parish churches, a national institute or college, an +episcopal seminary, government buildings, a public library, hospital, +penitentiary and bull-ring. The city is provided with urban and suburban +tramways, electric light, telephone service and an abundant +water-supply, and there are thermal springs in its vicinity. Its +manufacturing establishments include reduction works, cotton and woollen +mills, glass works, iron foundries, tanneries, flour mills, sugar +refineries and tobacco factories. Durango was founded in 1563 by Alonso +Pacheco under the direction of Governor Francisco de Ibarra, who named +it after a city of his native province in Spain. It was known, however, +as Guadiana for a century thereafter, and its first bishops were given +that title. It was the capital of Ibarra's new province of Nueva +Viscaya, which included Durango and Chihuahua, and continued as such +down to their separation in 1823. + + + + +DURANI, or DURRANI, the dominant race of Afghans, to which the ruling +family at Kabul belongs. The Duranis number 100,000 fighting men, and +have two branches, the Zirak and the Panjpai. To the former section +belong the Popalzai, Alikozai, Barakzai and Achakzai; and to the latter +the Nurzai, Alizai, Isakzai, Khokani and Maku tribes. The Saddozai clan +of the Popalzai Duranis furnished the first independent shahs of the +Durani dynasty (A.D. 1747), the Barakzais furnishing the amirs. The line +of the shahs was overthrown in the third generation (A.D. 1834), after a +protracted period of anarchy and dissension, which broke out on the +death in A.D. 1773 of Ahmad Shah Durani, the founder of Afghan national +independence. + +Bar Durani is a name sometimes applied to the independent Pathan tribes +who inhabit the hill districts south of the Hindu Kush, parts of the +Indus valley, the Salt Range, and the range of Suliman, which were first +conceded to them by Ahmad Shah. Bar Durani includes the Yusafzai, Utman +Khel, Tarkanis, Mohmands, Afridis, Orakzais and Shinwaris, as well as +the Pathan tribes of the plains of Peshawar and those of Bangash and +Khattak, although the derivation of some of these tribes from the true +Durani stock is doubtful. + + + + +DURANTE, FRANCESCO (1684-1755), Italian composer, was born at +Frattamaggiore, in the kingdom of Naples, on the 15th of March 1684. At +an early age he entered the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesù Cristo, at +Naples, where he received lessons from Gaetano Greco, later he became a +pupil of Alessandro Scarlatti at the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio. He +is also supposed to have studied under Pasquini and Pitoni in Rome, but +no documentary proof of this statement can be given. He is said to have +succeeded Scarlatti in 1725 at Sant' Onofrio, and to have remained there +until 1742, when he succeeded Porpora as head of the Conservatorio di +Santa Maria di Loreto, also at Naples. This post he held for thirteen +years, till his death on the 13th of August 1755 at Naples. He was +married three times. His fame as a teacher was all but unrivalled, and +Jommelli, Paesiello, Pergolesi, Piccini and Vinci were amongst his +pupils. A complete collection of Durante's works, consisting all but +exclusively of sacred compositions, was presented by Selvaggi, a +Neapolitan lover of art, to the Paris library. A catalogue of it may be +found in Fétis's _Biographie universelle_. The imperial library of +Vienna also preserves a valuable collection of Durante's manuscripts. +Two requiems, several masses (one of which, a most original work, is the +_Pastoral Mass_ for four voices) and the _Lamentations_ of the prophet +Jeremiah are amongst his most important settings. The fact that Durante +never composed for the stage brought him a somewhat exaggerated +reputation as a composer of sacred music. Although certainly one of the +best church composers of his style and period, he is far inferior to +Leo, and seems to have been the founder of the sentimental school of +Italian church music. Leo and Scarlatti at their best have a solidity +and dignity entirely wanting in Durante, and Alessandro Scarlatti at his +worst is frivolous rather than sentimental. This type of music is +characteristic of Durante as a man; intellectually uncultured, but +sincerely devout. As a teacher he insisted on the strict observance of +rules for which he either would not or could not give a reason, +differing thus from Alessandro Scarlatti, whose first care was to +develop his pupils' talents according to their own individualities, +regarding all rules as subservient to his exquisite sense of musical +beauty. Hasse rightly protested against Durante's being described as the +greatest harmonist of Italy, a title which could be claimed only by +Alessandro Scarlatti. (E. J. D.) + + + + +DURÃO, JOSÉ DE SANTA RITA (1720-1784), Brazilian poet, was born near +Marianna, in the province of Minas Geraes, in 1720, and died in Lisbon +in 1754. He studied at Coimbra, in Portugal, graduated as a doctor of +divinity, became a member of the Augustinian order of friars, and +obtained a great reputation as a preacher. Having irritated the minister +Pombal by his defence of the Jesuits, he retired from Portugal in 1759; +and, after being imprisoned in Spain as a spy, found his way to Italy in +1763, where he became acquainted with Alfieri, Pindemonte, Casti and +other literary men of the time. On his return to Portugal he delivered +the opening address at the university of Coimbra for the year 1777; but +soon after retired to the cloisters of a Gratian convent. At the time of +his death he taught in the little college belonging to that order in +Lisbon. His epic in ten cantos, entitled _Caramúru, poema epico do +descubrimento da Bahia_, appeared in Lisbon in 1781, but proved at first +a total failure. Its value has gradually been recognized, and it now +ranks as one of the best poems in Brazilian literature--remarkable +especially for its fine descriptions of scenery and native life in South +America. The historic institute of Rio de Janeiro offered a prize to the +author of the best essay on the legend of Caramúru; and the successful +competitor published a new edition of Durão's poem. There is a French +translation which appeared in Paris in 1829. + + See Adolfo de Varnhagen, _Epicos Brazileiros_ (1845); Pereira da + Silva, _Os Varões illustres do Brasil_ (1858); Wolf, _Le Brésil + littéraire_ (Berlin, 1863); Sotero dos Reis, _Curso de litteratura + Portugueza e Brazileira_, vol. iv. (Maranhão, 1868); José Verissimo, + _Estudos de literatura Brazileira, segunda serie_ (Rio, 1901). + + + + +DURAZZO (anc. _Epidamnus_ and _Dyrrachium_; Albanian, _Durresi_; Turkish +and Slavonic, _Drach_), a seaport and capital of the sanjak of Durazzo, +in the vilayet of Iannina, Albania, Turkey. Pop. (1900) about 5000. +Durazzo is about 50 m. S. of Scutari, on the Bay of Durazzo, an inlet of +the Adriatic Sea. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishop and a +Greek metropolitan, but in every respect has greatly declined from its +former prosperity. The walls are dilapidated; plane-trees grow on the +gigantic ruins of its old Byzantine citadel; and its harbour, once +equally commodious and safe, is gradually becoming silted up. The only +features worthy of notice are the quay, with its rows of cannon, and the +bridge, 750 ft. long, which leads across the marshes stretching along +the coast. The chief exports are olive oil--largely manufactured in the +district--wheat, oats, barley, pottery and skins. + +_Epidamnus_ was founded by a joint colony of Corcyreans and Corinthians +towards the close of the 7th century B.C., and from its admirable +position and the fertility of the surrounding country soon rose into +very considerable importance. The dissolution of its original +oligarchical government by the democratic opposition, the consequent +quarrel between Corcyra and the oligarchical city of Corinth, and the +intervention of Athens on behalf of Corcyra, are usually included among +the contributory causes of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). In 312 +B.C., Epidamnus was seized by the Illyrian king Glaucias, and shortly +afterwards it passed into the power of the Romans. As the name Epidamnus +sounded to Roman ears like an evil omen, as though it were derived from +the Latin _damnum_, "loss" or "harm," the alternative name of +_Dyrrachium_, which the city possibly received from the rugged nature of +the adjoining sea-coast, came into general use. Thenceforward Epidamnus +rose rapidly in importance. It was a favourite point of debarcation for +the Roman armies; the great military road known as the _Via Egnatia_ led +from Dyrrachium to Thessalonica (Salonica); and another highway passed +southwards to Buthrotum and Ambracia. Broad swamps rendered the city +almost impregnable, and in 48 B.C. it became famous as the place where +Pompey made his last successful resistance to Caesar. After the battle +of Actium in 31 B.C., Augustus made over Dyrrachium to a colony of his +veterans; it became a _civitas libera_ and a great commercial emporium +(for coins see Maier, _Numis. Zeitschr._, 1908). The summit of its +prosperity was reached about the end of the 4th century, when it was +made the capital of Epirus Nova. Its bishopric, created about A.D. 58, +was raised to an archbishopric in 449. In 481 the city was besieged by +Theodoric, the king of the East Goths; and in the 10th and 11th +centuries it frequently had to defend itself against the Bulgarians. In +1082 it was stormed by the Norman Robert Guiscard, who in the previous +year had defeated the Greeks under their emperor Alexius; and in 1185 it +fell into the hands of King William of Sicily. Surrendered to Venice in +1202, it afterwards broke loose from the republic and in 1268 passed +into the possession of Charles of Anjou. In 1273 it was laid in ruins by +an earthquake, but it soon recovered from the disaster, and became an +independent duchy under John, the grandson of Charles (1294-1304), and +afterwards under Philip of Otranto. In 1333 it was annexed to Achaea, in +1336 to Servia, and in 1394 to Venice. The Turks obtained possession in +1501. + + + + +D'URBAN, SIR BENJAMIN (1777-1849), British general and colonial +administrator, was born in 1777, and entered the British army in 1793. +Promoted lieutenant and captain in 1794 he took part in that year in +operations in Holland and Westphalia. In 1795 he served under Sir Ralph +Abercromby in San Domingo. He went on half-pay in 1800, joining the +Royal Military College, where he remained until 1805, when he went to +Hanover with the force under Lord Cathcart. Returning to England he +filled various staff offices, and in November 1807 went to Dublin as +assistant-quartermaster-general, being transferred successively to +Limerick and the Curragh. He joined the army in the Peninsula in 1808, +and his marked abilities as a staff officer led to his selection by +General (afterwards Viscount) Beresford as quartermaster-general in the +reorganization of the Portuguese army. He served throughout the +Peninsular War without once going on leave and took part in nine pitched +battles and sieges, Busaco, Albuera, Badajoz, Salamanca, Vittoria, the +Pyrenees, the Nivelle, the Nive and Toulouse. He was promoted +major-general in the Portuguese army and colonel in the British army in +1813, and made a K.C.B. in 1815. He remained in Portugal until 1816, +when he was summoned home to take up the posts of colonel of the royal +staff corps and deputy quartermaster-general at the Horse Guards. In +1819 he became major-general and in 1837 lieutenant-general. From 1829 +he was colonel of the 51st Foot. + +Sir Benjamin began his career as colonial administrator in 1820 when he +was made governor of Antigua. In 1824 he was transferred to Demerara and +Essequibo, then in a disturbed condition owing to a rising among the +slaves consequent on the emancipation movement in Great Britain. +D'Urban's rule proved successful, and in 1831 he carried out the +amalgamation of Berbice with the other counties, the whole forming the +colony of British Guiana, of which D'Urban was first governor. The +ability with which he had for nine years governed a community of which +the white element was largely of Dutch origin led to his appointment as +governor of Cape Colony. He assumed office in January 1834, and the four +years during which he held that post were of great importance in the +history of South Africa. They witnessed the abolition of slavery, the +establishment of a legislative council and municipal councils in Cape +Colony, the first great Kaffir war and the beginning of the Great Trek. +The firmness and justice of his administration won the cordial support +of the British and Dutch colonists. The greater part of 1835 was +occupied in repelling an unprovoked invasion of the eastern borders of +the colony by Xosa Kaffirs. To protect the inhabitants of the eastern +province Sir Benjamin extended the boundary of the colony to the Kei +river and erected military posts in the district, allowing the Xosa to +remain under British supervision. Since his appointment to the Cape +there had been a change of ministry in England, and Lord Glenelg had +become secretary for the Colonies in the second Melbourne +administration. Prejudiced against any extension of British authority +and lending a ready ear to a small but influential party in South +Africa, Glenelg adopted the view that the Kaffirs had been the victims +of systematic injustice. In a momentous despatch dated the 26th of +December 1835 he set forth his views and instructed Sir Benjamin D'Urban +to give up the newly annexed territory. At the same time Sir Andries +Stockenstrom, Bart. (1792-1864), was appointed lieutenant-governor for +the eastern provinces of the colony to carry out the policy of the home +government, in which the Kaffir chiefs were treated as being on terms of +full equality with Europeans. D'Urban in vain warned Glenelg of the +disastrous consequences of his decision, the beginning of the long +course of vacillation which wrought great harm to South Africa. One +result of the new policy was to recreate a state of insecurity, +bordering on anarchy, in the eastern province, and this condition was +one of the causes of the Great Trek of the Dutch farmers which began in +1836. In various despatches D'Urban justified his position, +characterizing the Trek as due to "insecurity of life and property +occasioned by the recent measures, inadequate compensation for the loss +of the slaves, and despair of obtaining recompense for the ruinous +losses by the Kaffir invasion." (See further SOUTH AFRICA: _History_, +and CAPE COLONY: _History_.) But Glenelg was not to be convinced by any +argument, however cogent, and in a despatch dated the 1st of May 1837 he +informed Sir Benjamin that he had been relieved of office. D'Urban, +however, remained governor until the arrival of his successor, Sir +George Napier, in January 1838. + +During his governorship Sir Benjamin endeavoured to help the British +settlers at Port Natal, who in 1835 named their town D'Urban (now +written Durban) in his honour, but his suggestion that the district +should be occupied as a British possession was vetoed by Lord Glenelg. +Though no longer in office D'Urban remained in South Africa until April +1846. In 1840 he was made a G.C.B., and in 1842 declined a high military +appointment in India offered him by Sir Robert Peel. In January 1847 he +took up the command of the troops in Canada, and was still in command at +the time of his death at Montreal on the 25th of May 1849. + + + + +DURBAN, the principal seaport and largest city of Natal, South Africa, +the harbour being known as Port Natal, in 29° 52´ 48" S. 31° 42´ 49" E. +It is 6810 m. from London via Madeira and 7785 via Suez, 823 m. by water +E.N.E. from Cape Town and 483 m. by rail S.S.E. of Johannesburg. Pop. +(1904) 67,842, of whom 31,302 were whites, 15,631 Asiatics (chiefly +British Indians), 18,929 natives and 1980 of mixed race. From its +situation and the character of its buildings Durban is one of the finest +cities in South Africa. The climate is generally hot and humid, but not +unhealthy. Although nearly half the citizens are British, the large +number of Indians engaged in every kind of work gives to Durban an +oriental aspect possessed by no other town in South Africa. The town is +built on the E. side of a bay (Durban Bay or Bay of Natal), the entrance +to which is marked on the west by a bold cliff, the Bluff, whose summit +is 195 ft. above the sea, and on the east by a low sandy spit called the +Point. The city extends from the Point along the side of the bay and +also for some distance along the coast of the Indian Ocean, and +stretches inland to a range of low hills called the Berea. + +The chief streets, Smith, West and Pine, are in the lower town, parallel +to one another and to the bay. They contain the principal public +buildings, warehouses and shops, the Berea being a residential quarter. +Of the three streets mentioned, West Street, the central thoroughfare, +is the busiest. In its centre are the public gardens, in which is a +handsome block of buildings in the Renaissance style, built in 1906-1908 +at a cost of over £300,000, containing the town hall, municipal offices, +public library, museum and art gallery. The art gallery holds many +pictures of the modern British school. Opposite the municipal buildings +are the post and telegraph offices, a fine edifice (built 1881-1885) +with a clock tower 164 ft. high. The post office formerly served as town +hall. In Pine Street is the Central railway station and the spacious +Market House. Among the churches St Cyprian's (Anglican), in Smith +Street, has a handsome chancel. The Roman Catholic cathedral is a fine +building in the Gothic style. The town possesses several parks, one, the +Victoria Park, facing the Indian Ocean. This part of the town is laid +out with pleasure grounds and esplanades. The botanic gardens, in the +upper town, contain a very fine collection of flowering shrubs and +semi-tropical trees. Above the gardens is the observatory. There is a +fine statue of Queen Victoria by Hamo Thornycroft, R.A., in the public +gardens, and a memorial to Vasco da Gama at the Point. There is an +extensive system of electric trams. Another favourite means of +conveyance is by rickshaw, the runners being Zulus. The town is governed +by a municipality which owns the water and electric lighting supplies +and the tramway system. The sanitary services are excellent. The main +water-supply is the Umlaas river, which enters the ocean 10 m. S. of the +port. The municipal valuation, which is based on capital value, was +£9,494,400 in 1909, the rate, including water, being 2½d. in the £. + +The entrance to the harbour was obstructed by a formidable sand bar, but +as the result of dredging operations there is now a minimum depth of +water at the opening of the channel into the bay of over 30 ft., with a +maximum depth of over 33 ft. The width of the passage between the Bluff +and the Point is 450 ft. From the foot of the Bluff a breakwater extends +over 2000 ft. into the sea, and parallel to it, starting from the Point, +is a pier. The harbour is landlocked, and covers 7½ sq. m. Much of this +area is shoal water, but the accommodation available was largely +increased by the removal during 1904-1908 of 24,000,000 tons of sand. +The port has over 3 m. of wharfage. It possesses a floating dock capable +of lifting a vessel of 8500 tons, a floating workshop, a patent slip for +small craft, hydraulic cranes, &c. The minimum depth alongside the quays +at low water is 23 ft., increased at places to over 30 ft. The principal +wharves, where passengers, mails and general merchandise are landed, are +along the Point. On the opposite side at the foot of the Bluff land has +been reclaimed and extensive accommodation provided for ships coaling. +At Congella at the N.E. end of the harbour some 65 acres of land were +reclaimed during 1905-1906, and wharves built for the handling of heavy +and bulky goods such as timber and corrugated iron. Here also are +situated warehouses and railway works. The port is defended by batteries +armed with modern heavy guns. The trade of the port is almost +coextensive with the foreign trade of Natal. + +_History._--The early history of Durban is closely identified with that +of the colony of Natal. The first permanent settlement by white men in +the bay was made by Englishmen in 1824, when Lieutenant F.G. Farewell, +R.N., and about ten companions went thither from Cape Town in the brig +"Salisbury," from which circumstance the island in the bay gets its +name. In 1835 a township was laid out and the colonists gave it the name +of D'Urban, in honour of Sir Benjamin D'Urban, then governor of Cape +Colony. At this time a mission church was built on the heights +overlooking the bay by Captain Allen Gardner, R.N., who named the hill +Berea in gratitude for support received from the settlers, whom he found +"more noble than those of" Zululand--Dingaan having refused to allow the +captain to start a mission among his people. From December 1838 to +December 1839 a small British military force was stationed at the port. +On its recall the little settlement was taken possession of by Dutch +emigrants from the Cape, who had defeated the Zulu king Dingaan, and who +the year before at the upper end of the bay had formed an encampment, +_Kangela_ (look-out), the present Congella. The Dutch claimed +independence, and on the block-house at Durban hoisted the flag of the +"Republic of Natalia." In 1842, however, a British military force +reoccupied Durban, and on the 15th of July of that year a treaty was +signed in which the Dutch recognized British sovereignty (see further +NATAL: _History_). From that date Durban, though not the seat of +government, became the principal town in Natal. In 1850 there were 500 +white inhabitants, and in 1853 the town was granted municipal +government. The first mayor was Mr George Cato (c. 1810-1893), one of +the earliest settlers in Natal. In 1860 a railway from the Point to the +town, the first railway in South Africa, was opened. The discovery of +the gold-mines on the Rand greatly increased the importance of the port, +and renewed efforts were made to remove the bar which obstructed the +entrance to the bay. The Harbour Board, which was formed in 1881 and +ceased to exist in 1893, effected, under the guidance of Mr Harry +Escombe, enormous improvements in the port--on which the prosperity of +Durban is dependent. But it was not until 1904 that the fairway was +deepened sufficiently to allow mail steamers of the largest class to +enter the harbour. The growth of the port as illustrated by customs +receipts is shown in the increase from £250,000 in 1880 to £981,000 in +1904. In 1846 the customs revenue was returned at £3510. + + See _Durban: Fifty Years' Municipal History_, compiled for the + corporation by W.P.M. Henderson, Asst. Town Clerk (Durban, 1904); G. + Russell, _History of Old Durban_ [to 1860] (Durban, 1899). + + + + +DURBAR, a term in India for a court or levee, from the Persian _darbar_. +A durbar may be either a council for administering affairs of state, or +a purely ceremonial gathering. In the former sense the native rulers of +India in the past, like the amir of Afghanistan to-day, received +visitors and conducted business in durbar. A durbar is the executive +council of a native state. In the latter sense the word has come to be +applied to great ceremonial gatherings like Lord Lytton's durbar for the +proclamation of the queen empress in India in 1877, or the Delhi durbar +of 1903. + + + + +DÜREN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right +bank of the Roer, 19 m. E. from Aix-la-Chapelle on the main line of +railway to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 29,270. It has two Protestant and six +Roman Catholic churches, among the latter the Gothic St Annakirche, said +to contain a portion of the head of the saint, to the shrine of which +frequent pilgrimages are made. There are several high grade schools, +monuments to the emperor William I., Bismarck and Moltke, and, in the +town-hall, a collection of antiquities. It is the seat of considerable +manufactures, notably cloth, paper, flax-spinning, carpet, artificial +wool, sugar, iron wares and needles. + +Düren derives its name, not, as was at one time believed, from the +_Marcodurum_ of the Ubii, mentioned in Tacitus, but from the _Dura_ or +_Duria_, assemblies held by the Carolingians in the 8th century. It +received civic rights early in the 13th century. Hypothecated by the +emperor Frederick II. to Count William of Jülich, it became incorporated +with the duchy of that name, and with it passed to Prussia in 1816. + + + + +DURENE (1·2·4·5 tetramethyl benzene) C6H2(CH3)4, a hydro-carbon which +has been recognized as a constituent of coal-tar. It may be prepared by +the action of methyl iodide on brom-pseudocumene or 4.6 dibrom +metaxylene, in the presence of sodium; or by the action of methyl +chloride on toluene, in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride. It +crystallizes in plates, having a camphor-like smell, melting at 79-80° +C. and boiling at 189-191° C. It is easily soluble in alcohol, ether and +benzene, and sublimes slowly at ordinary temperature. On oxidation with +chromic acid mixture, it is completely decomposed into carbon dioxide +and acetic acid; nitric acid oxidizes it to durylic and cumidic acids +[C6H2·(CH3)2·(COOH)2]. + + + + +DÜRER, ALBRECHT (1471-1528), German painter, draughtsman and engraver, +was born at Nuremberg on the 21st of May 1471. His family was not of +Nuremberg descent, but came from the village of Eytas in Hungary. The +name, however, is German, and the family device--an open door--points to +an original form Thürer, meaning a maker of doors or carpenter. Albrecht +Dürer the elder was a goldsmith by trade, and settled soon after the +middle of the 15th century in Nuremberg. He served as assistant under a +master-goldsmith of the city, Hieronymus Holper, and in 1468 married his +master's daughter Barbara, the bridegroom being forty and the bride +fifteen years of age. They had eighteen children, of whom Albrecht was +the second. The elder Dürer was an esteemed craftsman and pious citizen, +sometimes, as was natural, straitened in means by the pressure of his +numerous progeny. His famous son writes with reverence and affection of +both parents, and has left a touching narrative of their death-bed +hours. He painted the portrait of his father twice, first in 1490, next +in 1497. The former of these is in the Uffizi at Florence; of the +latter, four versions exist, that in the National Gallery (formerly in +the Ashburton-Northampton collections) having the best claim to +originality. + +The young Albrecht was his father's favourite son. "My father," he +writes, "took special delight in me. Seeing that I was industrious in +working and learning, he put me to school; and when I had learned to +read and write, he took me home from school and taught me the +goldsmith's trade." By and by the boy found himself drawn by preference +from goldsmith's work to painting; his father, after some hesitation on +the score of the time already spent in learning the former trade, gave +way and apprenticed him for three years, at the age of fifteen and a +half, to the principal painter of the town, Michael Wolgemut. Wolgemut +furnishes a complete type of the German painter of that age. At the head +of a large shop with many assistants, his business was to turn out, +generally for a small price, devotional pieces commissioned by +mercantile corporations or private persons to decorate their chapels in +the churches--the preference being usually for scenes of the Passion, or +for tortures and martyrdoms of the saints. In such work the painters of +Upper Germany at this time, working in the spirit of the late Gothic +style just before the dawn of the Renaissance, show considerable +technical attainments, with a love of quaint costumes and rich draperies +crumpled in complicated angular folds, some feeling for romance in +landscape backgrounds, none at all for clearness or balance in +composition, and in the attitudes and expressions of their overcrowded +figures a degree of grotesqueness and exaggeration amounting often to +undesigned caricature. There were also produced in the workshop of +Wolgemut, as in that of other artist-craftsmen of his town, a great +number of woodcuts for book illustration. We cannot with certainty +identify any of these as being by the 'prentice hand of the young Dürer. +Authentic drawings done by him in boyhood, however, exist, including one +in silver-point of his own likeness at the age of thirteen in the +Albertina at Vienna, and others of two or three years later in the print +room at Berlin, at the British Museum and at Bremen. + +In the school of Wolgemut Dürer learned much, by his own account, but +suffered not a little from the roughness of his companions. At the end +of his apprenticeship in 1490 he entered upon the usual course of +travels--the _Wanderjahre_--of a German youth. Their direction we cannot +retrace with certainty. There had been no one at Nuremberg skilled +enough in the art of metal-engraving to teach it him to much purpose, +and it had at one time been his father's intention to apprentice him to +Martin Schongauer of Colmar, the most refined and accomplished German +painter-engraver of his time. But after travelling two years in various +parts of Germany, where we are unable to follow him, the young Dürer +arrived at Colmar in 1492, only to find that Schongauer had died the +previous year. He was received kindly by three brothers of the deceased +master established there, and afterwards, still in 1492, by a fourth +brother at Basel. Under them he evidently had some practice both in +metal-engraving and in furnishing designs for the woodcutter. There is +in the museum at Basel a wood-block of St Jerome executed by him and +elaborately signed on the back with his name. This was used in an +edition of Jerome's letters printed in the same city in the same year, +1492. Some critics also maintain that his hand is to be recognized in +several series of small blocks done about the same date or somewhat +later for Bergmann and other printers of Basel, some of them being +illustrations to Terence (which were never printed), some to the romance +of the _Ritter vom Turm_, and some to the _Narrenschiff_ of Sebastian +Brandt. But the prevailing opinion is against this conjecture, and sees +in these designs the work not of a strenuous student and searcher such +as Dürer was, but of a riper and more facile hand working in a spirit of +settled routine. Whether the young Dürer's stay at Basel was long or +short, or whether, as has been supposed, he travelled from there into +the Low Countries, it is certain that in the early part of 1494 he was +working at Strassburg, and returned to his home at Nuremberg immediately +after Whitsuntide in that year. Of works certainly executed by him +during his years of travel there are extant, besides the Basel +wood-block, only a much-injured portrait of himself, very finely +dressed and in the first bloom of his admirable manly beauty, dated 1493 +and originally painted on vellum but since transferred to canvas (this +is the portrait of the Felix Goldschmid collection); a miniature +painting on vellum at Vienna (a small figure of the Child-Christ); and +some half a dozen drawings, of which the most important are the +characteristic pen portrait of himself at Erlangen, with a Holy Family +on the reverse much in the manner of Schongauer; another Holy Family in +nearly the same style at Berlin; a study from the female nude in the +Bonnat collection; a man and woman on horseback in Berlin; a man on +horseback, and an executioner about to behead a young man, at the +British Museum, &c. These drawings all show Dürer intent above all +things on the sternly accurate delineation of ungeneralized individual +forms by means of strongly accented outline and shadings curved, +somewhat like the shadings of Martin Schongauer's engravings, so as to +follow their modellings and roundness. + +Within a few weeks of his return (July 7th, 1494) Dürer was married, +according to an arrangement apparently made between the parents during +his absence, to Agnes Frey, the daughter of a well-to-do merchant of the +city. By the autumn of the same year, probably feeling the +incompleteness of the artistic training that could be obtained north of +the Alps, he must have taken advantage of some opportunity, we know not +what, to make an excursion of some months to Italy, leaving his lately +married wife at Nuremberg. The evidences of this travel (which are +really incontestable, though a small minority of critics still decline +to admit them) consist of (1) some fine drawings, three of them dated +1494 and others undated, but plainly of the same time, in which Dürer +has copied, or rather boldly translated into his own Gothic and German +style, two famous engravings by Mantegna, a number of the "Tarocchi" +prints of single figures which pass erroneously under that master's +name, and one by yet another minor master of the North-Italian school; +with another drawing dated 1495 and plainly copied from a lost original +by Antonio Pollaiuolo, and yet another of an infant Christ copied in +1495 from Lorenzo di Credi, from whom also Dürer took a motive for the +composition of one of his earliest Madonnas; (2) several landscape +drawings done in the passes of Tirol and the Trentino, which technically +will not fit in with any other period of his work, and furnish a clear +record of his having crossed the Alps about this date; (3) two or three +drawings of the costumes of Venetian courtesans, which he could not have +made anywhere but in Venice itself, and one of which is used in his +great woodcut Apocalypse series of 1498; (4) a general preoccupation +which he shows for some years from this date with the problems of the +female nude, treated in a manner for which Italy only could have set him +the example; and (5) the clear implication contained in a letter written +from Venice in 1506 that he had been there already eleven years before; +when things, he says, pleased him much which at the time of writing +please him no more. Some time in 1495 Dürer must have returned from this +first Italian journey to his home in Nuremberg, where he seems to have +lived, without further change or removal, in the active practice of his +art for the next ten years. + +The hour when Dürer, the typical artist of the German nation, attained +maturity was one of the most pregnant in the history of his race. It was +the crisis, in northern Europe, of the transition between the middle ages +and our own. The awakening of Germany at the Renaissance was not, like +the awakening of Italy a generation or two earlier, a movement almost +exclusively intellectual. It was indeed from Italy that the races of the +north caught the impulse of intellectual freedom, the spirit of science +and curiosity, the eager retrospect towards the classic past; but joined +with these in Germany was a moral impulse which was her own, a craving +after truth and right, a rebellion against spiritual tyranny and +corruption--the Renaissance was big in the north, as it was not in the +south, with a Reformation to come. The art of printing had been invented +in good time to help and hasten the new movement of men's minds. Nor was +it by the diffusion of written ideas only that the new art supplied the +means of popular enlightenment. Along with word-printing, or indeed in +advance of it, there had sprung into use another kind of printing, +picture-printing, or what is commonly called engraving. Just as books +were the means of multiplying, cheapening and disseminating ideas, so +engravings on copper or wood were the means of multiplying, cheapening +and disseminating images which gave vividness to the ideas, or served, +for those ignorant of letters, in their stead. Technically one of these +arts, that of line-engraving on copper, sprang from the craft of the +goldsmith and metal-chaser; while that of wood-engraving sprang from the +craft of the printers of pattern-blocks and playing cards. The engraver +on metal habitually cut his own designs, and between the arts of the +goldsmith and the painter there had always been a close alliance, both +being habitually exercised by persons of the same family and sometimes by +one and the same person; so that there was no lack of hands ready-trained +for the new craft which required of the man who practised it that he +should design like a painter and cut metal like a goldsmith. Designs +intended to be cut on wood, on the other hand, were usually drawn by the +artist on the block and handed over for cutting to a class of +workmen--_Formschneider_ or _Briefmaler_--especially devoted to that +industry. Both kinds of engraving soon came to be in great demand. +Independently of the illustration of written or printed books, for which +purpose woodcuts were almost exclusively used, separate engravings or +sets of engravings in both kinds were produced, the more finely wrought +and more expensive, appealing especially to the more educated classes, on +copper, the bolder, simpler and cheaper on wood; and both kinds found a +ready sale at all the markets, fairs and church festivals of the land. +Subjects of popular devotion predominated. Figures of the Virgin and +Child, of the apostles and evangelists, the fathers of the Church, the +saints and martyrs, with illustrations of sacred history and the +Apocalypse, were supplied in endless repetition to satisfy the cravings +of a pious and simple-minded people. But to these were quickly added +subjects of allegory, of classical learning, of witchcraft and +superstition and of daily life; scenes of the parlour and the cloister, +of the shop, the field, the market and the camp; and lastly portraits of +famous men, with scenes of court life and princely pageant and ceremony. +Thus the new art became a mirror of almost all the life and thoughts of +the age. The genius of Albrecht Dürer cannot be rightly estimated without +taking into account the position which the arts of engraving on metal and +on wood thus held in the culture of this time. He was indeed +professionally and in the first place a painter; but throughout his +career a great, and on the whole the most successful, part of his +industry was devoted to drawing on the block for the woodcutter or +engraving with his own hand on copper. The town of Nuremberg in +Franconia, in the age of Dürer's early manhood, was a favourable home for +the growth and exercise of his powers. Of the free imperial cities of +central Germany, none had a greater historic fame or a more settled and +patriotic government. None was more the favourite of the emperors, nor +the seat of a more active and flourishing commerce. Nuremberg was the +chief mart for the merchandise that came to central Europe from the east +through Venice and over the passes of Tirol. She held not only a close +commercial intercourse, but also a close intellectual intercourse, with +Italy. Without being so forward as the rival city of Augsburg to embrace +the architectural fashions of the Italian renaissance--continuing, +indeed, to be profoundly imbued with the old and homely German burgher +spirit, and to wear, in a degree which time has not very much impaired +even yet, the quaintness of the old German civic aspect--she had imported +before the close of the 15th century a fair share of the new learning of +Italy, and numbered among her citizens distinguished humanists like +Hartmann Schedel, Sebald Schreier, Willibald Pirkheimer and Conrad +Celtes. From associates like these Dürer could imbibe the spirit of +Renaissance culture and research; but the external aspects and artistic +traditions which surrounded him were purely Gothic, and he had to work +out for himself the style and form-language fit to express what was in +him. During the first seven or eight years of his settled life in his +native city from 1495, he betrays a conflict of artistic tendencies as +well as no small sense of spiritual strain and strife. His finest work in +this period was that which he provided for the woodcutter. After some +half--dozen miscellaneous single prints--"Samson and the Lion," the +"Annunciation," the "Ten Thousand Martyrs," the "Knight and Men-at-arms," +the "Men's Bath," &c.--he undertook and by 1498 completed his famous +series of sixteen great designs for the Apocalypse. The northern mind had +long dwelt with eagerness on these phantasmagoric mysteries of things to +come, and among the earliest block-books printed in Germany is an edition +of the Apocalypse with rude figures. Founding himself to some extent on +the traditional motives, Dürer conceived and carried out a set of designs +in which the qualities of the German late Gothic style, its rugged +strength and restless vehemence, its love of gnarled forms, writhing +actions and agitated lines, are fused by the fire of the young master's +spirit into vital combination with something of the majestic power and +classic severity which he had seen and admired in the works of Mantegna. +Of a little later date, and of almost as fine a quality, are the first +seven of a large series of woodcuts known as the Great Passion; and a +little later again (probably after 1500), a series of eleven subjects of +the Holy Family and of saints singly or in groups: then, towards +1504-1505, come the first seventeen of a set illustrating the life of the +Virgin: neither these nor the Great Passion were published till several +years later. + +In copper-engraving Dürer was at the same time diligently training +himself to develop the methods practised by Martin Schongauer and +earlier masters into one suitable for his own self-expression. He +attempted no subjects at all commensurate with those of his great +woodcuts, but contented himself for the most part with Madonnas, single +figures of scripture or of the saints, some nude mythologies of a kind +wholly new in northern art and founded upon the impressions received in +Italy, and groups, sometimes bordering on the satirical, of humble folk +and peasants. In the earliest of the Madonnas, the "Virgin with the +Dragon-fly" (1495-1496), Dürer has thrown something of his own rugged +energy into a design of the traditional Schongauer type. In examples of +a few years later, like the "Virgin with the Monkey," the design of +Mother and Child clearly betrays the influence of Italy and specifically +of Lorenzo di Credi. The subjects of the "Prodigal Son" and "St Jerome +in the Wilderness" he on the other hand treats in an almost purely +northern spirit. In the nudes of the next four or five years, which +included a "St Sebastian," the so-called "Four Witches" (1497), the +"Dream" or "Temptation," the "Rape of Amymome," and the "Jealousy" or +"Great Hercules," Venetian, Paduan and Florentine memories are found, in +the treatment of the human form, competing somewhat uncomfortably with +his own inherited Gothic and northern instincts. In these early +engravings the highly-wrought landscape backgrounds, whenever they +occur, are generally the most satisfying feature. This feature reaches a +climax of beauty and elaboration in the large print of "St Eustace and +the Stag," while the figures and animals remain still somewhat cramped +and immature. In the first three or four years of the 16th century, we +find Dürer in his graver-work still contending with the problems of the +nude, but now with added power, though by methods which in different +subjects contrast curiously with one another. Thus the "Nemesis," +belonging probably to 1503, is a marvellously wrought piece of quite +unflinching realism in the rendering of a common type of mature, +muscular, unshapely German womanhood. The conception and attributes of +the figure are taken, as has lately been recognized, from a description +in the "Manto" of Politian: the goddess, to whose shoulders are appended +a pair of huge wings, stands like Fortune on a revolving ball, holding +the emblems of the cup and bridle, and below her feet is spread a rich +landscape of hill and valley. In the "Adam and Eve" of the next year, we +find Dürer treating the human form in an entirely opposite manner; +constructing it, that is, on principles of abstract geometrical +proportion. The Venetian painter-etcher, Jacopo de Barbari, whom Dürer +had already, it would seem, met in Venice in 1494-1495, and by the +example of whose engravings he had already been much influenced, came to +settle for a while in Nuremberg in 1500. He was conversant to some +extent with the new sciences of perspective, anatomy and proportion, +which had been making their way for years past in Italy, and from him it +is likely that Dürer received the impulse to similar studies and +speculations. At any rate a whole series of extant drawings enables us +to trace the German gradually working out his own ideas of a canon of +human proportion in the composition of his famous engraving of "Adam and +Eve" (1504); which at first, as a drawing in the British Museum proves, +had been intended to be an Apollo and Diana conceived on lines somewhat +similar to one of Barbari's. The drama of the subject has in this +instance not interested him at all, but only the forms and designs of +the figures, the realization of the quality of flesh surfaces by the +subtlest use of the graving-tool known to him, and the rendering, by +methods of which he had become the greatest of all masters, of the +richness and intricacy of the forest background. Two or three other +technical masterpieces of the engraver's art, the "Coat-of-Arms with the +Skull," the "Nativity," with its exquisite background of ruined +buildings, the "Little Horse" and the "Great Horse," both of 1505, +complete the list of the master's chief productions in this kind before +he started in the last-named year for a second visit to Italy. + +The pictures of this earlier Nuremberg period are not many in number and +not very admirable. Dürer's powers of hand and eye are already +extraordinary and in their way almost unparalleled, but they are often +applied to the too insistent, too glittering, too emphatic rendering of +particular details and individual forms, without due regard to +subordination or the harmony of the whole. Among the earliest seem to be +two examples of a method practised in Italy especially by the school of +Mantegna, but almost without precedent in Germany, that of +tempera-painting on linen. One of these is the portrait of Frederick the +Wise of Saxony, formerly in the Hamilton collection and now at Berlin; +the second, much disfigured by restoration, is the Dresden altarpiece +with a Madonna and Child in the middle and St Anthony and Sebastian in +the wings. A mythology reminiscent of Italy is the "Hercules and the +Stymphalian Birds" in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg, founded directly +upon the "Hercules and Centaur Nessus" of Pollaiuolo, now at New Haven, +Connecticut, U.S.A. Of portraits, besides that of his father already +mentioned as done in 1497, there is his own of 1498 at Madrid. Two +totally dissimilar portraits of young women, both existing in duplicate +examples (one pair at Augsburg and Frankfort, the other pair in the +collections of M. Hengel in Paris and Baron Speck von Sternburg at +Lützschema, for each of which has been claimed the name Fürlegerin, that +is, a member of the Fürleger family at Nuremberg), belong to nearly the +same time. Other panel portraits of the period are three small ones of +members of the Tucher family at Weimar and Cassel, and the striking, +restlessly elaborated half-length of Oswald Krell at Munich. In some +devotional pictures of the time Dürer seems to have been much helped by +pupils, as in the two different compositions of the Maries weeping over +the body of Christ preserved respectively at Munich and Nuremberg. In an +altarpiece at Ober St Veit and in the scattered wings of the Jabach +altarpiece severally preserved at Munich, Frankfort and Cologne, the +workmanship seems to be exclusively that of journeymen working from his +drawings. The period is closed, so far as paintings are concerned, by +two examples of far higher value than those above named, that is to say +the Paumgartner altarpiece at Munich, with its romantically attractive +composition of the Nativity with angels and donors in the central panel, +and the fine armed figures of St George and St Eustace (lately freed +from the over-paintings which disfigured them) on the wings; and the +happily conceived and harmoniously finished "Adoration of the Magi" in +the Uffizi at Florence. + +In the autumn of 1505 Dürer journeyed for a second time to Venice, and +stayed there until the spring of 1507. The occasion of this journey has +been erroneously stated by Vasari. Dürer's engravings, both on copper +and wood, had by this time attained great popularity both north and +south of the Alps, and had begun to be copied by various hands, among +others by the celebrated Marcantonio of Bologna, then in his youth. +According to Vasari, Marcantonio, in copying Dürer's series of the +Little Passion on wood, had imitated the original monogram, and Dürer, +indignant at this fraud, set out for Italy in order to protect his +rights, and having lodged a complaint against Marcantonio before the +signory of Venice, carried his point so far that Marcantonio was +forbidden in future to add the monogram of Dürer to copies taken after +his works. This account will not bear examination. Chronological and +other proofs show that if such a suit was fought at all, it must have +been in connexion with another set of Dürer's woodcuts, the first +seventeen of the Life of the Virgin. Dürer himself, a number of whose +familiar letters written from Venice to his friend Pirkheimer at +Nuremberg are preserved, makes no mention of anything of the kind. +Nevertheless some such grievance may possibly have been among the causes +which determined his journey. Other causes, of which we have explicit +record, were an outbreak of sickness at Nuremberg; Dürer's desire, which +in fact was realized, of finding a good market for the proceeds of his +art; and the prospect, also realized, of a commission for an important +picture from the German community settled at Venice, who had lately +caused an exchange and warehouse--the _Fondaco de' Tedeschi_--to be +built on the Grand Canal, and who were now desirous to dedicate a +picture in the church of St Bartholomew. The picture painted by Dürer on +this commission was the "Adoration of the Virgin," better known as the +"Feast of Rose Garlands"; it was subsequently acquired by the emperor +Rudolf II., and carried as a thing beyond price upon men's shoulders to +Vienna; it now exists in a greatly injured state in the monastery of +Strahow at Prague. It shows the pope and emperor, with a lute-playing +angel between them, kneeling to right and left of the enthroned Virgin +and Child, who crown them with rose garlands, with a multitude of other +kneeling saints disposed with free symmetry in the background, and +farther in the background portraits of the donor and the painter, and a +flutter of wreath-carrying cherubs in the air. Of all Dürer's works, it +is the one in which he most deliberately rivalled the combined splendour +and playfulness of certain phases of Italian art. The Venetian painters +assured him, he says, that they had never seen finer colours. They were +doubtless too courteous to add that fine colours do not make fine +colouring. Even in its present ruined state, it is apparent that in +spite of the masterly treatment of particular passages, such as the robe +of the pope, Dürer still lacked a true sense of harmony and +tone-relations, and that the effect of his work must have been restless +and garish beside that of a master like the aged Bellini. That veteran +showed the German visitor the most generous courtesy, and Dürer still +speaks of him as the best in painting ("_der pest im gemell_") in spite +of his advanced years. A similar festal intention in design and +colouring, with similar mastery in passages and even less sense of +harmonious relations in the whole, is apparent in a second important +picture painted by Dürer at Venice, "The Virgin and Child with the +Goldfinch," formerly in the collection of Lord Lothian and now at +Berlin. A "Christ disputing with the Doctors" of the same period, in the +Barberini Gallery at Rome, is recorded to have cost the painter only +five days' labour, and is an unsatisfying and ill-composed congeries of +heads and hands, both of such strenuous character and individuality as +here and there to pass into caricature. The most satisfying of Dürer's +paintings done in Venice are the admirable portrait of a young man at +Hampton Court (the same sitter reappears in the "Feast of Rose +Garlands"), and two small pieces, one the head of a brown Italian girl +modelled and painted with real breadth and simplicity, formerly in the +collection of Mr Reginald Cholmondeley and now at Berlin, and the small +and very striking little "Christ Crucified" with the figure relieved +against the night sky, which is preserved in the Dresden Gallery and has +served as model and inspiration to numberless later treatments of the +theme. An interesting, rather fantastic, portrait of a blonde girl +wearing a wide cap, now in the Berlin museum, is dated 1507 and may +have been done in the early months of that year at Venice. It is +possible, though not certain, that to this date also belongs the famous +portrait of himself at Munich bearing a false signature and date, 1500; +in this it has been lately shown that the artist modified his own +lineaments according to a preconceived scheme of facial proportion, so +that it must be taken as an ideal rather than a literal presentment of +himself to posterity as he appeared in the flower of his early middle +age. From Venice Dürer kept up a continuous correspondence, which has +been published, with his bosom friend Pirkheimer at Nuremberg. He tells +of the high position he holds among the Venetians; of the jealousy shown +him by some of the meaner sort of native artist; of the honour and +wealth in which he might live if he would consent to abandon home for +Italy; of the northern winter, and how he knows that after his return it +will set him shivering for the south. Yet he resisted all seductions and +was in Nuremberg again before the summer of 1507. First, it seems, he +had made an excursion to Bologna, having intended to take Mantua on the +way, in order to do homage to the old age of that Italian master, Andrea +Mantegna, from whose work he had himself in youth learned the most. But +the death of Mantegna prevented his purpose. + +From the spring of 1507 until the summer of 1520, Dürer was again a +settled resident in his native town. Except the brilliant existences of +Raphael at Rome and of Rubens at Antwerp and Madrid, the annals of art +present the spectacle of few more honoured or more fortunate careers. +His reputation had spread all over Europe. From Flanders to Rome his +distinction was acknowledged, and artists of less invention, among them +some of the foremost on both sides of the Alps, were not ashamed to +borrow from his work this or that striking combination or expressive +type. He was on terms of friendship or friendly communication with all +the first masters of the age, and Raphael held himself honoured in +exchanging drawings with Dürer. In his own country, all orders of men, +from the emperor Maximilian down, delighted to honour him; and he was +the familiar companion of chosen spirits among the statesmen, humanists +and reformers of the new age. The burgher life of even Nuremberg, the +noblest German city, seems narrow, quaint and harsh beside the grace and +opulence and poetical surroundings of Italian life in the same and the +preceding generation. The great cities of Flanders also, with their +world-wide commerce and long-established eminence in the arts, presented +aspects of more splendid civic pomp and luxury. But among its native +surroundings the career of Dürer stands out with an aspect of ideal +elevation and decorum which is its own. His temper and life seem to have +been remarkably free from all that was jarring, jealous and fretful; +unless, indeed, we are to accept as true the account of his wife's +character which represents her as having been no fit mate for him, but +an incorrigible shrew and skinflint. The name of Agnes Dürer was for +centuries used to point a moral, and among the unworthy wives of great +men the wife of Dürer became almost as notorious as the wife of +Socrates. The source of the traditions to her discredit is to be found +in a letter written a few years after Dürer's death by his life-long +intimate, Willibald Pirkheimer, who accuses her of having plagued her +husband to death by her meanness, made him overwork himself for money's +sake, and given his latter days no peace. No doubt there must have been +some kind of foundation for Pirkheimer's charges; and it is to be noted +that neither in Dürer's early correspondence with this intimate friend, +nor anywhere in his journals, does he use any expressions of tenderness +or affection for his wife, only speaking of her as his housemate and of +her helping in the sale of his prints, &c. That he took her with him on +his journey to the Netherlands shows at any rate that there can have +been no acute estrangement. And it is fair to remember in her defence +that Pirkheimer when he denounced her was old, gouty and peevish, and +that the immediate occasion of his outbreak against his friend's widow +was a fit of anger because she had not let him have a pair of antlers--a +household ornament much prized in those days--to which he fancied +himself entitled out of the property left by Dürer. We have evidence +that after her husband's death Agnes Dürer behaved with generosity to +his brothers. + +The thirteen or fourteen years of Dürer's life between his return from +Venice and his journey to the Netherlands (spring 1507-midsummer 1520) +can best be divided according to the classes of work with which, during +successive divisions of the period, he was principally occupied. The +first five years, 1507-1511, are pre-eminently the painting years of his +life. In them, working with infinite preliminary pains, as a vast number +of extant drawings and studies testify, he produced what have been +accounted his four capital works in painting, besides several others of +minor importance. The first is the "Adam and Eve" dated 1507, in which +both attitudes and proportions are as carefully calculated, though on a +somewhat different scheme, as in the engraving of 1504. Two versions of +the picture exist, one in Florence at the Pitti palace, the other, which +is generally allowed to be the original, at Madrid. To 1508 belongs the +life-sized "Virgin with the Iris," a piece remarkable for the fine +romantic invention of its background, but plainly showing the hand of an +assistant, perhaps Hans Baldung, in its execution: the best version is +in the Cook collection at Richmond, an inferior one in the Rudolphinum +at Prague. In 1508 Dürer returned to a subject which he had already +treated in an early woodcut, the "Massacre of the Ten Thousand Martyrs +of Nicomedia." The picture, painted for the elector Frederick of Saxony, +is now in the Imperial Gallery at Vienna; the overcrowded canvas (into +which Dürer has again introduced his own portrait as a spectator +alongside of the elector) is full of striking and animated detail, but +fails to make any great impression on the whole, and does not do justice +to the improved sense of breadth and balance in design, of clearness and +dignity in composition, which the master had undoubtedly brought back +with him from his second visit to Italy. In 1509 followed the +"Assumption of the Virgin" with the Apostles gathered about her tomb, a +rich altarpiece with figures of saints and portraits of the donor and +his wife in the folding wings, executed for Jacob Heller, a merchant of +Frankfort, in 1509. This altarpiece was afterwards replaced at Frankfort +(all except the portraits of the donors, which remained behind) by a +copy, while the original was transported to Munich, where it perished by +fire in 1674. The copy, together with the many careful and highly +finished preparatory studies for the heads, limbs and draperies which +have been preserved, shows that this must have been the one of Dürer's +pictures in which he best combined the broader vision and simpler habits +of design which had impressed him in the works of Italian art with his +own inherited and ingrained love of unflinchingly grasped fact and +rugged, accentuated character. In 1511 was completed another famous +painting, multitudinous in the number of its figures though of very +moderate dimensions, the "Adoration of the Trinity by all the Saints," a +subject commissioned for a chapel dedicated to All Saints in an +almshouse for decayed tradesmen at Nuremberg, and now at the Imperial +Gallery at Vienna. Nothing can exceed the fulness and variety of +invention, or the searching force and precision of detail in this +picture; nor does it leave so much to desire as several of the master's +other paintings in point of colour-harmony and pleasurable general +effect. + +In the meantime Dürer had added a few to the number of his +line-engravings and had completed the two woodcut series of the Great +Passion, begun about 1498-1499, and the Life of the Virgin. The new +subjects compared with the old show some falling off in dramatic stress +and intensity of expression, but on the other hand a marked gain in +largeness of design and clearness of composition. In 1511 these two +works were brought out for the first time, and the Apocalypse series in +a second edition; and for the next three years, 1511-1514, engraving +both on wood and copper, but especially the latter, took the first place +among Dürer's activities. Besides such fine single woodcuts as the "Mass +of St Gregory," the "St Christopher," the "St Jerome," and two Holy +Families of 1511, Dürer published in the same year the most numerous and +popularly conceived of all his woodcut series, that known from the +dimensions of its thirty-seven subjects as the "Little Passion" on wood; +and in the next year, 1512, a set of fifteen small copper-engravings on +the same theme, the "Little Passion" on copper. Both of these must +represent the labour of several preceding years: one or two of the +"Little Passion" plates, dating back as far as 1507, prove that this +series at least had been as long as five years in his mind. In thus +repeating over and over on wood and copper nearly the same incidents of +the Passion, or again in rehandling them in yet another medium, as in +the highly finished series of drawings known as the "Green Passion" in +the Albertina at Vienna, Dürer shows an inexhaustible variety of +dramatic and graphic invention, and is never betrayed into repeating an +identical action or motive. + +In 1513 and 1514 appeared the three most famous of Dürer's works in +copper-engraving, "The Knight and Death" (or simply "The Knight," as he +himself calls it, 1513), the "Melancolia" and the "St Jerome in his +Study" (both 1514). These are the masterpieces of the greatest mind +which ever expressed itself in this form of art. Like other +masterpieces, they suggest much more than they clearly express, and +endless meanings have been, rightly or wrongly, read into them by +posterity. Taken together as a group, they have been supposed to be +three out of an uncompleted series designed to illustrate the four +"temperaments" and complexions of men. Again, more reasonably, they have +been taken as types severally of the moral, the intellectual and the +theological virtues. The idea at the bottom of the "Knight and Death" +seems to be a combination of the Christian knight of Erasmus's +_Enchiridion militis Christiani_ with the type, traditional in medieval +imagery, of the pilgrim on his way through the world. The imaginative +force of the presentation, coming from a man of Dürer's powers, is +intense; but what consciously occupied him most may well have been the +problem how to draw accurately the proportions and action of a horse in +motion. This problem he here solves for the first time, with the help of +an Italian example: at least his design so closely repeats that of +Leonardo da Vinci's famous and early destroyed equestrian statue of +Francesco Sforza that we must certainly suppose him to have seen either +the model itself or such a drawing of it as is still preserved by +Leonardo's own hand. The face of the rider seems to recall that of the +statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni at Venice; for the armour Dürer had +recourse to an old drawing of his own, signed and dated in 1498. The +"Melancolia," numbered "1" as though intended to be the first of a +series, with its brooding winged genius sitting dejectedly amidst a +litter of scientific instruments and symbols, is hard to interpret in +detail, but impossible not to recognize in general terms as an +embodiment of the spirit of intellectual research (the student's +"temperament" was supposed to be one with the melancholic), resting +sadly from its labours in a mood of lassitude and defeat. Comparatively +cheerful beside these two is the remaining subject of the student saint +reading in his chamber, with his dog and domestic lion resting near him, +and a marvellous play of varied surface and chequered light on the floor +and ceiling of his apartment and on all the objects which it contains. +Besides these three masterpieces of line-engraving, the same years, +1512-1515, found Dürer occupied with his most important experiments in +etching, both in dry-point ("The Holy Family and Saints" and the "St +Jerome in the Wilderness") and with the acid bath. At the same time he +was more taken up than ever, as is proved by the contents of a +sketch-book at Dresden, with mathematical and anatomical studies on the +proportions and structure of the human frame. A quite different kind of +study, that of the postures of wrestlers in action, is illustrated by a +little-known series of drawings, still of the same period, at Vienna. +Almost the only well-authenticated painting of the time is a "Virgin and +Child" in the Imperial Museum at Vienna. The portraits of the emperors +Charles the Great and Sigismund (1512), in their present state at any +rate, can hardly be recognized as being by the master's hand. An +interval of five years separates the Vienna "Madonna" from the two fine +heads of the apostles Philip and James in the Uffizi at Florence, the +pair of boys' heads painted in tempera on linen in the Bibliothèque +Nationale at Paris, the "Madonna with the Pink" at Augsburg, and the +portrait of Wolgemut at Munich, all of 1516. Among engravings of the +same time are three Madonnas, the apostles Thomas and Paul, a bagpiper +and two peasants dancing, and three or four experiments in etching on +plates of iron and zinc. In wood-engraving his energies were almost +entirely given to bearing a part--which modern research has proved to +have been not nearly so large as was traditionally supposed--in the +great decorative schemes commanded by the Emperor Max in his own honour, +and devised and carried out by a whole corps of men of letters and +artists: namely, the Triumphal Gate and the Triumphal March or +Procession. A third and smaller commemorative design, the Triumphal Car, +originally designed to form part of the second but in the end issued +separately, was entirely Dürer's own work. A far more successful and +attractive effort of his genius in the same service is to be found in +the marginal decorations done by him in pen for the emperor's +prayer-book. This unequalled treasure of German art and invention has in +later times been broken up, the part executed by Dürer being preserved +at Munich, the later sheets, which were decorated by other hands, having +been transported to Besançon. Dürer's designs, drawn with the pen in +pale lilac, pink and green, show an inexhaustible richness of invention +and an airy freedom and playfulness of hand beyond what could be +surmised from the sternness of those studies which he made direct from +life and nature. They range from subjects of the homeliest and most +mirthful realism to others serious and devout, and from literal or +almost literal transcripts of natural form to the most whimsically +abstract combinations of linear pattern and tendril and flourish. + +All these undertakings for his imperial friend and patron were stopped +by the emperor's death in 1519. A portrait-drawing by the master done at +Augsburg a few months previously, one of his finest works, served him as +the basis both of a commemorative picture and a woodcut. Other paintings +of this and the succeeding year we may seek for in vain; but in line +engravings we have four more Madonnas, two St Christophers, one or two +more peasant subjects, the well-known St Anthony with the view of +Nuremberg in the background, and the smaller of the two portraits of the +Cardinal-Elector of Mainz; and in wood-engraving several fine heraldic +pieces, including the arms of Nuremberg. + +In the summer of 1520 the desire of Dürer to secure from Maximilian's +successors a continuance of the patronage and privileges granted during +his lifetime, together with an outbreak of sickness in Nuremberg, gave +occasion to the master's fourth and last journey from home. Together +with his wife and her maid he set out in July for the Netherlands