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diff --git a/3462.txt b/3462.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f2ef237 --- /dev/null +++ b/3462.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8184 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of More Hunting Wasps, by J. Henri Fabre + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: More Hunting Wasps + +Author: J. Henri Fabre + +Posting Date: February 12, 2009 [EBook #3462] +Release Date: October, 2002 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MORE HUNTING WASPS *** + + + + +Produced by Sue Asscher + + + + + +MORE HUNTING WASPS + +By J. Henri Fabre + + +Translated By Alexander Teixeira De Mattos, F. Z. S. + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. + +The fourteen chapters contained in this volume complete the list of +essays in the "Souvenirs entomologiques" devoted to Wasps. The remainder +will be found in the two earlier volumes of this collected edition +entitled "The Hunting Wasps" and the "Mason-wasps" respectively. + +Chapter 2 has appeared before in my version of "The Life and Love of +the Insect," an illustrated volume of extracts translated by myself and +published by Messrs. Adam and Charles Black (in America by the Macmillan +Co.), and Chapter 10 in a similar miscellany translated by Mr. Bernard +Miall published by Messrs. T. Fisher Unwin Ltd. (in America by the +Century Co.) under the title of "Social Life in the Insect World." These +two chapters are included in the present book by arrangement with the +original firms. + +I wish to place on record my thanks to Mr. Miall for the valuable +assistance which he has given me in preparing this translation. + +ALEXANDER TEIXEIRA DE MATTOS. + +Ventnor, I. W., 6 December, 1920. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + TRANSLATOR'S NOTE. + + CHAPTER 1. THE POMPILI. + + CHAPTER 2. THE SCOLIAE. + + CHAPTER 3. A DANGEROUS DIET. + + CHAPTER 4. THE CETONIA-LARVA. + + CHAPTER 5. THE PROBLEM OF THE SCOLIAE. + + CHAPTER 6. THE TACHYTES. + + CHAPTER 7. CHANGE OF DIET. + + CHAPTER 8. A DIG AT THE EVOLUTIONISTS. + + CHAPTER 9. RATIONING ACCORDING TO SEX. + + CHAPTER 10. THE BEE-EATING PHILANTHUS. + + CHAPTER 11. THE METHOD OF THE AMMOPHILAE. + + CHAPTER 12. THE METHOD OF THE SCOLIAE. + + CHAPTER 13. THE METHOD OF THE CALICURGI. + + CHAPTER 14. OBJECTIONS AND REJOINDERS. + + INDEX. + + + + +CHAPTER 1. THE POMPILI. + + +(This essay should be read in conjunction with that on the Black-bellied +Tarantula. Cf. "The Life of the Spider," by J. Henri Fabre, translated +by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: chapter 1.--Translator's Note.) + + +The Ammophila's caterpillar (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps," by J. Henri Fabre, +translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: chapters 13 and 18 to 20; +and Chapter 11 of the present volume.--Translator's Note.), the Bembex +(Cf. idem: chapter 14.--Translator's Note.), Gad-fly, the Cerceris (Cf. +idem: chapters 1 to 3.--Translator's Note.), Buprestis (A Beetle +usually remarkable for her brilliant colouring. Cf. idem: chapter +1.--Translator's Note.) and Weevil, the Sphex (Cf. idem: chapter 4 to +10.--Translator's Note.), Locust, Cricket and Ephippiger (Cf. "The Life +of the Grasshopper," by J. Henri Fabre, translated by Alexander +Teixeira de Mattos: chapters 13 and 14.--Translator's Note.): all +these inoffensive peaceable victims are like the silly Sheep of our +slaughter-houses; they allow themselves to be operated upon by the +paralyser, submitting stupidly, without offering much resistance. The +mandibles gape, the legs kick and protest, the body wriggles and twists; +and that is all. They have no weapons capable of contending with the +assassin's dagger. I should like to see the huntress grappling with +an imposing adversary, one as crafty as herself, an expert layer of +ambushes and, like her, bearing a poisoned dirk. I should like to see +the bandit armed with her stiletto confronted by another bandit equally +familiar with the use of that weapon. Is such a duel possible? Yes, it +is quite possible and even quite common. On the one hand we have the +Pompili, the protagonists who are always victorious; on the other hand +we have the Spiders, the protagonists who are always overthrown. + +Who that has diverted himself, however little, with the study of insects +does not know the Pompili? Against old walls, at the foot of the banks +beside unfrequented footpaths, in the stubble after the harvest, in the +tangles of dry grass, wherever the Spider spreads her nets, who has not +seen them busily at work, now running hither and thither, at random, +their wings raised and quivering above their backs, now moving from +place to place in flights long or short? They are hunting for a quarry +which might easily turn the tables and itself prey upon the trapper +lying in wait for it. + +The Pompili feed their larvae solely on Spiders; and the Spiders feed on +any insect, commensurate with their size, that is caught in their nets. +While the first possess a sting, the second have two poisoned fangs. +Often their strength is equally matched; indeed the advantage is +not seldom on the Spider's side. The Wasp has her ruses of war, her +cunningly premeditated strokes: the Spider has her wiles and her set +traps; the first has the advantage of great rapidity of movement, while +the second is able to rely upon her perfidious web; the one has a sting +which contrives to penetrate the exact point to cause paralysis, the +other has fangs which bite the back of the neck and deal sudden death. +We find the paralyser on the one hand and the slaughterer on the other. +Which of the two will become the other's prey? + +If we consider only the relative strength of the adversaries, the power +of their weapons, the virulence of their poisons and their different +modes of action, the scale would very often be weighted in favour of the +Spider. Since the Pompilus always emerges victorious from this contest, +which appears to be full of peril for her, she must have a special +method, of which I would fain learn the secret. + +In our part of the country, the most powerful and courageous +Spider-huntress is the Ringed Pompilus (Calicurgus annulatus, FAB.), +clad in black and yellow. She stands high on her legs; and her wings +have black tips, the rest being yellow, as though exposed to smoke, like +a bloater. Her size is about that of the Hornet (Vespa crabro). She is +rare. I see three or four of her in the course of the year; and I never +fail to halt in the presence of the proud insect, rapidly striding +through the dust of the fields when the dog-days arrive. Its audacious +air, its uncouth gait, its war-like bearing long made me suspect that +to obtain its prey it had to make some impossible, terrible, unspeakable +capture. And my guess was correct. By dint of waiting and watching +I beheld that victim; I saw it in the huntress' mandibles. It is the +Black-bellied Tarantula, the terrible Spider who slays a Carpenter-bee +or a Bumble-bee outright with one stroke of her weapon; the Spider who +kills a Sparrow or a Mole; the formidable creature whose bite would +perhaps not be without danger to ourselves. Yes, this is the bill of +fare which the proud Pompilus provides for her larva. + +This spectacle, one of the most striking with which the Hunting Wasps +have ever provided me, has as yet been offered to my eyes but once; and +that was close beside my rural home, in the famous laboratory of the +harmas. (The enclosed piece of waste land on which the author studied +his insects in their native state. Cf. "The Life of the Fly," by +J. Henri Fabre, translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: chapter +1.--Translator's Note.) I can still see the intrepid poacher dragging by +the leg, at the foot of a wall, the monstrous prize which she had just +secured, doubtless at no great distance. At the base of the wall was a +hole, an accidental chink between some of the stones. The Wasp inspected +the cavern, not for the first time: she had already reconnoitred it +and the premises had satisfied her. The prey, deprived of the power of +movement, was waiting somewhere, I know not where; and the huntress had +gone back to fetch it and store it away. It was at this moment that +I met her. The Pompilus gave a last glance at the cave, removed a few +small fragments of loose mortar; and with that her preparations were +completed. The Lycosa (The Spider in question is known indifferently +as the Black-bellied Tarantula and the Narbonne Lycosa.--Translator's +Note.) was introduced, dragged along, belly upwards, by one leg. I +did not interfere. Presently the Wasp reappeared on the surface and +carelessly pushed in front of the hole the bits of mortar which she had +just extracted from it. Then she flew away. It was all over. The egg was +laid; the insect had finished for better or for worse; and I was able to +proceed with my examination of the burrow and its contents. + +The Pompilus has done no digging. It is really an accidental hole with +spacious winding passages, the result of the mason's negligence and not +of the Wasp's industry. The closing of the cavity is quite as rough and +summary. A few crumbs of mortar, heaped up before the doorway, form a +barricade rather than a door. A mighty hunter makes a poor architect. +The Tarantula's murderess does not know how to dig a cell for her larva; +she does not know how to fill up the entrance by sweeping dust into it. +The first hole encountered at the foot of a wall contents her, provided +that it be roomy enough; a little heap of rubbish will do for a door. +Nothing could be more expeditious. + +I withdraw the game from the hole. The egg is stuck to the Spider, near +the beginning of the belly. A clumsy movement on my part makes it fall +off at the moment of extraction. It is all over: the thing will not +hatch; I shall not be able to observe the development of the larva. The +Tarantula lies motionless, flexible as in life, with not a trace of a +wound. In short, we have here life without movement. From time to time +the tips of the tarsi quiver a little; and that is all. Accustomed of +old to these deceptive corpses, I can see in my mind's eye what has +happened: the Spider has been stung in the region of the thorax, no +doubt once only, in view of the concentration of her nervous system. I +place the victim in a box in which it retains all the pliancy and all +the freshness of life from the 2nd of August to the 20th of September, +that is to say, for seven weeks. These miracles are familiar to us (Cf. +"The Hunting Wasps": passim.--Translator's Note.); there is no need to +linger over them here. + +The most important matter has escaped me. What I wanted, what I still +want to see is the Pompilus engaged in mortal combat with the Lycosa. +What a duel, in which the cunning of the one has to overcome the +terrible weapons of the other! Does the Wasp enter the burrow to +surprise the Tarantula at the bottom of her lair? Such temerity would +be fatal to her. Where the big Bumble-bee dies an instant death, the +audacious visitor would perish the moment she entered. Is not the other +there, facing her, ready to snap at the back of her head, inflicting +a wound which would result in sudden death? No, the Pompilus does not +enter the Spider's parlour, that is obvious. Does she surprise the +Spider outside her fortress? But the Lycosa is a stay-at-home animal; I +do not see her straying abroad during the summer. Later, in the autumn, +when the Pompili have disappeared, She wanders about; turning gipsy, she +takes the open air with her numerous family, which she carries on her +back. Apart from these maternal strolls, she does not appear to me to +leave her castle; and the Pompilus, I should think, has no great +chance of meeting her outside. The problem, we perceive, is becoming +complicated: the huntress cannot make her way into the burrow, where +she would risk sudden death; and the Spider's sedentary habits make an +encounter outside the burrow improbable. Here is a riddle which would +be interesting to decipher. Let us endeavour to do so by observing other +Spider-hunters; analogy will enable us to draw a conclusion. + +I have often watched Pompili of every species on their +hunting-expeditions, but I have never surprised them entering the +Spider's lodging when the latter was at home. Whether this lodging be a +funnel plunging its neck into a hole in some wall, an awning stretched +amid the stubble, a tent modelled upon the Arab's, a sheath formed of a +few leaves bound together, or a net with a guard-room attached, whenever +the owner is indoors the suspicious Pompilus holds aloof. When the +dwelling is vacant, it is another matter: the Wasp moves with arrogant +ease over those webs, springes and cables in which so many other insects +would remain ensnared. The silken threads do not seem to have any hold +upon her. What is she doing, exploring those empty webs? She is watching +to see what is happening on the adjacent webs where the Spider is +ambushed. The Pompilus therefore feels an insuperable reluctance to make +straight for the Spider when the latter is at home in the midst of +her snares. And she is right, a hundred times over. If the Tarantula +understands the practice of the dagger-thrust in the neck, which is +immediately fatal, the other cannot be unacquainted with it. Woe then to +the imprudent Wasp who presents herself upon the threshold of a Spider +of approximately equal strength! + +Of the various instances which I have collected of this cautious reserve +on the Spider-huntress' part I will confine myself to the following, +which will be sufficient to prove my point. By joining, with silken +strands, the three folioles which form the leaf of Virgil's cytisus, a +Spider has built herself a green arbour, a horizontal sheath, open at +either end. A questing Pompilus comes upon the scene, finds the game to +her liking and pops in her head at the entrance of the cell. The Spider +immediately retreats to the other end. The huntress goes round the +Spider's dwelling and reappears at the other door. Again the Spider +retreats, returning to the first entrance. The Wasp also returns to it, +but always by the outside. Scarcely has she done so, when the Spider +rushes for the opposite opening; and so on for fully a quarter of an +hour, both of them coming and going from one end of the cylinder to the +other, the Spider inside and the Pompilus outside. + +The quarry was a valuable one, it seems, since the Wasp persisted for a +long time in her attempts, which were invariably defeated; however, the +huntress had to abandon them, baffled by this perpetual running to and +fro. The Pompilus made off; and the Spider, once more on the watch, +patiently awaited the heedless Midges. What should the Wasp have done +to capture this much-coveted game? She should have entered the verdant +cylinder, the Spider's dwelling, and pursued the Spider direct, in her +own house, instead of remaining outside, going from one door to the +other. With such swiftness and dexterity as hers, it seemed to me +impossible that the stroke should fail: the quarry moved clumsily, a +little sideways, like a Crab. I judged it to be an easy matter; the +Pompilus thought it highly dangerous. To-day I am of her opinion: if +she had entered the leafy tube, the mistress of the house would have +operated on her neck and the huntress would have become the quarry. + +Years passed and the paralyser of the Spiders still refused to reveal +her secret; I was badly served by circumstances, could find no leisure, +was absorbed in unrelenting preoccupations. At length, during my last +year at Orange, the light dawned upon me. My garden was enclosed by an +old wall, blackened and ruined by time, where, in the chinks between the +stones, lived a population of Spiders, represented more particularly by +Segestria perfidia. This is the common Black Spider, or Cellar Spider. +She is deep black all over, excepting the mandibles, which are a +splendid metallic green. Her two poisoned daggers look like a product of +the metal-worker's art, like the finest bronze. In any mass of abandoned +masonry there is not a quiet corner, not a hole the size of one's +finger, in which the Segestria does not set up house. Her web is a +widely flaring funnel, whose open end, at most a span across, lies +spread upon the surface of the wall, where it is held in place by +radiating threads. This conical surface is continued by a tube which +runs into a hole in the wall. At the end is the dining-room to which the +Spider retires to devour at her ease her captured prey. + +With her two hind-legs stuck into the tube to obtain a purchase and the +six others spread around the orifice, the better to perceive on every +side the quiver which gives the signal of a capture, the Segestria +waits motionless, at the entrance of her funnel, for an insect to become +entangled in the snare. Large Flies, Drone-flies, dizzily grazing some +thread of the snare with their wings, are her usual victims. At the +first flutter of the netted Fly, the Spider runs or even leaps forward, +but she is now secured by a cord which escapes from the spinnerets and +which has its end fastened to the silken tube. This prevents her from +falling as she darts along a vertical surface. Bitten at the back of the +head, the Drone-fly is dead in a moment; and the Segestria carries him +into her lair. + +Thanks to this method and these hunting-appliances--an ambush at the +bottom of a silken whirlpool, radiating snares, a life-line which holds +her from behind and allows her to take a sudden rush without risking +a fall--the Segestria is able to catch game less inoffensive than the +Drone-fly. A Common Wasp, they tell me, does not daunt her. Though I +have not tested this, I readily believe it, for I well know the Spider's +boldness. + +This boldness is reinforced by the activity of the venom. It is enough +to have seen the Segestria capture some large Fly to be convinced of the +overwhelming effect of her fangs upon the insects bitten in the +neck. The death of the Drone-fly, entangled in the silken funnel, +is reproduced by the sudden death of the Bumble-bee on entering the +Tarantula's burrow. We know the effect of the poison on man, thanks +to Antoine Duges' investigations. (Antoine Louis Duges (1797-1838), a +French physician and physiologist, author of a "Traite de +physiologie comparee de l'homme et des animaux" and other scientific +works.--Translator's Note.) Let us listen to the brave experimenter: + +"The treacherous Segestria, or Great Cellar Spider, reputed poisonous +in our part of the country, was chosen for the principal subject of our +experiments. She was three-quarters of an inch long, measured from the +mandibles to the spinnerets. Taking her in my fingers from behind, by +the legs, which were folded and gathered together (this is the way to +catch hold of live Spiders, if you would avoid their bite and master +them without mutilating them), I placed her on various objects and on +my clothes, without her manifesting the least desire to do any harm; but +hardly was she laid on the bare skin of my fore-arm when she seized a +fold of the epidermis in her powerful mandibles, which are of a metallic +green, and drove her fangs deep into it. For a few moments she remained +hanging, although left free; then she released herself, fell and fled, +leaving two tiny wounds, a sixth of an inch apart, red, but hardly +bleeding, with a slight extravasation round the edge and resembling the +wounds produced by a large pin. + +"At the moment of the bite, the sensation was sharp enough to deserve +the name of pain; and this continued for five or six minutes more, but +not so forcibly. I might compare it with the sensation produced by the +stinging-nettle. A whitish tumefaction almost immediately surrounded the +two pricks; and the circumference, within a radius of about an inch, was +coloured an erysipelas red, accompanied by a very slight swelling. In an +hour and a half, it had all disappeared, except the mark of the pricks, +which persisted for several days, as any other small wound would +have done. This was in September, in rather cool weather. Perhaps the +symptoms would have displayed somewhat greater severity at a warmer +season." + +Without being serious, the effect of the Segestria's poison is plainly +marked. A sting causing sharp pain and swelling, with the redness of +erysipelas, is no trifling matter. While Duges' experiment reassures us +in so far as we ourselves are concerned, it is none the less the fact +that the Cellar Spider's poison is a terrible thing for insects, whether +because of the small size of the victim, or because it acts with special +efficacy upon an organization which differs widely from our own. One +Pompilus, though greatly inferior to the Segestria in size and +strength, nevertheless makes war upon the Black Spider and succeeds in +overpowering this formidable quarry. This is Pompilus apicalis, VAN DER +LIND, who is hardly larger than the Hive-bee, but very much slenderer. +She is of a uniform black; her wings are a cloudy brown, with +transparent tips. Let us follow her in her expeditions to the old wall +inhabited by the Segestria: we will track her for whole afternoons +during the July heats; and we will arm ourselves with patience, for the +perilous capture of the game must take the Wasp a long time. + +The Spider-huntress explores the wall minutely; she runs, leaps and +flies; she comes and goes, flitting to and fro. The antennae quiver; the +wings, raised above the back, continually beat one against the other. +Ah, here she is, close to a Segestria's funnel! The Spider, who has +hitherto remained invisible, instantly appears at the entrance to +the tube; she spreads her six fore-legs outside, ready to receive the +huntress. Far from fleeing before the terrible apparition, she watches +the watcher, fully prepared to prey upon her enemy. Before this intrepid +demeanour the Pompilus draws back. She examines the coveted game, walks +round it for a moment, then goes away without attempting anything. When +she has gone, the Segestria retires indoors, backwards. For the second +time the Wasp passes near an inhabited funnel. The Spider on the lookout +at once shows herself on the threshold of her dwelling, half out of her +tube, ready for defence and perhaps also for attack. The Pompilus moves +away and the Segestria reenters her tube. A fresh alarm: the Pompilus +returns; another threatening demonstration on the part of the Spider. +Her neighbour, a little later, does better than this: while the huntress +is prowling about in the neighbourhood of the funnel, she suddenly leaps +out of the tube, with the lifeline which will save her from falling, +should she miss her footing, attached to her spinnerets; she rushes +forward and hurls herself in front of the Pompilus, at a distance +of some eight inches from her burrow. The Wasp, as though terrified, +immediately decamps; and the Segestria no less suddenly retreats +indoors. + +Here, we must admit, is a strange quarry: it does not hide, but is eager +to show itself; it does not run away, but flings itself in front of the +hunter. If our observations were to cease here, could we say which of +the two is the hunter and which the hunted? Should we not feel sorry for +the imprudent Pompilus? Let a thread of the trap entangle her leg; and +it is all up with her. The other will be there, stabbing her in the +throat. What then is the method which she employs against the Segestria, +always on the alert, ready for defence, audacious to the point of +aggression? Shall I surprise the reader if I tell him that this problem +filled me with the most eager interest, that it held me for weeks in +contemplation before that cheerless wall? Nevertheless, my tale will be +a short one. + +On several occasions I see the Pompilus suddenly fling herself on one of +the Spider's legs, seize it with her mandibles and endeavour to draw the +animal from its tube. It is a sudden rush, a surprise attack, too +quick to permit the Spider to parry it. Fortunately, the latter's two +hind-legs are firmly hooked to the dwelling; and the Segestria escapes +with a jerk, for the other, having delivered her shock attack, hastens +to release her hold; if she persisted, the affair might end badly for +her. Having failed in this assault, the Wasp repeats the procedure +at other funnels; she will even return to the first when the alarm is +somewhat assuaged. Still hopping and fluttering, she prowls around the +mouth, whence the Segestria watches her, with her legs outspread. She +waits for the propitious moment; she leaps forward, seizes a leg, tugs +at it and springs out of reach. More often than not, the Spider holds +fast; sometimes she is dragged out of the tube, to a distance of a few +inches, but immediately returns, no doubt with the aid of her unbroken +lifeline. + +The Pompilus' intention is plain: she wants to eject the Spider from her +fortress and fling her some distance away. So much perseverance leads to +success. This time all goes well: with a vigorous and well-timed tug +the Wasp has pulled the Segestria out and at once lets her drop to +the ground. Bewildered by her fall and even more demoralized by being +wrested from her ambush, the Spider is no longer the bold adversary that +she was. She draws her legs together and cowers into a depression in +the soil. The huntress is there on the instant to operate on the evicted +animal. I have barely time to draw near to watch the tragedy when the +victim is paralysed by a thrust of the sting in the thorax. + +Here at last, in all its Machiavellian cunning, is the shrewd method +of the Pompilus. She would be risking her life if she attacked the +Segestria in her home; the Wasp is so convinced of it that she takes +good care not to commit this imprudence; but she knows also that, once +dislodged from her dwelling, the Spider is as timid, as cowardly as she +was bold at the centre of her funnel. The whole point of her tactics, +therefore, lies in dislodging the creature. This done, the rest is +nothing. + +The Tarantula-huntress must behave in the same manner. Enlightened +by her kinswoman, Pompilus apicalis, my mind pictures her wandering +stealthily around the Lycosa's rampart. The Lycosa hurries up from +the bottom of her burrow, believing that a victim is approaching; she +ascends her vertical tube, spreading her fore-legs outside, ready to +leap. But it is the Ringed Pompilus who leaps, seizes a leg, tugs and +hurls the Lycosa from her burrow. The Spider is henceforth a craven +victim, who will let herself be stabbed without dreaming of employing +her venomous fangs. Here craft triumphs over strength; and this craft is +not inferior to mine, when, wishing to capture the Tarantula, I make her +bite a spike of grass which I dip into the burrow, lead her gently +to the surface and then with a sudden jerk throw her outside. For the +entomologist as for the Pompilus, the essential thing is to make the +Spider leave her stronghold. After this there is no difficulty in +catching her, thanks to the utter bewilderment of the evicted animal. + +Two contrasting points impress me in the facts which I have just set +forth: the shrewdness of the Pompilus and the folly of the Spider. I +will admit that the Wasp may gradually have acquired, as being highly +beneficial to her posterity, the instinct by which she first of all so +judiciously drags the victim from its refuge, in order there to paralyse +it without incurring danger, provided that you will explain why the +Segestria, possessing an intellect no less gifted than that of the +Pompilus, does not yet know how to counteract the trick of which she +has so long been the victim. What would the Black Spider need to do to +escape her exterminator? Practically nothing: it would be enough for her +to withdraw into her tube, instead of coming up to post herself at the +entrance, like a sentry, whenever the enemy is in the neighbourhood. It +is very brave of her, I agree, but also very risky. The Pompilus will +pounce upon one of the legs spread outside the burrow for defence +and attack; and the besieged Spider will perish, betrayed by her own +boldness. This posture is excellent when waiting for prey. But the Wasp +is not a quarry; she is an enemy and one of the most dreaded of enemies. +The Spider knows this. At the sight of the Wasp, instead of placing +herself fearlessly but foolishly on her threshold, why does she not +retreat into her fortress, where the other would not attack her? The +accumulated experience of generations should have taught her this +elementary tactical device, which is of the greatest value to the +prosperity of her race. If the Pompilus has perfected her method of +attack, why has not the Segestria perfected her method of defence? Is it +possible that centuries upon centuries should have modified the one +to its advantage without succeeding in modifying the other? Here I am +utterly at a loss. And I say to myself, in all simplicity: since the +Pompili must have Spiders, the former have possessed their patient +cunning and the other their foolish audacity from all time. This may +be puerile, if you like to think it so, and not in keeping with the +transcendental aims of our fashionable theorists; the argument contains +neither the subjective nor the objective point of view, neither +adaptation nor differentiation, neither atavism nor evolutionism. Very +well, but at least I understand it. + +Let us return to the habits of Pompilus apicalis. Without expecting +results of any particular interest, for in captivity the respective +talents of the huntress and the quarry seem to slumber, I place +together, in a wide jar, a Wasp and a Segestria. The Spider and her +enemy mutually avoid each other, both being equally timid. A judicious +shake or two brings them into contact. The Segestria, from time to time, +catches hold of the Pompilus, who gathers herself up as best she can, +without attempting to use her sting; the Spider rolls the insect between +her legs and even between her mandibles, but appears to dislike doing +it. Once I see her lie on her back and hold the Pompilus above her, +as far away as possible, while turning her over in her fore-legs +and munching at her with her mandibles. The Wasp, whether by her own +adroitness or owing to the Spider's dread of her, promptly escapes +from the terrible fangs, moves to a short distance and does not seem to +trouble unduly about the buffeting which she has received. She quietly +polishes her wings and curls her antennae by pulling them while standing +on them with her fore-tarsi. The attack of the Segestria, stimulated by +my shakes, is repeated ten times over; and the Pompilus always escapes +from the venomous fangs unscathed, as though she were invulnerable. + +Is she really invulnerable? By no means, as we shall soon have proved to +us; if she retires safe and sound, it is because the Spider does not use +her fangs. What we see is a sort of truce, a tacit convention forbidding +deadly strokes, or rather the demoralization due to captivity; and the +two adversaries are no longer in a sufficiently warlike mood to make +play with their daggers. The tranquillity of the Pompilus, who keeps on +jauntily curling her antennae in face of the Segestria, reassures me +as to my prisoner's fate; for greater security, however, I throw her a +scrap of paper, in the folds of which she will find a refuge during +the night. She instals herself there, out of the Spider's reach. Next +morning I find her dead. During the night the Segestria, whose habits +are nocturnal, has recovered her daring and stabbed her enemy. I had +my suspicions that the parts played might be reversed! The butcher of +yesterday is the victim of to-day. + +I replace the Pompilus by a Hive-bee. The interview is not protracted. +Two hours later, the Bee is dead, bitten by the Spider. A Drone-fly +suffers the same fate. The Segestria, however, does not touch either of +the two corpses, any more than she touched the corpse of the Pompilus. +In these murders the captive seems to have no other object than to rid +herself of a turbulent neighbour. When appetite awakes, perhaps the +victims will be turned to account. They were not; and the fault was +mine. I placed in the jar a Bumble-bee of average size. A day later the +Spider was dead; the rude sharer of her captivity had done the deed. + +Let us say no more of these unequal duels in the glass prison and +complete the story of the Pompilus whom we left at the foot of the wall +with the paralysed Segestria. She abandons her prey on the ground and +returns to the wall. She visits the Spider's funnels one by one, walking +on them as freely as on the stones; she inspects the silken tubes, +dipping her antennae into them, sounding and exploring them; she enters +without the least hesitation. Whence does she now derive the temerity +thus to enter the Segestria's haunts? But a little while ago, she +was displaying extreme caution; at this moment, she seems heedless +of danger. The fact is that there is no danger really. The Wasp is +inspecting uninhabited houses. When she dives down a silken tunnel, she +very well knows that there is no one in, for, had the Segestria been +there, she would by this time have appeared on the threshold. The fact +that the householder does not show herself at the first vibration of the +neighbouring threads is a certain proof that the tube is vacant; and the +Pompilus enters in full security. I would recommend future observers not +to take the present investigations for hunting-tactics. I have already +remarked and I repeat: the Pompilus never enters the silken ambush while +the Spider is there. + +Among the funnels inspected one appears to suit her better than +the others; she returns to it frequently in the course of her +investigations, which last for nearly an hour. From time to time she +hastens back to the Spider lying on the ground; she examines her, tugs +at her, drags her a little closer to the wall, then leaves her the +better to reconnoitre the tunnel which is the object of her preference. +Lastly she returns to the Segestria and takes her by the tip of the +abdomen. The quarry is so heavy that she has great difficulty in moving +it along the level ground. Two inches divide it from the wall. She gets +to the wall, not without effort; nevertheless, once the wall is reached, +the job is quickly done. We learn that Antaeus, the son of Mother Earth, +in his struggle with Hercules, received new strength as often as his +feet touched the ground; the Pompilus, the daughter of the wall, seems +to increase her powers tenfold once she has set foot on the masonry. + +For here is the Wasp hoisting her prey backwards, her enormous prey, +which dangles beneath her. She climbs now a vertical plane, now a slope, +according to the uneven surface of the stones. She crosses gaps where +she has to go belly uppermost, while the quarry swings to and fro in the +air. Nothing stops her; she keeps on climbing, to a height of six feet +or more, without selecting her path, without seeing her goal, since she +goes backwards. A lodge appears no doubt reconnoitred beforehand and +reached, despite the difficulties of an ascent which did not allow her +to see it. The Pompilus lays her prey on it. The silken tube which she +inspected so lovingly is only some eight inches distant. She goes to it, +examines it rapidly and returns to the Spider, whom she at length lowers +down the tube. + +Shortly afterwards I see her come out again. She searches here and +there on the wall for a few scraps of mortar, two or three fairly large +pieces, which she carries to the tube, to close it up. The task is done. +She flies away. + +Next day I inspect this strange burrow. The Spider is at the bottom of +the silken tube, isolated on every side, as though in a hammock. The +Wasp's egg is glued not to the ventral surface of the victim but to the +back, about the middle, near the beginning of the abdomen. It is white, +cylindrical and about a twelfth of an inch long. The few bits of mortar +which I saw carried have but very roughly blocked the silken chamber at +the end. Thus Pompilus apicalis lays her quarry and her eggs not in a +burrow of her own making, but in the Spider's actual house. Perhaps the +silken tube belongs to this very victim, which in that event provides +both board and lodging. What a shelter for the larva of this Pompilus: +the warm retreat and downy hammock of the Segestria! + +Here then, already, we have two Spider-huntresses, the Ringed Pompilus +and P. apicalis, who, unversed in the miner's craft, establish their +offspring inexpensively in accidental chinks in the walls, or even in +the lair of the Spider on whom the larva feeds. In these cells, acquired +without exertion, they build only an attempt at a wall with a few +fragments of mortar. But we must beware of generalizing about this +expeditious method of establishment. Other Pompili are true diggers, +valiantly sinking a burrow in the soil, to a depth of a couple of +inches. These include the Eight-spotted Pompilus (P. octopunctatus, +PANZ.), with her black-and-yellow livery and her amber wings, a little +darker at the tips. For her game she chooses the Epeirae (E. fasciata, +E. sericea) (For the Garden-spiders known as the Banded Epeira and +the Silky Epeira cf. "The Life of the Spider": chapters 11, 13, 14 et +passim.