in +order to be present at the coronation of the young emperor Charles V., +and if possible to conciliate the good graces of the all-powerful regent +Margaret. In the latter part of his aim Dürer was but partially +successful. His diary of his travels enables us to follow his movements +almost day by day. He journeyed by the Rhine, Cologne, and thence by +road to Antwerp, where he was handsomely received, and lived in whatever +society was most distinguished, including that of Erasmus of Rotterdam. +Besides his written notes, interesting traces of his travels exist in +the shape of the scattered leaves of a sketch-book filled with delicate +drawings in silver-point, chiefly views of places and studies of +portrait and costume. Several of his finest portrait-drawings in chalk +or charcoal, including those of his brother artists Lucas Van Leyden and +Bernard Van Orley, as well as one of two fine portrait paintings of men, +belong to the period of this journey. So does a magnificent drawing of a +head of a nonagenarian with a flowing beard who sat to him at Antwerp, +together with a picture from the same head in the character of St +Jerome; the drawing is now at Vienna, the picture at Lisbon. Dürer's +interest and curiosity, both artistic and personal, were evidently +stimulated by his travels in the highest degree. Besides going to Aachen +for the coronation, he made excursions down the Rhine from Cologne to +Nijmwegen, and back overland by 's Hertogenbosch; to Brussels; to Bruges +and Ghent; and to Zealand with the object of seeing a natural curiosity, +a whale reported ashore. The vivid account of this last expedition given +in his diary contrasts with the usual dry entries of interviews and +disbursements. A still more striking contrast is the passionate outburst +of sympathy and indignation with which, in the same diary, he comments +on the supposed kidnapping of Luther by foul play on his return from the +diet of Worms. Without being one of those who in his city took an avowed +part against the old ecclesiastical system, and probably without seeing +clearly whither the religious ferment of the time was tending--without, +that is, being properly speaking a Reformer--Dürer in his art and his +thoughts was the incarnation of those qualities of the German character +and conscience which resulted in the Reformation; and, personally, with +the fathers of the Reformation he lived in the warmest sympathy. + +On the 12th of July 1521 Dürer reached home again. Drawings of this and +the immediately following years prove that on his return his mind was +full of schemes for religious pictures. For a great group of the Madonna +surrounded with saints there are extant two varying sketches of the +whole composition and a number of finished studies for individual heads +and figures. Less abundant, but still sufficient to prove the artist's +intention, are the preliminary studies to a picture of the Crucifixion. +There exist also fine drawings for a "Lamentation over the body of +Christ," an "Adoration of the Kings," and a "March to Calvary"; of the +last-named composition, besides the beautiful and elaborate pen-and-ink +drawing at Florence, three still more highly-wrought versions in green +monochrome exist; whether any of them are certainly by the artist's own +hand is matter of debate. But no religious paintings on the grand scale, +corresponding to these drawings of 1521-1524, were ever carried out; +perhaps partly because of the declining state of the artist's health, +but more because of the degree to which he allowed his time and thoughts +to be absorbed in the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry +and perspective, proportion and fortification. Like Leonardo, but with +much less than Leonardo's genius for scientific speculation and +divination, Dürer was a confirmed reasoner and theorist on the laws of +nature and natural appearances. He himself attached great importance to +his studies in this kind; his learned friends expected him to give their +results to the world; which accordingly, though having little natural +gift or felicity in verbal expression, he laboured strenuously to do. +The consequence was that in the last and ripest years of his life he +produced as an artist comparatively little. In painting there is the +famous portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher at Berlin, in which the +personality and general aspect of the sitter assert themselves with +surprising power. This and the Antwerp head of Jerome are perhaps the +most striking examples of Dürer's power of forcing into subordination to +a general impression such a multiplicity of insistent detail as would +have smothered any weaker conception than his. No other hand could have +ventured to render the hair and beard of a sitter, as it was the habit +of this inveterate linearist to do, not by indication of masses, but by +means of an infinity of single lines swept, with a miraculous certainty +and fineness of touch, in the richest and most intricate of decorative +curves. To the same period belong a pleasing but somewhat weak "Madonna +and Child" at Florence; and finally, still in the same year 1526, the +two famous panels at Munich embodying the only one of the great +religious conceptions of the master's later years which he lived to +finish. These are the two pairs of saints, St John with St Peter in +front and St Paul with St Mark in the background. The John and Paul are +conceived and executed really in the great style, with a commanding +nobility and force alike in the character of the heads, the attitudes, +and the sweep of draperies; they represent the highest achievement of +early German art in painting. In copper-engraving Dürer's work during +the same years was confined entirely to portraits, those of the +cardinal-elector of Mainz ("The Great Cardinal"), Frederick the Wise, +elector of Saxony, Willibald Pirkheimer, Melanchthon and Erasmus. To the +tale of his woodcuts, besides a few illustrations to his book on +measurements (that is, geometry and perspective), and on fortification, +he only added one Holy Family and one portrait, that of his friend Eoban +Hesse. Of his theoretical books, he only succeeded in getting two +finished and produced during his lifetime, that on geometry and +perspective or measurement, to use his own title--which was published at +Nuremberg in 1525, and that on fortification, published in 1527; the +work on human proportions was brought out shortly after his death in +1528. His labours, whether artistic or theoretic, had for some time been +carried on in the face of failing health. In the canals of the Low +Countries he had caught a fever, of which he never shook off the +effects. We have the evidence of this in his own written words, as well +as in a sketch which he drew to indicate the seat of his suffering to +some physician with whom he was in correspondence, and again in the +record of his physical aspect which is preserved by a portrait engraved +on wood just after his death, from a drawing made no doubt not long +before in this portrait we see his shoulders already bent, the features +somewhat gaunt, the old pride of the abundant locks shorn away. The end +came on the night of the 6th of April 1528, so suddenly that there was +no time to call his dearest friends to his bedside. He was buried in a +vault which belonged to his wife's family, but was afterwards disturbed, +in the cemetery of St John at Nuremberg. An appropriate _Requiescat_ is +contained in the words of Luther, in a letter written to their common +friend Eoban Hesse:--"As for Dürer, assuredly affection bids us mourn +for one who was the best of men, yet you may well hold him happy that he +has made so good an end, and that Christ has taken him from the midst of +this time of trouble and from greater troubles in store, lest he, that +deserved to behold nothing but the best, should be compelled to behold +the worst. Therefore may he rest in peace with his fathers: Amen." + +The principal extant paintings of Dürer, with the places where they are +to be found, have been mentioned above. Of his drawings, which for +students are the most vitally interesting part of his works, the richest +collections are in the Albertina at Vienna, the Berlin Museum and the +British Museum. The Louvre also possesses some good examples, and many +others are dispersed in various public collections, as in the Musée +Bonnat at Bayonne, at Munich, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort, Dresden, +Basel, Milan, Florence and Oxford, as well as in private hands all over +Europe. + +The principal editions of Dürer's theoretical writings are these:-- + + _Geometry and Perspective._--_Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel + und Richtscheyt, in Linien, Ebnen und ganzen Corporen_ (Nuremberg, + 1525, 1533, 1538). A Latin translation of the same, with a long title + (Paris, Weichel, 1532) and another ed. in 1535. Again in Latin, with + the title _Institutionum geometricarum libri quatuor_ (Arnheim, 1605). + + _Fortification._--_Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, + Schloss und Flecken_ (Nuremberg, 1527), and other editions in 1530, + 1538 and 1603 (Arnheim). A Latin translation, with the title _De + urbibus, arcibus, castellisque muniendis ac condendis_ (Paris, + Weichel, 1535). See the article FORTIFICATION. + + _Human Proportion._--_Hierinnen sind begriffen vier Bücher von + menschlicher Proportion_ (Nuremberg, 1582, and Arnheim, 1603). Latin + translation: _De symetria partium in rectis formis humanorum corporum + libri in latinum conversi, de varietate figurarum, &c. libri ii._ + (Nuremberg, 1528, 1532 and 1534); (Paris, 1535, 1537, 1557). French + translation (Paris, 1557, Arnheim, 1613, 1614). Italian translation + (Venice, 1591, 1594); Portuguese translation (1599); Dutch translation + (Arnheim, 1622, 1662). + + The private literary remains of Dürer, his diary, letters, &c., were + first published, partially in Von Murr's _Journal zur Kunstgeschichte_ + (Nuremberg, 1785-1787); afterwards in Campe's _Reliquien von A. Dürer_ + (Nuremberg, 1827); again edited by Thausing, in the _Quellenschriften + für Kunstgeschichte und Kunsttechnik_ (Vienna, 1872), but most + completely in Lange and Fuhse's _Dürers schriftlicher Nachlass_ + (Halle, 1893); W.M. Conway's _Literary Remains of A. Dürer_ (London, + 1889) contains extensive transcripts from the MSS. in the British + Museum. + + The principal remaining literature of the subject will be found in the + following books and treatises--Johann Neudörfer, Schreib- und + Rechenmeister zu Nürnberg, _Nachrichten über Künstlern und Werkleuten + daselbst_ (Nuremberg, 1547); republished in the Vienna + _Quellenschrift_ (1875); C. Scheurl, _Vita Antonii Kressen_ (1515, + reprinted in the collection of Pirkheimer's works, Frankfort 1610); + Wimpheling, _Epitome rerum Germanicarum_, ch. 68 (Strassburg, 1565); + Joachim von Sandrart, _Deutsche Academie_ (Nuremberg, 1675); + Doppelmayr, _Historische Nachricht von den nürnbergischen Mathematicis + und Künstlern_ (Nuremberg, 1730); C.G. von Murr, _Journal zur + Kunstgeschichte_, as above; Adam Bartsch, _Le Peintre-Graveur_, vol. + vii. (Vienna, 1808); J.P. Passavant, _Le Peintre-Graveur_, vol. iii. + (Leipzig, 1842); J.F. Roth, _Leben Albrecht Dürers_ (Leipzig, 1791); + Heller, _Das Leben und die Werke Albrecht Dürers_, vol. ii. (Bamberg, + 1827-1831); B. Hausmann, _Dürers Kupferstiche, Radirungen, + Holzschnitte und Zeichnungen_ (Hanover, 1861); R. von Rettberg, + _Dürers Kupferstiche und Holzschnitte_ (Munich, 1876); M. Thausing, + _Dürer, Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Kunst_ (Leipzig, 1876, 2nd + ed., 1884), English translation (from the 1st ed. by F.A. Eaton, + London, 1882); W. Schmidt in Dohme's _Kunst und Künstler des + Mittelalters und der Neuzeit_ (Leipzig, 1877); _Oeuvre de Albert Dürer + reproduit et publié par Amand-Durand, texte par Georges Duplessis_ + (Paris, 1877); C. Ephrussi, _A. Dürer et ses dessins_ (Paris, 1882); + F. Lippmann, _Zeichnungen von A. Dürer in Nachbildungen_ (5 vols. + Berlin, 1883-1905); A. Springer, _Albrecht Dürer_ (Berlin, 1892); D. + Burckhardt, _Dürers Aufenthalt in Basel_, 1492-1494 (Munich, 1892); G. + von Terey, _A Dürers venezianischer Aufenthalt_, 1494-1495 + (Strassburg, 1892); S.R. Koehler, _A Chronological Catalogue of the + Engravings, Dry Points and Etchings of A. Dürer_ (New York, 1894); L. + Cust, _A. Dürer, a Study of his Life and Works_ (London, 1897); Dürer + Society's Publications (10 vols., 1898-1907), edited by C. Dodgson and + S.M. Peartree; H. Knackfuss, _Dürer_ (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 6th ed., + 1899), English translation, 1900; B. Haendcke, _Die Chronologie der + Landschaften A. Dürers_ (Strassburg, 1899); M. Zucker, _Albrecht + Dürer_ (Halle, 1899-1900); L. Justi, _Konstruierte Figuren und Köpfe + unter den Werken Albrecht Dürers_ (Leipzig, 1902); A. Pelzer, _A. + Dürer und Friedrich II. von der Pfalz_ (Strassburg, 1905); H. + Wölfflin, _Die Kunst A. Dürers_ (Munich, 1905); W. Weisbach, _Der + junge Dürer_ (Leipzig, 1906); V. Scherer, _A. Dürer_ (_Klassiker der + Kunst_, iv.), (2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1906). + + Apart from books, a large and important amount of the literature on + Dürer is contained in articles scattered through the leading art + periodicals of Germany, such as the _Jahrbücher_ of the Berlin and + Vienna museums, _Repertorium für Kunstwissenschaft_, _Zeitschrift für + bildende Kunst_, &c. A comprehensive survey of this literature is + afforded by Prof. H.W. Singer's _Versuch einer Dürer-Bibliographie_ + (Strassburg, 1903); articles published more recently will be found + completely enumerated in A. Jellinek's _Internationale Bibliographie + der Kunstwissenschaft_ (Berlin). (S. C.) + + + + +DURESS (through Fr. from Lat. _duritia_, harshness, severity, _durus_, +hard), in law, constraint or compulsion. Duress may be of two kinds. It +may consist in personal restraint or actual violence or imprisonment; or +it may be by threats (_per minas_), as where a person is compelled to an +act by threats of immediate death or grievous bodily harm. Duress, in +certain cases, may be pleaded as a defence of an act which would +otherwise be a crime, but the extent to which the plea of duress can be +urged is unascertained. At common law a contract entered into under +duress is voidable at the option of one of the parties. See COERCION, +CONTRACT. + + + + +D'URFEY, THOMAS (1653-1723), better known as Tom d'Urfey, English +song-writer and dramatist, belonged to a Huguenot family settled at +Exeter, where he was born in 1653. Honoré d'Urfé, the author of +_Astrée_, was his uncle. His first play, _The Siege of Memphis, or the +Ambitious Queen_, a bombastic rhymed tragedy, was produced at the +Theatre Royal in 1676. He was much more successful with his comedies, +which had brisk, complicated plots carried out in lively dialogue. He +had a light touch for fitting words on current topics to popular airs; +moreover, many of his songs were set to music by his friends Dr John +Blow, Henry Purcell and Thomas Farmer. Many of these songs were +introduced into his plays. Addison in the _Guardian_ (No. 67) relates +that he remembered to have seen Charles II. leaning on Tom d'Urfey's +shoulder and humming a song with him. Even William III. liked to hear +him sing his songs, and as a strong Tory he was sure of the favour of +Princess Anne, who is said to have given Tom fifty guineas for a song on +the Electress Sophia, the next heir in succession to the crown. "The +crown's far too weighty, for shoulders of eighty," said d'Urfey, with an +indirect compliment to the princess, "So Providence kept her away,--poor +old Dowager Sophy." Pope, in an amusing letter to Henry Cromwell +(_Works_, ed. Elwin and Courthope, vi. 91) describes him as "the only +poet of tolerable reputation in this country." In spite of the success +of his numerous comedies he was poor in his old age. But his gaiety and +invincible good humour had made him friends in the craft, and by the +influence of Addison his _Fond Husband, or The Plotting Sisters_ was +revived for d'Urfey's benefit at Drury Lane on the 15th of June 1713. +This performance, for which Pope wrote a prologue full of rather faint +praise, seems to have eased the poet's difficulties. He died on the +26th of February 1723, and was buried in St James's Church, Piccadilly. + + Collections of his songs with the music appeared during his lifetime, + the most complete being the 1719-1720 edition (6 vols.) of _Wit and + Mirth; or Pills to Purge Melancholy_. The best known of the + twenty-nine pieces of his which actually found their way to the stage + were _Love for Money; or The Boarding School_ (Theatre Royal, 1691), + _The Marriage-Hater Match'd_ (1692), and _The Comical History of Don + Quixote_, in three parts (1694, 1694 and 1696), which earned the + especial censure of Jeremy Collier. In his burlesque opera, _Wonders + in the Sun; or the Kingdom of the Birds_ (1706, music by G.B. + Draghi), the actors were dressed as parrots, crows, &c. + + + + +DURFORT, a village of south-western France, formerly in the province of +Guienne, now in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, 18 m. N.W. of +Montauban by road. It was at one time the seat of a feudal lordship +which gave its name to a family distinguished in French and English +history. Though earlier lords are known, the pedigree of the family is +only clearly traceable to Arnaud de Durfort (fl. 1305), who acquired the +fief of Duras by his marriage with a niece of Pope Clement V. His +descendant, Gaillard de Durfort, having embraced the side of the king of +England, went to London in 1453, and was made governor of Calais and a +knight of the Garter. + +The greatness of the family dates, however, from the 17th century. Guy +Aldonce (1605-1665), marquis de Duras and comte de Rozan, had, by his +wife Elizabeth de la Tour d'Auvergne, sister of Marshal Turenne, six +sons, three of whom played a distinguished part. The eldest, Jacques +Henri (1625-1704), was governor of Franche Comté in 1674 and was created +a marshal of France for his share in the conquest of that province +(1675). The second, Guy Aldonce (1630-1702), comte de Lorges and duc de +Quintin (known as the duc de Lorges), became a marshal of France in +1676, commanded the army in Germany from 1690 to 1695, and captured +Heidelberg in 1693. The sixth son, Louis (1640?-1709), marquis de +Blanquefort, came to England in the suite of James, duke of York, in +1663, and was naturalized in the same year. On the 19th of January +1672-1673 he was raised to the English peerage as Baron Duras of +Holdenby, his title being derived from an estate in Northamptonshire +bought from the duke of York, and in 1676 he married Mary, daughter and +elder co-heiress of Sir George Sondes, created in that year Baron +Throwley, Viscount Sondes and earl of Feversham. On the death of his +father-in-law (16th of April 1677), Duras succeeded to his titles under +a special remainder. He was appointed by Charles II. successively to the +command of the third and second troops of Horse Guards, was sent abroad +on several important diplomatic missions, and became master of the horse +(1679) and lord chamberlain to the queen (1680). In 1682 he was +appointed a lord of the bed-chamber, and was present at the king's +deathbed reconciliation with the Roman Church. Under James II. Feversham +became a member of the privy council, and in 1685 was given the chief +command against the rebels under Monmouth (q.v.), in which he mainly +distinguished himself by his cruelty to the vanquished. He was rewarded +with a knighthood of the Garter and the colonelcy of the first troop of +Life Guards, and in 1686 he was appointed to the command of the army +assembled by King James on Blackheath to overawe the people. On James's +flight, Feversham succeeded in making his peace with William, on the +intercession of the queen dowager, at whose instance he received the +mastership of the Royal Hospital of St Catherine near the Tower (1698). +He died without issue on the 8th of April 1709. [See G.E. C(ockayne), +_Complete Peerage_, and art. in _Dict. Nat. Biog._] + +Jean Baptiste (1684-1770), due de Duras, son of Jacques Henri, was also +a marshal of France. In 1733 he resigned the dukedom of Duras to his +son, Emmanuel Félicité, himself receiving the brevet title of duc de +Durfort. Emmanuel Félicité (1715-1789), duc de Duras, took part in all +the wars of Louis XV. and was made a marshal of France in 1775. His +grandson, Amédée Bretagne Malo (1771-1838), duc de Duras, is mainly +known as the husband of Claire Louise Rose Bonne de Coëtnempren de +Kersaint (1778-1828), daughter of Armand Guy Simon de Coëtnempren +Kersaint (q.v.), who, as duchesse de Duras, presided over a once +celebrated salon and wrote several novels once widely read. + +The family of Durfort is represented in France now by the branch of +Durfort-Civrac, dating from the 16th century. Jean Laurent (1740-1826), +marquis de Civrac, married his cousin, the daughter of the duc de +Lorges; his son, Guy Emeric Anne (1767-1837), duc de Civrac, became +afterwards duc de Lorges. Henri, marquis de Durfort-Civrac (1812-1884), +was a well-known politician, and was several times elected +vice-president of the chamber of deputies. + + + + +DURGA, or DEVI (Sanskrit for inaccessible), in Hindu mythology, the wife +of Siva (q.v.) and daughter of Himavat (the Himalayas). She has many +names and many characters. As Durga (so named from having slain the +demon Durga) she is warlike and ferocious, and to her in this form are +offered bloody sacrifices, and such ceremonies as the Durgapuja and +Churrukpuga are held in her honour (see KALI). The chief festival in +Bengal--sometimes termed the Christmas of Bengal--celebrates the +goddess's birth in the sixth Hindu month (parts of September and +October). Durga is pictured, in spite of her fierce nature, with a +gentle face. She has ten arms, holding each a weapon, while her +attendant lions and giants are grouped on each side. + + + + +DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792-1840), English statesman, +son of William Henry Lambton of Lambton Castle, Durham, was born in +London on the 12th of April 1792. His mother was Anne Barbara Villiers, +daughter of the 4th earl of Jersey. Lambton was only five years old when +by his father's death at Pisa (1797) he succeeded to large estates in +the north of England which had been in the uninterrupted possession of +his family since the 12th century. In 1805 he went to Eton, and in 1809 +obtained a commission in the 10th Hussars. In 1812, while still a minor, +he made a runaway match with Henrietta, natural daughter of Lord +Cholmondeley, whom he married at Gretna Green, and who died in 1815. In +1813 he was elected to the House of Commons as member for the county of +Durham. Whig principles of a pronounced type were traditional in +Lambton's family. His grandfather, General John Lambton, had refused a +peerage in 1793 out of loyalty to Fox, and his father was not only one +of Pitt's keenest opponents, but was chairman of "The Friends of the +People" and author of that society's address to the nation in 1792. +Lambton adhered to this tradition, and soon developed opinions of an +extremely Radical type, which he fearlessly put forward in parliament +and in the country with marked ability. His maiden speech in the House +of Commons was directed against the foreign policy of Lord Liverpool's +government, who had sanctioned, and helped to enforce, the annexation of +Norway by Sweden. In 1815 he vehemently opposed the corn tax, and in +general began to take a prominent part in opposition to the Tories. In +1816 he made the acquaintance of Lafayette in Paris, and narrowly +escaped arrest for alleged complicity in his escape. In 1817 he began to +speak on every opportunity in favour of parliamentary reform. + +His political position was strengthened by his marriage in December 1816 +to Louisa Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Lord Grey, and as early as 1818 +he was taken into the political confidence of his father-in-law and +other leaders of the Whigs in matters touching the leadership and policy +of the party. But from the first Lambton belonged to the avowedly +Radical wing of the party, with whose aims Grey had little sympathy; and +when he gave notice of a resolution in 1819 in favour of shortening the +duration of parliaments, and of a wide extension of the franchise, he +found himself discountenanced by old Whigs like Grey, Holland and +Fitzwilliam. Having warmly espoused the cause of Queen Caroline, Lambton +ably seconded Lord Tavistock's resolution in February 1821 censuring the +government for their conduct towards the queen; and in April he made his +first great speech in the House of Commons on parliamentary reform, when +he proposed a scheme for the extension of the suffrage to all holders of +property, the division of the country into electoral districts and the +disfranchisement of rotten boroughs. He was now one of the recognized +leaders of the advanced Liberals, forming a connecting link between the +aristocratic Whig leaders and the irresponsible and often violent +politicians of the great towns. His opposition to those members of his +party who in 1825 were prepared for compromise on the question of +Catholic emancipation led to his first conflict with Brougham, with whom +he had been on terms of close friendship. While supporting the +candidature of his brother-in-law, Lord Howick, for Northumberland in +the elections of 1826, Lambton fought a duel with T.W. Beaumont, the +Tory candidate, but without bloodshed on either side. Unlike his +father-in-law, Lambton supported the ministry of Canning, though he had +some grounds for personal grievance against the new prime minister, and +after Canning's death that of Lord Goderich. On the advice of the latter +Lambton was raised to the peerage in 1828 with the title of Baron +Durham. Owing to his Liberal principles Lord Durham was on terms of +friendship with the duke of Sussex, and also with Prince Leopold of +Saxe-Coburg, who sought his advice in the difficult crisis in 1829 when +he was offered the throne of Greece, and who, after he became king of +the Belgians as Leopold I., continued to correspond with Durham as a +trusted confidant; the same confidential relations also existed between +Durham and Leopold's sister, the duchess of Kent, and her daughter, +afterwards Queen Victoria. + +In November 1830 when Grey became prime minister in succession to the +duke of Wellington, Lord Durham entered the cabinet as lord privy seal. +Parliamentary reform was in the forefront of the new government's +policy, and with this question no statesman except Lord Grey himself was +more closely indentified than Durham. To ardent reformers in the country +the presence in the cabinet of "Radical Jack," the name by which Lambton +had been popularly known in the north of England, was a pledge that +thorough-going reform would not be shirked by the Whigs, now in office +for the first time for twenty years. And it was to his son-in-law that +Lord Grey confided the task of preparing a scheme to serve as the basis +of the proposed legislation. Full justice has not generally been done to +the leading part played by Lord Durham in preparing the great Reform +Act. He was the chief author of the proposals which, after being +defeated in 1831, became law with little alteration in 1832. He was +chairman of the famous committee of four, which met at his house in +Cleveland Row and drew up the scheme submitted by the government to +parliament. His colleagues, who were appointed rather as his assistants +than as his equals, were Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham and Lord +Duncannon; and it was Durham who selected Lord John Russell, not then in +the cabinet, to introduce the bill in the House of Commons; a selection +that was hotly opposed by Brougham, whose later vindictive animosity +against Durham is to be traced to his having been passed over in the +selection of the committee of four. Durham was present with Grey at an +audience of the king which led to the sudden dissolution of parliament +in March 1831; and when the deadlock between the two Houses occurred +over the second Reform Bill, he was the most eager in pressing on the +prime minister the necessity for a creation of peers to overcome the +resistance of the house of Lords. + +After the passing of the Reform Act, Durham, whose health was bad and +who had suffered the loss of two of his children, accepted a special and +difficult diplomatic mission to Russia, which he carried out with much +tact and ability, though without accomplishing its main purpose. On his +return he resigned office in March 1833, ostensibly for reasons of +health, but in reality owing to his disagreement with the government's +Irish policy as conducted by Lord Stanley; in the same month he was +created earl of Durham and Viscount Lambton. His advanced opinions, in +the assertion of which he was too little disposed to consider the +convictions of others, gradually alienated the more moderate of his late +colleagues, such as Melbourne and Palmerston, and even Lord Grey often +found his son-in-law intractable and self-assertive; but the growing +hostility of the treacherous Brougham was mainly due to Durham's +undoubted popularity in the country, where he was regarded by many, +including J.S. Mill, as Grey's probable successor in the leadership of +the Liberal party. Durham was at this time courted by the youthful +Disraeli, who, when Melbourne became prime minister in succession to +Grey in 1834, declared that the Whigs could not exist as a party without +Lord Durham. Brougham's animosity became undisguised at the great +banquet given to Lord Grey at Edinburgh in September 1834, where he made +a venomous attack on Durham, repeated shortly afterwards at Salisbury, +and anonymously in the _Edinburgh Review_. On the other hand the +strength of Durham's position in the country was shown on the occasion +of his visit to Glasgow in October to receive the freedom of the city, +when a concourse of more than a hundred thousand persons assembled to +hear him speak at Glasgow Green, and where he replied to Brougham's +attacks at a great banquet held in his honour. Brougham had over-reached +himself; and although Durham was no favourite with William IV., the +king's disgust with the lord chancellor was one of the principal reasons +for his summary dismissal of the Whig ministry in 1834. When Melbourne +returned to power after Peel's short administration, Durham's radicalism +and impatient temper excluded him from the cabinet; and again in 1837, +on his return from an appointment as ambassador extraordinary in St +Petersburg (1835-1837), when there was some idea of his joining the +ministry, Lord John Russell wrote: "Everybody, after the experience we +have had, must doubt whether there can be peace or harmony in a cabinet +of which Lord Durham is a member." + +In July 1837 he resisted the entreaty of Lord Melbourne that he should +undertake the government of Canada, where the condition of affairs had +become alarming; but a few months later, giving way to the urgent +insistence of the prime minister who promised him "the firmest and most +unflinching support" of the government, he accepted the post of +governor-general and lord high commissioner, with the almost dictatorial +powers conferred on him by an act passed in February 1838, by which the +constitution of Lower Canada was suspended for two years. Having secured +the services of Charles Buller (q.v.) as first secretary, and having +with more doubtful wisdom appointed Thomas Turton and Edward Gibbon +Wakefield (q.v.) to be his unofficial assistants, Durham arrived at +Quebec on the 28th of May 1838. Papineau's rebellion had been quelled, +but the French Canadians were sullen, the attitude of the United States +equivocal, and the general situation dangerous, especially in the Lower +Province where government was practically in abeyance. Durham at once +issued a conciliatory proclamation. His next step was to dismiss the +executive council of his predecessor and to appoint a new one consisting +of men uncommitted to any existing faction, a step much criticized at +home but generally commended on the spot. On the 28th of June, the day +of Queen Victoria's coronation, he issued a proclamation of amnesty, +from the benefit of which eight persons only of those who had taken part +in the rebellion were excepted; while an accompanying ordinance provided +for the transference of these eight excepted persons from Montreal to +Bermuda, where they were to be imprisoned without trial. Papineau and +fifteen other fugitives were forbidden on pain of death to return to +Canada. In a letter of congratulation to the queen, Durham took credit +for the clemency of his policy towards the rebels, and it was defended +on the same ground by Charles Buller and by public opinion in the +colony. + +In England, however, as soon as these proceedings became known, Brougham +seized the opportunity for venting his malice against both Durham and +the ministry. He had already raised objections to the appointment of +Turton and Wakefield; he now attacked the ordinance in the House of +Lords, challenging the legality of the clause transporting prisoners to +Bermuda, where Durham had no jurisdiction. Melbourne and his colleagues, +with the honourable exception of Lord John Russell, made little effort +to defend the public servant to whom they had promised "the most +unflinching support"; and, although both the prime minister and the +colonial secretary when first fully informed of the governor-general's +proceedings had hastened to assure him of their "entire approval," three +weeks later, cowed by Brougham's malignant invective, they disallowed +the ordinance, and carried an Act of Indemnity the terms of which were +insulting to Durham. The latter immediately resigned; but before +returning to England he put himself in the wrong by issuing a +proclamation in which he not only justified his own conduct in detail, +but made public complaint of his grievances against the ministers of the +Crown, a step that alienated much sympathy which his unjust treatment by +the government would otherwise have called forth, though it was defended +by men like Charles Buller and J.S. Mill. The usual official honours +given to a returning plenipotentiary were not accorded to Durham on his +arrival at Plymouth on the 30th of November 1838, but the populace +received him with acclamation. He immediately set about preparing his +memorable "Report on the Affairs of British North America," which was +laid before parliament on the 31st of January 1839. This report, one of +the greatest state papers in the English language, laid down the +principles, then unrecognized, which have guided British colonial policy +ever since. It was not written or composed by Charles Buller, as +Brougham was the first to suggest, and the credit for the statesmanship +it exhibits is Lord Durham's alone, though he warmly acknowledged the +assistance he had derived from Buller, Wakefield and others in preparing +the materials on which it was based. With regard to the future +government of British North America, Durham had at first inclined +towards a federation of all the colonies on that continent, and this +aim, afterwards achieved, remained in his eyes an ideal to be striven +for; but as a more immediately practical policy he advised the +legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada, his avowed aim being to +organize a single state in which the British inhabitants would be in a +majority. He further urged the creation of an executive council +responsible to the colonial legislature; he advised state-aided +emigration on the broadest possible scale, and the formation of an +intercolonial railway for the development of the whole country. Meantime +Durham, who almost alone among the statesmen of his time saw the +importance of imperial expansion, interested himself in the emigration +schemes of Gibbon Wakefield (q.v.); he became chairman of the New +Zealand Company, and was thus concerned in the enterprise which +forestalled France in asserting sovereignty over the islands of New +Zealand in September 1839. His health, however, had long been failing, +and he died at Cowes on the 28th of July 1840, just five days after the +royal assent had been given to the bill giving effect to his project for +uniting Upper and Lower Canada. + +Lord Durham filled a larger place in the eyes of his contemporaries than +many statesmen who have been better remembered. He was in his lifetime +regarded as a great popular leader; and his accession to supreme +political power was for some years considered probable by many; his +opinions were, however, too extreme to command the confidence of any +considerable party in parliament before 1840. That Brougham hated him +and Melbourne feared him, is a tribute to his abilities; and in the +first Reform Act, of which he was the chief author, and in the famous +_Report_ on the principles of colonial policy, he left an indelible mark +on English history. His personal defects of character did much to mar +the success of a career, which, it must be remembered, terminated at the +age of forty-eight. He was impatient, hot-tempered, hypersensitive to +criticism, vain and prone to take offence at fancied slights; but he was +also generous and unvindictive, and while personally ambitious his care +for the public interest was genuine and untiring. + +By his first wife Durham had three daughters; by his second, who was a +lady of the bedchamber to Queen Victoria but resigned on her husband's +return from Canada, he had two sons and three daughters. The eldest son, +Charles William, the "Master Lambton" of Sir Thomas Lawrence's +celebrated picture, died in 1831; the second, George Frederick d'Arcy +(1828-1879), succeeded his father as 2nd earl of Durham. The latter's +son, John George Lambton (b. 1855), became 3rd earl in 1879. + + See Stuart J. Reid, _Life and Letters of the First Earl of Durham_ (2 + vols., London, 1906); _The Greville Memoirs_, parts i. and ii. + (London, 1874-1887); Richard, duke of Buckingham and Chandos, _Memoirs + of the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (2 vols., + London, 1861); William Harris, _History of the Radical Party in + Parliament_ (London, 1885); Harriet Martineau, _History of the Thirty + Years' Peace_ (4 vols., London, 1877); William Kingsford, _History of + Canada_, vol. x. (10 vols., Toronto, 1887-1898), H.E. Egerton, _Short + History of British Colonial Policy_ (London, 1897). (R. J. M.) + + + + +DURHAM, a northern county of England, bounded N. by Northumberland, E. +by the North Sea, S. by Yorkshire, and W. by Westmorland and Cumberland. +Its area is 1014.6 sq. m. It is wholly on the eastern slope, the western +angle being occupied by spurs of the Pennine chain, exceeding 2300 ft. +in height at some points on the Cumberland border. West of a line from +Barnard Castle by Wolsingham to the neighbourhood of Consett the whole +of the land, excepting narrow valleys, lies at elevations exceeding 1000 +ft. This area represents roughly one quarter of the total. The principal +rivers rising in these hills are the Derwent, tributary to the Tyne, +forming part of the county boundary with Northumberland, the Wear and +the Tees, which forms almost the whole of the boundary with Westmorland +and Yorkshire. The dales traversed by these rivers in their upper parts, +though sufficiently strongly contrasted with the dark, barren moors +surrounding them, yet partake of somewhat the same wild character. Lower +down, however, are beautiful and fertile valleys, the main rivers +flowing between steep, well-wooded banks; while the lesser streams of +the coastal district have carved out denes or ravines on the steep +flanks of which vegetation is luxuriant. Castle Eden Dene, 7 m. N.W. of +Hartlepool, is famous for its beautiful trees and wild flowers. The +coastward slope is fairly steep in the northern half of the county, but +it is steady, and the coast itself has no striking scenic features, save +where the action of the waves upon the magnesian limestone has separated +great masses, leaving towering fragments standing, and fretting the face +of the rock with caverns and arches. The cluster of rocks named the +Black Halls, 6 m. N.W. of Hartlepool, best exhibits these features. +Other natural phenomena include the Linnkirk caves near Stanhope in +Weardale in which numerous fossils and bones, with evidence of +habitation by man, have been discovered; and the Hell Kettles, S. of +Darlington, near the junction of the Tees and the Skerne, four cavities +filled with water, reputed to be unfathomable, and measuring from 80 to +120 ft. in diameter. The water is sulphurous. + +Except in the moorlands of the west only a few scraps of the county have +been left in their natural state; but these portions are of great +interest to the student of natural history. The ballast-hills at +Shields, Jarrow and Hartlepool, formed by the discharge of material from +ships arriving in ballast from foreign countries, are overgrown with +aliens, many of which are elsewhere unknown in this country. Nearly +fifty different species have been found. Stockton was almost the last +retreat in England of the native black rat. Of the former abundance of +deer, wild ox and boar every peat bog testifies by its remains; the boar +appears to have existed in the reign of Henry VIII., and records of red +deer in the county may be traced down to the middle of the 18th century. + + _Geology._--The uplift of the Pennine hills causes nearly all the + stratified rocks of Durham to dip towards the east or south-east. Thus + the oldest rocks are to be found in the west, while in passing + eastward younger rocks are continually met. In the hilly district of + Weardale and Teesdale the Carboniferous Limestone series prevails; + this is a succession of thick beds of limestone with intervening + sandstones and shales. Some of the calcareous beds are highly + fossiliferous; those at Frosterley near Stanhope are full of the + remains of corals and the stone is polished as a marble. Much of the + higher ground in the west is capped by Millstone Grit, as at + Muggleswick and Walsingham commons. The outcrop of this formation + broadens eastward until it is covered by the Durham coalfield which + occupies the centre of the county from Newcastle and South Shields to + Barnard Castle. The Coal Measures are about 2000 ft. thick and contain + upwards of 100 seams of coal, including many of great importance--the + Brockwell coal, Low Main coal and High Main coal are some of the + well-known seams. Fireclays of great value are obtained from beneath + many of the coal seams. Apart from the coals, the Coal Measures are + made up of beds of sandstone and shale, the former called "post" and + the latter "plate" by the local miners. Permian magnesian limestone + succeeds the Coal Measures on the east, it reaches from the Tees to + South Shields in a broad tract and occupies the coast between that + town and Hartlepool. Remarkable concretionary forms are found in the + Fulwell Quarries simulating honeycomb and coral structures. The stone + is quarried at Marsden for the manufacture of Epsom salts; it is also + used for lime-making and building. Fish remains are not uncommon in + it. The sandstones and marls seen between the magnesian limestone and + the Coal Measures at South Shields, Newbottle and several miles + farther south are usually classed as Permian, but they may possibly + prove to belong to the lower series. In the south-east corner of the + county, by Darlington, Stockton and Seaton Carew, the low ground is + made of Triassic rocks, red marls and sandstones with beds of gypsum + and rock salt. Coal Measures undoubtedly underlie the Permian and + Triassic strata. Normal faults traverse the district, mostly from east + to west. Great dykes and sills of basalt lie in the Tees valley above + Middleton and one, the Great Whin Sill, may be followed in an easterly + direction for over 120 m. The Cockfield dyke and Little Whin Sill are + similar intrusions of basalt. Lead mines have been extensively worked + in the limestone districts of Weardale and Teesdale; the limestone + itself is quarried on a large scale for fluxing in the ironworks. + Glacial deposits obscure the older rocks over much of the county, they + contain travelled stones from the Pennines and Cheviots. Submerged + forests appear off the coast at West Hartlepool and other points. A + small patch of Silurian occurs near Cronkley on the Tees; here slate + pencils were formerly made. + +_Agriculture._--Near the river Tees, and in some places bordering on the +other rivers, the soil is loam or a rich clay. At a farther distance +from these rivers it is of inferior quality, with patches of gravel +interspersed. The hills east of the line from Barnard Castle to Consett +are covered with a dry loam, the fertility of which varies with its +depth. West of the line the summits and flanks of the hills are in great +part waste moorland. Only some two-thirds of the total area of the +county are under cultivation, and nearly two-thirds of this are in +permanent pasture. There are also nearly 60,000 acres of hill-pasture. +Of the diminished area under corn crops oats occupy more than one-half, +and barley much exceeds wheat. Nearly two-thirds of the average under +green crops are occupied by turnips, as many cattle are raised and have +a long-standing reputation. The cows are especially good yielders of +milk. The sheep are also highly esteemed, particularly the Teesdale +breed. Those of Weardale are small, but their mutton is finely +flavoured. + +_Mining._--The mountain limestone contains veins of lead ore and zinc +ore. The beds of coal in the Coal Measures have long been a source of +enormous wealth. The mines are among the most extensive and productive +in the kingdom. At Sunderland the coal trade furnishes employment for +hundreds of vessels, independently of the "keels" or lighters which +convey the coal from the termini of the railways and tramways to the +ships. The seams worked extend horizontally for many miles, and are from +20 to 100 fathoms beneath the surface. The Frosterley marble has been +quarried for many centuries near Stanhope for decorative purposes, in +Durham cathedral and elsewhere taking the place of Purbeck marble, while +in modern houses it is used chiefly for chimney-pieces. Ironstone is +worked in the neighbourhood of Whickham and elsewhere. Excellent slate +is quarried at several places. The neighbourhood of Wolsingham abounds +in fine millstones. The Newcastle grindstones are procured at Gateshead +Fell; and firestone for building ovens, furnaces and the like is +obtained in various parts of Durham, and exported in considerable +quantity. + +_Other Industries._--The manufacturing industries are extensive, and all +are founded upon the presence of coal, of which, moreover, large +quantities are exported. The industrial and mining districts may be +taken to lie almost wholly east of a line from Darlington through Bishop +Auckland to Consett. Textile industries are not carried on to any great +extent, but a large number of hands are employed in the manufacture of +machines, appliances, conveyances, tools, &c. Of this manufacture the +branch of shipbuilding stands first; the yards on the Tyne are second +only to those on the Clyde, and the industry is prosecuted also at +Sunderland, the Hartlepools and Stockton-on-Tees. The founding and +conversion of metal stands next in importance; and other industries +include the manufacture of paper, chemicals (chiefly on the Tyne), glass +and bottles and earthenware (at Gateshead and Sunderland). The output of +limestone is greater than that of any other county in the United +Kingdom. As regards iron, the presence of the coal and the proximity of +the Cleveland iron district of North Yorkshire enable the county to +produce over one million tons of pig-iron annually, though the output +of iron from within the county itself is inconsiderable. There is a +large production of salt from brine. The sea fisheries of Sunderland and +Hartlepool are valuable. + +_Communications._--Railway communication is provided entirely by the +North Eastern company. The main line runs northward through Darlington, +Durham and Gateshead, and there are a large number of branches through +the mining and industrial districts, while the company also owns some of +the docks. From Stockton to Darlington ran the railway engineered by +George Stephenson and opened in 1825. The chief ports of Durham are +Jarrow and South Shields on the Tyne, Sunderland at the mouth of the +Wear, Seaham Harbour, Hartlepool East and West and Stockton-on-Tees. + +_Administration and Population._--Durham is one of the Counties +Palatine, the others being Lancashire and Cheshire. The area of the +ancient county is 649,352 acres, and that of the administrative county +649,244 acres. There were formerly three outlying portions of the +county, known as North Durham (including Norhamshire and Islandshire), +Bedlingtonshire and Crayke. These were attached to the county as having +formed parcels of the ancient "patrimony of St Cuthbert," of which the +land between Tyne and Tees was the chief portion. The population in 1891 +was 1,016,454 and in 1901 1,187,361. The birth-rate is much above, the +death-rate also above, but the percentage of illegitimacy considerably +below, the average. The county is divided into 4 wards. The following +are municipal boroughs: Darlington (pop. 44,511), Durham, city (14,679), +Gateshead, county borough (109,888), Hartlepool (22,723), Jarrow +(34,295), South Shields, county borough (97,263), Stockton-on-Tees +(51,478), Sunderland, county borough (146,077), West Hartlepool +(62,627). The other urban districts may be distributed so as to indicate +roughly the most populous and industrial districts: + +1. In the Tyne district (where Gateshead, Jarrow and South Shields are +the chief centres)--Blaydon (19,623), Felling (22,467), Hebburn +(20,901), Ryton (8452), Whickham (12,852). + +2. North-western district--Annfield Plain (12,481), Benfieldside (7457), +Consett (9694), Leadgate (4657), Tanfield (8276), Stanley (13,554). + +3. Durham and Bishop Auckland district (continuation south of the +preceding)--Bishop Auckland (11,969), Brandon and Byshottles (15,573), +Crook (11,471), Shildon and East Thickley (11,759), Spennymoor (16,665), +Tow Law (4371), Willington (7887). + +4. Durham and Sunderland district (N.E. of preceding)--Hetton (13,673), +Houghton-le-Spring (7858), Seaham Harbour (10,163), Southwick-on-Wear +(12,643). The township of Chester-le-Street (11,753) is also in this +district. + +The only other urban districts are Barnard Castle (4421) in Teesdale and +Stanhope (1964) in Weardale. Durham is in the north-eastern circuit, and +assizes are held at Durham. It has one court of quarter sessions and is +divided into 16 petty sessional divisions. All the boroughs have +separate commissions of the peace. The ancient county, which is in the +diocese of Durham, excepting part of one parish in that of York, +contains 243 ecclesiastical parishes wholly or in part. There are 288 +civil parishes. The county is divided into eight parliamentary +divisions, each returning one member--Jarrow, Chester-le-Street, +Houghton-le-Spring, Mid, North-west, Barnard Castle, Bishop Auckland, +South-east. It also includes the parliamentary borough of Sunderland, +returning two members, and the boroughs of Darlington, Durham, +Gateshead, Hartlepool, South Shields and Stockton-on-Tees, returning one +member each. Among educational establishments there may be mentioned the +university and the grammar school in the city of Durham, and the Roman +Catholic college of Ushaw near Durham. + +_History._--After the death of Ida in the 6th century the kingdom of +Northumbria was divided into the two states of Bernicia and Deira, +separated from each other by the Tees, the latter including the district +afterwards known as Durham. The post-conquest palatinate arose by a +process of slow growth from the grant of land made by Egfrith to St +Cuthbert on his election to the see of Lindisfarne in 684. On the +transference of the see to Chester-le-Street in the 9th century, Guthred +the Dane endowed it with the whole district between the Tyne and the +Wear, stretching west as far as Watling Street, a grant confirmed by +Alfred; and when in 995 the see was finally established at Durham, the +endowment was again largely enriched by various donations. Durham +continued, however, to form part of the earldom of Northumbria, and not +until after the purchase of the earldom by Bishop Walcher in 1075 did +the bishops begin to exercise regal rights in their territory. The term +_palatinus_ is applied to the bishop in 1293, and from the 13th century +onwards the bishops frequently claim such rights in their lands as the +king enjoys in his kingdom. At the time of the Conquest the bishop's +possessions included nearly all the district between the Tees and the +Tyne, except Sadberge, and also the outlying districts of +Bedlingtonshire, Norhamshire, Islandshire and Crayke, together with +Hexhamshire, the city of Carlisle, and part of Teviotdale. Henry I. +deprived the bishopric of the last three, but in compensation made over +to it the vills of Burdon, Aycliffe and Carlton, hitherto included in +the earldom of Northumberland. The wapentake of Sadberge also formed +part of the earldom of Northumberland; it was purchased for the see by +Bishop Pudsey in 1189, but continued an independent franchise, with a +separate sheriff, coroner and court of pleas. In the 14th century +Sadberge was included in Stockton ward and was itself divided into two +wards. The division into the four wards of Chester-le-Street, +Darlington, Easington and Stockton existed in the 13th century, each +ward having its own coroner and a three-weekly court corresponding to +the hundred court. The diocese was divided into the archdeaconries of +Durham and Northumberland. The former is mentioned in 1072, and in 1291 +included the deaneries of Chester-le-Street, Auckland, Lanchester and +Darlington. + +Until the 15th century the most important administrative officer in the +palatinate was the steward. Other officers were the sheriff, the +coroners, the chamberlain and the chancellor. The palatine exchequer was +organized in the 12th century. The palatine assembly represented the +whole county, and dealt chiefly with fiscal questions. The bishop's +council, consisting of the clergy, the sheriff and the barons, regulated +the judicial affairs, and later produced the Chancery and the courts of +Admiralty and Marshalsea. The prior of Durham ranked first among the +bishop's barons. He had his own court, and almost exclusive jurisdiction +over his men. The _quo warranto_ proceedings of 1293 exhibit twelve +lords enjoying more or less extensive franchises under the bishop. The +repeated efforts of the crown to check the powers of the palatinate +bishops culminated in 1536 in the Act of Resumption, which deprived the +bishop of the power to pardon offences against the law or to appoint +judicial officers; indictments and legal processes were in future to run +in the name of the king, and offences to be described as against the +peace of the king, not against that of the bishop. In 1596 restrictions +were imposed on the powers of the chancery, and in 1646 the palatinate +was formally abolished. It was revived, however, after the Restoration, +and continued with much the same power until the act of 1836, which +provided that the palatine jurisdiction should in future be vested in +the crown. There were ten palatinate barons in the 12th century, the +most important being the Hiltons of Hilton Castle, the Bulmers of +Brancepeth, the Conyers of Sockburne, the Hansards of Evenwood, and the +Lumleys of Lumley Castle. The Nevilles owned large estates in the +county; Raby Castle, their principal seat, was built by John de Neville +in 1377. Owing to its isolated position the palatinate took little part +or interest in any of the great rebellions of the Norman and Plantagenet +period. During the Wars of the Roses Henry VI. passed through Durham, +and the novelty of a royal visit procured him an enthusiastic reception. +On the outbreak of the Great Rebellion Durham inclined to support the +cause of the parliament, and in 1640 the high sheriff of the palatinate +guaranteed to supply the Scottish army with provisions during their stay +in the county. In 1642 the earl of Newcastle formed the western counties +into an association for the king's service, but in 1644 the palatinate +was again overrun by the Scottish army, and after the battle of Marston +Moor fell entirely into the hands of the parliament. + +Durham has never possessed any manufactures of importance, and the +economic history of the county centres round the growth of the mining +industry, which employed almost the whole of the non-agricultural +population. Stephen possessed a mine in Durham which he granted to +Bishop Pudsey, and in the same century colliers are mentioned at +Coundon, Bishopwearmouth and Sedgefield. Cockfield Fell was one of the +earliest Landsale collieries in Durham. Edward III. issued an order +allowing coal dug at Newcastle to be taken across the Tyne, and Richard +II. granted to the inhabitants of Durham licence to export the produce +of the mines, without paying dues to the corporation of Newcastle. Among +other early industries lead-mining was carried on in the western part of +the county, and mustard was extensively cultivated. Gateshead had a +considerable tanning trade and shipbuilding was carried on at Jarrow. + +In 1614 a bill was introduced in parliament for securing representation +to the county and city of Durham and the borough of Barnard Castle. The +movement was strongly opposed by the bishop, as an infringement of his +palatinate rights, and the county was first summoned to return members +to parliament in 1654. After the Restoration the county and city +returned two members each. By the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned +two members for two divisions, and the boroughs of Gateshead, South +Shields and Sunderland acquired representation. The boroughs of +Darlington, Stockton and Hartlepool returned one member each from 1868 +until the Redistribution Act of 1885. + +_Antiquities._--To the Anglo-Saxon period are to be referred portions of +the churches of Monk Wearmouth (Sunderland), Jarrow, Escomb near Bishop +Auckland, and numerous sculptured crosses, two of which are _in situ_ at +Aycliffe. The best remains of the Norman period are to be found in +Durham cathedral and in the castle, also in some few parish churches, as +at Pittington and Norton near Stockton. Of the Early English period are +the eastern portion of the cathedral, the fine churches of Darlington, +Hartlepool, and St Andrew, Auckland, Sedgefield, and portions of a few +other churches. The Decorated and Perpendicular periods are very +scantily represented, on account, as is supposed, of the incessant wars +between England and Scotland in the 14th and 15th centuries. The +principal monastic remains, besides those surrounding Durham cathedral, +are those of its subordinate house or "cell," Finchale Priory, +beautifully situated by the Wear. The most interesting castles are those +of Durham, Raby, Brancepeth and Barnard. There are ruins of castelets or +peel-towers at Dalden, Ludworth and Langley Dale. The hospitals of +Sherburn, Greatham and Kepyer, founded by early bishops of Durham, +retain but few ancient features. + + See W. Hutchinson, _History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of + Durham_ (3 vols., Newcastle, 1785-1794); R. Surtees, _History and + Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham_ (4 vols., London, + 1816-1840); B. Bartlet, _The Bishoprick Garland, Collection of + Legends, Songs, Ballads ... of Durham_ (London, 1834); J. Raine, + _History and Antiquities of North Durham_ (London, 1852); Perry and + Herman, _Illustrations of the Medieval Antiquities of the County of + Durham_ (Oxford, 1867); G.T. Lapsley, _The County Palatine of Durham_ + (New York, &c., 1900); _Victoria County History, Durham_. See also the + Surtees Society's Publications, and _Transactions of the Architectural + Society of Durham and Northumberland_. + + + + +DURHAM, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough, and the county +town of Durham, England, 256 m. N. by W. from London, on the North +Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 14,679. The nucleus of the site is a +narrow, bold peninsula formed by a bend of the river Wear, on which +stand the cathedral and the castle. The city, however, extends both E. +and W. of this. + + + Cathedral. + +The position of the cathedral of St Cuthbert, its west end rising +immediately from the steep wooded bank of the river, is surpassed in +beauty by no other English cathedral. Its foundation arose from the fact +that here, after wandering far over the north of England, the monks of +Lindisfarne rested with the body of St Cuthbert, which they had removed +from its tomb in fear of Danish invaders. This was in 995. Soon +afterwards a church was built by Bishop Ealdhune, and the see was +removed hither from Lindisfarne. The peninsula was called Dunholme (Hill +Island), which in Norman times was softened to Duresme, whence Durham. +It is said that the monks of Lindisfarne, knowing the name of the place +where they should find retreat, but ignorant of its situation, were +guided hither by a woman searching for her cow, and the bas-relief of a +cow on the north wall of the church commemorates this incident. In 1093 +Ealdhune's church was rebuilt by Bishop Carilef, who changed the early +establishment of married priests into a Benedictine abbey. The grand +Norman building in which his designs were carried out remains with +numerous additions. The stone-vaulting is particularly noteworthy. The +choir contains the earliest work, but Carilef's eastern apses made way +for the exquisite chapel of the Nine Altars, with its rose windows and +beautiful carving, of late Early English workmanship. The nave is +massive Norman, with round pillars ornamented with surface-carving of +various patterns. The western towers are Norman with an Early English +superstructure. The famous Galilee chapel, of the finest late Norman +work, projects from the west end. The central tower is a lofty and +graceful Perpendicular structure. Other details especially worthy of +notice are the altar screen of c. 1380, and the curious semi-classical +font-cover of the 17th century. There is a fine sanctuary-knocker on the +north door. The cloisters are of the early part of the 15th century. The +chapter-house is a modern restoration of the original Norman structure, +a very fine example, which was destroyed by James Wyatt c. 1796, in the +course of restoration of which much was ill-judged. The cathedral +library, formerly the dormitory and refectories of the abbey, contains a +number of curious and interesting printed books and MSS., and the +portable altar, vestments and other relics found in St Cuthbert's grave. +The Galilee contains the supposed remains of the Venerable Bede. The +total length of the cathedral within is 496½ ft., the greatest height +within (except the lantern) 74½ ft., and the height of the central tower +218 ft. The diocese of Durham covers the whole county excepting a small +fragment, and also very small parts of Northumberland and Yorkshire. + + + Castle. + +The naturally strong position selected for the resting-place of St +Cuthbert's remains was possibly artificially fortified also, but it was +not until 1072 that William the Conqueror caused the erection of a +castle to the north of the cathedral across the neck of the peninsula. +Of this there remain a beautiful crypt-chapel, and a few details +incorporated in later work. Other interesting portions are the Norman +gallery, with its fine arcade, Bishop Hatfield's hall of c. 1350, a +reconstruction of the previous Norman one by Bishop Pudsey, and the +Black Staircase of fine woodwork of the 17th century. The keep is a +modern reconstruction. The castle, with the exception of some apartments +used by the judges of assize, is appropriated to the uses of Durham +University. On the peninsula are also the churches of St Mary le Bow in +the North Bailey and St Mary the Less, the one a 17th-century building +on a very ancient site, possibly that on which the first church rose +over St Cuthbert's remains; the other possessing slight traces of Norman +work, but almost completely modernized. Of other churches in Durham, the +site of St Oswald is apparently pre-Norman, and the building contains +Norman work of Bishop Pudsey, also some fine early 15th-century +woodwork. St Margaret's and St Giles' churches show work of the same +period, and the second of these has earlier portions. + +Several of the streets of Durham preserve an appearance of antiquity. +Three of the bridges crossing the Wear are old, that of Framwellgate +having been built in the 13th century and rebuilt in the 15th. In the +neighbourhood of the city certain sites are of interest as adding detail +to its history. To the south on Maiden Hill there is an encampment, +occupied, if not constructed, by the Romans. Immediately W. of Durham is +Neville's Cross, of which little remains. The battle of Neville's Cross +was fought in 1346, resulting in the defeat of the invading Scots by the +English under Lord Neville and Henry Percy. The Scots had encamped at +Beaurepaire or Bearpark, where a few ruins mark the site of the county +residence of the priors of Durham, which had suffered from previous +invaders. On the Wear below Durham is the priory of Finchale (1196), of +which there are considerable remains of Early English date and later, +but in the main Decorated. The valley of the Wear in the neighbourhood +of Durham is well wooded and picturesque, but there are numerous +collieries on the uplands above it, and the beauty of the county is +marred. + + + University. + +Among educational establishments in Durham the university stands first. +The earliest connexion of the ecclesiastical foundation at Durham with +an actual educational foundation was made by Prior Richard de Hoton +(1290-1308), who erected a hall in Oxford for students from Durham, who +had previously enjoyed no such provision. In 1380 Bishop Hatfield +refounded this hall as Durham College, which became Trinity College (see +OXFORD) on a new foundation (1555) when the possessions of the abbey of +Durham had been surrendered in 1540, after which Durham College survived +as a secular foundation only for a few years. Henry VIII. had the +unfulfilled intention of founding a college in Durham, and a similar +attempt failed in the time of the Commonwealth. In 1831 the scheme for a +college was projected by the chapter; an act of 1832 specified the +foundation as a university, and in Michaelmas 1833 its doors were +opened. The first warden, and a prime mover in the scheme of foundation, +was Archdeacon Charles Thorp (d. 1862). In 1837 the university received +its charter from William IV. The dean and chapter of the cathedral are +governors, and the bishop of Durham is visitor, but the active +management is in the hands of the warden, senate and convocation. The +system and life of the university are broadly similar to those of the +greater universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Proctorial administration +is carried on by two proctors annually nominated by the warden. Among +the various residential divisions of the university may be mentioned +Bishop Hatfield's Hall (1846), which, through its endowment, by means of +such methods of economy as provision for all meals in common, permits +men of limited means to become students. The degree for bachelor of arts +is awarded after two public examinations, and may be taken in two years, +with a total of six months' residence in each year. Special examinations +are provided for candidates who seek honours, and those who obtain +honours are admissible, after a certain period, to the mastership of +arts without further examination, but in other cases further examination +must have been taken, or an essay presented as a qualification for this +degree. A theological course is provided for bachelors of the +university, those who have passed a similar course elsewhere, or +non-graduates aged nineteen who have passed a certain standard of +examination. Instruction in civil engineering and mining was established +as early as 1837, but was subsequently given up; and in 1871 the +university and the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical +Engineers co-operated to found the college of physical science at +Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which provides such instruction and was +incorporated with the university in 1874. The college of medicine at +Newcastle has been in connexion with Durham University since 1852, and +the professors there are professors of the university. In 1895 degrees +for women were established, and in 1889 a hostel was opened for the +accomodation of women, who may take any course of instruction except the +theological. In 1889 musical degrees were instituted, and a +professorship was founded in 1897. Among other subjects may be mentioned +the granting of degrees in hygiene, and of diplomas in public health and +education (see J.T. Fowler, _Durham University_, uniform with series of +College Histories; London, 1904). + +The grammar school was refounded by Henry VIII. out of the monastic +school. It is a flourishing institution on the lines of the public +schools, and has "king's scholarships" tenable in the school, and +scholarships and exhibitions tenable at the universities. There are also +a diocesan training college for schoolmasters and mistresses, and a high +school for girls; and 4 m. W. of the city is the great Roman Catholic +College of St Cuthbert, Ushaw, the representative of the old college at +Douai. Here are preserved the magnificent natural history collections of +Charles Waterton. Other buildings worthy of notice in Durham are the +town-hall, a 16th-century building reconstructed in 1851, the police +station, and the guildhall, the shire hall and county buildings, and the +county hospital. There are ironworks and manufactures of hosiery, +carpets and mustard in the city. The parliamentary borough returns one +member. The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 +councillors. Area, 1070 acres. + +_History of the City._--The foundation of the city followed on that of +the church by the monks of Lindisfarne at the close of the 10th century. +The history of the city is closely associated with that of the +palatinate of Durham. The bishop of Durham among other privileges +claimed a mint in the city, which, according to Boldon Book, rendered +ten marks yearly until its value was reduced by that established by +Henry II. at Newcastle, and it was temporarily abolished by the same +king. The earliest charter, dated 1179 or 1180, is a grant of exemption +from toll merchet and heriot made by Bishop Hugh Pudsey and confirmed by +Pope Alexander. Before that time, however, the monks had a little +borough at Elvet, which is divided from Durham by the Wear and +afterwards became part of the city. In 1183 the city was at farm and +rendered sixty marks. It was at first governed by a bailiff appointed by +the bishop, but in 1565 Bishop Pilkington ordained that the government +should consist, in addition to the bailiff, of one alderman and twelve +assistants, the latter to continue in office for life, and the former to +be chosen every year from among their number. This form of government +was replaced in 1602, under the charter of Bishop Matthew, by that of a +mayor, 12 aldermen and 24 burgesses, the aldermen and burgesses forming +a common council and electing a mayor every year from among the +aldermen. This was confirmed by James I., but in 1684 the corporation +were obliged to resign their charters to Bishop Crew, who granted them a +new one, probably reserving to himself a right of veto on the election +of the mayor and aldermen. At the time of the Revolution, however, +Bishop Matthew's charter was revived, and continued to be the governing +charter of the city until 1770, when, owing to dissensions as to the +election of the common council, the number of aldermen was reduced to +four and the charter became void. No mayor or aldermen were elected for +ten years, but in 1780 Bishop Egerton, on the petition of the burgesses, +granted them a new charter, which was practically a confirmation of that +of 1602, and remained in force until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. +Being within the county palatine, the city of Durham sent no members to +parliament, until, after several attempts beginning in 1614, it was +enabled by an act of 1673 to return two members, which it continued to +do until 1885, when by the Redistribution of Seats Act the number was +reduced to one. + +The corporation of Durham claim their fair and market rights under +Bishop Pudsey's charter of 1179, confirmed in 1565, as a weekly market +on Saturday and three yearly fairs on the feasts of St Cuthbert in +September and March and on Whit Monday, each continuing for two days. In +1610 the bishop of Durham brought a suit in chancery against the +burgesses and recovered from them the markets and fairs, which he +afterwards leased to the corporation for a rent of £20 yearly until they +were purchased from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 1860. Durham has +never been noted for any particular trade; and the attempts to introduce +the manufacture of cloth and wool in the 17th and 18th centuries were +failures. The manufacture of carpets was begun in 1814. + + + + +DURHAM, a city and the county-seat of Durham county, North Carolina, +U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 25 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. +(1900) 6679, of whom 2241 were negroes; (1910) 18,241; of the township +(1900) 19,055; (1910) 27,606. Adjacent to the city and also in the +township are East Durham and West Durham (both unincorporated), which +industrially are virtually part of the city. Durham is served by the +Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, the Norfolk & Western, and the Durham & +Southern railways, the last a short line connecting at Apex and Dunn, +N.C., respectively with the main line of the Seaboard and the Atlantic +Coast Line railways. Durham is nearly surrounded by hills. Its streets +are shaded by elms. The city is the seat of Trinity College (Methodist +Episcopal, South), opened in 1851 as a normal college, growing out of an +academy called Union Institute, which was established in the +north-western part of Randolph county in 1838 and was incorporated in +1841. In 1852 the college was empowered to grant degrees; in 1856 it +became the property of the North Carolina Conference of the Methodist +Episcopal Church, South; in 1859 it received its present name; and in +1892 it was removed to a park near Durham, included in 1901 in the +corporate limits of the city. A new charter was adopted in 1903, and a +law school was organized in 1904. The college has received many gifts +from the Duke family of Durham. In 1908 its endowment and property were +valued at about $1,198,400, and the number of its students was 288. +Although not officially connected with the college, the _South Atlantic +Quarterly_, founded by a patriotic society of the college and published +at Durham since 1902, is controlled and edited by members of the college +faculty. The _North Carolina Journal of Education_ and the _Papers of +the Trinity College Historical Society_ also are edited by members of +the college faculty. The Trinity Park school is preparatory for the +college. Near the city are Watts hospital (for whites) and Lincoln +hospital (for negroes). Durham's chief economic interest is in the +manufacture of granulated smoking tobacco, for which it became noted +after the Civil War. In the city are two large factories and store +houses of the American Tobacco Company. The tobacco industry was founded +by W.T. Blackwell (1839-1904) and Washington Duke (1820-1905). The city +also manufactures cigars, cigarettes, snuff, a fertilizer having tobacco +dust as the base, cotton goods, lumber, window sashes, blinds, drugs and +hosiery. Durham has a large trade with the surrounding region. The town +of Durham was incorporated in 1869, and became the county-seat of the +newly-erected county in 1881, and in 1899 was chartered as a city. Its +growth is due to the tobacco and cotton industries. In the Bennett +house, at Durham Station, near the city, General J.E. Johnston +surrendered on the 26th of April 1865 the Confederate army under his +command to General W.T. Sherman. + + + + +DURIAN (Malay, _duri_, a thorn), the fruit of _Durio zibethinus_, a tree +of the natural order Bombaceae, which attains a height of 70 or 80 ft., +has oblong, tapering leaves, rounded at the base, and yellowish-green +flowers, and bears a general resemblance to the elm. The durio is +cultivated in Sumatra, Java, Celebes and the Moluccas, and northwards as +far as Mindanao in the Philippines; also in the Malay Peninsula, in +Tenasserim, on the Bay of Bengal, to 14° N. lat., and in Siam to the +13th and 14th parallels. The fruit is spherical, and 6 to 8 in. in +diameter, approaching the size of a large coco-nut; it has a hard +external husk or shell, and is completely armed with strong pyramidal +tubercles, meeting one another at the base, and terminating in sharp +thorny points; these sometimes inflict severe injuries on persons upon +whom the fruit may chance to fall when ripe. On dividing the fruit at +the joins of the carpels, where the spines arch a little, it is found to +contain five oval cells, each filled with a cream-coloured, glutinous, +smooth pulp, in which are embedded from one to five seeds about the size +of chestnuts. The pulp and the seeds, which latter are eaten roasted, +are the edible parts of the fruit. With regard to the taste of the pulp, +A.R. Wallace remarks, "A rich butter-like custard, highly flavoured +with almonds, gives the best idea of it, but intermingled with it come +wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, brown +sherry and other incongruities;... it is neither acid, nor sweet, nor +juicy, yet one feels the want of none of these qualities, for it is +perfect as it is." The fruit, especially when not fresh from the tree, +has, notwithstanding, a most offensive smell, which has been compared to +that of rotten onions or of putrid animal matter. The Dyaks of the +Sarawak river in Borneo esteem the durian above all other fruit, eat it +unripe both cooked and raw, and salt the pulp for use as a relish with +rice. + + See Linschoten, _Discours of Voyages_, bk. i. chap. 57, p. 102, fol. + (London, 1598); Bickmore, _Travels in the East Indian Archipelago_, p. + 91 (1868); Wallace, _The Malay Archipelago_ (3rd ed., 1872). + + + + + +DURIS, of Samos, Greek historian, according to his own account a +descendant of Alcibiades, was born about 340 B.C. He must have been born +and passed his early years in exile, since from 352 to 324 Samos was +occupied by Athenian cleruchs, who had expelled the original +inhabitants. He was a pupil of Theophrastus of Eresus, whom he met at +Athens. When quite young, he obtained a prize for boxing at the Olympic +games; a statue by Hippias was set up in commemoration of his victory +(Pausanias vi. 13. 5). He was for some time despot of his native island. +Duris was the author of a comprehensive historical work ([Greek: +Historiai]) on Hellenico-Macedonian history, from the battle of Leuctra +(371) down to the death of Lysimachus (281), which was largely used by +Diodorus Siculus. Other works by him included a life of Agathocles of +Syracuse, the annals ([Greek: ôroi]) of Samos chronologically arranged +according to the lists of the priests of Hera, and a number of treatises +on literary and artistic subjects. Ancient authorities do not appear to +have held a very high opinion of his merits as a historian. Plutarch +(_Pericles_, 28) expresses doubt as to his trustworthiness, Dionysius of +Halicarnassus (_De compos. verborum_, 4) speaks disparagingly of his +style, and Photius (_cod._ 176) regards the arrangement of his work as +altogether faulty. Cicero (_ad Att._ vi. 1) accords him qualified praise +as an industrious writer. + + Fragments in C.W. Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ ii. 446, where the + passage of Pausanias referred to above and the date of Duris's victory + at Olympia are discussed. + + + + +DÜRKHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate, near the foot +of the Hardt Mountains, and at the entrance of the valley of the +Isenach, 15 m. N.W. of Spires on the railway Monsheim-Neustadt. Pop. +6300. It possesses two Evangelical churches and one Roman Catholic, a +town hall occupying the site of the castle of the princes of +Leiningen-Hartenburg, an antiquarian and a scientific society, a public +library and a high school. It is well known as a health resort, for the +grape cure and for the baths of the brine springs of Philippshalle, in +the neighbourhood, which not only supply the bathing establishment, but +produce considerable quantities of marketable salt. There is a brisk +trade in wine and oil; tobacco, glass and paper are manufactured. + +As a dependency of the Benedictine abbey of Limburg, which was built and +endowed by Conrad II., Dürkheim or Thurnigheim came into the possession +of the counts of Leiningen, who in the 14th century made it the seat of +a fortress, and enclosed it with wall and ditch. In the three following +centuries it had its full share of the military vicissitudes of the +Palatinate; but it was rebuilt after the French invasion of 1689, and +greatly fostered by its counts in the beginning of next century. In 1794 +its new castle was sacked by the French, and in 1849 it was the scene of +a contest between the Prussians and the insurrectionists. The ruins of +the Benedictine abbey of Limburg lie about 1 m. S.W. of the town; and in +the neighbourhood rises the Kastanienberg, with the ancient rude stone +fortification of the Heidenmauer or Heathen's Wall. + + + + +DURLACH, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, 2½ m. by rail +from Carlsruhe, with which it is connected by a canal and an avenue of +poplars, on the left bank of the Pfinz, at the foot of the +vineyard-covered Thurmberg, which is crowned by a watch-tower and to the +summit of which a funicular railway ascends. Pop. (1905) 6207. It +possesses a castle erected in 1565 and now used as barracks, an ancient +town hall, a church with an excellent organ, a high-grade school, an +orphan asylum, and in the market-place a statue of the margrave Charles +II. It has manufactures of sewing-machines, brushes, chemicals, tobacco, +beer, vinegar and chicory; and considerable trade in market produce. + +Durlach was bestowed by the emperor Frederick II. on the margrave +Hermann V. of Zähringen as an allodial possession, but afterwards came +into the hands of Rudolph of Habsburg. It was chosen as his residence by +the margrave Charles II. in 1565, and retained this distinction till the +foundation of Carlsruhe in 1715, though it was almost totally destroyed +by the French in 1688. In 1846 it was the seat of a congress of the +Liberal party of the Baden parliament; and in 1849 it was the scene of +an encounter between the Prussians and the insurgents. Reichenbach the +mechanician, and E.L. Posselt (1763-1804) the historian, were natives +of the town. + + See Fecht, _Geschichte der Stadt Durlach_ (Heidelberg, 1869). + + + + +DUROC, GÉRAUD CHRISTOPHE MICHEL, duc de Frioul (1772-1813), French +general, was born at Pont à Mousson (Meurthe et Moselle) on the 25th of +October 1772. The son of an officer, he was educated at the military +schools of his native town and of Châlons. He was gazetted second +lieutenant (artillery) in the 4th regiment in 1793, and advanced +steadily in the service. Captain Duroc became aide-de-camp to Napoleon +in 1796, and distinguished himself at Isonzo, Brenta and Gradisca in the +Italian campaigns of 1796-97. He served in Egypt, and was seriously +wounded at Aboukir. His devotion to Napoleon was rewarded by complete +confidence. He became first aide-de-camp (1798), general of brigade +(1800), and governor of the Tuileries. After the battle of Marengo he +was sent on missions to Vienna, St Petersburg, Stockholm and Copenhagen. +As grand marshal of the Tuileries he was responsible for the measures +taken to secure Napoleon's personal safety whether in France or on his +campaigns, and he directed the minutest details of the imperial +household. After Austerlitz, where he commanded the grenadiers in the +absence of General Oudinot, he was employed in a series of important +negotiations with Frederick William of Prussia, with the elector of +Saxony (December 1806), in the incorporation of certain states in the +Confederation of the Rhine, and in the conclusion of the armistice of +Znaim (July 1808). In 1808 he was created duke of Friuli, and after the +Russian campaign he became senator (1813). He was in attendance on +Napoleon at the battle of Bautzen (20th-21st May 1813) in Saxony, when +he was mortally wounded, and died in a farmhouse near the battlefield on +the 23rd of May. Napoleon bought the farm and erected a monument to his +memory. Duroc was buried in the Invalides. + + The chief source for Duroc's biography is the _Moniteur_ (31st of May + 1797, 24th of October 1798, 30th of May 1813, &c.). + + + + +DUROCHER, JOSEPH MARIE ELISABETH (1817-1858), French geologist, was born +at Rennes on the 31st of May 1817. Educated at the École Polytechnique +and École des Mines in Paris, he qualified as a mining engineer. Early +in his career he travelled in the northern parts of Europe to study the +metalliferous deposits, and he contributed the articles on geology, +mineralogy, metallurgy and chemistry to Paul Gaimard's _Voyages de la +Commission scientifique du nord, en Scandinavie, en Laponie, au +Spitzberg et aux Feröe, pendant les années 1838-1840_. In 1844 he became +professor of geology and mineralogy at Rennes. His attention was now +largely directed to the study of the artificial production of minerals, +to the metamorphism of rocks, and to the genesis of igneous rocks. In +1857 he published his famous _Essai de pétrologie comparée_, in which he +expressed the view that the igneous rocks have been derived from two +magmas which coexist beneath the solid crust, and are respectively acid +and basic. He died at Rennes on the 3rd of December 1858. + + + + +DURRA (also written _dourah_, _dhura_, &c.; Arabic for a pearl, hence a +grain of corn), a cereal grass, _Sorghum vulgare_, extensively +cultivated in tropical and semi-tropical countries, where the grain, +made into bread, forms an important article of diet. In +non-Arabic-speaking countries it is known by other names, such as Indian +or African millet, pearl millet, Guinea corn and Kaffir corn. In India +it is called jowari, jowaree, jawari, &c. (Hindi, _jawari_). + + + + +DURUY, JEAN VICTOR (1811-1894), French historian and statesman, was born +in Paris on the 11th of September 1811. The son of a workman at the +factory of the Gobelins, he was at first intended for his father's +trade, but succeeded in passing brilliantly through the École Normale +Supérieure, where he studied under Michelet, whom he accompanied as +secretary in his travels through France, supplying for him at the École +Normale in 1836, when only twenty-four. Ill-health forced him to resign, +and poverty drove him to undertake that extensive series of school +textbooks which first brought him into public notice. He devoted +himself with ardour to secondary school education, holding his chair in +the Collège Henri IV. at Paris for over a quarter of a century. Already +known as a historian by his _Histoire des Romains et des peuples soumis +à leur domination_ (2 vols., 1843-1844), he was chosen by Napoleon III. +to assist him in his life of Julius Caesar, and his abilities being thus +brought under the emperor's notice, he was in 1863 appointed minister of +education. In this position he displayed incessant activity, and a +desire for broad and liberal reform which aroused the bitter hostility +of the clerical party. Among his measures may be cited his organization +of higher education ("enseignement spécial"), his foundation of the +"conférences publiques," which have now become universal throughout +France, and of a course of secondary education for girls by lay +teachers, and his introduction of modern history and modern languages +into the curriculum both of the _lycées_ and of the colleges. He greatly +improved the state of primary education in France, and proposed to make +it compulsory and gratuitous, but was not supported in this project by +the emperor. In the new cabinet that followed the elections of 1869, +Duruy was replaced by Louis Olivier Bourbeau, and was made a senator. +After the fall of the Empire he took no part in politics, except for an +unsuccessful candidature for the senate in 1876. From 1881 to 1886 he +served as a member of the Conseil Supérieur de l'Instruction Publique. +In 1884 he was elected to the Academy in succession to Mignet. He died +in Paris on the 25th of November 1894. + +As a historian Duruy aimed in his earlier works at a graphic and +picturesque narrative which should make his subject popular. His fame, +however, rests mainly on the revised edition of his Roman history, which +appeared in a greatly enlarged form in 7 vols. under the title of +_Histoire des Romains depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à la mort +de Théodose_ (1879-1885), a really great work; a magnificent illustrated +edition was published from 1879 to 1885 (English translation by W.J. +Clarke, in 6 vols., 1883-1886). His _Histoire des Grecs_, similarly +illustrated, appeared in 3 vols. from 1886 to 1891 (English translation +in 4 vols., 1892). He was the editor, from its commencement in 1846, of +the _Histoire universelle, publiée par une société de professeurs et de +savants_, for which he himself wrote a "Histoire sainte d'après la +Bible," "Histoire grecque," "Histoire romaine," "Histoire du moyen âge," +"Histoire des temps modernes," and "Abrégé de l'histoire de France." His +other works include _Atlas historique de la France accompagné d'un +volume de texte_ (1849); _Histoire de France de 1453 à 1815_ (1856), of +which an expanded and illustrated edition appeared as _Histoire de +France depuis l'invasion des barbares dans la Gaule romaine jusqu'à nos +jours_ (1892); _Histoire populaire de la France_ (1862-1863); _Histoire +populaire contemporaine de la France_ (1864-1866); _Causeries de voyage_ +(1864); and _Introduction générale à l'histoire de France_ (1865). + + A memoir by Ernest Lavisse appeared in 1895 under the title of Un + Ministre: _Victor Duruy_. See also the notice by Jules Simon (1895), + and _Portraits et souvenirs_ by S. Monod (1897). + + + + +DU RYER, PIERRE (1606-1658), French dramatist, was born in Paris in +1606. His earlier comedies are in the loose style of Alexandre Hardy, +but after the production of the _Cid_ (1636) he copied the manner of +Corneille, and produced his masterpiece _Scévole_, probably in 1644 (the +date generally given is 1646). _Alcionée_ (1638) was so popular that the +abbé d'Aubignac knew it by heart, and Queen Christina is said to have +had it read to her three times in one day. Du Ryer was a prolific +dramatist. Among his other works may be mentioned _Saül_ (printed 1642), +and a comedy, _Les Vendanges de Suresnes_ (1635 or 1636). He died in +Paris on the 6th of November 1658. + + + + +DUSE, ELEANORA (1859- ), Italian actress, was born at Vigevano of a +family of actors, and made her first stage appearance at a very early +age. The hardships incident to touring with travelling companies +unfavourably affected her health, but by 1885 she was recognized at home +as Italy's greatest actress, and this verdict was confirmed by that of +all the leading cities of Europe and America. In 1893 she made her first +appearances in New York and in London. For some years she was closely +associated with the romanticist Gabriele d'Annunzio, and several of his +plays, notably _La Città morta_ (1898) and _Francesca da Rimini_ (1901), +provided her with important parts. But some of her great successes +during the 'eighties and early 'nineties--the days of her chief +triumphs--were in Italian versions of such plays as _La Dame aux +camélias_, in which Sarah Bernhardt was already famous; and Madame +Duse's reputation as an actress was founded less on her "creations" than +on her magnificent individuality. In contrast to the great French +actress she avoided all "make-up"; her art depended on intense +naturalness rather than stage effect, sympathetic force and poignant +intellectuality rather than the theatrical emotionalism of the French +tradition. Her dramatic genius gave a new reading to the parts, and +during these years the admirers of the two leading actresses of Europe +practically constituted two rival schools of appreciation. Ill-health +kept Madame Duse off the stage for some time; but though, after 1900, it +was no longer possible for her to avoid "make-up," her rank among the +great actresses of history remained indisputable. + + See also a biography by L. Rasi (1901); A. Symons, _Studies in Seven + Arts_ (1906). + + + + +DUSSEK, JOHANN LUDWIG (1761-1812), Bohemian pianist and composer, was +born at Czaslau, in Bohemia, on the 9th of February 1761. His father, +Johann Joseph Dussek, a musician of high reputation, was organist and +choir-master in the collegiate church of Czaslau, and several other +members of the family were distinguished as organists. Under the careful +instruction of his father he made such rapid progress that he appeared +in public as a pianist at the age of six. A year or two later he was +placed as a choir boy at the convent of Iglau, and he obtained his first +instruction in counterpoint from Spenar, the choir-master. When his +voice broke he entered on a course of general study, first at the +Jesuits' college, and then at the university of Prague, where he took +his bachelor's degree in philosophy. During his curriculum of two and a +half years he had paid unremitting attention to the practice and study +of his art, and had received further instruction in composition from a +Benedictine monk. In 1779 he was for a short time organist in the church +of St Rombaut at Mechlin. At the close of his engagement he proceeded to +Holland, where he attained great distinction as a pianist, and was +employed by the stadtholder as musical instructor to his family. While +at the Hague he published his first works, several sonatas and concertos +for the piano. He had already composed at the age of thirteen a solemn +mass and several small oratorios. In 1783 he visited Hamburg, and placed +himself under the instruction of Philip Emmanuel Bach. After spending +two years in Lithuania in the service of Prince Radziwill, he went in +1786 to Paris, where he remained, with the exception of a short period +spent at Milan, until the outbreak of the Revolution, enjoying the +special patronage of Marie Antoinette and great popularity with the +public. In Milan he appeared not only as a pianist but also as a player +of the harmonica, an instrument which was much sought after on account +of its novelty in those days. Towards the close of 1789 he removed to +London, where on the 2nd of March 1790 he appeared at Salomon's +concerts, and he married a daughter of Dominico Corri, herself a clever +harpist and pianist. Unfortunately he was tempted by the large sale of +his numerous compositions to open a music-publishing warehouse in +partnership with Montague Corri, a relative of his wife. The result was +injurious to his fame and disastrous to his fortune. Writing solely for +the sake of sale, he composed many pieces that were quite unworthy of +his genius; and, as he was entirely destitute of business capacity, +bankruptcy was inevitable. In 1800 he was obliged to flee to Hamburg to +escape the claims of his creditors. Some years later he was attached in +the capacity of musician to the household of Prince Louis Ferdinand of +Prussia, with whom he formed an intimate friendship. On the death of his +patron in 1806 he passed into the service of the prince of Isenburg as +court musician. In 1809 he went to Paris to fill a similar situation in +the household of Prince Talleyrand, which he held until his death on the +20th of March 1812. + +Dussek had an important influence on the development of pianoforte +music. As a performer he was distinguished by the purity of his tone, +the combined power and delicacy of his touch, and the facility of his +execution. His sonatas, known as _The Invocation_, _The Farewell_ and +_The Harmonic Elegy_, though not equally sustained throughout, contain +movements that have scarcely been surpassed for solemnity and beauty of +idea. + + See also Alexander W. Thayer's articles in Dwight's _Journal of Music_ + (Boston, 1861). + + + + +DÜSSELDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the +right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. by rail N. by W. from Cologne. Pop. +(1885) 115,190; (1895) 175,985; (1905) 252,630. Düsseldorf is one of the +handsomest cities of western Germany. Its situation on the great +mid-European waterway and as the junction of several main lines of +railway has largely favoured its rapid growth and industrial +development. It is the principal banking centre of the Westphalian coal +and iron trade, and the favourite residence of the leading merchants of +the lower Rhine. + +The city consists of five main portions--the Altstadt, the original town +with narrow, irregular streets; the Karlstadt, dating from 1787 and so +called after the electoral prince Charles Theodore; the Neustadt, laid +out between 1690 and 1716; and the Friedrichstadt and the Königstadt, of +recent formation. In addition, the former villages of Pempelfort, +Oberbilk, Unterbilk, Flingern and Derendorf have been incorporated and +form the outer suburbs of the town proper. On the south side the town +has been completely metamorphosed by the removal of the Köln-Mindner and +Bergisch-Maerkisch stations to a central station lying to the east. The +site thus gained was converted into new boulevards, while the railway to +Neuss and Aix-la-Chapelle was diverted through the suburb of Bilk and +thence across the Rhine by an iron bridge. A road bridge (completed +1898, 2087 ft. long), replacing the old bridge of boats, carries the +electric tram-line to Crefeld. The town, with the exception of the +Altstadt, is regularly built, but within its area are numerous open +grounds and public squares, which prevent the regularity of its plan +degenerating into monotony: the market-place, with the colossal bronze +statue of the elector John William, the parade, the Allee Strasse, the +Königs Allee, and the Königs Platz may be specially mentioned. Of the +thirty-seven churches, of which twenty-six are Roman Catholic, the most +noticeable are:--St Andrew's, formerly the Jesuit and court church, with +frescoes by J. Hübner (1806-1882), E. Deger (1809-1885), and H. Mücke +(1806-1891), and the embalmed bodies of several Rhenish electors; St +Lambert's, with a tower 180 ft. high and containing a monument to Duke +William (d. 1592); Maximilians, with frescoes by J.A.N. Settegast +(1813-1890); the Romanesque St Martin's, and the new Gothic church of St +Mary. Besides the old ducal palace, laid in ruins by the French in 1794, +but restored in 1846, the secular buildings comprise the government +offices, the post-office in Italian style, the town hall on the market +square, the law courts, the municipal music hall, the municipal theatre, +the assembly hall of the Rhenish provincial diet, an Italian Renaissance +edifice erected in 1879, the academy of art (1881; in pure Renaissance), +the industrial art museum (1896), the historical museum, and the +industrial art school. The town also possesses a library of 50,000 +volumes, several high-grade schools, and is the seat of a great number +of commercial and intellectual associations; but to nothing is it more +indebted for its celebrity than to the Academy of Painting. This famous +institution, originally founded by the elector Charles Theodore in 1767, +was reorganized by King Frederick William III. in 1822, and has since +attained a high degree of prosperity as a centre of artistic culture. +From 1822 till 1826 it was under the direction of Cornelius, a native of +the town, from 1826 to 1859 under Schadow, and from 1859 to 1864 under +E. Bendemann (1811-1889). From Bendemann's resignation it continued in +the hands of a body of curators till 1873, when Hermann Wislicenus +(1825-1899) of Weimar was chosen director. The noble collection of +paintings which formerly adorned the Düsseldorf gallery was removed to +Munich in 1805, and has not since been restored; but there is no lack +of artistic treasures in the town. The academy possesses 14,000 original +drawings and sketches by the great masters, 24,000 engravings, and 248 +water-colour copies of Italian originals; the municipal gallery contains +valuable specimens of the local school; and the same is the case with +the Schulte collection. The principal names are Cornelius, Lessing, the +brothers Andreas and Oswald Achenbach, A. Baur (b. 1835), A. Tidemand +(1814-1876), and L. Knaus (b. 1829). An annual exhibition is held under +the auspices of the Art Union; and the members of the Artists' Society, +or _Malkasten_, as they are called, have annual festivals and +masquerades. + +The town is embellished with many handsome monuments--notably a bronze +statue of Cornelius, by A. Donndorf (b. 1835), an equestrian statue of +the emperor William I. (1896), and a large bronze group in front of the +assembly hall of the diet, representing the river Rhine and its chief +tributaries. In the suburb of Bilk there are the Floragarten and +Volksgarten, the astronomical observatory and the harbour. Extensive +quays afford accommodation for vessels of deep draught, and the trade +with the Dutch cities and with London has been thereby greatly enhanced. +Within recent years Düsseldorf has made remarkable progress as an +industrial centre. The first place is occupied by the iron industries, +embracing foundries, furnaces, engineering and machine shops, &c. Next +come cotton spinning and weaving, calico printing, yarn-spinning, dyeing +and similar textile branches, besides a variety of other industries. + +A little to the north of the town lies the village of Düsselthal, with +Count von der Recke-Volmerstein's establishment for homeless children in +the former Trappist monastery, and in the suburb of Pempelfort is the +_Jägerhof_, the residence at one time of Prince Frederick of Prussia, +and afterwards of the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. + +Düsseldorf, as the form of the name--the village on the Düssel--clearly +indicates, was long a place of small consideration. In 1288 it was +raised to the rank of a town by Count Adolf of Berg; from his successors +it obtained various privileges, and in 1385 was chosen as their +residence. After it had suffered greatly in the Thirty Years' War and +the War of the Spanish Succession, it recovered its prosperity under the +patronage of the electoral prince John William of the Palatinate, who +dwelt in the castle for many years before his death in 1716. In 1795 the +town, after a violent bombardment, was surrendered to the French; and +after the peace of Lunéville it was deprived of its fortifications. In +1805 it became the capital of the Napoleonic duchy of Berg; and in 1815 +it passed with the duchy into Prussian possession. Among its celebrities +are Johann Georg and Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Heinrich Heine, +Varnhagen von Ense, Peter von Cornelius, Wilhelm Camphausen and Heinrich +von Sybel. + + See H. Ferber, _Historische Wanderung durch die alte Stadt Düsseldorf_ + (Düsseldorf, 1889-1890); Brandt, _Studien zur Wirtschafts- und + Ver-waltungsgeschichte der Stadt Düsseldorf_ (Düsseldorf, 1902); and + local _Guide_ by Bone. + + + + +DUSSERAH, or DASARA, a Hindu new-moon festival (sometimes called +Maha-navami), held in October, and specially connected with ancestral +worship. In the native states, such as Mysore, the rajas give public +entertainments lasting for ten days, and especially invite European +officials to the festivities, which include horse-racing, athletic +contests, and banquets. + + See J.A. Dubois, _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, p. 577. + + + + +DUST, earth or other matter reduced to fine dry and powdery particles; +the word is Teutonic and appears in such various forms as the Dutch +_duist_, Danish _dyst_, for the dust of flour or meal, and in the older +forms _donst_; the modern German _Dunst_, vapour, probably preserves the +original form and meaning, that of something which can be blown about by +the wind. + +_Atmospheric Dust._--The presence of dust in the atmosphere has probably +been known from the earliest ages, as prehistoric man must have had +plenty of opportunities of noticing it lighting up the paths of sunbeams +that penetrated his dark caves, yet it is only of recent years that it +has become the subject of scientific observation. Formerly it was +considered as simply matter in the wrong place, the presence of which +had to be tolerated, but was supposed to serve no useful purpose in +nature. It was not till the year 1880 that atmospheric dust came under +scientific investigation, when it soon became evident that it played a +most important part in nature, and that instead of being a nuisance to +be got rid of, it added much to the comforts and pleasures of life. + +The atmosphere is composed of a number of gases which have a nearly +constant proportion to each other, and of varying proportions of water +vapour. This vapour, constantly rising from land and sea, mixes with the +gases in the atmosphere and so long as it remains vapour is invisible, +but when it becomes cooled by the actual processes in nature the vapour +tends to condense to the liquid condition and form cloud particles. +Before 1880 it had always been assumed that when this condensation took +place, the vapour molecules simply combined with each other to form the +little globules of water, but J. Aitken showed that vapour molecules in +the atmosphere do not combine with each other, that before condensation +can take place there must be some solid or liquid nucleus on which the +vapour molecules can combine, and that the dust in the atmosphere forms +the nuclei on which the water-vapour molecules condense. Every cloud +particle being grown round a dust nucleus thus has a dust particle in +it. The presence of dust in the atmosphere allows the condensation of +the vapour to take place whenever the air is cooled to the saturation +point, and if there were no dust present the condensation would not take +place till the air was cooled far below that point, and become highly +supersaturated; and when it did take place the condensation would be +violent and result in heavy rain-drops without the formation of what we +know as cloud. This might be in some ways an advantage, but living in +such supersaturated air would have many disadvantages. The +supersaturated air having no dust to condense on would condense on our +clothes, the inside and outside walls of our dwellings, and on every +solid and liquid surface with which it came in contact. + +Many of the dust particles in the atmosphere which form the nuclei of +condensation are extremely minute, so small as to be beyond the powers +of the microscope, and at first sight it might appear to be impossible +to get any reliable information as to their numbers. But Aitken, having +shown that water vapour must have a nucleus to condense on, saw that +this placed in our hands the means of counting the dust particles in our +atmosphere, and in 1888 showed how it could be done. As water vapour in +the air condenses on the dust particles present and forms cloud +particles, he showed that all that would be necessary would be to cause +the dust particles to become centres of condensation, when they would be +so increased in size as to come within the range of an ordinary +magnifying lens, and that by counting the cloud particles it would be +possible to determine the number of dust particles. To carry out this +idea the air under examination was placed in an air-tight receiver and +saturated with water vapour. It was then expanded by an air-pump, and in +this way cooled and condensation produced. The cloud particles so formed +were allowed to fall on a micrometer and their number counted by the aid +of an ordinary short-focussed lens. Certain precautions are necessary in +carrying out this process. There must not be more than 500 particles per +cubic centimetre of air, or all the particles will not form nuclei, and +will not therefore be thrown down as cloud particles. When the number in +the air tested exceeds that figure, the dusty air must be mixed with +such a quantity of dustless air as will reduce the number below 500 per +c.c., and the correct number in the air tested is obtained by allowing +for the proportion of dustless air to dusty air, and for the expansion +necessary for cooling. + +Thousands of tests of the atmospheric dust have been made with this +instrument at many places over the world, and in no part of it has +dustless air been found; indeed it is very rare to find air with less +than 100 particles per c.c., whilst in most country places the numbers +rise to thousands, and in cities such as London and Paris the number may +be as high as 100,000 to 150,000 per c.c. + +The sources of dust particles in the atmosphere are numerous. In nature +volcanoes supply a large quantity, and the meteoric matter constantly +falling towards the earth and becoming dissipated by the intense heat +produced by the friction of the atmosphere keep up a constant supply. +Large quantities of dust are also raised from the surface of the earth +by strong winds, from dusty roads and dry soil, and there is good reason +for supposing that large quantities of sand are carried from the deserts +by the wind and transported great distances, the sand, for instance, +from the desert of Africa being carried to Europe. It is, however, to +artificial causes that most of the dust is due. The burning of coal is +the principal source of these, not only when the coal is burned with the +production of smoke, but also when smokeless, and even when the coal is +first converted into gas and burned in the most perfect forms of +combustion. It results from this that while in the air over the +uninhabited parts of the earth and over the ocean the number of +particles is small, being principally produced by natural causes or +carried from distant lands, they are much more numerous in inhabited +areas, especially in those where much coal is burned. It is evident that +if there were not some purifying process in nature there would be a +tendency for the dust particles to increase in numbers, because though +some dust particles may fall out of the air, many of them are so small +they have but little tendency to settle, but by becoming centres of +cloud particles they are carried downwards to the earth, and, further, +these when showering down as rain tend to wash the others out of the +atmosphere. We may therefore look on all uninhabited areas of the earth +as purifying areas, and their purifying power seems to depend partly on +their extent, but principally on their rainfall. The following table +illustrates the purifying effect of some of these areas obtained from +the results of hundreds of observations. The areas referred to are: (1) +Mediterranean Sea, the observations being made on the south coast of +France on the air blowing inshore; (2) the Alps, the observations being +made on the Rigi Kulm; (3) the Highlands of Scotland, the observations +being made at various places; and (4) the Atlantic Ocean, the +observations being made on the west coast of Scotland, when the wind +blew from the ocean. + + +----------------+----------------+-------+------------+-----------+ + | | Mediterranean. | Alps. | Highlands. | Atlantic. | + +----------------+----------------+-------+------------+-----------+ + | Mean of lowest | 891 | 381 | 141 | 72 | + | Mean of number | 1611 | 892 | 552 | 338 | + +----------------+----------------+-------+------------+-----------+ + +These numbers are all low for atmospheric dust, much lower than in air +from inhabited areas. On the Rigi Kulm, for instance, the number was +sometimes over 10,000 per c.c. when the wind was from inhabited areas +and the sun causing ascending currents; and at the same place as the +Atlantic air was tested the numbers went up to over 5000 per c.c. when +the wind blew from the inhabited areas of Scotland, though the distance +to the nearest was over 60 m. + +E.D. Fridlander[1] made many observations on the dust of the atmosphere +with the same instrument as employed by Aitken. In crossing the Atlantic +he got no low numbers, always over 2000 per c.c., but in the Gulf of St +Lawrence he got a reading as low as 280 per c.c. In crossing the Pacific +the lowest obtained was 245, in the Indian Ocean 243, in the Arabian Sea +280, in the Red Sea 383, and in the Mediterranean 875 per c.c. He has +also made observations in Switzerland. The lowest number obtained by him +was in the air at the top of the Bieshorn, 13,600 ft. above sea-level, +where the number was as low as 157 per c.c. Professor G. Melander[2] of +Helsingfors studied the dust in the atmosphere. His observations were +made in Switzerland, Biskra in the Sahara, Finland, the borders of +Russia, and in Norway; but in none of these places were low numbers +observed. The minimum numbers were over 300 per c.c., while maximum +numbers in some cases went high. + +Aitken when observing on the Rigi Kulm noticed during some conditions +of weather that there was a daily variation in the number of particles, +a maximum near the hottest part of the day and a minimum in the morning, +and attributed the rise in the numbers to the impure air of the valleys +rising on the sun-heated slopes of the mountain or driven up by the +wind. A. Rankin, at the Ben Nevis observatory, also observed this daily +variation, and his observations also indicate a yearly variation at that +station, the numbers being highest in March, April and May. This may +possibly be due to small rainfall in these months, but more probably to +the fact that south-easterly winds blow more frequently during these +months on Ben Nevis than at any other season, and these winds bring the +impure air from the more densely inhabited parts of the country. + +Without atmospheric dust not only would we not have the glorious cloud +scenery we at present enjoy, but we should have no haze in the +atmosphere, none of the atmospheric effects that delight the artist. The +white haze, the blue haze, the tender sunset glows of red, orange and +yellow, would all be absent, and the moment the sun dipped below the +horizon the earth would be in darkness; no twilight, no after-glows, +such as those given some years ago by the volcanic dust from Krakatoa; +none of the poetry of eventide. Why, it may be asked, is this so? Simply +because all these are due to matter suspended in the air, to dust. Water +has no such effects as long as it is a vapour, and if it condensed +without the presence of dust, the particles would be far too few to give +any appreciable effect and too heavy to remain in suspension. + +Turning now to the investigations on this point, Aitken has shown that +there is no evidence to indicate that water vapour has any hazing +effect, and shows that the haze is entirely due to dust, the density of +the haze increasing with the increase in the number of dust particles in +the air, and also with the _relative_ humidity; but the humidity does +not act as vapour, but by condensing on the dust and increasing the size +of the particles, as it is not the amount of vapour present but the +degree of saturation that affects the result; the more saturated the +air, the more vapour is condensed on the particles, they so become +larger and their hazing effect increased. + +The relation of haze or transparency of the air to the number of dust +particles was observed on five visits to the Rigi Kulm. The visibility +of Hochgerrach, a mountain 70 m. distant from the Rigi, was used for +estimating the amount of haze when the air was clear. During the visits +this mountain was visible thirteen times, and it was never seen except +when the number of particles was low. On eight occasions the mountain +was only one-half to one-fifth hazed, and on these days the number of +particles was as low as from 326 to 850 per c.c. It was seen five times +when the number was from 950 to 2000 per c.c., but the mountain on these +occasions was only just visible, and it was never seen when the number +was a little over 2000 per c.c. + +It has been pointed out that the relative humidity has an effect on the +dust by increasing the size of the particles and so increasing the haze. +It was therefore necessary in working out the dust and haze observations +made at the different places to arrange all the observations in tables +according to the wet-bulb depressions at the time. All the observations +taken when the wet-bulb depression was between 2° and 4° were put in one +table, all those when it was between 4° and 7° in another, and all those +when it was over 7° in a third. It should be here noted that when the +dust particles were counted and the wet and dry bulb observations taken, +an estimate of the amount of haze was also made. This was done by +estimating the amount of haze on a mountain at a known distance. Suppose +the mountain to be 25 m. distant, and at the time to be one-half hazed, +then the limit of visibility of the mountain under the conditions would +be 50 m., and that was taken as the number representing the transparency +of the atmosphere at the time. In the tables above referred to along +with the number of particles was entered the limit of visibility at the +time; when this was done it was at once seen that as the number of +particles increased the limit of visibility decreased, as will be seen +from the following short table of the Rigi Kulm observations when the +wet-bulb depression was between 2° and 4°. + + +---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------------+------------------+ + | | Lowest | Highest | Mean | Limit of | | + | Date. | Number. | Number. | Number. | Visibility in | C. | + | | | | | Miles. | | + +---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------------+------------------+ + | 19th May 1891 | 428 | 690 | 559 | 150 | 83,850 \ Mean | + | 22nd May 1889 | 434 | 850 | 642 | 100 | 64,200 > 75,176.| + | 16th May 1893 | 1225 | 2600 | 1912 | 40 | 77,480 / | + +---------------+---------+---------+---------+---------------+------------------+ + +When the number of particles is multiplied by the limit of visibility in +the tables a fairly constant number C. is obtained; see preceding table. +All the observations taken at the different places were treated in a +similar manner and the means of all the observations at the different +humidities were obtained, and the following table gives the mean values +of C. at the different wet-bulb depressions of all the observations made +at the different places. + + +---------------------+----------+----------+-------------+ + | Wet-bulb depression | 2° to 4° | 4° to 7° | 7° and over | + | Mean values of C. | 76,058 | 105,545 | 141,148 | + +---------------------+----------+----------+-------------+ + +From the above table it will be seen that as the dryness of the air +increased it required a larger number of particles to produce a complete +haze, nearly double the number being required when the wet-bulb +depression was over 7° than when it was only from 2° to 4°. To find the +number of particles required to produce a complete haze, that is, to +render a mountain just invisible, all that is necessary is to multiply +the above constant C. by 160,930, the number of centimetres in a mile, +when this is done with the observations made in the West Highlands we +get the numbers given in the following table:-- + + +----------------------+--------------------------+ + | Wet-bulb depression. | Number of Particles to | + | | produce a complete haze. | + +----------------------+--------------------------+ + | 2° to 4° | 12,500,000,000 | + | 4° to 7° | 17,100,000,000 | + | 7° to 10° | 22,600,000,000 | + +----------------------+--------------------------+ + +The above table gives the number of particles of atmospheric dust in a +column of air having a section of one centimetre square, at the +different humidities, required to produce a complete haze, that is, to +make a distant object invisible, and is of course quite independent of +the length of the column. + +In making these dust and transparency observations three things were +noted: 1st, the number of particles; 2nd, the humidity; and 3rd, the +limit of visibility. From the results above given, it is evident that if +we now know any two of these we can calculate the third. Suppose we know +the limit of visibility and the humidity, then the number of particles +can be calculated by the aid of the above tables. + +To show the hazing effects of dust it is not, however, necessary to use +a dust counter. Aitken for some years made observations on the haze in +the air at Falkirk by simply noting the direction of the wind, the +wet-bulb depression at the time, and the transparency of the air. +Falkirk is favourably situated for such observations owing to the +peculiar distribution of the population surrounding it. The whole area +from west, north-west to north, is very thinly populated, while in all +other directions it is densely populated. It was found that the air from +the thinly inhabited parts, that is, the north-west quadrant, was nine +times clearer than the air from other directions with the same wet-bulb +depression, and that the density of the haze was directly proportional +to the density of the population of the area from which the wind blew. +These observations also showed that the transparency of the air +increases with the dryness, being 3.7 times clearer when the wet-bulb +depression is 8° than when it is only 2°, and that the air coming from +the densely inhabited parts is about 10 times more hazed than if there +were no inhabitants in the country. (J. A.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] "Atmospheric Dust Observations from various parts of the World," + _Quart. Journ. Roy. Met. Soc._ (July 1896). + + [2] _La Condensation de la vapeur d'eau dans l'atmosphère_ + (Helsingfors, 1897). + + + + +DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, THE (_Oostindische Vereenigde Maatschappij_), +a body founded by a charter from the Netherlands states-general on the +20th of March 1602. It had a double purpose: first to regulate and +protect the already considerable trade carried on by the Dutch in the +Indian Ocean, and then to help in prosecuting the long war of +independence against Spain and Portugal. Before the union between +Portugal and Spain in 1580-81, the Dutch had been the chief carriers of +eastern produce from Lisbon to northern Europe. When they were shut out +from the Portuguese trade by the Spanish king they were driven to sail +to the East in order to make good their loss. Unsuccessful attempts were +made to find a route to the East by the north of Europe and Asia, which +would have been free from interference from the Spaniards and +Portuguese. It was only when these failed that the Dutch decided to +intrude on the already well-known route by the Cape of Good Hope, and to +fight their way to the Spice Islands of the Malay Archipelago. A first +expedition, commanded by Cornelius Houtman, a merchant long resident at +Lisbon, sailed on the 2nd of April 1595. It was provided with an +itinerary or book of sailing instructions drawn up by Jan Huyghen van +Linschoten,[1] a Dutchman who had visited Goa. The voyage was marked by +many disasters and losses, but the survivors who reached the Texel on +their return on the 20th of August 1597 brought back some valuable +cargo, and a treaty made with the sultan of Bantam in Java. + +These results were sufficient to encourage a great outburst of +commercial adventure. Companies described as "Van Ferne"--that is, of +the distant seas--were formed, and by 1602 from sixty to seventy Dutch +vessels had sailed to Hindustan and the Indian Archipelago. On those +distant seas the traders could neither be controlled nor protected by +their native government. They fought among themselves as well as with +the natives and the Portuguese, and their competition sent up prices in +the eastern markets and brought them down at home. Largely at the +suggestion of Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, and in full accordance with the +economic principles of the time, the states-general decided to combine +the existing separate companies into one united Dutch East India +Company, which could discharge the functions of a government in those +remote seas, prosecute the war with Spain and Portugal, and regulate the +trade. A capital estimated variously at a little above and a little +under 6,500,000 florins, was raised by national subscription in shares +of 3000 florins. The independence of the states which constituted the +United Netherlands was recognized by the creation of local boards at +Amsterdam, in Zealand, at Delft and Rotterdam, Hoorn and Enkhuizen. The +boards directed the trade of their own districts, and were responsible +to one another, but not for one another as towards the public. A general +directorate of 60 members was chosen by the local boards. Amsterdam was +represented by 20 directors, Zealand by 12, Delft and Rotterdam by 14, +and Hoorn and Enkhuizen also by 14. The real governing authority was the +"Collegium," or board of control of 17 members, of whom 16 were chosen +from the general directorate in proportion to the share which each local +branch had contributed to the capital or joint stock. Amsterdam, which +subscribed a half, had eight representatives; Zealand, which found a +quarter, had four; Delft and Rotterdam, Hoorn and Enkhuizen had two +respectively, since each of the pairs had subscribed an eighth. The +seventeenth member was nominated in succession by the other members of +the United Netherlands. A committee of ten was established at the Hague +to transact the business of the company with the states-general. The +"collegium" of seventeen nominated the governors-general who were +appointed after 1608. The charter, which was granted for twenty-one +years, conferred great powers on the company. It was endowed with a +monopoly of the trade with the East Indies, was allowed to import free +from all custom dues, though required to pay 3% on exports, and charged +with a rent to the states. It was authorized to maintain armed forces by +sea and land, to erect forts and plant colonies, to make war or peace, +to arrange treaties in the name of the stadtholder, since eastern +potentates could not be expected to understand what was meant by the +states-general, and to coin money. It had full administrative, judicial +and legislative authority over the whole of the sphere of operations, +which extended from the west of the Straits of Magellan westward to the +Cape of Good Hope. + +The history of the Dutch East India Company from its formation in 1602 +until its dissolution in 1798 is filled, until the close of the 17th +century, with wars and diplomatic relations. Its headquarters were early +fixed at Batavia in Java. But it extended its operations far and wide. +It had to deal diplomatically with China and Japan; to conquer its +footing in the Malay Archipelago and in Ceylon; to engage in rivalry +with Portuguese and English; to establish posts and factories at the +Cape, in the Persian Gulf, on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel and +in Bengal. Only the main dates of its progress can be mentioned here. By +1619 it had founded its capital in Batavia in Java on the ruins of the +native town of Jacatra. It expelled the Portuguese from Ceylon between +1638 and 1658, and from Malacca in 1641. Its establishment at the Cape +of Good Hope, which was its only colony in the strict sense, began in +1652. A treaty with the native princes established its power in Sumatra +in 1667. The flourishing age of the company dates from 1605 and lasted +till the closing years of the century. When at the summit of its +prosperity in 1669 it possessed 150 trading ships, 40 ships of war, +10,000 soldiers, and paid a dividend of 40%. In the last years of the +17th century its fortunes began to decline. Its decadence was due to a +variety of causes. The rigid monopoly it enforced wherever it had the +power provoked the anger of rivals. When Pieter Both, the first +governor-general, was sent out in 1608, his instructions from the Board +of Control were to see that Holland had the entire monopoly of the trade +with the East Indies, and that no other nation had any share whatever. +The pursuit of this policy led the company into violent hostility with +the English, who were also opening a trade with the East. Between 1613 +and 1632 the Dutch drove the English from the Spice Islands and the +Malay Archipelago almost entirely. The English were reduced to a +precarious footing at Bantam in Java. One incident of this conflict, the +torture and judicial murder of the English factors at Amboyna in 1623, +caused bitter hostility in England. The success of the company in the +Malay Archipelago was counterbalanced by losses elsewhere. It had in all +eight governments: Amboyna, Banda, Ternate, Macassar, Malacca, Ceylon, +Cape of Good Hope and Java. Commissioners were placed in charge of its +factories or trading posts in Bengal, on the Coromandel coast, at Surat, +and at Gambroon (or Bunder Abbas) in the Persian Gulf, and in Siam. Its +trade was divided into the "grand trade" between Europe and the East, +which was conducted in convoys sailing from and returning to Amsterdam; +and the "Indies to Indies" or coasting trade between its possessions and +native ports. + +The rivalry and the hostilities of French and English gradually drove +the Dutch from the mainland of Asia and from Ceylon. The company +suffered severely in the War of American Independence. But it extended +and strengthened its hold on the great islands of the Malay Archipelago. +The increase of its political and military burdens destroyed its +profits. In the early 18th century it was already embarrassed, and was +bankrupt when it was dissolved in 1798, though its credit remained +unshaken, largely, if its enemies are to be believed, because it +concealed the truth and published false accounts. In the later stages of +its history its revenue was no longer derived from trade, but from +forced contributions levied on its subjects. At home, the directors, who +were accused of nepotism and corruption, became unpopular at an early +date. The company was subject to increasing demands and ever more severe +regulation on the successive renewals of its charters at intervals of +twenty-one years. The immediate causes of its destruction were the +conquest of Holland by the French revolutionary armies, the fall of the +government of the stadtholder, and the establishment of the Batavian +Republic in 1798. + + AUTHORITIES.--The great original work on the history of the Dutch East + India Company is the monumental _Beschryving van oud en niew oost + Indien_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724), by François Valentyn, in 8 + vols., folio, profusely illustrated. Two modern works of the highest + value are: J.K.J. de Jonge, _De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch Gezag + in oost Indien_ (The Hague and Amsterdam, 1862-1888), in 13 vols.; J. + J. Meinsma, _Geschiedenis van de Nederlandsche oost-Indische + Bezittingen_ (3 vols., Delft and the Hague, 1872-1875). See also John + Crawford, _History of the Indian Archipelago_ (Edinburgh, 1820); Clive + Day, _The Dutch in Java_ (New York, 1904); Sir W.W. Hunter, _A + History of British India_ (London, 1899); and Pierre Bonnassieux, _Les + Grandes Compagnies de commerce_ (Paris, 1892). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Linschoten was born at Haarlem in or about 1563. He started his + travels at the age of sixteen and, after some years in Spain, went + with the Portuguese East India fleet to Goa, where he arrived in + September 1583, returning in 1589. In 1594 and 1595 he took part in + the Dutch Arctic voyages, and in 1598 settled at Enkhuizen, where he + died on the 8th of February 1611. His _Navigatio ac itinerarium_ + (1595-1596) is a compilation based partly on his own experiences, + partly on those of other travellers with whom he came in contact. It + was translated into English and German in 1598; two Latin versions + appeared in 1599 and a French translation in 1610. The famous English + version was reprinted for the Hakluyt Society in 1885. Large + selections, with an Introduction, are published in C. Raymond + Beazley's _Voyages and Travels_, vol. ii. (_English Garner_, London, + 1903). + + + + +DUTCH LANGUAGE. When the Romans reached the territory now forming the +kingdom of Holland, they found a number of tribes south of the Rhine, +who--though here and there mixed with Germans--belonged to a +non-Germanic race, and who, closely related to the Belgian tribes, spoke +a language belonging to the Celtic group. Possibly they were also +situated on the more elevated grounds north of the Rhine, at least +vestiges of them may still be traced. We do not know anything about +their being mixed with or subdued by the intruding German tribes. We can +only guess it. + +At that time the fertile delta of the Rhine was already occupied by +German tribes who in language and national customs must have stood in +some relation to the tribes living along the Rhine in Germany, later +called Franks. The consonantal system of their language was in +accordance with the other Low-German dialects, which is proved by the +remains we have in the glosses of the Lex Salica, for the greater part +handed down in a bad condition. These tribes, whom we shall take +together under the name of Low-Franks--the Romans called them Batavi, +Caninefates, Chamavi, &c.