--Translator's Note.), those fat Spiders, magnificently adorned, +who lie in wait at the centre of their large, vertical webs. I am not +sufficiently acquainted with her habits to describe them; above all, I +know nothing of her hunting-tactics. But her dwelling is familiar to +me: it is a burrow, which I have seen her begin, complete and close +according to the customary method of the Digger-wasps. + + + +CHAPTER 2. THE SCOLIAE. + +Were strength to take precedence over the other zoological attributes, +the Scoliae would hold a predominant place in the front rank of the +Wasps. Some of them may be compared in size with the little bird from +the north, the Golden-crested Wren, who comes to us at the time of the +first autumn mists and visits the rotten buds. The largest and most +imposing of our sting-bearers, the Carpenter-bee, the Bumble-bee, the +Hornet, cut a poor figure beside certain of the Scoliae. Of this group +of giants my district possesses the Garden Scolia (S. hortorum, VAN DER +LIND), who is over an inch and a half in length and measures four inches +from tip to tip of her outspread wings, and the Hemorrhoidal Scolia (S. +haemorrhoidalis, VAN DER LIND), who rivals the Garden Scolia in point of +size and is distinguished more particularly by the bundle of red hairs +bristling at the tip of the abdomen. + +A black livery, with broad yellow patches; leathery wings, +amber-coloured, like the skin of an onion, and watered with purple +reflections; thick, knotted legs, covered with sharp hairs; a massive +frame; a powerful head, encased in a hard cranium; a stiff, clumsy gait; +a low, short, silent flight: this gives you a concise description of the +female, who is strongly equipped for her arduous task. The male, being a +mere philanderer, sports a more elegant pair of horns, is more daintily +clad and has a more graceful figure, without altogether losing the +quality of robustness which is his consort's leading characteristic. + +It is not without a certain alarm that the insect-collector finds +himself for the first time confronted by the Garden Scolia. How is he to +capture the imposing creature, how to avoid its sting? If its effect +is in proportion to the Wasp's size, the sting of the Scolia must be +something terrible. The Hornet, though she unsheath her weapon but +once, causes the most exquisite pain. What would it be like if one were +stabbed by this colossus? The prospect of a swelling as big as a man's +fist and as painful as the touch of a red-hot iron passes through our +mind at the moment when we are bringing down the net. And we refrain, +we beat a retreat, we are greatly relieved not to have aroused the +dangerous creature's attention. + +Yes, I confess to having run away from my first Scoliae, anxious though +I was to enrich my budding collection with this magnificent insect. +There were painful recollections of the Common Wasp and the Hornet +connected with this excess of prudence. I say excess, for to-day, +instructed by long experience, I have quite recovered from my former +fears; and, when I see a Scolia resting on a thistle-head, I do not +scruple to take her in my fingers, without any precaution whatever, +however large she may be and however menacing her aspect. My courage is +not all that it seems to be; I am quite ready to tell the Wasp-hunting +novice this. The Scoliae are notably peaceable. Their sting is an +implement of labour far more than a weapon of war; they use it to +paralyse the prey destined for their offspring; and only in the last +extremity do they employ it in self-defence. Moreover, the lack of +agility in their movements nearly always enables us to avoid their +sting; and, even if we be stung, the pain is almost insignificant. +This absence of any acute smarting as a result of the poison is almost +constant in the Hunting Wasps, whose weapon is a surgical lancet and +devised for the most delicate physiological operations. + +Among the other Scoliae of my district I will mention the Two-banded +Scolia (S. bifasciata, VAN DER LIND), whom I see every year, in +September, working at the heaps of leaf-mould which are placed for +her benefit in a corner of my paddock; and the Interrupted Scolia (S. +interrupta, LATR.), the inhabitant of the sandy soil at the foot of the +neighbouring hills. Much smaller than the two preceding insects, but +also much commoner, a necessary condition of continuous observation, +they will provide me with the principal data for this study of the +Scoliae. + +I open my old note book; and I see myself once more, on the 6th of +August, 1857, in the Bois des Issards, that famous copse near Avignon +which I have celebrated in my essay on the Bembex-wasps. (Cf. "The +Hunting Wasps": chapter 14.--Translator's Note.) Once again, my head +crammed with entomological projects, I am at the beginning of my +holidays which, for two months, will allow me to indulge in the insect's +company. + +A fig for Mariotte's flask and Toricelli's tube! (Edme Mariotte +(1620-1684), a French chemist who discovered, independently of Robert +Boyle the Irishman (1627-1691), the law generally known as Boyle's law, +which states that the product of the volume and the temperature of a gas +is constant at constant temperature. His flask is an apparatus contrived +to illustrate atmospheric pressure and ensure a constant flow of +liquid.--Translator's Note.) (Evangelista Toricelli (1608-1647), a +disciple of Galileo and professor of philosophy and mathematics at +Florence. His "tube" is our mercury barometer. He was the first to +obtain a vacuum by means of mercury; and he also improved the microscope +and the telescope.--Translator's Note.) This is the thrice-blest period +when I cease to be a schoolmaster and become a schoolboy, the schoolboy +in love with animals. Like a madder-cutter off for his day's work, I +set out carrying over my shoulder a solid digging-implement, the local +luchet, and on my back my game-bag with boxes, bottles, trowel, glass +tubes, tweezers, lenses and other impedimenta. A large umbrella saves me +from sunstroke. It is the most scorching hour of the hottest day in the +year. Exhausted by the heat, the Cicadae are silent. The bronze-eyed +Gad-flies seek a refuge from the pitiless sun under the roof of my +silken shelter; other large Flies, the sobre-hued Pangoniae, dash +themselves recklessly against my face. + +The spot at which I have installed myself is a sandy clearing which I +had recognized the year before as a site beloved of the Scoliae. Here +and there are scattered thickets of holm-oak, whose dense undergrowth +shelters a bed of dead leaves and a thin layer of mould. My memory has +served me well. Here, sure enough, as the heat grows a little less, +appear, coming I know not from whence, some Two-banded Scoliae. The +number increases; and it is not long before I see very nearly a dozen of +them about me, close enough for observation. By their smaller size and +more buoyant flight, they are easily known for males. Almost grazing +the ground, they fly softly, going to and fro, passing and repassing in +every direction. From time to time one of them alights on the ground, +feels the sand with his antennae and seems to be enquiring into what +is happening in the depths of the soil; then he resumes his flight, +alternately coming and going. + +What are they waiting for? What are they seeking in these evolutions +of theirs, which are repeated a hundred times over? Food? No, for close +beside them stand several eryngo-stems, whose sturdy clusters are the +Wasps' usual resource at this season of parched vegetation; and not one +of them settles upon the flowers, not one of them seems to care about +their sugary exudations. Their attention is engrossed elsewhere. It +is the ground, it is the stretch of sand which they are so assiduously +exploring; what they are waiting for is the arrival of some female, who +bursting the cocoon, may appear from one moment to the next, issuing all +dusty from the ground. She will not be given time to brush herself or to +wash her eyes: three or four more of them will be there at once, eager +to dispute her possession. I am too familiar with the amorous contests +of the Hymenopteron clan to allow myself to be mistaken. It is the rule +for the males, who are the earlier of the two, to keep a close guard +around the natal spot and watch for the emergence of the females, whom +they pester with their pursuit the moment they reach the light of day. +This is the motive of the interminable ballet of my Scoliae. Let us have +patience: perhaps we shall witness the nuptials. + +The hours go by; the Pangoniae and the Gad-flies desert my umbrella; the +Scoliae grow weary and gradually disappear. It is finished. I shall see +nothing more to-day. I repeat my laborious expedition to the Bois des +Issards over and over again; and each time I see the males as assiduous +as ever in skimming over the ground. My perseverance deserved to +succeed. It did, though the success was very incomplete. Let me describe +it, such as it was; the future will fill up the gaps. + +A female issues from the soil before my eyes. She flies away, followed +by several males. With the luchet I dig at the point of emergence; and, +as the excavation progresses, I sift between my fingers the rubbish of +sand mixed with mould. In the sweat of my brow, as I may justly say, I +must have removed nearly a cubic yard of material, when at last I make +a find. This is a recently ruptured cocoon, to the side of which adheres +an empty skin, the last remnant of the game on which the larva fed that +wrought the said cocoon. Considering the good condition of its silken +fabric, this cocoon may have belonged to the Scolia who has just quitted +her underground dwelling before my eyes. As for the skin accompanying +it, this has been so much spoilt by the moisture of the soil and by the +grassy roots that I cannot determine its origin exactly. The cranium, +however, which is better-preserved, the mandibles and certain details of +the general configuration lead me to suspect the larva of a Lamellicorn. + +It is getting late. This is enough for to-day. I am worn out, but amply +repaid for my exertions by a broken cocoon and the puzzling skin of a +wretched grub. Young people who make a hobby of natural history, would +you like to discover whether the sacred fire flows in your veins? +Imagine yourselves returning from such an expedition. You are carrying +on your shoulder the peasant's heavy spade; your loins are stiff with +the laborious digging which you have just finished in a crouching +position; the heat of an August afternoon has set your brain simmering; +your eyelids are tired by the itch of an inflammation resulting from the +overpowering light in which you have been working; you have a devouring +thirst; and before you lies the dusty prospect of the miles that +divide you from your well-earned rest. Yet something stings within +you; forgetful of your present woes you are absolutely glad of your +excursion. Why? Because you have in your possession a shred of rotten +skin. If this is so, my young friends, you may go ahead, for you will +do something, though I warn you that this does not mean, by a long way, +that you will get on in the world. + +I examined this shred of skin with all the care that it deserved. My +first suspicions were confirmed: a Lamellicorn, a Scarabaeid in the +larval state, is the first food of the Wasp whose cocoon I have just +unearthed. But which of the Scarabaeidae? And does this cocoon, my +precious booty, really belong to the Scoliae? The problem is beginning +to take shape. To attempt its solution we must go back to the Bois des +Issards. + +I did go back and so often that my patience ended by being exhausted +before the problem of the Scoliae had received a satisfactory solution. +The difficulties are great indeed, under the conditions. Where am I +to dig in the indefinite stretch of sandy soil to light upon a spot +frequented by the Scoliae? The luchet is driven into the ground at +random; and almost invariably I find none of what I am seeking. To be +sure, the males, flying level with the ground, give me a hint, at the +outset, with their certainty of instinct, as to the spots where the +females ought to be; but their hints are very vague, because they go so +far in every direction. If I wished to examine the soil which a single +male explores in his flight, with its constantly changing course, I +should have to turn over, to the depth of perhaps a yard, at least four +poles of earth. This is too much for my strength and the time at my +disposal. Then, as the season advances, the males disappear, whereupon I +am suddenly deprived of their hints. To know more or less where I should +thrust my luchet, I have only one resource left, which is to watch for +the females emerging from the ground or else entering it. With a great +expenditure of time and patience I have at last had this windfall, very +rarely, I admit. + +The Scoliae do not dig a burrow which can be compared with that of the +other Hunting Wasps; they have no fixed residence, with an unimpeded +gallery opening on the outer world and giving access to the cells, the +abodes of the larvae. They have no entrance- and exit-doors, no corridor +built in advance. If they have to make their way underground, any point +not hitherto turned over serves their purpose, provided that it be +not too hard for their digging-tools, which, for that matter, are +very powerful; if they have to come out, the point of exit is no less +indifferent. The Scolia does not bore the soil through which she passes: +she excavates and ploughs it with her legs and forehead; and the stuff +shifted remains where it lies, behind her, forthwith blocking the +passage which she has followed. When she is about to emerge into the +outer world, her advent is heralded by the fresh soil which heaps itself +into a mound as though heaved up by the snout of some tiny Mole. The +insect sallies forth; and the mound collapses, completely filling up the +exit-hole. If the Wasp is entering the ground, the digging-operations, +undertaken at an arbitrary point, quickly yield a cavity in which the +Scolia disappears, separated from the surface by the whole track of +shifted material. + +I can easily trace her passage through the thickness of the soil by +certain long, winding cylinders, formed of loose materials in the +midst of compact and stable earth. These cylinders are numerous; +they sometimes run to a depth of twenty inches; they extend in all +directions, fairly often crossing one another. Not one of them ever +exhibits so much as a suspicion of an open gallery. They are obviously +not permanent ways of communication with the outer world, but +hunting-trails which the insect has followed once, without going back +to them. What was the Wasp seeking when she riddled the soil with these +tunnels which are now full of running sands? No doubt the food for +her family, the larva of which I possess the empty skin, now an +unrecognizable shred. + +I begin to see a little light: the Scoliae are underground workers. I +already expected as much, having before now captured Scoliae soiled with +little earthy encrustations on the joints of the legs. The Wasp, who is +so careful to keep clean, taking advantage of the least leisure to brush +and polish herself, could never display such blemishes unless she were a +devoted earth-worker. I used to suspect their trade, now I know it. They +live underground, where they burrow in search of Lamellicorn-grubs, +just as the Mole burrows in search of the White Worm. (The larva of the +Cockchafer. This grub takes three years or more to arrive at maturity +underground.--Translator's Note.) It is even possible that, after +receiving the embraces of the males, they but very rarely return to the +surface, absorbed as they are by their maternal duties; and this, +no doubt, is why my patience becomes exhausted in watching for their +entrance and their emergence. + +It is in the subsoil that they establish themselves and travel to and +fro; with the help of their powerful mandibles, their hard cranium, +their strong, prickly legs, they easily make themselves paths in +the loose earth. They are living ploughshares. By the end of August, +therefore, the female population is for the most part underground, +busily occupied in egg-laying and provisioning. Everything seems to tell +me that I should watch in vain for the appearance of a few females in +the broad daylight; I must resign myself to excavating at random. + +The result was hardly commensurate with the labour which I expended on +digging. I found a few cocoons, nearly all broken, like the one which I +already possessed, and, like it, bearing on their side the tattered skin +of a larva of the same Scarabaeid. Two of these cocoons which are still +intact contained a dead adult Wasp. This was actually the Two-banded +Scolia, a precious discovery which changed my suspicions into a +certainty. + +I also unearthed some cocoons, slightly different in appearance, +containing an adult inmate, likewise dead, in whom I recognized the +Interrupted Scolia. The remnants of the provisions again consisted of +the empty skin of a larva, also a Lamellicorn, but not the same as the +one hunted by the first Scolia. And this was all. Now here, now there, +I shifted a few cubic yards of soil, without managing to find fresh +provisions with the egg or the young larva. And yet it was the right +season, the egg-laying season, for the males, numerous at the outset, +had grown rarer day by day until they disappeared entirely. My lack of +success was due to the uncertainty of my excavations, in which I had +nothing to guide me over the indefinite area covered. + +If I could at least identify the Scarabaeidae whose larvae form the +prey of the two Scoliae, the problem would be half solved. Let us try. +I collect all that the luchet has turned up: larvae, nymphs and adult +Beetles. My booty comprises two species of Lamellicorns: Anoxia villosa +and Euchlora Julii, both of whom I find in the perfect state, usually +dead, but sometimes alive. I obtain a few of their nymphs, a great piece +of luck, for the larval skin which accompanies them will serve me as a +standard of comparison. I come upon plenty of larvae, of all ages. +When I compare them with the cast garment abandoned by the nymphs, I +recognize some as belonging to the Anoxia and the rest to the Euchlora. + +With these data, I perceive with absolute certainty that the empty skin +adhering to the cocoon of the Interrupted Scolia belongs to the Anoxia. +As for the Euchlora, she is not involved in the problem: the larva +hunted by the Two-banded Scolia does not belong to her any more than it +belongs to the Anoxia. Then with which Scarabaeid does the empty skin +which is still unknown to me correspond? The Lamellicorn whom I am +seeking must exist in the ground which I have been exploring, because +the Two-banded Scolia has established herself there. Later--oh, very +long afterwards!--I recognized where my search was at fault. In order +not to find a network of roots beneath my luchet and to render the work +of excavation lighter, I was digging the bare places, at some distance +from the thickets of holm-oak; and it was just in those thickets, which +are rich in vegetable mould, that I should have sought. There, near the +old stumps, in the soil consisting of dead leaves and rotting wood, I +should certainly have come upon the larva so greatly desired, as will be +proved by what I have still to say. + +Here ends what my earlier investigations taught me. There is reason to +believe that the Bois des Issards would never have furnished me with the +precise data, in the form in which I wanted them. The remoteness of the +spot, the fatigue of the expeditions, which the heat rendered intensely +exhausting, the impossibility of knowing which points to attack would +undoubtedly have discouraged me before the problem had advanced a step +farther. Studies such as these call for home leisure and application, +for residence in a country village. You are then familiar with every +spot in your own grounds and the surrounding country and you can go to +work with certainty. + +Twenty-three years have passed; and here I am at Serignan, where I +have become a peasant, working by turns on my writing-pad and my +cabbage-patch. On the 14th of August, 1880, Favier (An ex-soldier who +acted as the author's gardener and factotum.--Translator's Note.) +clears away a heap of mould consisting of vegetable refuse and of leaves +stacked in a corner against the wall of the paddock. This clearance is +considered necessary because Bull, when the lovers' moon arrives, uses +this hillock to climb to the top of the wall and thence to repair to the +canine wedding the news of which is brought to him by the effluvia borne +upon the air. His pilgrimage fulfilled, he returns, with a discomfited +look and a slit ear, but always ready, once he has had his feed, to +repeat the escapade. To put an end to this licentious behaviour, which +has cost him so many gaping wounds, we decided to remove the heap of +soil which serves him as a ladder of escape. + +Favier calls me while in the midst of his labours with the spade and +barrow: + +"Here's a find, sir, a great find! Come and look." + +I hasten to the spot. The find is a magnificent one indeed and of a +nature to fill me with delight, awakening all my old recollections of +the Bois des Issards. Any number of females of the Two-banded Scolia, +disturbed at their work, are emerging here and there from the depth of +the soil. The cocoons also are plentiful, each lying next to the skin +of the victim on which the larva has fed. They are all open but still +fresh: they date from the present generation; the Scoliae whom I unearth +have quitted them not long since. I learnt later, in fact, that the +hatching took place in the course of July. + +In the same heap of mould is a swarming colony of Scarabaeidae in the +form of larvae, nymphs and adult insects. It includes the largest of +our Beetles, the common Rhinoceros Beetle, or Oryctes nasicornis. I find +some who have been recently liberated, whose wing-cases, of a glossy +brown, now see the sunlight for the first time; I find others enclosed +in their earthen shell, almost as big as a Turkey's egg. More frequent +is her powerful larva, with its heavy paunch, bent into a hook. I note +the presence of a second bearer of the nasal horn, Oryctes Silenus, +who is much smaller than her kinswoman, and of Pentodon punctatus, a +Scarabaeid who ravages my lettuces. + +But the predominant population consists of Cetoniae, or Rosechafers, +most of them enclosed in their egg-shaped shells, with earthen walls +encrusted with dung. There are three different species: C. aurata, C. +morio and C. floricola. Most of them belong to the first species. Their +larvae, which are easily recognized by their singular talent for walking +on their backs with their legs in the air, are numbered by the hundred. +Every age is represented, from the new born grub to the podgy larva on +the point of building its shell. + +This time the problem of the victuals is solved. When I compare the +larval slough sticking to the Scolia's cocoons with the Cetonia-larvae +or, better, with the skin cast by these larvae, under cover of the +cocoon, at the moment of the nymphal transformation, I establish an +absolute identity. The Two-banded Scolia rations each of her eggs with +a Cetonia-grub. Behold the riddle which my irksome searches in the Bois +des Issards had not enabled me to solve. To-day, at my threshold, the +difficult problem becomes child's play. I can investigate the question +easily to the fullest possible extent; I need not put myself out at all; +at any hour of the day, at any period that seems favourable, I have +the requisite elements before my eyes. Ah, dear village, so poor, so +countrified, how happily inspired was I when I came to ask of you +a hermit's retreat, where I could live in the company of my beloved +insects and, in so doing, set down not too unworthily a few chapters of +their wonderful history! + +According to the Italian observer Passerini, the Garden Scolia feeds +her family on the larvae of Oryctes nasicornis, in the heaps of old +tan-waste removed from the hot-houses. I do not despair of seeing +this colossal Wasp coming to establish herself one day in my heaps of +leaf-mould, in which the same Scarabaeid is swarming. Her rarity in +my part of the country is probably the only cause that has hitherto +prevented the realization of my wishes. + +I have just shown that the Two-banded Scolia feeds in infancy on +Cetonia-larvae and particularly on those of C. aurata, C. morio and C. +floricola. These three species dwell together in the rubbish-heap just +explored; their larvae differ so little that I should have to examine +them minutely to distinguish the one from the other; and even then I +should not be certain of succeeding. It seems probable that the Scolia +does not choose between them, that she uses all three indiscriminately. +Perhaps she even assails other larvae, inhabitants, like the foregoing, +of heaps of rotting vegetable-matter. I therefore set down the Cetonia +genus generally as forming the prey of the Two-banded Scolia. + +Lastly, round about Avignon, the Interrupted Scolia used to prey upon +the larva of the Shaggy Anoxia (A. villosa). At Serignan, which is +surrounded by the same kind of sandy soil, without other vegetation than +a few sparse seed-bearing grasses, I find her rationing her young with +the Morning Anoxia (A. matutinalis). Oryctes, Cetoniae and Anoxiae +in the larval state: here then is the prey of the three Scoliae whose +habits we know. The three Beetles are Lamellicorns, Scarabaeidae. We +shall have occasion later to consider the reason of this very striking +coincidence. + +For the moment, the business in hand is to move the heap of leaf-mould +to some other place, with the wheelbarrow. This is Favier's work, while +I myself collect the disturbed population in glass jars, in order to put +them back into the new rubbish-heap with all the consideration which +my plans owe to them. The laying-time has not yet set in, for I find +no eggs, no young Scolia-larvae. September apparently will be the +propitious month. But there are bound to be many injured in the course +of this upheaval; some of the Scoliae have flown away who will perhaps +have a certain difficulty in finding the new site; I have disarranged +everything in the overturned heap. To allow tranquility to be restored +and habit to resume its rounds, to give the population time to increase +and replace the fugitives and the injured, it would be best, I think, to +leave the heap alone this year and not to resume my investigations until +the next. After the thorough confusion due to the removal, I should +jeopardize success by being too precipitate. Let us wait one year more. +I decide accordingly, curb my impatience and resign myself. We will +simply confine ourselves to enlarging the heap, when the leaves begin to +fall, by accumulating the refuse that strews the paddock, so that we may +have a richer field of operations. + +In the following August, my visits to the mound of leaf-mould become a +daily habit. By two o'clock in the afternoon, when the sun has cleared +the adjacent pine-trees and is shining on the heap, numbers of male +Scoliae arrive from the neighbouring fields, where they have been +slaking their thirst on the eryngo-heads. Incessantly coming and going +with an indolent flight, they circle round the heap. If some female +rise from the soil, those who have seen her dart forward. A not very +turbulent affray decides which of the suitors shall be the possessor; +and the couple fly away over the wall. This is a repetition of what I +used to see in the Bois des Issards. By the time that August is over. +The males have ceased to show themselves. The mothers do not appear +either: they are busy underground, establishing their families. + +On the 2nd of September, I decide upon a search with my son Emile, +who handles the fork and the shovel, while I examine the clods dug up. +Victory! A magnificent result, finer than any that my fondest ambition +would have dared to contemplate! Here is a vast array of Cetonia-larvae, +all flaccid, motionless, lying on their backs, with a Scolia's egg +sticking to the centre of their abdomen; here are young Scolia-larvae +dipping their heads into the entrails of their victims; here are others +farther advanced, munching their last mouthfuls of a prey which is +drained dry and reduced to a skin; here are some laying the foundation +of their cocoons with a reddish silk, which looks as if it had been dyed +in Bullock's blood; here are some whose cocoons are finished. There is +plenty of everything, from the egg to the larva whose period of activity +is over. I mark the 2nd of September as a red-letter day; it has given +me the final key to a riddle which has kept me in suspense for nearly +half a century. + +I place my spoils religiously in shallow, wide-mouthed glass jars +containing a layer of finely sifted mould. In this soft bed, which is +identical in character with the natal surroundings, I make some faint +impressions with my fingers, so many cavities, each of which receives +one of my subjects, one only. A pane of glass covers the mouth of the +receptacle. In this way I prevent a too rapid evaporation and keep my +nurselings under my eyes without fear of disturbing them. Now that all +this is in order, let us proceed to record events. + +The Cetonia-larvae which I find with a Scolia's egg upon their ventral +surface are distributed in the mould at random, without special +cavities, without any sign of some sort of structure. They are smothered +in the mould, just as are the larvae which have not been injured by the +Wasp. As my excavations in the Bois des Issards told me, the Scolia does +not prepare a lodging for her family; she knows nothing of the art of +cell-building. Her offspring occupies a fortuitous abode, on which the +mother expends no architectural pains. Whereas the other Hunting Wasps +prepare a dwelling to which the provisions are carried, sometimes from +a distance, the Scolia confines herself to digging her bed of leaf-mould +until she comes upon a Cetonia-larva. When she finds a quarry, she stabs +it on the spot, in order to immobilize it; and, again on the spot, she +lays an egg on the ventral surface of the paralysed creature. That is +all. The mother goes in quest of another prey without troubling further +about the egg which has just been laid. There is no effort of carting +or building. At the very spot where the Cetonia-grub is caught and +paralysed, the Scolia-larva hatches, grows and weaves its cocoon. The +establishment of the family is thus reduced to the simplest possible +expression. + + + +CHAPTER 3. A DANGEROUS DIET. + +The Scolia's egg is in no way exceptional in shape. It is white, +cylindrical, straight and about four millimetres long by one millimetre +thick. (About.156 x.039 inch.--Translator's Note.) It is fixed, by its +fore-end, upon the median line of the victim's abdomen, well to the rear +of the legs, near the beginning of the brown patch formed by the mass of +food under the skin. + +I watch the hatching. The grub, still wearing upon its hinder parts the +delicate pellicle which it has just shed, is fixed to the spot to which +the egg itself adhered by its cephalic extremity. A striking spectacle, +that of the feeble creature, only this moment hatched, boring, for +its first mouthful, into the paunch of its enormous prey, which +lies stretched upon its back. The nascent tooth takes a day over the +difficult task. Next morning the skin has yielded; and I find the +new-born larva with its head plunged into a small, round, bleeding +wound. + +In size the grub is the same as the egg, whose dimensions I have +just given. Now the Cetonia-larva, to meet the Scolia's requirements, +averages thirty millimetres in length by nine in thickness (1.17 x.35 +inch.