--were spread over Gelderland, Overysel, part +of Utrecht and South Holland, and the south-western part of North +Holland. When in the sixth century allied tribes from the present north +Germany, who named themselves Saxons after one of those tribes living +alongside the Elbe, conquered the territory occupied by the Franks a +great many retreated from the eastern parts, and then the Franks, who +already in the time of the Romans had begun to invade into the territory +of the Belgian tribes, continued their wars of conquest in a southward +direction and subdued all the land south of the branch of the Rhine that +is called the "Waal." Since that time the Frankish dialect came there, +and the Celtic-speaking population of the south suffered its language to +be entirely supplanted by that of the conquerors. Hence in the formerly +Celtic-speaking parts of Brabant and Limburg we find but Frankish +dialects, somewhat corresponding with those of part of Gelderland, +Utrecht and Holland. The deviation that is perceptible concerns less the +use of words than the way of laying the stress. + +In part of Gelderland, east of the Ysel, and in Overysel, the older +Frankish dialect (of the Salian Franks) was given up and the language of +the victorious Saxons was assumed, perhaps here and there strongly mixed +with the older language. The language which is spoken there, and farther +to the north through Drente as far as in some parts of Groningen, is +called Saxon. Indeed, these dialects correspond in a great many respects +with the language of the Old-Saxon poem Heliand (q.v.) and with the +North-German dialects--from the latter they deviate considerably in some +respects. The chief point of conformity is the formation of the plural +of the verb: _wi loopt, wi gåt_, _Heliand_: _wi hlopad, wi gangad_, +which are _wèi loopen, wèi gaan_ in the Frankish dialects. In the vocal +system, too, there are peculiar differences. + +In the north of Holland there lived, and still lives alongside the +coast, a tribe with which Caesar did not come in contact. The Frisians +were spread over a large distance along the shore as far as the mouth of +the Elbe, and in the west at least as far as the country north of +Haarlem. In the time of the Romans they cannot have extended their power +farther southward. Later, however, this seems to have been the case. +Maerlant and Melis Stoke (13th century) tell us that time was when their +power extended even over part of Flanders. About the year 339 they were +repelled as far as the mouth of the Meuse, and ever afterwards the +Franks, led by their counts, pushed their dominion back farther and +farther to the north, as far as the country north of Alkmaar. After all, +a great many Frisian peculiarities may be perceived in the language of +the country people of the parts which were once in their power. + +To begin with the south: in Zeeland the population has quite given up +the former probably non-Germanic language. Frisian influence is still +perceptible in many words and expressions, but for all that the language +has lost the Frisian character and assumed the nature of the +neighbouring Frankish dialects in the present Belgium and Brabant. If it +was then influenced by the south, later it was influenced rather by the +language of Holland. Farther to the north Frisian elements may be +perceived in Holland at the seashore and also in many respects still in +North Holland. The real Frisian tongue has only been preserved in the +province of Friesland, where intrusion of the dialect spoken in Holland +is already perceptible since the 13th century. With the Frisian tongue +this formed a new dialect in the towns, the "Stadfriesch," whereas the +country people in the villages and the peasants have preserved the old +Frisian tongue as "Boerenfriesch." + +The more eastward dialects of Frisian in Groningen, the eastern part of +Friesland (_Stellingawerf_) and West-Drente were first strongly mixed +with Saxon; at the same time we find a strong mixture of Frisian and +Saxo-Frankish east of the Zuider Zee. Later the Saxon dialect of the +town of Groningen, once the capital of East-Drente, became prominent +over the whole province. + +In all parts, however, the language of Holland, mixed with and changed +by the living speech, is getting more and more influence, issuing from +the towns and large villages. + +This influence over the whole country began at the opening of the 17th +century, and, in connexion with the prevalent written language, +gradually produced a colloquial language, deviating from the written +language as well as from the native idioms of the country, though +assuming elements from both. In this colloquial speech the idiom of +Holland forms the basis, whereas the written language formed itself on +quite different principles. + +If we compare the colloquial speech and the native idiom with the +written language, we find remarkable differences, which are caused by +the origin of the Dutch written language. + +The first to write in any of the idioms of the Dutch language, if we +leave apart the old version of the psalms in East Low Frankish, was an +inhabitant of the neighbourhood of Maastricht, Henrik van Veldeke, who +wrote a Servatius legend and an _Aeneid_; the latter we only know by a +Mid High German copy. This dialect deviates from the western dialects +and has likeness to the Middle-Frankish. His work had no influence +whatever on the written language. + +In the west of Belgium, in the districts of Antwerp, East and West +Flanders and Brabant, great prosperity and strong development of +commerce caused a vivid intellectual life. No wonder we find there the +first writings in the West-Low-Frankish native idiom. This language +spread over the neighbouring districts. At least in 1254 we find the +same language used in the statute (i.e. privilege) of Middelburg. + +In those parts a great deal was written in poetry and prose, and the +writings in this language are known under the name of Middle-Dutch +literature. + +If originally the south took the lead in all departments, later the +north gradually surpasses the south, and elements from the northern +native idiom begin to intrude into the written language. + +North of the Meuse and the Rhine little was written as yet in the 13th +century. Not until about 1300 does literary life begin to develop here +(Melis Stoke's _Rijmcronijk_), and these writings were written in the +language of the south with slight deviations here and there. Chancery +and clergy had taken a written language to the north, deviating +considerably from the native idiom in vogue there, which belonged to the +Frisio-Frankish idioms. So this written language gradually spread over +the west of the Netherlands and Belgium. The east of the Netherlands +agreed in its chancery style more with the districts of Low Germany. + +There was a great difference between the written language and the +dialect spoken on the banks of the Y. This becomes quite conspicuous if +we compare what Roemer Visscher, Coster, Bredero borrow from their +native idiom with the language of Huygens or Cats, in the latter of +which the southern elements predominate, mixed with the dialects of +Zeeland and Holland. Vondel, too, in his first period was influenced by +the idiom of Brabant. Only after 1625 does he get on more familiar terms +with the Amsterdam dialect. In the various editions of his poems it may +be seen how not only loan-words, but also words belonging to the +southern idiom, are gradually replaced by other words, belonging to the +vocabulary of North Holland, and still to be heard. + +The written language passed from the south to the north, and, +considerably changed at Amsterdam, was also assumed in the other +provinces in the 17th century, after the Union of Utrecht. In the north, +in Groningen and Friesland, the official writings and laws were still +noted down in a Frisian or Saxo-Frisian idiom as late as the 15th and +16th centuries. When the contact with Holland grew stronger, and the +government officials ever and again came in contact with Holland, +chancery, too, gradually assumed the Holland idiom. The same took place +in the eastern provinces. + +This, however, did not yet make the written language popular, which did +not happen before the population of the Dutch provinces got its +_Statenbÿbel_, the well-known authorized version of the Bible, made at +Dordrecht between 1626 and 1637. + +By the frequent use of this so-called _Statenvertaling_ the language of +Holland obtained its vogue in all provinces on the point of religion, +and many expressions, borrowed from that Bible, were preserved in the +native idiom. + +By the remarkable vicissitudes of these parts from the earliest time up +to the moment when Holland became an independent kingdom, during which +alternately German elements under the Bavarian counts and French +influences under the Burgundian princes were predominant, and also later +in the 16th and 17th centuries elements from these languages were mixed +with the language in common use. Moreover, various words passed from the +eastern languages into Dutch by the colonial and commercial connexions, +while at the same time many words were borrowed from Latin, the language +of the learned people, especially in the 16th century, and from French, +under the influence of the poetic clubs of the 17th and 18th centuries. +In the time of the rhetoricians, in the 16th century, and of Coornhert, +as well as in the days of Bredero, Hooft and Vondel, we repeatedly find +opposition against these foreign words, often successful, so that in +1650 Vondel could say: "_Onze spraak is sedert weinige jaren herwaart +van bastaard-woorden en onduitsch allengs geschuimt._"[1] Some people, +e.g. Hooft, went even so far as to make very clumsy versions of Latin +and French bastard words, handed down of old. + +Under the influence of the club "_Nil Volentibus Arduum_" and the +predominant literary clubs of the 18th century, people became inclined +towards expressing their thoughts as much as possible in pure Dutch. +Therefore a large number of rules were given, with respect to prose as +well as to poetry, in consequence of which the written language grew +very stiff in choice of words and forms, and remains so till the latter +half of the 19th century. The obtrusion of the French language during +the reign of Napoleon had no effect. But the subsequent union of Holland +and Belgium strengthened the French element, especially in the higher +ranks of society. King William I. had tried to make Dutch more popular +in Belgium by a general teaching of the Dutch language. When north and +south were separated, the French became predominant in the south. Only +in the Flemish provinces of Belgium the people tried to preserve the +native idiom and to do away with French words. These endeavours, called +"De Vlaamsche beweging", begun by F. v. Willems, Heremans and others in +the south, were supported in the north by Professor de Vries at Leiden. +In order to get a pure Dutch language, the idea of composing a general +Dutch dictionary was introduced. M. de Vries and his partner L. te +Winkel, however, did not begin this task before having given a new +formulation of the rules for spelling. These rules, deviating in many +respects from the spelling then in vogue, introduced by Siegenbeek in +1806, have been predominant up to the present moment. Since 1891 Dr R. +A. Kollewyn and Dr F. Buitenrust Hettema have been engaged in trying to +bring about a simplification in the spelling. As this simplification is +not generally considered efficient, their principles are not yet +generally adopted; see for instance C.H. den Hertog, _Waarom +onaannemelyk?_ (Groningen, 1893). + +Excepting Belgium (Flanders, Antwerp, Brabant) the Dutch language is +heard outside Holland in Dutch East India and in the West Indies. In +East India pure Dutch has been preserved, though some Javanese and Malay +bastard words may have slipped in by the habit of speaking to the +population in the Malay tongue or in the native idiom. Hence no +Indo-Dutch was formed there. This is different in the West Indies, where +a great number of negro words and English words as well as English +syntactical constructions have slipped in. + +In the 17th century a number of Dutchmen, for the greater part from +Holland and Zeeland, under Jan van Riebeek, had settled in South Africa, +in Cape Town, where the Dutch navigation called into being a Dutch port. +In course of time they were joined there by French emigrants (most of +them Huguenots who left their country about 1688 and joined with other +Huguenots from Holland in assuming the Dutch language), perhaps also by +Portuguese and by Malay people, who, together with the English who +settled there and after 1820 became numerous in Cape Colony, mixed some +peculiarities of their language with the Dutch idioms. Thus in the first +half of the 18th century the language arose which is now called the +South African Dutch. Since 1880 the present Dutch language has became +more frequently used in official writings, though with certain +adaptations agreeably to the native idiom. + + In order to offer an example of the Middle-Dutch language beside the + present language, we give here a single strophe from Maerlant's + _Wapene Martyn_, with a metrical translation in modern Dutch from the + pen of Nikolaas Beets (1880). + + God, diet al bi redene doet, | God, die het al met wijsheid doet, + Gaf dat wandel ertsche goet | Gaf dit verganklijk aardsche goed + Der menschelt gemene, | Den menschen in't gemeen, + Dattere mede ware gevoet, | Op dat zij zouden zijn gevoed, + Ende gecleet, ende gescoet, | Het lijf gekleed, geschoeid de voet + Ende leven soude rene. | En leven rein van zeen. + Nu es giericheit so verwoet, | Maar zie nu hoe de hebzucht woedt + Dat elc settet sinen moet | Dat iedereen in arren moed + Om al te hebbene allene. | 't Al hebben wil alleen' + Hieromme stortmen menschenbloet, | Hierom vergiet men menschenbloed + Hieromme stichtmen metter spoet | En bouwt met roekeloozen spoed + Borge ende hoge stene | Burchtsloten, zwaar van steen, + Menegen te wene. | Tot smart van menigeen. + + _A Survey of the Sounds used in Dutch._--_The Consonants._ As regards + the consonants, Dutch in the main does not differ from the other Low + German languages. The explosive _g_ and the _th_ are wanting. Instead + of the former there is a _g_ with "fricative" pronunciation, and as in + High German the _th_ has passed over into _d_. + + The final consonants in Middle Dutch are sharpened, and the sharp + sounds are graphically represented; in Modern Dutch, on the other + hand, the historical development of the language being more distinctly + kept in view, and the agreement observed with the inflexional forms, + the soft consonant is written more frequently than it is sounded; thus + we have Middle Dutch _dach_, Modern Dutch _dag_, in analogy with the + plural _dagen_. + + The gutturals are _g_, _k_, _ch_ and _h_. + + _G_ is the soft spirant, not used in English. In Middle Dutch this + letter was also indicated by _gh_. _K_ was pronounced like English + _k_. In Middle Dutch _c_ was sometimes used instead of _k_; now this + is no longer done. + + _Ch_ (pronounced as German _ch_ without the _i_-sound, not as English + _ch_) loses its sound when combined with _s_ to _sch_ at the end of a + syllable, for instance, _vleesch_, but the _s_-sound is not purely + dental as in _dans_. As an initial consonant _sch_ is nearly + pronounced as _sg_ (_schip_, English ship); only in Frisian and Saxon + dialects the old consonant _sk_ in _skip_, _skool_ is retained. + + _H_ has the same pronunciation as in English. + + The dentals are _d_ and _t_. The _d_ is formed by placing the point of + the tongue against the upper teeth. At the end of a word _d_ is + sharpened into _t_, but written _d_, for instance, _goed_, pronounced + _gut_. In the idiom of the east of the Netherlands final _d_ is + preserved. When between two vowels after _oe_ (Engl. _ô_ in do), _o_, + or _ui_, _d_ is not pronounced, though it is written. After it has + been left out, a _j_-sound has developed between the two vowels, so, + for instance, _goede_ became first _goe:e_ and then _goeje_. Thus it + is pronounced, though it is still spelled _goede_. After _ou d_ + disappeared and _ou_ became _ouw_, for instance _koude > kouw_. + + _T_ has the same pronunciation as in English. In some dialects final + _t_ is dropped, for instance, _heef_ for _heeft_, _nie_ for _niet_. + + _S_ has the pronunciation of English _s_ in sound, _z_ that of English + _z_ in hazel; only in _zestig_ and _zeventig z_ has the pronunciation + of _s_. + + The labials are _b_, _f_, _v_, _p_. + + At the beginning and in the body of a word _b_ has the same sound as + in English. At the end of a word, when shortened from _bb_, followed + by a vowel, it became _p_ in the pronunciation, so older _krabbe_ + became _krabb_, _krab_ (the present spelling), which is now pronounced + _krap_. + + _F_ has the same pronunciation as English _f_. In many cases older + initial _f_ passed into _v_, hence most words which have _f_ in + English have initial _v_ in Dutch, for instance _vader_, _vol_, + _vechten_. + + This _v_, initial and between vowels, has the pronunciation of English + _v_ in lover. Dutch _p_ is the same as English _p_, also the liquids + and nasals. + + The _w_ in Dutch is mostly labiodental; in the eastern parts before + vowels bilabial pronunciation is heard. + + _Vowels._--_A_ has in open syllables the sound of English _a_ in + father, in closed syllables that of English _a_ in ass, but more open; + when there is a clear sound in closed syllables the spelling is _aa_ + (_jaar_), in open syllables _a_ (_maken_), pronounced as _a_ in ask; + in _bad_, _nat_, _a=a_. An original short _a_ and a long _a_ in open + syllables are even in Middle Dutch pronounced alike, and may be rhymed + with each other (_dagen_, _lagen_, a rhyme which was not permitted in + Middle High German). In the Saxon dialects _â_ was expressed by _ao_, + _a_ or _â_ in the Frisio-Saxon districts passes into _è_ before _r_, + as _jèr_ (_jaar_). Middle Dutch preserved _a_ in several words where + in Modern Dutch it passes into _e_ before _r_ (_arg_, _erg_; _sarc_, + _zerk_; _warf_, _werf_); in others, as _aarde_, _staart_, _zwaard_, + the Middle Dutch had _e_ and _a_ (_erde_, _stert_, _swert_, _swart_, + _start_; Modern Dutch _zwaard_, _staart_). In foreign words, likewise, + _e_ before _r_ has become _a_; _paars_, _perse_; _lantaarn_, + _lanterne_ (in the dialects _e_ is still frequently retained). + + _E._ The sound of the _e_ derived from _a_ does not differ from that + of an original _e_, or of an _e_ derived from _i_, as they appear in + open syllables (_steden_, _vele_, pronounced as _a_ in English name). + If the _e_ derived from _a_ or _i_ or the original _e_ occurs in + closed syllables, it has a short sound, as in English men, end, Modern + Dutch _stem_. The _e_ in closed syllables with a full sound (as + English _a_; Sweet, _ei_) is spelled _ee_: _veel_, _week_ (_e_ from + _i_), _beek_. The sharp, clear _ee_ is indicated by the same letters + in both open and closed syllables: _eer_, _sneeuw_, _zee_. + + In some dialects this _ee_ is pronounced like English _ee_, not only + in the present dialects, but also in the 17th century. + + The pronunciation of _ei_ (from _ai_, or _eg_: _ag_, French _ai_, + _ei_, _ée_) is that of English _i_, for instance, Dutch _ei_, English + egg, is pronounced like English _I_. + + _I_ is pronounced short (somewhat like _i_ of English pit), for + instance in _pit_, _binden_, _sikkel_; it has a clear sound in + _fabrikant_, though it has no stress. + + _Ie_ is pronounced like English _ee_ in see, but somewhat shorter; so, + _fabriek_, _fabrieken_, _Pieter_; also in _bieden_, _stierf_, &c. For + original long _î_, Middle Dutch _ii_ and _ij_, afterwards _ÿ_, was + used. This vowel, though still written _y_, is pronounced like English + _i_ in I, like; so in _sysje_ (English siskin), _lÿken_, &c. + + The letter _o_ represents three sounds:--(1) the short sharp _o_ and + (2) the short soft _o_, the former like the _o_ in English not and + French _soldat_ (Dutch _bod_, _belofte_, _tocht_, _kolf_), the latter + like the English _o_ in don, the French _o_ in _ballon_ (Dutch _dof_, + _ploffen_, _ochtend_, _vol_), and (3) the full, clear _o_ as in + English note, French _noter_ (Dutch _kolen_, _sloten_, _verloren_). + The sharp clear _oo_, in _stroom_, _dood_, has almost the same sound + as the full _o_, in some dialects (among others the Saxon) it is + pronounced as _o_ with a glide _o_, in others (Flemish and Hollandsch) + somewhat like _au_. In Middle Dutch, the lengthening of the vowels was + frequently indicated by _e_ (before _r_ sometimes by _i_, as in + _oir_); hence _ae_ for _â_, _oe_ for _ô_. Where _oe_ occurs in the + modern language, it has the sound of _u_ (pronounced like the _u_ in + High German, and answering to the Gothic _ô_), which in Middle Dutch + was frequently represented by _ou_. _oe_ is pronounced _ou_ (_au_; + Sweet, p. 6) in West Flemish and the Groningen dialects. Before + labials and gutturals _oe_ in Middle Dutch was expressed by _ue_ and + _oe_ (_bouc_, _souken_, and also _guet_, but usually _goet_, _soeken_, + _boec_). The Saxon dialects still preserve an _ô_ sound which agrees + with the Dutch _oe_ (_bôk_, _môder_); in two words--_romer_ (_roemer_, + however, is also used) and _spook_--_o_ has passed from these dialects + into Dutch. As the _u_ (Old German _û_), which in the Dutch tongue has + passed into _ui_ except before _r_ and _w_, retains the _û_-sound in + the Saxon districts, some words have come into Dutch from these + dialects, being written with _oe_ from the similar sound of _oe_ + (from _ô_) in Dutch and _û_ in Saxon (_snoet_, _boer_, _soezen_), by + the side of which are Frankish words (_snuit_, _suizen_, &c.). + + In the language of the people _oe_ before _m_ is often pronounced as + _o_, for instance _bloem_ and _blom_. + + _Eu_ is not a diphthong, but the modification (_Umlaut_) of the clear + _o_; it has the same sound as German _ö_ in _schön_; so in _vleugel_, + _leugen_, _keuken_. + + _U_ before a double consonant or before a consonant in monosyllables + has about the same pronunciation as in English stuff, rug; so in + _kunnen_, _snurken_, _put_. When used in open syllables it has the + same sound as in French _nature_. + + In the 16th and 17th centuries, Middle Dutch _û_ passed over through + _oi_ into _ui_ by the influence of the Holland dialect. In the Saxon + districts _û_ kept the old pronunciation, but only in the language of + the peasants. The common language has everywhere _ui_, pronounced + nearly as German _eu_, English _oy_; so in _duizend_, _vuil_, + _buigen_, &c. + + _Ou_ and _au_ in _vrouw_ and _blauw_ are nearly pronounced in the same + way, very much like English _ow_ in crowd. + + AUTHORITIES.--For a full survey of a history of the Dutch language the + reader is referred to Jan te Winkel, "Geschichte der niederländischen + Sprache," _Grundriss der germ. Philologie_, 2, p. 704 (Strassburg, K. + Grübner). Here an elaborate account may be found on p. 704 of the + different works on the grammar and phonology of the various periods of + the Dutch language. For explanation and history of words of the + current language see the _Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal_, by De + Vries and Te Winkel, continued by A. Kluyver, A. Beets, for a time by + J.W. Müller and De Vreese, who left at their nomination as professors + at Utrecht and Ghent. The Middle Dutch language may be known from the + _Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek_, first by E. Verwys and J. Verdam, + after the death of Verwys by Verdam alone. For the dialects the + different grammars and glossaries issued at Martinus Nÿhoff (The + Hague) and Kemink & Son (Utrecht) are of great importance. The Flemish + dialect may be found in De Bo, _Westvlaamsch Idioticon_; other Belgian + dialects are recorded in the publications of the _Vlaamsche Academie_ + (Ghent). Phonetic explanations are given in Roorda's or in ten + Bruggencate's _Phonetic Works_, and a survey of the pronunciation in + Branco van Dantzig's _Dutch Pronunciation_ and Dykstra's _Dutch + Grammar_. (J. H. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] i.e. "Within a few years our language has been gradually skimmed + of bastard words and non-Dutch elements." + + + + +DUTCH LITERATURE. The languages now known as Dutch and Flemish did not +begin to take distinct shape till about the end of the 11th century. +From a few existing fragments--two incantations from the 8th century, a +version of the Psalms from the 9th century, and several charters--a +supposed Old Dutch language has been recognized; but Dutch literature +actually commences in the 13th century, as Middle Dutch, the creation of +the first national movement in Brabant, Flanders, Holland and Zealand. + + + Willem the Minstrel. + +From the wreck of Frankish anarchy no genuine folk-tales of Dutch +antiquity have come down to us, and scarcely any echoes of German myth. +On the other hand, the sagas of Charlemagne and Arthur appear +immediately in Middle Dutch forms. These were evidently introduced by +wandering minstrels and jongleurs, and translated to gratify the +curiosity of the noble women. It is rarely that the name of such a +translator has reached us, but we happen to know that the fragments we +possess of the French romance of _William of Orange_ were written in +Dutch by a certain Klaas van Haarlem, between 1191 and 1217. The +_Chanson de Roland_ was translated about the same time, and considerably +later _Parthenopeus de Blois_. The Flemish minstrel Diederic van +Assenede completed his version of _Floris et Blanchefleur_ about 1250. +The Arthurian legends appear to have been brought to Flanders by some +Flemish colonists in Wales, on their return to their mother-country. +About 1250 a Brabantine minstrel translated Walter Map's _Lancelot du +lac_ at the command of his liege, Lodewijk van Velthem. The _Gauvain_ +was translated by Penninc and Vostaert before 1260, while the first +original Dutch writer, the famous Jakob van Maerlant, occupied himself +about 1260 with several romances dealing with Merlin and the Holy Grail. +The earliest existing fragments of the epic of _Reynard the Fox_ were +written in Latin by Flemish priests, and about 1250 the first part of a +very important version in Dutch was made by Willem the Minstrel, of whom +it is unfortunate that we know no more save that he was the translator +of a lost romance, _Madoc_. In his existing work the author follows +Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but not slavishly; and he is the first really +admirable writer that we meet with in Dutch literature. The second part +was added by another hand at the end of the 14th century. + + + John I., duke of Brabant. + +It is not necessary to dwell at any length on the monkish legends and +the hymns to the Virgin Mary which were abundantly produced during the +13th century, and which, though destitute of all literary merit, were of +use as exercises in the infancy of the language. The first lyrical +writer of Holland was John I., duke of Brabant, who practised the +_minnelied_ with success, but whose songs are only known to us through a +Swabian version of a few of them. In 1544 the earliest collection of +Dutch folk-songs saw the light, and in this volume one or two romances +of the 14th century are preserved, of which _Het Daghet in den Oosten_ +is the best known. Almost the earliest fragment of Dutch popular poetry, +but of later time, is an historical ballad describing the murder of +Count Floris V. in 1296. A very curious collection of mystical medieval +hymns by Sister Hadewych, a nun of Brabant, was first printed in 1875 by +Heremans and Ledeganck. + + + Maerlant. + + Boendale. + + Weert. + + Stoke. + +Hitherto, as we have seen, the Middle Dutch language had placed itself +at the service of the aristocratic and monastic orders, flattering the +traditions of chivalry and of religion, but scarcely finding anything to +say to the bulk of the population. With the close of the 13th century a +change came over the face of Dutch literature. The Flemish towns began +to prosper and to assert their commercial supremacy over the North Sea. +Under such mild rulers as William II. and Floris V., Dort, Amsterdam, +and other cities contrived to win such privileges as amounted almost to +political independence, and with this liberty there arose a new sort of +literary expression. The founder and creator of this original Dutch +literature was Jacob van Maerlant (q.v.). His _Naturen Bloeme_, written +about 1263, forms an epoch in Dutch literature; it is a collection of +moral and satirical addresses to all classes of society. With his +_Rijmbijbel_ (Rhyming Bible) he foreshadowed the courage and +free-thought of the Reformation. It was not until 1284 that he began his +masterpiece, _De Spieghel Historiael_ (The Mirror of History), at the +command of Count Floris V. Of his disciples, the most considerable in +South Holland was Jan van Boendale (1280-1365), known as Jan de Klerk. +He was born in Brabant, and became clerk to the justices at Antwerp in +1310. He was entrusted with various important missions. His works are +historical and moral in character. In him the last trace of the old +chivalric and romantic element has disappeared. He completed his famous +rhyme chronicle, the _Brabantsche Yeesten_, in 1350; it contains the +history of Brabant down to that date, and was brought down to 1440 by an +anonymous later writer. For English readers it is disappointing that +Boendale's other great historical work (_Van den derden Edewaert, coninc +van Ingelant ..._, ed. J.F. Willems, Ghent, 1840), an account of Edward +III. and his expedition to Flanders in 1338, has survived only in some +fragments. The remainder of Boendale's works are didactic poems, +pursuing still further the moral thread first taken up by Maerlant, and +founded on medieval scholastic literature. In Ypres the school of +Maerlant was represented by Jan de Weert, a surgeon, who died in 1362, +and who was the author of two remarkable works of moral satire and +exhortation, the _Nieuwe Doctrinael of Spieghel der Sonden_, and a +_Disputacie van Rogier end van Janne_. In the beginning of the 13th +century Gielijs van Molhem wrote a Dutch version of part of the +_Miserere_ of the Picard poet who concealed his identity under the name +of the recluse of Moiliens. The poem consisted of meditations on the +origin and destiny of man, and on the sins of pride, envy, &c. The +translation, completed later by an author calling himself Heinrec, was +critically edited (Groningen, 1893) by P. Leendertz. In North Holland a +greater talent than that of Weert or of Boendale was exhibited by Melis +Stoke, a monk of Egmond, who wrote the history of the state of Holland +to the year 1305; this work, the _Rijmkronik_, was printed in 1591, and +edited in 1885 for the Utrecht Historical Society; and for its +exactitude and minute detail it has proved of inestimable service to +later historians. + + + Heelu. + + Aken. + + Dirk Potter. + +With the middle of the 14th century the chivalric spirit came once more +into fashion. A certain revival of the forms of feudal life made its +appearance under William III. and his successors. Knightly romances came +once more into vogue, but the newborn didactic poetry contended +vigorously against the supremacy of what was lyrical and epical. It will +be seen that from the very first the literary spirit in Holland began to +assert itself in a homely and utilitarian spirit. Jan van Heelu, a +Brabanter, was the author of an epic poem[1] on the battle of Woeronc +(1288), dedicated to Princess Margaret of England, and to him has been +attributed the still finer romance of the _War of Grimbergen_.[2] Still +more thoroughly aristocratic in feeling was Hein van Aken, a priest of +Louvain, who lived about 1255-1330, and who combined to a very curious +extent the romantic and didactic elements. As early as 1280 he had +completed his translation[3] of the _Roman de la rose_, which he must +have commenced in the lifetime of Jean de Meung. More remarkable than +any of his translated works, however, is his original romance, completed +in 1318, _Heinric en Margriete van Limborch_,[4] upon which he was at +work for twenty-seven years. During the Bavarian period (1349-1433) very +little original writing of much value was produced in Holland. Buodewijn +van der Loren wrote one excellent piece on the Maid of Ghent, in 1389. +Augustijnken van Dordt was a peripatetic minstrel of North Holland, who +composed for the sheriff Aelbrecht and for the count of Blois from 1350 +to 1370. Such of his verses as have been handed down to us are +allegorical and moral. Willem van Hildegaersberch (1350-1408) was +another northern poet, of a more strictly political cast. Many of his +writings exist still unpublished, and are very rough in style and +wanting in form. Towards the end of the 14th century an erotic poet of +considerable power arose in the person of the lord of Waddinxsveen and +Hubrechtsambacht, Dirk Potter van der Loo (c. 1365-1428), who was +secretary at the court of the counts of Holland. During an embassy in +Rome (1411-1412) this eminent diplomatist made himself acquainted with +the writings of Boccaccio, and commenced a vast poem on the course of +love, _Der Minnen Loep_,[5] which is a wonderful mixture of classical +and Biblical instances of amorous adventures set in a framework of +didactic philosophy. In Dirk Potter the last traces of the chivalric +element died out of Dutch literature, and left poetry entirely in the +hands of the school of Maerlant. Many early songs, with some of later +date, are preserved in a _Liedekens-Boeck_ printed by Jan Roulans +(Antwerp, 1544). The unique copy in the Wolfenbüttel library was edited +by Hoffmann von Fallersleben in _Horae Belgicae_ (vol. xi., 1855). + + + Religious drama. + +It is now time to consider the growth of prose literature in the Low +Countries. The oldest pieces of Dutch prose now in existence are +charters of the towns of Flanders and Zealand, dated 1249, 1251 and +1254. A prose translation of the Old Testament was made about 1300, and +there exists a _Life of Jesus_ about the same date. Of the mystical +preachers whose religious writings have reached us, the Brussels friar, +Jan van Ruysbroec (1294-1381), is the most important. But the most +interesting relics of medieval Dutch prose, as far as the formation of +the language is concerned, are the popular romances in which the +romantic stories of the _trouvères_ and minstrels were translated for +the benefit of the unlettered public into simple language. As in most +European nations, the religious drama takes a prominent place in every +survey of medieval literature in Holland. Unfortunately the text of all +the earliest mysteries, the language of which would have an +extraordinary interest for us, has been lost. We possess records of +dramas having been played at various places--_Our Lord's Resurrection_, +at the Hague, in 1400; _Our Lady the Virgin_, at Arnheim, in 1452; and +_The Three Kings_, at Delft, in 1498. The earliest existing fragment, +however, is part of a _Limburg-Maastricht Passover Play_[6] of about +1360. The latest Dutch miracle play was the _Mystery of the Holy +Sacrament_, composed by a certain Smeken, at Breda, and performed on St +John's day, 1500. This play was printed in 1867. With these purely +theological dramas there were acted mundane farces, performed outside +the churches by semi-religious companies; these curious moralities were +known as "Abelespelen" and "Sotternieën." In these pieces we discover +the first traces of that genius for low comedy which was afterwards to +take perfect form in the dramas of Brederôo and the paintings of +Teniers. + + + Chambers of Rhetoric. + +The theatrical companies just alluded to, "Gesellen van den Spele," +formed the germ out of which developed the famous "Chambers of +Rhetoric"[7] which united within themselves all the literary movements +that occupied the Low Countries during the 15th and 16th centuries. The +poets of Holland had already discovered in late medieval times the value +of gilds in promoting the arts and industrial handicrafts. The term +"collèges de rhétorique" is supposed to have been introduced about 1440 +to the courtiers of the Burgundian dynasty, but the institutions +themselves existed long before. These literary gilds lasted till the end +of the 16th century, and during the greater part of that time preserved +a completely medieval character, even when the influences of the +Renaissance and the Reformation obliged them to modify in some degree +their outward forms. They were in almost all cases absolutely +middle-class in tone, and opposed to aristocratic ideas and tendencies +in thought. Of these remarkable bodies the earliest were almost entirely +engaged in preparing mysteries and miracle-plays for the populace. Each +chamber, and in process of time every town in the Low Countries, +possessed one, and took as its title some fanciful or heraldic sign. At +Diest "The Eyes of Christ," dated from 1302, and an earlier one, the +"Lily," is mentioned. "The Alpha and Omega," at Ypres, was founded about +1398; that of the "Violet," at Antwerp, followed in 1400; the "Book," at +Brussels, in 1401; the "Berberry," at Courtrai, in 1427; the "Holy +Ghost," at Bruges, in 1428; the "Floweret Jesse," at Middelburg, in +1430; the "Oak Tree," at Vlaardingen, in 1433; and the "Marigold," at +Gouda, in 1437. The most celebrated of all the chambers, that of the +"Eglantine" at Amsterdam, with its motto _In Liefde Bloeyende_ +(Blossoming in Love), was not instituted until 1496. Among the most +influential chambers not above mentioned should be included the +"Fountain" at Dort, the "Corn Flower" at the Hague, the "White +Columbine" at Leiden, the "Blue Columbine" at Rotterdam, the "Red Rose" +at Schiedam, the "Thistle" at Zierikzee, "Jesus with the Balsam" at +Ghent, and the "Garland of Mary" at Brussels. And not in these important +places only, but in almost every little town, the rhetoricians exerted +their influence, mainly in what we may call a social direction. Their +wealth was in most cases considerable, and it very soon became evident +that no festival or procession could take place in a town unless the +"Kamer" patronized it. Towards the end of the 15th century the Ghent +chamber of "Jesus with the Balsam" began to exercise a sovereign power +over the other Flemish chambers, which was emulated later on in Holland +by the "Eglantine" at Amsterdam. But this official recognition proved of +no consequence in literature, and it was not in Ghent, but in Antwerp, +that intellectual life first began to stir. In Holland the burghers only +formed the chambers, while in Flanders the representatives of the noble +families were honorary members, and assisted with their money at the +arrangement of ecclesiastical or political pageants. Their pompous +_landjuweelen_, or tournaments of rhetoric, at which rich prizes were +contended for, were the great occasions upon which the members of the +chambers distinguished themselves. Between 1426 and 1620 at least 66 of +these festivals were held. There was a specially splendid _landjuweel_ +at Antwerp in 1496, in which 28 chambers took part, but the gayest of +all was that celebrated at Antwerp on the 3rd of August 1561. To this +the "Book" at Brussels sent 340 members, all on horseback, and clad in +crimson mantles. The town of Antwerp gave a ton of gold to be given in +prizes, which were shared among 1893 rhetoricians. This was the zenith +of the splendour of the "Kamers van Rhetorica," and after this time they +soon fell into disfavour. We can trace the progress of literary +composition under the chambers, although none of their official +productions has descended to us. Their dramatic pieces were certainly of +a didactic cast, with a strong farcical flavour, and continued the +tradition of Maerlant and his school. They very rarely dealt with +historical or even Biblical personages, but entirely with allegorical +and moral abstractions, until the age of humanism introduced upon the +stage the names without much of the spirit of mythology. Of the pure +farces of the rhetorical chambers we can speak with still more +confidence, for some of them have come down to us, and among the authors +famed for their skill in this sort of writing are named Cornelis +Everaert of Bruges and Laurens Janssen of Haarlem. The material of these +farces is extremely raw, consisting of rough jests at the expense of +priests and foolish husbands, silly old men and their light wives. +Laurens Janssen is also deserving of remembrance for a satire against +the clergy, written in 1583. The chambers also encouraged the +composition of songs, but with very little success; they produced no +lyrical genius more considerable than Matthijs de Casteleyn (1488-1550), +the founder of the Flemish chamber of "Pax Vobiscum" at Oudenarde, and +author of _De Conste van Rhetorijcken_ (Ghent, 1573), a personage whose +influence as a fashioner of language would have been more healthy if his +astounding metrical feats and harlequin _tours de force_ had not been +performed in a dialect debased with all the worst bastard phrases of the +Burgundian period. + + + Houwaert. + +In the middle of the 16th century a group of rhetoricians in Brabant and +Flanders attempted to put a little new life into the stereotyped forms +of the preceding age by introducing in original composition the +new-found branches of Latin and Greek poetry. The leader of these men +was Jean Baptista Houwaert[8] (1533-1599), a personage of considerable +political influence in his generation. Houwaert held the title of +"Counsellor and Master in Ordinary of the Exchequer to the Dukedom of +Brabant"; he played a prominent part in the revolution of the Low +Countries against Spain; and when the prince of Orange entered Brussels +victoriously (Sept. 23rd, 1577), Houwaert met him in pomp at the head of +the two chambers of rhetoric--the "Book" and the "Garland of Mary." He +did not remain faithful to his convictions, for he composed in 1593 a +poem in honour of the cardinal-archduke Ernest of Austria, the governor +of the Spanish Netherlands. He considered himself a devout disciple of +Matthijs de Casteleyn, but his great characteristic was his unbounded +love of classical and mythological fancy. His didactic poems are +composed in a wonderfully rococo style, and swarm with misplaced +Latinities. In his bastard Burgundian tongue he boasted of having +"poëtelijck geïnventeert ende rhetorijckelijck ghecomponeert" for the +Brussels chamber such dramas as _Aeneas and Dido_, _Mars and Venus_, +_Narcissus and Echo_, or _Leander and Hero_--named together the +_Commerce of Amorosity_ (1583). But of all his writings, _Pegasides +Pleyn_ (Antwerp, 1582-1583), or the Palace of Maidens, is the most +remarkable; this is a didactic poem in sixteen books, dedicated to a +discussion of the variety of earthly love. Houwaert's contemporaries +nicknamed him "the Homer of Brabant"; later criticism has preferred to +see in him an important link in that chain of homely didactic Dutch +which ends in Cats. His writings are composed in a Burgundian so base +that they hardly belong to Flemish literature at all. Into the same +miserable dialect Cornelis van Ghistele of Antwerp translated, between +1555 and 1583, parts of Terence, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, while the +painter Karel van Mander (1547-1609) put a French version of the _Iliad_ +and of the _Eclogues_ of Virgil into an equally ill-fitting Flemish +dress. In no country of Europe did the humanism of the 16th century at +first affect the national literature so slightly or to so little +purpose. + + + Psalms and hymns. + + Battle-songs. + +The stir and revival of intellectual life that arrived with the +Reformation found its first expression in the composition of Psalms. +The earliest printed collection appeared at Antwerp in 1540, under the +title of _Souter-Liedekens_, and was dedicated to a Dutch nobleman, +Willem van Zuylen van Nieuvelt, by whose name it is usually known. This +collection, however, was made before the Reformation in Holland really +set in. For the Protestant congregations Jan Utenhove printed a volume +of Psalms in London in 1566; Lucas de Heere (1534-1585), and immediately +after him, with much greater success, Petrus Datheen (1531-1590), +translated the hymns of Clément Marot. For printing this last volume, in +1567, Herman Schinkel of Delft was burned to death in 1568. Datheen was +not a rhetorician, but a person of humble origin, who wrote in the +vulgar tongue, and his hymns spread far and wide among the people. Until +1773 they were in constant use in the state church of Holland. But the +great events of the period of reformation are not marked by psalms only +in Dutch literature. Two collections of hymns and lyrical pieces, +printed in 1562 and 1569, perpetuate the fervour and despair of the +martyrs of the Mennonite Church. Similar utterances of the persecuted +Protestants were published at Haarlem and Leeuwarden, at Ghent and at +Bruges. Very different in tone were the battle-songs of liberty and +triumph sung a generation later by the victorious Reformers, the +"Geuzen" or "Gueux" (q.v.). The famous song-book of 1588, the _Geusen +Lieden Boecxken_, was full of ardent and heroic sentiment, expressed +often in marvellously brilliant phrases. In this collection appeared for +the first time such classical snatches of Dutch song as the Ballad of +Heiligerlee, the Ballad of Egmond and Horn, and the song of the Storm of +Leiden. The political ballads, with their ridicule of the Spanish +leaders, form a section of the _Boecxken_ which has proved of +inestimable value to historians. All these lyrics, however, whether of +victory or of martyrdom, are still very rough in form and language. + + + Anna Bijns. + +The first writer who used the Dutch tongue with grace and precision of +style was a woman and a professed opponent of Lutheranism and reformed +thought. Modern Dutch literature practically begins with Anna Bijns (c. +1494-1575). Against the crowd of rhetoricians and psalm-makers of the +early part of the 16th century she stands out in relief as the one poet +of real genius. The language, oscillating before her time between French +and German, formless, corrupt and invertebrate, took shape and +comeliness, which none of the male pedants could give it, from the +impassioned hands of a woman. Anna Bijns, who is believed to have been +born at Antwerp in 1494, was a schoolmistress at that city in her middle +life, and in old age she still "instructed youth in the Catholic +religion." She died on the 10th of April 1575. Hendrik Peppinck, a +Franciscan, who edited her third volume of poems when she was an old +woman in 1567, speaks of her as "a maiden small of descent, but great of +understanding, and godly of life." Her first known volume bears the date +1528, and displays her as already deeply versed in the mysteries of +religion. We gather from all this that she was a lay nun, and she +certainly occupied a position of great honour and influence at Antwerp. +She was named "the Sappho of Brabant" and the "Princess of all +Rhetoricians." She bent the powerful weapon of her verse against the +faith and character of Luther. In her volume of 1528 the Lutherans are +scarcely mentioned; in that of 1538 every page is occupied with +invectives against them; while the third volume of 1567 is the voice of +one from whom her age has passed. All the poems of Anna Bijns which we +possess are called _refereinen_ or refrains.[9] Her mastery over +verse-form was extremely remarkable, and these refrains are really +modified chants-royal. The writings of Anna Bijns offer many points of +interest to the philologist. In her the period of Middle Dutch closes, +and the modern Dutch begins. In a few grammatical peculiarities--such as +the formation of the genitive by some verbs which now govern the +accusative, and the use of _ghe_ before the infinitive--her language +still belongs to Middle Dutch; but these exceptions are rare, and she +really initiated that modern speech which Filips van Marnix adopted and +made classical in the next generation. + + + Marnix. + +In Filips van Marnix, lord of St Aldegonde (1538-1598), a much greater +personage came forward in the ranks of liberty and reform. He was born +at Brussels in 1538, and began life as a disciple of Calvin and Beza in +the schools of Geneva. It was as a defender of the Dutch iconoclasts +that he first appeared in print, with his tract on _The Images thrown +down in Holland in August 1566_. He soon became one of the leading +spirits in the war of Dutch independence, the intimate friend of the +prince of Orange, and the author of the glorious _Wilhelmuslied_. It was +in the autumn of 1568 that Marnix composed this, the national hymn of +Dutch liberty and Protestantism. In 1569 he completed a no less +important and celebrated prose work, the _Biencorf_ or Beehive of the +Romish Church. In this satire he was inspired in a great measure by +Rabelais, of whom he was an intelligent disciple. It is written in prose +that may be said to mark an epoch in the language and literature of +Holland. Overwhelmed with the press of public business, Marnix wrote +little more until in 1580 he published his _Psalms of David newly +translated out of the Hebrew Tongue_. He occupied the last years of his +life in preparing a Dutch version of the Bible, translated direct from +the original. At his death only Genesis was found completely revised; +but in 1619 the synod of Dort placed the unfinished work in the hands of +four divines, who completed it. + + + Coornhert. + +In Dirck Volckertsen Coornhert[10] (1522-1590) Holland for the first +time produced a writer at once eager to compose in his native tongue and +to employ the weapons of humanism. Coornhert was a typical burgher of +North Holland, equally interested in the progress of national +emancipation and in the development of national literature. He was a +native of Amsterdam, but he did not take part in the labours of the old +chamber of the Eglantine, but quite early in life proceeded to Haarlem, +and was notary, secretary and finally pensionary of the town. In 1566 he +was imprisoned for his support of the Reformers, and in 1572 he became +secretary to the states of Holland. He practised the art of etching, and +spent all his spare time in the pursuit of classical learning. He was +nearly forty years of age before he made any practical use of his +attainments. In 1561 he printed his translation of the _De officiis_ of +Cicero, and in 1562 of the _De beneficiis_ of Seneca. In these volumes +he opposed with no less zeal than Marnix had done the bastard forms +still employed in prose by the rhetoricians of Flanders and Brabant. +During the next decade he occupied himself chiefly with plays and poems, +conceived and expressed with far less freedom than his prose, and more +in the approved conventional fashion of the rhetoricians; he collected +his poems in 1575. The next ten years he occupied in polemical writing, +from the evangelical point of view, against the Calvinists. In 1585 he +translated Boethius, and then gave his full attention to his original +masterpiece, the _Zedekunst_ (1586), or Art of Ethics, a philosophical +treatise in prose, in which he studied to adapt the Dutch tongue to the +grace and simplicity of Montaigne's French. His humanism unites the +Bible, Plutarch and Marcus Aurelius in one grand system of ethics, and +is expressed in a style remarkable for brightness and purity. He died at +Gouda on the 29th of October 1590; his works, in three enormous folio +volumes, were first collected in 1630. + + + Amsterdam the centre of letters. + +Towards the end of the period of transition, Amsterdam became the centre +of all literary enterprise in Holland. In 1585 two of the most important +chambers of rhetoric in Flanders, the "White Lavender" and the "Fig +Tree," took flight from the south, and settled themselves in Amsterdam +by the side of the "Eglantine." The last-named institution had already +observed the new tendency of the age, and was prepared to encourage +intellectual reform of every kind, and its influence spread through +Holland and Zealand. In Flanders, meanwhile, crushed under the yoke of +Parma, literature and native thought absolutely expired. From this time +forward, and until the emancipation of the southern provinces, the +domain of our inquiry is confined to the district north of the Scheldt. + + + Spieghel. + + Roemer Visscher. + +In the chamber of the Eglantine at Amsterdam two men took a very +prominent place, more by their intelligence and modern spirit than by +their original genius. Hendrick Laurenssen Spieghel (1549-1612) was a +humanist of a type more advanced and less polemical than Coornhert. He +wrote a charming poem in praise of dancing; but his chief contributions +to literature were his _Tweespraeck van de nederduytsche letterkunst_, a +philological exhortation, in the manner of Joachim du Bellay's famous +tract, urging the Dutch nation to purify and enrich its tongue at the +fountains of antiquity, and a didactic epic, entitled _Hertspieghel_ +(1614),[11] which has been greatly praised, but which is now much more +antiquated in style and more difficult to enjoy than Coornhert's prose +of a similar tendency. That Spieghel was a Catholic prevented him +perhaps from exercising as much public influence as he exercised +privately among his younger friends. The same may be said of the man +who, in 1614, first collected Spieghel's writings, and published them in +a volume with his own verses. Roemer Pieterssen Visscher[12] (1547-1620) +proceeded a step further than Spieghel in the cultivation of polite +letters. He was deeply tinged with a spirit of classical learning that +was much more genuine and nearer to the true antique than any that had +previously been known in Holland. His own disciples called him the Dutch +Martial, but he was at best little more than an amateur in poetry, +although an amateur whose function it was to perceive and encourage the +genius of professional writers. Roemer Visscher stands at the threshold +of the new Renaissance literature, himself practising the faded arts of +the rhetoricians, but pointing by his counsel and his conversation to +the naturalism of the great period. + + + The Renaissance. + +It was in the salon at Amsterdam which the beautiful daughters of Roemer +Visscher formed around their father and themselves that the new school +began to take form. The republic of the United Provinces, with Amsterdam +at its head, had suddenly risen to the first rank among the nations of +Europe, and it was under the influence of so much new emotion and +brilliant ambition that the country no less suddenly asserted itself in +a great school of painting and poetry. The intellect of the whole Low +Countries was concentrated in Holland and Zealand, while the six great +universities, Leiden, Groningen, Utrecht, Amsterdam, Harderwijk and +Franeker, were enriched by a flock of learned exiles from Flanders and +Brabant. It had occurred, however, to Roemer Visscher only that the path +of literary honour lay, not along the utilitarian road cut out by +Maerlant and Boendale, but in the study of beauty and antiquity. In this +he was curiously aided by the school of ripe and enthusiastic scholars +who began to flourish at Leiden, such as Drusius, Vossius and Hugo +Grotius, who themselves wrote little in Dutch, but who chastened the +style of the rising generation by insisting on a pure and liberal +Latinity. Out of that generation arose the greatest names in the +literature of Holland--Vondel, Hooft, Cats, Huygens--in whose hands the +language, so long left barbarous and neglected, took at once its highest +finish and melody. By the side of this serious and aesthetic growth +there is to be noticed a quickening of the broad and farcical humour +which had been characteristic of the Dutch nation from its commencement. +For fifty years, and these the most glorious in the annals of Holland, +these two streams of influence, one towards beauty and melody, the other +towards lively comedy, ran side by side, often in the same channel, and +producing a rich harvest of great works. It was in the house of the +daughters of Roemer Visscher that the tragedies of Vondel and the +comedies of Bredero, the farces of Coster and the odes of Huygens, alike +found their first admirers and their best critics. + + + Roemer Visscher's daughters. + +Of the famous daughters of Roemer, two cultivated literature with marked +success. Anna (1584-1651) was the author of a descriptive and didactic +poem, _De Roemster van den Aemstel_ (The Glory of the Aemstel), and of +various miscellaneous writings; Tesselschade (1594-1649) wrote some +lyrics which still place her at the head of the female poets of Holland, +and she translated the great poem of Tasso. They were women of universal +accomplishment, graceful manners and singular beauty; and their company +attracted to the house of Roemer Visscher all the most gifted youths of +the time, several of whom were suitors, but in vain, for the hand of +Anna or of Tesselschade. + + + Hooft. + +Of this Amsterdam school, the first to emerge into public notice was +Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647). His _Achilles and Polyxena_ (1598) +displayed a precocious ease in the use of rhetorical artifices of style. +In his pastoral drama of _Granida_ (1605) he proved himself a pupil of +Guarini. In tragedy he produced _Baeto_ and _Geraad van Velsen_; in +history he published in 1626 his _Life of Henry the Great_, while from +1628 to 1642 he was engaged upon his master-work, the _History of +Holland_. Hooft desired to be a severe purist in style, and to a great +extent he succeeded, but, like most of the writers of his age, he +permitted himself too many Latinisms. In his poetry, especially in the +lyrical and pastoral verse of his youth, he is full of Italian +reminiscences both of style and matter; in his noble prose work he has +set himself to be a disciple of Tacitus. Motley has spoken of Hooft as +one of the greatest historians, not merely of Holland, but of Europe. +His influence in purifying the language of his country, and in enlarging +its sphere of experience, can hardly be overrated. + + + Bredero. + +Very different from the long and prosperous career of Hooft was the +brief, painful life of the greatest comic dramatist that Holland has +produced. Gerbrand Adriaanssen Bredero[13] (1585-1618), the son of an +Amsterdam shoemaker, was born on the 16th of March 1585. He knew no +Latin; he had no taste for humanism; he was a simple growth of the rich +humour of the people. He entered the workshop of the painter Francisco +Badens, but accomplished little in art. His life was embittered by a +hopeless love for Tesselschade, to whom he dedicated his dramas, and +whose beauty he celebrated in a whole cycle of love songs. His ideas on +the subject of drama were at first a mere development of the medieval +"Abelespelen." The "Oude Kammer," one of the chambers of rhetoric, +furnished an opening for his dramatic powers. He commenced by +dramatizing the romance of _Roderick and Alphonsus_, in 1611, and +_Griane_ in 1612, but in the latter year he struck out a new and more +characteristic path in his _Farce of the Cow_. From this time until his +death he continued to pour out comedies, farces and romantic dramas, in +all of which he displayed a coarse, rough genius not unlike that of Ben +Jonson, whose immediate contemporary he was. His last and best piece was +_Jerolimo, the Spanish Brabanter_, a satire upon the exiles from the +south who filled the halls of the Amsterdam chambers of rhetoric with +their pompous speeches and preposterous Burgundian phraseology. The +piece was based on a Dutch version (Delft, 1609) of an early Spanish +picaresque romance, _La Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes_ (Burgos, 1554). +Bredero was closely allied in genius to the dramatists of the +Shakespearian age, but he founded no school, and stands almost as a +solitary figure in the literature of Holland. He died on the 23rd of +August 1618. Theodore Rodenburg (d. 1644), ridiculed by Bredero for his +pretentiousness, had a wider knowledge of contemporary foreign +literature than the other dramatists. He adapted some of the dramas of +Lope de Vega, which he had witnessed at Madrid, into Dutch, and in 1618 +he adapted Cyril Tourneur's _Revenger's Tragedy_. + + + Coster. + +The only individual at all clearly connected with Bredero in talent was +Dr Samuel Coster,[14] who was born at Amsterdam on the 16th of September +1579. He studied medicine at Leiden, and practised at Amsterdam. He is +chiefly remembered for having been the first to take advantage of the +growing dissension in the body of the old chamber of the Eglantine to +form a new institution. In 1617 Coster founded what he called the "First +Dutch Academy." This was in fact a theatre, where, for the first time, +dramas could be publicly acted under the patronage of no chamber of +rhetoric. Coster himself had come before the world in 1612 with his +farce of _Teuwis the Boor_, based on a folk-song in Jan Roulans's +_Liedekens Boeckh_, and he continued this order of composition in direct +emulation of Bredero, but with less talent. In 1615 he began a series of +"blood-and-thunder" tragedies with his horrible _Itys_, and he continued +this coarse style of tragic writing for several years. He survived at +least until after 1648 as a supreme authority in Amsterdam upon all +dramatic matters. + + + Vondel. + +The first work of the greatest of all Dutch writers, Joost van den +Vondel (1587-1679), was _Het Pascha_ (1612), a tragedy or tragi-comedy +on the exodus of the children of Israel, written, like all his +succeeding dramas, on the recognized Dutch plan, in alexandrines, in +five acts, and with choral interludes between the acts. There is +comparatively little promise in _Het Pascha_. It was much inferior +dramatically to the plays just being produced by Bredero, and metrically +to the clear and eloquent tragedies and pastorals of Hooft; but it +secured the young poet a position inferior only to theirs. Yet for a +number of years he made no attempt to emphasize the impression he had +produced on the public, but contented himself during the years that are +the most fertile in a poet's life with translating and imitating +portions of du Bartas's popular epic. The short and brilliant life of +Bredero, his immediate contemporary and greatest rival, burned itself +out in a succession of dramatic victories, and it was not until two +years after the death of that great poet that Vondel appeared before the +public with a second tragedy, the _Jerusalem laid Desolate_. Five years +later, in 1625, he published what seemed an innocent study from the +antique, his tragedy of _Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence_. All +Amsterdam discovered, with smothered delight, that under the name of the +hero was thinly concealed the figure of Barneveldt, whose execution in +1618 had been a triumph of the hated Calvinists. Thus, at the age of +forty-one, the obscure Vondel became in a week the most famous writer in +Holland. For the next twelve years, and till the accession of Prince +Frederick Henry, Vondel had to maintain a hand-to-hand combat with the +"Saints of Dort." This was the period of his most resolute and stinging +satires; Cats took up the cudgels on behalf of the counter-Remonstrants, +and there raged a war of pamphlets in verse. A purely fortuitous +circumstance led to the next great triumph in Vondel's slowly developing +career. The Dutch Academy, founded in 1617 almost wholly as a dramatic +gild, had become so inadequately provided with stage accommodation that +in 1638, having coalesced with the two chambers of the "Eglantine" and +the "White Lavender," it ventured on the erection of a large public +theatre, the first in Amsterdam. Vondel, as the greatest poet of the +day, was invited to write a piece for the first night; on the 3rd of +January 1638 the theatre was opened with the performance of a new +tragedy out of early Dutch history, the famous _Gysbreght van Aemstel_. +The next ten years were rich in dramatic work from Vondel's hand; he +supplied the theatre with heroic Scriptural pieces, of which the general +reader will obtain the best idea if we point to the _Athalie_ of Racine. +In 1654, having already attained an age at which poetical production is +usually discontinued by the most energetic of poets, he brought out the +most exalted and sublime of all his works, the tragedy of _Lucifer_. +Very late in life, through no fault of his own, financial ruin fell on +the aged poet, and from 1658 to 1668--that is, from his seventieth to +his eightieth year--this venerable and illustrious person, the main +literary glory of Holland through her whole history, was forced to earn +his bread as a common clerk in a bank, miserably paid, and accused of +wasting his masters' time by the writing of verses. The city released +him at last from this wretched bondage by a pension, and the wonderful +old man went on writing odes and tragedies almost to his ninetieth year. +He died at last in 1679, of no disease, having outlived all his +contemporaries and almost all his friends, but calm, sane and +good-humoured to the last, serenely conscious of the legacy he left to a +not too grateful country. Vondel is the typical example of Dutch +intelligence and imagination at their highest development. Not merely is +he to Holland all that Camoens is to Portugal and Mickiewicz to Poland, +but he stands on a level with these men in the positive value of his +writings. + + + Starter. + +Lyrical art was represented on its more spontaneous side by the songs +and ballads of Jan Janssen Starter (b. 1594), an Englishman by birth, +who was brought to Amsterdam in his thirteenth year. Very early in life +he was made a member of the "Eglantine," and he worked beside Bredero +for two years; but in 1614 he wandered away to Leeuwarden, in Friesland, +where he founded a literary gild, and brought out, in 1618, his plays +_Timbre de Cardone_, _Fenicie van Messine_, the subject of which is +identical with that of Shakespeare's _Much Ado about Nothing_, and +_Daraïda_. But his great contribution to literature was his exquisite +collection of lyrics, entitled the _Friesche Lusthof_, or Frisian +Pleasance (1621). He returned to Amsterdam, but after 1625 we hear no +more of him, and he is believed to have died as a soldier in Germany. +The songs of Starter are in close relation to the lyrics of the English +Elizabethans, and have the same exquisite simplicity and audacity of +style. + + + Cats. + +While the genius of Holland clustered around the circle of Amsterdam, a +school of scarcely less brilliance arose in Middelburg, the capital of +Zealand. The ruling spirit of this school was the famous Jakob Cats +(1577-1660). In this voluminous writer, to whom modern criticism almost +denies the name of poet, the genuine Dutch habit of thought, the +utilitarian and didactic spirit which we have already observed in +Houwaert and in Boendale, reached its zenith of fluency and popularity. +During early middle life he produced the most important of his writings, +his pastoral of _Galathea_, and his didactic poems, the _Maechdenplicht_ +and the _Sinne- en Minne-Beelden._ In 1624 he removed from Middelburg to +Dort, where he soon after published his tedious ethical work called +_Houwelick_, or Marriage; and this was followed from time to time by one +after another of his monotonous moral pieces. Cats is an exceedingly +dull and prosaic writer, whose alexandrines roll smoothly on without any +power of riveting the attention or delighting the fancy. Yet his +popularity with the middle classes in Holland has always been immense, +and his influence extremely hurtful to the growth of all branches of +literary art. Among the disciples of Cats, Jakob Westerbaen (1599-1670) +was the most successful. His works included translations from Virgil, +Ovid, Seneca, Terence and Juvenal, besides original poems. The Jesuit +Adriaen Poirters (1606-1675) closely followed Cats in his remarkable +_Masquer of the World_. A poet of Amsterdam, Jan Hermansz Krul +(1602-1644), preferred to follow the southern fashion, and wrote +didactic pieces in the Catsian manner. + + + Huygens. + +A poet of dignified imagination and versatile form was Sir Constantijn +Huygens (1596-1687), the diplomatist. He threw in his lot with the great +school of Amsterdam, and became the intimate friend and companion of +Vondel, Hooft and the daughters of Roemer Visscher. His famous poem in +praise of the Hague, _Batava Tempe_, appeared in 1622, and was, from a +technical point of view, the most accomplished and elegant poem till +that time produced in Holland. His collected poems, _Otiorum libri sex_, +were printed in 1625. _Oogentroost_, or Eye Consolation, was the +fantastic title of a remarkable poem dedicated in 1647 to his blind +friend, Lucretia van Trello. He printed in 1654 a topographical piece +describing his own mansion, _Hofwijck_. Huygens represents the direction +in which it would have been desirable that Dutch literature, now +completely founded by Hooft and Vondel, should forthwith proceed, while +Cats represents the tame and mundane spirit which was actually adopted +by the nation. Huygens had little of the sweetness of Hooft or of the +sublimity of Vondel, but his genius was eminently bright and vivacious, +and he was a consummate artist in metrical form. The Dutch language has +never proved so light and supple in any hands as in his, and he +attempted no class of writing, whether in prose or verse, that he did +not adorn by his delicate taste and sound judgment. A blind admiration +for John Donne, whose poems he translated, was the greatest fault of +Huygens, who, in spite of his conceits, remains one of the most pleasing +of Dutch writers. In addition to all this he comes down to us with the +personal recommendation of having been "one of the most lovable men that +ever lived." + + + Bekker. + +Three Dutchmen of the 17th century distinguished themselves very +prominently in the movement of learning and philosophic thought, but the +illustrious names of Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) and of Baruch Spinoza +(1632-1677) can scarcely be said to belong to Dutch literature. +Balthasar Bekker (1634-1698), on the contrary, a Reformed preacher of +Amsterdam, was a disciple of Descartes, who deserves to be remembered as +the greatest philosophical writer who has used the Dutch language. His +masterpiece, _Betoverde Wereld_, or the World Bewitched, appeared in +1691-1693. Bekker is popularly remembered most honourably by his +determined attacks upon the system of a penal code for witchcraft. + + + Vos. + + Brandt. + + Goes. + + Anslo. + + Oudaen. + + Luiken. + +From 1600 to 1650 was the blossoming time in Dutch literature. During +this period the names of greatest genius were first made known to the +public, and the vigour and grace of literary expression reached their +highest development. It happened, however, that three men of +particularly commanding talent survived to an extreme old age, and under +the shadow of Vondel, Cats and Huygens there sprang up a new generation +which sustained the great tradition until about 1680, when the final +decline set in. Jan Vos (d. 1667) gained one illustrious success with +his tragedy of _Aaron and Titus_ in 1641, and lost still more in 1642 by +his obscene farce of _Oene_. His second tragedy of _Medea_, in 1665, and +his collected poems in 1662, supported his position as the foremost +pupil of Vondel. Geeraerdt Brandt (1626-1685), the author of a _History +of the Reformation_ (4 vols., 1671-1704), deserves remembrance less as a +tragic dramatist than as a consummate biographer, whose lives of Vondel +and of De Ruyter are among the masterpieces of Dutch prose. Johan +Antonides van der Goes (1647-1684) followed Vos as a skilful imitator of +Vondel's tragical manner. His Chinese tragedies, _Trazil_ (1665) and +_Zungchin_ (1666), scarcely gave promise of the brilliant force and +fancy of his _Yslroom_, a poem in praise of Amsterdam, 1671. He died +suddenly, in early life, leaving unfinished an epic poem on the life of +St. Paul. Reyer Anslo (1626-1669) marks the decline of taste and vigour; +his once famous descriptive epic, _The Plague at Naples_, is singularly +tame and rococo in style. Joachim Oudaen (1628-1692) wrote in his youth +two promising tragedies, _Johanna Gray_ (1648) and _Konradyn_ (1649). +The Amsterdam section of the school of Cats produced Jeremias de Decker +(1609-1666), author of _The Praise of Avarice_, a satirical poem in +imitation of Erasmus, and Joannes Vollenhove (1631-1708), voluminous +writers of didactic verse. The engraver Jan Luiken (1649-1708) published +in 1671 a very remarkable volume of poems. In lyrical poetry Starter had +a single disciple, Daniel Jonctijs (1600-1652), who published a volume +of love songs in 1639 under the affected and untranslatable title of +_Rooselijns oochjens ontleed_. None of these poets, except in some +slight degree Luiken, set before himself any more ambitious task than to +repeat with skill the effects of his predecessors. + + + Heemskerk. + + Heinsius. + +Meanwhile the romantic and voluminous romances of the French school of +Scudéry and Honoré d'Urfé had invaded Holland and become fashionable. +Johan van Heemskerk (1597-1656), a councillor of the Hague, set himself +to reproduce this product in native form, and published in 1637 his +_Batavian Arcadia_, the first original Dutch romance, in which a party +of romantic youths journey from the Hague to Katwijk, and undergo all +sorts of romantic adventures. This book was extremely popular, and was +imitated by Hendrik Zoeteboom in his _Zaanlandsche Arcadia_ (1658), and +by Lambertus Bos in his _Dordtsche Arcadia_ (1662). A far more spirited +and original romance is the _Mirandor_ (1675) of Nikolaes Heinsius the +younger (b. 1655), a book which resembles _Gil Blas_, and precedes it. + + + Gallican dramatists. + +The drama fell into Gallicized hands at the death of Vondel and his +immediate disciples. Lodewijck Meijer translated Corneille, and brought +out his plays on the stage at Amsterdam, where he was manager of the +national theatre or Schouwburg after Jan Vos. In connexion with Andries +Pels (d. 1681), author of the tragedy of _Dido's Death_, Meijer +constructed a dramatic club, entitled "Nil Volentibus Arduum," the great +object of which was to inflict the French taste upon the public. Pels +furthermore came forward as the censor of letters and satirist of +barbarism in _Horace's Art of Poetry expounded_, in 1677, and in his +_Use and Misuse of the Stage_, in 1681. Willem van Focquenbroch +(1640-1679) was the most voluminous comic writer of this period. The +close of the century saw the rise of two thoroughly Gallican dramatists, +Jan van Paffenrode (d. 1673) and Pieter Bernagie (1656-1699), who may +not unfairly be compared respectively to the Englishmen Farquhar and +Shadwell. Thomas Asselijn (1630-1695) was a writer of more considerable +talent and more homely instincts. He attempted to resist the +dictatorship of Pels, and to follow the national tradition of Bredero. +He is the creator of the characteristic Dutch type, the comic lover, Jan +Klaaszen, whom he presented on the stage in a series of ridiculous +situations. Abraham Alewijn (b. 1664), author of _Jan Los_ (1721), +possessed a coarse vein of dramatic humour; he lived in Java, and his +plays were produced in Batavia. Finally Pieter Langendijk, the author of +a farce borrowed from _Don Quixote_, claims notice among the dramatists +of this period, although he lived from 1683 to 1756, and properly +belongs to the next century. With him the tradition of native comedy +expired. + + + Decline of poetry. + +The Augustan period of poetry in Holland was even more blank and dull +than in the other countries of northern Europe. Of the name preserved in +the history of literature there are but very few that call for +repetition here. Arnold Hoogvliet (1687-1763) wrote a passable poem in +honour of the town of Vlaardingen, and a terrible Biblical epic, in the +manner of Blackmore, on the history of Abraham. Hubert Cornelissen Poot +(1680-1733) showed an unusual love of nature and freshness of +observation in his descriptive pieces. Sybrand Feitama (1694-1758), who +translated Voltaire's _Henriade_ (1743), and wrote much dreary verse of +the same class himself, is less worthy of notice than Dirk Smits +(1702-1752), the mild and elegiac singer of Rotterdam. Tragic drama was +more or less capably represented by Lucretia Wilhelmina van Merken +(1722-1789), wife of the very dreary dramatist Nicholaas Simon van +Winter (1718-1795). + + + Van Effen. + +In the midst of this complete dissolution of poetical style, a writer +arose who revived an interest in literature, and gave to Dutch prose the +classical grace of the 18th century. Justus van Effen[15] (1684-1735) +was born at Utrecht, fell into poverty early in life, and was thrown +very much among the company of French émigrés, in connexion with whom he +began literary life in 1713 by editing a French journal. Coming to +London just when the _Tatler_ and _Spectator_ were in their first vogue, +Van Effen studied Addison deeply, translated Swift and Defoe into +French, and finally determined to transfer the beauties of English prose +into his native language. It was not, however, until 1731, after having +wasted the greater part of his life in writing French, that he began to +publish his _Hollandsche Spectator_, which his death in 1735 soon +brought to a close. Still, what he composed during the last four years +of his life, in all its freshness, manliness and versatility, +constitutes the most valuable legacy to Dutch literature that the middle +of the 18th century left behind it. + + + The brothers Van Haren. + + Baroness de Lannoy. + + Bellamy. + +The supremacy of the poetical clubs in every town produced a very +weakening and Della-Cruscan effect upon literature, from which the first +revolt was made by the famous brothers Van Haren,[16] so honourably +known as diplomatists in the history of the Netherlands. Willem van +Haren (1710-1768) wrote verses from his earliest youth, while Onno Zwier +van Haren (1713-1779), strangely enough, did not begin to do so until he +had passed middle life. They were friends of Voltaire, and they were +both ambitious of success in epic writing, as understood in France at +that period. Willem published in 1741 his _Gevallen van Friso_, a +historical epos, and a long series of odes and solemn lyrical pieces. +Onno, in a somewhat lighter strain, wrote _Piet and Agnietje, or +Pandora's Box_, and a long series of tragedies in the manner of +Voltaire. The baroness Juliana Cornelia de Lannoy (1738-1782) was a +writer of considerable talent, also of the school of Voltaire; her poems +were highly esteemed by Bilderdijk, and she has a neatness of touch and +clearness of penetration that give vivacity to her studies of social +life. Jakobus Bellamy (1757-1786) was the son of a Swiss baker at +Flushing; his pompous odes (_Gezangen myner Jeugd_, 1782; _Vaderlandsche +Gezangen_, 1782) struck the final note of the false taste and Gallic +pedantry that had deformed Dutch literature now for a century, and were +for a short time excessively admired. + + + The ladies Wolff and Deken. + +The year 1777 has been mentioned as the turning-point in the history of +letters in the Netherlands. It was in that year that Elizabeth (Betjen) +Wolff[17] (1738-1804), a widow lady in Amsterdam, persuaded her friend +Agatha (Aagjen) Deken (1741-1804), a poor but extremely intelligent +governess, to throw up her situation and live with her. For nearly +thirty years these women continued together, writing in combination, and +when the elder friend died on the 5th of November 1804, her companion +survived her only nine days. Madam Wolff had appeared as a poetess so +early as 1762, and again in 1769 and 1772, but her talent in verse was +by no means very remarkable. But when the friends, in the third year of +their association, published their _Letters on Divers Subjects_, it was +plainly seen that in prose their talent was very remarkable indeed. +Since the appearance of Heinsius's _Mirandor_ more than a century had +passed without any fresh start in novel-writing being made in Holland. +In 1782 the ladies Wolff and Deken, inspired partly by contemporary +English writers, and partly by Goethe, published their first novel, +_Sara Burgerhar_. In spite of the close and obvious following of +Richardson, this was a masterly production, and it was enthusiastically +received. Another novel, _Willem Leevend_, followed in 1785, and +_Cornelia Wildschut_ in 1792. The ladies were residing in France at the +breaking out of the Revolution, and they escaped the guillotine with +difficulty. After this they wrote no more, having secured for themselves +by their three unrivalled romances a place among the foremost writers of +their country. + + + Nieuwland. + +The last years of the 18th century were marked in Holland by a general +revival of intellectual force. The romantic movement in Germany made +itself deeply felt in all branches of Dutch literature, and German +lyricism took the place hitherto held by French classicism. Pieter +Nieuwland (1764-1794) was a feeble forerunner of the revival, but his +short life and indifferent powers gave him no chance of directing the +transition that he saw to be inevitable. One volume of poems appeared in +1788, and a second, posthumously, in 1797. + + + Bilderdijk. + +The real precursor and creator of a new epoch in letters was the famous +Willem Bilderdijk (1756-1831) (q.v.). This remarkable man, whose force +of character was even greater than his genius, impressed his personality +on his generation so indelibly that to think of a Dutchman of the +beginning of the 19th century is to think of Bilderdijk. In poetry his +taste was strictly national and didactic; he began as a disciple of +Cats, nor could he to the end of his life tolerate what he called "the +puerilities of Shakespeare." His early love-songs, collected in 1781 and +1785, gave little promise of talent, but in his epic of _Elias_ in 1786, +he showed himself superior to all the Dutch poets since Huygens in +mastery of form. For twenty years he lived a busy, eventful life, +writing great quantities of verse, and then commenced his most +productive period with his didactic poem of _The Disease of the +Learned_, in 1807; in 1808 he imitated Pope's _Essay on Man_, and +published the tragedy of _Floris V._, and in 1809 commenced the work +which he designed to be his masterpiece, the epic of _De Ondergang der +eerste Wereld_ (The Destruction of the First World), which he never +finished, and which appeared as a fragment in 1820. To the foreign +student Bilderdijk is a singularly uninviting and unpleasing figure. He +unites in himself all the unlovely and provincial features which deform +the worst of his countrymen. He was violent, ignorant and dull; his view +of art was confined to its declamatory and least beautiful side, and +perhaps no writer of equal talent has shown so complete an absence of +taste and tact. Ten Brink has summed up the character of Bilderdijk's +writings in an excellent passage:--"As an artist," he says, "he can +perhaps be best described in short as the cleverest versemaker of the +18th century. His admirable erudition, his power over language, more +extended and more colossal than that of any of his predecessors, enabled +him to write pithy and thoroughly original verses, although the general +tone of his thought and expression never rose above the ceremonious, +stagy and theatrical character of the 18th century." But in spite of his +outrageous faults, and partly because these faults were the exaggeration +of a marked national failing, Bilderdijk long enjoyed an unbroken and +unbounded popularity in Holland. Fortunately, however, a sounder spirit +has arisen in criticism, and the prestige of Bilderdijk is no longer +preserved so religiously. + +Bilderdijk's scorn for the dramas of Shakespeare was almost rivalled by +that he felt for the new German poetry. Notwithstanding his opposition, +however, the romantic fervour found its way into Holland, and first of +all in the persons of Hieronymus van Alphen (1746-1803) and Pieter +Leonard van de Kastiele (1748-1810), who amused themselves by composing +funeral poems of the school of Gessner and Blair. Van Alphen at one time +was extolled as a writer of verses for children, but neither in this nor +in the elegiac line did he possess nearly so much talent as Rhijnvis +Feith (1753-1824), burgomaster of Zwolle, the very type of a prosperous +and sentimental Dutchman. In his _Julia_ (1783), a prose romance, Feith +proved himself as completely the disciple of Goethe in _Werther_ as +Wolff and Deken had been of Richardson in _Sara Burgerhart_. In Johannes +Kinker (1764-1845) a comic poet arose who, at the instigation of +Bilderdijk, dedicated himself to the ridicule of Feith's +sentimentalities. The same office was performed with more dignity and +less vivacity by Baron W.E. van Perponcher (1741-1819), but Feith +continued to hold the popular ear, and achieved an immense success with +his poem _The Grave_ in 1792. He then produced tragedies for a while, +and in 1803 published _Antiquity_, a didactic epic. But his popularity +waned before his death, and he was troubled by the mirth of such witty +scoffers as Arend Fokke Simons (1755-1812), the disciple of Klopstock, +and as P. de Wacker van Zon (1758-1818), who, in a series of very +readable novels issued under the pseudonym of Bruno Daalberg, sharply +ridiculed the sentimental and funereal school. + + + Van der Palm. + + Loots. + + Helmers. + +Under the Batavian republic a historian of great genius arose in the +person of Johannes Henricus van der Palm (1763-1840), whose brilliant +and patriotic _Gedenkschrift van Nederlands Herstelling_ (1816) has +somewhat obscured his great fame as a politician and an Orientalist. The +work commenced by Van der Palm in prose was continued in verse by +Cornelis Loots (1765-1834) and Jan Frederik Helmers (1767-1813). Loots, +in his _Batavians of the Time of Caesar_ (1805), read his countrymen a +lesson in patriotism, which Helmers far exceeded in originality and +force by his _Dutch Nation_ in 1812. Neither of these poets, however, +had sufficient art to render their pieces classical, or, indeed, enough +to protect them during their lifetime from the sneers of Bilderdijk. +Other political writers, whose lyrical energies were stimulated by the +struggle with France, were Maurits Cornelis van Hall (1768-1858), Samuel +Iperuszoon Wiselius (1769-1845) and Jan ten Brink (1771-1839), the +second of whom immortalized himself and won the favour of Bilderdijk by +ridiculing the pretensions of such frivolous tragedians as Shakespeare +and Schiller. + + + Loosjes. + +The healthy and national spirit in which the ladies Wolff and Deken had +written was adopted with great spirit by a novelist in the next +generation, Adriaan Loosjes (1761-1818), a bookseller at Haarlem. His +romantic stories of medieval life, especially his _Charlotte van +Bourbon_, are curiously like shadows cast forward by the Waverley +Novels, but he has little of Sir Walter Scott's historical truth of +vision. His production was incessant and his popularity great for many +years, but he was conscious all through that he was at best but a +disciple of the authoresses of _Sara Burgerhart_. Another disciple whose +name should not be passed over is Maria Jacoba de Neufville (1775-1856), +author of _Little Duties_, an excellent story somewhat in the manner of +Mrs Opie. + + + Tollens. + + Messchert. + + Bogaers. + + Staring. + +A remarkable poet whose romantic genius strove to combine the power of +Bilderdijk with the sweetness of Feith was Hendrik Tollens (1780-1856), +whose verses have shown more vitality than those of most of his +contemporaries. He struck out the admirable notion of celebrating the +great deeds of Dutch history in a series of lyrical romances, many of +which possess a lasting charm. Besides his folk-songs and popular +ballads, he succeeded in a long descriptive poem, _A Winter in Nova +Zembla_, 1819. He lacks the full accomplishment of a literary artist, +but his inspiration was natural and abundant, and he thoroughly deserved +the popularity with which his patriotic ballads were rewarded. Willem +Messchert (1790-1844), a friend and follower of Tollens, pushed the +domestic and familiar tone of the latter to a still further point, +especially in his genre poem of the _Golden Wedding_, 1825. Both these +writers were natives and residents of Rotterdam, which also claims the +honour of being the birthplace of Adrianus Bogaers (1795-1870), the most +considerable poetical figure of the time. Without the force and +profusion of Bilderdijk, Bogaers has more truth to nature, more +sweetness of imagination, and a more genuine gift of poetry than that +clamorous writer, and is slowly taking a higher position in Dutch +literature as Bilderdijk comes to take a lower one. Bogaers printed his +famous poem _Jochebed_ in 1835, but it had then been in existence more +than thirteen years, so that it belongs to the second period of +imaginative revival in Europe, and connects the name of its author with +those of Byron and Heine. Still more beautiful was his _Voyage of +Heemskerk to Gibraltar_ (1836), in which he rose to the highest level of +his genius. In 1846 he privately printed his _Romances and Ballads_. +Bogaers had a great objection to publicity, and his reputation was long +delayed by the secrecy with which he circulated his writings among a few +intimate friends. A poet of considerable talent, whose powers were +awakened by personal intercourse with Bogaers and Tollens, was Antoni +Christiaan Winand Staring (1767-1840), who first at the age of +fifty-three came before the world with a volume of _Poems_, but who +continued to write till past his seventieth year. His amorous and +humorous lyrics recall the best period of Dutch song, and are worthy to +be named beside those of Starter and Vondel. + + + 19th century influences. + +After 1830 Holland took a more prominent position in European thought +than she could claim since the end of the 17th century. In scientific +and religious literature her men of letters showed themselves cognizant +of the newest shades of opinion, and freely ventilated their ideas. The +language resisted the pressure of German from the outside, and from +within broke through its long stagnation and enriched itself, as a +medium for literary expression, with a multitude of fresh and colloquial +forms. At the same time, no very great genius arose in Holland in any +branch of literature. The vast labours of Jakobus van Lennep (1802-1868) +consist of innumerable translations, historical novels and national +romances, which have gained for him the title of the leader of the Dutch +romantic school. + +The novels of Sir Walter Scott had a great influence on Dutch +literature, and the period was rich in historical novels. J. van der +Hage (1806-1854), who wrote under the pseudonym of Jan Frederick +Oltmans, was the author of the famous novels, _Castle Loevenstein in +1570_ (1834), and _The Shepherd_ (1838), both dealing with the national +history. Other popular works were the antique romance _Charikles and +Euphorion_ (1831) of Petrus van Limburg-Brouwer (1795-1847), author of a +history of Greek mythology; the _Mejuffrouw Lèclerc_ (1849), and the +_Portretten van Joost van den Vondel_ (1876) of the literary historian +and critic J.A.A. Alberdingk Thijm (1820-1899); the _Jan Faessen_ +(1856) of Lodewijk Mulder (b. 1822); and the _Lucretia d'Este_ of W.P. +Walters (1827-1891). Johannes Kneppelhout (1814-1885) sketched +university life at Leiden in two amusing volumes of _Studententypen_ +(1841) and _Studentenleven_ (1844). Reinier Cornelis Bakhuizen van den +Brink (1810-1865) was the chief critic of the romantic movement, and +Everhard Johannes Potgieter (1808-1875) its mystical philosopher and +esoteric lyrical poet. The genius and influence of Potgieter were very +considerable, but they were exceeded by the gifts of Nicolaes Beets +(q.v.), author of the famous _Camera Obscura_ (1836), a masterpiece of +humour and character. Johannes Pieter Hasebroek (1812-1896), who has +been called the Dutch Charles Lamb, wrote in 1840 an admirable +collection of essays entitled _Truth and Dreams_. Willem Hofdijk +(1816-1888) wrote a collection of ballads, _Kennemerland_ (1849-1852), +and a series of epic and dramatic poems in the romantic style. Bernard +ter Haar (1806-1881), an Amsterdam pastor and, in the last year of his +life, a professor at Utrecht, made a reputation as a poet by his +_Johannes and Theagenes, a legend of apostolic times_ (1838). His poems +were collected in 1866 and 1879. A poet of unusual power and promise was +lost in the early death of Pieter Augustus de Genestet (1803-1861). His +_Eve of Saint Nicholas_ appeared in 1849, and was followed by two +volumes of verse in 1851 and 1861, the second of which contains some +poems that have attained great popularity. Among the poets should not be +forgotten two writers of verse for children, Jan Pieter Heije +(1809-1876) and J.J.A. Gouverneur (1809-1889). Criticism was +represented by W.J.A. Jonckbloet (1817-1885), author of an excellent +_History of Dutch Literature_ (1868-1870), C. Busken Huet, and Jan ten +Brink (1834-1901), author of a great number of valuable works on +literary history, notably of a history of Dutch literature (1897), and a +series of biographies of 19th century Dutch writers (new edition, 1902). +His novels were collected in 13 volumes in 1885. With Isaak da Costa +(q.v.), W.J. van Zeggelen (1811-1879), and J.J.L. Ten Kate (q.v.), +the domestic tendency of Cats and Bilderdijk overpowered the influence +of romanticism. The romantic drama found its best exponent in H.J. +Schiminel (q.v.), who found a disciple in D.F. van Heyst (b. 1831), +whose _George van Lalaing_ was produced in 1873. Hugo Beijerman (ps. +Glanor) produced a good play in his _Uitgaan_ (1873), which was followed +by other successes. Rosier Faessen (b. 1833) published his dramatic +works in 1883. + + + Recent developments. + +The recent literature of Holland presents the interesting phenomenon of +an aesthetic revolution, carefully and cleverly planned, crowned with +unanticipated success, and dying away in a languor encouraged by the +complete absence of organized resistance. It would perhaps be difficult +to point to another European example so well defined of the vicissitudes +which keep the history of literature varied and fresh. For the thirty or +forty years preceding 1880 the course of _belles-lettres_ in Holland was +smooth and even sluggish. The Dutch writers had slipped into a +conventionality of treatment and a strict limitation of form from which +even the most striking talents among them could scarcely escape. In 1880 +the most eminent authors of this early period were ready to pass away, +and they appeared to be preparing no successors to take their place. The +greatest humorist of Holland, Nicolaas Beets, had drawn his works +together. The most interesting novelist, Mrs Gertrude Bosboom-Toussaint, +had in her last psychological stories shown an unexpected sympathy with +new ideas. M.G.L. van Loghem (b. 1849), known under the pseudonym of +"Fiore delle Neve," made a great success by his _Een liefde in het +Zuiden_ (1881), followed in 1882 by _Liana_, and in 1884 by _Van eene +Sultane_. Among the novelists were Gerard Keller (b. 1829), author of +_From Home_ (1867); Johan Gram (b. 1833), of whose novels _De Familie +Schaffels_ (1870) is the best known; Hendrik de Veer (1829-1890), author +of _Frans Holster_ (1871); Justus van Maurik (b. 1846), who wrote plays +and short sketches of Amsterdam life (_Uit het Volk_, 1879), and Arnold +Buning (b. 1846), whose _Marine Sketches_ (1880) won great popularity. +The colonial novels of N. Marie C. Sloot, born in Java in 1853, are +widely read in Holland and Belgium, and many of them have been +translated into German. A number of them were collected (Schiedam, +1900-1902) as _Romantische Werken_. Adèle Opzoomer (b. 1856; pseud. A. +C.S. Wallis) made her first success in 1877 with _In Days of Strife_. +The two leading Dutch men of letters, however, besides Beets and Douwes +Dekker, were critics, Conrad Busken-Huet (q.v.) and Carel Vosmaer +(q.v.). In Huet the principles of the 1840-1880 period were summed up; +he had been during all those years the fearless and trusty watch-dog of +Dutch letters, as he understood them. He lived just long enough to +become aware that a revolution was approaching, not to comprehend its +character; but his accomplished fidelity to literary principle and his +wide knowledge have been honoured even by the most bitter of the younger +school. Vosmaer, although in certain directions more sympathetic than +Huet, and himself an innovator, has not escaped so easily, because he +has been charged with want of courage in accepting what he knew to be +inevitable. + +In November 1881 there died a youth named Jacques Perk (1860-1881), who +had done no more than publish a few sonnets in the _Spectator_, a +journal published by Vosmaer. He was no sooner dead, however, than his +posthumous poems, and in particular a cycle of sonnets called +_Mathilde_, were published (1882), and awakened extraordinary emotion. +Perk had rejected all the formulas of rhetorical poetry, and had broken +up the conventional rhythms. There had been heard no music like his in +Holland for two hundred years. A group of young men, united in a sort of +esoteric adoration of the memory of Perk, collected around his name. +They joined to their band a man somewhat older than themselves, +Marcellus Emants (born 1848), poet, novelist and dramatist, who had come +forward in 1879 with a symbolical poem called _Lilith_, which had been +stigmatized as audacious and meaningless; encouraged by the admiration +of his juniors, Emants published in 1881 a treatise on _Young Holland_, +in the form of a novel in which the first open attack was made on the +old school. The next appearance was that of Willem Kloos (born 1857), +who had been the editor and intimate friend of Perk, and who now +undertook to lead the army of rebellion. His violent attacks on +recognized authority in aesthetics began in 1882, and created a +considerable scandal. For some time, however, the new poets and critics +found a great difficulty in being heard, since all the channels of +periodical literature were closed to them. But in 1883 Emants expressed +his intellectual aspirations in his poem _The Twilight of the Gods_, and +in 1884 the young school founded a review, _De Nieuwe Gids_, which was +able to offer a direct challenge to _De Gids_, the ultra-respectable +Dutch quarterly. In this year a new element was introduced: hitherto the +influences of the young Dutch poetry had chiefly come from England; they +were those of Shelley, Mrs Browning, the Rossettis. In 1884 Frans +Netscher began to imitate with avidity the French naturalists. For some +time, then, the new Dutch literature became a sort of mixture of Shelley +and Zola, very violent, heady and bewildering. In 1885 the _Persephone +and other Poems_ of Albert Verwey (b. 1865) introduced a lyrical poet of +real merit to Holland; Emants published his novel _Goudakker's +Illusions_. This was the great flowering moment of the new school. It +was at this juncture that the principal recent writer of Holland, Louis +Couperus (b. 1863), made his first definite appearance. Born in the +Hague, the opening years of his boyhood were spent in Java, and he had +preserved in all his nature a certain tropical magnificence. In 1884 a +little volume of lyrics, and in 1886 the more important _Orchids_, +showed in Couperus a poet whose sympathies were at first entirely with +the new school. But he was destined to be a novelist, and his earliest +story, _Eline Vere_ (1889), already took him out of the ranks of his +contemporaries. In 1890 he published _Destiny_ (known as _Footsteps of +Fate_ in the English version), and in 1892 _Ecstasy_. This was followed +in 1894 by _Majesty_, in 1896 by _World-wide Peace_, in 1898 by +_Metamorphosis_, a delicate study of character, in 1899 by Fidessa, in +1901 by _Quiet Force_, and in 1902 by the first volume of a tetralogy +called _The Books of Small Souls_. Of all these later books, some of +which have been translated into English, by Couperus, it is perhaps +_Ecstasy_ in which the peculiar quality of his work is seen at present +to the greatest advantage. This is an extreme sensitiveness to +psychological phenomena, expressed in terms of singular delicacy and +beauty. The talent of Couperus is like a rich but simple tropical flower +laden with colour and odour. He separated himself, as he developed, from +the more fanatical members of the group, and addressed himself to the +wider public. Another writer, of a totally different class, resembling +Couperus only in his defiance of the ruling system of aesthetics, is the +prominent Ultramontane politician and bishop, E.J.A.M. Schaepmann (born +1844), whose poem of _Aja Sofia_ originally appeared in 1886. Recent +novelists of some polemical vigour are H. Borel and van Hulzen. A very +delightful talent was revealed by Frederick van Eeden in _Little Johnny_ +(1887), a prose fairy-tale; in _Ellen_ (1891), a cycle of mysterious and +musical elegies; and in _From the Cold Pools of Death_ (1901), a very +melancholy novel. Another poet of less refinement of spirit, but even +greater sumptuousness of form, appeared in Helène Swarth-Lapidoth (born +1859), whose _Pictures and Voices_ belongs to 1887. In that year also, +in which Dutch literature reached its height of fecundity, was published +the powerful and scandalous naturalistic novel, _A Love_, by L. van +Deyssel (K.J.L. Alberdingk Thijm) who had hitherto been known chiefly +as a most uncompromising critic. After 1887 the condition of modern +Dutch literature remained comparatively stationary, and within the last +decade of the 19th century was definitely declining. In 1889, it is +true, a new poet Herman Gorter, made his appearance with a volume of +strange verses called _May_, eccentric both in prosody and in treatment. +He held his own without any marked advance towards lucidity or variety. +Since the recognition of Gorter, however, no really remarkable talent +has made itself prominent in Dutch poetry, unless we except P.C. +Boutens, whose _Verses_ in 1898 were received with great respect. Willem +Kloos, still the acute and somewhat turbulent leader of the school, +collected his poems in 1894 and his critical essays in 1896. L. van +Deyssel, though an effective reviewer, continued to lack the erudition +which years should have brought to him. Gorter remained tenebrous, +Helène Swarth-Lapidoth still gorgeous; the others, with the exception of +Couperus, showed symptoms of sinking into silence. The entire school, +now that the struggle for recognition is over, and its members are +accepted as little classics and the tyrants of taste, rests on its +triumphs and seems to limit itself to a repetition of its old +experiments. The leading dramatist of the close of the century was +Hermann Heijermans (b. 1864), a Jew of strong realistic and socialistic +tendencies, and the author of innumerable gloomy plays. His _Ghetto_ +(1898) and _Ora et Labora_ (1901) particularly display his peculiar +talent. Other notable products of drama are those of de Koo, whose +_Tobias Bolderman_ (1900) and _Vier Ton_ (1901) are effective comedies. +Dutch literature presented features of remarkable interest between 1882 +and 1888, but since that time the general heightening of the average of +merit, the abandonment of the old dry conventions, and a recognition of +the artistic value of words and forms, are more evident to a foreign +observer than any very important single expression of the national +genius in literary art. An exception should be made in favour of the +powerful peasant-stories of Steijn Streuvels (Frank Lateur), a young +baker by trade, whose _Summer Land_ (1901) was a most promising +production. + + AUTHORITIES.--Dr W.J.A. Jonckbloet, _Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche + Letterkunde_ (4th ed., 1889-1892); Dr J. ten Brink, _Kleine + Geschiedenis der Nederlandschen Letteren_ (Haarlem, 1877); and the + same author's _Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Letterkunde_ (1897), + with elaborate illustrations, facsimiles of MSS. and title pages, &c.; + Dr J. van Vloten, _Schets van de Geschiedenis der Nederlandschen + Letteren_ (1879); L. Schneider, _Geschichte der niederländischen + Literatur_ (Leipzig, 1887); G. Kalff, _Literatuur en tooneel te + Amsterdam in de zeventiende Eeuw_ (Haarlem, 1895). + + Interesting observations on the development of the new school in Dutch + literature will be found in Willem Kloos, _Veertien Jaar + Literatuur-Geschiedenis_ (2 vols., 1880-1896), and in L. van Deyssel, + _Verzamelde Opstelen_ (4 vols., 1890-1897), and in the series of + monographs and bibliographies by Prof. J. ten Brink, _Geschiedenis der + Noord-Nederlandsche Letteren in de XIX^e Eeuw_ (Rotterdam, new ed. + 1902, &c.). (E. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Edited by J.F. Willems (Brussels, 1836). + + [2] Edited by C.P. Serrure and Ph. Blommaert (Ghent, 1852-1854). + + [3] Edited by Dr E. Verwijs (Leiden, 1868). + + [4] Edited by L.P.C. v. den Bergh (Leiden, 1846-1847). + + [5] Edited by P. Leendertz (Leiden, 1845-1847). + + [6] Edited by Dr Jul. Zacher in Haupt's _Zeitschrift für deutsches + Altertum_, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1842). + + [7] See Schotel, _Geschiedenis der Rederijkers in Nederland_ + (1862-1864), Amsterdam. + + [8] For Houwaert, see a study by K.F. Stallaert in the _Nederlandsch + Museum_ (1885). + + [9] Ed. Dr W.L. van Helten (1875). + + [10] For Coornhert see also J. ten Brink, _D.V. Coornhert en zijne + wellevenkunst_ (Amsterdam, 1860). + + [11] The best edition is by P. Vlaming (Amsterdam, 1723). + + [12] On Visscher and his daughters see N. Beets, _Al de gedichten van + Anna Roemers Visscher_ (1881), and E. Gosse, _Studies in the + Literature of Northern Europe_ (1879). + + [13] See J. ten Brink, _G.A. Brederoo_ (Utrecht, 1859; 3rd ed. + 1887-1888); also J.H.W. Unger, _Brederoo, eine Bibliographie_ + (1884). His works were edited (3 vols., 1885-1890) by J. ten Brink + and others. + + [14] See R.A. Kollewijn's edition of _Samuel Coster's Werken_ + (1883). + + [15] See Dr W. Bisschop, _Justus van Effen ..._ (Utrecht, 1859). + + [16] See Dr J. van Vloten, _Leven enwerken van Willem en Onno van + Haren_ (1874), and Busken-Huet, _De van Harens_ (1875). + + [17] See Dr J. van Vloten, _Elisabeth Wolff ..._ (1880). + + + + +DUTCH WARS, a convenient general title for a series of European wars +between 1652 and 1678, which centred chiefly upon the political and +commercial relations of the Netherlands with England and France. By +Englishmen the term "Dutch Wars" is usually applied to the two purely +naval wars of 1652-53 and 1663-67 and to the Anglo-Dutch or naval part +of the war that began in 1672. But the last of these was part of a much +wider struggle by land, known to Continental historians as the Dutch War +of 1672-78, and the second part of this article deals with their +struggle on the various frontiers of France, which was illustrated by +the genius of Turenne and Condé. + + +I. NAVAL OPERATIONS + +_First Dutch War (1652-53)._--Though political causes were at work, the +main incentive to hostility between the peoples was commercial rivalry. +It was therefore natural that their first encounters should have taken +place between fleets engaged in convoying trade, or in endeavouring to +intercept the trade of their enemy. Blows were exchanged before war was +formally declared. On the 12th of May 1652 an English officer, Captain +Young, stopped a Dutch convoy near the Start in order to enforce the +salute to the English flag, which England then demanded from all who +used the seas round her coast. The demand was resisted, and was only +yielded to after a sharp conflict. Though the Dutch were still +endeavouring to negotiate a peace with the Council of State which +governed in the British Isles after the execution Of King Charles I., +they made ready for war. In May forty sail of their war-ships appeared +off Dover under command of Martin Harpertzoon Tromp--then the best known +of their admirals. There were then 8 British ships in Dover under +Rear-Admiral Nicholas Bourne, and 15 near Rye under Robert Blake, a +member of parliament, and soldier who had gained a great reputation in +the Civil War. Blake came into the Straits of Dover with his ships, and +on the 19th of May a sharp collision took place between him and Tromp. +Bourne joined his countryman after the action began. The encounter, +which the Dutch attributed to the English, and the English to the Dutch, +made war inevitable, even if the relations of the two powers had allowed +of the maintenance of peace. The first operations on both sides took the +form of attacks on trade. Sir George Ayscue, who had lately returned +from the West Indies, whither he had been sent to subdue the Royalist +party in Barbados, had a sharp encounter with a Dutch convoy while on +his way up Channel to the Downs, and had captured several prizes. The +Council of State, being mainly anxious to destroy the Dutch trade and +fisheries, began by reinforcing Blake, and sending him north to scatter +the Dutch herring fleet. He had with him 60 vessels. Ayscue remained in +the Downs with 16. Soon after Blake had gone, Tromp appeared in the +Downs with a stronger force and threatened an attack on Ayscue. Want of +wind prevented the operation. Tromp was also most intent on collecting +the home-coming Dutch convoys, and seeing them safe into port. He +therefore also sailed north to meet the Baltic trade. No meeting, +however, took place between him and Blake, while bad weather scattered +the Dutch. Their herring fishery was ruined for the year, and the outcry +against Tromp was loud. He was notoriously no friend to the Loevenstein +party then prevalent in Holland, and was displaced, his place being +taken by Cornelius de Witt and Michiel Adriaanzoon de Ruyter. De Ruyter +was sent into the Channel to convoy the outward-bound convoys, and meet +the home-coming trade. On the 16th of August he had an encounter off +Plymouth with Ayscue, whom he worsted, and then cruised at the Land's +End. The failure of Ayscue, who was not employed again in this war, +induced the Council of State to send Blake, who had now returned from +the north, into the Channel. He was not, however, more successful. His +fleet was allowed to become scattered, and the Dutchman brought his +convoy back safe after a partial action with Penn, Blake's subordinate, +on the 16th of August. + +So far the operations had been confined to commerce destroying, or to +the protection of trade by convoy. The next moves were more purely +warlike. In the 27th of September the Dutch appeared in force off the +mouth of the Thames, and Blake, whose fleet was collected in the Downs, +stood to sea. On the 28th of September the first real battle of the war +was fought off the Kentish Knock, a shoal opposite the coast of Essex. +The English fleet standing to the north passed to west of the Dutch, and +then turned. In the close engagement which followed, the Dutch were +defeated. They did not fight well, and their failure was attributed in +part to the discontent of their seamen with the removal of Tromp, and +the unpopularity of de Witt. The states-general found it necessary to +replace Tromp, who was at once sent to sea, again with the charge of +seeing the outward-bound trade down Channel, and waiting for the +homeward-bound. Blake had not remained on the coast of Holland, for the +Council of State was still almost as intent as the Dutch on convoying +trade or molesting the enemy's. It brought its fleet back, and then +divided the ships, sending some to the north with Penn, and keeping the +others, 40 in all, with Blake in the Downs. Thus when Tromp appeared "at +the back of the Goodwins" with a fleet of 80 war-ships and a crowd of +merchant vessels on the 29th of November, Blake was not in a position to +engage him with any assured prospect of success. But he made the +attempt, and a hot engagement took place off Dungeness on the 30th. Two +English vessels were taken, and the loss would have been greater if some +of the English captains had not shown themselves backward. Many of the +ships were merchant vessels pressed or hired, and commanded by their own +skippers, who displayed little military spirit. Blake, who offered to +resign, complained of the conduct of many of them, and some were +punished. The Council of State saw the necessity for making a strong +effort against Tromp, who ranged the Channel unopposed. Penn was +recalled from the north, Richard Deane and George Monk were united with +Blake as "admirals and generals at sea," and a competent force was +collected by the middle of February. The legend (for it is nothing more) +that Tromp hoisted a broom at his mainmast-head to announce his +intention to sweep the English off the sea, refers to this period. + +On the 18th of February 1653 the Dutch admiral, who had now collected +the homeward-bound convoys, was off Plymouth on his way back to Holland, +and was attacked by the English fleet. The encounter, which lasted from +the 18th to the 20th of February and ranged from Plymouth to Calais, is +commonly named the "Three Days' Battle" and was described by Clarendon +as "stupendous." The Dutch admiral brought his charge of merchant ships +up Channel between him and the French shore. His war-ships were arranged +in what was called a half-moon, and was in fact an obtuse angle with his +flagship, the "Brederode," at the apex. During the 18th and 19th, the +attacks of the English though fierce were partial, and met with no great +success. Tromp had to complain of the conduct of several of his +captains. On the 20th his line was broken and some 60 of his merchant +ships were captured. He anchored in some confusion in Calais roads. Yet +by taking advantage of the dark, and the turn of the tide, he succeeded +in carrying the great majority of his merchant ships home. The English +fleet had suffered severely, Blake himself was seriously wounded, and +his colleague Deane was also hurt. Blake's wound disabled him greatly +through the remainder of the war. + +The Three Days' Battle was followed by a pause in the war. On the +English side much damage had to be repaired. The administration of the +navy, called upon as it was to deal with a war of unprecedented +magnitude, was overtaxed by the obligation to refit ships, raise crews, +and provide for the numerous sick or wounded. The close approach of the +great political crisis in which Cromwell expelled the Long Parliament +and established the Protectorate (17th of April 1653), may have had some +influence. The fleet adhered to the new government on the 22nd of April. +On the Dutch side much damage had to be repaired, and their complicated +administration, by five independent admiralty boards, rendered rapid +work impossible. They had also begun to realize that the quality of +their ships was inferior. Reflection had further shown them that to +hamper their fleets by imposing the direct protection of a great flock +of merchant ships on them was not even an effectual way to protect +commerce. When, therefore, Tromp was next sent to sea, it was with an +unhampered fleet of war-ships, and for the purpose of bringing the +English fleet to battle. + +In spite of their heavy losses and their awkward administration, the +Dutch were at sea before the end of May, and were close to the mouth of +the Thames. The English fleet was not all ready. Part was in the river +fitting out under Blake, who had not fully recovered from his wound. The +bulk of it was, however, ready for service, and Blake's colleagues, Monk +and Deane, attacked Tromp on the 2nd of June. Changes of wind made the +battle somewhat confused. At first the English were to windward and they +bore down with Rear-Admiral John Lawson in command of the van. Tromp, +conscious that his ships were weaker in build, at first drew away, +firing at the spars of the English ships in order to cripple them. A +shift of the wind having given him the weather-gage, he concentrated a +vigorous attack on Lawson. But the wind changed again and transferred +the weather-gage to the English. Monk and Deane brought on a general +action, in which the Dutch were outmatched, and forced to retreat to +their own coast. Deane was slain by a cannon-shot by the side of his +colleague Monk, who threw his cloak over the mangled body. Blake, +informed by the sound of the cannon, which was audible on the Thames, +that an action was in progress, hurried to sea and joined Monk in the +pursuit of the Dutch on the 3rd of June. Tromp was driven into port and +told the states-general that they must build better ships if they wished +to beat the English at sea. Blake was forced by his still unhealed wound +to go ashore, and the sole command was left to Monk, who remained +cruising on the coast of Holland. The states-general now sought for +peace, but Cromwell's demands were excessive, and could not be accepted +without a surrender of the independence of Holland. A last effort was +therefore made to regain the command of the sea. A great fleet was +fitted out, partly at Flushing, partly in the Texel. Between the 26th +and the 30th of July Tromp, by a series of skilful manoeuvres, united +the divided Dutch squadrons in the face of Monk's fleet, and on the 30th +he stood out to sea with the wind in his favour, and gave battle. More +than a hundred vessels were engaged on either side. The Dutch admiral +manoeuvred to keep, and Monk to gain, the weather-gage. The fleets +passed on opposite tacks, and the Dutch tried to destroy their enemy +with fire-ships without success. At last the weatherly qualities of the +ships enabled Monk to break through the Dutch line, cutting some of +their ships off from the others. The vessels thus cut off fled to the +Maas, and Tromp with the others retired to the Texel. He was shot dead +by a musket bullet in the retreat. The loss of life had been heavy on +both sides. Six captains of Monk's fleet were slain. The Dutch now +sought peace, and Cromwell offered better terms. During the fighting in +the North Sea the Mediterranean trade of England had suffered severely. +A squadron of trading ships and a few war vessels were blocked in +Italian ports till some of them were taken and others forced to flee in +March 1653 off Leghorn. The battle of the 31st of July was the last +serious operation of the war, though peace was not formally made till +some months later. + +_Second Dutch War (1663-67)._--Although the formal declaration of war +was not made by the government of King Charles II. till March 1665, the +operations of the second Dutch War began in October 1663. The king and +his brother the duke of York (James II.), who were largely interested in +the slave-trading Guinea Company, were eager to remove the Dutch ports +from the slave coast. They knew that war with the Republic, which had +recovered very rapidly from the disasters of the war of 1652-53, would +be popular with the trading classes in England. They relied also on the +known reluctance of the Dutch government to go to war. In October 1663, +therefore, a squadron was sent out under command of Sir Robert Holmes to +attack the Dutch in Gambia and America. Their posts on the African coast +were captured and New Amsterdam (now New York) taken. The states-general +under the skilful management of the Grand Pensionary, John de Witt, +retaliated by sending de Ruyter from the Mediterranean, where he was +cruising against the Barbary pirates, to follow Holmes. De Ruyter +re-established the Dutch posts in Gambia, and, though he failed to +retake New Amsterdam, did much injury to English trade before he +returned to Holland. It may be pointed out that all colonial settlements +belonged at that time exclusively to England, and the war was made +entirely by her, and in her interest, Scotland and Ireland having no +share. Numbers of Scotch sailors and of English deserters served in the +Dutch fleet in this war--the bad administration of the navy and the +constant ill-treatment of the crews having caused bitter discontent. +Other attacks were made on Dutch trade during 1664, but the great +operations of war did not begin till May 1665. In that month the duke of +York was on the east coast of England with a fleet of 80 to 90 sail, +composed, according to the custom of the time, of vessels of all sizes. +A Dutch fleet of corresponding strength was sent to sea, under command +of Baron Opdam van Wassenaer. In this war we do not find that the +movements of fleets were subordinated to the work of providing convoy. +They were sent to sea for the much more intelligent purpose of seeking +out the enemy and driving him off. It was understood that the trade of +the victor would be secure. + +The first battle took place from 30 to 40 m. S.E. of Lowestoft, on the +3rd of June 1665. By the bad conduct of some of the captains in the +centre of the Dutch line, the English, who fought with much spirit, were +able to win a considerable victory. Opdam's flagship was blown up and he +perished. But the pursuit of the English fleet was feeble, and the +retreat of the Dutch was ably covered by Cornelius van Tromp, son of +Martin Tromp. Much scandal was caused by the mysterious circumstances in +which an order to shorten sail was given in the English flagship, and +doubts were expressed of the courage of the duke of York. He withdrew, +or was withdrawn, from the active command at sea, and was replaced by +the earl of Sandwich. On the Dutch side vigorous measures were taken to +enforce good discipline. Four of the captains who had misbehaved on the +3rd of June were shot for cowardice, and others were dismissed. De +Ruyter was named commander-in-chief, and John de Witt, or later his +brother Cornelius, accompanied the admiral as delegate of the +states-general to support his authority. The earl of Sandwich did +nothing becoming a capable commander. Under his command the fleet made +no attempt to blockade the Dutch coast, but was turned from its proper +work to engage in a prize-hunting plot with the king of Denmark. The +object was to plunder a Dutch convoy which had taken refuge at Bergen in +Norway, then united to Denmark. The mutual interest of the associates +led to the failure of the plot. Sir Thomas Teddeman, who was sent by +Sandwich to attack the Dutch at Bergen, was suspected by the Danish +governor of intending to play false, was fired on by the batteries, and +was beaten off. De Ruyter covered the return of the trade to Holland. +Sandwich, who had taken some prizes, unlawfully seized part of their +cargoes for the benefit of himself and the other flag officers. A loud +outcry was raised in the fleet and the country. Sandwich was displaced, +and his command was transferred to Monk, with whom was associated the +king's cousin, Prince Rupert. The war had so far been unsuccessful for +England. The victory of the 3rd of June was barren. Great injury was +inflicted on English trade by Dutch cruisers, while the wasteful +administration of his officers reduced the king's treasury to much +embarrassment. Winter suspended the movements of the fleets. + +The year 1666 (called the _annus mirabilis_, for it included the plague +and the fire of London) was marked by fierce fighting and changes of +fortune. The French, who had signed a treaty with Holland in 1662, were +reluctantly induced to intervene in the war as the enemies of England. +By May a Dutch fleet of some eighty sail was at sea, preparing to watch +the English, and unite with the French. Monk and Rupert were fitting out +a fleet of nearly the same strength in the Thames. Under the influence +of their fear of a French naval force King Charles's ministers committed +a great blunder. They detached Prince Rupert into the Channel with 20 +ships, leaving Monk with only 57 to face the Dutch. The English +commander put to sea, and found the enemy anchored on the coast of +Flanders, in three divisions. He boldly attacked the van, hoping to +cripple it before it could be helped by the centre and rear. This daring +and well-judged move brought on the Four Days' Battle of the 1st, 2nd, +3rd and 4th of June (O.S.). On the 1st the Dutch van, under Cornelius +van Tromp, bore the brunt of the English attack. The fighting was very +fierce. One English admiral, Sir William Berkeley, was slain, and +another, Sir John Harman, was in great danger. Monk drew off at night +without doing all the harm he had wished to the Dutch. During the 2nd of +June the fleets engaged again, and on this day the self-will of Van +Tromp, who commanded the rear in the battle, and the misconduct of some +of the ships in the van, prevented De Ruyter from making full use of his +numbers. Yet Monk was clearly overtaxed, and on the 3rd he prepared to +retreat to the Thames. During this movement the "Prince" (100) carrying +the flag of Admiral Sir Robert Ayscue, ran on the Galloper Sand, and was +lost. In the evening Prince Rupert returned, and by hugging the coast of +Kent to the south of the fleets, was able to rejoin his colleague. Monk +and Rupert renewed the battle on the 4th. It was fought with extreme +fury, and terminated in the retreat of the English to the Thames with a +loss of 20 ships and 6000 men. + +The Dutch remained masters of the approach to the Thames till the 21st +of July. They menaced the coast of Essex, and could easily have covered +an invasion of England by a French army if Louis XIV. had been disposed +to send one. Danger stimulated the English government to active +exertions, and by the 21st of July Monk and Rupert were enabled by a +happy combination of wind and tide to set to sea through the passage +called the Swin. A storm which scattered both fleets delayed their +meeting till the 25th of July. On that and the two succeeding days the +Dutch were again defeated and driven into port. The English fleet then +burnt the Dutch East India Company's dockyard at Terschelting, +inflicting great loss. But the fruits of the victory were less than they +would have been if it had been properly followed up. The British fleet +withdrew to its own coast and within a month De Ruyter was at sea again, +hoping to effect a junction with a French squadron. The French failed to +keep tryst, and De Ruyter was watched by Rupert, who was now in sole +command, Monk having been recalled to London to take command amid the +confusion caused by the fire and the plague. Nor did the failure of King +Charles's government to press the war with vigour end here. Embarrassed +by want of money, on bad terms with his parliament, and secretly intent +on schemes incompatible with a policy which could earn the approval of +his subjects, the king preferred to spend what money he could command on +raising troops, and neglected his fleet. Peace negotiations were begun +with the Dutch, and the line-of-battle ships were put out of commission. +A light squadron was, however, kept at sea to injure the Dutch trade, +and as no armistice was arranged the Republic was free to continue +warlike operations. The Dutch, being well aware of the disarmed +condition of the English coast, sent out a powerful fleet again under +the command of De Ruyter in June. It entered the Thames, forced the +entrance of the Medway, and burnt both the dockyard at Chatham and a +number of the finest ships in the navy which were lying in the river. A +terrible panic prevailed in London, where an attack was expected. The +Dutch were content with the injury they had done at Chatham, and dropped +down the river. De Ruyter remained cruising in the Channel till the +peace of Breda was signed in July. During the last months of the war Sir +John Harman had fought a successful campaign in the West Indies against +the French on whom he inflicted a severe defeat at Martinique ~~ on the +24th of June. By the terms of the peace England retained possession of +New York, but the war, though it contained some passages glorious to her +arms, was very disastrous to her commerce. + +_Third Dutch War (1672-74)._--This war differed very materially in its +inception and conduct from the first and second. They had been popular +in England, and even the second gave Englishmen not a little to be proud +of. The third was undertaken by the king in pursuit of a policy arranged +between him and his cousin Louis XIV. Their avowed object was a +partition of Holland, but there was a secret understanding that King +Charles II. was to establish Roman Catholicism, and to make himself +despotic in England, with the help of the French king. This hidden +purpose was suspected, and the war became intensely unpopular with the +English parliament and nation. Parliament would grant the king no +supplies, and he could find the means of fitting out a fleet only by +defrauding his creditors. The English fleets were, therefore, +comparatively small, were ill-provided and had to co-operate with French +squadrons which in the then raw state of King Louis' young navy, proved +inefficient allies. + +In this as in former wars, attacks on Dutch commerce preceded a formal +declaration of hostilities. On the 13th of March 1672 Sir Robert Holmes +fell upon a Dutch convoy under the command of Van Ness in the Channel. +In the penury of the dockyards Holmes could not be provided with the +force he was promised, and the enterprise was but partially successful. +It was characteristic of the morality of his time and the spirit of the +English navy as it had been shaped by the corrupt government of Charles +II., that the officers concerned quarrelled violently and accused one +another of fraud. A fleet of 60 sail was with difficulty got together +under the duke of York, who now went to sea for the second time. The +duke was joined in May, and at Portsmouth, by 40 French ships under the +comte d'Estrées, a soldier and noble who had been made an admiral late +in life. The allies entered the North Sea but did not take the offensive +against the Dutch. The English were ill supplied, and were compelled to +anchor at Southwold Bay on the coast of Suffolk in order to obtain water +and provisions. The Dutch, who had to contend with an overwhelming +French invasion on shore, nevertheless fitted out a fleet of 70 to 80 +sail of the line and the command was given to De Ruyter. On the 28th of +May 1672 he fell upon the allies in a N.W. wind. D'Estrées, who was +stationed with his squadron at the south end of the line, went to sea on +the port tack, heading to the S.E. The English, who constituted the +centre and rear, stood out on the starboard tack. Thus the allies were +at once divided into two widely separated bodies, and the Dutch admiral +was able to concentrate nearly his whole force on the centre division, +which suffered severely. The flagship of the duke of York, the "Prince" +(100), was so shattered that he was compelled to leave her, and go to +the "St Michael." The "Royal James" (100), the flagship of his second in +command, the earl of Sandwich, after being much shattered by the Dutch +artillery, was set alight by a fire-ship, and destroyed with enormous +loss of life. The earl himself perished. His body was picked up three +days afterwards, so disfigured that it was only recognized by the star +on his coat. The ships at the head of the English line at last tacked to +the support of the centre, and at evening De Ruyter drew off. A foolish +attempt was made to claim his retreat as a victory, but the allies were +too severely damaged to attempt an attack on the Dutch during the rest +of the year. The Republic was so hard pressed by the French invasion +that it had to land the gunpowder from its ships for the service of its +army. + +In 1673 the allies made an effort to invade Holland from the sea coast. +Prince Rupert replaced the duke of York, who as a Roman Catholic was +driven from office by the newly passed Test Act. He was supplied with 54 +ships and was joined early in the year by d'Estrées with 27. Soldiers +were embarked, and in May the allied fleet stood over to the Dutch +coast. The distress of the Republic prevented it from equipping more +than 55 ships, but the patriotism of the race was roused to white heat, +and in De Ruyter they possessed an admiral of consummate skill and +heroic character. He took up an anchorage at Schooneveld and stood on +his guard. On the 28th of May Rupert and d'Estrées, believing that De +Ruyter was too much afraid of their superior numbers to venture to sea, +sent in a squadron of light vessels and fire-ships to attack him, but he +took the offensive at once, scattering the light squadron, and falling +with energy on the rest of the fleet, which, not being in expectation of +a vigorous assault, was taken at a disadvantage. On this occasion the +English placed the French in the centre, in order to avoid such a +separation as had taken place in the battle at Southwold Bay. But the +disposition made no difference in the result. De Ruyter concentrated on +the van and centre of the allies, and in spite of his great inferiority +of numbers was able to be superior at the point of attack. The allies +were compelled to retreat, and De Ruyter, satisfied with having averted +the invasion of his country, anchored at West-Kappel. + +Seven days later, on the 4th of June, a second encounter took place. The +French were now placed in the rear of the line as it engaged. The Dutch +admiral, who had the advantage of the wind, fell on the English in the +van and centre. His inferiority in numbers did not allow him to push his +attack quite home, but he inflicted so much injury that the allies were +forced to return to the Thames to refit. At the end of July the allies +again appeared off the coast of Holland, bringing four thousand soldiers +in the war-ships and two thousand in transports. De Ruyter's fleet had +been raised to 70 vessels, but the allies had also been reinforced and +were 90 strong. On the 11th of August the Dutch admiral kept in the +shallow waters of the coast looking for a favourable opportunity to +attack. On the 11th of August the wind, which had been westerly, turned +to the S.E., giving him the weather gage. The French division was +leading, and De Ruyter fell furiously upon the English in the centre and +rear. The French were kept in play by a small squadron under Bankert, +while De Ruyter drove Prince Rupert in the centre out of the line, and +in the rear Cornelius van Tromp fought a desperate duel with the English +rear division commanded by Sir E. Spragge. The two admirals engaged in a +species of personal conflict, and each was compelled to shift his flag +to another vessel. While Sir E. Spragge, whose second flagship was +shattered by the Dutch fire, was on his way to a third, his boat was +sunk by a cannon shot and he was drowned. + +The defeat of the allies was undeniable, and a violent quarrel broke out +between them. Want of money, and the increasing violence of popular +opposition to the French alliance, compelled the king to withdraw from +the war. Peace was made in the following spring. + +In this war, which presented no features of a creditable kind, the loss +to English commerce from Dutch cruisers was so great that it was found +necessary to suspend the clause of the navigation act which forbade the +purchase of foreign-built vessels. + +As England withdrew from her alliance with Louis XIV., the other powers +of Europe, frightened by the growth of the aggressive French power, +began to come forward to the support of Holland. The coalition then +formed continued the struggle till 1678. But the war was conducted +mainly on the land. The French king, who knew that his fleet was not as +yet capable of meeting the Dutch single-handed, was content to withdraw +his ships from the North Sea and the ocean. The Dutch, who had to pay +subventions to their German allies, and to support a large army, could +spare little for their fleet. For some time they willingly confined +themselves to efforts to protect their commerce from French privateers. +In 1674 a revolt of the people of Sicily against their Spanish rulers +gave the French king an opportunity of seizing the island. Spain, unable +to defend its possessions single-handed, appealed to the Dutch for naval +help. In September 1675 De Ruyter was sent into the Mediterranean with +18 sail of the line and four fire-ships. The force was inadequate, but +it was all that Holland could spare. The Dutch admiral, who was hampered +rather than helped by his Spanish allies, did his best to make good his +weakness by skilful management. He cruised off Messina to intercept the +supplies which were being brought to the French garrison by a fleet of +20 sail under the command of Abraham Duquesne. Conscious that he must +spare his small force as much as possible, he abstained from such +vigorous attacks as he had made in 1672 and 1673. When Duquesne appeared +on the 7th of January 1676 near the Lipari Islands, De Ruyter allowed +them to get the weather-gage, and on the 8th of January waited passively +for their attack. The French, with more recklessness than was usual with +them in later times, bore down on their enemy courageously but in some +disorder. Their leading ships were severely mauled, and their whole +force so crippled that they could make no pursuit of the Dutch when they +drew off, their injured ships being towed by the Spanish galleys, in the +late afternoon. Duquesne was able to reach Messina and join the French +ships at anchor there. De Ruyter made his way to Palermo, which was in +the hands of the Spaniards. One of his vessels sank on the way and he +was reduced to 17. It is true that his allies provided him with 10 ships +of their own, but the Spanish navy had sunk to abject inefficiency. +Their commander, the marquis of Bayona, arrogantly insisted on occupying +the centre of the line with his worthless squadron instead of allowing +his ships to be scattered among the Dutch for support. When on the 22nd +of April the allies, 27 strong, met the fleet of Duquesne, 29 ships, off +Agosta, they attacked from windward. De Ruyter, who led the van, was +mortally wounded. The Spaniards in the centre behaved very ill, and no +victory was gained. The serious fighting was, in fact, confined to the +vans of the two fleets. After the battle the allies retired to Syracuse, +where De Ruyter died, and where their ships were mostly destroyed by the +French a month later. Reinforcements sent out from Holland were stopped +in the Straits of Gibraltar and blockaded in Cadiz. The French remained +masters of the Mediterranean. In the meantime, however, angry disputes +had arisen between France and England. King Louis XIV. enforced his +belligerent rights at sea with as much disregard of neutral interests as +was shown by England in later times. His naval officers insisted on +making prize of all Dutch-built vessels found under the English flag. In +1678 war seemed imminent between France and England. King Louis then +withdrew his soldiers from Sicily, and made the peace of Nijmwegen. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the English side, see _Naval History of England_, by + Thomas Lediard (London, 1735); _Memorials of Sir W. Penn_, by + Grenville Penn (London, 1833); _The First Dutch War, 1652-1654_, + edited by S.R. Gardiner for the Navy Record Society (1899). For the + Dutch side: _Het Leven un Bedryf van den Heere Michiel de Ruiter_, by + Gerard Brandt (Amsterdam, 1687); _Geschiedenis van den Nederlandsche + Zeewegen_, by J.C. de Jongke (Haarlem, 1858); _Annales des + Provinces-Unies_, by J. Basnages de Beauval (The Hague, 1726). For the + French side; _Abraham du Quesne et la marine de son temps_, by A. Jal + (Paris, 1873). For the small Spanish share; _Armada Española_, by + Captain Cesareo Fernandez Duro (Madrid, 1895-1901). For critical + studies of these wars the reader may be referred to _Naval Warfare_, + by Rear-admiral P.H. Colomb (London, 1899), and _The Influence of Sea + Power upon History_, by Captain A.T. Mahan. (D. H.) + + +II. OPERATIONS ON LAND + +The contemporary military history of Europe included, first, the war +between France and Spain, 1654-59, usually called the Spanish Fronde, of +which the most notable incident was the great battle of the Dunes fought +on the 14th of June 1658 between the French and English under Turenne +and the Spaniards under Condé, in which a contingent of Cromwell's +soldiers bore a conspicuous part. About the same time a war was fought +in northern Europe (1655-60), celebrated chiefly for the three days' +battle of Warsaw (28th, 29th, 30th July 1656), and the successful +invasion of Denmark by the Swedes, carried out from island to island +over the frozen sea (February 1658), and culminating in a long siege of +Copenhagen (1658-59). Between the second and third wars of England and +the United Provinces came the short War of Devolution (1667-68)--a war +of sieges in the Low Countries in which the French were commanded +chiefly by Turenne. In 1668 the French under Condé made a rapid conquest +of Franche-Comté. This was, however, given up at the peace. The war of +1672-78, the first of the three great wars of Louis XIV., was fought on +a grander scale. + +_Invasion of Holland, 1672._--The diplomacy of Louis had, before the +outbreak of war, deprived Holland of her allies--England (treaty of +Dover, 1670), Sweden (treaty of Stockholm, 1672) and the emperor, and +when he declared war on the United Provinces in March 1672, it seemed +that the Dutch could offer little resistance. The French army under +Louis in person started from Charleroi and marched down the Meuse +unopposed. The powerful Dutch fortress of Maastricht was masked, and the +French then moved towards Düsseldorf. In the electorate of Cologne they +were in friendly country, and the main army soon moved down the Rhine +from Düsseldorf, the corps of Turenne on the left bank, that of Condé on +the right. At the same time a corps under Marshal Luxemburg, composed of +Louis' German allies (Cologne and Münster) moved from Westphalia towards +Over-Yssel and Groningen. The Rhine fortresses offered but little +resistance to the advance of Turenne and Condé. William of Orange with a +weak field army tried to defend the Yssel-Rhine line, but the French +rapidly forced the passage of the Rhine at Tollhuis (June 12th) and +passed into the Betuwe (between the Leck and the Waal). Condé now +advised a cavalry raid on Amsterdam, but Louis, acting on the suggestion +of the war minister Louvois, preferred to reduce Nijmwegen, Gorinchem +and other places, before entering Utrecht province. Condé's plan was, +however, partially carried out by Count Rochefort, who with 1800 +troopers captured successively Amersfoort and Naarden. His further +progress was checked at Muyden, which the Dutch garrisoned in the nick +of time, and he returned to the main army, taking Utrecht _en route_. +Louis now moved on Amsterdam, brushing aside the feeble opposition which +was offered, and it seemed that the French must achieve their object in +one short campaign. But the Dutch people were roused. The month before, +the citizens of Utrecht had refused to raze their suburban villas, and +defence of the fortifications had consequently been impossible. Now, the +dykes were cut and the sluices opened, and Amsterdam was covered by a +wide inundation, against which the invader was powerless. At the same +time the men of Zealand repulsed a French raid from Ath on Ardenburg, +and this infraction of the neutrality of the Spanish Netherlands served +but to raise up another enemy for Louis. Luxemburg too, at first +successful, was repulsed before Groningen. A revolution placed William +of Orange at the head of the government. The alliance of Brandenburg and +the Mainz electorate had already been secured, and Spain, justly fearing +for the safety of her Flemish possessions, soon joined them. The emperor +followed, and Louis was now opposed, not by one state, but by a +formidable coalition. + +_War against the Coalition._--In the autumn the war spread to the Rhine. +No attempt could be made on Amsterdam until the ice should cover the +floods. Turenne was therefore despatched to Westphalia and Condé to +Alsace, while a corps of observation was formed on the Meuse to watch +the Spanish Netherlands. But the coalition had not yet developed its +full strength, and Turenne's skill checked the advance of the +Imperialists under Montecucculi and of the Brandenburgers under the +Great Elector. A war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine ended in favour of +the French, and the allies then turned against the territories of +Cologne and Münster, while William, disappointed in his hopes of joining +forces with his friends, made a bold, but in the end unsuccessful, raid +on Charleroi (September-December 1672). The allies in Germany were now +not merely checked but driven from point to point by Turenne, who on +this occasion displayed a degree of energy rare in the military history +of the period. The troops of Cologne and Münster formed part of his +army, other friends of Louis were preparing to take the field, and after +a severe winter campaign, the elector, defeated in combat and manoeuvre, +was forced back to the Weser, and being but weakly supported by the +Imperialists, found himself compelled to make a separate peace (June +6th, 1673). Turenne then turned his attention to the Imperialists who +were assembling in Bohemia, and made ready to meet them at Wetzlar. +Meanwhile the other French armies were fully employed. Corps of +observation were formed in Roussillon and Lorraine. Condé in Holland was +to renew his efforts against the Amsterdam defences; during the winter +the demands of the war on the Rhine had reduced the French forces in the +provinces to the size of a mere army of occupation.