--Translator's Note.), whence follows that its bulk is six or seven +hundred times as great as that of the newly-hatched grub of the +Scolia. Here certainly is a quarry which, were it active and capable of +wriggling and biting, would expose the nurseling to terrible attacks. +The danger has been averted by the mother's stiletto; and the fragile +grub attacks the monster's paunch with as little hesitation as though it +were sucking the breast. + +Day by day the young Scolia's head penetrates farther into the Cetonia's +belly. To pass through the narrow orifice made in the skin, the +fore-part of the body contracts and lengthens out, as though drawn +through a die-plate. The larva thus assumes a rather strange form. Its +hinder half, which is constantly outside the victim's belly, has the +shape and fulness usual in the larvae of the Digger-wasps, whereas the +front half, which, once it has dived under the skin of the exploited +victim, does not come out again until the time arrives for spinning the +cocoon, tapers off suddenly into a snake-like neck. This front part is +moulded, so to speak, by the narrow entrance-hole made in the skin and +henceforth retains its slender formation. As a matter of fact, a +similar configuration recurs, in varying degrees, in the larvae of the +Digger-wasps whose ration consists of a bulky quarry which takes a +long time to consume. These include the Languedocian Sphex, with her +Ephippiger, and the Hairy Ammophila, with her Grey Worm. There is none +of this sudden constriction, dividing the creature into two disparate +halves, when the victuals consist of numerous and comparatively small +items. The larva then retains its usual shape, being obliged to pass, at +brief intervals, from one joint in its larder to the next. + +From the first bite of the mandibles, until the whole head of game is +consumed, the Scolia-larva is never seen to withdraw its head and its +long neck from inside the creature which it is devouring. I suspect the +reason of this persistence in attacking a single point; I even seem +to perceive the need for a special art in the manner of eating. The +Cetonia-larva is a square meal in itself, one large dish, which has to +retain a suitable freshness until the end. The young Scolia, therefore, +must attack with discretion, at the unvarying point chosen by the mother +on the ventral surface, for the entrance-hole is at the exact point +where the egg was fixed. As the nurseling's neck lengthens and dives +deeper, the victim's entrails are nibbled gradually and methodically: +first, the least essential; next, those whose removal leaves yet a +remnant of life; lastly, those whose loss inevitably entails death, +followed very soon by putrefaction. + +At the first bites we see the victim's blood oozing through the wound. +It is a highly-elaborated fluid, easy of digestion, and forms a sort of +milk-diet for the new-born grub. The little ogre's teat is the bleeding +paunch of the Cetonia-larva. The latter will not die of the wound, +at least not for some time. The next thing to be tackled is the fatty +substance which wraps the internal organs in its delicate folds. This +again is a loss which the Cetonia can suffer without dying then and +there. Now comes the turn of the muscular layer which lines the skin; +now, that of the essential organs; now, that of the nerve-centres and +the trachean network, whereupon the last gleam of light is extinguished +and the Cetonia reduced to a mere bag, empty but intact, save for the +entrance-hole made in the middle of the belly. From now onwards, these +remains may rot if they will: the Scolia, by its methodical fashion of +consuming its victuals, has succeeded in keeping them fresh to the very +last; and now you may see it, replete, shining with health, withdraw its +long neck from the bag of skin and prepare to weave the cocoon in which +its development will be completed. + +It is possible that I may not be quite accurate as to the precise order +in which the organs are consumed, for it is not easy to perceive what +happens inside the exploited larva's body. The ruling feature in this +scientific method of eating, which proceeds from the parts less to the +parts more necessary to preserve a remnant of life, is none the less +obvious. If direct observation did not already to some degree confirm +it, a mere examination of the half-eaten larva would do so in the most +positive fashion. + +The Cetonia-larva is at first a plump grub. Drained by the Scolia's +tooth, it gradually becomes limp and wrinkled. In a few days' time it +resembles a shrivelled bit of bacon-fat and then a bag whose two +sides have fallen in. Yet this bit of bacon and this bag have the same +characteristic look of fresh meat as had the grub before it was bitten +into. Despite the persistent nibbling of the Scolia, life continues, +holding at bay the inroads of putrefaction until the mandibles have +given their last bites. Does not this remnant of tenacious vitality in +itself show that the organs of primary importance are the last to be +attacked? Does it not prove that there is a progressive dismemberment +passing from the less essential to the indispensable? + +Would you like to see what becomes of a Cetonia-larva when the organism +is wounded in its vital centres at the very beginning? The experiment +is an easy one; and I made a point of trying it. A sewing-needle, first +softened and flattened into a blade, then retempered and sharpened, +gives me a most delicate scalpel. With this instrument I make a fine +incision, through which I remove the mass of nerves whose remarkable +structure we shall soon have occasion to study. The thing is done: the +wound, which does not look serious, has left the creature a corpse, a +real corpse. I lay my victim on a bed of moist earth, in a jar with a +glass lid; in fact, I establish it in the same conditions as those of +the larvae on which the Scoliae feed. By the next day, without changing +shape, it has turned a repulsive brown; presently it dissolves into +noisome putrescence. On the same bed of earth, under the same glass +cover, in the same moist, warm atmosphere, the larvae three-quarters +eaten by the Scoliae retain, on the contrary, the appearance of healthy +flesh. + +If a single stroke of my dagger, fashioned from the point of a needle, +results in immediate death and early putrefaction; if the repeated bites +of the Scolia gut the creature's body and reduce it almost to a skin +without completely killing it, the striking contrast between these two +results must be due to the relative importance of the organs injured. I +destroy the nerve-centres and inevitably kill my larva, which is putrid +by the following day; the Scolia attacks the reserves of fat, the blood, +the muscles and does not kill its victim, which will provide it with +wholesome food until the end. But it is clear that, if the Scolia were +to set to work as I did, there would be nothing left, after the first +few bites, but an actual corpse, discharging fluids which would be fatal +to it within twenty-four hours. The mother, it is true, in order to +assure the immobility of her prey, has injected the poison of her sting +into the nerve-centres. Her operation cannot be compared with mine in +any respect. She practises the method of the skilful physiologist who +induces anaesthesia; I go to work like the butcher who chops, cuts and +disembowels. The sting leaves the nerve-centres intact. Deprived +of sensibility by the poison, they have lost the power of provoking +muscular contractions; but who can say that, numbed as they are, they +no longer serve to maintain a faint vitality? The flame is extinguished, +but there is still a glowing speck upon the wick. I, a rough blunderer, +do more than blow out the lamp: I throw away the wick and all is over. +The grub would do the same if it bit straight into the mass of nerves. + +Everything confirms the fact: the Scolia and the other Hunting Wasps +whose provisions consist of bulky heads of game are gifted with a +special art of eating, an exquisitely delicate art which saves a remnant +of life in the prey devoured, until it is all consumed. When the prey is +a small one, this precaution is superfluous. Consider, for instance, the +Bembex-grubs in the midst of their heap of Flies. The prey seized upon +is broached on the back, the belly, the head, the thorax, indifferently. +The larva munches a given spot, which it leaves to munch a second, +passing to a third and a fourth, at the bidding of its changing whims. +It seems to taste and select, by repeated trials, the mouthfuls most to +its liking. Thus bitton at several points, covered with wounds, the Fly +is soon a shapeless mass which would putrefy very quickly if the meagre +dish were not devoured at a single meal. Allow the Scolia-grub the same +unlicensed gluttony: it would perish beside its corpulent victim, +which should have kept fresh for a fortnight, but which almost from the +beginning would be no more than a filthy putrescence. + +This art of careful eating does not seem easy to practise: at least, the +larva, if ever so little diverted from its usual courses, is no longer +able to apply its talent as a capable trencherman. This will be proved +by experiment. I must begin by observing that, when I spoke of my larva +which turned putrid within twenty-four hours, I adopted an extreme case +for the sake of greater clearness. The Scolia, taking its first bite, +does not and cannot go to such lengths. Nevertheless it behooves us to +enquire whether, in the consumption of the victuals, the initial point +of attack is a matter of indifference and whether the rummaging through +the entrails of the victim entails a determined order, without which +success is uncertain or even impossible. To these delicate questions no +one, I think, can reply. Where science is silent, perhaps the grub will +speak. We will try. + +I move from its position a Scolia-grub which has attained a quarter or a +third of its full growth. The long neck plunged into the victim's belly +is rather difficult to extract, because of the need of molesting the +creature as little as possible. I succeed, by means of a little patience +and repeated strokes with the tip of a paint-brush. I now turn the +Cetonia-larva over, back uppermost, at the bottom of the little hollow +made by pressing my finger in the layer of mould. Lastly, I place the +Scolia on its victim's back. Here is my grub under the same conditions +as just now, with this difference, that the back and not the belly of +its victim is presented to its mandibles. + +I watch it for a whole afternoon. It writhes about; it moves its little +head now in this direction, now in that, frequently laying it on the +Cetonia, but without fixing it anywhere. The day draws to a close; and +still it has accomplished nothing. There are restless movements, nothing +more. Hunger, I tell myself, will eventually induce it to bite. I am +wrong. Next morning I find it more anxious than the day before and still +groping about, without resolving to fix its mandibles anywhere. I +leave it alone for half a day longer without obtaining any result. Yet +twenty-four hours of abstinence must have awakened a good appetite, +above all in a creature which, if left undisturbed, would not have +ceased eating. + +Excessive hunger cannot induce it to nibble at an unlawful spot. Is this +due to feebleness of the teeth? By no means: the Cetonia's skin is no +tougher on the back than on the belly; moreover, the grub is capable of +perforating the skin when it leaves the egg; a fortiori, it must be more +capable of doing so now that it has attained a sturdy growth. Thus we +see no lack of ability, but an obstinate refusal to nibble at a point +which ought to be respected. Who knows? On this side perhaps the grub's +dorsal vessel would be wounded, its heart, an organ indispensable to +life. The fact remains that my attempts to make the grub tackle its +victim from the back have failed. Does this mean that it entertains the +least suspicion of the danger which it might incur were it to produce +putrefaction by awkwardly carving its victuals from the back? It would +be absurd to give such an idea a moment's consideration. Its refusal is +dictated by a preordained decree which it is bound to obey. + +My Scolia-grubs would die of starvation if I left them on their victim's +back. I therefore restore matters as they were, with the Cetonia-larva +belly uppermost and the young Scolia on top. I might utilise the +subjects of my previous experiments; but, as I have to take precautions +against the disturbance which may have been caused by the test already +undergone, I prefer to operate on new patients, a luxury in which the +richness of my menagerie allows me to indulge. I move the Scolia from +its position, extract its head from the entrails of the Cetonia-larva +and leave it to its own resources on its victim's belly. Betraying every +symptom of uneasiness, the grub gropes, hesitates, casts about and does +not insert its mandibles anywhere, though it is now the ventral surface +which it is exploring. It would not display greater hesitation if placed +on the back of the larva. I repeat, who knows? On this side it might +perhaps injure the nervous plexus, which is even more essential than the +dorsal vessel. The inexperienced grub must not drive in its mandibles at +random; its future is jeopardized if it gives a single ill-judged bite. +If it gnaws at the spot where I myself operated with my needle wrought +into a scalpel, its victuals will very soon turn putrid. Once more, +then, we witness an absolute refusal to perforate the skin of the victim +elsewhere than at the very point where the egg was fixed. + +The mother selects this point, which is undoubtedly that most favourable +to the future prosperity of the larva, though I am not able clearly to +discern the reasons for her choice; she fixes the egg to it; and the +place where the opening is to be made is henceforth determined. It is +here that the grub must bite: only here, never elsewhere. Its invincible +refusal to tackle the Cetonia in any other part, even though it should +die of starvation, shews us how rigorous is the rule of conduct with +which its instinct is inspired. + +As it gropes about, the grub laid on the victim's ventral surface sooner +or later rediscovers the gaping wound from which I have removed it. If +this takes too long for my patience, I can myself guide its head to the +place with the point of a paint-brush. The grub then recognizes the hole +of its own making, slips its neck into it and little by little dives +into the Cetonia's belly, so that the original state of affairs appears +to be exactly restored. And yet its successful rearing is henceforth +highly problematical. It is possible that the larva will prosper, +complete its development and spin its cocoon; it is also possible--and +the case is not unusual--that the Cetonia-larva will soon turn brown +and putrid. We then see the Scolia itself turn brown, distended as it +is with putrescent foodstuffs, and then cease all movement, without +attempting to withdraw from the sanies. It dies on the spot, poisoned by +its excessively high game. + +What can be the meaning of this sudden corruption of the victuals, +followed by the death of the Scolia, when everything appeared to have +returned to its normal condition? I see only one explanation. +Disturbed in its activities and diverted from its usual courses by +my interference, the grub, when replaced on the wound from which I +extracted it, was unable to rediscover the lode at which it was working +a few minutes earlier; it thrust its way at random into the victim's +entrails; and a few untimely bites extinguished the last sparks of +vitality. Its confusion rendered it clumsy; and the mistake cost it its +life. It dies poisoned by the rich food which, if consumed according to +the rules, should have made it grow plump and lusty. + +I was anxious to observe the deadly effects of a disturbed meal in +another fashion. This time the victim itself shall disorder the grub's +activities. The Cetonia-larva, as served up to the young Scolia by its +mother, is profoundly paralysed. Its inertia is complete and so striking +that it constitutes one of the leading features of this narrative. But +we will not anticipate. For the moment, the thing is to substitute for +this inert larva a similar larva, but one not paralysed, one very much +alive. To ensure that it shall not double up and crush the grub, I +confine myself to reducing it to helplessness, leaving it otherwise just +as I extracted it from its burrow. I must also be careful of its legs +and mandibles, the least touch of which would rip open the nurseling. +With a few turns of the finest wire I fix it to a little slab of cork, +with its belly in the air. Next, to provide the grub with a ready-made +hole, knowing that it will refuse to make one for itself, I contrive a +slight incision in the skin, at the point where the Scolia lays her egg. +I now place the grub upon the larva, with its head touching the bleeding +wound, and lay the whole on a bed of mould in a transparent beaker +protected by a pane of glass. + +Unable to move, to wriggle, to scratch with its legs or snap with +its mandibles, the Cetonia-larva, a new Prometheus bound, offers +its defenceless flanks to the little Vulture destined to devour its +entrails. Without too much hesitation, the young Scolia settles down +to the wound made by my scalpel, which to the grub represents the wound +whence I have just removed it. It thrusts its neck into the belly of +its prey; and for a couple of days all seems to go well. Then, lo and +behold, the Cetonia turns putrid and the Scolia dies, poisoned by the +ptomaines of the decomposing game! As before, I see it turn brown and +die on the spot, still half inside the toxic corpse. + +The fatal issue of my experiment is easily explained. The Cetonia-larva +is alive in every sense. True, I have, by means of bonds, suppressed its +outward movements, in order to provide the nurseling with a quiet meal, +devoid of danger; but it was not in my power to subdue its internal +movements, the quivering of the viscera and muscles irritated by its +forced immobility and by the Scolia's bites. The victim is in possession +of its full power of sensation; and it expresses the pain experienced +as best it may, by contractions. Embarrassed by these tremors, these +twitches of suffering flesh, incommoded at every mouthful, the grub +chews away at random and kills the larva almost as soon as it has +started on it. In a victim paralysed by the regulation sting, the +conditions would be very different. There are no external movements, +nor any internal movements either, when the mandibles bite, because the +victim is insensible. The grub, undisturbed in any way, is then able, +with an unfaltering tooth, to pursue its scientific method of eating. + +These marvellous results interested me too much not to inspire me with +fresh devices when I pursued my investigations. Earlier enquiries had +taught me that the larvae of the Digger-wasps are fairly indifferent to +the nature of the game, though the mother always supplies them with the +same diet. I had succeeded in rearing them on a great variety of prey, +without paying regard to their normal fare. I shall return to this +subject later, when I hope to demonstrate its great philosophical +significance. Let us profit by these data and try to discover what +happens when we give the Scolia food which is not properly its own. + +I select from my heap of garden-mould, that inexhaustible mine, two +larvae of the Rhinoceros Beetle, Oryctes nasicornis, about one-third +full-grown, so that their size may not be out of proportion to the +Scolia's. It is in fact almost identical with the size of the Cetonia. +I paralyse one of them by giving an injection of ammonia in the +nerve-centres. I make a fine incision in its belly and I place the +Scolia on the opening. The dish pleases my charge; and it would +be strange indeed if this were not so, considering that another +Scolia-grub, the larva of the Garden Scolia, feeds on the Oryctes. +The dish suits it, for before long it has burrowed half-way into +the succulent paunch. This time all goes well. Will the rearing be +successful? Not a bit of it! On the third day, the Oryctes decomposes +and the Scolia dies. Which shall we hold responsible for the failure, +myself or the grub? Myself who, perhaps too unskilfully, administered +the injection of ammonia, or the grub which, a novice at dissecting a +prey differing from its own, did not know how to practise its craft upon +a changed victim and began to bite before the proper time? + +In my uncertainty, I try again. This time I shall not interfere, so that +my clumsiness cannot be to blame. As I described when speaking of the +Cetonia-larva, the Oryctes-larva now lies bound, quite alive, on a strip +of cork. As usual, I make a small opening in the belly, to entice the +grub by means of a bleeding wound and facilitate its access. I obtain +the same negative result. In a little while, the Oryctes is a noisome +mass on which the nurseling lies poisoned. The failure was foreseen: to +the difficulties presented by a prey unknown to my charge was added the +commotion caused by the wriggling of an unparalysed animal. + +We will try once more, this time with a victim paralysed not by me, an +unskilled operator, but by an adept whose ability ranks so high that it +is beyond discussion. Chance favours me to perfection: yesterday, in a +warm sheltered corner, at the foot of a sandy bank, I discovered three +cells of the Languedocian Sphex, each with its Ephippiger and the +recently laid egg. This is the game I want, a corpulent prey, of a +size suited to the Scolia and, what is more, in splendid condition, +artistically paralysed according to rule by a master among masters. + +As usual, I install my three Ephippigers in a glass jar, on a bed of +mould; I remove the egg of the Sphex and on each victim, after slightly +incising the skin of the belly, I place a young Scolia-grub. For three +or four days my charges feed upon this game, so novel to them, without +any sign of repugnance or hesitation. By the fluctuations of the +digestive canal I perceive that the work of nutrition is proceeding +as it should; things are happening just as if the dish were a +Cetonia-larva. The change of diet, complete though it is, has in no way +affected the appetite of the Scolia-grubs. But this prosperous condition +does not last long. About the fourth day, a little sooner in one case, +a little later in another, the three Ephippigers become putrid and the +Scoliae die at the same time. + +This result is eloquent. Had I left the egg of the Sphex to hatch, the +larva coming out of it would have fed upon the Ephippiger; and for the +hundredth time I should have witnessed an incomprehensible spectacle, +that of an animal which, devoured piecemeal for nearly a fortnight, +grows thin and empty, shrivels up and yet retains to the very end the +freshness peculiar to living flesh. Substitute for this Sphex-larva a +Scolia-larva of almost the same size; let the dish be the same though +the guest is different; and healthy live flesh is promptly replaced +by pestilent rotten flesh. That which under the mandibles of the Sphex +would for a long while have remained wholesome food promptly becomes a +poisonous liquescence under the mandibles of the Scolia. + +It is impossible to explain the preservation of the victuals until +finally consumed by supposing that the venom injected by the Wasp when +she delivers her paralysing stings possesses antiseptic properties. +The three Ephippigers were operated on by the Sphex. Able to keep fresh +under the mandibles of the Sphex-larvae, why did they promptly go bad +under the mandibles of the Scolia-larvae? Any idea of an antiseptic must +needs be rejected: a liquid preservative which would act in the first +case could not fail to act in the second, as its virtues would not +depend on the teeth of the consumer. + +Those of you who are versed in the knowledge attaching to this problem, +investigate, I beg you, search, sift, see if you can discover the reason +why the victuals keep fresh when consumed by a Sphex, whereas they +promptly become putrid when consumed by a Scolia. For me, I see only one +reason; and I very much doubt whether any one can suggest another. + +Both larvae practise a special art of eating, which is determined by the +nature of the game. The Sphex, when sitting down to an Ephippiger, the +food that has fallen to its lot, knows thoroughly how to consume it and +how to preserve, to the very end, the glimmer of life which keeps it +fresh; but, if it has to browse upon a Cetonia-grub, whose different +structure would confuse its talents as a dissector, it would soon have +nothing before it but a heap of putrescence. The Scolia, in its turn, +is familiar with the method of eating the Cetonia-grub, its invariable +portion; but it does not understand the art of eating the Ephippiger, +though the dish is to its taste. Unable to dissect this unknown species +of game, its mandibles slash away at random, killing the creature +outright as soon as they take their first bites of the deeper tissues of +the victim. That is the whole secret. + +One more word, on which I shall enlarge in another chapter. I observe +that the Scoliae to which I give Ephippigers paralysed by the Sphex +keep in excellent condition, despite the change of diet, so long as +the provisions retain their freshness. They languish when the game goes +high; and they die when putridity supervenes. Their death, therefore, +is due not to an unaccustomed diet, but to poisoning by one or other +of those terrible toxins which are engendered by animal corruption +and which chemistry calls by the name of ptomaines. Therefore, +notwithstanding the fatal outcome of my three attempts, I remain +persuaded that the unfamiliar method of rearing would have been +perfectly successful had the Ephippigers not gone bad, that is, if the +Scoliae had known how to eat them according to the rules. + +What a delicate and dangerous thing is the art of eating in these +carnivorous larvae supplied with a single victim, which they have to +spend a fortnight in consuming, on the express condition of not killing +it until the very end! Could our physiological science, of which, with +good reason, we are so proud, describe, without blundering, the method +to be followed in the successive mouthfuls? How has a miserable grub +learnt what our knowledge cannot tell us? By habit, the Darwinians will +reply, who see in instinct an acquired habit. + +Before deciding this serious matter, I will ask you to reflect that the +first Wasp, of whatever kind, that thought of feeding her progeny on +a Cetonia-grub or on any other large piece of game demanding long +preservation could necessarily have left no descendants unless the art +of consuming food without causing putrescence had been practised, with +all its scrupulous caution, from the first generation onwards. Having as +yet learnt nothing by habit or by atavistic transmission, since it was +making a first beginning, the nurseling would bite into its provender at +random. It would be starving, it would have no respect for its prey. +It would carve its joint at random; and we have just seen the fatal +consequence of an ill-directed bite. It would perish--I have just proved +this in the most positive manner--it would perish, poisoned by its +victim, already dead and putrid. + +To prosper, it would have, although a novice, to know what was permitted +and what forbidden in ransacking the creature's entrails; nor would +it be enough for the larva to be approximately in possession of this +difficult secret: it would be indispensable that it should possess the +secret completely, for a single bite, if delivered before the right +moment, would inevitably involve its own demise. The Scoliae of my +experiments are not novices, far from it: they are the descendants of +carvers that have practised their art since Scoliae first came into +the world; nevertheless they all perish from the decomposition of the +rations supplied, when I try to feed them on Ephippigers paralysed by +the Sphex. Very expert in the method of attacking the Cetonia, they do +not know how to set about the business of discreetly consuming a species +of game new to them. All that escapes them is a few details, for the +trade of an ogre fed on live flesh is familiar to them in its general +features; and these unheeded details are enough to turn their food into +poison. What, then, happened in the beginning, when the larva bit +for the first time into a luscious victim? The inexperienced creature +perished; of that there is not a shadow of doubt, unless we admit an +absurdity and imagine the larva of antiquity feeding upon those terrible +ptomaines which so swiftly kill its descendants to-day. + +Nothing will ever make me admit and no unprejudiced mind can admit +that what was once food has become a horrible poison. What the larva of +antiquity ate was live flesh and not putrescence. Nor can it be admitted +that the chances of fortune can have led at the first trial to success +in a system of nourishment so full of pit-falls: fortuitous results are +preposterous amid so many complications. Either the feeding is strictly +methodical at the beginning, in conformity with the organic exigencies +of the prey devoured, and the Wasp established her race; or else it was +hesitating, without determined rules, and the Wasp left no successor. In +the first case we behold innate instinct; in the second acquired habit. + +A strange acquisition, truly! An acquisition presumed to be made by +an impossible creature; an acquisition supposed to develop in no less +impossible successors! Though the snow-ball, slowly rolling, at +last becomes an enormous sphere, it is still necessary that the +starting-point shall not have been NIL. The big ball implies the little +ball, as small as you please. Now, in harking back to the origin of +these acquired habits, if I interrogate the possibilities I obtain zero +as the only answer. If the animal does not know its trade thoroughly, +if it has to acquire something, all the more if it has to acquire +everything, it perishes: that is inevitable; without the little +snow-ball the big snow-ball cannot be rolled. If it has nothing to +acquire, if it knows all that it needs to know, it flourishes and +leaves descendants behind it. But then it possesses innate instinct, the +instinct which learns nothing and forgets nothing, the instinct which is +steadfast throughout time. + +The building up of theories has never appealed to me: I suspect them one +and all. To argue nebulously upon dubious premises likes me no better. I +observe, I experiment and I let the facts speak for themselves. We have +just heard these facts. Let each now decide for himself whether instinct +is an innate faculty or an acquired habit. + + + +CHAPTER 4. THE CETONIA-LARVA. + +The Scolia's feeding-period lasts, on the average, for a dozen days or +so. By then the victuals are no more than a crumpled bag, a skin emptied +of the last scrap of nutriment. A little earlier, the russet-yellow tint +announces the extinction of the last spark of life in the creature that +is being devoured. The empty skin is pushed back to make space; the +dining-room, a shapeless cavity with crumbling walls, is tidied up a +little; and the Scolia-grub sets to work on its cocoon without further +delay. + +The first courses form a general scaffolding, which finds a support +here and there on the earthen walls, and consist of a rough, blood-red +fabric. When the larva is merely laid, as required by my investigations, +in a hollow made with the finger-tip in the bed of mould, it is not able +to spin its cocoon, for want of a ceiling to which to fasten the upper +threads of its network. To weave its cocoon, every spinning larva +is compelled to isolate itself in a hammock slung in an open-work +enclosure, which enables it to distribute its thread uniformly in all +directions. If there be no ceiling, the upper part of the cocoon cannot +be fashioned, because the worker lacks the necessary points of support. +Under these conditions my Scolia-grubs contrive at most to upholster +their little pit with a thick down of reddish silk. Discouraged by +futile endeavours, some of them die. It is as if they had been killed by +the silk which they omit to disgorge because they are unable to make the +right use of it. This, if we were not watchful, would be a very frequent +cause of failure in our attempts at artificial rearing. But, once the +danger has been perceived, the remedy is simple. I make a ceiling over +the cavity by laying a short strip of paper above it. If I want to see +how matters are progressing, I bend the strip into a semicircle, into +a half-cylinder with open ends. Those who wish to play the breeder for +themselves will be able to profit by these little practical details. + +In twenty-four hours the cocoon is finished; at least, it no longer +allows us to see the grub, which is doubtless making the walls of its +dwelling still thicker. At first the cocoon is a vivid red; later it +changes to a light chestnut-brown. Its form is that of an ellipsoid, +with a major axis 26 millimetres in length, while the minor axis +measures 11 millimetres. (1.014 x.429 inch.--Translator's Note.) These +dimensions, which incidentally are inclined to vary slightly, are those +of the female cocoons. In the other sex they are smaller and may measure +as little as 17 millimetres in length by 7 millimetres in width. (.663 +x.273 inch.--Translator's Note.) + +The two ends of the ellipsoid have the same form, so much so that it is +only thanks to an individual peculiarity, independent of the shape, that +we can tell the cephalic from the anal extremity. The cephalic pole is +flexible and yields to the pressure of my tweezers; the anal pole is +hard and unyielding. The wrapper is double, as in the cocoons of +the Sphex. (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapters 4 to 10 et +passim.