[1] Louis' own army, +originally collected for the relief of Charleroi in December, advanced +on Maastricht, and after a brief siege, in which Vauban directed the +besiegers, captured this most important fortress (June 29th, 1673). But +this was the last success of the French armies in the campaign. Condé +made no headway against Amsterdam, and William retook Naarden (September +14th). Louis, after the capture of Maastricht led his army southwards +into Lorraine and overran the electorate of Trier. But nothing of +importance was gained, and Turenne's summer campaign was wholly +unsuccessful. + +_Capture of Bonn._--From Wetzlar he moved to Aschaffenburg, Louis at the +same time keeping back, for the intended conquest of Franche-Comté, many +soldiers who would have been more usefully employed in Germany. Soon the +Imperialists advanced in earnest, greatly superior in numbers. Marching +via Eger and Nuremberg (September 3rd) on the Main, Montecucculi drew +Turenne to the valley of the Tauber; then, having persuaded the bishop +of Würzburg to surrender the bridge of that place, he passed to the +right bank of the Main before Turenne could intervene. The Imperialists +soon arrived at Frankfort, and the French position was turned. +Montecucculi thus achieved one of the greatest objects of the 17th +century strategist, the wearing down of the enemy in repeated and +useless marches. The French retreat to the Rhine was painful and costly, +and Montecucculi then passed that river at Mainz and made for Trier. +Turenne followed, unable to do more than conform to his opponent's +movements, and took post to defend Trier and Alsace. Thereupon +Montecucculi turned northward to meet William of Orange, who evaded +Condé's weak army and marched rapidly via Venló (22nd October) on +Coblenz. The elector of Trier, who had not forgotten the depredations of +Louis' army in the spring, followed the example of the bishop of +Würzburg and gave a free passage at Coblenz. William and Montecucculi +joined forces in the electorate and promptly besieged Bonn. This +fortress fell on the 12th of November, and the troops of the coalition +gained possession of an unbroken line from Amsterdam to the Breisgau, +while Louis' German allies (Cologne and Münster), now isolated, had to +make peace at once. William wintered in Holland, Montecucculi in Cologne +and Jülich, and the Spaniards, who had served with William, in their own +provinces of the Meuse. A century after the outbreak of the War of +Independence the Dutch and the Spaniards are thus found making war as +allies, a striking proof of the fact that all questions but those of +dynastic interests had been effectually settled by the peace of +Westphalia. Louis' allies were leaving him one by one. The German +princes and the empire itself rallied to the emperor, Denmark joined the +coalition (January 1674), the Great Elector re-entered the war, and soon +afterwards England made peace. + +_1674._--In 1674 therefore Louis reluctantly evacuated those of the +United Provinces occupied by his army. He had derived a considerable +revenue from the enemy's country, and he had moreover quartered his +troops without expense. The resources of the French government were +almost intact for the coming campaign; the corps of observation in +Roussillon was continued, and its commander, Marshal Schomberg, made a +successful campaign against the Spaniards, and the war was carried even +into Sicily. Condé, in the Spanish Low Countries, opposed with inferior +forces the united army of Spaniards, Dutch and Austrians under William, +and held the Meuse from Grave to Charleroi on the Sambre. The war in +this quarter was memorable for Condé's last, and William's first, +battle, the desperate and indecisive engagement of Seneffe (August +11th), in which the two armies lost one-seventh of their strength in +killed alone. The French, however, in the course of the year lost a few +fortresses on the Meuse, including Grave and Huy. The king's part in the +campaign was, as usual, a war of sieges; an army under his personal +command overran Franche-Comté in six weeks, and Louis, aided by the +genius of Vauban, reduced Besançon in nine days. Turenne's Rhine +campaign began with an invasion of Germany, undertaken to prevent +interference with Louis in Franche-Comté. Bournonville, the imperial +commander who now replaced Montecucculi, lay in the Cologne and Trier +electorates. An army of South Germans in the Breisgau, after an +unsuccessful attempt to invade Alsace, moved northward to the Neckar +valley with the intention of uniting with Bournonville, who was moving +up the Rhine to meet them. Turenne determined to attack the southern +army under the duke of Lorraine and Count Caprara before the junction +could be effected. He crossed the Rhine at Philipsburg early in June, +and on the 16th fell upon the inferior forces of Caprara in their +entrenched position of Sinsheim. The result of the battle was a complete +victory for the French, who followed up their success by driving a +portion of Bournonville's army (on which the duke of Lorraine had +rallied his forces) from the Neckar (action of Ladenburg near +Heidelberg, July 7th). Turenne then laid waste the Palatinate, in order +that it should no longer support an army, and fell back over the Rhine, +ignoring the reproaches of the elector palatine, who vainly challenged +him to a duel. This devastation has usually been considered as a grave +stain on the character of the commander who ordered it, but Turenne's +conception of duty did not differ in this respect from that of Cromwell, +Marlborough, Wellington and the generals of the American Civil War. It +was held to be necessary and expedient, and it was accordingly carried +out. Bournonville's army near Frankfort was still to be dealt with, and +the Great Elector and his Brandenburgers were rapidly approaching the +Main valley. After a slight attempt to invade Lorraine, which Turenne +easily stopped, the Imperialists suddenly recrossed the Rhine and +marched rapidly into the neighbourhood of the Strassburg bridge. + +_Turenne's Winter Campaign in Alsace._--The magistrates of this city +were not less amenable than had been the bishop of Würzburg in 1673. +Bournonville obtained a free passage, and Turenne was too late to oppose +him. The French general, however, determined to fight, as he had done at +Sinsheim, to prevent the junction of the two hostile armies. The Great +Elector was still in the Neckar valley when the battle of Enzheim (8 m. +from Strassburg) was fought on the 4th of October. This time it was +indecisive, and Bournonville's superior forces, soon augmented by the +arrival of the elector, spread into Alsace. Turenne steadily retired to +his camp of Dettweiler, unable for the moment to do more, and the +Germans took up winter quarters in all the towns from Belfort to +Strassburg (October-November 1674). But Turenne was preparing for +another winter campaign, the most brilliant in the great commander's +career. + +First he placed the fortresses of middle Alsace in a state of defence, +to deceive the enemy. Then he withdrew the whole of the field army +quietly into Lorraine. Picking up on his way such reinforcements as were +available, he marched southward with all speed behind the Vosges, and in +the last stages of the movement he even split up his forces into many +small bodies, that the enemy's spies might be misled. After a severe +march through hilly country and in the midst of snowstorms, the French +reunited near Belfort, and without a moment's delay poured into Alsace +from the south. The scattered Imperialists were driven towards +Strassburg, every corps which tried to resist being cut off. +Bournonville stood to fight at Mülhausen with such forces as he could +collect (29th December 1674) but Turenne's men carried all before them. +The advance continued to Colmar, where the elector, who was now in +command of the Germans, stood on the defensive with forces equal to +Turenne's own. The battle of Türkheim (5th of January 1675) nevertheless +resulted in another and this time a decisive victory for the French; a +few days after the battle Turenne could report that there was not a +soldier of the enemy left in Alsace. His army now went into winter +quarters about Strassburg, and drew supplies from the German bank of the +Rhine and even from the Neckar valley (January 1675). + +_1675._--This opening of the campaign promised well, and Louis as usual +took the field as early as possible. In the course of the spring +(May-June) the king's army recaptured some of the lost fortresses of the +Meuse and took in addition Liège and Limburg. The expeditionary corps in +Sicily also gained some successes in this campaign, and Schomberg +invaded Catalonia. On the Rhine was fought the last campaign of Turenne +and Montecucculi. The elector having withdrawn his forces to Brandenburg +(see SWEDEN: _History_), Montecucculi resumed command, and between +Philipsburg and Strassburg the two great commanders manoeuvred for an +advantage, each seeking to cover his own country and to live upon that +of the enemy. At last Turenne prevailed and had the Imperialists at a +disadvantage on the Sasbach, where, in opening the action, he was killed +by a cannon-shot (July 27th). The sequel showed how dependent was even +the best organized army of the time upon the personality of its +commander. + +All the advantages won were hastily surrendered, and Montecucculi, +sharply following up the retreat of the French, drove them over the +Rhine and almost to the Vosges. At the same time the duke of Lorraine +defeated Marshal Créqui (August 11th) at Conzer Brücke on the Moselle, +and recaptured Trier (September 6th), which, as a set-off against Bonn, +Turenne had taken in the autumn of 1673. The situation was more than +alarming for the French, but Condé was destined to achieve a last +success--for once a success of careful strategy and prudent manoeuvre. +Luxemburg was left in charge in Flanders, and the prince took command of +the remnant of Turenne's old army and of the fugitives of Créqui's. +Montecucculi's skill failed completely to shake his position, and in the +end the prince compelled him to retire over the Rhine. Condé and +Montecucculi retired from their commands at the close of the year, +Turenne was dead, and a younger generation of commanders henceforward +carried on the war. + +_1676._--In 1676 the naval successes of France in the Mediterranean +enabled the corps under Marshal Vivonne in Sicily to make considerable +progress, and he won an important victory at Messina on the 25th of +March. Vivonne was made viceroy of Sicily. Louis himself, with his +marshals and Vauban, conducted the campaign in the north. The town of +Condé fell on the 26th of April, and the king then manoeuvred against +the prince of Orange in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes. An attempt +made by the latter in the summer to besiege Maastricht was frustrated by +Marshal Schomberg with a detachment of the king's army (August). +Rochefort meanwhile covered the Meuse country and Luxemburg. Créqui, who +had now returned from captivity (he had been taken after the battle of +Conzer Brücke) opposed the Imperialists in Lorraine, but he was unable +to prevent the fall of Philipsburg, which occurred on the 17th of +September. The French now laid waste the land between the Meuse and +Moselle for the same reason which brought about the devastation of the +Palatinate in 1674, and the year closed with a war of manoeuvre on the +upper Rhine between the Imperialists under the duke of Lorraine and the +French under Luxemburg. + +_1677._--The chief event of the campaign of 1677 in the Netherlands was +the siege of Valenciennes, which fortress was invested by Louis in the +first weeks of the campaigning season. Five marshals of France served +under the king in this enterprise, but their advice was of less value +than that of Vauban, whose plans the king followed implicitly, even so +far as to order an assault _de vive force_ against the unanimous opinion +of the marshals. This succeeded beyond Vauban's own expectation; the +picked troops entrusted with the attack of an outwork forced their way +into the town itself (March 17th). The success was followed by the siege +of St Omer and the defeat of William's relieving army by the duke of +Orleans (battle of Mont Cassel, April 11th, 1677). The summer campaign +was a contest of skill between Luxemburg and William, which resulted in +favour of the French. The prince of Orange failed in an attempt to take +Charleroi, and Marshal D'Humières captured St Ghislain. + +In Germany the credit of the French successes was due to Créqui, who was +no longer the defeated general of Conzer Brücke, but the most successful +of Turenne's pupils. He began by driving back the duke of Lorraine to +the Rhine. Another attempt by the Lorraine family to reconquer their +duchy was thus foiled, and at the same time a second imperial army under +the duke of Saxe-Eisenach, which had crossed the Rhine by Philipsburg, +was shut up in an island of the Rhine and forced to make terms with the +French. A large reinforcement sent by the duke of Lorraine to the +assistance of Saxe-Eisenach was completely defeated by Créqui in the +battle of Kochersberg near Strassburg (October 7th) and the marshal +followed up his successes by the capture of Freiburg on the 14th of +November. During the year there was a brisk war in the West Indies, and +also in Catalonia, where the French maintained the ground won by +Schomberg in the previous campaign. + +_1678._--In 1678 Louis took the field in February. The skilful +manoeuvres of the French, whether due to Louis' own generalship or that +of his advisers, resulted in the speedy capture of Ghent and Ypres +(March), and the retention of the prizes in the usual war of posts which +followed. The last battle of the war was fought at St Denis (outside +Mons) between William and Luxemburg on the 14th of August, three days +after the peace of Nijmwegen had been concluded. William sustained +another defeat, but the battle was one of the most fiercely contested of +the whole war. On the Rhine, Créqui began by winning the battle of +Rheinfelden (July 6th), after which he inflicted upon the Imperialists +another defeat at Gengenbach (July 23rd) and took Kehl. In the short +campaign of 1679, before France and the empire had concluded peace, he +was equally successful. + +In Spain the French army under Marshal de Navailles had also made steady +progress, and thus the last campaign was wholly in favour of the French. +The peace of Nijmwegen gave Louis many of the Netherlands frontier +fortresses, and little else. He was threatened by the intervention of +England on the side of the coalition, and would have made peace earlier +but for his reluctance to abandon his ally Sweden. The French army had, +however, well established its reputation. Vauban was unique amongst the +officers of his time, and Créqui and Luxemburg were not unworthy +successors of Turenne and Condé. The two marshals added to their +reputation in the "Reunion War" of 1680-84. Créqui died in 1684 at the +age of sixty-one, Luxemburg's greatest triumph was won ten years later +(see GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE). Vauban retired from active service as +a marshal twenty-five years after the peace of Nijmwegen. But the +interest of the war does not reside wholly in the personalities of the +leaders. There were great commanders before Turenne and Condé. It is as +the début of a new method of military organization and training--the +first real test of the standing army as created by Louvois--that the +Dutch War of 1672-79 is above all instructive. (C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Marshal Luxemburg, who was left in command of the army in Holland + during the winter of 1672-73, had indeed made a bold attempt to + capture Leiden and the Hague by marching a corps from Utrecht across + the frozen inundations. But a sudden thaw imperilled his force and he + had to make a painful retreat along the dykes to Utrecht. Holland was + again inundated in 1673. + + + + +DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY, THE (_De Westindische Compagnie_), a company +founded by letters-patent from the Netherlands states-general dated the +3rd of June 1621. The purpose for which the company was formed was to +regulate and protect the contraband trade already carried on by the +Dutch in the American and African possessions of Spain and Portugal, and +to establish colonies on both continents and their islands. By the terms +of the charter the company was to be composed of five boards or +branches, established in Amsterdam, Zealand, the Meuse (Rotterdam), the +North Department (Friesland and Hoorn), and Groningen. Each was to be +represented on the general governing board according to the importance +of the capital contributed by it. Thus Amsterdam, which contributed +four-ninths of the capital, had eight directors on the board. Zealand, +which subscribed two-ninths, had four. Rotterdam was represented by two +directors, though it only contributed one-ninth. The northern district +and Groningen, which each contributed one-ninth, appointed one director +each. Another director was appointed by the states-general. In 1629 a +ninth representative was given to Amsterdam, and the strength of the +whole board was fixed at nineteen. + +The company was granted the monopoly of the trade with America and +Africa and between them, from the Arctic regions to the Straits of +Magellan, and from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope. The +policy the company proposed to follow was to use its monopoly on the +coast of Africa in order to secure the cheap and regular supply of negro +slaves for the possessions it hoped to acquire in America. The trade was +thrown open by the voluntary action of the company in 1638. The general +board was endowed with ample power to negotiate treaties, and make war +and peace with native princes; to appoint its officials, generals and +governors; and to legislate in its possessions subject to the laws of +the Netherlands. The states-general undertook to secure the trading +rights of the company, and to support it by a subvention of one million +guilders (about £100,000). In case of war the states-general undertook +to contribute sixteen vessels of 300 tons and upwards for the defence of +the company, which, however, was to bear the expense of maintaining +them. In return for these aids the states-general claimed a share in the +profits, stipulated that the company must maintain sixteen large vessels +(300 tons and upwards) and fourteen "yachts" (small craft of 50 to 100 +tons or so); required that all the company's officials should take an +oath of allegiance to themselves as well as to the board of directors; +and that all despatches should be sent in duplicate to themselves and to +the board. + +The history of the Dutch West India Company is one of less prosperity +than that of the Dutch East India Company. In early days the trade was +not sufficient to meet the heavy expense of the armaments raised against +Spain and Portugal. A compensation was found in the plunder of Spanish +and Portuguese galleons and carracks. In 1628 the company's admiral Piet +Heijn captured a vast booty in the Spanish treasure-ships. But this +source of profit was dried up by the success of the company's cruisers, +which destroyed their enemy's trade. Profit had to be sought in the +development of the colonies established on the continent of America. In +this field the successes of the company were counterbalanced by not a +few failures. The company was never able to secure the control of the +supply of slaves from Africa. Its settlement of New Netherland was lost +to England. In the West Indies it gained a valuable footing among the +islands. It occupied St Eustatius in 1634, Curaçao with Bonaire and +Aruba in 1634 and 1635, Saba in 1640 and St Martin in 1648. But its +greatest conquests and its greatest losses were alike met on the +continent of South America. After a first unsuccessful occupation in +1623 of Bahia, which was immediately retaken by a combined Spanish and +Portuguese armament, the company obtained a firm footing in Pernambuco. +The story of the wars which arose out of this invasion belongs to the +history of Brazil. The company had been largely guided in its policy of +assailing the Portuguese possessions by the advice of the Jews, who were +numerous in Brazil, and who found means to communicate with their +fellows in religion, the refugees in Amsterdam. The most prosperous +period of the company was during the tolerant and liberal administration +of Count John Maurice of Nassau-Siegen (1636-1644). + +The monopolist tendency of all Dutch colonization, the religious +hostility of the Roman Catholic Portuguese, and the support given by +France and England to Portugal after her revolt from Spain, combined at +last to make the position of the company in Brazil untenable. It +resigned all claim on the country by the treaty of 1661. But though +deprived of its establishment in Brazil, the company found a +compensation in Surinam and Essequibo (Dutch Guiana), where there was no +Spanish or Portuguese population to resist it, and where the resources +of the country offered great profits. The advantages of the settlement +in Guiana were not, however, reaped by the company founded in 1621. In +1674 it had become so embarrassed that it was dissolved, and +reconstructed in 1675. The newly formed company continued to exploit the +Dutch possessions in America till 1794, when they were all swept into +the general reorganization consequent on the French invasion of Holland. +The West India Company founded after the Napoleonic epoch in 1828 was +only meant to develop trade, and was not successful. + + AUTHORITIES.--P.M. Nitscher, _Les Hollandais au Brésil_ (the Hague, + 1853), the work of a Dutch author writing in French. See also Southey, + _History of Brazil_ (London, 1810), and E.B. O'Callaghan, _History of + New Netherland_ (New York, 1846-1848). + + + + +DUTENS, LOUIS (1730-1812), French writer, was born at Tours, of +Protestant parents, on the 15th of January 1730. He went to London, +where his uncle was a jeweller, and there obtained a situation as tutor +in a private family. In this position he learnt Greek and mathematics, +and studied oriental languages, also Italian and Spanish. He took +orders, and was appointed chaplain and secretary to the English minister +at the court of Turin in October 1758. In 1760-1762 he was chargé +d'affaires at Turin. Lord Bute, before retiring from office in 1763, +procured him a pension. He again went to Turin as chargé d'affaires; and +during this second mission he collected and published a complete edition +of the works of Leibnitz (Geneva, 6 vols., 1768) and wrote his +_Recherches sur l'origine des découvertes attribuées aux modernes_ +(1766). On his return to England the duke of Northumberland procured him +the living of Elsdon, in Northumberland, and made him tutor to his son. +In 1775 he became a member of the French Academy of Inscriptions and a +fellow of the Royal Society. Dutens was for a third time chargé +d'affaires at Turin. He was in Paris in 1783, and returned to London the +following year. He died in London on the 23rd of May 1812. + + The principal works of Dutens were his _Recherches sur l'origine des + découvertes attribuées aux modernes_ (1766, 2 vols.); _Appel au bon + sens_ (London, 1777, 8vo), directed in defence of Christianity against + the French philosophers, and published anonymously; _Explication de + quelques médailles de peuples, de rois et de villes grecques et + phéniciennes_ (London, 1773); _Explication de quelques médailles du + cabinet de Duane_ (1774); _Troisième dissertation sur quelques + médailles grecques et phéniciennes_ (1776); _Logique, ou l'art de + raisonner_ (1773); _Des pierres précieuses et des pierres fines, avec + les moyens de les connaître et de les évaluer_ (Paris, 1776); + _Itinéraire des routes les plus fréquentées, ou journal d'un voyage + aux principales villes d'Europe_ (Paris, 1775), frequently + republished; _Considérations théologiques sur les moyens de réunir + toutes les églises chrétiennes_ (1798); _Oeuvres mêlées_, containing + his most important works published up to the date (London, 1797, 4 + vols.); _L'Ami des étrangers qui voyagent en Angleterre_ (1789, 8vo); + _Histoire de ce qui s'est passé pour le rétablissement d'une régence + en Angleterre_ (1789); _Recherches sur le tems le plus reculé de + l'usage des voûtes chez les anciens_ (1795); _Mémoires d'un voyageur + qui se repose_ (Paris, 1786, 3 vols.). The first two volumes of the + last-named work contain the life of the author, written in a romantic + style; the third bears the title of _Dutensiana_, and is filled with + remarks, anecdotes and bons mots. (See memoir of Dutens in the + _Gentleman's Magazine_ for 1812.) + + + + +DUTROCHET, RENÉ JOACHIM HENRI (1776-1847), French physiologist, was born +at Château de Néon (Indre) on the 14th of November 1776, and died at +Paris on the 4th of February 1847. In 1799 he entered the military +marine at Rochefort, but soon left it to join the Vendean army. In 1802 +he began the study of medicine at Paris; and he was subsequently +appointed chief physician to the hospital at Burgos. After an attack of +typhus he returned in 1809 to France, where he devoted himself to the +study of the natural sciences. His scientific publications were +numerous, and covered a wide field, but his most noteworthy work was +embryological. His "Recherches sur l'accroissement et la reproduction +des végétaux," published in the _Mémoires du muséum d'histoire +naturelle_ for 1821, procured him in that year the French Academy's +prize for experimental physiology. In 1837 appeared his _Mémoires pour +servir à l'histoire anatomique et physiologique des végétaux et des +animaux_, a collection of all his more important biological papers. + + + + +DUTT, MICHAEL MADHU SUDAN (1824-1873), the greatest native poet of India +in the 19th century, was born at Sagandari, in the district of Jessore +in Bengal, on the 25th of January 1824. His father was a pleader in +Calcutta, and young Madhu Sudan received his education in the Hindu +college of Calcutta, and was the foremost among the distinguished young +students of his day, many of whom lived to make their mark in the +literature and social progress of their country. Madhu Sudan left the +college in 1842, and in the following year ran away to avoid a marriage +into which his father wished to force him, and embraced the Christian +religion. Continuing his studies now in the Bishop's college, Madhu +Sudan learnt Greek and Latin and some modern European languages, and in +1848 went to Madras. There he wrote English verses, and married the +daughter of a European indigo-planter, but was soon separated from her. +He then united himself with an English lady, the daughter of an +educational officer; and she remained true to him through life amidst +all his misfortunes, and was the mother of the children he left. With +her Madhu Sudan returned to Calcutta in 1856, and soon discovered that +the true way for winning literary distinction was by writing in his own +language, not by composing verses in English. His three classical +dramas--_Sarmishtha_, _Padmavati_, and _Krishna Kumari_--appeared +between 1858 and 1861, and were recognized as works of merit. But his +great ambition was to introduce blank verse into Bengali. His knowledge +of Sanskrit poetry, his appreciation of the Greek and Latin epics, and +his admiration of Dante and of Milton, impelled him to break through the +fetters of the Bengali rhyme, and to attempt a spirited and elevated +style in blank verse. His first poem in blank verse, the _Tilottama_, +was only a partial success; but his great epic which followed in 1861, +the _Meghanad-Badha_, took the Indian world by surprise, and at once +established his reputation as the greatest poet of his age and country. +He took his story from the old Sanskrit epic, the _Ramayana_, but the +beauty of the poem is all his own, and he imparted to it the pathos and +sweetness of Eastern ideas combined with the vigour and loftiness of +Western thought. In 1862 Madhu Sudan left for Europe. He lived in +England for some years, and was called to the bar; and in 1867 returned +to his country to practise as a barrister in Calcutta. But the poet was +unfitted for a lawyer's vocation; his liabilities increased, his health +failed, his powers declined. He still wrote much, but nothing of +enduring merit. His brilliant but erratic life ended in a Calcutta +hospital on the 29th of June 1873. + + + + +DUTY (from "due," that which is owing, O. Fr. _deu_, _dû_, past +participle of _devoir_; Lat. _debere_, _debitum_; cf. "debt"), a term +loosely applied to any action or course of action which is regarded as +morally incumbent, apart from personal likes and dislikes or any +external compulsion. Such action must be viewed in relation to a +principle, which may be abstract in the highest sense (e.g. obedience to +the dictates of conscience) or based on local and personal relations. +That a father and his children have mutual duties implies that there are +moral laws regulating their relationship; that it is the duty of a +servant to obey his master within certain limits is part of a definite +contract, whereby he becomes a servant engaging to do certain things for +a specified wage. Thus it is held that it is not the duty of a servant +to infringe a moral law even though his master should command it. For +the nature of duty in the abstract, and the various criteria on which it +has been based, see ETHICS. + +From the root idea of obligation to serve or give something in return, +involved in the conception of duty, have sprung various derivative uses +of the word; thus it is used of the services performed by a minister of +a church, by a soldier, or by any employee or servant. A special +application is to a tax, a payment due to the revenue of a state, levied +by force of law. Properly a "duty" differs from a "tax" in being levied +on specific commodities, transactions, estates, &c., and not on +individuals; thus it is right to talk of import-duties, excise-duties, +death-or succession-duties, &c., but of income-tax as being levied on a +person in proportion to his income. + + + + +DU VAIR, GUILLAUME (1556-1621), French author and lawyer, was born in +Paris on the 7th of March 1556. Du Vair was in orders, and, though +during the greater part of his life he exercised only legal functions, +he was from 1617 till his death bishop of Lisieux. His reputation, +however, is that of a lawyer, a statesman and a man of letters. He +became in 1584 counsellor of the parlement of Paris, and as deputy for +Paris to the Estates of the League he pronounced his most famous +politico-legal discourse, an argument nominally for the Salic law, but +in reality directed against the alienation of the crown of France to the +Spanish infanta, which was advocated by the extreme Leaguers. Henry IV. +acknowledged his services by entrusting him with a special commission +as magistrate at Marseilles, and made him master of requests. In 1595 +appeared his treatise _De l'éloquence française et des raisons pour quoi +elle est demeurée si basse_, in which he criticizes the orators of his +day, adding by way of example some translations of the speeches of +ancient orators, which reproduce the spirit rather than the actual words +of the originals. He was sent to England in 1596 with the marshal de +Bouillon to negotiate a league against Spain; in 1599 he became first +president of the parlement of Province (Aix); and in 1603 was appointed +to the see of Marseilles, which he soon resigned in order to resume the +presidency. In 1616 he received the highest promotion open to a French +lawyer and became keeper of the seals. He died at Tonneins +(Lot-et-Garonne) on the 3rd of August 1621. Both as speaker and writer +he holds a very high rank, and his character was equal to his abilities. +Like other political lawyers of the time, Du Vair busied himself not a +little in the study of philosophy. The most celebrated of his treatises +are _La Philosophie morale des Stoïques_, translated into English (1664) +by Charles Cotton; _De la constance et consolation ès calamités +publiques_,[1] which was composed during the siege of Paris in 1589, and +applied the Stoic doctrine to present misfortunes; and _La Sainte +Philosophie_, in which religion and philosophy are intimately connected. +Pierre Charron drew freely on these and other works of Du Vair. F. de +Brunetière points out the analogy of Du Vair's position with that +afterwards developed by Pascal, and sees in him the ancestor of the +Jansenists. Du Vair had a great indirect influence on the development of +style in French, for in the south of France he made the acquaintance of +Malherbe, who conceived a great admiration for Du Vair's writings. The +reformer of French poetry learned much from the treatise _De l'éloquence +française_, to which the counsels of his friend were no doubt added. + + Du Vair's works were published in folio at Paris in 1641. See Nicéron, + _Mémoires_, vol. 43; and monographs by C.A. Sapey (1847 and 1858). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Translated into English by Andrew Comt in 1622 as _A Buckler + against Adversitie_. + + + + +DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT PINEUX (1767-1842), French dramatist, was born +at Rennes on the 6th of April 1767. He was in turn sailor, architect, +actor, theatrical manager and dramatist. He is the characteristic +dramatist of the Empire, but the least ambitious of his dramas have best +stood the test of time. _Les Projets de ménage_ (1790), _Les Tuteurs +vengés_ (1794) and _Les Héritiers_ (1796) have been revived on the +modern French stage. Others among his plays, which number more than +sixty, are _Le Menuisier de Livonie_ (1805), _La Manie des grandeurs_ +(1817) and _Le Faux Bonhomme_ (1821). In 1812 he was elected to the +Academy. He died on the 1st of September 1842. + + + + +DUVAL, CLAUDE (1643-1670), a famous highwayman, was born at Domfront, +Normandy, in 1643. Having entered domestic service in Paris, he came to +England at the time of the Restoration in attendance on the duke of +Richmond, and soon became a highwayman notorious for the daring of his +robberies no less than for his gallantry to ladies. Large rewards were +offered for his capture, and he was at one time compelled to seek refuge +in France. In the end he was captured in London, and hanged at Tyburn on +the 21st of January 1670. His body was buried in the centre aisle of +Covent Garden church, under a stone with the following epitaph:-- + + "Here lies Du Vall: Reader if male thou art, + Look to thy purse: if female to thy heart." + +A full account of his adventures, ascribed to William Pope, was +reprinted in the _Harleian Miscellany_, and Samuel Butler published a +satirical ode _To the Happy Memory of the Most Renowned Du Val_. + + + + +DUVENECK, FRANK (1848- ), American figure and portrait painter, was +born at Covington, Kentucky, on the 9th of October 1848. He was a pupil +of Diez in the Royal Academy of Munich, and a prominent member of the +group of Americans who in the 'seventies overturned the traditions of +the Hudson River School and started a new art movement. His work shown +in Boston and elsewhere about 1875 attracted great attention, and many +pupils flocked to him in Germany and Italy, where he made long visits. +After returning from Italy to America, he gave some attention to +sculpture, and modelled a fine monument to his wife, now in the English +cemetery in Florence. + + + + +DU VERGIER DE HAURANNE, JEAN (1581-1643), abbot of St Cyran, father of +the Jansenist revival in France, was born of wealthy parents at Bayonne +in 1581, and studied theology at the Flemish university of Louvain. +After taking holy orders he settled in Paris, where he became known as a +mine of miscellaneous erudition. In 1609 he distinguished himself by his +_Question royale_, an elaborate answer to a problem casually thrown out +by King Henry IV. as to the exact circumstances under which a subject +ought to give his life for his sovereign. His learning was presently +diverted into a more profitable channel. The Louvain of his time was the +scene of many conflicts between the Jesuit party, which stood for +scholasticism and Church-authority, and the followers of Michael Baius +(q.v.), who upheld the mysticism of St Augustine. Into this controversy +Du Vergier was presently dragged by his friendship with Cornelius +Jansen, a young champion of the Augustinian party, who had come to Paris +to study Greek. The two divines went off together to Du Vergier's home +at Bayonne, where he became a canon of the cathedral, and Jansen a tutor +in the bishop's seminary. Here they remained some years, intently +studying the fathers. Eventually, however, Jansen went back to Louvain, +while Du Vergier became confidential secretary to the bishop of +Poitiers, and was presently made sinecure abbot of St Cyran. Thereafter +he was generally called M. de St Cyran. At Poitiers he was brought into +contact with Richelieu--as yet unknown to political fame, and simply the +zealous young bishop of the neighbouring diocese of Luçon. Western +Touraine being the headquarters of French Protestantism, the two +prelates turned St Cyran's learning against the Huguenots. He began to +dream of reforming Catholicism on Augustinian lines, and thus defeating +the Protestants by their own weapons. They appealed to primitive +antiquity; he answered that his Church understood antiquity better than +theirs. They appealed to the spirit of St Paul; he answered that +Augustine had saved that spirit from etherealizing away, by coupling it +with a high sacramental theory of the Church. They flung practical +abuses in the teeth of Rome; he entered on a bold campaign to bring +those abuses to an end. Before long, his reforming zeal involved him in +many quarrels--so much so that he left Poitiers and settled down in +Paris. Here he became widely known as a director of consciences, forming +a particular friendship with the influential Arnauld family. But his +general projects of reform were by no means allowed to sleep, though +here he worked hand in hand with his old friend Jansen. Both traced the +evils of their time to the Jesuits and Schoolmen. Their dialectic had +corrupted theology; their hand-to-mouth utilitarianism had played havoc +with traditional church-institutions. Accordingly, Jansen set to work to +remedy one evil by writing a big book on St Augustine, the great master +of theological method. St Cyran dealt with the other evil in an equally +bulky treatise, the _Petrus Aurelius_ (1633). This indicts the Jesuits +for every sort and kind of misdemeanour. It deals much with what Pascal +will presently call their _dévotion aisée_; but still more with crimes +of a technical sort, especially their defiance of episcopal authority. +Thereby the book gained for its author's projects of reform a great deal +of Gallican support. On the other hand, it gave much annoyance to +Richelieu, now the all-powerful and extremely Erastian prime minister. +After failing more than once to stop St Cyran's mouth with a bishopric, +he had him arrested as a disturber of ecclesiastical peace (14th of +March 1638). He remained shut up in the castle of Vincennes until +Richelieu's death (December 1642). Then he was at once set free; but the +long imprisonment had told heavily on his health, and he died of a +stroke of apoplexy in October 1643. + +St Cyran's character has been always something of a puzzle. Many +excellent contemporary judges were profoundly impressed; others, as one +of them said, went away bewildered by this strange abbé, who never +argued a question out, but leapt from one point to another in broken, +incoherent phrases. Grace of expression he had none; perhaps no man of +equal spiritual insight ever found it so hard to make his meaning clear, +whether on paper or by word of mouth. On the other hand, Jansenism, +considered as a practical religious revival, is altogether his work. He +dragged the Augustinian mysticism out of the Louvain classrooms, and +made it a vital spiritual force in France. Without him there would have +been no Pascal--no Provincial Letters, and no _Pensées_. + + There is an excellent life of St Cyran by his secretary, Claude + Lancelot, published at Cologne in two volumes, 1738. A selection of + his _Lettres chrestiennes_ was edited by his disciple, Robert Arnauld + d'Andilly (Paris, 1645). An entirely different collection of _Lettres + spirituelles_ was printed at Cologne in 1744. (St C.) + + + + +DUVEYRIER, HENRI (1840-1892), French explorer of the Sahara, was born in +Paris on the 28th of February 1840. His youth was spent partly in +London, where he met Heinrich Barth, then preparing the narrative of his +travels in the western Sudan. At the age of nineteen Duveyrier, who had +already learnt Arabic, began a journey in the northern parts of the +Sahara which lasted nearly three years. On returning to France he +received, in 1863, the gold medal of the Paris Geographical Society, and +in 1864 published _Exploration du Sahara: les Touareg du nord_. In the +war of 1870 he was taken prisoner by the Germans. Subsequently he made +several other journeys in the Sahara, adding considerably to the +knowledge of the regions immediately south of the Atlas, from the +eastern confines of Morocco to Tunisia. He also examined the Algerian +and Tunisian _shats_ and explored the interior of western Tripoli. +Duveyrier devoted special attention to the customs and speech of the +Tuareg, with whom he lived for months at a time, and to the organization +of the Senussi. In 1881 he published _La Tunisie_, and in 1884 _La +Confrérie musselmane de Sidi Mohammed Ben Alî-Es-Senôusi et son domaine +géographique_. He died at Sevres on the 25th of April 1892. + + + + +DUX (Czech _Duchcov_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 86 m. N.N.W. of +Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 11,921, three-fourths German. It is situated +in the centre of an extensive and well-worked lignite deposit and +manufactures glass, porcelain and earthenware. In Dux is a castle +belonging to Count Waldstein, a kinsman of Wallenstein, which contains a +picture gallery with two portraits of Wallenstein by Van Dyck, and a +museum with a collection of arms and armour and several relics of the +great general. + + + + +DUXBURY, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, on Massachusetts +Bay, 36 m. S.S.E. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 1908; (1905, state census) +2028. Area, 25.5 sq. m. Duxbury is served by the Old Colony system of +the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. In the township are the +villages of Duxbury, South Duxbury, West Duxbury, North Duxbury, Island +Creek and Millbrook. The soil is sandy, the surface of the country well +wooded and broken by a number of ponds and creeks. Duxbury is a summer +resort, with a large hotel at Standish Shore. Duxbury has a public +library, and is the seat of the Powder Point school for boys, and +Partridge Academy, founded in 1828 by a bequest of $10,000 from George +Partridge of Duxbury, and incorporated in 1830. On Captain's Hill is the +Standish Monument (begun in 1872), a circular tower, on an octagonal +base, of rough Hallowell granite, surmounted by a statue of Miles +Standish, 124 ft. from the ground. The Standish house, built in 1666 by +Miles's son, Alexander, is still in existence. In South Duxbury is an +old burying ground, in which the oldest marked grave is that of Jonathan +Alden (d. 1697), son of John Alden. For many years there were important +cod and mackerel fisheries here and Duxbury clams were famous; there +were large shipyards in Duxbury in the 18th century and in the first +half of the 19th. At present cranberries are the only product of +importance. The first settlement was made here in 1631 by Miles Standish +(to whom Captain's Hill was granted), William Brewster, John Alden, and +a few others. In 1632 a church was organized and the present name was +adopted from Duxbury Hall, Lancashire, the old seat of the Standish +family; the Indian name had been Mattakeeset. The township was +incorporated in 1637; it originally included Bridgewater and parts of +Pembroke and Kingston. + + See Justin Winsor, _History of Duxbury_ (Boston, 1849); and Laurence + Bradford, _Historic Duxbury in Plymouth County_ (Boston, 1900). + + + + +DVINA, the name of two rivers of European Russia. + +1. The NORTHERN DVINA, or _Dvina Syevernaya_, belongs to the basin of +the White Sea, and is formed by the junction of the Sukhona and the Yug, +which, rising, the former in the south-west and the latter in the +south-east of the government of Vologda, meet in the neighbourhood of +Velikiy-Ustyug, at a height of 300 ft. above the sea, in 61° 20´ N. and +46° 20´ E. The conjoint stream then flows N.W. to the Gulf of Archangel, +which it reaches 50 m. below the city of Archangel. From its mouth to +the confluence of the co-tributary streams the distance is about 470 m., +and to the source of the Sukhona 780 m. The drainage area is estimated +at 141,000 sq. m. Except at the rapids the current of the Dvina is +comparatively slow, as the average fall per mile is only 9 in. Till its +union with the Vychegda, a river which exceeds it in volume, it flows +for the most part in a single, well-defined and permanent channel; but +below that point it often splits into several branches, and not +infrequently alters its course. In the neighbourhood of Archangel it +divides into three distinct arms, which form a regular delta; but of +these that of Berezov alone is navigable for sea-going vessels, and even +it is impeded by a bar at the mouth, with not more than 14½ or 15½ ft. +of water at full tide. Just above the point where the delta begins the +river is joined by a large tributary, the Pinega, from the right. Above +the confluence of the Vychegda the breadth is about 1750 ft.; below that +point it widens out to 3500 ft.; and near Archangel it attains more than +three times that measure. The channel is free from ice for about 174 +days in the year. By means of the Duke Alexander of Württemberg Canal, +the river is connected with the Neva and the Volga. + +2. The SOUTHERN DVINA, or _Dvina Zapadnaya_, in German _Düna_ and in +Lettish _Daugava_, belongs to the Baltic basin, and takes its rise in a +small lake about 800 ft. above the level of the sea, in the government +of Tver, not far from the sources of the Volga and the Dnieper. After +dividing Tver in part from Pskov in part, it skirts the east and south +of the government of Vitebsk, separates part of the latter from Vilna, +and then divides Vitebsk and Livonia from Courland, and disembogues in +the southern end of the Gulf of Riga. Its length is 640 m. and it drains +an area of 32,960 sq. m. From Dvinsk (Dünaburg) to Riga, a distance of +135 m., there is altogether a fall of 295 ft., of which 105 ft. are in +the 40 m. from Jakobstadt to Friedrichstadt. In the lower part of its +course the river attains an ordinary depth of 30 ft. and an average +breadth of 1400 ft.; but during the spring flood it sometimes rises 14 +ft. above its usual level, and its waters spread out to a mile in width. +Near the mouth the river is usually free from ice for 245 days in the +year, and in the government of Vitebsk for 229. It is navigable from the +confluence of the Mezha (i.e. from Vitebsk) downwards, but the number of +rapids and shallows greatly diminishes its value. Navigation can also be +carried on by the following tributaries: the Usvyat, Mezha, Kasplya, +Ulla, Disna and Bolder-aa. This river was formerly called the Khezin or +Turunt, and at the present day it has the name of Polot among the White +Russians. Salmon and lampreys abound in its waters. + (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +DVINSK, the official name since 1893 of DÜNABURG, a town and fortress of +western Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, 162 m. by rail N.W. of the +city of Vitebsk, on the right bank of the Dvina (Düna), in 55° 53´ N. +and 26° 23´ E., and at the intersection of two main railway +lines--Riga-Smolensk and Vilna-St Petersburg. It is the chief strategic +position for the defence of the Dvina. It consists of four portions--the +main town, or fortress, the old suburb, the new suburb, and on the left +bank of the river the village of Griva. Among the industrial +establishments are tanneries and breweries, saw-mills, flour-mills, +brick and tile works and limekilns. The town is an important commercial +centre, especially for flax, hemp, tallow and timber. The population +increased from 25,764 in 1860 to 72,231 in 1900, consisting chiefly of +Jews (about 30,000), Lithuanians and Letts. + +Dünaburg was originally founded in 1278 by the Livonian Knights of the +Sword, about 12 m. farther down the river than its present site, at a +spot still known as the Old Castle or _Stariy Zamok_. In 1559 it was +mortgaged by the grand-master of the Knights to Sigismund Augustus, king +of Poland. Although captured in 1576 by Ivan the Terrible of Russia, it +was again restored to Poland; and in 1582 Stephen Bathori, king of +Poland, transferred the fortress to its present site. In the 17th +century it was held alternately by the Swedes and the Russians. It was +finally incorporated with Russia in 1772 on the first division of +Poland. In July 1812 the _tête-de-pont_ was vainly stormed by the French +under Oudinot, but a few weeks afterwards the town was captured by them +under Macdonald. + + + + +DVORÁK, ANTON (1841-1904), Bohemian musical composer, born at +Nelahozeves (otherwise Mühlhausen) in Bohemia on the 8th of September +1841, was the son of Frantisek Dvorák, a small publican and village +butcher. At the door of his father's inn Dvorák first appeared as a +practical musician, taking his place among the fiddlers who scraped out +their "furiants" and other wild dances for the benefit of the +holiday-making local beaux and belles. At the village school he learnt +from Josef Spitz both to sing and to play the violin, with so much +effect that soon he was able to assist in the parish church services. At +twelve years old he was sent by his father to Zlonic, near Schlan, to an +uncle, with whom he lived while passing through the higher-grade classes +at school. Here, too, he was fortunate enough to find a valuable friend +in A. Liehmann, organist and chief musician of the little town, a +competent musician, who instructed the boy in elementary theory, organ +and pianoforte playing. The theory studies, however, could not long be +continued, since Liehmann soon acknowledged in his own dialect that the +boy was extraordinarily full of promise ("Aus Tonda, dem +Sappermentsbuben 'mal 'was werden könnte"), at the same time realizing +that he could not do much to assist. But Dvorák soon left Zlonic for +Böhmisch-Kamnitz, where he learnt German and advanced his musical +studies under Hancke. A year later he was summoned to return to Zlonic +to assist his father, who had set up in business there. But his craving +for a musical career was not to be checked, and after considerable +trouble with his father consent was obtained to his settling in Prague +in order to devote himself entirely to music. + +In October 1857 Dvorák entered the organ-school of the _Gesellschaft der +Kirchenmusik_, where he worked for three years. The small financial aid +his father was at first able to lend soon ceased, and after being in +Prague but a few months Dvorák found himself practically thrown on his +own resources. By playing the viola in a private orchestra and in +various inns of the town he succeeded in obtaining a precarious +livelihood. On the opening in 1862 of the Bohemian Interimstheater, +Dvorák, with part of this band, formed the nucleus of the theatrical +orchestra, and remained connected with it for eleven years, when he +became organist of the church of St Adalbert. At this time his small +stipend was augmented slightly by the fees of a few pupils, though the +privations suffered by him and his wife (for he had recently married) +must have been great. But in spite of financial worry and of the amount +of time he had to devote to his professional duties and private pupils, +Dvorák found leisure not only for his own studies of the classics, but +also to compose. His work, like his daily life, was beset with +difficulties, for he had not the means to provide himself with +sufficient music-paper, much less to hire a pianoforte; and it is +possible that several of his important early works would never have been +written had it not been for the generosity of Karel Bendl, the composer, +who helped him in many ways. + +Dvorák himself said afterwards that he retained no recollection of much +that he then composed. In and about 1864 two symphonies, a host of +songs, some chamber-music, and an entire opera, _Alfred_, lay unheard in +his desk. The libretto of this opera was made up from materials found in +an old almanack. Most of these works were burnt long ago. In 1873 he +made his first bid for popularity by his patriotic hymn _Die Erben des +weissen Berges_ (published many years later as Op. 30). Its reception +was enthusiastic, and Dvorák's subsequent works were eagerly awaited and +warmly received on production. In 1874 his opera _König und Köhler_ +resulted in a fiasco at Prague, owing to its mixture of styles. Nothing +daunted, Dvorák recomposed the whole work in three months. In 1875, on +the recommendation of Brahms and Hanslick, he obtained a stipend from +the Kultus-Ministerium at Vienna, which freed him from care and enabled +him to indulge in composition to his heart's content. Following on this +success came a commission in 1877 for a series of Slavic dances, which +took the public by storm. Immediately compositions, old and new, began +to pour from the publisher. English sympathy was entirely won by the +_Stabat Mater_ in 1883, and increased by the symphonies in D, D mi., and +F, G, and E mi. (_The American_), and the cantata _The Spectre's Bride_, +based on K.J. Erben's elaboration of the Bohemian version of the saga +treated in Burger's _Leonore_. The favourable effect produced by these +works was somewhat chilled by the oratorio _St Ludmila_, a comparatively +feeble work written "to suit English taste" for the Leeds Festival of +1886. The three overtures Opp. 91, 92, 93, failed to hold their place, +but the pseudo-American symphony has become one of Dvorák's most popular +works, and much of his chamber-music, of which there is abundance, seems +quite permanent in its place in concert programmes. In 1892, after +having frequently visited England, Dvorák became head of the National +Conservatory of Music of America in New York. There he remained till +1895, when he returned to Prague, where he died on the 1st of May 1904. + +Dvorák's music is characteristically national, though less purely so +than that of Smetana. But in spite of his industry and dramatic talent +not one of his operas has been really successful. A master of the +orchestra and a composer of real individuality, he earned and deserved +his place among the elect, not only by his great gifts, but by his +abnormal energy in their development. + + See W.H. Hadow, _Studies in Modern Music_ (second series, 1908). + + + + +DWARAKA, DWARKA, or JIGAT, a town of British India, in Baroda state, +near the extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar, Bombay. Pop. (1901) +7535. As the birthplace and residence of Krishna, it is the most sacred +spot in this part of India, and its principal temple is visited annually +by many thousand pilgrims. The approach from the sea is by a fine flight +of stone steps, and the great spire rises to a height of 150 ft. + + + + +DWARF (A.S. _dweorg_, D. _dwerg_, Icel. _dvergr_), the term generally +used to describe an extraordinarily under-sized individual of a race of +normal stature (for dwarf-races see PYGMY.) In Scandinavian mythology +the word connoted smallness and deformity, and was used of the elfins +and goblins who were supposed to live on the mountains or in the bowels +of the earth, and to be kings of metals and mines. The later use of the +word certainly does not imply deformity, for many of the dwarfs of +history have been singularly graceful and well formed. Dwarfishness is, +however, often accompanied by disproportion of the limbs. + +From the earliest historic times dwarfs attracted attention, and there +was much competition on the part of kings and the wealthy to obtain the +little folk as attendants. It is certain that members of the tiny Akka +race of Equatorial Africa figured at the courts of the Pharaohs of the +early dynasties and were much valued. Philetas of Cos, poet and +grammarian (circa 330 B.C.), tutor of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was alleged +to be so tiny that he had to wear leaden shoes lest he should be blown +away. The Romans practised artificial dwarfing, and the Latin _nanus_ or +_pumilo_ were terms alternatively used to describe the natural and +unnatural dwarf. Julia, the niece of Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas +2 ft. 4 in. high, and a freed-maid Andromeda who measured the same. + +Various recipes for dwarfing children have been from time to time in +vogue. The most effective, according to report, was to anoint the +backbone with the grease of moles, bats and dormice. The stunting of +the growth of stable-boys who aspire to jockey's honours is in no sense +true dwarfing. + +In later days there have been many dwarf-favourites at European courts. +British tradition has its earliest dwarf mentioned in the old ballad +which begins "In Arthur's court Tom Thumb did live"; and on this +evidence the prototype of the modern Tom Thumb is alleged to have lived +at the court of King Edgar. Of authentic English dwarfs the first +appears to be John Jarvis (2 ft. high), who was page to Queen Mary I. +Her brother Edward VI. had his dwarf Xit. But the first English dwarf of +whom there is anything like an authentic history is Jeffery Hudson +(1619-1682). He was the son of a butcher at Oakham, Rutlandshire, who +kept and baited bulls for George Villiers, first duke of Buckingham. +Neither of Jeffery's parents was under-sized, yet at nine years he +measured scarcely 18 in., though he was gracefully proportioned. At a +dinner given by the duke to Charles I. and his queen he was brought in +to table in a pie out of which he stepped, and was at once adopted by +Henrietta Maria. The little fellow followed the fortunes of the court in +the Civil War, and is said to have been a captain of horse, earning the +nickname of "strenuous Jeffery" for his activity. He fought two +duels--one with a turkey-cock, a battle recorded by Davenant, and a +second with Mr Crofts, who came to the meeting with a squirt, but who in +the more serious encounter which ensued was shot dead by little Hudson, +who fired from horseback, the saddle putting him on a level with his +antagonist. Twice was Jeffery made prisoner--once by the Dunkirkers as +he was returning from France, whither he had been on homely business for +the queen; the second time was when he fell into the hands of Turkish +pirates. His sufferings during this latter captivity made him, he +declared, grow, and in his thirtieth year, having been of the same +height since he was nine, he steadily increased until he was 3 ft. 9 in. +At the Restoration he returned to England, where he lived on a pension +granted him by the duke of Buckingham. He was later accused of +participation in the "Popish Plot," and was imprisoned in the Gate +House. He was released and shortly after died in the sixty-third year of +his age. + +Contemporary with Hudson were the two other dwarfs of Henrietta Maria, +Richard Gibson and his wife Anne. They were married by the queen's wish; +and the two together measured only 2 in. over 7 ft. They had nine +children, five of whom, who lived, were of ordinary stature. Edmund +Waller celebrated the nuptials, Evelyn designated the husband as the +"compendium of a man," and Lely painted them hand in hand. Gibson was +miniature painter to Charles I., and drawing-master to the daughters of +James II., Queens Mary and Anne, when they were children. This +Cumberland pygmy, who began his career as a page, first in a "gentle," +next in the royal family, died in 1690, in his seventy-fifth year, and +is buried in St Paul's, Covent Garden. The last court dwarf in England +was Coppernin, a lively little imp in the service of the princess +(Augusta) of Wales, the mother of George III. The last dwarf retainer in +a gentleman's family was the one kept by Mr Beckford, the author of +_Vathek_ and builder of Fonthill. He was rather too big to be flung from +one guest to another, as used to be the custom at dinners in earlier +days when a dwarf was a "necessity" for every noble family. + +Of European court dwarfs the most famous were those of Philip IV. of +Spain, the hunchbacks whose features have been immortalized by +Velazquez. Stanislas, king of Poland, owned Nicholas Ferry (Bébé), who +measured 2 ft. 9 in. He was one of three dwarf children of peasant +parents in the Vosges. He died in his 23rd year (1764). But Bébé was not +so remarkable as Richebourg, who died in Paris in 1858, at the age of +90. He was only 23 in. high. He began life as a servant in the Orleans +family. In later years he was their pensioner. He is said to have been +put to strange use in the Revolution--passing in and out of Paris as an +infant in a nurse's arms, but with despatches, dangerous to carry, in +the little man's baby-wrappings! + +Of dwarfs exhibited in England, the most celebrated was the Pole, +Borulwaski (1739-1837). At six he measured 17 in., and he finally in +his thirtieth year reached 39 in. He had a sister shorter than himself +by the head and shoulders. Borulwaski was a handsome man, a wit, and +something of a scholar. He travelled over all Europe; and he--born in +the reign of George II.--died in his well-earned retirement near Durham, +in the reign of Victoria. Borulwaski lies buried at Durham by the side +of the Falstaffian Stephen Kemble. The companionship reminds one of that +of the dwarf skeleton of Jonathan Wild by the side of that of the Irish +Giant, at the Royal College of Surgeons, London. + +In the year in which Borulwaski died, Charles Stratton, better known as +"General Tom Thumb," was born. When twenty-five he was 31 in. high. In +1844 he appeared in England, where he had an extraordinary success. One +result of his season at the Egyptian Hall, London, was to kill Haydon +the painter. The latter presented his great work "The Banishment of +Aristides" for exhibition in the same building. The public rushed to see +the dwarf. He took £600 the first week, while Haydon's masterpiece drew +but £7, 13s. The result was that the artist committed suicide in +despair. After extensive travel in both hemispheres, Stratton again +visited England in 1857, but the dwarf man, despite many personal and +intellectual qualities, was less attractive than the dwarf boy. In the +year 1863 the "General" married the very minute American lady, Lavinia +Warren (born in 1842). He died on the 15th of July 1883. + +Other modern dwarfs include Signor Hervio Nano, who played at the +Olympic Theatre, London, in 1843; three Highlanders named MacKinlay, +children of a Scots shepherd, the shortest of whom was 45 in.; a +Spaniard, Don Francisco Hidalgo (29 in.); a Dutchman, Jan Hannema (28 +in.); and Mary Jane Youngman (Australia), who at fifteen was 35 in. +high. She was called the "dwarf-giantess" because she was 3 ft. 6 in. +round the shoulders, 4 ft. 3 in. round the waist, and 2 ft. round the +leg. Much interest was aroused by the so-called Aztec dwarfs who were +exhibited in London in 1853. In 1867 the pair were married, the ceremony +being publicly performed, and the bride's robes are said to have cost no +less than £2000. The wedding-breakfast was held at Willis's Rooms. From +time to time other dwarfs have been exhibited, among whom the most +remarkable has been Che-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old and 25 in. high, +who appeared in London in 1880. George Prout (1774-1851), who was less +than 3 ft. high, was a well-known character in London in the early +Victorian period, as a messenger at the Houses of Parliament. + + See E.J. Wood, _Giants and Dwarfs_ (1860). + + + + +DWARS, a tract of country in north-east India. It consists of two +divisions, the Western Dwars and the Eastern Dwars, both of which +belonged to Bhutan prior to the Bhutan War of 1864-65, as a result of +which they passed into possession of the British, when the Eastern Dwars +were assigned to Assam and the Western to Bengal. Since 1905 both +divisions have been in the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The +five Eastern Dwars, entitled respectively Bijni, Sidli, Chirang, Ripu +and Guma, are situated in the Goalpara district of Eastern Bengal and +Assam, forming a strip of flat country lying beneath the Bhutan +mountains. It is an unhealthy country for natives as well as Europeans, +and is but slightly developed. The Western Dwars form a region lying at +the foot of the Himalayas in the north-east of the Jalpaiguri district +of Eastern Bengal and Assam, which comprises nine _parganas_, namely, +Bhalka, Bhatibari, Baxa, Chakao-Kshattriya, Madari, Lakshmipur, +Maraghat, Mainaguri and Chengmari. The Western Dwars are an important +centre of the tea-planting industry. + + + + +DWIGHT, JOHN (d. 1703), the first distinguished English potter. One can +only surmise as to his parentage, and the date of his birth has been +variously given from 1637 to 1640. Apparently he was educated at Oxford, +and in 1661 was appointed registrar and scribe to the diocese of +Chester, and the same year he proceeded to the degree of B.C.L. of +Christ Church, Oxford. He resided at Chester for some time and acted as +secretary to four successive bishops. One of these, Bishop Hall, also +held the rectory of Wigan, Lancashire, and Dwight seems to have resided +in that town, for three of his children were baptized there between +1667 and 1671. In 1671, while he still apparently resided in Wigan, he +was granted his first patent for "the mistery of transparent +earthenware, commonly known by the names of porcelain or china, and of +stoneware, vulgarly called Cologne ware." It is not believed that much, +if any, work was executed at Wigan, and he probably removed to Fulham in +1672 or 1673, as his name first appears on the rate books of Fulham, +where he was rated for a house in Bear Street, in 1674. He died in 1703, +and his business was carried on by his descendants for some time, but +with gradually diminishing success. It has been claimed that Dwight made +the first porcelain in England, but there is no proof of this, though +magnificent specimens of stoneware from his hands are in existence. The +British Museum contains a number of the best of Dwight's pieces, of +which the finest is the bust of Prince Rupert. Other specimens are in +the Victoria and Albert Museum, and they are sufficient to establish +Dwight's fame as a potter of the first rank. (See CERAMICS.) + + + + +DWIGHT, JOHN SULLIVAN (1813-1893), American writer on music, was born at +Boston and educated at Harvard. He became a Unitarian minister, but +abandoned this career and joined the Brook Farm settlement as a teacher +of music and other subjects. In 1848 he settled as a musical critic at +Boston, being best known as founder and editor of the _Journal of Music_ +(1852-1881), the most important musical periodical that has been +published in America. He died on the 5th of September 1893. + +G.W. Cooke edited his letters (1898) and also wrote a memoir (1899). + + + + +DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM (1822-1892), American jurist and +educationalist, cousin of Theodore Dwight Woolsey and of Timothy Dwight, +was born on the 18th of July 1822 in Catskill, New York. His father, +Benjamin Woolsey Dwight (1780-1850), an abolitionist and reformer, +removed to Clinton, New York, in 1831. The son graduated at Hamilton +College in 1840, studied physics under S.F.B. Morse and John William +Draper, taught classics in Utica Academy in 1840-1841, and studied law +for one year at Yale. He was tutor at Hamilton in 1841-1846, at the same +time teaching law privately; was made Maynard professor of law, history, +civil polity, and political economy in 1846; received recognition of his +law school in 1853, and in 1858 accepted an invitation to Columbia to +teach law upon his own condition that he should found a law school. He +himself _was_ this school for many years and did not retire from it +until 1891, about a year before his death, at Clinton, New York, on the +28th of June 1892. A man of broad culture, he was best known as the +founder of a famous school of law and a famous method of legal teaching, +which was broadly educational and which called for class-room recitation +on the text-book studied and opposed mere "taking notes" on lectures. +His questioning was illustrative and its method Socratic. He was a +non-resident professor of law at Cornell (1869-1871) and at Amherst +(1870-1872). Dwight was an able jurist, frequently acted as referee in +difficult questions, in 1874-1875 was a judge of the New York commission +of appeals, appointed to clear the docket of the court of appeals, and +in 1886 was counsel for the five Andover professors charged with heresy. +He was a prominent figure in political and social (notably prison) +reforms; published in 1867 a _Report on the Prisons and Reformatories of +the United States and Canada_, the result of his labours on a New York +state prison commission with Enoch Cobb Wines (1806-1879); favoured +indeterminate sentences; drew up the bill for the establishment of the +Elmira Reformatory; and organized the State Charities Aid Association. +He edited Sir Henry Maine's _Ancient Law_ (1864); was associate editor +of the _American Law Register_ and legal editor of _Johnson's +Cyclopaedia_; and published _Charitable Uses: Argument in the Rose Will +Case_ (1863). + + + + +DWIGHT, TIMOTHY (1752-1817), American divine, writer, and +educationalist, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 14th of +May 1752. His father, Timothy Dwight, a graduate of Yale College (1744), +was a merchant, and his mother was the third daughter of Jonathan +Edwards. He was remarkably precocious, and is said to have learned the +alphabet at a single lesson, and to have been able to read the Bible +before he was four years old. In 1769 he graduated at Yale College, and +then for two years taught in a grammar school at New Haven. He was a +tutor in Yale College from 1771 to 1777; and then, having been licensed +to preach, was a chaplain for a year in a regiment of troops engaged in +the War of Independence, inspiring the troops both by his sermons and by +several stirring war songs, the most famous of which is "Columbia." From +1778 until 1783 he lived at Northampton, studying, farming, preaching, +and dabbling in politics. From 1783 until 1795 he was pastor of the +Congregational church at Greenfield Hill, Connecticut, where he opened +an academy which at once acquired a high reputation and attracted pupils +from all parts of the Union. From 1795 until his death at Philadelphia, +Pennsylvania, on the 11th of January 1817, he was president of Yale +College, and by his judicious management, by his remarkable ability as a +teacher--he taught a variety of subjects, including theology, +metaphysics, logic, literature and oratory,--and by his force of +character and magnetic personality, won great popularity and influence, +and restored that institution to the high place from which it had fallen +before his appointment. President Dwight was also well known as an +author. In verse he wrote an ambitious epic in eleven books, _The +Conquest of Canaan_, finished in 1774, but not published until 1785; a +somewhat ponderous and solemn satire, _The Triumph of Infidelity_ +(1788), directed against Hume, Voltaire and others; _Greenfield Hill_ +(1794), the suggestion for which seems to have been derived from John +Denham's _Cooper's Hill_; and a number of minor poems and hymns, the +best known of which is that beginning "I love thy kingdom, Lord." Many +of his sermons were published posthumously under the titles _Theology +Explained and Defended_ (5 vols., 1818-1819), to which a memoir of the +author by his two sons, W.T. and Sereno E. Dwight, is prefixed, and +_Sermons by Timothy Dwight_ (2 vols., 1828), which had a large +circulation both in the United States and in England. Probably his most +important work, however, is his _Travels in New England and New York_ (4 +vols., 1821-1822), which contains much material of value concerning +social and economic New England and New York during the period +1796-1817. + + See W.B. Sprague's "Life of Timothy Dwight" in vol. iv. (second + series) of Jared Sparks's _Library of American Biography_, and + especially an excellent chapter in Moses Coit Tyler's _Three Men of + Letters_ (New York, 1895). + +His fifth son, SERENO EDWARDS DWIGHT (1786-1850), born in Greenfield +Hill, Connecticut, graduated at Yale in 1803, was a tutor there in +1806-1810, and successfully practised law in New Haven in 1810-1816. +Licensed to preach in 1816, he was the chaplain of the United States +Senate for one year, was pastor of the Park Street church, Boston, in +1817-1826, and in 1833-1835 was president of Hamilton College, Clinton, +New York. His career was wrecked by accidental mercury poisoning, which +interfered with his work in Boston and at Hamilton College, and made his +life after 1839 solitary and comparatively uninfluential. His +publications include _Life and Works of Jonathan Edwards_ (10 vols., +1830); _The Hebrew Wife_ (1836), an argument against marriage with a +deceased wife's sister; and _Select Discourses_ (1851); to which was +prefixed a biographical sketch by his brother William Dwight +(1795-1865), who was also successively a lawyer and a Congregational +preacher. + +President Dwight's grandson, TIMOTHY DWIGHT (1828- ), a famous +preacher and educationalist, was born at Norwich, Connecticut, on the +16th of November 1828. He graduated at Yale in 1849, continued his +studies there and at Bonn and Berlin, was professor of sacred literature +and New Testament Greek in the Yale Divinity School from 1858 to 1886, +was licensed to preach in 1861, and from 1886 to 1899 was president of +Yale, which during his administration greatly prospered and became in +name and in fact a university. Dr Dwight was also a member in 1876-1885 +of the American committee for the revision of the English Bible, was an +editor from 1866 to 1874 of the _New Englander_, which later became the +_Yale Review_, and besides editing and annotating several volumes of the +English translation of H.A.W. Meyer's _Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar +zum Neuen Testament_, and writing many magazine articles, published a +collection of sermons entitled _Thoughts of and for the Inner Life_ +(1899). + + + + +DYAKS, or DAYAKS, the name given to the wild tribes found in Borneo by +the Malays on their first settlement there. Whether they are the +aborigines of the island or the successors of a Negrito people whom they +expelled is uncertain. If the latter, they are descendants of an early +pre-Malayan immigration. In any case, though regarded by the Malays as +aliens, the Dyaks are of the same stock as the Malays. For themselves +they have no general name; but, broken as they are into numerous tribes, +they are distinguished by separate tribal names, many of which seem to +be merely those of the rivers on which their settlements are situated. +Sir Harry Keppel, who attempted to form a classification of the Dyaks +according to their ethnographical affinity, divides them into five +principal branches. The first of these, which he calls the +north-western, includes the natives of Sadong, Sarawak, Sambas, Landak, +Tayan, Melionow and Sangow. They all speak the same language, and are +remarkable for their dependence on the Malay princes. The second branch, +which is called emphatically the Malayan from its greater retention of +Malay characteristics, occupies the north coast in Banting, +Batang-Lupar, Rejang and part of the valley of the Kapuas. To the third +or Parian branch belong the Dyaks of the rivers Kuti and Passir, who are +said to speak a language like that of Macassar. The fourth consists of +the Beyadjoes, who are settled in the valley of the Banjermassin; and +the fifth and lowest comprises the Manketans and Punans, who are still +nomadic and ignorant of agriculture. + +Physically the Dyaks differ little from the Malays except in their +slimmer figure, lighter colour, more prominent nose and higher forehead. +In disposition they are as cheerful as the Malay is morose. The typical +Dyak is rather slightly built, but is active and capable of enduring +great fatigue. His features are distinctly marked and often well formed. +The forehead is generally high, and the eyes are dark; the cheek-bones +are broad; the hair is black, and the colour of the skin a pure reddish +brown, frequently, in the female, approaching the Chinese complexion. +The beard is generally scanty, and in many tribes the men pull out all +the hair of the face. Both sexes file, dye, and sometimes bore holes in +the teeth and insert gold buttons. In dress there is considerable +variety, great alterations having resulted from foreign influence. The +original and still prevailing style is simple, consisting of a +waistcloth, generally of blue cotton, for the men, and a tight-fitting +petticoat for the women, who acquire a peculiar mincing gait from its +interference with their walking. The favourite ornaments of both sexes +are brass rings for the legs and arms, hoops of rattan decorated in +various ways, necklaces of white and black beads, and crescent-shaped +ear-rings of a large size. The lobes of the ears are distended sometimes +nearly to the shoulders by disks of metal and bits of stick. Tattooing +is practised by most of the tribes, and the skulls of infants are +artificially deformed. The men usually go bare-headed, or wear a +bright-coloured kerchief. The custom of betel-chewing being most +universal, the betel-pouch is always worn at the side. The weapons in +use are a curved sword and a long spear. The bow is unknown, but its +place among some tribes is partly supplied by the blowpipe, in the +boring of which they show great skill. When going to war the Dyak wears +a strong padded jacket, which proves no bad defence. A curious custom +among some tribes is the imprisonment of young girls for two or three +years before puberty, during which time they are not allowed to see even +their mothers. + +The Dyak is decidedly intelligent, has a good memory and keen powers of +observation, is unsuspicious and hospitable, and honest and truthful to +a striking degree. The various tribes differ greatly in religious +ceremonies and beliefs. They have no temples, priests or regular +worship; but the father of each family performs rites. A supreme god, +Sang-Sang, seems generally acknowledged, but subordinate deities are +supposed to watch over special departments of the world and human +affairs. Sacrifices both of animals and fruits--and in some cases even +of human beings--are offered to appease or invoke the gods; divination +of various kinds is resorted to for the purpose of deciding the course +to be pursued in any emergency; and criminals are subjected to the +ordeal by poison or otherwise. Offerings are made to the dead, and there +is a very strong belief in the existence of evil spirits, and all kinds +of calamities and diseases are ascribed to their malignity. Thus almost +the whole medical system of the Dyaks consists in the application of +appropriate charms or the offerings of conciliatory sacrifices. Many of +those natives who have had much intercourse with the Malays have adopted +a kind of mongrel Mahommedanism, with a mixture of Hindu elements. The +transmigration of souls seems to be believed in by some tribes; and some +have a system of successive heavens rising one above the other very much +in the style of the Hindu cosmogony. In the treatment of their dead much +variety prevails; they are sometimes buried, sometimes burned, and +sometimes elevated on a lofty framework. The Dyaks have no exact +calculation of the year, and simply name the months first month, second +month, and so on. They calculate the time of day by the height of the +sun, and if asked how far distant a place is can only reply by showing +how high the sun would be when you reached it if you set out in the +morning. + +In agriculture, navigation, and manufactures they have made some +progress. In a few districts a slight sort of plough is used, but the +usual instrument of tillage is a kind of cleaver. Two crops, one of rice +and the other of maize or vegetables, are taken, and then the ground is +allowed to lie fallow for eight or ten years. The inland Dyaks collect +the forest products, rattan, gutta-percha, beeswax and edible birds' +nests, and exchange them for clothing or ornaments, especially brass +wire or brass guns in which consists the wealth of every chief. They +spin and weave their own cotton, and dye the cloth with indigo of their +own growing. Their iron and steel instruments are excellent, the latter +far surpassing European wares in strength and fineness of edge. Their +houses are neatly built of bamboos, and raised on piles a considerable +height from the ground; but perhaps their most remarkable constructive +effort is the erection of suspension bridges and paths over rivers and +along the front of precipices, in which they display a boldness and +ingenuity that surprise the European traveller. In the centre of most +villages is the communal house where the unmarried men live, which +serves as a general assembly hall. Some have a circuit of no less than +1000 ft. One on the banks of the Lundi was 600 ft. long and housed 400 +persons. + +The Dyaks have always been notorious for head-hunting, a custom which +has now been largely suppressed. It is essentially a religious practice, +the Dyak seeking a consecration for every important event of his life by +the acquisition of one or more skulls. A child is believed ill-fated to +whose mother the father has not at its birth presented skulls. The young +man is not admitted to full tribal rights, nor can he woo a bride with +any hope of success, until he has a skull or more to adorn his hut; a +chief's authority would not be acknowledged without such trophies of his +prowess. The strictest rules govern head-hunting; a period of fasting +and confession, of isolation in a taboo hut, precedes the expedition, +for which the Dyak clothes himself in the skins of wild beasts and puts +on an animal mask. The Dyak curiously enough prefers the head of a +fellow-tribesman, and the hunt is usually one of ambush rather than of +open combat. Among some tribes it was not sufficient to kill the victim. +He was tortured first, his body sprinkled with his own blood, and even +his flesh eaten under the eyes of priests and priestesses who presided +over the rites. Skulls, especially those of enemies, were held in great +veneration. At meals the choicest morsels were offered them: they were +supplied with betel and tobacco: fulsome compliments and prayers for +success in battle addressed to them. Head-hunting at one time threatened +the very existence of the race; but in spite of their reformation in +this respect the Dyaks are not on the increase, a fact for which A.R. +Wallace accounts by the hard life the women lead and their consequent +slight fecundity. + +The Dyaks speak a variety of dialects, most of which are still very +slightly known. The tribes on the coast have adopted a great number of +pure Malay words into common use, and it is often hard to ascertain +their own proper synonyms. The American missionaries have investigated +the dialects of the west coast (Landak, &c.), and their Rhenish brethren +have devoted their attention to those of the south, into one of which +(that of Pulu Petak) a complete translation of the Bible has been made. +Mr Hardeland, the translator, has also published a Dyak-German +dictionary. + + + + +DYCE, ALEXANDER (1798-1869), English dramatic editor and literary +historian, was born in Edinburgh on the 30th of June 1798. After +receiving his early education at the high school of his native city, he +became a student at Exeter College, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in +1819. He took holy orders, and became a curate at Lantegloss, in +Cornwall, and subsequently at Nayland, in Suffolk; in 1827 he settled in +London. His first books were _Select Translations from Quintus +Smyrnaeus_ (1821), an edition of Collins (1827), and _Specimens of +British Poetesses_ (1825). He issued annotated editions of George Peele, +Robert Greene, John Webster, Thomas Middleton, Marlowe, and Beaumont and +Fletcher, with lives of the authors and much illustrative matter. He +completed, in 1833, an edition of James Shirley left unfinished by +William Gifford, and contributed biographies of Shakespeare, Pope, +Akenside and Beattie to Pickering's Aldine Poets. He also edited +(1836-1838) Richard Bentley's works, and _Specimens of British Sonnets_ +(1833). His carefully revised edition of John Skelton, which appeared in +1843, did much to revive interest in that trenchant satirist. In 1857 +his edition of Shakespeare was published by Moxon; and the second +edition, a great improvement on the old one, was issued by Chapman & +Hall in 1866. He also published _Remarks on Collier's and Knight's +Editions of Shakespeare_ (1844); _A Few Notes on Shakespeare_ (1853); +and _Strictures on Collier's new Edition of Shakespeare_ (1859), a +contribution to the Collier controversy (see COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE), which +ended a long friendship between the two scholars. He was intimately +connected with several literary societies, and undertook the publication +of Kempe's _Nine Days' Wonder_ for the Camden Society; and the old plays +of _Timon_ and _Sir Thomas More_ were published by him for the +Shakespeare Society. He was associated with Halliwell-Phillips, John +Payne Collier and Thomas Wright as one of the founders of the Percy +Society, for publishing old English poetry. Dyce also issued +_Recollections of the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers_ (1856). He died on +the 15th of May 1869. He had collected a valuable library, containing +amongst other treasures many rare Elizabethan books, and this collection +he bequeathed to the South Kensington Museum. He displayed untiring +industry, abundant learning, and admirable critical acumen in his +editions of the old English poets. His wide reading in Elizabethan +literature enabled him to explain much that was formerly obscure in +Shakespeare; while his sound judgment was a check to extravagance in +emendation. While preserving all that was valuable in former editions, +Dyce added much fresh matter. His _Glossary_, a large volume of 500 +pages, was the most exhaustive that had appeared. + + + + +DYCE, WILLIAM (1806-1864), British painter, was born in Aberdeen, where +his father, a fellow of the Royal Society, was a physician of some +repute. He attended Marischal College, took the degree of M.A. at +sixteen years of age, and was destined for one of the learned +professions. Showing a turn for design instead, he studied in the school +of the Royal Scottish Academy in Edinburgh, then as a probationer (not a +full student) in the Royal Academy of London, and thence, in 1825, he +proceeded to Rome, where he spent nine months. He returned to Aberdeen +in 1826, and painted several pictures; one of these, "Bacchus nursed by +the Nymphs of Nysa," was exhibited in 1827. In the autumn of that year +he went back to Italy, showing from the first a strong sympathy with the +earlier masters of the Florentine and allied schools. A "Virgin and +Child" which he painted in Rome in 1828 was much noticed by Overbeck and +other foreign artists. In 1829 Dyce settled in Edinburgh, taking at once +a good rank in his profession, and showing considerable versatility in +subject-matter. Portrait-painting for some years occupied much of his +time; and he was particularly prized for likenesses of ladies and +children. In February 1837 he was appointed master of the school of +design of the Board of Manufactures, Edinburgh. In the same year he +published a pamphlet on the management of schools of this description, +which led to his transfer from Edinburgh, after eighteen months' service +there, to London, as superintendent and secretary of the then recently +established school of design at Somerset House. Dyce was sent by the +Board of Trade to the continent to examine the organization of foreign +schools; and a report which he eventually printed, 1840, led to a +remodelling of the London establishment. In 1842 he was made a member of +the council and inspector of provincial schools, a post which he +resigned in 1844. In this latter year, being appointed professor of fine +art in King's College, London, he delivered a remarkable lecture, _The +Theory of the Fine Arts_. In 1835 he had been elected an associate of +the Royal Scottish Academy; this honour he relinquished upon settling in +London, and he was then made an honorary R.S.A. In 1844 he became an +associate, in 1848 a full member, of the London Royal Academy; he also +was elected a member of the Academy of Arts in Philadelphia. He was +active in the deliberations of the Royal Academy, and it is said that +his tongue was the dread of the urbane President, Sir Charles Eastlake, +for Dyce was keen in speech as in visage; it was on his proposal that +the class of retired Academicians was established. In January 1850 Dyce +married Jane, daughter of Mr James Brand, of Bedford Hill, Surrey. He +died at Streatham on the 14th of February 1864, leaving two sons and two +daughters. + +Dyce was one of the most learned and accomplished of British +painters--one of the highest in aim, and most consistently +self-respecting in workmanship. His finest productions, the frescoes in +the robing-room in the Houses of Parliament, did honour to the country +and time which produced them. Generally, however, there is in Dyce's +work more of earnestness, right conception, and grave, sensitive, but +rather restricted powers of realization, than of authentic greatness. He +has elevation, draughtsmanship, expression, and on occasion fine colour; +along with all these, a certain leaning on precedent, and castigated +semi-conventionalized type of form and treatment, which bespeak rather +the scholarly than the originating mind in art. The following are among +his principal or most interesting works (oil pictures, unless otherwise +stated). 1829: "The Daughters of Jethro defended by Moses"; "Puck." +1830: "The Golden Age"; "The Infant Hercules strangling the Serpents" +(now in the National Gallery, Edinburgh); "Christ crowned with Thorns." +1835: "A Dead Christ" (large lunette altarpiece). 1836: "The Descent of +Venus," from Ben Jonson's _Triumph of Love_; "The Judgment of Solomon," +prize cartoon in tempera for tapestry (National Gallery, Edinburgh). +1837: "Francesca da Rimini" (National Gallery, Edinburgh). 1838, and +again 1846: "The Madonna and Child." 1839: "Dunstan separating Edwy and +Elgiva." 1844: "Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliverance" (the finest +perhaps of the oil-paintings). 1850: "The Meeting of Jacob and Rachel." +1851: "King Lear and the Fool in the Storm." 1855: "Christabel." 1857: +"Titian's first essay in Colouring." 1859: "The Good Shepherd." 1860: +"St John bringing Home his Adopted Mother"; "Pegwell Bay" (a coast scene +of remarkably minute detail, showing the painter's partial adhesion to +the "pre-Raphaelite" movement). 1861: "George Herbert at Bemerton." Dyce +executed some excellent cartoons for stained glass:--that for the +choristers' window, Ely Cathedral, and that for a vast window at Alnwick +in memory of a duke of Northumberland; the design of "Paul rejected by +the Jews," now at South Kensington, belongs to the latter. In +fresco-painting his first work appears to have been the "Consecration of +Archbishop Parker," painted in Lambeth palace. In one of the Westminster +Hall competitions for the decoration of the Houses of Parliament, he +displayed two heads from this composition; and it is related that the +great German fresco-painter Cornelius, who had come over to England to +give advice, with a prospect of himself taking the chief direction of +the pictorial scheme, told the prince consort frankly that the English +ought not to be asking for him, when they had such a painter of their +own as Mr Dyce. The cartoon by Dyce of the "Baptism of Ethelbert" was +approved and commissioned for the House of Lords, and is the first of +the works done there, 1846, in fresco. In 1848 he began his great +frescoes in the Robing-room--subjects from the legend of King Arthur, +exhibiting chivalric virtue. The whole room was to have been finished in +eight years; but ill-health and other vexations trammelled the artist, +and the series remains uncompleted. The largest picture figures +"Hospitality, the admission of Sir Tristram into the fellowship of the +Round Table." Then follow--"Religion," the Vision of Sir Galahad and his +Companions; "Generosity," Arthur unhorsed, and spared by the Victor; +"Courtesy," Sir Tristram harping to la Belle Yseult; "Mercy," Sir +Gawaine's Vow. The frescoes of sacred subjects in All Saints' church, +Margaret Street, London; of "Comus," in the summer-house of Buckingham +Palace; and of "Neptune and Britannia," at Osborne House, are also by +this painter. + +Dyce was an elegant scholar in more ways than one. In 1828 he obtained +the Blackwell prize at Aberdeen for an essay on animal magnetism. In +1843-1844 he published an edition of the Book of Common Prayer, with a +dissertation on Gregorian music, and its adaptation to English words. He +founded the Motett Society, for revival of ancient church-music, was a +fine organist, and composed a "non nobis" which has appropriately been +sung at Royal Academy banquets. His last considerable writing relating +to his own art was published in 1853, _The National Gallery: its +Formation and Management_. + + See Redgrave's _Dictionary of Artists_ (1878), and _Dictionary of + National Biography_. (W. M. R.) + + + + +DYEING (O. Eng. _deágian_, _deáh_; Mid. Eng. _deyen_), the art of +colouring textile and other materials in such a manner that the colours +will not be readily removed by those influences to which they are likely +to be submitted--e.g. washing, rubbing, light, &c. The materials usually +dyed are those made from the textile fibres, silk, wool, cotton, &c., +and intended for clothing or decoration; but in addition to these may be +mentioned straw, fur, leather, paper, &c. + + + Historical sketch. + +The art of dyeing dates from prehistoric times, and its practice +probably began with the first dawn of civilization. Although we cannot +trace the successive stages of its development from the beginning, we +may suppose they were somewhat similar to those witnessed among certain +uncivilized tribes to-day--e.g. the Maoris of New Zealand. At first the +dyes were probably mere fugitive stains obtained by means of the juices +of fruits, and the decoctions of flowers, leaves, barks and roots; but +in course of time methods were discovered, with the aid of certain kinds +of earth and mud containing alumina or iron, whereby the stains could be +rendered permanent, and then it was that the true art of dyeing began. +There is no doubt that dyeing was, in the early period of its history, a +home industry practised by the women of the household, along with the +sister arts of spinning and weaving, for the purpose of embellishing the +materials manufactured for clothing. + +Historical evidence shows that already at a remote period a high state +of civilization existed in Persia, India, and China, and the belief is +well founded that the arts of dyeing and printing have been practised in +these countries during a long succession of ages. In early times the +products and manufactures of India were highly prized throughout +Southern Asia, and in due course they were introduced by Arabian +merchants to Phoenicia and Egypt, with which countries commercial +intercourse, by way of the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, seems to have +existed from time immemorial. Eventually the Egyptians themselves began +to practise the arts of dyeing and printing, utilizing no doubt both the +knowledge and the materials derived from India. Pliny the historian has +left us a brief record of the methods employed in Egypt during the first +century, as well as of the Tyrian purple dye celebrated already 1000 +B.C., while the chemical examination of mummy cloths by Thomson and +Schunck testifies to the use by the Egyptian dyers of indigo and madder. +The Phoenician and Alexandrian merchants imported drugs and dyestuffs +into Greece, but we know little or nothing of the methods of dyeing +pursued by the Greeks and Romans, and such knowledge as they possessed +seems to have been almost entirely lost during the stormy period of +barbarism reigning in Europe during the 5th and succeeding centuries. In +Italy, however, some remnants of the art fortunately survived these +troublous times, and the importation of Oriental products by the +Venetian merchants about the beginning of the 13 th century helped to +revive the industry. From this time rapid progress was made, and the +dyers formed important guilds in Florence, Venice and other cities. It +was about this time, too, that a Florentine named Rucellai rediscovered +the method of making the purple dye orchil from certain lichens of Asia +Minor. In 1429 there was published at Venice, under the title of +_Mariegola dell' arte de tentori_, the first European book on dyeing, +which contained a collection of the various processes in use at the +time. From Italy a knowledge of dyeing gradually extended to Germany, +France and Flanders, and it was from the latter country that the English +king Edward III. procured dyers for England, a Dyers' Company being +incorporated in 1472 in the city of London. + +A new impetus was given to the industry of dyeing by the discovery of +America in 1492, as well as by the opening up of the way to the East +Indies round the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. A number of new dyestuffs +were now introduced, and the dyewood trade was transferred from Italy to +Spain and Portugal, for the East Indian products now came direct to +Europe round the Cape instead of by the old trade routes through Persia +and Asia Minor. Eastern art-fabrics were introduced in increasing +quantity, and with them came also information as to the methods of their +production. In Europe itself the cultivation of dye-plants gradually +received more and more attention, and both woad and madder began to be +cultivated, about 1507, in France, Germany and Holland. Under the +influence of Spain the Dutch largely developed their industries and made +considerable progress in dyeing. The Spaniards, on their first arrival +in Mexico (1518), noticed the employment of the red dyestuff cochineal +by the natives, and at once imported it to Europe, where an increasing +demand for the new colouring matter gradually developed in the course of +the century. A further impetus was given to the trade by the Dutch +chemist Drebbel's accidental discovery, in 1630, of the method of dyeing +a brilliant scarlet on wool by means of cochineal and tin solutions. The +secret was soon communicated to other dyers, and the new scarlet was +dyed as a speciality at the Gobelin dyeworks in Paris, and some time +later (1643) at a dyeworks in Bow, near London. + +In 1662 the newly established Royal Society in London took a useful step +in advancing the art of dyeing, and in order to inform and assist +practical dyers, caused the publication of the first original account, +in the English language, of the methods employed in dyeing, entitled "An +apparatus to the history of the common practices of Dyeing." Ten years +later the French Minister Colbert sought to improve as well as control +the operations of dyeing, by publishing a code of instructions for the +use of the woollen dyers and manufacturers in France. From this time, +too, a succession of eminent chemists were appointed by the French +government to devote some of their attention to the study of the +industrial arts, including dyeing, with a view to their progress and +improvement. Dufay, Hellot, Macquer, Berthollet, Roard and Chevreul +(1700-1825) all rendered excellent service to the art, by investigating +the chemical principles of dyeing, by publishing accounts of the various +processes in vogue, by examining the nature and properties of the +dyestuffs employed, and by explaining the cause of the several phenomena +connected with dyeing. With the advent of the 18th century, certain old +prejudices against the use of foreign dyewoods gradually disappeared, +and very rapid progress was made owing to the birth of the modern +chemistry and the discovery of several useful chemical products and +processes--e.g. Prussian Blue (1710), Saxony Blue or Indigo Extract +(1740), sulphuric acid (1774), murexide (1776), picric acid (1788), +carbonate of soda (1793), bleaching powder (1798). Experiments on the +practical side of bleaching and dyeing were made during this period, in +England by Thomas Henry, Home and Bancroft, and in France by +Dambourney, Gonfreville and others, each of whom has left interesting +records of his work. + +Down to the middle of the 19th century natural dyestuffs alone, with but +few exceptions, were at the command of the dyer. But already in the year +1834 the German chemist Runge noticed that one of the products obtained +by distilling coal-tar, namely, aniline, gave a bright blue coloration +under the influence of bleaching powder. No useful colouring matter, +however, was obtained from this product, and it was reserved for the +English chemist Sir W.H. Perkin to prepare the first aniline dye, +namely, the purple colouring matter Mauve (1856). The discovery of other +brilliant aniline dyestuffs followed in rapid succession, and the dyer +was in the course of a few years furnished with Magenta, Aniline Blue, +Hofmann's Violet, Iodine Green, Bismarck Brown, Aniline Black, &c. +Investigation has shown that the products of the distillation of +coal-tar are very numerous, and some of them are found to be specially +suitable for the preparation of colouring matters. Such, for example, +are benzene, naphthalene and anthracene, from each of which distinct +series of colouring matters are derived. In 1869 the German chemists +Graebe and Liebermann succeeded in preparing Alizarin, the colouring +matter of the madder-root, from the coal-tar product anthracene, a +discovery which is of the greatest historical interest, since it is the +first instance of the artificial production of a vegetable dyestuff. +Another notable discovery is that of artificial Indigo by Baeyer in +1878. Since 1856, indeed, an ever-increasing number of chemists has been +busily engaged in pursuing scientific investigations with the view of +preparing new colouring matters from coal-tar products, and of these a +few typical colours, with the dates of their discovery, may be +mentioned: Cachou de Laval (1873); Eosin (1874); Alizarin Blue (1877); +Xylidine Scarlet (1878); Biebrich Scarlet (1879); Congo Red (1884); +Primuline Red (1887); Rhodamine (1887); Paranitraniline Red (1889); +Alizarin Bordeaux (1890); Alizarin Green (1895). At the present time it +may truly be said that the dyer is furnished with quite an embarrassing +number of coal-tar dyestuffs which are capable of producing every +variety of colour possessing the most diverse properties. Many of the +colours produced are fugitive, but a considerable number are permanent +and withstand various influences, so that the general result for some +years has been the gradual displacement of the older natural dyestuffs +by the newer coal-tar colours. + +During this period of discovery on the part of the chemist, the +mechanical engineer has been actively engaged in devising machines +suitable for carrying out, with a minimum of manual labour, all the +various operations connected with dyeing. This introduction of improved +machinery into the dyeing trade has resulted in the production of better +work, it has effected considerable economy, and may be regarded as an +important feature in modern dyeing. + + + General principles. + +The art of dyeing is a branch of applied chemistry in which the dyer is +continually making use of chemical and physical principles in order to +bring about a permanent union between the material to be dyed and the +colouring matter applied. If cotton or wool is boiled in water +containing finely powdered charcoal, or other insoluble coloured powder, +the material is not dyed, but merely soiled or stained. This staining is +entirely due to the entanglement of the coloured powder by the rough +surface of the fibre, and a vigorous washing and rubbing suffices to +remove all but mere traces of the colour. True dyeing can only result +when the colouring matter is presented to the fibre in a soluble +condition, and is then, by some means or other, rendered insoluble while +it is absorbed by, or is in direct contact with, the fibre. There must +always be some marked physical or chemical affinity existing between +fibre and colouring matter, and this depends upon the physical and +chemical properties of both. It is well known that the typical fibres, +wool, silk and cotton, behave very differently towards the solution of +any given colouring matter, and that the method of dyeing employed +varies with each fibre. As a general rule wool has the greatest +attraction for colouring matters, and dyes most readily; cotton has the +least attraction, while silk occupies in this respect an intermediate +position. These differences may be to some extent due to differences of +physical structure in the fibres, but they are mainly due to their +different chemical composition. + +On the other hand, a given fibre, e.g. cotton, behaves quite differently +in dyeing towards various colouring matters. Some of these are not at +all attracted by it, and are incapable of being used as dyestuffs for +cotton. For others cotton exhibits a marked attraction, so that it is +readily dyed by mere steeping in a hot solution of the colouring matter. +Again, for other colouring matters cotton has little or no attraction, +and cannot be dyed with them until it has been previously impregnated or +prepared with a metallic salt, tannic acid or some other agent which is +capable of combining with the colouring matter and precipitating it as +an insoluble coloured compound within or upon the fibre. Such +differences of behaviour are to be ascribed to differences in the +chemical constitution or atomic arrangement of the various colouring +matters. + + + Classification of colouring matters. + +In the case of the coal-tar colours we are, for the most part, well +acquainted with their chemical constitution, and in accordance with this +knowledge the chemist has arranged them in the following groups:--(1) +Nitro Colours. (2) Azo Colours, including Amido-azo, Oxy-azo, Tetrazo +and Polyazo Colours. (3) Hydrazone Colours. (4) Oxy-quinone Colours, +including Quinone-oxime Colours. (5) Diphenylmethane and +Triphenylmethane Colours, including Rosaniline, Rosolic acid and +Phthaleïne Colours. (6) Quinoneimide Colours, including Indamine, +Indophenol, Thiazime, Thiazone, Oxazime, Oxazone, Azine, Induline, +Quinoxaline and Fluorindine Colours. (7) Aniline Black. (8) Quinoline +and Acridine Colours. (9) Thiazol Colours. (10) Oxy-ketone, Xanthone, +Flavone and Cumarine Colours. (11) Indigo. (12) Colours of unknown +constitution. + +This arrangement of the colouring matters in natural chemical groups is +well suited for the requirements of the chemist, but another +classification is that based on the mode of their application in dyeing. +This is much simpler than the previous one, and being better adapted for +the practical purposes of the dyer, as well as for explaining the +various methods of dyeing, it is preferred for this article. According +to this arrangement colouring matters are classified under the following +groups:--(1) _Acid Colours._ (2) _Basic Colours._ (3) _Direct Colours._ +(4) _Developed Colours._ (5) _Mordant Colours._ (6) _Miscellaneous +Colours._ (7) _Mineral Colours._ It is well to state that there is no +sharp line of division between some of these groups, for many colours +are applicable by more than one method, and might quite well be placed +in two, or even three, of the above groups. This may be due either to +the kind of fibre to which the colouring matter is to be applied, or to +certain details in the chemical constitution of the latter which give it +a twofold character. + + ACID COLOURS.--These dyestuffs are so called because they dye the + animal fibres wool and silk in an acid bath; they do not dye cotton. + From a chemical point of view the colouring matters themselves are of + an acid character, this being due to the presence in the molecule of + nitro (NO2) or sulphonic acid (HSO3) groups. According to their origin + and constitution they may be distinguished as nitro compounds, + sulphonated azo compounds and sulphonated basic colours. The acid + colours are usually sold in the form of their alkali salts, as + variously coloured powders soluble in water. For the alkali salts in + neutral or alkaline solution wool and silk have little or no affinity, + but dyeing rapidly occurs if the solution is acidified with sulphuric + acid whereby the colour-acid is liberated. This addition of acid, + however, is necessary not only to set free the colour-acid of the + dyestuff, but also to alter partially the chemical composition of the + fibre, and thus render it capable of uniting more readily with the + free colour-acid. It has been shown, namely, that if wool is boiled + with dilute sulphuric acid, and then thoroughly washed with + boiling-water till free from acid, it acquires the property of being + dyed with acid colours even in neutral solution. By this treatment a + portion of the wool substance is converted into so-called _lanuginic + acid_, which has a strong attraction for the colour-acid of the + dyestuff, with which it forms an insoluble coloured compound. For + dyeing _wool_, the general rule is to charge the dyebath with the + amount of dyestuff necessary to give the required colour, say from ½ + to 2 or 6 % on the weight of wool employed, along with 10% sodium + sulphate (Glauber's salt) and 4% sulphuric acid (1.84 sp. gr.). The + woollen material is then introduced and continually handled or moved + about in the solution, while the temperature of the latter is + gradually raised to the boiling point in the course of ¾ to 1 hour; + after boiling for ¼ to ½ hour longer, the operation is complete, and + the material is washed and dried. + + In practice, modifications of this normal process may be introduced, + in order to ensure the dyeing of an even colour, i.e. free from such + irregularities as cloudiness, streaks, &c., which may be due to the + quality of the material or to the special properties of the acid + colour employed. Materials of a firm, close texture, also the + existence of a strong affinity between fibre and colouring matter, do + not generally lend themselves to the dyeing of even colours, or to a + satisfactory penetration of the material. Some acid colours dye even + colours without any difficulty; others, however, do not. The addition + of sodium sulphate to the dyebath exerts a restraining action; the + dyeing therefore proceeds more slowly and regularly, and a more equal + distribution and better absorption of the colouring matter takes + place. Other devices to obtain even colours are: the use of old + dye-liquors, a diminished amount of acid, the employment of weaker + acids, e.g. acetic or formic acid or ammonium acetate, and the + entering of the material at a low temperature. + + In the application of so-called Alkali Blue the process of dyeing in + an acid bath is impossible, owing to the insolubility of the + colour-acid in an acid solution. Wool and silk, however, possess an + affinity for the alkali salt of the colouring matter in neutral or + alkaline solution, hence these fibres are dyed with the addition of + about 5% borax; the material acquires only a pale colour, that of the + alkali salt, in this dyebath, but by passing the washed material into + a cold or tepid dilute solution of sulphuric acid a full bright blue + colour is developed, due to the liberation of the colour-acid within + the fibre. In the case of other acid colours, e.g. Chromotrope, Chrome + Brown, Chromogen, Alizarin Yellow, &c., the dyeing in an acid bath is + followed by a treatment with a boiling solution of bichromate of + potash, alum, or chromium fluoride, whereby the colouring matter on + the fibre is changed into insoluble oxidation products or + colour-lakes. This operation of developing or fixing the colour is + effected either in the same bath at the end of the dyeing operation, + or in a separate bath. See also ARTIFICIAL MORDANT COLOURS. + + When dyeing with certain acid colours, e.g. Eosine, Phloxine and other + allied bright pink colouring matters derived from resorcin, the use of + sulphuric acid as an assistant must be avoided, since the colours + would thereby be rendered paler and duller, and only acetic acid must + be employed. + + The properties of the dyes obtained with the acid colours are + extremely varied. Many are fugitive to light; on the other hand, many + are satisfactorily fast, some even being very fast in this respect. As + a rule, they do not withstand the operations of milling and scouring + very well, hence acid colours are generally unsuitable for tweed yarns + or for loose wool. They are largely employed, however, in dyeing other + varieties of woollen yarn, silk yarn, union fabrics, dress materials, + leather, &c. Previous to the discovery of the coal-tar colours very + few acid colours were known, the most important one being Indigo + Extract. Prussian Blue as applied to wool may also be regarded as + belonging to this class, also the purple dyestuff known as Orchil or + Cudbear. + + The following list includes some of the more important acid colours + now in use, arranged according to the colour they yield in dyeing:-- + + _Red._--Wool scarlet, brilliant scarlet, erythrine, croceïn scarlet, + brilliant croceïn, violamine G, scarlet 3R, crystal scarlet, new + coccine, chromotrope 2R, azo acid magenta, Victoria scarlet, xylidine + scarlet, Palatine scarlet, Biebrich scarlet, pyrotine, orchil red, + Bordeaux B, milling red, azo carmine, acid magenta, fast acid violet A + 2R, naphthylamine red, fast red, claret red, eosine, erythrosine, rose + Bengale, phloxine, cyanosine, cloth red, lanafuchsine, rosinduline, + erio carmine. + + _Orange._--Diphenylamine orange, methyl orange, naphthol orange, + croceïn orange, brilliant orange, orange G, orange N, mandarin G R. + + _Yellow._--Picric acid, naphthol yellow S, fast yellow, brilliant + yellow S, azoflavine, metanil yellow, resorcine yellow, tartrazine, + quinoline yellow, milling yellow, azo yellow, Victoria yellow, + brilliant yellow S, citronine, Indian yellow. + + _Green._--Acid green, guinea green, fast green, patent green, cyanol + green, erio green, brilliant acid green 6 G. + + _Blue._--Alkali blue, soluble blue, opal blue, methyl blue, Höchst new + blue, patent blue, ketone blue, cyanine, thiocarmine, fast blue, + induline, violamine 3 B, azo acid blue, wool blue, indigo extract, + erio glaucine, erio cyanine, erio blue, lanacyl blue, sulphon-azurine, + sulphon-cyanine. + + _Violet._--Acid violet, red violet, regina violet, formyl violet, + violamine B, fast violet, azo acid violet, erio violet, lanacyl + violet. + + _Brown._--Fast brown, naphthylamine brown, acid brown, resorcine + brown, azo brown, chrome brown, chromogene. + + _Black._--Naphthol black, azo black, wool black, naphthylamine black, + jet black, anthracite black, Victoria black, azo acid black, brilliant + black, union black, brilliant black B. + + BASIC COLOURS.--These colouring matters are the salts of organic + colour-bases, their name being derived from the fact that their dyeing + power resides entirely in the basic part of the salt. In the free + state the bases are colourless and insoluble, but in combination with + acids they form salts which are coloured and for the most part soluble + in water. They are usually sold in the form of powder or crystals, the + latter exhibiting frequently a beautiful metallic lustre. _Wool_ and + _silk_ are dyed in a neutral bath, i.e. without any addition, the + material not requiring any previous preparation. During the dyeing + operation the animal fibres appear to play the part of an acid, for + they decompose the colouring matter and unite with the colour-base to + form an insoluble coloured salt or lake, while the acid of the + colouring matter is liberated and remains in solution. Although, as a + rule, a neutral dyebath is employed in dyeing wool, a slight addition + (2%) of soap is sometimes made in order to give a brighter colour, + while in other cases, e.g. with Victoria Blue, the dyebath must of + necessity be made distinctly acid with acetic or sulphuric acid. Silk + is usually dyed in a bath containing "boiled-off liquor" (i.e. the + spent soap-liquor from the operation of scouring) neutralized or + slightly acidified with acetic or tartaric acid. For a full colour use + 2 or 3% colouring matter, enter the wool at a low temperature, heat + gradually to near the boiling point in the course of ¾ hour, and + continue dyeing for ¼ hour. Owing to the slight solubility of many + basic colours, it is important to take the precaution of filtering the + colour solution into the dyebath through a flannel filter, also to + neutralize the alkalinity of calcareous water with a little acetic + acid, to prevent decomposition of the colouring matter and + precipitation of the colour-base. + + Unlike the animal fibres, _cotton_ has little or no affinity for the + basic colours; hence the cotton dyer makes use of the fact that cotton + has a natural attraction for tannic acid, and that the latter forms + insoluble lakes with the bases of basic colours. Previous to dyeing, + the cotton is prepared with tannic acid by steeping in a cold solution + of the latter for several hours; cotton pieces are run at full width + through a solution containing 2 to 6 oz. per gallon of tannic acid, + and after being evenly squeezed are dried on steam cylinders. The + cotton is then worked in a solution of tartar emetic or stannic + chloride, so that the tannic acid absorbed by the fibre may be fixed + upon it as insoluble tannate of antimony or tin. Although the tannic + acid is thus united with metallic oxide, it still has the power of + attracting the base of the colouring matter, and there is fixed upon + the fibre an insoluble colour-lake, namely, a tannate of antimony and + colour-base, which constitutes the dye. In this process the tannic + acid is called the _mordant_, the tartar emetic acts as the + _fixing-agent_ for the tannic acid, and the cotton as finally prepared + for dyeing is said to be _mordanted_. The proportions employed, + reckoned on the weight of cotton, may vary from 2 to 10% tannic acid, + or the equivalent in a decoction of sumach, myrabolans, or other + tannin matter, and ½ to 3% tartar emetic. After mordanting and fixing + of the mordant, the cotton is well washed and dyed in the cold or at + 60° C. for ½ to 1 hour with the necessary colouring matter. Applied in + this manner, basic colours are moderately fast to soap, but generally + not to the action of light. + + _Linen_ is dyed in the same manner as cotton. Jute is dyed without any + previous preparation, since it behaves like a tannin-mordanted fibre, + attracting the basic colours direct. + + The basic colours, to which class most of the earlier coal-tar colours + belonged, are remarkable for their great colouring power, and in most + cases for the brilliancy of the colours they yield. With the exception + of certain dark colours, they are fugitive to light. It is interesting + to note that only one vegetable colouring matter is at present + recognized as belonging to this class, namely, the yellow dyestuff + barberry bark and root (_Berberis vulgaris_) which contains the + alkaloid berberine. + + The following is a list of the more important basic colours derived + from coal-tar:-- + + _Red._--Magenta, safranine, rhodamine, pyronine red, rhoduline red, + rosazeïn, induline scarlet. + + _Orange._--Chrysoïdine, phosphine, acridine orange, tannin orange. + + _Yellow._--Auramine, benzoflavine, thioflavine T, acridine yellow, + homophosphine, rhoduline yellow. + + _Green._--Malachite green, emerald green, imperial green, China green, + brilliant green, Victoria green, diamond green, methylene green, azine + green. + + _Blue._--Methylene blue, new methylene blue, toluidine blue, thionine + blue, indamine blue, Victoria blue, night blue, Nile blue, turquoise + blue, marine blue, indoine blue, metamine blue, Capri blue, indazine, + metaphenylene blue, paraphenylene blue, toluylene blue, indigene, + indol blue, diphene blue, setopaline, setocyanine, setoglaucine, + Helvetia blue. + + _Violet._--Methyl violet, crystal violet, ethyl purple, methylene + violet, mauve, paraphenylene violet, rhoduline violet, methylene + heliotrope. + + _Brown._--Bismarck brown. + + _Black._--Diazine black. + + _Grey._--Methylene grey, nigrisine, new grey. + + DIRECT COLOURS.--The characteristic feature of the dyestuffs belonging + to this class is that they dye cotton "direct"--i.e. without the aid + of mordants. Two distinct series of colouring matters of this group + may be distinguished--namely, _Direct Cotton Colours_ and _Sulphide + Colours_. + + (a) _Direct Cotton Colours._--The colours of this class are frequently + called the Substantive Cotton Colours, Benzo Colours, Diamine Colours, + Congo Colours. Considered from the chemical point of view, they are + mostly alkali salts of sulphonated tetrazo colours obtained by + diazotizing certain diamido compounds, e.g. benzidine, + diamido-stilbene, &c., and uniting the products thus obtained with + various amines or phenols. The first colouring matter of this class + was the so-called Congo red, discovered in 1884, and since that time a + very great number have been introduced which yield almost every + variety of colour. The method of dyeing _cotton_ consists in merely + boiling the material in a solution of the dyestuff, when the cotton + absorbs and retains the colouring matter by reason of a special + natural affinity. The concentration of the dyebath is of the greatest + importance, since the amount of colour taken up by the fibre is in an + inverse ratio to the amount of dye liquor present in the bath. The + addition of 1 to 3 oz. sodium sulphate and 1/12 to 1/3 oz. carbonate + of soda per gallon gives deeper colours, since it diminishes the + solubility of the colouring matter in the water and increases the + affinity of the cotton for the colouring matter. An excess of sodium + sulphate is to be avoided, otherwise precipitation of the colouring + matter and imperfect dyeing result. With many dyestuffs it is + preferable to use 1/6 to 1/3 oz. soap instead of soda. On cotton the + dyed colours are usually not very fast to light, and some are + sensitive to alkali or to acid, but their most serious defect is that + they are not fast to washing, the colour tending to run and stain + neighbouring fibres. Their fastness to light and washing is, however, + greatly improved by a short (½ hour) after-treatment with a boiling + solution of copper sulphate (3%), with or without the addition of + bichromate of potash (1%). _Wool_ and _silk_ are dyed with the direct + colours either neutral or with the addition of a little acetic acid to + the dyebath. On these fibres the dyed colours are usually faster than + on cotton to washing, milling and light; some are very fast even to + light--e.g. Diamine fast red, chrysophenine, Hessian yellow, &c. Many + of the Direct Colours are very useful for dyeing plain shades on union + fabrics composed of wool and cotton, silk and cotton, or wool and + silk. Owing to the facility of their application, they are also very + suitable for use as household dyes, especially for cotton goods. + + A few vegetable dyestuffs belong to this class, notably Turmeric, + saffron, annatto and safflower, but they all yield colours which are + fugitive to light, and they are now of little importance. _Turmeric_ + is the underground stem or tuber of _Curcuma tinctoria_, a plant + growing abundantly in the East Indies. It dyes cotton, wool and silk + in a bath acidified with acetic acid or alum, yielding a bright yellow + colour which is turned brown by alkalis. _Saffron_ consists of the + stigmata of the flower of _Crocus sativus_, which is grown in Austria, + France and Spain. It dyes a bright orange-yellow colour. _Annatto_ is + the pulpy mass surrounding the seeds of _Bixa orellana_, a plant which + grows in South America--e.g. Brazil, Cayenne, &c. It dyes cotton and + silk in an alkaline or soap bath an orange colour, which is turned red + by acids. _Safflower_ consists of the dried florets of _Carthamus + tinctorius_, which is grown in the East Indies, Egypt and southern + Europe. Cotton is dyed a brilliant pink colour by working it in a cold + alkaline (sodium carbonate) extract of the colouring matter, while + gradually acidifying the solution with citric acid (lime-juice). + + The Direct Colours which are derived from coal-tar products are very + numerous indeed; they are largely employed, and occupy a very + important position among dyestuffs. The following list includes the + principal coal-tar colours of this group:-- + + _Red._--Congo red, brilliant Congo, benzopurpurine, brilliant + purpurine, deltapurpurine, diamine scarlet, diamine fast red, + rosazurine, salmon red, erica, Titan pink, St Denis red, Columbia red, + naphthylene red, Congo rubine, acetopurpurine, dianol red, thiamine + crimson, geranine, brilliant geranine, Columbia fast scarlet, benzo + fast scarlet, thiamine red, diamine rose, Dongola red, rosophenine. + + _Orange._--Congo orange, benzo orange, toluylene orange, mikado + orange, brilliant orange, Columbia orange, diamine orange, pyramine + orange, benzo fast orange. + + _Yellow._--Chrysamine, cresotin yellow, diamine yellow, carbazol + yellow, chrysophenine, Hessian yellow, curcumine yellow, thiazol + yellow, thioflavine S, oriol, mimosa yellow, Columbia yellow, cotton + yellow, chloramine yellow, direct yellow, diamine fast yellow, diamine + gold, sun yellow, stilbene yellow, chlorophenine, oxyphenine. + + _Green._--Benzo olive, Columbia green, benzo green, diamine green, + direct green, diphenyl green, oxamine green, eboli green. + + _Blue._--Azo blue, benzoazurine, brilliant azurine, sulphon-azurine, + diamine blue, benzo indigo blue, benzo black blue, Chicago blue, + Columbia blue, Erie blue, Zambezi blue, benzo cyanine, Congo blue, + diamine sky blue, brilliant benzo blue, benzo chrome black blue, + oxamine blue, diphenyl blue, diamineral blue, diaminogene, benzo fast + blue, diazo indigo blue, brilliant chlorazol blue. + + _Violet._--Hessian purple, Congo Corinth, heliotrope, Congo violet, + diamine violet, Hessian violet, azo violet, benzo violet, violet + black, diamine Bordeaux, chlorantine lilac, diphenyl violet, triazol + violet, Columbia violet. + + _Brown._--Benzo brown, Congo brown, toluylene brown, diamine brown, + cotton brown, Hessian brown, terra-cotta, mikado brown, catechu brown, + wool brown, Columbia brown, Zambezi brown, benzo chrome brown, direct + fast brown, direct bronze brown, chloramine brown, triazol brown, + toluylene brown, dianol brown, Crumpsall direct fast brown. + + _Black._--Diamine black, Columbia black, Nyanza black, Tabora black, + Zambezi black, chromanil black, benzo black, benzo fast black, direct + blue black, Pluto black, oxydiamine black, diamine jet black, + polyphenyl black, union black, triazol black, Titan black, cotton + black, oxamine black. + + _Grey._--Benzo grey, benzo black, azo mauve, diaminogene, neutral + grey. + + (b) _Sulphide Colours._--These dyestuffs are only suitable for dyeing + the vegetable fibres, since they must be applied in a strongly + alkaline bath. The dyestuff Cachou de Laval, discovered in 1873, was + the first member of this group, and was obtained by melting a mixture + of sodium sulphide and various organic substances--e.g. bran, sawdust, + &c. In recent years numerous other dyestuffs have been added to the + list, namely, grey, blue, green, brown, and especially black colours, + by submitting certain definite amido compounds of the aromatic series + to a similar treatment with sodium sulphide or sodium thiosulphate, + and subsequent oxidation. The mode of dyeing with these colours is + based on the fact that they are soluble in an alkaline reducing agent, + and if the cotton is worked in the solution, subsequent oxidation + develops the colour, which is fixed upon the fibre in an insoluble + condition. The material is boiled for about one hour in a solution of + the colour (10 to 15%), with the addition of sodium carbonate (1 to + 10%), common salt (10 to 20%), and sodium sulphide (5 to 30%); it is + then washed in water, and may be developed by heating in a bath + containing 2 to 5% of bichromate of soda, and 3 to 6% acetic acid. A + final washing with water containing a little soda to remove acidity is + advisable. The sulphide colours are remarkable for their fastness to + light, alkalis, acids and washing, but unless proper care is exercised + the cotton is apt to be tendered on being stored for some time. + + The following list includes some of the most important of the colours + of this class:-- + + _Yellow._--Immedial yellow, pyrogene yellow, sulphur yellow, thion + yellow, thiogene yellow. + + _Orange._--Eclipse phosphine, immedial orange, pyrogene orange, thion + orange, thiogene orange. + + _Green._--Pyrogene green, Italian green, eclipse green, pyrol green, + immedial green, katigene green, thionol green. + + _Blue._--Immedial blue, immedial sky blue, eclipse blue, katigene + indigo, pyrogene blue, sulphur blue, thion blue, thiogene blue. + + _Violet._--Katigene violet, thiogene heliotrope, thiogene purple. + + _Brown._--Pyrogene brown, pyrogene yellow, Cachou de Laval, + thiocatechine, katigene black brown, eclipse brown, immedial brown, + katigene brown, dianol brown. + + _Grey and Black._--Pyrogene grey, Vidal black, immedial black, + katigene black, anthraquinone black, St Denis black, amidazol black, + cross dye black, eclipse black, carbide black, thiogene black, + sulphaniline black, sulfogene black, pyrogene black, dianol black, + sulphur black, thion black, kryogene black. + + This class of colours is continually increasing in number, and for + certain purposes in cotton dyeing the group has acquired great + importance. + + DEVELOPED COLOURS.--This group includes certain azo colours which are + developed or produced upon the fibre itself (usually _cotton_) by the + successive application of their constituent elements. It may be + conveniently divided into the following sub-groups:--Insoluble Azo + Colours, Developed Direct Colours, Benzo Nitrol Colours. + + (a) The _Insoluble Azo Colours_ are produced as insoluble coloured + precipitates by adding a solution of a diazo compound to an alkaline + solution of a phenol, or to an acid solution of an amido compound. The + necessary diazo compound is prepared by allowing a solution containing + nitrous acid to act upon a solution of a primary aromatic amine. It is + usually desirable to keep the solutions cool with ice, owing to the + very unstable nature of the diazo compounds produced. The colour + obtained varies according to the particular diazo compound, as well as + the amine or phenol employed, [beta]-naphthol being the most useful + among the latter. The same coloured precipitates are produced upon the + _cotton_ fibre if the material is first impregnated with an alkaline + solution of the phenol, then dried and passed into a cold solution of + the diazo solution. The most important of these colours is + _para-nitraniline red_, which is dyed in enormous quantities on cotton + pieces. The pieces are first "prepared" by running them on a padding + machine through a solution made up of 30 grms. [beta]-naphthol, 20 + grms, caustic soda, 50 grms. Turkey red oil, and 5 grms. tartar emetic + in 1000 grms. (1 litre) water. They are then dried on the + drying-machine, and are passed, after being allowed to cool, into the + diazo solution, which is prepared as follows: 15 grms. + para-nitraniline are dissolved in 53 c.c. hydrochloric acid (34° Tw.) + and a sufficiency of water. To the cold solution a solution of 10½ + grms. sodium nitrite is added while stirring. The whole is then made + up to 1200 c.c., and just before use 60 grms. sodium acetate are + added. The colour is developed almost immediately, but it is well to + allow the cotton to remain in contact with the solution for a few + minutes. The dyed cotton is squeezed, washed, soaped slightly, and + finally rinsed in water and dried. A brilliant red is then obtained + which is fast to soap but not to light. If the para-nitraniline used + in the foregoing process is replaced by meta-nitraniline, a + yellowish-orange colour is obtained; with [alpha]-naphthylamine, a + claret-red; with amido-azo-toluene, a brownish red; with benzidine, a + dark chocolate; with dianisidine, a dark blue; and so on. The dyed + colours are fast to washing and are much used in practice, + particularly the para-nitraniline red, which serves as a substitute + for Turkey-red, although it is not so fast to light as the latter. + + (b) _Developed Direct Colours._--The primuline colours were the first + representatives of this class and are derived from the yellow dyestuff + known as primuline, which dyes cotton in the same manner as the direct + colours. The primuline yellow thus obtained is fugitive to light and + of little practical value, but since the colouring matter is an amido + base it can be diazotized in the fibre and then developed in solutions + of phenols or amines, whereby azo dyes of various hues may be + obtained, according to the developer employed; thus, [beta]-naphthol + develops a bright red colour, resorcin develops an orange, phenol a + yellow, naphthylamine a brown, &c. The _dyeing_ of the primuline + yellow is effected by boiling the cotton for one hour in a solution of + primuline (5%) and common salt (10 to 20%). The diazotizing operation + consists in passing the dyed and rinsed cotton for 5 to 10 minutes + into a cold solution of nitrous acid--i.e. a solution of ¾ oz. sodium + nitrite per gallon of water, slightly acidified with sulphuric acid. + The diazotized material should not be exposed to light, but at once + washed in cold water and passed into the developer. The _developing_ + process consists in working the diazotized material for 5 to 10 + minutes in a cold solution of the necessary phenol, and finally + washing with water. The only developer of any practical importance is + a solution of [beta]-naphthol in caustic soda, which produces + primuline red. The primuline colours are best adapted for _cotton_ + dyeing, and the colours obtained are fast to washing and to moderate + soaping, but they are not very fast to light. + + If _cotton_ is dyed with other direct colours containing free amido + groups, the colour can be diazotized on the dyed fibre exactly in the + same manner as in the case of primuline-dyed cotton, and then + developed by passing into the solution of an amine or phenol, or by + treating it with a warm solution of sodium carbonate. In this manner a + new azo dye is produced upon the fibre, which differs from the + original one not only in colour, but also by being faster to washing + and other influences. A treatment with copper sulphate solution after + development is frequently beneficial in rendering the colour faster to + light. Some Direct Colours, indeed, are of little value, owing, for + example, to their sensibility to acids, until they have been + diazotized and developed, the usual developers being [beta]-naphthol, + resorcinol, phenol and phenylene-diamine. + + The following Direct Colours, after being applied to cotton, may be + submitted to the above treatment, the colours produced being chiefly + blue, brown and black:-- + + _Blue._--Diazurine, diazo blue, diamine blue, diaminogene. + + _Red._--Rosanthiene. + + _Brown._--Diazo brown, diamine cutch, diamine brown, cotton brown. + + _Grey and Black._--Senzo blue, diazo blue black, diazo black, diamine + black, diazo brilliant black. + + (c) _Benzo Nitrol Colours._--These are certain Direct Colours, dyed on + _cotton_ in the ordinary manner, which are then developed by passing + into a diazo solution--e.g. diazotized para-nitraniline, &c. The dyed + colour here plays the part of a phenol or amine, and reacts with the + diazo compound to produce a new colour. The process is similar to the + production of the Insoluble Azo Colours, the [beta]-naphthol which is + there applied to the fibre being here replaced by a Direct Colour. The + colour of the latter is rendered much deeper by the process, and also + faster to washing and to the action of acids. The dyestuffs + recommended for application in the manner described are: Benzo nitrol + brown, toluylene brown, direct fast brown, Pluto black, direct blue + black. + + _"Topping" Direct Colours._--The direct colours possess the remarkable + property of precipitating the basic colours from aqueous solution. Use + is frequently made of this property for "topping" cotton dyed with + direct colours either with a view to obtain compound shades or to + brighten the colour. Thus by dyeing cotton first yellow in chrysamine + and then dyeing it again in a cold bath of methylene blue a brilliant + shade of green results. If, on the other hand, a direct blue is topped + with methylene blue, its brilliancy may be enhanced. + + MORDANT COLOURS.