--Translator's Note.) The outer envelope, consisting of pure +silk, is thin, flexible and offers little resistance. It is closely +superimposed upon the inner envelope and is easily separated from it +everywhere, except at the anal end, where it adheres to the second +envelope. The adhesion of the two wrappers at one end and the +non-adhesion at the other are the cause of the differences which the +tweezers reveal when pinching the two ends of the cocoon. + +The inner envelope is firm, elastic, rigid and, to a certain point, +brittle. I do not hesitate to look upon it as consisting of a silken +tissue which the larva, towards the end of its task, has steeped +thoroughly in a sort of varnish prepared not by the silk-glands but by +the stomach. The cocoons of the Sphex have already shown us a similar +varnish. This product of the chylific ventricle is chestnut-brown. It is +this which, saturating the thickness of the tissue, effaces the bright +red of the beginning and replaces it by a brown tint. It is this again +which, disgorged more profusely at the lower end of the cocoon, glues +the two wrappers together at that point. + +The perfect insect is hatched at the beginning of July. The emergence +takes place without any violent effraction, without any ragged rents. A +clean, circular fissure appears at some distance from the top; and the +cephalic end is detached all of a piece, as a loose lid might be. It is +as though the recluse had only to raise a cover by butting it with her +head, so exact is the line of division, at least as regards the inner +envelope, the stronger and more important of the two. As for the outer +wrapper, its lack of resistance enables it to yield without difficulty +when the other gives way. + +I cannot quite make out by what knack the Wasp contrives to detach the +cap of the inner shell with such accuracy. Is it the art practised by +the tailor when cutting his stuff, with mandibles taking the place of +scissors? I hardly venture to admit as much: the tissue is so tough and +the circle of division so precise. The mandibles are not sharp enough to +cut without leaving a ragged edge; and then what geometrical certainty +they would need for an operation so perfect that it might well have been +performed with the compasses! + +I suspect therefore that the Scolia first fashions the outer sac in +accordance with the usual method, that is, by distributing the silk +uniformly, without any special preparation of one part of the wall more +than of another, and that it afterwards changes its method of weaving in +order to attend to the main work, the inner shell. In this it +apparently imitates the Bembex (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapters 14 to +16.--Translator's Note.), which weaves a sort of eel-trap, whose ample +mesh allows it to gather grains of sand outside and encrust them one +by one in the silky network, and completes the performance with a cap +fitting the entrance to the trap. This provides a circular line of least +resistance, along which the casket breaks open afterwards. If the Scolia +really works in the same manner, everything is explained: the eel-trap, +while still open, enables it to soak with varnish both the inside and +the outside of the inner shell, which has to acquire the consistency +of parchment; lastly, the cap which completes and closes the structure +leaves for the future a circular line capable of splitting easily and +neatly. + +This is enough on the subject of the Scolia-grub. Let us go back to +its provender, of whose remarkable structure we as yet know nothing. In +order that it may be consumed with the delicate anatomical discretion +imposed by the necessity of having fresh food to the last, the +Cetonia-grub must be plunged into a state of absolute immobility: any +twitchings on its part--as the experiments which I have undertaken go +to prove--would discourage our nibbling larva and impede the work of +carving, which has to be effected with so much circumspection. It is not +enough for the victim to be unable to move from place to place beneath +the soil: in addition to this, the contractible power in its sturdy +muscular organism must be suppressed. + +In its normal state, this larva, at the very least disturbance, curls +itself up, almost as the Hedgehog does; and the two halves of the +ventral surface are laid one against the other. You are quite surprised +at the strength which the creature displays in keeping itself thus +contracted. If you try to unroll it, your fingers encounter a resistance +far greater than the size of the animal would have caused you to +suspect. To overcome the resistance of this sort of spring coiled upon +itself, you have to force it, so much so that you are afraid, if you +persist, of seeing the indomitable spiral suddenly burst and shoot forth +its entrails. + +A similar muscular energy is found in the larvae of the Oryctes (Also +known as the Rhinoceros Beetle.--Translator's Note.), the Anoxia (A +Beetle akin to the Cockchafer.--Translator's Note.), the Cockchafer. +Weighed down by a heavy belly and living underground, where they feed +either on leaf-mould or on roots, these larvae all possess the vigorous +constitution needed to drag their corpulence through a resisting medium. +All of them also roll themselves into a hook which is not straightened +without an effort. + +Now what would become of the egg and the new-born grub of the Scoliae, +fixed under the belly, at the centre of the Cetonia's spiral, or inside +the hook of the Oryctes or the Anoxia? They would be crushed between the +jaws of the living vice. It is essential that the arc should slacken and +the hook unbend, without the least possibility of their returning to +a state of tension. Indeed, the well-being of the Scoliae demands +something more: those powerful bodies must not retain even the power to +quiver, lest they derange a method of feeding which has to be conducted +with the greatest caution. + +The Cetonia-grub to which the Two-banded Scolia's egg is fastened +fulfils the required conditions admirably. It is lying on its back, in +the midst of the mould, with its belly fully extended. Long accustomed +though I be to this spectacle of victims paralysed by the sting of +the Hunting Wasp, I cannot suppress my astonishment at the profound +immobility of the prey before my eyes. In the other victims with +flexible skins, Caterpillars, Crickets, Mantes, Ephippigers, I perceived +at least some pulsations of the abdomen, a few feeble contortions under +the stimulus of a needle. There is nothing of the sort here, nothing but +absolute inertia, except in the head, where I see, from time to time, +the mouth-parts open and close, the palpi give a tremor, the short +antennae sway to and fro. A prick with the point of a needle causes no +contraction, no matter what the spot pricked. Though I stab it through +and through, the creature does not stir, be it ever so little. A corpse +is not more inert. Never, since my remotest investigations, have I +witnessed so profound a paralysis. I have seen many wonders due to the +surgical talent of the Wasp; but to-day's marvel surpasses them all. + +I am doubly surprised when I consider the unfavourable conditions under +which the Scolia operates. The other paralysers work in the open air, in +the full light of day. There is nothing to hinder them. They enjoy +full liberty of action in seizing the prey, holding it in position and +sacrificing it; they are able to see the victim and to parry its means +of defence, to avoid its spears, its pincers. The spot or spots to be +attained are within their reach; they drive the dagger in without let or +hindrance. + +What difficulties, on the other hand, await the Scolia! She hunts +underground, in the blackest darkness. Her movements are laboured and +uncertain, owing to the mould, which is continually giving way all +round her; she cannot keep her eyes on the terrible mandibles, which +are capable of cutting her body in two with a single bite. Moreover, +the Cetonia-grub, perceiving that the enemy is approaching, assumes +its defensive posture, rolls itself up and makes a shield for its only +vulnerable part, the ventral surface, with its convex back. No, +it cannot be an easy operation to subdue the powerful larva in its +underground retreat and to stab with the precision which immediate +paralysis requires. + +We wish that we might witness the struggle between the two adversaries +and see at first hand what happens, but we cannot hope to succeed. +It all takes place in the mysterious darkness of the soil; in broad +daylight, the attack would not be delivered, for the victim must remain +where it is and then and there receive the egg, which is unable to +thrive and develop except under the warm cover of vegetable mould. If +direct observation is impracticable, we can at least foresee the main +outlines of the drama by allowing ourselves to be guided by the warlike +manoeuvres of other burrowers. + +I picture things thus: digging and rummaging through the heap of mould, +guided perhaps by that singular sensibility of the antennae which +enables the Hairy Ammophila to discover the Grey Worm (The caterpillar +of the Turnip Moth. Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapters 18 to +20.--Translator's Note.) underground, the Scolia ends by finding a +Cetonia-larva, a good plump one, in the pink of condition, having +reached its full growth, just what the grub which is to feed on it +requires. Forthwith, the assaulted victim, contracting desperately, +rolls itself into a ball. The other seizes it by the skin of the neck. +To unroll it is impossible to the insect, for I myself have some trouble +in doing so. One single point is accessible to the sting: the under part +of the head, or rather of the first segments, which are placed outside +the coil, so that the grub's hard cranium makes a rampart for the hinder +extremity, which is less well defended. Here the Wasp's sting enters and +here only can it enter, within a narrowly circumscribed area. One stab +only of the lancet is given at this point, one only because there is no +room for more; and this is enough: the larva is absolutely paralysed. + +The nervous functions are abolished instantly; the muscular contractions +cease; and the animal uncoils like a broken spring. Henceforth +motionless, it lies on its back, its ventral surface fully exposed from +end to end. On the median line of this surface, towards the rear, near +the brown patch due to the alimentary broth contained in the intestine, +the Scolia lays her egg and without more ado, leaves everything lying on +the actual spot where the murder was committed, in order to go in search +of another victim. + +This is how the deed must be done: the results prove it emphatically. +But then the Cetonia-grub must possess a very exceptional structure in +its nervous organization. The larva's violent contraction leaves but a +single point of attack open to the sting, the under part of the neck, +which is doubtless uncovered when the victim tries to defend itself +with its mandibles; and yet a stab in this one point produces the most +thorough paralysis that I have ever seen. It is the general rule that +larvae possess a centre of innervation for each segment. This is so +in particular with the Grey Worm, the sacrificial victim of the Hairy +Ammophila. The Wasp is acquainted with this anatomical secret: she stabs +the caterpillar again and again, from end to end, segment by segment, +ganglion by ganglion. With such an organization the Cetonia-grub, +unconquerably coiled upon itself would defy the paralyser's surgical +skill. + +If the first ganglion were wounded, the others would remain uninjured; +and the powerful body, actuated by these last, would lose none of its +powers of contraction. Woe then to the egg, to the young grub held fast +in its embrace! And how insurmountable would be the difficulties if the +Scolia, working in the profound darkness amid the crumbling soil and +confronted by a terrible pair of mandibles, had to stab each segment +in turn with her sting, with the certainty of method displayed by the +Ammophila! The delicate operation is possible in the open air, where +nothing stands in the way, in broad daylight, where the sight guides the +scalpel, and with a patient which can always be released if it becomes +dangerous. But in the dark, underground, amidst the ruins of a ceiling +which crumbles in consequence of the conflict and at close quarters with +an opponent greatly her superior in strength, how is the Scolia to guide +her sting with the accuracy that is essential if the stabs are to be +repeated? + +So profound a paralysis; the difficulty of vivisection underground; +the desperate coiling of the victim: all these things tell me that the +Cetonia-grub, as regards its nervous system, must possess a structure +peculiar to itself. The whole of the ganglia must be concentrated in a +limited area in the first segments, almost under the neck. I see this +as clearly as though it had been revealed to me by a post-mortem +dissection. + +Never was anatomical forecast more fully confirmed by direct +examination. After forty-eight hours in benzine, which dissolves the fat +and renders the nervous system more plainly visible, the Cetonia-grub is +subjected to dissection. Those of my readers who are familiar with these +investigations will understand my delight. What a clever school is the +Scolia's! It is just as I thought! Admirable! The thoracic and abdominal +ganglia are gathered into a single nervous mass, situated within the +quadrilateral bounded by the four hinder legs, which legs are very near +the head. It is a tiny, dull-white cylinder, about three millimetres +long by half a millimetre wide. (.117 x.019 inch.--Translator's Note.) +This is the organ which the Scolia's sting must attack in order to +secure the paralysis of the whole body, excepting the head, which is +provided with special ganglia. From it run numbers of filaments which +actuate the feet and the powerful muscular layer which is the creature's +essential motor organ. When examined merely through the pocket-lens, +this cylinder appears to be slightly furrowed transversely, a proof of +its complex structure. Under the microscope, it is seen to be formed by +the close juxtaposition, the welding, end to end, of the ganglia, which +can be distinguished one from the other by a slight intermediate groove. +The bulkiest are the first, the fourth and the tenth, or last; these are +all very nearly of equal size. The rest are barely half or even a third +as large as those mentioned. + +The Interrupted Scolia experiences the same hunting and surgical +difficulties when she attacks, in the crumbling, sandy soil, the +larvae of the Shaggy Anoxia or of the Morning Anoxia, according to the +district; and these difficulties, if they are to be overcome, demand in +the victim a concentrated nervous system, like the Cetonia's. Such is my +logical conviction before making my examination; such also is the result +of direct observation. When subjected to the scalpel, the larva of the +Morning Anoxia shows me its centres of innervation for the thorax and +the abdomen, gathered into a short cylinder, which, placed very far +forward, almost immediately after the head, does not run back beyond the +level of the second pair of legs. The vulnerable point is thus easily +accessible to the sting, despite the creature's posture of defence, in +which it contracts and coils up. In this cylinder I recognize eleven +ganglia, one more than in the Cetonia. The first three, or thoracic, +ganglia are plainly distinguishable from one another, although they are +set very close together; the rest are all in contact. The largest are +the three thoracic ganglia and the eleventh. + +After ascertaining these facts, I remembered Swammerdam's investigations +into the grub of the Monoceros, our Oryctes nasicornis. (Jan Swammerdam +(1637-1680), the Dutch naturalist and anatomist.--Translator's Note.) I +chanced to possess an abridgement of the "Biblia naturae," the masterly +work of the father of insect anatomy. I consulted the venerable volume. +It informed me that the learned Dutchman had been struck, long before +I was, by an anatomical peculiarity similar to that which the larvae +of the Cetoniae and Anoxiae had shown me in their nerve-centres. Having +observed in the Silk-worm a nervous system formed of ganglia distinct +one from the other, he was quite surprised to find that, in the grub +of the Oryctes, the same system was concentrated into a short chain of +ganglia in juxtaposition. His was the surprise of the anatomist who, +studying the organ qua organ, sees for the first time an unusual +conformation. Mine was of a different nature: I was amazed to see the +precision with which the paralysis of the victim sacrificed by the +Scolia, a paralysis so profound in spite of the difficulties of an +underground operation, had guided my forecast as to structure when, +anticipating the dissection, I declared in favour of an exceptional +concentration of the nervous system. Physiology perceived what anatomy +had not yet revealed, at all events to my eyes, for since then, +on dipping into my books, I have learnt that these anatomical +peculiarities, which were then so new to me, are now within the domain +of current science. We know that, in the Scarabaeidae, both the larva +and the perfect insect are endowed with a concentrated nervous system. + +The Garden Scolia attacks Oryctes nasicornis; the Two-banded Scolia +the Cetonia; the Interrupted Scolia the Anoxia. All three operate below +ground, under the most unfavourable conditions; and all three have for +their victim a larva of one of the Scarabaeidae, which, thanks to the +exceptional arrangement of its nerve-centres, lends itself, alone of all +larvae, to the Wasp's successful enterprises. In the presence of +this underground game, so greatly varied in size and shape and yet +so judiciously selected to facilitate paralysis, I do not hesitate to +generalize and I accept, as the ration of the other Scoliae, larvae of +Lamellicorns whose species will be determined by future observation. +Perhaps one of them will be found to give chase to the terrible enemy of +my crops, the voracious White Worm, the grub of the Cockchafer; perhaps +the Hemorrhoidal Scolia, rivalling in size the Garden Scolia and like +her, no doubt, requiring a copious diet, will be entered in the insects' +"Who's Who" as the destroyer of the Pine-chafer, that magnificent +Beetle, flecked with white upon a black or brown ground, who of an +evening, during the summer solstice, browses on the foliage of the +fir-trees. Though unable to speak with certainty or precision, I am +inclined to look upon these devourers of Scarabaeus-grubs as valiant +agricultural auxiliaries. + +The Cetonia-larva has figured hitherto only in its quality of a +paralysed victim. We will now consider it in its normal state. With its +convex back and its almost flat ventral surface, the creature is like a +semi-cylinder in shape, fuller in the hinder portion. On the back, each +of the segments, except the last, or anal, segment, puckers into three +thick pads, bristling with stiff, tawny hairs. The anal segment, much +wider than the rest, is rounded at the end and coloured a deep brown by +the contents of the intestine, which show through the translucent skin; +it bristles with hairs like the other segments, but is level, without +pads. On the ventral surface, the segments have no creases; and the +hairs, though abundant, are rather less so than on the back. The legs, +which are quite well-formed, are short and feeble in comparison with +the animal's size. The head has a strong, horny cap for a cranium. The +mandibles are powerful, with bevelled tips and three or four teeth on +the edge of the bevel. + +Its mode of locomotion marks it as an idiosyncratic, exceptional, +fantastic creature, having no fellow, that I know of, in the insect +world. Though endowed with legs--a trifle short, it is true, but after +all as good as those of a host of other larvae--it never uses them for +walking. It progresses on its back, always on its back, never otherwise. +By means of wriggling movements and the purchase afforded by the dorsal +bristles, it makes its way belly upwards, with its legs kicking the +empty air. The spectator to whom these topsy-turvy gymnastics are a +novelty thinks at first that the creature must have had a fright of some +sort and that it is struggling as best it can in the face of danger. +He puts it back on its belly; he lays it on its side. Nothing is of any +use; it obstinately turns over and resumes its dorsal progress. That is +its manner of travelling over a flat surface; it has no other. + +This reversal of the usual mode of walking is so peculiar to the +Cetonia-larva that it is enough in itself to reveal the grub's identity +to the least expert eyes. Dig into the vegetable mould formed by the +decayed wood in the hollow trunks of old willow-trees, search at the +foot of rotten stumps or in heaps of compost; and, if you come upon a +plumpish grub moving along on its back, there is no room for doubt: your +discovery is a Cetonia-larva. + +This topsy-turvy progress is fairly swift and is not less in speed to +that of an equally fat grub travelling on its legs. It would even be +greater on a polished surface, where walking on foot is hampered by +incessant slips, whereas the numerous hairs of the dorsal pads find +the necessary support by multiplying the points of contact. On polished +wood, on a sheet of paper and even on a strip of glass, I see my grubs +moving from point to point with the same ease as on a surface of garden +mould. In the space of one minute, on the wood of my table, they cover a +distance of eight inches. The pace is no swifter on a horizontal bed of +sifted mould. A strip of glass reduces the distance covered by one +half. The slippery surface only half paralyses this strange method of +locomotion. + +We will now place side by side with the Cetonia-grub the larva of the +Morning Anoxia, the prey of the Interrupted Scolia. It is very like the +larva of the Common Cockchafer. It is a fat, pot-bellied grub, with a +thick, red cap on its head and armed with strong, black mandibles, which +are powerful implements for digging and cutting through roots. The legs +are sturdy and end in a hooked nail. The creature has a long, heavy, +brown paunch. When placed on the table, it lies on its side; it +struggles without being able to advance or even to remain on its belly +or back. In its usual posture it is curled up into a narrow hook. I have +never seen it straighten itself completely; the bulky abdomen prevents +it. When placed on a surface of moist sand, the ventripotent creature is +no better able to shift its position: curved into a fish-hook, it lies +on its side. + +To dig into the earth and bury itself, it uses the fore-edge of its +head, a sort of weeding-hoe with the two mandibles for points. The +legs take part in this work, but far less effectually. In this way it +contrives to dig itself a shallow pit. Then, bracing itself against the +wall of the pit, with the aid of wriggling movements which are favoured +by the short, stiff hairs bristling all over its body, the grub changes +its position and plunges into the sand, but still with difficulty. + +Apart from a few details, which are of no importance here, we may repeat +this sketch of the Anoxia-grub and we shall have, if the size be at +least quadrupled, a picture of the larva of Oryctes nasicornis, the +monstrous prey of the Garden Scolia. Its general appearance is the same: +there is the same exaggeration of the belly; the same hook-like curve; +the same incapacity for standing on its legs. And as much may be said +of the larva of Scarabaeus pentodon, a fellow-boarder of the Oryctes and +the Cetonia. + + + +CHAPTER 5. THE PROBLEM OF THE SCOLIAE. + +Now that all the facts have been set forth, it is time to collate them. +We already know that the Beetle-hunters, the Cerceres (Cf. "The Hunting +Wasps": chapters 1 to 3.--Translator's Note.), prey exclusively on the +Weevils and the Buprestes, that is, on the families whose nervous system +presents a degree of concentration which may be compared with that of +the Scolia's victims. Those predatory insects, working in the open +air, are exempt from the difficulties which their emulators, working +underground, have to overcome. Their movements are free and are directed +by the sense of sight; but their surgery is confronted in another +respect with a most arduous problem. + +The victim, a Beetle, is covered at all points with a suit of armour +which the sting is unable to penetrate. The joints alone will allow the +poisoned lancet to pass. Those of the legs do not in any way comply with +the conditions imposed: the result of stinging them would be merely a +partial disorder which far from subduing the insect, would render it +more dangerous by irritating it yet further. A sting in the joint of the +neck is not admissible: it would injure the cervical ganglia and lead +to death, followed by putrefaction. There remains only the joint between +the corselet and the abdomen. + +The sting, in entering here, has to abolish all movement with a single +stab, for any movement would imperil the rearing of the larva. The +success of the paralysis, therefore, demands that the motor ganglia, +at least the three thoracic ganglia, shall be packed in close contact +opposite this point. This determines the selection of Weevils and +Buprestes, both of which are so strongly armoured. + +But where the prey has only a soft skin, incapable of stopping the +sting, the concentrated nervous system is no longer necessary, for +the operator, versed in the anatomical secrets of her victim, knows to +perfection where the centres of innervation lie; and she wounds them +one after another, if need be from the first to the last. Thus do the +Ammophilae go to work when dealing with their caterpillars and the +Sphex-wasps when dealing with their Locusts, Ephippigers and Crickets. + +With the Scoliae we come once again to a soft prey, with a skin +penetrable by the sting no matter where it be attacked. Will the tactics +of the caterpillar-hunters, who stab and stab again, be repeated here? +No, for the difficulty of movement under ground prohibits so complicated +an operation. Only the tactics of the paralysers of armour-clad insects +are practicable now, for, since there is but one thrust of the dagger, +the feat of surgery is reduced to its simplest terms, a necessary +consequence of the difficulties of an underground operation. The +Scoliae, then, whose destiny it is to hunt and paralyse under the soil +the victuals for their family, require a prey made highly vulnerable +by the close assemblage of the nerve-centres, as are the Weevils and +Buprestes of the Cerceres; and this is why it has fallen to their lot to +share among them the larvae of the Scarabaeidae. + +Before they obtained their allotted portion, so closely restricted and +so judiciously selected; before they discovered the precise and almost +mathematical point at which the sting must enter to produce a sudden +and a lasting immobility; before they learnt how to consume, without +incurring the risk of putrefaction, so corpulent a prey: in brief, +before they combined these three conditions of success, what did the +Scoliae do? + +The Darwinian school will reply that they were hesitating, essaying, +experimenting. A long series of blind gropings eventually hit upon the +most favourable combination, a combination henceforth to be perpetuated +by hereditary transmission. The skilful co-ordination between the end +and the means was originally the result of an accident. + +Chance! A convenient refuge! I shrug my shoulders when I hear it invoked +to explain the genesis of an instinct so complex as that of the Scoliae. +In the beginning, you say, the creature gropes and feels its way; there +is nothing settled about its preferences. To feed its carnivorous larvae +it levies tribute on every species of game which is not too much for +the huntress' power or the nurseling's appetite; its descendants try +now this, now that, now something else, at random, until the accumulated +centuries lead to the selection which best suits the race. Then habit +grows fixed and becomes instinct. + +Very well. Let us agree that the Scolia of antiquity sought a different +prey from that adopted by the modern huntress. If the family throve upon +a diet now discontinued, we fail to see that the descendants had any +reason to change it: animals have not the gastronomic fancies of an +epicure whom satiety makes difficult to please. Because the race did +well upon this fare, it became habitual; and instinct became differently +fixed from what it is to-day. If, on the other hand, the original food +was unsuitable, the existence of the family was jeopardized; and any +attempt at future improvement became impossible, because an unhappily +inspired mother would leave no heirs. + +To escape falling into this twofold trap, the theorists will reply that +the Scoliae are descended from a precursor, an indeterminate creature, +of changeable habits and changing form, modifying itself in accordance +with its environment and with the regional and climatic conditions and +branching out into races each of which has become a species with the +attributes which distinguish it to-day. The precursor is the deus +ex machina of evolution. When the difficulty becomes altogether +too importunate, quick, a precursor, to fill up the gaps, quick, an +imaginary creature, the nebulous plaything of the mind! This is seeking +to lighten the darkness with a still deeper obscurity; to illumine the +day by piling cloud upon cloud. Precursors are easier to find than sound +arguments. Nevertheless, let us put the precursor of the Scoliae to the +test. + +What did she do? Being capable of everything, she did a bit of +everything. Among its descendants were innovators who developed a taste +for tunnelling in sand and vegetable mould. There they encountered the +larvae of the Cetonia, the Oryctes, the Anoxia, succulent morsels on +which to rear their families. By degrees the indeterminate Wasp adopted +the sturdy proportions demanded by underground labour. By degrees she +learnt to stab her plump neighbours in scientific fashion; by degrees +she acquired the difficult art of consuming her prey without killing it; +at length, by degrees, aided by the richness of her diet, she became the +powerful Scolia with whom we are familiar. Having reached this point, +the species assumes a permanent form, as does its instinct. + +Here we have a multiplicity of stages, all of the slowest, all of the +most incredible nature, whereas the Wasp cannot found a race except on +the express condition of complete success from the first attempt. We +will not insist further upon the insurmountable objection; we will admit +that, amid so many unfavourable chances, a few favoured individuals +survive, becoming more and more numerous from one generation to the +next, in proportion as the dangerous art of rearing the young is +perfected. Slight variations in one and the same direction form a +definite whole; and at long last the ancient precursor has become the +Scolia of our own times. + +By the aid of a vague phraseology which juggles with the secret of +the centuries and the unknown things of life, it is easy to build up a +theory in which our mental sloth delights, after being discouraged by +difficult researches whose final result is doubt rather than positive +statement. But if, so far from being satisfied with hazy generalities +and adopting as current coin the terms consecrated by fashion, we have +the perseverance to explore the truth as far as lies in our power, the +aspect of things will undergo a great change and we shall discover that +they are far less simple than our overprecipitate views declared them +to be. Generalization is certainly a most valuable instrument: science +indeed exists only by virtue of it. Let us none the less beware +of generalizations which are not based upon very firm and manifold +foundations. + +When these foundations are lacking, the child is the great generalizer. +For him, the feathered world consists merely of birds; the race of +reptiles merely of snakes, the only difference being that some are big +and some are little. Knowing nothing, he generalizes in the highest +degree; he simplifies, in his inability to perceive the complex. Later +he will learn that the Sparrow is not the Bullfinch, that the Linnet is +not the Greenfinch; he will particularize and to a greater degree each +day, as his faculty of observation becomes more fully trained. In the +beginning he saw nothing but resemblances; he now sees differences, but +still not plainly enough to avoid incongruous comparisons. + +In his adult years he will almost to a certainty commit zoological +blunders similar to those which my gardener retails to me. Favier, an +old soldier, has never opened a book, for the best of reasons. He barely +knows how to cipher: arithmetic rather than reading is forced upon us by +the brutalities of life. Having followed the flag over three-quarters of +the globe, he has an open mind and a memory crammed with reminiscences, +which does not prevent him, when we chat about animals, from making the +most crazy assertions. For him the Bat is a Rat that has grown wings; +the Cuckoo is a Sparrow-hawk retired from business; the Slug is a Snail +who has lost his shell with the advance of years; the Nightjar (Known +also as the Goatsucker, because of the mistaken belief that +the bird sucks the milk of Goats, and, in America, as the +Whippoorwill.--Translator's Note.), the Chaoucho-grapaou, as he calls +her, is an elderly Toad, who, becoming enamoured of milk-food, has grown +feathers, so that she may enter the byres and milk the Goats. It is +impossible to drive these fantastic ideas out of his head. Favier +himself, as will be seen, is an evolutionist after his own fashion, +an evolutionist of a very daring type. In accounting for the origin of +animals nothing gives him pause. He has a reply to everything: "this" +comes from "that." If you ask him why, he answers: + +"Look at the resemblance!" + +Shall we reproach him with these insanities, when we hear another, +misled by the Monkey's build, acclaim the Pithecanthropus as man's +precursor? Shall we reject the metamorphosis of the Chaoucho-grapaou, +when people tell us in all seriousness that, in the present stage of +scientific knowledge, it is absolutely proved that man is descended from +some rough-hewn Ape? Of the two transformations, Favier's strikes me as +the more credible. A painter of my acquaintance, a brother of the great +composer Felicien David (Felicien Cesar David (1810-1876). His chief +work was the choral symphony "Le Desert":--Translator's Note.), favoured +me one day with his reflections on the human structure: + +"Ve, moun bel ami," he said. "Ve, l'home a lou dintre d'un por et lou +defero d'uno mounino." "See, my dear friend, see: man has the inside of +a pig and the outside of a monkey." + +I recommend the painter's aphorism to those who might like to discover +man's origin in the Hog when the Ape has gone out of fashion. According +to David, descent is proved by internal resemblances: + +"L'home a lou dintre d'un por." + +The inventory of precursory types sees nothing but organic resemblances +and disdains the differences of aptitude. By consulting only the bones, +the vertebrae, the hair, the nervures of the wings, the joints of the +antennae, the imagination may build up any sort of genealogical tree +that will fit with our theories of classification, for, when all is +said, the animal, in its widest generalization, is represented by a +digestive tube. With this common factor, the way lies open to every kind +of error. A machine is judged not by this or that train of wheels, but +by the nature of the work accomplished. The monumental roasting-jack of +a waggoners' inn and a Breguet chronometer both have trains of cogwheels +geared in almost a similar fashion. (Louis Breguet (1803-1883), a famous +Parisian watchmaker and physicist.--Translator's Note.) Are we to +class the two mechanisms together? Shall we forget that the one turns a +shoulder of mutton before the hearth, while the other divides time into +seconds? + +In the same way, the organic scaffolding is dominated from on high by +the aptitudes of the animal, especially that superior characteristic, +the psychical aptitudes. That the Chimpanzee and the hideous Gorilla +possess close resemblances of structure to our own is obvious. But +let us for a moment consider their aptitudes. What differences, what a +dividing gulf! Without exalting ourselves as high as the famous reed of +which Pascal speaks, that reed which, in its weakness, by the mere +fact that it knows itself to be crushed, is superior to the world that +crushes it, we may at least ask to be shown, somewhere, an animal making +an implement, which will multiply its skill and its strength, or +taking possession of fire, the primordial element of progress. (Blaise +Pascal(1623-1662). The allusion is to a passage in the philosopher's +"Pensees." Pascal describes man as a reed, the weakest thing in nature, +but "a thinking reed."--Translator's Note.) Master of implements and +of fire! These two aptitudes, simple though they be, characterize man +better than the number of his vertebrae and his molars. + +You tell us that man, at first a hairy brute, walking on all fours, +has risen on his hind-legs and shed his fur; and you complacently +demonstrate how the elimination of the hairy pelt was effected. Instead +of bolstering up a theory with a handful of fluff gained or lost, it +would perhaps be better to settle how the original brute became the +possessor of implements and fire. Aptitudes are more important than +hair; and you neglect them because it is there that the insurmountable +difficulty really resides. See how the great master of evolution +hesitates and stammers when he tries, by fair means or foul, to fit +instinct into the mould of his formulae. It is not so easy to handle as +the colour of the pelt, the length of the tail, the ear that droops or +stands erect. Yes, our master well knows that this is where the shoe +pinches! Instinct escapes him and brings his theory crumbling to the +ground. + +Let us return to what the Scoliae teach us on this question, which +incidentally touches on our own origin. In conformity with the Darwinian +ideas, we have accepted an unknown precursor, who by dint of repeated +experiment, adopted as the victuals to be hoarded the larvae of the +Scarabaeidae. This precursor, modified by varying circumstances, is +supposed to have subdivided herself into ramifications, one of which, +digging into vegetable mould and preferring the Cetonia to any other +game inhabiting the same heap, became the Two-banded Scolia; another, +also addicted to exploring the soil, but selecting the Oryctes, left as +its descendant the Garden Scolia; and a third, establishing itself +in sandy ground, where it found the Anoxia, was the ancestress of the +Interrupted Scolia. To these three ramifications we must beyond a doubt +add others which complete the series of the Scolia. As their habits are +known to me only by analogy, I confine myself to mentioning them. + +The three species at least, therefore, with which I am familiar would +appear to be derived from a common precursor. To traverse the distance +from the starting-point to the goal, all three have had to contend with +difficulties, which are extremely grave if considered one by one and are +aggravated even more by this circumstance, that the overcoming of one +would lead to nothing unless the others were surmounted as successfully. +Success, then, is contingent upon a series of conditions, each one of +which offers almost no chance of victory, so that the fulfilment of them +all becomes a mathematical absurdity if we are to invoke accident alone. + +And, in the first place, how was it that the Scolia of antiquity, having +to provide rations for her carnivorous family, adopted for her prey only +those larvae which, owing to the concentration of their nervous systems, +form so remarkable and so rare an exception in the insect order? What +chance would hazard offer her of obtaining this prey, the most suitable +of all because the most vulnerable? The chance represented by unity +compared with the indefinite number of entomological species. The odds +are as one to immensity. + +Let us continue. The larva of the Scarabaeid is snapped up underground, +for the first time. The victim protests, defends itself after its +fashion, coils itself up and presents to the sting on every side a +surface on which a wound entails no serious danger. And yet the Wasp, an +absolute novice, has to select, for the thrust of its poisoned weapon, +one single point, narrowly restricted and hidden in the folds of the +larva's body. If she miscalculates, she may be killed: the larva, +irritated by the smarting puncture, is strong enough to disembowel her +with the tusks of its mandibles. If she escapes the danger, she will +nevertheless perish without leaving any offspring, since the necessary +provisions will be lacking. Salvation for herself and her race depends +on this: whether at the first thrust she is able to reach the little +nervous plexus which measures barely one-fiftieth of an inch in width. +What chance has she of plunging her lancet into it, if there is nothing +to guide her? The chance represented by unity compared with the number +of points composing the victim's body. The odds are as one against +immensity. + +Let us proceed still further. The sting has reached the mark; the fat +grub is deprived of movement. At what spots should the egg now be laid? +In front, behind, on the sides, the back or the belly? The choice is +not a matter of indifference. The young grub will pierce the skin of +its provender at the very spot on which the egg was fixed; and, once an +opening is made, it will go ahead without hesitation. If this point of +attack is ill-chosen, the nurseling runs the risk of presently finding +under its mandibles some essential organ, which should have been +respected until the end in order to keep the victuals fresh. Remember +how difficult it is to complete the rearing when the tiny larva is moved +from the place chosen by the mother. The game promptly becomes putrid +and the Scolia dies. + +It is impossible for me to state the precise motives which lead to the +adoption of the spot on which the egg is laid; I can perceive general +reasons, but the details escape me, as I am not well enough versed in +the more delicate questions of anatomy and entomological physiology. +What I do know with absolute certainty is that the same spot is +invariably chosen for laying the egg. With not a single exception, on +all the victims extracted from the heap of garden mould--and they are +numerous--the egg is fixed behind the ventral surface, on the verge of +the brown patch formed by the contents of the digestive system. + +If there be nothing to guide her, what chance has the mother of gluing +her egg to this point, which is always the same because it is that most +favourable to successful rearing? A very small point, represented by +the ratio of two or three square millimetres (About 1/100 square +inch.--Translator's Note.) to the entire surface of the victim's body. + +Is this all? Not yet. The grub is hatched; it pierces the belly of the +Cetonia-larva at the requisite point; it plunges its long neck into the +entrails, ransacking them and filling itself to repletion. If it bite at +random, if it have no other guide in the selection of tit-bits than the +preference of the moment and the violence of an imperious appetite, it +will infallibly incur the danger of being poisoned by putrid food, for +the victim, if wounded in those organs which preserve a remnant of life +in it, will die for good and all at the first mouthfuls. + +The ample joint must be consumed with prudent skill: this part must be +eaten before that and, after that, some other portion, always according +to method, until the time approaches for the last bites. This marks the +end of life for the Cetonia, but it also marks the end of the Scolia's +feasting. If the grub be a novice in the art of eating, if no special +instinct guide its mandibles in the belly of the prey, what chance has +it of completing its perilous meal? As much as a starving Wolf +would have of daintily dissecting his Sheep, when he tears at her +gluttonously, rends her into shreds and gulps them down. + +These four conditions of success, with chance so near to zero in each +case, must all be realized together, or the grub will never be reared. +The Scolia may have captured a larva with close-packed nerve-centres, +a Cetonia-grub, for instance; but this will go for nothing unless she +direct her sting towards the only vulnerable point. She may know the +whole secret of the art of stabbing her victim, but this means nothing +if she does not know where to fasten her egg. The suitable spot may be +found, but all the foregoing will be useless if the grub be not versed +in the method to be followed in devouring its prey while keeping it +alive. It is all or nothing. + +Who would venture to calculate the final chance on which the future of +the Scolia, or of her precursor, is based, that complex chance whose +factors are four infinitely improbable occurrences, one might almost +say four impossibilities? And such a conjunction is supposed to be a +fortuitous result, to which the present instinct is due! Come, come! + +From another point of view again, the Darwinian theory is at variance +with the Scoliae and their prey. In the heap of garden mould which I +exploited in order to write this record, three kinds of larvae dwell +together, belonging to the Scarabaeid group: the Cetonia, the Oryctes +and Scarabeus pentodon. Their internal structure is very nearly similar; +their food is the same, consisting of decomposing vegetable matter; +their habits are identical: they live underground in tunnels which +are frequently renewed; they make a rough egg-shaped cocoon of earthy +materials. Environment, diet, industry and internal structure are all +similar; and yet one of these three larvae, the Cetonia's, reveals a +most singular dissimilarity from its fellow-trenchermen: alone among +the Scarabaeidae and, more than that, alone in all the immense order of +insects, it walks upon its back. + +If the differences were a matter of a few petty structural details, +falling within the finical department of the classifier, we might pass +them over without hesitation; but a creature that turns itself upside +down in order to walk with its belly in the air and never adopts any +other method of locomotion, though it possesses legs and good legs at +that, assuredly deserves examination. How did the animal acquire its +fantastic mode of progress and why does it think fit to walk in a +fashion the exact contrary of that adopted by other beasts? + +To these questions the science now in fashion always has a reply +ready: adaptation to environment. The Cetonia-larva lives in crumbling +galleries which it bores in the depths of the soil. Like the sweep who +obtains a purchase with his back, loins and knees to hoist himself up +the narrow passage of a chimney, it gathers itself up, applies the tip +of its belly to one wall of its gallery and its sturdy back to another; +and the combined effort of these two levers results in moving it +forward. The legs, which are used very little, indeed hardly at all, +waste away and tend to disappear, as does any organ which is left +unemployed; the back, on the other hand, the principal motive agent, +grows stronger, is furrowed with powerful folds and bristles with +grappling-hooks or hairs; and gradually, by adaptation to its +environment, the creature loses the art of walking, which it does not +practise, and replaces it by that of crawling on its back, a form of +progress better suited to underground corridors. + +So far so good. But now tell me, if you please, why the larvae of the +Oryctes and the Scarabaeus, living in vegetable mould, the larva of the +Anoxia, dwelling in the sand, and the larva of the Cockchafer in our +cultivated fields have not also acquired the faculty of walking on their +backs? In their galleries they follow the chimney-sweep's methods quite +as cleverly as the Cetonia-grub; to move forward they make valiant use +of their backs without yet having come to ambling with their bellies +in the air. Can they have neglected to accommodate themselves to the +demands of their environment? If evolution and environment cause the +topsy-turvy progress of the one, I have the right, if words have +any meaning whatever, to demand as much of the others, since their +organization is so much alike and their mode of life identical. + +I have but little respect for theories which, when confronted with two +similar cases, are unable to interpret the one without contradicting the +other. They make me laugh when they become merely childish. For +example: why has the tiger a coat streaked black and yellow? A matter of +environment, replies one of our evolutionary masters. Ambushed in bamboo +thickets where the golden radiance of the sun is intersected by stripes +of shadow cast by the foliage, the animal, the better to conceal itself, +assumed the colour of its environment. The rays of the sun produced the +tawny yellow of the coat; the stripes of shadow added the black bars. + +And there you have it. Any one who refuses to accept the explanation +must be very hard to please. I am one of these difficult persons. If it +were a dinner-table jest, made over the walnuts and the wine, I would +willingly sing ditto; but alas and alack, it is uttered without a +smile, in a solemn and magisterial manner, as the last word in science! +Toussenel, in his day, asked the naturalists an insidious question. +(Alphonse Toussenel (1803-1885), the author of a number of learned and +curious works on ornithology.--Translator's Note.) Why, he enquired, +have Ducks a little curly feather on the rump? No one, so far as I know, +had an answer for the teasing cross-examiner: evolution had not been +invented then. In our time the reason why would be forthcoming in a +moment, as lucid and as well-founded as the reason why of the tiger's +coat. + +Enough of childish nonsense. The Cetonia-grub walks on its back because +it has always done so. The environment does not make the animal; it is +the animal that is made for the environment. To this simple philosophy, +which is quite antiquated nowadays, I will add another, which Socrates +expressed in these words: + +"What I know best is that I know nothing." + + + +CHAPTER 6. THE TACHYTES. + +The family of Wasps whose name I inscribe at the head of this chapter +has not hitherto, so far as I know, made much noise in the world. Its +annals are limited to methodical classifications, which make very poor +reading. The happy nations, men say, are those which have no history. +I accept this, but I also admit that it is possible to have a history +without ceasing to be happy. In the conviction that I shall not disturb +its prosperity, I will try to substitute the living, moving insect for +the insect impaled in a cork-bottomed box. + +It has been adorned with a learned name, derived from the Greek +Tachytes, meaning rapidity, suddenness, speed. The creature's godfather, +as we see, had a smattering of Greek; its denomination is none the +less unfortunate: intended to instruct us by means of a characteristic +feature, the name leads us astray. Why is speed mentioned in this +connection? Why a label which prepares the mind for an exceptional +velocity and announces a race of peerless coursers? Nimble diggers of +burrows and eager hunters the Tachytes are, to be sure, but they are no +better than a host of rivals. Not the Sphex, nor the Ammophila, nor the +Bembex, nor many another would admit herself beaten in either flying +or running. At the nesting-season, all this tiny world of huntresses is +filled with astounding activity. The quality of a speedy worker being +common to all, none can boast of it to the exclusion of the rest. + +Had I had a vote when the Tachytes was christened, I should have +suggested a short, harmonious, well-sounding name, meaning nothing else +than the thing meant. What better, for example, than the term Sphex? The +ear is satisfied and the mind is not corrupted by a prejudice, a +source of error to the beginner. I have not nearly as much liking for +Ammophila, which represents as a lover of the sands an animal whose +establishments call for compact soil. In short, if I had been forced, at +all costs, to concoct a barbarous appellation out of Latin or Greek in +order to recall the creature's leading characteristic, I should have +attempted to say, a passionate lover of the Locust. + +Love of the Locust, in the broader sense of the Orthopteron, an +exclusive, intolerant love, handed down from mother to daughter with +a fidelity which the centuries fail to impair, this, yes, this indeed +depicts the Tachytes with greater accuracy than a name smacking of +the race-course. The Englishman has his roast-beef; the German his +sauerkraut; the Russian his caviare; the Neapolitan his macaroni; the +Piedmontese his polenta; the man of Carpentras his tian. The Tachytes +has her Locust. Her national dish is also that of the Sphex, with whom I +boldly associate her. The methodical classifier, who works in cemeteries +and seems to fly the living cities, keeps the two families far removed +from each other because of considerations and attaching to the nervures +of the wings and the joints of the palpi. At the risk of passing for a +heretic, I bring them together at the suggestion of the menu-card. + +To my own knowledge, my part of the country possesses five species, one +and all addicted to a diet of Orthoptera. Panzer's Tachytes (T. Panzeri, +VAN DER LIND), girdled with red at the base of the abdomen, must be +pretty rare. I surprise her from time to time working on the hard +roadside banks and the trodden edges of the footpaths. There, to a depth +of an inch at most, she digs her burrows, each isolated from the +rest. Her prey is an adult, medium-sized Acridian (Locust or +Grasshopper.--Translator's Note.), such as the White-banded Sphex +pursues. The captive of the one would not be despised by the other. +Gripped by the antennae, according to the ritual of the Sphex, the +victim is trailed along on foot and laid beside the nest, with the head +pointing towards the opening. The pit, prepared in advance, is closed +for the time being with a tiny flagstone and some bits of gravel, in +order to avoid either the invasion of a passer-by or obstruction by +landslips during the huntress' absence. A like precaution is taken by +the White-banded Sphex. Both observe the same diet and the same customs. + +The Tachytes clears the entrance to the home and goes in alone. She +returns, puts out her head and, seizing her prey by the antennae, +warehouses it by dragging backwards. I have repeated, at her expense, +the tricks which I used to play on the Sphex. (For the author's +experiments with the Languedocian, the Yellow-winged and the White-edged +Sphex, cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter 11.--Translator's Note.) While +the Tachytes is underground, I move the game away. The insect comes up +again and sees nothing at its door; it comes out and goes to fetch its +Locust, whom it places in position as before. This done, it goes in +again by itself. In its absence I once more pull back the prey. Fresh +emergence of the Wasp, who puts things to rights and persists in going +down again, still by herself, however often I repeat the experiment. +Yet it would be very easy for her to put an end to my teasing: she would +only have to descend straightway with her game, instead of leaving it +for a moment on her doorstep. But, faithful to the usages of her race, +she behaves as her ancestors behaved before her, even though the ancient +custom happen to be unprofitable. Like the Yellow-winged Sphex, whom I +have teased so often during her cellaring-operations, she is a narrow +conservative, learning nothing and forgetting nothing. + +Let us leave her to do her work in peace. The Locust disappears +underground and the egg is laid upon the breast of the paralysed insect. +That is all: one carcase for each cell, no more. The entrance is stopped +at last, first with stones, which will prevent the trickling of the +embankment into the chamber; next with sweepings of dust, under which +every vestige of the subterranean house disappears. It is now done: +the Tachytes will come here no more. Other burrows will occupy her, +distributed at the whim of her vagabond humour. + +A cell provisioned before my eyes on the 22nd of August, in one of the +walls in the harmas, contained the finished cocoon a week later. (The +harmas was the piece of enclosed waste land in which the author used to +study his insects in their natural state. Cf. "The Life of the Fly," +by J. Henri Fabre, translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: chapter +1.--Translator's Note.) I have not noted many examples of so rapid a +development. This cocoon recalls, in its shape and texture, that of the +Bembex-wasps. It is hard and mineralized, this is to say, the warp and +woof of silk are hidden by a thick encrustation of sand. This composite +structure seems to me characteristic of the family; at all events I find +it in the three species whose cocoons I know. If the Tachytes are nearly +related to the Spheges in diet, they are far removed from them in the +industry of their larvae. The first are workers in mosaic, encrusting a +network of silk and sand; the second weave pure silk. + +Of smaller size and clad in black with trimmings of silvery down on the +edge of the abdominal segments, the Tarsal Tachytes frequents the +ledges of soft limestone in fairly populous colonies. (T. tarsina, LEP.) +(According to M. J. Perez, to whom I submitted the Wasp of which I am +about to speak, this Tachytes might well be a new species, if it is not +Lepelletier's T. tarsina or its equivalent, Panzer's T. unicolor. Any +one wishing to clear up this point will always recognize the quarrelsome +insect by its behaviour. A minute description seems useless to me in the +type of investigation which I am pursuing.--Author's Note.) August and +September are the season of her labours. Her burrows, very close to +one another when an easily-worked vein presents itself, afford an ample +harvest of cocoons once the site is discovered. In a certain gravel-pit +in the neighbourhood, with vertical walls visited by the sun, I have +been able within a short space of time to collect enough to fill the +hollow of my hand completely. They differ from the cocoons of the +preceding species only in their smaller size. The provisions consist of +young Acridians, varying from about a quarter to half an inch in length. +The adult insect does not appear in the assorted bags of game, being +no doubt too tough for the feeble grub. All the carcases consist of +Locust-larvae, whose budding wings leave the back uncovered and put one +in mind of the short skirts of a skimpy jacket. Small so that it may be +tender, the game is numerous so that it may suffice all needs. I +count from two to four carcases to a cell. When the time comes we will +discover the reason for these differences in the rations served. + +The Mantis-killing Tachytes wears a red scarf, like her kinswoman, +Panzer's Tachytes. (The Mantis-hunting Tachytes was submitted to +examination by M. J. Perez, who failed to recognize her. This species +may well be new to our fauna. I confine myself to calling her the +Mantis-killing Tachytes and leave to the specialists the task of +adorning her with a Latin name, if it be really the fact that the Wasp +is not yet catalogued. I will be brief in my delineation. To my thinking +the best description is this: mantis-hunter. With this information it +is impossible to mistake the insect, in my district of course. I may add +that it is black, with the first two abdominal segments, the legs and +the tarsi a rusty red. Clad in the same livery and much smaller than the +female, the male is remarkable for his eyes, which are of a beautiful +lemon-yellow when he is alive. The length is nearly half an inch for the +female and a little more than half this for the male.--Author's Note.) +I do not think that she is very widely distributed. I made her +acquaintance in the Serignan woods, where she inhabits, or rather used +to inhabit--for I fear that I have depopulated and even destroyed the +community by my repeated excavations--where she used to inhabit one of +those little mounds of sand which the wind heaps up against the rosemary +clumps. Outside this small community, I never saw her again. Her +history, rich in incident, will be given with all the detail which +it deserves. I will confine myself for the moment to mentioning her +rations, which consist of Mantis-larvae, those of the Praying Mantis +predominating. (Cf. "The Life of the Grasshopper": chapters 6 to +9.--Translator's Note.) My lists record from three to sixteen heads for +each cell. Once again we note a great inequality of rations, the reason +for which we must try to discover. + +What shall I say of the Black Tachytes (T. nigra, VAN DER LIND) that I +have not already said in telling the story of the Yellow-winged Sphex? +("The Hunting Wasps": chapters 4 to 6.--Translator's Note.) I have there +described her contests with the Sphex, whose burrow she seems to me +to have usurped; I show her dragging along the ruts in the roads a +paralysed Cricket, seized by the hauling-ropes, his antennae; I speak of +her hesitations, which lead me to suspect her for a homeless vagabond, +and finally on her surrender of her game, with which she seems at once +satisfied and embarrassed. Save for the dispute with the Sphex, an +unique event in my records as observer, I have seen all the rest many +a time, but never anything more. The Black Tachytes, though the most +frequent of all in my neighbourhood, remains a riddle to me. I +know nothing of her dwelling, her larvae, her cocoons, her +family-arrangements. All that I can affirm, judging by the invariable +nature of the prey which one sees her dragging along, is that she must +feed her larvae on the same non-adult Cricket that the Yellow-winged +Sphex chooses for hers. + +Is she a poacher, a pillager of other's property, or a genuine huntress? +My suspicions are persistent, though I know how chary a man should be of +suspicions. At one time I had my doubts about Panzer's Tachytes, whom +I grudged a prey to which the White-banded Sphex might have laid claim. +To-day I have no such doubts: she is an honest worker and her game is +really the result of her hunting. While waiting for the truth to be +revealed and my suspicions set aside, I will complete the little that I +know of her by noting that the Black Tachytes passes the winter in +the adult form and away from her cell. She hibernates, like the Hairy +Ammophila. In warm, sheltered places, with low, perpendicular, bare +banks, dear to the Wasps, I am certain of finding her at any time during +the winter, however briefly I investigate the earthen surface, riddled +with galleries. I find the Tachytes cowering singly in the hot oven +formed by the end of a tunnel. If the temperature be mild and the sky +clear, she emerges from her retreat in January and February and comes to +the surface of the bank to see whether spring is making progress. +When the shadows fall and the heat decreases, she reenters her +winter-quarters. + +The Anathema Tachytes (T. anathema, VAN DER LIND), the giant of her +race, almost as large as the Languedocian Sphex and, like her, decorated +with a red scarf round the base of the abdomen, is rarer than any of +her congeners. I have come upon her only some four or five times, as an +isolated individual and always in circumstances which will tell us +of the nature of her game with a probability that comes very near to +certainty. She hunts underground, like the Scoliae. In September I see +her go down into the soil, which has been loosened by a recent light +shower; the movement of the earth turned over keeps me informed of her +subterranean progress. She is like the Mole, ploughing through a meadow +in pursuit of his White Worm. She comes out farther on, nearly a yard +from the spot at which she went in. This long journey underground has +taken her only a few minutes. + +Is this due to extraordinary powers of excavation on her part? By no +means: the Anathema Tachytes is an energetic tunneller, no doubt, but, +after all, is incapable of performing so great a labour in so short +a time. If the underground worker is so swift in her progress, it is +because the track followed has already been covered by another. The +trail is ready prepared. We will describe it, for it is clearly defined +before the intervention of the Wasp. + +On the surface of the ground, for a length of two paces at most, runs +a sinuous line, a beading of crumbled soil, roughly the width of my +finger. From this line of ramifications (others) shoot out to left and +right, much shorter and irregularly distributed. One need not be a great +entomological scholar to recognize, at the first glance, in these pads +of raised earth, the trail of a Mole-cricket, the Mole among insects. It +is the Mole-cricket who, seeking for a root to suit her, has excavated +the winding tunnel, with investigation-galleries grafted to either side +of the main road. The passage is free therefore, or at most blocked by a +few landslips, of which the Tachytes will easily dispose. This explains +her rapid journey underground. + +But what does she do there? For she is always there, in the few +observations which chance affords me. A subterranean excursion would not +attract the Wasp if it had no object. And its object is certainly the +search for some sort of game for her larvae. The inference becomes +inevitable: the Anathema Tachytes, who explores the Mole-cricket's +galleries, gives her larvae this same Mole-cricket as their food. Very +probably the specimen selected is a young one, for the adult insect +would be too big. Besides, to this consideration of quantity is added +that of quality. Young and tender flesh is highly appreciated, as +witness the Tarsal Tachytes, the Black Tachytes and the Mantis-killing +Tachytes, who all three select game that is not yet made tough by age. +It goes without saying that the moment the huntress emerged from the +ground I proceeded to dig up the track. The Mole-cricket was no longer +there. The Tachytes had come too late; and so had I. + +Well, how right was I to define the Tachytes as a Locust lover! What +constancy in the gastronomic rules of the race! And what tact in varying +the game, while keeping within the order of the Orthoptera! What have +the Locust, the Cricket, the Praying Mantis and the Mole-cricket in +common, as regards their general appearance? Why, absolutely nothing! +None of us, if he were unfamiliar with the delicate associations +dictated by anatomy, would think of classing them together. The +Tachytes, on the other hand, makes no mistake. Guided by her instinct, +which rivals the science of a Latreille, she groups them all +together. (Pierre Andre Latreille (1762-1833), one of the founders of +entomological science, a professor at the Musee d'histoire naturelle and +member of the Academie des sciences.--Translator's Note.) + +This instinctive taxonomy becomes more surprising still if we consider +the variety of the game stored in a single burrow. The Mantis-killing +Tachytes, for instance, preys indiscriminately upon all the Mantides +that occur in her neighbourhood. I see her warehousing three of them, +the only varieties, in fact, that I know in my district. They are the +following: the Praying Mantis (M. religiosa, LIN.), the Grey Mantis +(Ameles decolor, CHARP. (Cf. "The Life of the Grasshopper": chapter +10.--Translator's Note.)) and the Empusa (E. pauperata, LATR. (Cf. idem: +chapter 9.--Translator's Note.)). The numerical predominance in the +Tachytes' cells belongs to the Praying Mantis; and the Grey Mantis +occupies second place. The Empusa, who is comparatively rare on the +brushwood in the neighbourhood, is also rare in the store-houses of the +Wasp; nevertheless her presence is repeated often enough to show that +the huntress appreciates the value of this prey when she comes across +it. The three sorts of game are in the larval state, with rudimentary +wings. Their dimensions, which vary a good deal, fluctuate between +two-fifths and four-fifths of an inch in length. + +The Praying Mantis is a bright green; she boasts an elongated prothorax +and an alert gait. The other Mantis is ash-grey. Her prothorax is short +and her movements heavy. The coloration therefore is no guide to the +huntress, any more than the gait. The green and the grey, the swift +and the slow are unable to baffle her perspicacity. To her, despite the +great difference in appearance, the two victims are Mantes. And she is +right. + +But what are we to say of the Empusa? The insect world, at all events in +our parts, contains no more fantastic creature. The children here, who +are remarkable for finding names which really depict the animal, call +the larva "the Devilkin." It is indeed a spectre, a diabolical phantom +worthy of the pencil of a Callot. (Jacques Callot (1592-1635), the +French engraver and painter, famous for the grotesque nature of his +subjects.