--The colouring matters of this class include some of + the most important dyestuffs employed, since they furnish many colours + remarkable for their fastness to light, washing and other influences. + Employed by themselves, Mordant Colours are usually of little or no + value as dyestuffs, because, with few exceptions, either they are not + attracted by the fibre, particularly in the case of cotton, or they + only yield a more or less fugitive stain. Their importance and value + as dyestuffs are due to the fact that they act like weak acids and + have the property of combining with metallic oxides to form insoluble + coloured compounds termed "lakes," which vary in colour according to + the metallic oxide or salt employed. The most stable lakes are those + in which the colouring matter is combined with two metallic oxides, a + sesquioxide and a monoxide--e.g. alumina and lime. In applying + colouring matters of this class the object of the dyer is to + precipitate and fix these coloured lakes upon and within the fibre, + for which purpose two operations are necessary, namely, _mordanting_ + and _dyeing_. + + The _mordanting operation_ aims at fixing upon the fibre the necessary + metallic oxide or insoluble basic salt, which is called the _mordant_, + although the term is also applied to the original metallic salt + employed. In the subsequent dyeing operation the mordanted material + is boiled with a solution of the colouring matter, during which the + metallic oxide attracts and chemically combines with the colouring + matter, producing the coloured lake _in situ_ on the fibre, which thus + becomes dyed. The mode of applying the mordants varies according to + the nature of the fibre and the metallic salt employed, the chief + mordants at present in use being salts of chromium, aluminium, tin, + copper and iron. The method of mordanting _wool_ depends upon its + property of decomposing metallic salts, and fixing upon itself an + insoluble metallic compound, when boiled in their solutions. This + decomposition is facilitated by the heating and by the dilution of the + solution, but it is chiefly due to the action of the fibre itself. The + exact nature of the substance fixed upon the fibre has not in all + cases been determined; probably it is a compound of the metallic oxide + with the wool-substance itself, which has the character of an + amido-acid. The mordant most largely employed for wool is bichromate + of potash, since, besides being simply applied, and leaving the wool + with a soft feel, it yields with the various mordant-dyestuffs a large + variety of fast colours. The wool is boiled for 1 to 1½ hours in a + solution containing 2 to 3% bichromate of potash on the weight of the + wool employed. During this operation the wool at first attracts + chromic acid, which is gradually reduced to chromium chromate, so that + the mordanted fibre has finally a pale olive-yellow tint. In the + dyebath, under the influence of a portion of the dyestuff, further + complete reduction to chromic hydrate occurs before it combines with + the colouring matter. Not unfrequently certain so-called "assistants" + are employed in small amount along with the bichromate of potash--e.g. + sulphuric acid, cream of tartar, tartaric acid, lactic acid, &c. The + use of the organic acids here mentioned ensures the complete reduction + of the chromic acid on the wool to chromic hydrate already in the + mordant bath, and the pale greenish mordanted wool is better adapted + for dyeing with colours which are susceptible to oxidation--e.g. + alizarin blue. For special purposes chromium fluoride, chrome alum, + &c., are employed. Alum or aluminium sulphate (8%), along with acid + potassium tartrate (cream of tartar) (7%), is used for brighter + colours--e.g. reds, yellows, &c. The object of the tartar is to retard + the mordanting process and ensure the penetration of the wool by the + mordant, by preventing superficial precipitation through the action of + ammonia liberated from the wool; it ensures the ultimate production of + clear, bright, full colours. For still brighter colours, notably + yellow and red, stannous chloride was at one time largely employed, + now it is used less frequently; and the same may be said of copper and + ferrous sulphate, which were used for dark colours. _Silk_ may be + often mordanted in the same manner as wool, but as a rule it is + treated like cotton. The silk is steeped for several hours in cold + neutral or basic solutions of chromium chloride, alum, ferric + sulphate, &c., then rinsed in water slightly, and passed into a cold + dilute solution of silicate of soda, in order to fix the mordants on + the fibre as insoluble silicates. _Cotton_ does not, like wool and + silk, possess the property of decomposing metallic salts, hence the + methods of mordanting this fibre are more complex, and vary according + to the metallic salts and colouring matters employed, as well as the + particular effects to be obtained. One method is to impregnate the + cotton with a solution of so-called "sulphated oil" or "Turkey-red + oil"; the oil-prepared material is then dried and passed into a cold + solution of some metallic salt--e.g. aluminium acetate, basic chromium + chloride, &c. The mordant is thus fixed on the fibre as a metallic + oleate, and after a passage through water containing a little chalk or + silicate of soda to remove acidity, and a final rinsing, the cotton is + ready for dyeing. Another method of mordanting cotton is to fix the + metallic salt on the fibre as a tannate instead of an oleate. This is + effected by first steeping the cotton in a cold solution of tannic + acid or in a cold decoction of some tannin matter, e.g. sumach, in + which operation the cotton attracts a considerable amount of tannic + acid; after squeezing, the material is steeped for an hour or more in + a solution of the metallic salt, and finally washed. The mordants + employed in this case are various--e.g. basic aluminium or ferric + sulphate, basic chromium chloride, stannic chloride (cotton spirits), + &c. There are other methods of mordanting cotton besides those + mentioned, but the main object in all cases is to fix an insoluble + metallic compound on the fibre. It is interesting to note that whether + the metallic oxide is united with the substance of the fibre, as in + the case of wool and silk, or precipitated as a tannate, oleate, + silicate, &c., as in the case of cotton or silk, it still has the + power of combining with the colouring matter in the dyebath to form + the coloured "lake" or dye on the material. + + The _dyeing operation_ consists in working the mordanted material in a + solution of the necessary colouring matter, the dyebath being + gradually raised to the boiling point. With many colouring matters, + e.g. with alizarin, it is necessary to add a small percentage of + calcium acetate to the dyebath, and also acetic acid if wool is being + dyed. In wool-dyeing, also, the mordanting operation may follow that + of dyeing instead of preceding it, in which case the boiling of the + wool with dyestuff is termed "stuffing," and the subsequent developing + of the colour by applying the mordant is termed "saddening," because + this method has in the past been usually carried out with iron and + copper mordants, which give dull or sad colours. The method of + "stuffing and saddening" may, however, be carried out with other + mordants, even for the production of bright colours, and it is now + frequently employed with certain alizarin dyestuffs for the production + of pale shades which require to be very even and regular in colour. + There is still another method of applying Mordant Colours in + wool-dyeing, in which the dyestuff and the mordant are applied + simultaneously from the beginning; it is known as the "single-bath + method." It is only successful, however, in the case of certain + colouring matters and mordants, to some of which reference will be + made in the following paragraphs. + + _The Natural Mordant Colours._--It is interesting to note that nearly + all the natural or vegetable dyestuffs employed belong to the class of + Mordant Colours, the most important of these being included in the + following list:--_Madder, Cochineal, Peachwood, Sapanwood, Limawood, + Camwood, Barwood, Sanderswood, Old Fustic, Young Fustic, Quercitron + Bark, Persian Berries, Weld, Logwood_. + + _Madder_ consists of the dried ground roots of _Rubia tinctorum_, a + plant of Indian origin. Formerly cultivated largely in France and + Holland, it was long one of the most important dyestuffs employed, + chiefly in the production of Turkey-red and in calico-printing, also + in wool-dyeing. With the different mordants it yields very distinct + colours, all fast to light and soap, namely, red with aluminium, + orange with tin, reddish brown with chromium, purple and black with + iron. Madder contains two closely allied colouring matters, namely, + alizarin and purpurin. The former, which is by far the more important, + is now prepared artificially from the coal-tar product anthracene, and + has almost entirely superseded madder. + + _Cochineal_ is the dried scale-insect _Coccus cacti_, which lives on + certain of the cactus plants of Mexico and elsewhere. The rearing of + cochineal was once a large and important industry, and although still + pursued, it has seriously declined, in consequence of the discovery of + the azo scarlets derived from coal-tar. The colouring matter of + cochineal, carminic acid, is believed by chemists to be a derivative + of naphthalene, but its artificial production has not yet been + accomplished. Cochineal dyes a purple colour with chromium mordant, + crimson with aluminium, scarlet with tin, and grey or slate with iron. + Its chief employment is for the purpose of dyeing crimson, and more + especially scarlet, on wool. Crimson is dyed by mordanting the wool + with alum and tartar and dyeing in a separate bath with ground + cochineal. Scarlet on wool is obtained by the single-bath method, + namely, by dyeing the wool with a mixture of stannous chloride (or + nitrate of tin), oxalic acid, and cochineal. It is usual to add also a + small amount of the yellow dyestuff flavine in order to obtain a + yellower shade of scarlet. The cochineal colours are very fast to + light, but somewhat susceptible to the action of alkalis. + + _Peachwood, Sapanwood_ and _Limawood_ are usually referred to as the + "soluble red-woods," because of the solubility in water of the + colouring principle they contain. They consist of the ground wood of + various species of _Caesalpinia_ found in Central America, the East + Indies and Peru. They all yield more or less similar colours with the + different mordants--claret-brown with chromium, red with aluminium, + bright red with tin, dark slate with iron. Owing to the fugitive + character of all the colours to light, these dyewoods are now + comparatively little employed in dyeing. + + _Camwood, Barwood_ and _Sanderswood_ represent the so-called + "insoluble red-woods," their colouring principles being sparingly + soluble even in boiling water. They are obtained from certain species + of _Pterocarpus_ and _Baphia_, large trees growing in the interior of + West Africa. Their general dyeing properties are similar, a + claret-brown being obtained with chromium mordant, a brownish red with + aluminium, a brighter red with tin, and purplish brown with iron. + Their chief employment is in wool-dyeing, for the production of + various shades of brown, being best applied by the "stuffing and + saddening" method above described; but since the colours are fugitive + to light, they are now very largely replaced by alizarin. A brown on + wool is obtained by first boiling for one to two hours in a decoction + of the ground wood (50%), and then boiling in a separate bath in + solution of bichromate of potash (2%) for half an hour. These + dye-woods are also employed by the indigo-dyer, in order to give a + brownish ground colour to the wool previous to dyeing in the indigo + vat, and thus obtain a deeper, fuller blue. The colouring matters + contained in these dyewoods have not been exhaustively examined. + + _Fustic_ is a yellow dyestuff, and consists of the wood of the dyer's + mulberry tree, _Morus tinctoria_, which grows in Cuba, Jamaica, &c. It + is still an important and largely used dyestuff, being cheap, and the + colours obtained from it being satisfactorily fast to light and other + influences. With chromium mordant it yields an olive-yellow or + "old-gold" shade; with aluminium, yellow; with tin, a brighter yellow; + with iron, an olive-green. It is chiefly employed in wooldyeing along + with other dyestuffs, and furnishes the yellow in compound shades. Two + colouring principles exist in Old Fustic, namely, morin and maclurin, + the former being the most important, and generally regarded as the + true colouring matter. + + _Quercitron Bark_ consists of the inner bark of an oak-tree, _Quercus + tinctoria_, which grows in the North American States. It dyes somewhat + like Old Fustic, but gives with aluminium and tin mordants brighter + yellows, for which colours it is chiefly used. The colouring principle + of Quercitron Bark is called quercitrin, which by the action of + boiling mineral acid solutions is decomposed, with the production of + the true colouring matter termed quercetin. + + So-called _Flavine_ is a commercial preparation of Quercitron Bark + consisting of quercitrin or of quercetin; it is much used by + wool-dyers for the production of bright yellow and orange colours. + Wool is dyed in single bath by boiling with a mixture of Flavine (8%), + stannous chloride (4%) and oxalic acid (2%). Flavine is used in small + quantity along with cochineal for dyeing scarlet on wool. + + _Persian Berries_ are the dried unripe fruit of various species of + _Rhamnus_ growing in the Levant. The general dyeing properties are + similar to those of Quercitron Bark, the orange colour given with tin + mordant being particularly brilliant. The high price of this dyestuff + causes its employment to be somewhat limited. The colouring matter of + Persian Berries is called xanthorhamnin, which by the action of + fermentation and acids yields the true dyestuff rhamnetin. + + _Weld_ is the dried plant _Reseda luteola_, a species of wild + mignonette, formerly largely cultivated in Europe. Its dyeing + properties resemble those of Quercitron Bark, but the yellows with + aluminium and tin mordants are much brighter and purer, and also + faster to light. It is still used to a limited extent for dyeing a + bright yellow on woollen cloth and braid for the decoration of + military uniforms. Quite recently the colouring matter of Weld, + namely, luteolin, has been prepared artificially, but the process is + too expensive to be of practical use. + + _Logwood_ is the heart-wood of _Haematoxylon campechianum_, a tree + growing in Central America. It is the most important natural dyewood + at present employed, being largely used for dyeing dark blues and + black on silk, wool and cotton. With chromium and aluminium mordants + logwood dyes a dark blue, and even black; with tin, a dark purple; and + with iron, black. The colours are only moderately fast to light. On + wool the mordant is bichromate of potash; on cotton and silk an iron + mordant is employed. Before use by the dyer the logwood is ground and + aged or oxidized, by allowing moistened heaps of the ground wood to + ferment slightly, and by frequently turning it over to expose it + freely to the air. By this means the colouring principle haematoxylin + which logwood contains is changed into the true colouring matter + haemateïn. The constitution of this colouring matter has been recently + discovered; it is very closely allied to the brazilin of peachwood, + sapanwood and limawood, and is also a member of the [gamma]-pyrone + group of colouring matters. + + The importance of the above-mentioned natural dyestuffs is gradually + diminishing in favour of mordant dyestuffs and others derived from + coal-tar. Fustic and logwood are perhaps the most largely used, and + may continue to be employed for many years, no satisfactory artificial + substitutes having hitherto come into the market. + + The _Artificial Mordant_ Colours are well represented by alizarin, the + colouring matter of the madder root, which was the first natural + dyestuff prepared artificially from the coal-tar product anthracene + (1868). For this reason many of these colours are frequently referred + to as the Alizarin Colours. At the present time, however, there are + numerous Mordant Colours which are prepared from other initial + materials than anthracene; they are not chemically related to + alizarin, and for these the term Alizarin Colours is therefore + inappropriate. The property, which Mordant Colours possess in common, + of combining with metals and producing lakes, which readily adhere to + the fibre, depends upon their chemical constitution, more particularly + upon the general and relative position in the molecule of certain side + atomic groups. In alizarin there are, for example, two characteristic + hydroxyl groups (OH) occupying a special (ortho) position in the + molecule, i.e. they are next to each other, and also next to one of + the socalled ketone groups (C:O). In other Mordant Colours there are + carboxyl (COOH) as well as hydroxyl groups, which are all-important in + this respect. In addition to this, the general dyeing property is + influenced by the constitution of the molecule itself, and by the + presence of other side-groups, e.g. NH2, HSO3, &c., which modify the + colour as to solubility or hue. Hence it is that the members of this + group, while possessing the mordant-dyeing property in common, differ + materially in other points. Some, like alizarin, are not in themselves + to be regarded as colouring matters, but rather as colouring + principles, because they only yield useful dyes in combination with + metallic oxides. According to their constitution, these may yield one + or many colours with the various metallic oxides employed, and they + are used for cotton as well as for wool and silk. Other Mordant + Colours, e.g. many of the Direct Colours and others, are capable of + dyeing either the vegetable or animal fibres without the aid of a + mordant; they are fully developed colouring matters in themselves, and + possess the mordantdyeing property as an additional feature, in + consequence of the details of their chemical constitution, to which + reference has been made in the foregoing paragraphs. As a rule these + yield, at most, various shades of one colour with the different + oxides, and are only suitable for the animal fibres, particularly + wool. + + In the following list, the most important artificial Mordant Colours + are arranged according to the colour they give in conjunction with the + aluminium mordant, unless otherwise indicated. Some of those named + here dye the animal fibres, even without mordants; some are Direct + Colours possessing mordant-dyeing properties, others are sulphonic + acid derivatives of Alizarin Colours, suitable for wool but not for + cotton. + + _Red._--Alizarin, anthrapurpurin, flavopurpurin, purpurin, alizarin + Bordeaux, alizarin garnet R, alizarin maroon, alizarin S, cloth red, + diamine fast red, anthracene red, chrome red, chrome Bordeaux, + salicine red, erio chrome red, emin red, milling red. + + _Orange and Yellow._--Alizarin orange, alizarin orange G, alizarin + yellow paste, alizarin yellow A, alizarin yellow C, anthracene yellow, + galloflavin, alizarin yellow GG, alizarin yellow R, diamond flavin G, + chrome yellow D, Crumpsall yellow, fast yellow, diamond yellow, benzo + orange R, cloth orange, carbazol yellow, chrysamine, milling orange. + + _Green._--Coeruleïn, coeruleïn S, alizarin green S, fast green (Fe), + naphthol green (Fe), Dioxin (Fe), Gambine (Fe), azo green, gallanil + green, alizarin green G and B, acid alizarin green, alizarin cyanine + green, alizarin viridine, diamond green, chrome green, Domingo green. + + _Blue._--Alizarin blue, alizarin blue S, alizarin cyanine, anthracene + blue, brilliant alizarin blue, alizarin indigo blue S, gallanilic + indigo, acid alizarin blue, brilliant alizarin cyanine, alizarin + grisole, alizarin sky blue, alizarin saphirole, gallanilide blue, + delphine blue, gallamine blue, celestine blue, chrome blue, gallazine + A, phenocyanine, coreïne. + + _Purple and Violet._--Galleïn, alizarin heliotrope, anthraquinone + violet, chrome prime, gallocyanine, chrome violet, anthracene chrome + violet. + + _Brown._--Anthracene brown, chromogen, cloth brown, diamond brown, + alizarin brown, fast brown, alizarin acid brown, chrome brown, + palatine chrome brown, erio chrome brown. + + _Black._--Alizarin black, diamond black, alizarin blue black, alizarin + cyanine black, alizarin fast grey, chromotrope, chrome black, erio + chrome black, anthracite black, acid alizarin black, anthracene chrome + black. + + A brief description of the application of a few of the more important + of the above colouring matters will suffice. + + _Alizarin_, _Anthrapurpurin_ and _Flavopurpurin_ give somewhat similar + shades with the different mordants, namely, brown with chromium, red + with aluminium, orange with tin, and purple with iron. + + In _wool_-dyeing they are applied along with other Mordant Colours on + chromium mordant for the production of a large variety of compound + shades, browns, drabs, greys, &c., the presence of acetic acid in the + dyebath being advantageous. When alum and tartar mordant is employed, + for the production of reds, it is necessary to add a small amount (4%) + of calcium acetate to the dyebath, in order to neutralize the strong + acidity of the mordanted wool, and to furnish the calcium of the + colour-lake fixed upon the fibre, which is regarded as an + aluminium-calcium compound of the colouring matter. + + In _cotton_-dyeing the above colouring matters are chiefly used for + the production of so-called Turkey-red, a colour remarkable for its + brilliancy and its fastness to light and soap. These properties are + due to the preparation of the cotton with oil, in addition to the + ordinary mordanting and dyeing, whereby there is fixed on the fibre a + permanent and stable lake, in which aluminium and calcium are combined + with alizarin and some form of fatty oxy-acid. In the older processes + employed, the preparation of the cotton with oil was effected by + passing the material several times through emulsions of olive oil and + potassium carbonate solution; at a later date, and even now in the + case of cloth, the cotton is first impregnated with hot oil (Steiner's + process), then passed through solutions of alkali carbonate. After the + preparation with oil or oil-emulsions, the cotton is "stoved," i.e. + heated for several hours in special chambers or stoves to a + temperature of about 70° C., during which operation the oil is + decomposed and oxidized and becomes indelibly attached to the fibre. + The oil-prepared cotton is steeped in cold solutions of basic + aluminium sulphate or acetate, washed, dyed with alizarin, and finally + boiled for several hours with soap solution under pressure in order to + brighten the colour. In the more recent and much more expeditious + "sulphated-oil process," castor oil is employed instead of olive oil, + and before use it is submitted to a treatment with sulphuric acid, the + sulphated oil thus obtained being finally more or less neutralized + with alkali. The cotton is impregnated with this sulphated-oil + solution, dried, mordanted with aluminium acetate, dyed, dried, + steamed and soaped. The operation of steaming plays an important part + in brightening and fixing the colour-lake on the fibre. In these and + all other Turkey-red processes, the oil, probably in the form of a + fatty oxy-acid, acts as a fixing agent for the aluminium and enters + into the composition of the red lake, imparting to it both brilliancy + and permanency. + + _Alizarin S_ is a sulphonic acid derivative of alizarin, and since it + is much more soluble, it readily yields level colours. Silk is dyed in + a similar manner to wool, the fibre being mordanted by the ordinary + methods and then dyed in a separate bath. + + _Diamine Fast Red_ is applied to cotton as a Direct Colour, with the + addition of soda or soap to the dyebath. By treating the dyed colour + with a solution of fluoride of chromium, its fastness to washing is + materially increased. Wool is dyed in a similar manner, sodium + sulphate being added to the dyebath, and the dyed colour treated with + fluoride of chromium or bichromate of potash. On wool, the colour is + so extremely fast to light and to milling that it may well serve as a + substitute for alizarin. + + _Alizarin Orange_ is employed in the same manner as alizarin. In + wool-dyeing it is usually applied on chromium mordant for browns and a + variety of compound shades in combination with other Alizarin Colours + and dyewood extracts, less frequently on aluminium mordant. + + _Galloflavin_ is used in wool and silk dyeing on chromium mordant as a + substitute for fustic and other yellow dyewoods, to furnish the yellow + part of compound shades. + + The alizarin yellows, R and GG, anthracene yellow, diamond flavine, + chrome yellow, diamond yellow, carbazol yellow, chrysamine, &c., are + Direct Colours with mordant-dyeing properties. They also serve as + substitutes for fustic in wool or silk dyeing, and are dyed either on + a chromium mordant, or first in an acid bath and afterwards saddened + with bichromate of potash. + + _Coeruleïn_ is employed in dyeing wool, silk or cotton with aluminium + or chromium mordants, either as a self-colour or for compound shades. + With aluminium mordant the colour is a moderately bright green, more + particularly on silk; with chromium mordant, an olive-green. Coeruleïn + S is the more soluble bisulphite compound of the ordinary coeruleïn. + It is applied in the same manner, care being taken, however, to dye + for some time (one hour) at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. until + the bath is nearly exhausted, and then only raising the temperature to + the boiling point. Without this precaution coeruleïn S is decomposed, + and the ordinary insoluble coeruleïn is precipitated. The colours + obtained are very fast to light. + + _Fast Green_, _Dioxine_ and _Gambine_ are chiefly of use in + calico-printing and in wool-dyeing. With iron mordant they yield + olive-greens, which on wool are extremely fast to light. Cotton is + impregnated with ferrous acetate, dried, aged and fixed with silicate + of soda, then dyed in a neutral bath. Wool is mordanted with ferrous + sulphate and tartar (3% of each) and dyed in a neutral bath. + + _Acid Alizarin Green_, _Alizarin Cyanine Green_ and _Diamond Green_ + all dye wool direct in a bath acidified with acetic or sulphuric acid, + and the dyed colour may be afterwards fixed or saddened with + bichromate of potash, or they may be dyed on chromium-mordanted wool. + The first method is very useful for pale shades, since the colours are + very level or regular. + + _Alizarin Blue_ is a dark blue dyestuff which, owing to the fastness + of the colours it yields, has for many years been regarded as a worthy + substitute for indigo in wool-dyeing. It is applied in the same manner + as alizarin, the chromium mordant being alone employed. Alizarin blue + S is the soluble sodium bisulphite compound of alizarin blue; it + corresponds, therefore, to the above-mentioned coeruleïn S, and in its + application the same precautions as to the temperature of the dyebath + are necessary. The fastness of the dyed colours to light, milling and + acid satisfy the highest requirements. + + _Alizarin Cyanine_, _Anthracene Blue_ and _Brilliant Alizarin Blue_ + were discovered later than the above-mentioned alizarin blues, and, + owing to their greater solubility and other advantages, they have + largely replaced them as substitutes for indigo. They are dyed on + chromium-mordanted wool, silk or cotton, and yield dark purplish or + greenish blues, according to the particular brand employed. The + fastness of the dyed colours to light, and general durability, are + very satisfactory, but in fastness to milling and acids they are to + some extent inferior to alizarin blue. + + _Celestine Blue_ and _Chrome Blue_ dye purplish blue and bright blue + respectively, and are dyed in the ordinary way upon a chromium + mordant. The colours they yield are inferior to the Alizarin Colours + in fastness to light, but on account of their clear shades they are + often used for brightening other colours. + + _Brilliant Alizarin Cyanine_, _Alizarin Viridine_ and _Alizarin + Saphirole_ are true Alizarin Colours, and possess the same fastness to + light as other colours of this class. Unlike most of the Alizarin + Colours, they are capable of dyeing wool satisfactorily without the + aid of a metallic mordant--namely, with the addition of sulphuric acid + to the dyebath, in the same manner as the Acid Colours. If necessary, + the dyed colours may be treated with bichromate of potash. The colours + thus produced are very fast to light and very level, hence these + dyestuffs are valuable in the production of the most delicate compound + shades, such as drabs, slates, greys, &c., which are desired to be + fast to light. Alizarin saphirole dyes clear blue, the colour produced + being much more brilliant even than those of brilliant alizarin + cyanine. + + _Galleïn_, _Gallocyanine_, and especially _Chrome Violet_, dye + somewhat bright purple shades, and are hence frequently employed for + brightening other colours, but they are only moderately fast to light. + They are applied in the usual manner on a chromium mordant. + + _Anthracene Brown_ is largely employed in the production of compound + shades. It dyes a dark, somewhat reddish, brown on chromium mordant, + the colour being very even and extremely fast to light. + + _Alizarin Black_ is dyed on chromium mordant in the same manner as + alizarin, and is used as a self-colour or in combination with other + Alizarin Colours. + + _Diamond Black_ is very useful for dyeing good blacks on wool, fast to + light and acids. The wool is first dyed with the addition of acetic + and finally sulphuric acid. When the dyebath is exhausted, bichromate + of potash (2%) is added, and boiling is continued for half an hour + longer. + + The _erio chrome colours_ (black, brown, red, &c.) are applied in wool + dyeing like diamond black. + + _Chromotrope_, of which there are several brands, is an Acid Colour + which is applied to wool in an acid bath in the usual manner. The red + or purple colours thus obtained are saddened in the same bath with + bichromate of potash and changed into black, the colouring matter + being oxidized and simultaneously combined with chromium. + + MISCELLANEOUS COLOURS.--Under this head there may be arranged a few + dyestuffs which, although capable of inclusion under one or other of + the foregoing groups, it is more convenient to treat of separately. + Indigo, Aniline Black and Catechu, for example, might be placed in the + class of Developed Colours, since they are all developed on the fibre, + and indeed by the same method, namely, by oxidation. + + _Indigo_ is one of our most important blue dyestuffs, which has been + employed from the earliest times. Indigo, being insoluble in water, + would be of no use in dyeing if it were not capable of being rendered + soluble. This is effected in two ways, corresponding to which there + are two methods of dyeing with indigo. One method consists in + dissolving the indigo in very strong sulphuric acid, whereby it is + converted into indigotin-disulphonic acid (Indigo Extract), which is + readily soluble in water. This substance belongs to the group of Acid + Colours; hence it is applied to the animal fibres, wool and silk, by + boiling in a solution of the colouring matter slightly acidified with + sulphuric acid. The second and most important method is based on the + fact that under the influence of reducing agents (i.e. substances + capable of yielding nascent hydrogen) indigo blue is changed into + indigo white, which is soluble in alkali, the solution thus obtained + being called a "vat." If textile materials are steeped in a clear + yellow solution of the reduced indigo and then exposed to air, the + indigo white absorbed by the fibre is oxidized and reconverted into + indigo blue within and upon the fibre, which thus becomes dyed blue; + this is the so-called "indigo-vat" method of dyeing. Comparing the two + methods, the "indigo-extract" method is only applicable to the animal + fibres, and although it gives brighter colours, they are fugitive to + light and are decolourized by washing with alkaline solutions; the + "vat method" is applicable to all fibres, and gives somewhat dull + blues, which are very fast to light, washing, &c. + + _Cotton_ is dyed by means of the "_lime and copperas vat_," the "_zinc + powder vat_," or the "_hydrosulphite vat_." In the first-mentioned vat + the ingredients are quicklime, ferrous sulphate and finely ground + indigo; the lime decomposes the ferrous sulphate and precipitates + ferrous hydrate; this quickly reduces the indigo to indigo white, + which dissolves in the excess of lime present. The ingredients of the + zinc powder vat are zinc powder, lime and indigo; in the presence of + the lime and indigo the zinc takes up oxygen from the water, + liberating the hydrogen necessary to reduce the indigo, as in the + previous vat. The constituents of the hydrosulphite vat are + hydrosulphite of soda, lime and indigo. The requisite hydrosulphite of + soda is prepared by allowing zinc powder (13 lb.) to act upon a cold + concentrated solution of bisulphite of soda (17 gallons of sp. gr. + 1.225), taking care to avoid, as much as possible, access of air and + any heating of the mixture, to prevent decomposition. The solution + thus obtained is thoroughly neutralized by the addition of lime; and + after settling, the clear liquor is used for the vat, along with + indigo and lime. Here again the hydrosulphite takes up oxygen from the + water and liberates the necessary hydrogen. It is found convenient to + prepare, in the first instance, a very concentrated standard of + reduced indigo, and to add as much of this to the dye-vat as may be + required, along with lime and a little hyposulphite of soda. The + advantages of this vat are that it is easily prepared and that there + is very little sediment; moreover, it can be employed in dyeing wool, + as well as cotton, and it is now very generally in use. The vat + usually employed for dyeing _wool_ is the so-called "woad vat," which + differs from the foregoing in that the hydrogen necessary to reduce + the indigo and bring it into solution is furnished, not by the action + of chemical agents, but by means of fermentation. The ingredients of + the woad vat are indigo, woad, bran, madder and lime. The woad here + employed is prepared by grinding the leaves of the woad plant (_Isatis + tinctoria_) to a paste, which is allowed to ferment and then partially + dried. It serves as the ferment to excite lactic and butyric + fermentation with the aid of the bran and madder, the necessary + hydrogen being thus evolved. Excessive fermentation is avoided by + making timely additions of lime; sluggish fermentation is accelerated + by additions of bran and slightly raising the temperature. When the + reduction and complete solution of the indigo is effected, the vat is + allowed to settle, and the woollen material is immersed and moved + about in the clear liquor for half an hour to two hours, according to + the shade required, then squeezed and exposed to the air in order to + develop the blue colour on the fibre. + + _Thioindigo red_ is an artificial colouring matter belonging to the + indigo series and comes into the market in the form of a paste. It is + used in dyeing in exactly the same way as indigo, yielding shades + which range from a somewhat dull pink to a full claret shade of red. + The colours obtained are remarkable for their fastness. + + _Indanthrene_. This colouring matter, which is also sold as a paste, + is an anthracene derivative, being formed by the action of caustic + potash on [beta]-amidoanthraquinone. It is reduced by hydrosulphite of + soda yielding a blue vat, in which cotton and other vegetable fibres + are dyed in the same way as in the indigo vat. Since a fair amount of + caustic soda is necessary for the setting of the vat, the dyestuff is + not suitable for animal fibres. Indanthrene yields on cotton reddish + shades of blue which are extremely fast to all external influences; in + fact the colour is so fast that when once fixed on cotton it cannot be + removed again from the fibre by any known means. + + Other vat colours belonging to this series, which are similarly + applied, are flavanthrene (yellow), viridanthrene (green), + fuscanthrene (grey-brown), violanthrene (dull violet) and melanthrene + (grey to black). The _algol colours_ resemble the indanthrene colours + in their properties and application. + + _Aniline Black_ differs from other dyes in that it is not sold as a + ready-made dyestuff, but is produced _in situ_ upon the fibre by the + oxidation of aniline. It is chiefly used for cotton, also for silk and + cotton-silk union fabrics, but seldom or not at all for wool. Properly + applied, this colour is one of the most permanent to light and other + influences with which we are acquainted. One method of dyeing cotton + is to work the material for about two hours in a cold solution + containing aniline (10 parts), hydrochloric acid (20 parts), + bichromate of potash (20 parts), sulphuric acid (20 parts), and + ferrous sulphate (10 parts). The ferrous sulphate here employed is + oxidized by the chromic acid to a ferric salt, which serves as a + carrier of oxygen to the aniline. This method of dyeing is easily + carried out, and it gives a good black; but since much of the + colouring matter is precipitated on the fibre superficially as well as + in the bath itself, the colour has the defect of rubbing off. Another + method is to impregnate the cotton with a solution containing aniline + hydrochloride (35 parts), neutralized with addition of a little + aniline oil, sodium chlorate (10 parts), ammonium chloride (10 parts). + Another mixture is 1.8 part aniline salt, 12 parts potassium + ferrocyanide, 200 parts water, 3.5 parts potassium chlorate dissolved + in water. After squeezing, the material is passed through a special + oxidation chamber, the air of which is heated to about 50° C. and also + supplied with moisture. This oxidizing or ageing is continuous, the + material passing into the chamber at one end in a colourless + condition, and after about 20 minutes passing out again with the black + fully developed, a final treatment with hot chromic acid solution and + soaping being necessary to complete the process. In this method, + employing the first-mentioned solution, chlorate of copper is formed, + and this being a very unstable compound, readily decomposes, and the + aniline is oxidized by the liberated chlor-oxygen compounds. The + presence in the mixture of a metallic salt is very important in aiding + the development of the black, and for this purpose salts of vanadium, + cerium and copper have proved to be specially useful. The chemistry of + aniline black is still incomplete, but it would appear that there are + several oxidation products of aniline. The first product is so-called + emeraldine, a dark green substance of the nature of a salt, which by + treatment with alkali yields a dark blue base called azurine. The + further oxidation of emeraldine yields nigraniline, also a dark green + salt, but the free base of which has a violet black colour. The latter + becomes greenish under the influence of acids, especially sulphuric + acid, and this explains the defect known as "greening" which is + developed in ordinary aniline blacks during exposure to air. By a + supplementary oxidation with chromic acid such a black is rendered + ungreenable, the nigraniline being probably changed into the more + stable chromate of nigraniline. + + _Catechu_ is a valuable brown dyestuff, obtained from various species + of _Acacia_, _Areca_ and _Uncaria_ growing in India. The wood, leaves + and fruit of these plants are extracted with boiling water; the + decoction is then evaporated to dryness or to a pasty consistency. + Catechu is largely used by the cotton dyer for the production of + brown, drab and similar colours. It is seldom employed for wool. + Cotton is usually dyed by boiling it for about one hour in a decoction + of catechu (100%) containing copper sulphate (5%). After squeezing, + the material is boiled for about fifteen minutes in a solution of + bichromate of potash (¼ oz. per gal.), then washed and dried. By + repeating the operations two or three times deeper shades are + obtained. During the boiling with catechu the cotton attracts the + active principles catechin and catechu-tannic acid, but it thus + acquires only a pale brown colour; in the bichromate of potash, + however, these are oxidized to form insoluble japonic acid, which + permeates the fibre, and a deep brown colour is thus developed. + Catechu browns are fast to a variety of influences, e.g. washing, + alkalis, acids, &c., but less so to light. Catechu has been recently + much employed, in conjunction with copper sulphate, for dyeing the + so-called khaki-brown on woollen material for military clothing. On + silk, catechu is much used for weighting purposes in dyeing black. + + MINERAL COLOURS.--Those include Chrome Yellow, Iron Buff, Prussian + Blue and Manganese Brown. + + _Chrome Yellow_ is only useful in cotton-dyeing as a self-colour, or + for conversion into chrome orange, or, in conjunction with indigo, for + the production of fast green colours. The cotton is first impregnated + with a solution of lead acetate or nitrate, squeezed, and then passed + through a solution of sodium sulphate or lime water to fix the lead on + the fibre as sulphate or oxide of lead. The material is then passed + through a solution of bichromate of potash. The colour is changed to a + rich orange by a short, rapid passage through boiling milk of lime, + and at once washing with water, a basic chromate of lead being thus + produced. The colour is fast to light, but has the defect of being + blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen. + + _Iron Buff_ is produced by impregnating the cotton with a solution of + ferrous sulphate, squeezing, passing into sodium hydrate or carbonate + solution, and finally exposing to air, or passing through a dilute + solution of bleaching powder. The colour obtained, which is virtually + oxide of iron, or iron-rust, is fast to light and washing, but is + readily removed by acids. + + _Prussian Blue_ is applicable to wool, cotton and silk, but since the + introduction of coal-tar blues its employment has been very much + restricted. The colour is obtained on cotton by first dyeing an iron + buff, according to the method just described, and then passing the + dyed cotton into an acidified solution of potassium ferrocyanide, when + the blue is at once developed. A similar method is employed for silk. + Wool is dyed by heating it in a solution containing potassium + ferricyanide and sulphuric acid. The colour is developed gradually as + the temperature rises; it may be rendered brighter by the addition of + stannous chloride. On wool and silk Prussian blue is very fast to + light, but alkalis turn it brown (ferric oxide). + + _Manganese brown_ or _bronze_ is applied in wool, silk and cotton + dyeing. The animal fibres are readily dyed by boiling with a solution + of potassium permanganate, which, being at first absorbed by the + fibre, is readily reduced to insoluble brown manganic hydrate. Since + caustic potash is generated from the permanganate and is liable to act + detrimentally on the fibre, it is advisable to add some magnesium + sulphate to the permanganate bath in order to counteract this effect. + Imitation furs are dyed in this manner on wool-plush, the tips or + other parts of the fibres being bleached by the application of + sulphurous acid. Cotton is dyed by first impregnating it with a + solution of manganous chloride, then dyeing and passing into a hot + solution of caustic soda. There is thus precipitated on the fibre + manganous hydrate, which by a short passage into a cold dilute + solution of bleaching powder is oxidized and converted into the brown + manganic hydrate. This manganese bronze or brown colour is very + susceptible to, and readily bleached by, reducing agents; hence when + exposed to the action of an atmosphere in which gas is freely burnt, + the colour is liable to be discharged, especially where the fabric is + most exposed. In other respects manganese bronze is a very fast + colour. + +_Dyeing on a large Scale._--It is not possible to give here more than a +bare outline of the methods which are used on the large scale for dyeing +textile fibres, yarns and fabrics. In principle, dyeing is effected by +allowing an aqueous[1] solution of the dye-stuff, with or without +additions (alkalis, acids, salts, &c.), to act, usually at an elevated +temperature, on the material to be dyed. During the process it is +necessary, in order to ensure the uniform distribution of the dyestuff +in the material, that the latter should either be moved more or less +continuously in the dye liquor or that the dye liquor should be +circulated through the material. The former mode of operation is in +general use for hank, warp and piece dyeing, but for textile fibres in +the loose condition or in the form of "slubbing," "sliver" or "cops" +(see SPINNING) the latter method has, in consequence of the introduction +of improved machinery, come more and more into vogue within recent +years. + +_Loose Material._--Cotton and wool are frequently dyed in the loose +state, i.e. before being subjected to any mechanical treatment. The +simplest method of effecting this is to treat the material in open +vessels (boilers) which can be heated either by means of steam or direct +fire. Since, however, a certain amount of felting or matting of the +fibres cannot be avoided, it is frequently found to be more advantageous +to effect these treatments in specially constructed apparatus in which +the dye liquors are circulated through the material. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Dye-vat for Yarn.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +_Yarn._--Yarn may be dyed either in the hank, in the warp or in the cop, +i.e. in the form in which the yarn leaves the spinning frame. The dyeing +in the _hank_ is carried out in rectangular dye-vats constructed of wood +or stone like that shown in fig. 1, in which the hanks are suspended +from smooth wooden poles or rods resting on the sides, and are thus +immersed almost entirely in the dye liquor. The heating of the vat is +effected either by means of live steam, i.e. by blowing steam into the +dye solution from a perforated pipe which runs along the bottom of the +vat, or by means of a steam coil similarly situated. In order to expose +the hanks as uniformly as possible to the action of the dye liquor, they +are turned by hand at regular intervals until the operation is finished. +Washing off is effected in the same or in a similar vessel, after which +excess of water is removed by wringing by hand, through squeezing +rollers or, what is generally preferred, in a hydro-extractor +(centrifugal machine). The drying of the dyed and washed yarn is +generally effected by suspending it on poles in steam-heated drying +chambers. Yarn in the _warp_ is dyed in vats or "boxes" like that shown +in fig. 2, through which it is caused to pass continuously. The warps to +be dyed pass slowly up and down over the loose rollers in the first box +B, then through squeezing rollers S into the next, and the same thing +occurs in the second (also third and fourth in a four-box machine) box +A, whence they are delivered through a second pair of squeezing rollers +S1 into the wagon W. The boxes may contain the same or different +liquors, according to the nature of the dyestuff employed. Washing is +done in the same machine, while drying is effected on a cylinder drying +machine like that shown in figs. 8 and 9 of BLEACHING. Latterly, +machines have been introduced for dyeing warps on the beam, the dye +liquor being caused to circulate through the material, and the system +appears to be meeting with considerable success. Large quantities of +yarn, especially cotton, are now dyed in the cop. When the dyed yarn is +to be used as weft the main advantage of this method is at once +apparent, inasmuch as the labour, time and waste of material incurred by +reeling into hanks and then winding back into the compact form so as to +fit into the shuttle are avoided. On the other hand the number of fast +dyestuffs suitable for cop dyeing is very limited. In the original +cop-dyeing machine constructed by Graemiger a thin tapering perforated +metallic tube is inserted in the hollow of each cop. The cops are then +attached to a perforated disk (which constitutes the lid of a chamber or +box) by inserting the protruding ends of the tubes into the +perforations. The chamber is now immersed in the dye-bath and the hot +liquor is drawn through the cops by means of a centrifugal pump and +returned continuously to the dye-bath. This principle, which is known as +the skewer or spindle system, is the one on which most modern cop-dyeing +machines are based. In the so-called "compact" system of cop dyeing the +cops are packed as closely as possible in a box, the top and bottom (or +the two opposite sides) of which are perforated, the interstices between +the cops being filled up with loose cotton, ground cork or sand. The dye +liquor is then drawn by suction or forced by pressure through the box, +thus permeating and dyeing the cops. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Dye-jigger.] + +_Pieces._--Plain shades are usually dyed in the piece, this being the +most economical and at the same time the most expeditious means of +obtaining the desired effect. The dyeing of piece goods may be effected +by running them through the dye liquor either at full breadth or in rope +form. The machine in most common use for the first method is the +Lancashire "jigger," which is simple in principle and is shown in +section in fig. 3. It consists essentially of a dye-vessel constructed +of wood or cast iron and containing loose guide rollers, r and r, at the +top and bottom. By coupling up the roller B with the driving gear the +pieces which are batched on A are drawn through the dye liquor and +rolled on to B. A band brake (not shown in the figure) applied to the +axis of A gives the pieces the required amount of tension in passing +through the dye-bath. As soon as the whole of the pieces have passed +through in this way from A to B, the machine is reversed, and roller A +draws them back again through the bath in a similar way on to roller A. +This alternating process goes on until the dyeing is finished, when the +goods are washed off, squeezed and dried. The jigger is especially +useful in cotton piece dyeing, one great advantage being that it is +suited for what is known as a "short bath," i.e. a bath containing a +minimum amount of dye liquor, this being of great importance in the +application of dyestuffs which do not exhaust well, like the direct +colours and the sulphide colours. The padding machine is similar in +principle to the jigger, the pieces running over loose guide rollers +through the mordant or dye solution contained in a trough of suitable +shape and size, but on leaving the machine they pass through a pair of +squeezing rollers which uniformly express the excess of liquor and cause +it to be returned to the bath. The padding machine is used more for +preparing (mordanting, &c.) than for dyeing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Dye-vat for Piece Goods.] + +For the dyeing of pieces in rope form a so-called "dye-beck" is used, +which is a machine of larger dimensions than the jigger. Across the +dye-bath is attached a winch W (see fig. 4), by means of which the +pieces, sewn together at the ends so as to form an endless band, are +caused to circulate through the machine, being drawn up on the front +side of the machine and allowed to drop back into the dye liquor on the +other. This form of machine is particularly suited for the mordanting +and dyeing of heavy goods. Washing off may be done in the same machine. + +The drying of piece goods is done on steam-heated cylinders like those +used for the drying of bleached goods (see BLEACHING). + +The operations which precede dyeing vary according to the material to be +dyed and the effects which it is desired to produce. Loose wool, woollen +and worsted yarn and piece goods of the same material are almost +invariably scoured (see BLEACHING) before dyeing in order to remove the +oily or greasy impurities which would otherwise interfere with the +penetration of the dye solution. Silk is subjected to the process of +discharging or boiling off (see BLEACHING) in order to remove the silk +gum or sericine. Cotton which is to be dyed in dark shades does not +require any preparatory treatment, but for light or very bright shades +it is bleached before dyeing. Wool and silk are seldom bleached before +dyeing. Cotton, wool and union (cotton warp and worsted weft) fabrics +are frequently singed (see BLEACHING) before dyeing. Worsted yarn, +especially two-fold yarn, is very liable to curl and become entangled +when scoured, and in order to avoid this it is necessary to stretch and +"set" it. To this end it is stretched tight on a specially constructed +frame, placed in boiling water, and then cooled. Similarly, union +fabrics are liable to "cockle" when wetted, and although this defect may +be put right in finishing, spots of water or raindrops will give an +uneven appearance of a permanent character to the goods. To avoid this, +the pieces are subjected previous to dyeing to the so-called "crabbing" +process, in which they are drawn under great tension through boiling +water and wound on to perforated hollow cylinders. Steam is then blown +through the goods and they are allowed to cool. + + + Theory of dyeing. + +With respect to the question of colour, we meet with two kinds of +substances in nature, those which possess colour and those which do not. +Why this difference? The physicist says the former are bodies which +reflect all the coloured rays of the spectrum composing white light--if +opaque, they appear white; if transparent, they are colourless. The +latter are bodies which absorb some of the spectrum rays only, +reflecting the remainder, and these together produce the impression of +colour. A black substance is one which absorbs all the spectrum rays. +The fundamental reason, however, of this difference of action on the +part of substances towards light remains still unknown. All substances +which possess colour are not necessarily dyestuffs, and the question may +be again asked, Why? It is a remarkable circumstance that most of the +dyestuffs at present employed occur among the so-called aromatic or +benzene compounds derived from coal-tar, and a careful study of these +has furnished a general explanation of the point in question, which +briefly is, that the dyeing property of a substance depends upon its +chemical constitution. Speaking generally, those colouring matters which +have the simplest constitution are yellow, and as the molecular weight +increases their colour passes into orange, red, violet and blue. In +recent years chemists have begun to regard the constitution of nearly +all dyestuffs as similar to that of Quinone, and some even believe that +all coloured organic compounds have a quinonoid structure. According to +O.N. Witt, a colourless hydrocarbon, e.g. benzene, becomes coloured by +the introduction of one or more special groups of atoms, which he terms +the colour-bearing or _chromophorous groups_, e.g. NO2, -- N:N --, &c. +Benzene, for example, is colourless, whereas nitro-benzene and +azo-benzene are yellow. Such compounds containing chromophorous groups +are termed chromogens, because, although not dyestuffs themselves, they +are capable of generating such by the further introduction of +salt-forming atomic groups, e.g. OH, NH2. These Witt terms +_auxochromous_ groups. In this way the chromogen _tri-nitro-benzene_, +C6H3(NO2)3, becomes the dyestuff _tri-nitro-phenol_ (picric acid), +C6H2(NO2)3(OH), and the chromogen _azo-benzene_, C6H5·N : N·C6H5, is +changed into the dyestuff _amido-azo-benzene_ (Fast Yellow), C6H5·N : +N·C6H4(NH2). These two dyestuffs are typical of a large number which +possess either an acid or a basic character according as they contain +hydroxyl (OH) or amido (NH2) groups, and correspond to the Acid Colours +and Basic Colours to which reference has already been made. Other +important atomic groups which frequently occur, in addition to the +above, are the carboxyl (COOH) and the sulphonic acid (HSO3) groups; +these either increase the solubility of the colouring matter or assist +in causing it to be attracted by the fibre, &c. In many cases the free +colour-acid or free colour-base has little colour, this being only +developed in the salt. The free base rosaniline, for example, is +colourless, whereas the salt magenta (rosaniline hydrochloride) has a +deep crimson colour in solution. The free acid Alizarin is orange, while +its alumina-salt is bright red. It may be here stated that the +scientific classification of colouring matters into Nitro-colours, +Azo-colours, &c., already alluded to, is based on their chemical +constitution, or the chromophorous groups they contain, whereas the +classification according to their mode of application is dependent upon +the character and arrangement of the auxochromous groups. The question +of the mordant-dyeing property of certain colouring matters containing +(OH) and (COOH) groups has already been explained under the head of +_Artificial Mordant Colours_. + +The peculiar property characteristic of dyestuffs, as distinguished from +mere colouring matters, namely, that of being readily attracted by the +textile fibres, notably the animal fibres, appears then to be due to +their more or less marked acid or basic character. Intimately connected +with this is the fact that these fibres also exhibit partly basic and +partly acid characters, due to the presence of carboxyl and amido +groups. The behaviour of magenta is typical of the Basic Colours. As +already indicated, rosaniline, the base of magenta, is colourless, and +only becomes coloured by its union with an acid, and yet wool and silk +can be as readily dyed with the colourless rosaniline (base) as with the +magenta (salt). The explanation is that the base rosaniline has united +with the fibre, which here plays the part of an acid, to form a coloured +salt. It has also been proved that in dyeing the animal fibres with +magenta (rosaniline hydrochloride), the fibre unites with the rosaniline +only, and liberates the hydrochloric acid. Further, magenta will not dye +cotton unless the fibre is previously prepared, e.g. with the mordant +tannic acid, with which the base rosaniline unites to form an insoluble +salt. In dyeing wool it is the fibre itself which acts as the mordant. +In the case of the Acid Colours the explanation is similar. In many of +these the free colour-acid has quite a different colour from that of the +alkali-salt, and yet on dyeing wool or silk with the free colour-acid, +the fibre exhibits the colour of the alkali-salt and not of the +colour-acid. In this case the fibre evidently plays the part of a base. +Another fact in favour of the view that the union between fibre and +colouring matter is of a chemical nature, is that by altering the +chemical constitution of the fibre its dyeing properties are also +altered; oxycellulose and nitrocellulose, for example, have a greater +attraction for Basic Colours than cellulose. Such facts and +considerations as these have helped to establish the view that in the +case of dyeing animal fibres with many colouring matters the operation +is a _chemical_ process, and not merely a mechanical absorption of the +dyestuff. A similar explanation does not suffice, however, in the case +of dyeing cotton with the Direct Colours. These are attracted by cotton +from their solutions as alkali salts, apparently without decomposition. +The affinity existing between the fibre and colouring matter is somewhat +feeble, for the latter can be removed from the dyed fibre by merely +boiling with water. The depth of colour obtained in dyeing varies with +the concentration of the colour solution, or with the amount of some +neutral salt, e.g. sodium chloride, added as an assistant to the +dye-bath; moreover, the dye-bath is not exhausted. The colouring matter +is submitted to the action of two forces, the solvent power of the water +and the affinity of the fibre, and divides itself between the fibre and +the water. After dyeing for some time, a state of equilibrium is +attained in which the colouring matter is divided between the fibre and +the water in a given ratio, and prolonged dyeing does not intensify the +dyed colour. + +Some investigators hold the view that in some cases the fibres exert a +purely physical attraction towards colouring matters, and that the +latter are held in an unchanged state by the fibre. The phenomenon is +regarded as one of purely mechanical surface-attraction, and is compared +with that exercised by animal charcoal when employed in decolourizing a +solution of some colouring matter. Some consider such direct dyeing as +mere diffusion of the colouring matter into the fibre, and others that +the colouring matter is in a state of "solid solution" in the fibre, +similar to the solution of a metallic oxide in coloured glass. According +to this latter view, the cause of the dyeing of textile fibres is +similar to the attraction or solvent action exerted by ether when it +withdraws colouring matter from an aqueous solution by agitation. +Latterly the view has been advanced that dyeing is due to precipitation +of the colloid dyestuffs by the colloid substance of the fibre. + +In the case of colours which are dyed on mordants, the question is +merely transferred to the nature of the attraction which exists between +the fibre and the mordant, for it has been conclusively established that +the union between the colouring matter and the mordant is essentially +chemical in character. + +From our present knowledge it will be seen that we are unable to give a +final answer to the question of whether the dyeing process is to be +regarded as a chemical or a mechanical process. There are arguments and +facts which favour both views; but in the case of wool and silk dyeing, +the prevailing opinion in most cases is in favour of the chemical +theory, whereas in cotton-dyeing, the mechanical theory is widely +accepted. Probably no single theory can explain satisfactorily the +fundamental cause of attraction in all cases of dyeing, and further +investigation is needed to answer fully this very difficult and abstruse +question. + + + Conclusion. + +The poisonous nature or otherwise of the coal-tar dyes has been +frequently discussed, and the popular opinion, no doubt dating from the +time when magenta and its derivatives were contaminated with arsenic, +seems to be that they are for the most part really poisonous, and ought +to be avoided for colouring materials worn next the skin, for articles +of food, &c. It is satisfactory to know that most of the colours are not +poisonous, but some few are--namely, Picric acid, Victoria Orange, +Aurantia, Coralline, Metanil Yellow, Orange II. and Safranine. Many +coal-tar colours have, indeed, been recommended as antiseptics or as +medicinal remedies, e.g. Methyl Violet, Auramine and Methylene Blue, +because of their special physiological action. In histology and +bacteriology many coal-tar colours have rendered excellent service in +staining microscopic preparations, and have enabled the investigator to +detect differences of structure, &c., previously unsuspected. In +photography many of the more fugitive colouring matters, e.g. Cyanine, +Eosine, Quinoline Red, &c., are employed in the manufacture of +ortho-chromatic plates, by means of which the colours of natural objects +can be photographed in the same degrees of light and shade as they +appear to the eye--blue, for example, appearing a darker grey, yellow, a +lighter grey, in the printed photograph. + +Since the year 1856, in which the first coal-tar colour, mauve, was +discovered, the art of dyeing has made enormous advances, mainly in +consequence of the continued introduction of coal-tar colours having the +most varied properties and suitable for nearly every requirement. The +old idea that the vegetable dyestuffs are superior in fastness to light +is gradually being given up, and, if one may judge from the past, it +seems evident that in the future there will come a time when all our +dyestuffs will be prepared by artificial means. + + AUTHORITIES.--Macquer, Hellot and le Pileur d'Apligny, _The Art of + Dyeing Wool, Silk and Cotton_ (London, 1789); Bancroft, _Philosophy of + Permanent Colours_ (2 vols., London, 1813); Berthollet-Ure, _Elements + of the Art of Dyeing_ (2 vols., London, 1824); Chevreul, _Recherches + chimiques sur la teinture_ (Paris, 1835-1861); O'Neill, _The Chemistry + of Calico Printing, Dyeing and Bleaching_ (Manchester, 1860); + _Dictionary of Calico Printing and Dyeing_ (London, 1862); + Schützenberger, _Traité des matières colorantes_ (2 vols., Paris, + 1867); Bolley, _Die Spinnfasern und die im Pflanzen- und Thierkörper + vorkommenden Farbstoffe_ (1867); Crookes, _A Practical Handbook of + Dyeing and Calico-Printing_ (London, 1874); Jarmain, _Wool-Dyeing_ + (1876); O'Neill, _Textile Colourist_ (4 vols., Manchester, 1876); + Calvert, _Dyeing and Calico Printing_ (Manchester, 1876); Moyret, + _Traité de la teinture des soies_ (Lyon, 1877); O'Neill, _The Practice + and Principles of Calico Printing, Bleaching and Dyeing_ (Manchester, + 1878); Girardin, _Matières textiles et matières tinctoriales_ (Paris, + 1880); Hummel, _The Dyeing of Textile Fabrics_ (London, 1885); + Sansone, _Dyeing_ (Manchester, 1888); Witt, _Chemische Technologie der + Gespinnstfasern_ (Brunswick, 1888); Benedikt and Knecht, _The + Chemistry of the Coal-Tar Colours_ (London, 1889); Hurst, _Silk + Dyeing, Printing and Finishing_ (London, 1892); Noelting and Lehne, + _Anilinschwarz_ (Berlin, 1892); Knecht, Rawson and Loewenthal, _Manual + of Dyeing_ (London, 1908); Steinbeck, _Bleichen und Färben der Seide + und Halbseide_ (Berlin, 1895); Gardner, _Wool-Dyeing_ (Manchester, + 1896); Rawson, Gardner and Laycock, _A Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, + &c._ (London, 1901); Gros-Renaud, _Les Mordants en teinture et en + impression_ (Paris, 1898); Georgievics, _The Chemical Technology of + Textile Fabrics_ (London, 1902); Paterson, _The Science of Colour + Mixing_ (London, 1900); Paterson, _Colour Matching on Textiles_ + (London, 1901); Beech, _The Dyeing of Cotton Fabrics_ (London, 1901); + Beech, _The Dyeing of Woollen Fabrics_ (London, 1902); _The Journal of + the Society of Dyers and Colourists_ (Bradford, 1885-1908) and the + publications of the colour manufacturers. (J. J. H.; E. K.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The term "dry dyeing," which is carried out only to a very + limited extent, relates to the dyeing of fabrics with the dyestuff + dissolved in liquids other than water, e.g. benzene, alcohol, &c. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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