--Translator's Note.) There is nothing to beat it in the +extravagant medley of figures in his "Temptation of Saint Anthony." Its +flat abdomen, scalloped at the edges, rises into a twisted crook; its +peaked head carries on the top two large, divergent, tusk-shaped horns; +its sharp, pointed face, which can turn and look to either side, +would fit the wily purpose of some Mephistopheles; its long legs have +cleaver-like appendages at the joints, similar to the arm-pieces which +the knights of old used to bear upon their elbows. Perched high upon the +shanks of its four hind-legs, with its abdomen curled, its thorax raised +erect, its front-legs, the traps and implements of warfare, folded +against its chest, it sways limply from side to side, on the tip of the +bough. + +Any one seeing it for the first time in its grotesque pose will give +a start of surprise. The Tachytes knows no such alarm. If she catches +sight of it, she seizes it by the neck and stabs it. It will be a treat +for her children. How does she manage to recognize in this spectre the +near relation of the Praying Mantis? When frequent hunting-expeditions +have familiarized her with the last-named and suddenly, in the midst of +the chase, she encounters the Devilkin, how does she become aware that +this strange find makes yet another excellent addition to her larder? +This question, I fear, will never receive an adequate reply. Other +huntresses have already set us the problem; others will set it to us +again. I shall return to it, not to solve it, but to show even more +plainly how obscure and profound it is. But we will first complete the +story of the Mantis-killing Tachytes. + +The colony which forms the subject of my investigations is established +in a mound of fine sand which I myself cut into, a couple of years ago, +in order to unearth a few Bembex larvae. The entrances to the Tachytes' +dwelling open upon the little upright bank of the section. At the +beginning of July the work is in full swing. It must have been going on +already for a week or two, for I find very forward larvae, as well as +recent cocoons. There are here, digging into the sand or returning from +expeditions with their booty, some hundred females, whose burrows, all +very close to one another, cover an area of barely a square yard. This +hamlet, small in extent, but nevertheless densely populated, shows us +the Mantis-slayer under a moral aspect which is not shared by the Locust +slayer, Panzer's Tachytes, who resembles her so closely in costume. +Though engaged in individual tasks, the first seeks the society of her +kind, as do certain of the Sphex-wasps, while the second establishes +herself in solitude, after the fashion of the Ammophila. Neither the +personal form nor the nature of the occupation determines sociability. + +Crouching voluptuously in the sun, on the sand at the foot of the bank, +the males lie waiting for the females, to plague them as they pass. They +are ardent lovers, but cut a poor figure. Their linear dimensions +are barely half those of the other sex, which implies a volume only +one-eighth as great. At a short distance they appear to wear on their +heads a sort of gaudy turban. At close quarters this headgear is seen to +consist of the eyes, which are very large and a bright lemon-yellow and +which almost entirely surround the head. + +At ten o'clock in the morning, when the heat begins to grow intolerable +to the observer, there is a continual coming and going between the +burrows and the tufts of grass, everlasting, thyme and wormwood, which +constitute the Tachytes' hunting-grounds within a moderate radius. The +journey is so short that the Wasp brings her game home on the wing, +usually in a single flight. She holds it by the fore-part, a very +judicious precaution, which is favourable to rapid stowage in the +warehouse, for then the Mantis' legs stretch backwards, along the axis +of the body, instead of folding and projecting sideways, when their +resistance would be difficult to overcome in a narrow gallery. The lanky +prey dangles beneath the huntress, all limp, lifeless and paralysed. +The Tachytes, still flying, alights on the threshold of the home and +immediately, contrary to the custom of Panzer's Tachytes, enters with +her prey trailing behind her. It is not unusual for a male to come upon +the scene at the moment of the mother's arrival. He is promptly snubbed. +This is the time for work, not for amusement. The rebuffed male +resumes his post as a watcher in the sun; and the housewife stows her +provisions. + +But she does not always do so without hindrance. Let me recount one of +the misadventures of this work of storage. There is in the neighbourhood +of the burrows a plant which catches insects with glue. It is the Oporto +silene (S. portensis), a curious growth, a lover of the sea-side dunes, +which, though of Portuguese origin, as its name would seem to indicate, +ventures inland, even as far as my part of the country, where it +represents perhaps a survivor of the coastal flora of what was once a +Pliocene sea. The sea has disappeared; a few plants of its shores have +remained behind. This Silene carries in most of its internodes, in those +both of the branches and of the main stalk, a viscous ring, two- to +four-fifths of an inch wide, sharply delimited above and below. The +coating of glue is of a pale brown. Its stickiness is so great that the +least touch is enough to hold the object. I find Midges, Plant-lice and +Ants caught in it, as well as tufted seeds which have blown from the +capitula of the Cichoriaceae. A Gad-fly, as big as a Blue bottle, falls +into the trap before my eyes. She has barely alighted on the perilous +perch when lo, she is held by the hinder tarsi! The Fly makes violent +efforts to take wing; she shakes the slender plant from top to bottom. +If she frees her hinder tarsi she remains snared by the front tarsi +and has to begin all over again. I was doubting the possibility of her +escape when, after a good quarter of an hour's struggle, she succeeded +in extricating herself. + +But, where the Gad-fly has got off, the Midge remains. The winged Aphis +also remains, the Ant, the Mosquito and many another of the smaller +insects. What does the plant do with its captures? Of what use are +these trophies of corpses hanging by a leg or a wing? Does the +vegetable bird-limer, with its sticky rings, derive advantage from these +death-struggles? A Darwinian, remembering the carnivorous plants, would +say yes. As for me, I don't believe a word of it. The Oporto silene is +ringed with bands of gum. Why? I don't know. Insects are caught in these +snares. Of what use are they to the plant? Why, none at all; and that's +all about it. I leave to others, bolder than myself, the fantastic idea +of taking these annular exudations for a digestive fluid which will +reduce the captured Midges to soup and make them serve to feed the +Silene. Only I warn them that the insects sticking to the plant do not +dissolve into broth, but shrivel, quite uselessly, in the sun. + +Let us return to the Tachytes, who is also a victim of the vegetable +snare. With a sudden flight, a huntress arrives, carrying her drooping +prey. She grazes the Silene's lime-twigs too closely. Behold the Mantis +caught by the abdomen. For twenty minutes at least the Wasp, still on +the wing, tugs at her, tugging again and again, to overcome the cause of +the hitch and release the spoil. The hauling-method, a continuation of +the flight, comes to nothing; and no other is attempted. At last the +insect wearies and leaves the Mantis hanging to the Silene. + +Now or never was the moment for the intervention of that tiny glimmer +of reason which Darwin so generously grants to animals. Do not, if you +please, confound reason with intelligence, as people are too prone to +do. I deny the one; and the other is incontestable, within very modest +limits. It was, I said, the moment to reason a little, to discover the +cause of the hitch and to attack the difficulty at its source. For the +Tachytes the matter was of the simplest. She had but to grab the body +by the skin of the abdomen immediately above the spot caught by the glue +and to pull it towards her, instead of persevering in her flight without +releasing the neck. Simple though this mechanical problem was, the +insect was unable to solve it, because she was not able to trace the +effect back to the cause, because she did not even suspect that the +stoppage had a cause. + +Ants doting on sugar and accustomed to cross a foot-bridge in order +to reach the warehouse are absolutely prevented from doing so when the +bridge is interrupted by a slight gap. They would only need a few grains +of sand to fill the void and restore the causeway. They do not for a +moment dream of it, plucky navvies though they be, capable of raising +miniature mountains of excavated soil. We can get them to give us an +enormous cone of earth, an instinctive piece of work, but we shall never +obtain the juxtaposition of three grains of sand, a reasoned piece of +work. The Ant does not reason, any more than the Tachytes. + +If you bring up a tame Fox and set his platter of food before him, this +creature of a thousand tricks confines himself to tugging with all his +might at the leash which keeps him a step or two from his dinner. He +pulls as the Tachytes pulls, exhausts himself in futile efforts and then +lies down, with his little eyes leering fixedly at the dish. Why does he +not turn round? This would increase his radius; and he could reach then +the food with his hind-foot and pull it towards him. The idea never +occurs to him. Yet another animal deprived of reason. + +Friend Bull, my Dog, is no better-endowed, despite his quality as a +candidate for humanity. In our excursions through the woods, he happens +to get caught by the paw in a wire snare set for rabbits. Like the +Tachytes, he tugs at it obstinately and only pulls the noose tighter. +I have to release him when he does not himself succeed in snapping the +wire by his hard pulling. When he tries to leave the room, if the two +leaves of the door are just ajar, he contents himself with pushing his +muzzle, like a wedge, into the too narrow aperture. He moves forward, +pushing in the direction which he wishes to take. His simple, dog-like +method has one unfailing result: the two leaves of the door, when +pushed, merely shut still closer. It would be easy for him to pull one +of them towards him with his paw, which would make the passage wider; +but this would be a movement backward, contrary to his natural impulse; +and so he does not think of it. Yet another creature that does not +reason. + +The Tachytes, who stubbornly persists in tugging at her limed Mantis +and refuses to acknowledge any other method of wresting her from the +Silene's snare, shows us the Wasp in an unflattering light. What a very +poor intellect! The insect becomes only the more wonderful, therefore, +when we consider its supreme talent as an anatomist. Many a time I have +insisted upon the incomprehensible wisdom of instinct; I do so again at +the risk of repeating myself. An idea is like a nail: it is not to be +driven in save by repeated blows. By hitting it again and again, I hope +to make it enter the most rebellious brains. This time I shall attack +the problem from the other end, that is, I shall first allow human +knowledge to have its say and shall then interrogate the insect's +knowledge. + +The outward structure of the Praying Mantis would of itself be enough to +teach us the arrangement of the nerve-centres which the Tachytes has to +injure in order to paralyse its victim, which is destined to be devoured +alive but harmless. A narrow and very long prothorax divides the front +pair of legs from the two hinder pairs. There must therefore be an +isolated ganglion in front and two ganglia, close to each other, +about two-fifths of an inch back. Dissection confirms this forecast +completely. It shows us three fairly bulky thoracic ganglia, arranged in +the same manner as the legs. The first which actuates the fore-legs, is +placed opposite their roots. It is the largest of the three. It is also +the most important, for it presides over the insect's weapons, over the +two powerful arms, toothed like saws and ending in harpoons. The other +two, divided from the first by the whole length of the prothorax, each +face the origin of the corresponding legs; consequently they are very +near each other. Beyond them are the abdominal ganglia, which I pass +over in silence, as the operating insect does not have to trouble about +them. The movements of the belly are mere pulsations and are in no way +dangerous. + +Now let us do a little reasoning on behalf of our non-reasoning insect. +The sacrificer is weak; the victim is comparatively powerful. Three +strokes of the lancet must abolish all offensive movement. Where will +the first stroke be delivered? In front is a real engine of warfare, a +pair of powerful shears with toothed jaws. Let the fore-arm close +upon the upper arm; and the imprudent insect, crushed between the two +saw-blades, will be torn to pieces; wounded by the terminal hook, it +will be eviscerated. This ferocious mechanism is the great danger; it is +this that must be mastered at the outset, at the risk of life; the rest +is less urgent. The first blow of the stylet, cautiously directed, is +therefore aimed at the lethal fore-legs, which imperil the vivisector's +own existence. Above all, there must be no hesitation. The blow must be +accurate then and there, or the sacrificer will be caught in the +vice and perish. The two other pairs of legs present no danger to the +operator, who might neglect them if she had only her own security to +think of; but the surgeon is operating with a view to the egg, which +demands complete immobility in the provisions. Their centres of +innervation will therefore be stabbed as well, with the leisure which +the Mantis, now put out of action, permits. These legs, as well as their +nervous centres, are situated very far behind the first point attacked. +There is a long neutral interval, that of the prothorax, into which it +is quite useless to drive the sting. This interval has to be crossed; by +a backward movement conforming with the secrets of the victim's internal +anatomy, the second ganglion must be reached and then its neighbour, the +third. In short, the surgical operation may be formulated thus: a +first stab of the lancet in front; a considerable movement to the rear, +measuring about two-fifths of an inch; lastly, two lancet-thrusts at +two points very close together. Thus speaks the science of man; thus +counsels reason, guided by anatomical structure. Having said this much +let us observe the insect's practice. + +There is no difficulty about seeing the Tachytes operate in our +presence; we have only to resort to the method of substitution, which +has already done me so much service, that is, to deprive the huntress of +her prey and at once to give her, in exchange, a living Mantis of about +the same size. This substitution is impracticable with the majority +of the Tachytes, who reach the threshold of their dwelling in a single +flight and at once vanish underground with their game. A few of them, +from time to time, harassed perhaps by their burden, chance to alight at +a short distance from their burrow, or even drop their prey. I profit by +these rare occasions to witness the tragedy. + +The dispossessed Wasp recognizes instantly, from the proud bearing of +the substituted Mantis, that she is no longer embracing and carrying off +an inoffensive carcase. Her hovering, hitherto silent, develops a buzz, +perhaps to overawe the victim; her flight becomes an extremely rapid +oscillation, always behind the quarry. It is as who should say the quick +movement of a pendulum swinging without a wire to hang from. The Mantis, +however, lifts herself boldly upon her four hind-legs; she raises the +fore-part of her body, opens, closes and again opens her shears and +presents them threateningly at the enemy; using a privilege which no +other insect shares, she turns her head this way and that, as we do when +we look over our shoulders; she faces her assailant, ready to strike a +return blow wheresoever the attack may come. It is the first time that +I have witnessed such defensive daring. What will be the outcome of it +all? + +The Wasp continues to oscillate behind the Mantis, in order to avoid the +formidable grappling-engine; then, suddenly, when she judges that the +other is baffled by the rapidity of her manoeuvres, she hurls herself +upon the insect's back, seizes its neck with her mandibles, winds her +legs round its thorax and hastily delivers a first thrust of the sting, +to the front, at the root of the lethal legs. Complete success! The +deadly shears fall powerless. The operator then lets herself slip as she +might slide down a pole, retreats along the Mantis' back and, going a +trifle lower, less than a finger's breadth, she stops and paralyses, +this time without hurrying herself, the two pairs of hind-legs. It is +done: the patient lies motionless; only the tarsi quiver, twitching in +their last convulsions. The sacrificer brushes her wings for a moment +and polishes her antennae by passing them through her mouth, an habitual +sign of tranquillity returning after the emotions of the conflict; she +seizes the game by the neck, takes it in her legs and flies away with +it. + +What do you say to it all? Do not the scientist's theory and the +insect's practice agree most admirably? Has not the animal accomplished +to perfection what anatomy and physiology enabled us to foretell? +Instinct, a gratuitous attribute, an unconscious inspiration, rivals +knowledge, that most costly acquisition. What strikes me most is the +sudden recoil after the first thrust of the sting. The Hairy Ammophila, +operating on her caterpillar, likewise recoils, but progressively, +from one segment to the next. Her deliberate surgery might receive a +quasi-explanation if we ascribe it to a certain uniformity. With the +Tachytes and the Mantis this paltry argument escapes us. Here are +no lancet-pricks regularly distributed; on the contrary, the +operating-method betrays a lack of symmetry which would be +inconceivable, if the organization of the patient did not serve as a +guide. The Tachytes therefore knows where her prey's nerve-centres lie; +or, to speak more correctly, she behaves as though she knew. + +This science which is unconscious of itself has not been acquired, by +her and by her race, through experiments perfected from age to age and +habits transmitted from one generation to the next. It is impossible, +I am prepared to declare a hundred times, a thousand times over, it is +absolutely impossible to experiment and to learn an art when you are +lost if you do not succeed at the first attempt. Don't talk to me of +atavism, of small successes increasing by inheritance, when the novice, +if he misdirected his weapon, would be crushed in the trap of the two +saws and fall a prey to the savage Mantis! The peaceable Locust, if +missed, protests against the attack with a few kicks; the carnivorous +Mantis, who is in the habit of feasting on Wasps far more powerful than +the Tachytes, would protest by eating the bungler; the game would devour +the hunter, an excellent catch. Mantis-paralysing is a most perilous +trade and admits of no half-successes; you have to excel in it from the +first, under pain of death. No, the surgical art of the Tachytes is not +an acquired art. Whence then does it come, if not from the universal +knowledge in which all things move and have their being! + +What would happen if, in exchange for her Praying Mantis, I were to give +the Tachytes a young Grasshopper? In rearing insects at home, I have +already noted that the larvae put up very well with this diet; and I +am surprised that the mother does not follow the example of the Tarsal +Tachytes and provide her family with a skewerful of Locusts instead +of the risky prey which she selects. The diet would be practically the +same; and the terrible shears would no longer be a danger. With such a +patient would her operating-method remain the same; should we again +see a sudden recoil after the first stab under the neck; or would the +vivisector modify her art in conformity with the unfamiliar nervous +organization? + +This second alternative is highly improbable. It would be nonsense to +expect to see the paralyser vary the number and the distribution of the +wounds according to the genus of the victim. Supremely skilled in the +task that has fallen to its lot, the insect knows nothing further. + +The first alternative seems to offer a certain chance and deserves a +test. I offer the Tachytes, deprived of her Mantis, a small Grasshopper, +whose hind-legs I amputate to prevent his leaping. The disabled Acridian +jogs along the sand. The Wasp flies round him for a moment, casts a +contemptuous glance upon the cripple and withdraws without attempting +action. Let the prey offered be large or small, green or grey, short +or long, rather like the Mantis or quite different, all my efforts +miscarry. The Tachytes recognizes in an instant that this is no +business of hers; this is not her family game; she goes off without even +honouring my Grasshoppers with a peck of her mandibles. + +This stubborn refusal is not due to gastronomical causes. I have stated +that the larvae reared by my own hands feed on young Grasshoppers as +readily as on young Mantes; they do not seem to perceive any difference +between the two dishes; they thrive equally on the game chosen by me +and that selected by the mother. If the mother sets no value on the +Grasshopper, what then can be the reason of her refusal? I can see only +one: this quarry, which is not hers, perhaps inspires her with fear, as +any unknown thing might do; the ferocious Mantis does not alarm her, +but the peaceable Grasshopper terrifies her. And then, if she were to +overcome her apprehensions, she does not know how to master the Acridian +and, above all, how to operate upon him. To every man his trade, to +every Wasp her own way of wielding her sting. Modify the conditions ever +so slightly; and these skilful paralysers are at an utter loss. + +To every insect also its own art of fashioning the cocoon, an art which +varies greatly, an art in which the larva displays all the resources +of its instincts. The Tachytes, the Bembeces, the Stizi, the Palari and +other burrowers build composite cocoons, hard as fruit-stones, formed of +an encrustation of sand in a network of silk. We are already acquainted +with the work of the Bembex. I will recall the fact that their larva +first weaves a conical, horizontal bag of pure white silk, with wide +meshes, held in place by interlaced threads which fix it to the walls +of the cell. I have compared this bag, because of its shape, with a +fishtrap. Without leaving this hammock, stretching its neck through the +orifice, the worker gathers from without a little heap of sand, which +it stores inside its workshop. Then, selecting the grains one by one, +it encrusts them all around itself in the fabric of the bag and cements +them with the fluid from its spinnerets, which hardens at once. When +this task is finished, the house has still to be closed, for it has been +wide open all this time to permit of the renewal of the store of sand +as the heap inside becomes exhausted. For this purpose a cap of silk is +woven across the opening and finally encrusted with the materials which +the larva has retained at its disposal. + +The Tachytes builds in quite another fashion, although its work, once +finished, does not differ from that of the Bembex. The larva surrounds +itself, to begin with, about the middle of its body with a silken girdle +which a number of threads, very irregularly distributed, hold in place +and connect with the walls of the cell. Sand is collected, within reach +of the worker, on this general scaffolding. Then begins the work of +minor masonry, with grains of sand for rubble and the secretion of the +spinnerets for cement. The first course is laid upon the fore-edge of +the suspensory ring. When the circle is completed, a second course of +grains of sand, stuck together by the fluid silk, is raised upon the +hardened edge of what has just been done. Thus the work proceeds, +by ring-shaped courses, laid edge to edge, until the cocoon, having +acquired half of its proper length, is rounded into a cap and finally is +closed. The building-methods of the Tachytes-larva remind me of a mason +constructing a round chimney, a narrow tower of which he occupies the +centre. Turning on his own axis and using the materials placed to his +hand, he encloses himself little by little in his sheath of masonry. +In the same way the worker encloses itself in its mosaic. To build the +second half of the cocoon, the larva turns round and builds in the same +way on the other edge of the original ring. In about thirty-six hours +the solid shell is completed. + +I am rather interested to see the Bembex and the Tachytes, two workers +in the same guild, employ such different methods to achieve the same +result. The first begins by weaving an eel-trap of pure silk and next +encrusts the grains of sand inside; the second, a bolder architect, is +economical of the silk envelope, confines itself to a hanging girdle and +builds course by course. The building-materials are the same: sand and +silk; the surroundings amid which the two artisans work are the same: a +cell in a soil of sandy gravel; yet each of the builders possesses its +individual art, its own plan, its one method. + +The nature of the food has no more effect upon the larva's talents than +the environment in which it lives or the materials employed. The proof +of this is furnished by Stiza ruficornis, another builder of cocoons in +grains of sand cemented with silk. This sturdy Wasp digs her burrows in +soft sandstone. Like the Mantis-killing Tachytes, she hunts the various +Mantides of the countryside, consisting mainly of the Praying Mantis; +only her large size requires them to be more fully developed, without +however having attained the form and the dimensions of the adult. She +places three to five of them in each cell. + +In solidity and volume her cocoon rivals that of the largest Bembex; +but it differs from it, at first sight, by a singular feature of which +I know no other example. From the side of the shell, which is uniformly +smoothed on every side, a rough knob protrudes, a little clod of sand +stuck on to the rest. The work of Stizus ruficornis can at once be +recognized, among all the other cocoons of a similar nature, by this +protuberance. + +Its origin will be explained by the method which the larva follows in +constructing its strong-box. At the beginning, a conical bag is woven +of pure white silk; you might take it for the initial eel-trap of the +Bembeces, only this bag has two openings, a very wide one in front and +another, very narrow one at the side. Through the front opening the +Stizus provides itself with sand as and when it spends this material on +encrusting the interior. This strengthens the cocoon; and the cap +which closes it is made next. So far it is exactly like the work of the +Bembex. We now have the worker enclosed, engaged in perfecting the inner +wall. For these final touches a little more sand is needed. It obtains +it from outside by means of the aperture which it has taken the +precaution of contriving in the side of its building, a narrow +dormer-window just large enough to allow its slender neck to pass. When +the store has been taken in, this accessory orifice, which is used only +during the last few moments, is closed with a mouthful of mortar, thrust +outward from within. This forms the irregular nipple which projects from +the side of the shell. + +For the present I shall not expatiate further upon Stizus ruficornis, +whose complete biography would be out of place in this chapter. I will +limit myself to mentioning its method of constructing strong-boxes in +order to compare it with that of the Bembex and above all with that +of the Tachytes, a consumer, like itself, of Praying Mantes. From this +parallel it seems to me to follow that the conditions of life in +which men see to-day the origin of instincts--the type of food, the +surroundings amid which the larval life is passed, the materials +available for a defensive wrapper and other factors which the +evolutionists are accustomed to invoke--have no actual influence upon +the larva's industry. My three architects in glued sand, even when all +the conditions, down to the nature of the provisions, are the same, +adopt different means to execute an identical task. They are engineers +who have not graduated from the same school, who have not been educated +on the same principles, though the lesson of things is almost the +same for all of them. The workshop, the work, the provisions have not +determined the instinct. The instinct comes first; it lays down laws +instead of being subject to them. + + + +CHAPTER 7. CHANGE OF DIET. + +Brillat-Savarin, when pronouncing his famous maxim, "Tell me what you +eat and I will tell you what you are," certainly never suspected the +signal confirmation which the entomological world would bestow upon his +saying. Our gastrosopher was speaking only of the culinary caprices of +man rendered fastidious by the sweets of life; but he might, in a more +serious department of thought, have given his formula a wider and more +general bearing and applied it to the dishes which vary so greatly +according to latitude, climate and customs; he might above all have +taken into his reckoning the harsh realities suffered by the common +people, when perhaps his ideal of moral worth would have been found in +a platter of chick-peas oftener than in a pot of pate de foie gras. No +matter: his aphorism, the mere whimsical sally of an epicure, becomes an +imperious truth if we forget the luxury of the table and look into what +is eaten by the little world which swarms around us. + +To each its mess. The cabbage Pieris consumes the pungent leaves of the +Cruciferae as the food of her infancy; the Silkworm disdains any foliage +other than that of the mulberry-tree. The Spurge Hawk-moth requires the +caustic milk-sap of the tithymals: the Corn-weevil the grain of wheat; +the Pea-weevil, the seeds of the Leguminosae; the Balaninus (A genus +of Beetles including the Acorn-weevil, the Nut-weevil and +others.--Translator's Note.) the hazel-nut, the chestnut, the acorn; +the Brachycera (A division of Flies including the Gad-flies and +Robber-flies.--Translator's Note.) the clove of garlic. Each has its +diet, each its plant; and each plant has its customary guests. Their +relations are so precise that in many cases one might determine the +insect by the vegetable which supports it, or the vegetable by the +insect. + +If you know the lily, you may name as a Crioceris the tiny scarlet +Scarabaeid that inhabits it and peoples its leaves with larvae +which keep themselves cool beneath an overcoat of ordure. (For the +Lily-beetle, or Crioceris merdigera, cf. "The Glow-worm and Other +Beetles," by J. Henri Fabre, translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: +chapters 16 and 17.--Translator's Note.) If you know the Crioceris, you +may name as a lily the plant which she devastates. It will not perhaps +be the common or white lily, but some other representative of the same +family--Turk's cap lily, orange lily, scarlet Martagon, lancifoliate +lily, tiger-spotted lily, golden lily--hailing from the Alps or the +Pyrenees, or brought from China or Japan. Relying on the Crioceris, who +is an expert judge of exotic as well as of native Liliaceae, you may +name as a lily the plant with which you are unacquainted and trust +the word of this singular botanical master. Whether the flower be red, +yellow, ruddy-brown or sown with crimson spots, characteristics so +unlike the immaculate whiteness of the familiar flower, do not hesitate, +adopt the name dictated by the Beetle. Where man is liable to mistake +the insect is never mistaken. + +This insect botany, a cause of such grievous tribulations, has always +impressed the worker in the fields, who for all that, is a very +indifferent observer. The man who was the first to see his cabbage-plot +devastated by caterpillars made the acquaintance of the Pieris. Science +completed the process, in its desire to serve a useful purpose or merely +to seek truth for truth's sake; and to-day the relations between the +insect and the plant form a collection of records as important from the +philosophical as from the practical, agricultural point of view. What +is much less familiar to us, because it touches us less nearly, is the +zoology of the insect, that is to say, the selection which it makes, +to feed its larva, of this or that animal species, to the exclusion +of others. The subject is so vast that a volume were not sufficient to +exhaust it; besides, data are lacking in the vast majority of cases. +It is reserved for a still very distant future to raise this point of +biology to the level already reached by the question of vegetable diet. +It will be enough if I contribute a few observations scattered through +my writings or my notes. + +What does the Wasp addicted to a predatory life eat, of course in the +larval state? Now, to begin with, we see natural sections which adopt as +their prey different species of one and the same order, in one and +the same group. Thus the Ammophilae hunt exclusively the larvae of +the night-flying Moths. This taste is shared by the Eumenes, a very +different genus. (Cf. "The Mason-wasps" by J. Henri Fabre, translated +by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: chapter 1.--Translator's Note.) The +Spheges and Tachytes are addicted to Orthoptera; the Cerceres, apart +from a few exceptions, are faithful to the Weevil; both the Philanthi +and the Palari capture only Hymenoptera; the Pompili specialize in +hunting the Spider; the Astata revels in the flavour of Bugs; the +Bembeces want Flies and nothing else; the Scoliae enjoy the monopoly of +the Lamellicorn-grubs; the Pelopaei favour the young Epeirae (Or +Garden Spiders. Cf. "The Life of the Spider": chapters 9 to 14 and +appendix.--Translator's Note.), the Stizi vary in opinion: of the two in +my neighbourhood, one, S. ruficornis, fills her larder with Mantes and +the other, S. tridentatus, fills it with Cicadellae (Cf. "The Life +of the Grasshopper": chapter 20.--Translator's Note.); lastly, the +Crabronidae (Any Flies akin to the House-fly.--Translator's Note.). levy +tribute upon the rabble of the Muscidae. (Hornets.--Translator's Note.) + +Already you see what a magnificent classification of these game-hunters +might be made with a faithfully listed bill of fare. Natural groups +stand out, characterized merely by the identity of their victuals. I +trust that the methodical science of the future will take account of +these gastronomic laws, to the great relief of the entomological novice, +who is too often hampered by the snares of the mouth-parts, the antennae +and the nervures of the wings. I call for a classification in which the +insect's aptitudes, its diet, its industry and its habits shall take +precedence of the shape of a joint in its antennae. It will come; but +when? + +If from generalities we descend to details, we shall see that the very +species may, in many instances, be determined from the nature of its +victuals. The number of burrows of Philanthus apivorus which I have +inspected since I have been rummaging the hot roadside embankments, to +enquire into their population, would seem hyperbolical were I able to +state the figures. (For the Bee-eating Philanthus cf. Chapter 10 of the +present volume.--Translator's Note.) They must amount, it seems to me, +to thousands. Well, in this multitude of food-stores, whether recent or +ancient, uncovered for a purpose or encountered by chance, I have not +once, not as often as once, discovered other remains than those of the +Hive-bee: the imperishable wings, still connected in pairs, the cranium +and thorax enveloped in a violet shroud, the winding-sheet which time +throws over these relics. To-day as when I was a beginner, ever so long +ago; in the north as in the south of the country which I explored; +in mountainous regions as on the plains, the Philanthus follows an +unvarying diet: she must have the Hive-bee, always the Bee and never any +other, however closely various other kinds of game resemble the Bee in +quality. If, therefore, when exploring sunny banks, you find beneath the +soil a small parcel of mutilated Bees, that will be enough to point to +the existence of a local colony of Philanthus apivorus. She alone +knows the recipe for making potted Bee-meat. The Crioceris was but now +teaching us all about the lily family; and here the mildewed body of the +Bee tells us of the Philanthus and her lair. + +Similarly the female Ephippiger helps us to identify the Languedocian +Sphex: her relics, the cymbals and the long sabre, are the unmistakable +sign of the cocoon to which they adhere. The black Cricket, with his +red-braided thighs, is the infallible label of the Yellow-winged +Sphex; the larva of Oryctes nasicornis tells us of the Garden Scolia +as certainly as the best description; the Cetonia-grub proclaims the +Two-banded Scolia and the larva of the Anoxia announces the Interrupted +Scolia. + +After these exclusive ones, who disdain to vary their meals, let us +mention the eclectics, who, in a group which is generally well-defined, +are able to select among different kinds of game appropriate to their +bulk. The Great Cerceris (Cerceris tuberculata. Cf. "The Hunting +Wasps": chapters 2 and 3.--Translator's Note.) favours above all Cleonus +ophthalmicus, one of the largest of our Weevils; but at need she accepts +the other Cleoni, as well as the kindred genera, provided that the +capture be of an imposing size. Cerceris arenaria (Cf. idem: chapter +1.--Translator's Note.) extends her hunting-grounds farther afield: +any Weevil of average dimensions is to her a welcome capture. The +Buprestis-hunting Cerceris adopts all the Buprestes indiscriminately, +so long as they are not beyond her strength. The Crowned Philanthus (P. +coronatus, FAB.) fills her underground warehouses with Halicti chosen +among the biggest. (Cf. "Bramble-bees and Others" by J. Henri +Fabre, translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: chapters 12 to +14.--Translator's Note.) Much smaller than her kinswoman, Philanthus +raptor, LEP., stores away Halicti chosen among the less large species. +Any adult Acridian approaching an inch in length suits the White-banded +Sphex. The various tidae of the neighbourhood are admitted to the larder +of Stizus ruficornis and of the Mantis-hunting Tachytes on the sole +condition of being young and tender. The largest of our Bembeces (B. +rostrata, FAB., and B. bidentata, VAN DER LIND (For the Rostrate +Bembex and the Two-pronged Bembex, cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter +14.--Translator's Note.)) are eager consumers of Gad-flies. With these +chief dishes they associate relishes levied indifferently from the rest +of the Fly clan. The Sandy Ammophila (A. sabulosa, VAN DER LIND (Cf. +idem: chapter 13.--Translator's Note.)) and the Hairy Ammophila +(A. hirsuta, KIRB.) cram into each burrow a single but corpulent +caterpillar, always of the Moth tribe and varying greatly in coloration, +which denotes distinct species. The Silky Ammophila (A. holosericea, +VAN DER LIND. (Cf. idem: chapter 14.--Translator's Note.)) has a better +assorted diet. She requires for each banqueter three or four items, +which include the Measuring-worms, or Loopers, and the caterpillars of +ordinary Moths, all of which are equally appreciated. The Brown-winged +Solenius (S. fascipennis, LEP.), who elects to dwell in the soft dead +wood of old willow-trees, has a marked preference for Virgil's Bee, +Eristalis tenax (Actually the Common Drone-fly and somewhat resembling +a Bee in appearance. Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter 14.--Translator's +Note.), willingly adding, sometimes as a side-dish, sometimes as the +principal game, Helophilus pendulus, whose costume is very different. On +the faith of indistinguishable remains, we must no doubt enter a number +of other Flies in her game-book. The Golden-mouthed Hornet (Crabro +chrysostomus, LEP.) another burrower in old willow-trees, prefers the +Syrphi, without distinction of species. (The Syrphi, like the Eristales, +resemble Bees through having the abdomen transversely banded with +yellow.--Translator's Note.) The Wandering Solenius (S. vagus, LEP. (For +this Fly-hunting insect cf. "Bramble-bees and Others": chapters 1 and +3.--Translator's Note.)), an inmate of the dry bramble-stems and of the +dwarf-elder, lays under contribution for her larder the genera Syritta, +Sphaerophoria, Sarcophaga, Syrphus, Melanophora, Paragus and apparently +many others. The species which recurs most frequently in my notes is +Syritta pipiens. + +Without pursuing this tedious list any farther, we plainly perceive the +general result. Each huntress has her characteristic tastes, so much +so that, when we know the bill of fare, we can tell the genus and very +often the species of the guest, thus proving the proud truth of the +maxim, "Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are." + +There are some which always need the same prey. The offspring of the +Languedocian Sphex religiously consume the Ephippiger, that family dish +so dear to their ancestors and no less dear to their descendants; no +innovation in the ancient usages can tempt them. Others are better +suited by variety, for reasons connected with flavour or with facility +of supply; but then the selection of the game is kept within fixed +limits. A natural group, a genus, a family, more rarely almost a whole +order: this is the hunting-ground beyond which poaching is strictly +forbidden. The law is absolute; and one and all scrupulously refrain +from transgressing it. + +In the place of the Praying Mantis, offer the Mantis-hunting Tachytes an +equivalent in the shape of a Locust. She will scorn the morsel, though +it would seem to be of excellent flavour, seeing that Panzer's Tachytes +prefers it to any other form of game. Offer her a young Empusa, who +differs so widely from the Mantis in shape and colour: she will accept +without hesitation and operate before your eyes. Despite its fantastic +appearance, the Devilkin is instantly recognized by the Tachytes as a +Mantid and therefore as game falling within her scope. + +In exchange for her Cleonus, give to the Great Cerceris a Buprestis, the +delight of one of her near kinsfolk. She will have nothing to say to the +sumptuous dish. Accept that! She, a Weevil-eater! Never in this world! +Present her with a Cleonus of a different species, or any other large +Weevil, of a sort which she has most probably never seen before, since +it does not figure on the inventory of the provisions in her burrows. +This time there is no show of disdain: the victim is seized and stabbed +in the regulation manner and forthwith stored away. + +Try to persuade the Hairy Ammophila that Spiders have a nutty flavour, +as Lalande asserts; and you will see how coldly your hints are received. +(Joseph Jerome Le Francois de Lalande (1732-1807), the astronomer. +Even after he had achieved his reputation, he sought means, outside the +domain of science, to make himself talked about and found these in +the display partly of odd tastes, such as that for eating Spiders and +caterpillars, and partly of atheistical opinions.--Translator's Note.) +Try merely to convince her that the caterpillar of a Butterfly is as +good to eat as the caterpillar of a Moth. You will not succeed. But, if +you substitute for her underground larva, which I suppose to be grey, +another underground larva striped with black, yellow, rusty-red or +any other tint, this change of coloration will not prevent her from +recognizing, in the substituted dish, a victim to her liking, an +equivalent of her Grey Worm. + +So with the rest, so far as I have been able to experiment with them. +Each obstinately refuses what is alien to her hunting-preserves, +each accepts whatever belongs to them, always provided that the game +substituted is much the same in size and development as that whereof +the owner has been deprived. Thus the Tarsal Tachytes, an appreciative +epicure of tender flesh, would not consent to replace her pinch of young +Acridian-grubs with the one big Locust that forms the food of Panzer's +Tachytes; and the latter, in her turn, would never exchange her adult +Acridian for the other's menu of small fry. The genus and the species +are the same, but the age differs; and this is enough to decide the +question of acceptance or refusal. + +When its depredations cover a somewhat extensive group, how does +the insect manage to recognize the genera, the species composing her +allotted portion and to distinguish them from the rest with an assured +vision which the inventory of her burrows proves never to be at +fault? Is it the general appearance that guides her? No, for in some +Bembex-burrows we shall find Sphaerophoriae, those slender, thong-like +creatures, and Bombylii, looking like velvet pincushions; no again, +for in the pits of the Silky Ammophila we shall see, side by side, the +caterpillar of the ordinary shape and the Measuring-worm, a living pair +of compasses which progresses by alternately opening out and closing; +no, once more, for in the storerooms of Stizus ruficornis and the +Mantis-hunting Tachytes we see stacked beside the Mantis the Empusa, her +unrecognizable caricature. + +Is it the colouring? Not at all. There is no lack of instances. What +a variety of hues and metallic reflections, distributed in a host of +different fashions, appear in the Buprestes that are hunted by the +Cerceris celebrated by Leon Dufour. (Jean Marie Leon Dufour (1780-1865) +was an army surgeon who served with distinction in several campaigns +and subsequently practised as a doctor in the Landes. He attained great +eminence as a naturalist. Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter 1; also +"The Life of the Spider": chapter 1.--Translator's Note.) A painter's +palette, containing crushed gold, bronze, ruby and amethyst, would find +it difficult to rival these sumptuous colours. Nevertheless the Cerceris +makes no mistake: all this nation of insects, so indifferently attired, +represents to her, as to the entomologist, the nation of the Buprestes. +The inventory of the Hornet's larder will include Diptera clad in grey +or russet frieze; others are girdled with yellow, flecked with white, +adorned with crimson lines; others are steel-blue, ebony black, or +coppery green; and underneath this variety of dissimilar costumes we +find the invariable Fly. + +Let us take a concrete example. Ferrero's Cerceris (C. Ferreri, VAN DER +LIND) consumes Weevils. Her burrows are usually lined with Phynotomi +and Sitones both an indeterminate grey, and Otiorhynchi, black or +tan-coloured. Now I have sometimes happened to unearth from her cells +a collection of veritable jewels which, thanks to their bright metallic +lustre, made a most striking contrast with the sombre Otiorhynchus. +These were the Rhynchites (R. betuleti), who roll the vine-leaves into +cigars. Equally magnificent, some of them were azure blue, others copper +gilt, for the cigar-roller has a twofold colouring. How did the Cerceris +manage to recognize in these jewels the Weevil, the near relative of +the vulgar Phynotomus? Any such encounters probably found her lacking +in expert knowledge; her race cannot have handed down to her other +than very indeterminate propensities, for she does not appear to make +frequent use of the Rhynchites, as is proved by my infrequent discovery +of them amid the mass of my numerous excavations. For the first time, +perhaps, passing through a vineyard, she saw the rich Beetle gleaming on +a leaf; it was not for her a dish in current consumption, consecrated by +the ancient usages of the family. It was something novel, exceptional, +extraordinary. Well, this extraordinary creature is recognized with +certainty as a Weevil and stored away as such. The glittering cuirass +of the Rhynchites goes to take its place beside the grey cloak of the +Phynotomus. No, it is not the colour that guides the choice. + +Neither is it the shape. Cerceris arenaria hunts any medium-sized +Weevil. I should be putting the reader's patience to too great a test if +I attempted to give in this place a complete inventory of the specimens +identified in her larder. I will mention only two, which my latest +searches around my village have revealed. The Wasp goes hunting on +the holm-oaks of the neighbouring hills the Pubescent Brachyderes (B. +pubescens) and the Acorn-weevil (Balaninus glandium). What have +these two Beetles in common as regards shape? I mean by shape not +the structural details which the classifier examines through his +magnifying-glass, not the delicate features which a Latreille would +quote when drawing up a technical description, but the general picture, +the general outline that impresses itself upon the vision even of an +untrained eye and makes the man who knows nothing of science and above +all the child, a most perspicacious observer, connect certain animals +together. + +In this respect, what have the Brachyderes and the Balaninus in common +in the eyes of the townsman, the peasant, the child or the Cerceris? +Absolutely nothing. The first has an almost cylindrical figure; the +second, squat, short and thickset, is conical in front and elliptical, +or rather shaped like the ace of hearts, behind. The first is black, +strewn with cloudy, mouse-grey spots; the second is yellow ochre. The +head of the first ends in a sort of snout; the head of the second tapers +into a curved beak, slender as a horse-hair and as long as the rest of +the body. The Brachyderes has a massive proboscis, cut off short; the +Balaninus seems to be smoking an insanely long cigarette-holder. + +Who would think of connecting two creatures so unlike, of calling them +by the same name? Outside the professional classifiers, no one would +dare to. The Cerceris, more perspicacious, knows each of them for a +Weevil, a quarry with a concentrated nervous system, lending itself to +the surgical feat of her single stroke of the lancet. After obtaining an +abundant booty at the cost of the blunt-mouthed insect, with which +she sometimes stuffs her cellars to the exclusion of any other fare, +according to the hazards of the chase, she now suddenly sees before her +the creature with the extravagant proboscis. Accustomed to the first, +will she fail to know the second? By no means: at the first glance she +recognizes it as her own; and the cell already furnished with a few +Brachyderes receives its complement of Balanini. If these two species +are to seek, if the burrows are far from the holm-oaks, the Cerceris +will attack Weevils displaying the greatest variety of genus, species, +form and coloration, levying tribute indifferently on Sitones, +Cneorhini, Geonemi, Otiorhynchi, Strophosomi and many others. + +In vain do I rack my brains merely to guess at the signs upon which +the huntress relies as a guide, without going outside one and the +same group, in the midst of such a variety of game; above all by what +characteristics she recognizes as a Weevil the strange Acorn Balaninus, +the only one among her victims that wears a long pipe-stem. I leave to +evolutionism, atavism and other transcendental "isms" the honour and +also the risk of explaining what I humbly recognize as being too far +beyond my grasp. Because the son of the bird-catcher who imitates +the call of his victims has been fed on roast Robins, Linnets and +Chaffinches, shall we hastily conclude that this education through the +stomach will enable him later, without other initiation than that of +the spit, to know his way about the ornithological groups and to avoid +confusing them when his turn comes to set his limed twigs? Will the +digesting of a ragout of little birds, however often repeated by him +or his ascendants, suffice to make him a finished bird-catcher? +The Cerceris has eaten Weevil; her ancestors have all eaten Weevil, +religiously. If you see in this the reason that makes the Wasp a +Weevil-expert endowed with a perspicacity unrivalled save by that of a +professional entomologist, why should you refuse to admit that the same +consequences would follow in the bird-catcher's family? + +I hasten to abandon these insoluble problems in order to attack the +question of provisions from another point of view. Every Hunting Wasp is +confined to a certain genus of game, which is usually strictly limited. +She pursues her appointed quarry and regards anything outside it with +suspicion and distaste. The tricks of the experimenter, who drags her +prey from under her and flings her another in exchange, the emotions of +the possessor deprived of her property and immediately recovering it, +but under another form, are powerless to put her on the wrong scent. +Obstinately she refuses whatever is alien to her portion; instantly +she accepts whatever forms part of it. Whence arises this insuperable +repugnance for provisions to which the family is unaccustomed? Here we +may appeal to experiment. Let us do so: its dictum is the only one that +can be trusted. + +The first idea that presents itself and the only one, I think, that can +present itself is that the larva, the carnivorous nurseling, has its +preferences, or we had better say its exclusive tastes. This kind of +game suits it; that does not; and the mother provides it with food in +conformity with its appetites, which are unchangeable in each species. +Here the family dish is the Gad-fly; elsewhere it is the Weevil; +elsewhere again it is the Cricket, the Locust and the Praying Mantis. +Good in themselves, in a general way, these several victuals may be +noxious to a consumer who is not used to them. The larva which dotes on +Locust may find caterpillar a detestable fare; and that which revels +in caterpillar may hold Locust in horror. It would be hard for us to +discover in what manner Cricket-flesh and Ephippiger-flesh differ +as juicy, nourishing foodstuffs; but it does not follow that the two +Sphex-wasps addicted to this diet have not very decided opinions on the +matter, or that each of them is not filled with the highest esteem for +its traditional dish and a profound dislike for the other. There is no +discussing tastes. + +Moreover, the question of health may well be involved. There is nothing +to tell us that the Spider, that treat for the Pompilus, is not poison, +or at least unwholesome food, to the Bembex, the lover of Gad-flies; +that the Ammophila's succulent caterpillar is not repugnant to the +stomach of the Sphex fed upon the dry Acridian. The mother's esteem for +one kind of game and her distrust of another would in that case be due +to the likes and dislikes of her larvae; the victualler would regulate +the bill of fare by the gastronomic demands of the victualled. + +This exclusiveness of the carnivorous larva seems all the more probable +inasmuch as the larva reared on vegetable food refuses in any way +to lend itself to a change of diet. However pressed by hunger, the +caterpillar of the Spurge Hawk-moth, which browses on the tithymals, +will allow itself to starve in front of a cabbage leaf which makes a +peerless meal for the Pieris. Its stomach, burned by pungent spices, +will find the Crucifera insipid and uneatable, though its piquancy is +enhanced by essence of sulphur. The Pieris, on its part, takes good +care not to touch the tithymals: they would endanger its life. The +caterpillar of the Death's-head Hawk-moth requires the solanaceous +narcotics, principally the potato, and will have nothing else. All that +is not seasoned with solanin it abhors. And it is not only larvae whose +food is strongly spiced with alkaloids and other poisonous substances +that refuse any innovation in their food; the others, even those whose +diet is least juicy, are invincibly uncompromising. Each has its plant +or its group of plants, beyond which nothing is acceptable. + +I remember a late frost which had nipped the buds of the mulberry-trees +during the night, just when the first leaves were out. Next day there +was great excitement among my neighbours: the Silk-worms had hatched +and the food had suddenly failed. The farmers had to wait for the sun +to repair the disaster; but how were they to keep the famishing new-born +grubs alive for a few days? They knew me for an expert in plants; by +collecting them as I walked through the fields I had earned the name +of a medical herbalist. With poppy-flowers I prepared an elixir which +cleared the sight; with borage I obtained a syrup which was a sovran +remedy for whooping-cough; I distilled camomile; I extracted the +essential oil from the wintergreen. In short, botany had won for me the +reputation of a quack doctor. After all, that was something. + +The housewives came in search of me from every point of the compass and +with tears in their eyes explained the situation. What could they give +their Silk-worms while waiting for the mulberry to sprout afresh? It was +a serious matter, well worthy of commiseration. One was counting on her +batch to buy a length of cloth for her daughter, who was on the point of +getting married; another told me of her plans for a Pig to be fattened +against the coming winter; all deplored the handful of crown-pieces +which, hoarded in the hiding-place in the cupboard, would have afforded +help in difficult times. And, full of their troubles, they unfolded, +before my eyes, a scrap of flannel on which the vermin were swarming: + +"Regardas, moussu! Venoun d'espeli; et ren per lour douna! Ah, pecaire!" +"Look, sir! The frost has come and we've nothing to give them! Oh, what +a misfortune!" + +Poor people! What a harsh trade is yours: respectable above all others, +but of all the most uncertain! You work yourselves to death; and, when +you have almost reached your goal, a few hours of a cold night, which +comes upon you suddenly, destroys your harvest. To help these afflicted +ones seemed to me a very difficult thing. I tried, however, taking +botany as my guide; it suggested to me, as substitutes for the mulberry, +the members of closely-related families: the elm, the nettle-tree, the +nettle, the pellitory. Their nascent leaves, chopped small, were offered +to the Silk-worms. Other and far less logical attempts were made, in +accordance with the inspiration of the individuals. Nothing came of +them. To the last specimen, the new-born Silk-worms died of hunger. My +renown as a quack must have suffered somewhat from this check. Was it +really my fault? No, it was the fault of the Silk-worm, which remained +faithful to its mulberry leaf. + +It was therefore in nearly the certainty of non-fulfilment that I made +my first attempts at rearing carnivorous larvae with a quarry which did +not conform with the customary regimen. For conscience' sake, more or +less perfunctorily, I endeavoured to achieve something that seemed to +me bound to end in pitiful failure. Only the Bembex-wasps, which are +plentiful in the sand of the neighbouring hills, might still afford me, +without too prolonged a search, a few subjects on which to experiment. +The Tarsal Bembex furnished me with what I wanted: larvae young enough +to have still before them a long period of feeding and yet sufficiently +developed to endure the trials of a removal. + +These larva are exhumed with all the consideration which their delicate +skin demands; a number of head of game are likewise unearthed intact, +having been recently brought by the mother. They consist of various +Diptera, including some Anthrax-flies. (Cf. "The Life of the Fly": +chapters 2 and 4.--Translator's Note.) An old sardine-box, containing a +layer of sifted sand and divided into compartments by paper partitions, +receives my charges, who are isolated one from another. These Fly-eaters +I propose to turn into Grasshopper-eaters; for their Bembex-diet I +intend to substitute the diet of a Sphex or a Tachytes. To save myself +tedious errands devoted to provisioning the refectory, I accept what +good fortune offers me at the very threshold of my door. A green +Locustid, with a short sabre bent into a reaping-hook, Phaneroptera +falcata, is ravaging the corollae of my petunias. Now is the time to +indemnify myself for the damage which she has caused me. I pick her +young, half to three-quarters of an inch in length; and I deprive her of +movement, without more ado, by crushing her head. In this condition she +is served up to the Bembex-larvae in place of their Flies. + +If the reader has shared my convictions of failure, convictions based +on very logical motives, he will now share my profound surprise. The +impossible becomes possible, the senseless becomes reasonable and +the expected becomes the opposite of the real. The dish served on the +Bembeces' table for the first time since Bembeces came into the world +is accepted without any repugnance and consumed with every mark of +satisfaction. I will here set down the detailed diary of one of my +guests; that of the others would only be a repetition, save for a few +variations. + +2 AUGUST, 1883.--The larva of the Bembex, as I extract it from its +burrow, is about half-developed. Around it I find only some +scanty relics of its meals, consisting chiefly of Anthrax-wings, +half-diaphanous and half-clouded. The mother would appear to have +completed the victualling by fresh contributions, added day by day. I +give the nurseling, which is an Anthrax-eater, a young Phaneroptera. +The Locustid is attacked without hesitation. This profound change in +the character of its victuals does not seem in the least to disturb the +larva, which bites straight into the rich morsel with its mandibles and +does not let go until it has exhausted it. Towards evening the drained +carcase is replaced by another, quite fresh, of the same species but +bulkier, measuring over three-quarters of an inch. + +3 AUGUST.--Next day I find the Phaneroptera devoured. Nothing remains +but the dry integuments, which are not dismembered. The entire contents +have disappeared; the game has been emptied through a large opening made +in the belly. A regular Grasshopper-eater could not have operated more +skilfully. I replace the worthless carcase by two small Locustidae. At +first the larva does not touch them, being amply sated with the copious +meal of the day before. In the afternoon, however, one of the items is +resolutely attacked. + +4 AUGUST.--I renew the victuals, although those of the day before are +not finished. For the rest, I do the same daily, so that my charge may +constantly have fresh food at hand. High game might upset its stomach. +My Locustidae are not victims at the same time living and inert, +operated upon according to the delicate method of the insects that +paralyse their prey; they are corpses, procured by a brutal crushing +of the head. With the temperature now prevailing, flesh soon becomes +tainted; and this compels me frequently to renew the provisions in my +sardine-box refectory. Two specimens are served up. One is attacked soon +afterwards; and the larva clings to it assiduously. + +5 AUGUST.--The ravenous appetite of the start is becoming assuaged. +My supplies may well be too generous; and it might be prudent to try a +little dieting after this Gargantuan good cheer. The mother certainly is +more parsimonious. If all the family were to eat at the same rate as +my guest, she would never be able to keep pace with their demands. +Therefore, for reasons of health, this is a day of fasting and vigil. + +6 AUGUST.--Supplies are renewed with two Phaneropterae. One is consumed +entirely; the other is bitten into. + +7 August.--To-day's ration is tasted and then abandoned. The larva seems +uneasy. With its pointed mouth it explores the walls of its chamber. +This sign denotes the approach of the time for making the cocoon. + +8 AUGUST.--During the night the larva has spun its silken eel-trap. It +is now encrusting it with grains of sand. Then follow, in due time, the +normal phases of the metamorphosis. Fed on Locustidae, a diet unknown to +its race, the larva passes through its several stages without any more +difficulty than its brothers and sisters fed on Flies. + +I obtained the same success in offering young Mantes for food. One +of the larvae thus served would even incline me to believe that +it preferred the new dish to the traditional diet of its race. Two +Eristales, or Drone-flies, and a Praying Mantis an inch long composed +its daily allowance. The Drone-flies are disdained from the first +mouthful; and the Mantis, already tasted and apparently found excellent, +causes the Fly to be completely forgotten. Is this an epicure's +preference, due to the greater juiciness of the flesh? I am not in a +position to say. At all events, the Bembex is not so infatuated with Fly +as to refuse to abandon it for other game. + +The failure which I foresaw has proved a magnificent success. It is +fairly convincing, is it not? Without the evidence of experiment, what +can we rely upon? Beneath the ruins of so many theories which appeared +to be most solidly erected I should hesitate to admit that two and two +make four if the facts were not before me. My argument had the most +tempting probability on its side, but it had not the truth. As it is +always possible to find reasons after the event in support of an opinion +which one would not at first admit, I should now argue as follows: + +The plant is the great factory in which are elaborated, with mineral +materials, the organic principles which are the materials of life. +Certain products are common to the whole vegetable series, but others, +far less numerous, are prepared in special laboratories. Each genus, +each species has its trade-mark. Here essential oils are manufactured; +here alkaloids; here starches, fatty substances, resins, sugars, acids. +Hence result special energies, which do not suit every herbivorous +animal. It assuredly requires a stomach made expressly for the purpose +to digest aconite, colchicum, hemlock or henbane; those who have not +such a stomach could never endure a diet of that sort. Besides, the +Mithridates fed on poison resist only a single toxin. (Mithridates VI. +King of Pontus (d. B.C. 63) is said to have secured immunity from poison +by taking increased doses of it.--Translator's Note.) The caterpillar of +the Death's-head Hawk-moth, which delights in the solanin of the potato, +would be killed by the acrid principle of the tithymals that form the +food of the Spurge-caterpillar. The herbivorous larvae are therefore +perforce exclusive in their tastes, because different genera of +vegetables possess very different properties. + +With this variety in the products of the plant, the animal, a consumer +far more than a producer, contrasts the uniformity in its own products. +The albumen in the egg of the Ostrich or the Chaffinch, the casein in +the milk of the Cow or the Ass, the muscular flesh of the Wolf or the +Sheep, the Screech-owl or the Field-mouse, the Frog or the Earth-worm: +these remain albumen, casein or fibrin, edible if not eaten. Here are +no excruciating condiments, no special acridities, no alkaloids fatal +to any stomach other than that of the appointed consumer; so that animal +food is not confined to one and the same eater. What does not man eat, +from that delicacy of the arctic regions, soup made of Seal's blood and +a scrap of Whale-blubber wrapped in a willow-leaf for a vegetable, to +the Chinaman's fried Silk-worm or the Arab's dried Locust? What would +he not eat, if he had not to overcome the repugnance dictated by habit +rather than by actual necessity? The prey being uniform in its nutritive +principles, the carnivorous larva ought to accommodate itself to any +sort of game, above all if the new dish be not too great a departure +from consecrated usage. Thus should I argue, with no less probability on +my side, had I to begin all over again. But, as all our arguments have +not the value of a single fact, I should be forced in the end to resort +to experiment. + +I did so the next year, on a larger scale and with a greater variety of +subjects. I shrink from a continuous narrative of my experiments and +of my personal education in this new art, where the failure of one +day taught me the way to succeed on the morrow. It would be long and +tedious. Enough if I briefly state my results and the conditions which +must be fulfilled in order to run the delicate refectory as it should be +run. + +And, first, we must not dream of detaching the egg from its natural prey +to lay it on another. The egg adheres pretty firmly, by its cephalic +pole, to the quarry. To remove it from its place would inevitably +jeopardize its future. I therefore let the larva hatch and acquire +sufficient strength to bear the removal without peril. For that matter, +my excavations most often provide me with my subjects in the form of +larvae. I adopt for rearing-purposes the larvae that are a quarter to a +half developed. The others are too young and risky to handle, or too old +and limited to a short period of artificial feeding. + +Secondly, I avoid bulky heads of game, a single one of which would +suffice for the whole growing-stage. I have already said and I here +repeat how nice a matter it is to consume a victim which has to keep +fresh for a couple of weeks and not to finish dying until it is almost +entirely devoured. Death here leaves no corpse; when life is extinct, +the body has disappeared, leaving only a shred of skin. Larvae with only +one large prey have a special art of eating, a dangerous art, in which a +clumsy bite would prove fatal. If bitten before the proper time at +such a point, the victim becomes putrid, which promptly causes death +by poisoning in the consumer. When diverted from its plan of attack, +deprived of its clue, the larva is not always able to rediscover the +lawful morsels in good time and is killed by the decomposition of its +badly dissected prey. What will happen if the experimenter gives it a +game to which it is not accustomed? Not knowing how to eat it according +to rule, the larva will kill it; and by next day the victuals will have +become so much toxic putrescence. I have already told how I found it +impossible to rear the Two-banded Scolia on Oryctes-larvae, fastened +down to deprive them of movement, or even on Ephippigers, paralysed by +the Languedocian Sphex. In both cases the new diet was accepted without +hesitation, a proof that it suited the nurseling; but in a day or two +putrescence supervened and the Scolia perished on the fetid morsel. The +method of preserving the Ephippiger, so well known to the Sphex, was +unknown to my boarder; in this was enough to convert a delicious food +into poison. + +Even so did my other attempts miscarry wretchedly, attempts at feeding +with the single dish consisting of one big head of game to replace the +normal ration. Only one success is recorded in my notebooks, but that +was so difficult that I would not undertake to obtain it a second time. +I succeeded in feeding the larva of the Hairy Ammophila with an adult +black Cricket, who was accepted as readily as the natural game, the +caterpillar. + +To avoid putrefaction of victuals which last overlong and are not +consumed according to the method indispensable to their preservation, I +employ small game, each piece of which can be finished by the larva at a +single sitting, or at most in a single day. It matters little then that +the victim is slashed and dismembered at random; decomposition has no +time to seize upon its still quivering tissues. This is the procedure +of those larvae which gulp down their food, snapping at random without +distinguishing one part from another, such as the Bembex-larvae, which +finish the Fly into which they have bitten before beginning another in +the heap, or the Cerceris-larvae, which drain their Weevils methodically +one after another. With the first strokes of the mandibles the victim +broached may be mortally wounded. This is no disadvantage: a brief spell +suffices to make use of the corpse, which is saved from putrefaction by +being promptly consumed. Close beside it, the other victims, quite alive +though motionless, await their respective turns and supply reserves of +victuals which are always fresh. + +I am too unskilful a butcher to imitate the Wasp and myself to resort to +paralysis; moreover, the caustic liquid injected into the nerve-centres, +ammonia in particular, would leave traces of smell or flavour which +might put off my boarders. I am therefore compelled to deprive my +insects of the power of movement by killing them outright. This makes +it impracticable to provide a sufficiency of provisions beforehand in a +single supply: while one item of the ration was being consumed the +rest would spoil. One expedient alone remains to me, one which entails +constant attendance: it is to renew the provisions each day. When all +these conditions are fulfilled, the success of artificial feeding is +still not without its difficulties; nevertheless, with a little care and +above all plenty of patience, it is almost certain. + +It was thus that I reared the Tarsal Bembex, which eats Anthrax-flies +and other Diptera, on young Locustidae or Mantidae; the Silky Ammophila, +whose diet consists chiefly of Measuring-worms, on small Spiders; the +pot-making Pelopaeus, a Spider-eater, on tender Acridians; the Sand +Cerceris, a passionate lover of Weevils, on Halicti; the Bee-eating +Philanthus, which feeds exclusively on Hive-bees, on Eristales and other +Flies. Without succeeding in my final aim, for reasons which I have just +explained, I have seen the Two-banded Scolia feasting greedily on the +grub of the Oryctes, which was substituted for that of the Cetonia, and +putting up with an Ephippiger taken from the burrow of the Sphex; I have +been present at the repast of three Hairy Ammophilae accepting with an +excellent appetite the Cricket that replaced their caterpillar. One +of them, as I have related, contrived to keep its ration fresh, which +enabled it to reach its full development and to spin its cocoon. + +These examples, the only ones to which my experiments have extended +hitherto, seem to me sufficiently convincing to allow me to conclude +that the carnivorous larva does not have exclusive tastes. The ration +supplied to it by the mother, so monotonous, so limited in quality, +might be replaced by others equally to its taste. Variety does not +displease the larva; it does it as much good as uniformity; indeed, it +would be of greater benefit to the race, as we shall see presently. + + + +CHAPTER 8. A DIG AT THE EVOLUTIONISTS. + +To rear a caterpillar-eater on a skewerful of Spiders is a very innocent +thing, unlikely to compromise the security of the State; it is also a +very childish thing, as I hasten to confess, and worthy of the schoolboy +who, in the mysteries of his desk, seeks as best he may some diversion +from the fascinations of his exercise in composition. And I should not +have undertaken these investigations, still less should I have spoken +them, not without some satisfaction, if I had not discerned, in +the results obtained in my refectory, a certain philosophic import, +involving, so it seemed to me, the evolutionary theory. + +It is assuredly a majestic enterprise, commensurate with man's immense +ambitions, to seek to pour the universe into the mould of a formula +and submit every reality to the standard of reason. The geometrician +proceeds in this manner: he defines the cone, an ideal conception; then +he intersects it by a plane. The conic section is submitted to algebra, +an obstetrical appliance which brings forth the equation; and behold, +entreated now in one direction, now in another, the womb of the formula +gives birth to the ellipse, the hyperbola, the parabola, their foci, +their radius vectors, their tangents, their normals, their conjugate +axes, their asymptotes and the rest. It is magnificent, so much so that +you are overcome by enthusiasm, even when you are twenty years old, an +age hardly adapted to the austerities of mathematics. It is superb. You +feel as if you were witnessing the creation of a world. + +As a matter of fact, you are merely observing the same idea from +different points of view, which are illumined by the successive phases +of the transformed formula. All that algebra unfolds for our benefit was +contained in the definition of the cone, but it was contained as a +germ, under latent forms which the magic of the calculus converts into +explicit forms. The gross value which our mind confided to the equation +it returns to us, without loss or gain, in coins stamped with every sort +of effigy. And here precisely is that which constitutes the inflexible +rigour of the calculus, the luminous certainty before which every +cultivated mind is forced to bow. Algebra is the oracle of the absolute +truth, because it reveals nothing but what the mind had hidden in +it under an amalgam of symbols. We put 2 and 2 into the machine; the +rollers work and show us 4. That is all. + +But to this calculus, all-powerful so long as it does not leave the +domain of the ideal, let us submit a very modest reality: the fall of a +grain of sand, the pendular movement of a hanging body. The machine no +longer works, or does so only by suppressing almost everything that is +real. It must have an ideal material point, an ideal rigid thread, an +ideal point of suspension; and then the pendular movement is translated +by a formula. But the problem defies all the artifices of analysis if +the oscillating body is a real body, endowed with volume and friction; +if the suspensory thread is a real thread, endowed with weight and +flexibility; if the point of support is a real point, endowed with +resistance and capable of deflection. So with other problems, however +simple. The exact reality escapes the formula. + +Yes, it would be a fine thing to put the world into an equation, +to assume as the first principle a cell filled with albumen and by +transformation after transformation to discover life under its thousand +aspects as the geometrician discovers the ellipse and the other curves +by examining his conic section. Yes, it would be magnificent and enough +to add a cubit to our stature. Alas, how greatly must we abate our +pretensions! The reality is beyond our reach when it is only a matter of +following a grain of dust in its fall; and we would undertake to ascend +the river of life and trace it to its source! The problem is a more +arduous one than that which algebra declines to solve. There are +formidable unknown quantities here, more difficult to decipher than the +resistances, the deflections and the frictions of the pendulum. Let us +eliminate them, that we may more easily propound the theory. + +Very well; but then my confidence in this natural history which +repudiates nature and gives ideal conceptions precedence over real +facts is shaken. So, without seeking the opportunity, which is not my +business, I take it when it presents itself; I examine the theory of +evolution from every side; and, as that which I have been assured is the +majestic dome of a monument capable of defying the ages appears to me to +be no more than a bladder, I irreverently dig my pin into it. + +Here is the latest dig. Adaptability to a varied diet is an element of +well-being in the animal, a factor of prime importance for the extension +and predominance of its race in the bitter struggle for life. The most +unfortunate species would be that which depended for its existence on a +diet so exclusive that no other could replace it. What would become of +the Swallow if he required, in order to live, one particular Gnat, a +single Gnat, always the same? When once this Gnat had disappeared--and +the life of the Mosquito is not a long one--the bird would die of +starvation. Fortunately for himself and for the happiness of our homes, +the Swallow gulps them all down indiscriminately, together with a host +of other insects that perform aerial ballets. What would become of the +Lark were his gizzard able to digest only one seed, invariably the same? +When the season for this seed was over--and the season is always a short +one--the haunter of the furrows would perish. + +Is not man's complaisant stomach, adapted to the largest variety of +nourishment, one of his great zoological privileges? He is thus rendered +independent of climates, seasons and latitudes. And the Dog: how is +it that of all the domestic animals he alone is able to accompany us +everywhere, even on the most arduous expeditions? The Dog again is +omnivorous and therefore a cosmopolitan. + +The discovery of a new dish, said Brillat-Savarin, is of greater +importance to humanity than the discovery of a new planet. The aphorism +is nearer to the truth than it appears to be in its humorous form. +Certainly the man who was the first to think of crushing wheat, kneading +flour and cooking the paste between two hot stones was more deserving +than the discoverer of the two-hundredth asteroid. The invention of +the potato is certainly as valuable as that of Neptune, glorious as the +latter was. All that increases our alimentary resources is a discovery +of the first merit. And what is true of man cannot be other than true +of animals. The world belongs to the stomach which is independent of +specialities. This truth is of the kind that has only to be stated to be +proved. + +Let us now return to our insects. If I am to believe the evolutionists, +the various game-hunting Wasps are descended from a small number of +types, which are themselves derived, by an incalculable number of +concatenations, from a few amoebae, a few monera and lastly from the +first clot of protoplasm which was casually condensed. Let us not go +back as far as that; let us not plunge into the fogs where illusion and +error too easily find a lurking-place. Let us consider a subject with +exact limits to it; this is the only way to understand one another. + +The Sphegidae are descended from a single type, which itself was already +a highly-developed descendant and, like its successors, fed its family +on prey. The close similarity in form, in colouring and, above all, in +habits seem to refer the Tachytes to the same origin. This is ample; let +us be satisfied with it. And now please tell me, what did this prototype +of the Sphegidae hunt? Was its diet varied or uniform? If we cannot +decide, let us examine the two cases. + +The diet was varied. I heartily congratulate the first born of the +Sphex-wasps. She enjoyed the most favourable conditions for leaving +a prosperous offspring. Accommodating herself to any kind of prey not +disproportionate to her strength, she avoided the dearth of a given +species of game at this or that time and in this or that place; she +always found the wherewithal to endow her family magnificently, +they being, for that matter, fairly indifferent to the nature of the +victuals, provided that these consisted of fresh insect-flesh, as the +tastes of their cousins many times removed prove to this day. This +matriarch of the Sphex clan bore within herself the best chances of +assuring victory to her offspring in that pitiless fight for existence +which eliminates the weakly and incapable and allows none but the strong +and industrious to survive; she possessed an aptitude of great value +which atavism could not fail to hand down and which her descendants, who +are greatly interested in preserving this magnificent inheritance, must +have permanently adopted and even accentuated from one generation to the +next, from one branch, one offshoot, to another. + +Instead of this unscrupulously omnivorous race, levying booty upon every +kind of game, to its very great advantage, what do we see to-day? Each +Sphex is stupidly limited to an unvarying diet; she hunts only one kind +of prey, though her larva accepts them all. One will have nothing but +the Ephippiger and must have a female at that; another will have nothing +but the Cricket. This one hunts the Locust and nothing else; that one +the Mantis and the Empusa. Yet another is addicted to the Grey Worm and +another to the Looper. + +Fools! How great was your mistake in allowing the wise eclecticism +of your ancestress, whose relics now repose in the hard mud of some +lacustrian stratum, to become obsolete! How much better would things +be for you and yours! Abundance is assured; painful and often fruitless +searches are avoided; the larder is crammed without being subject to the +accidents of time, place and climate. When Ephippigers run short, +you fall back upon Crickets; when there are no Crickets, you capture +Grasshoppers. But no, my beautiful Sphex-wasps, you were not such fools +as that. If in our days you are each confined to a standing family-dish, +it is because your ancestress of the lacustrian schists never taught you +variety. + +Could she have taught you uniformity? Let us suppose that the Sphex of +antiquity, a novice in the gastronomic art, prepared her potted meats +with a single kind of game, no matter what. It was then her descendants +who, subdivided into groups and constituted into so many distinct +species by the slow travail of the centuries, realized that in addition +to the ancestral fare there existed a host of other foods. Tradition +being abandoned, there was nothing to guide their choice. They therefore +tried a bit of everything in the way of insect game, at hap-hazard; +and each time the larva, whose tastes alone had to be consulted, was +satisfied with the food supplied, as it is to-day in the refectory +provisioned by my care. + +Every attempt led to the invention of a new dish, an important event, +according to the masters, an inestimable resource for the family, who +were thereby delivered from the menace of death and enabled to thrive +over large areas whence the absence or rarity of a uniform game would +have excluded it. And, after making use of a host of different viands +in order to attain the culinary variety which is to-day adopted by the +whole of the Sphex nation, lo and behold, each species confines itself +to a single sort of game, outside which every specimen is obstinately +refused, not at table, of course, but in the hunting-field! By your +experiments, from age to age, to have discovered variety in diet; to +have practised it, to the great advantage of your race, and to end up +with uniformity, the cause of decadence; to have known the excellent and +to repudiate it for the middling: oh, my Sphex-wasps, it would be stupid +if the theory of evolution were correct! + +To avoid insulting you and also from respect for common sense, I prefer +therefore to believe that, if in our days you confine your hunting to +a single kind of game, it is because you have never known any other. I +prefer to believe that your common ancestress, your precursor, whether +her tastes were simple or complex, is a pure chimera, for, if they +were any relationship between you, having tested everything in order to +arrive at the actual food of each species, having eaten everything and +found it grateful to the stomach, you would now, from first to last, be +unprejudiced consumers, omnivorous progressives. I prefer to believe, in +short, that the theory of evolution is powerless to explain your diet. +This is the conclusion drawn from the dining-room installed in my old +sardine-box. + + + +CHAPTER 9. RATIONING ACCORDING TO SEX. + +Considered in respect of quality, the food has just disclosed our +profound ignorance of the origins of instinct. Success falls to the +blusterers, to the imperturbable dogmatists, from whom anything is +accepted if only they make a little noise. Let us discard this bad habit +and admit that really, if we go to the bottom of things, we know nothing +about anything. Scientifically speaking, nature is a riddle to +which human curiosity finds no definite solution. Hypothesis follows +hypothesis; the theoretical rubbish-heap grows bigger and bigger; and +still truth escapes us. To know how to know nothing might well be the +last word of wisdom. + +Considered in respect of quantity, the food sets us other problems, no +less obscure. Those of us who devote ourselves assiduously to studying +the customs of the game-hunting Wasps soon find our attention arrested +by a very remarkable fact, at the time when our mind, refusing to be +satisfied with sweeping generalities, which our indolence too readily +makes shift with, seeks to enter as far as possible into the secret of +the details, so curious and sometimes so important, as and when they +become better-known to us. This fact, which has preoccupied me for many +a long year, is the variable quantity of the provisions packed into the +burrow as food for the larva. + +Each species is scrupulously faithful to the diet of its ancestors. For +more than a quarter of a century I have been exploring my district; and +I have never known the diet to vary. To-day, as thirty years ago, each +huntress must have the game which I first saw her pursuing. But, though +the nature of the victuals is constant, the quantity is not so. In +this respect the difference is so great that he would need to be a +very superficial observer who should fail to perceive it on his first +examination of the burrows. In the beginning, this difference, involving +two, three, four times the quantity and more, perplexed me extremely and +led me to the conclusions which I reject to-day. + +Here, among the instances most familiar to me, are some examples of +these variations in the number of victims provided for the larva, +victims, of course, very nearly identical in size. In the larder of the +Yellow-winged Sphex, after the victualling is completed and the house +shut up, two or three Crickets are sometimes found and sometimes +four. Stizus ruficornis (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter 20; also +"Bramble-bees and Others": chapter 9.--Translator's Note.), established +in some vein of soft sandstone, places three Praying Mantes in one cell +and five in another. Of the caskets fashioned by Amedeus' Eumenes (Cf. +"The Mason-wasps": chapter 1.--Translator's Note.) out of clay and bits +of stone, the more richly endowed contain ten small caterpillars, the +more poorly furnished five. The Sand Cerceris (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": +chapter 2.--Translator's Note.) will sometimes provide a ration of eight +Weevils and sometimes one of twelve or even more. My notes abound in +abstracts of this kind. It is unnecessary for the purpose in hand to +quote them all. It will serve our object better if I give the detailed +inventory of the Bee-eating Philanthus and of the Mantis-hunting +Tachytes, considered especially with regard to the quantity of the +victuals. + +The slayer of Hive-bees is frequently in my neighbourhood; and I can +obtain from her with the least trouble the greatest number of data. In +September I see the bold filibuster flying from clump to clump of the +pink heather pillaged by the Bee. The bandit suddenly arrives, hovers, +makes her choice and swoops down. The trick is done: the poor worker, +with her tongue lolling from her mouth in the death-struggle, is carried +through the air to the underground den, which is often a very long way +from the spot of the capture. The trickling of earthy refuse, on +the bare banks, or on the slopes of footpaths, instantly reveals the +dwellings of the ravisher; and, as the Philanthus always works in fairly +populous colonies, I am able, by noting the position of the communities, +to make sure of fruitful excavations during the forced inactivity of +winter. + +The sapping is a laborious task, for the galleries run to a great depth. +Favier wields the pick and spade; I break the clods which he brings +down and open the cells, whose contents--cocoons and remnants of +provisions--I at once pour into a little screw of paper. Sometimes, when +the larva is not developed, the stack of Bees is intact; more often +the victuals have been consumed; but it is always possible to tell the +number of items provided. The heads, abdomens and thoraxes, emptied of +their fleshy substance and reduced to the tough outer skin, are easily +counted. If the larva has chewed these overmuch, the wings at least are +left; these are sapless organs which the Philanthus absolutely scorns. +They are likewise spared by moisture, putrefaction and time, so much +so that it is no more difficult to take an inventory of a cell several +years old than one of a recent cell. The essential thing is not to +overlook any of these tiny relics while placing them in the paper bag, +amid the thousand incidents of the excavation. The rest of the work will +be done in the study, with the aid of the lens, taking the remains heap +by heap; the wings will be separated from the surrounding refuse +and counted in sets of four. The result will give the amount of the +provisions. I do not recommend this task to any one who is not endowed +with a good stock of patience, nor above all to any one who does not +start with the conviction that results of great interest are compatible +with very modest means. + +My inspection covers a total of one hundred and thirty-six cells, which +are divided as in the table below: + + 2 cells each containing 1 Bee + 52 cells each containing 2 Bees + 36 cells each containing 3 Bees + 36 cells each containing 4 Bees + 9 cells each containing 5 Bees + 1 cell containing 6 Bees + --- + 136 + +The Mantis-hunting Tachytes consumes its heap of Mantes, the horny +envelope included, without leaving any remains but scanty crumbs, quite +insufficient to establish the number of items provided. After the +meal is completed, any inventory of the rations becomes impossible. I +therefore have recourse to the cells which still contain the egg or the +very young larva and, above all, to those whose provisions have been +invaded by a tiny parasitic Gnat, a Tachina (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": +chapters 4 and 16.--Translator's Note.), which drains the game without +cutting it up and leaves the whole skin intact. Twenty-five larders, put +to the count, give me the following result: + + 8 cells each containing 3 items + 5 cells each containing 4 items + 4 cells each containing 6 items + 3 cells each containing 7 items + 2 cells each containing 8 items + 1 cell containing 9 items + 1 cell containing 12 items + 1 cell containing 16 items + --- + 25 + +The predominant game is the Praying Mantis, green; next comes the Grey +Mantis, ash-coloured. A few Empusae make up the total. The specimens +vary in dimensions within fairly elastic limits: I measure some which +are a third to a half inch long, averaging two-thirds to one inch long, +and some which are two-fifths, averaging three quarters. I see pretty +plainly that their number increases in proportion as their size +diminishes, as though the Tachytes were seeking to make up for the +smallness of the game by increasing the amount; none the less I find it +quite impossible to detect the least equivalence by combining the +two factors of number and size. If the huntress really estimates the +provisions, she does so very roughly; her household accounts are not at +all well kept; each head of game, large or small, must always count as +one in her eyes. + +Put on my guard, I look to see whether the honey-gathering Bees have a +double service, like the game-hunting Wasps'. I estimate the amount of +honeyed paste; I gauge the cups intended to contain it. In many cases +the result resembles the first obtained: the abundance of provisions +varies from one cell to another. Certain Osmiae (O. cornuta and O. +tricornis (Cf. "Bramble-bees and Others": passim; and, in particular, +chapters 3 to 5.--Translator's Note.)) feed their larvae on a heap of +pollen-dust moistened in the middle with a very little disgorged honey. +One of these heaps may be three or four times the size of some other +in the same group of cells. If I detach from its pebble the nest of the +Mason-bee, the Chalicodoma of the Walls, I see cells of large capacity, +sumptuously provisioned; close beside these I see others, of less +capacity, with victuals parsimoniously allotted. The fact is general; +and it is right that we should ask ourselves the reason for these marked +differences in the relative quantity of foodstuffs and for these unequal +rations. + +I at last began to suspect that this is first and foremost a question of +sex. In many Bees and Wasps, indeed, the male and the female differ not +only in certain details of internal or external structure--a point of +view which does not affect the present problem--but also in length and +bulk, which depend in a high degree on the quantity of food. + +Let us consider in particular the Bee-eating Philanthus. Compared with +the female, the male is a mere abortion. I find that he is only a third +to half the size of the other sex, as far as I can judge by sight alone. +To obtain exactly the respective quantities of substance, I should need +delicate balances, capable of weighing down to a milligramme. My +clumsy villager's scales, on which potatoes may be weighed to within a +kilogramme or so, do not permit of this precision. I must therefore rely +on the evidence of my sight alone, evidence, for that matter, which is +amply sufficient in the present instance. Compared with his mate, the +Mantis-hunting Tachytes is likewise a pigmy. We are quite astonished to +see him pestering his giantess on the threshold of the burrows. + +We observe differences no less pronounced of size--and consequently +of volume, mass and weight--in the two sexes of many Osmiae. The +differences are less emphatic, but are still on the same side, in the +Cerceres, the Stizi, the Spheges, the Chalicodomae and many more. It is +therefore the rule that the male is smaller than the female. There are +of course some exceptions, though not many; and I am far from denying +them. I will mention certain Anthidia where the male is the larger of +the two. Nevertheless, in the great majority of cases the female has the +advantage. + +And this is as it should be. It is the mother, the mother alone, who +laboriously digs underground galleries and chambers, kneads the plaster +for coating the cells, builds the dwelling-house of cement and bits of +grit, bores the wood and divides the burrow into storeys, cuts the disks +of leaf which will be joined together to form honey-pots, works up +the resin gathered in drops from the wounds in the pine-trees to build +ceilings in the empty spiral of a Snail-shell, hunts the prey, paralyses +it and drags it indoors, gathers the pollen-dust, prepares the honey in +her crop, stores and mixes the paste. This severe labour, so imperious +and so active, in which the insect's whole life is spent, manifestly +demands a bodily strength which would be quite useless to the male, the +amorous trifler. Thus, as a general rule, in the insects which carry on +an industry the female is the stronger sex. + +Does this pre-eminence imply more abundant provisions during the larval +stage, when the insect is acquiring the physical growth which it will +not exceed in its future development? Simple reflection supplies the +answer: yes, the aggregate growth has its equivalent in the aggregate +provisions. Though so slight a creature as the male Philanthus finds a +ration of two Bees sufficient for his needs, the female, twice or thrice +as bulky, will consume three to six at least. If the male Tachytes +requires three Mantes, his consort's meal will demand a batch of +something like ten. With her comparative corpulence, the female Osmia +will need a heap of paste twice or thrice as great as that of her +brother, the male. All this is obvious; the animal cannot make much out +of little. + +Despite this evidence, I was anxious to enquire whether the reality +corresponded with the previsions of the most elementary logic. Instances +are not unknown in which the most sagacious deductions have been found +to disagree with the facts. During the last few years, therefore, I have +profited by my winter leisure to collect, from spots noted as favourable +during the working-season, a few handfuls of cocoons of various +Digger-wasps, notably of the Bee-eating Philanthus, who has just +furnished us with an inventory of provisions. Surrounding these cocoons +and thrust against the wall of the cell were the remnants of the +victuals--wings, corselets, heads, wing-cases--a count of which enabled +me to determine how many head of game had been provided for the larva, +now enclosed in its silken abode. I thus obtained the correct list +of provisions for each of the huntress' cocoons. On the other hand, I +estimated the quantities of honey, or rather I gauged the receptacles, +the cells, whose capacity is proportionate to the mass of the provisions +stored. After making these preparations, registering the cells, cocoons +and rations and putting all my figures in order, I had only to wait for +the hatching-season to determine the sex. + +Well, I found that logic and experiment were in perfect agreement. The +Philanthus-cocoons with two Bees gave me males, always males; those with +a larger ration gave me females. From the Tachytes-cocoons with double +or treble that ration I obtained females. When fed upon four or five +Nut-weevils, the Sand Cerceris was a male; when fed upon eight or ten, a +female. In short, abundant provisions and spacious cells yield females; +scanty provisions and narrow cells yield males. This is a law upon which +I may henceforth rely. + +At the stage which we have now reached a question arises, a question of +major importance, touching the most nebulous aspect of embryogeny. +How is it that the larva of the Philanthus, to take a particular case, +receives three to five Bees from its mother when it is to become a +female and not more than two when it is to become a male? Here the +various head of game are identical in size, in flavour, in nutritive +properties. The food-value is precisely in proportion to the number +of items supplied, a helpful detail which eliminates the uncertainties +wherein we might be left by the provision of game of different species +and varying sizes. How is it, then, that a host of Bees and Wasps, +of honey-gatherers as well as huntresses, store a larger or smaller +quantity of victuals in their cells according as the nurselings are to +become females or males? + +The provisions are stored before the eggs are laid; and these provisions +are measured by the needs of the sex of an egg still inside the +mother's body. If the egg-laying were to precede the rationing, which +occasionally takes place, as with the Odyneri (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": +chapters 2 and 8.--Translator's Note.), for example, we might imagine +that the gravid mother enquires into the sex of the egg, recognizes it +and stacks victuals accordingly. But, whether destined to become a male +or a female, the egg is always the same; the differences--and I have no +doubt that there are differences--are in the domain of the infinitely +subtle, the mysterious, imperceptible even to the most practised +embryogenist. What can a poor insect see--in the absolute darkness of +its burrow, moreover--where science armed with optical instruments has +not yet succeeded in seeing anything? And besides, even were it +more discerning than we are in these genetic obscurities, its visual +discernment would have nothing whereupon to practice. As I have said, +the egg is laid only when the corresponding provisions are stored. The +meal is prepared before the larva which is to eat it has come into the +world. The supply is generously calculated by the needs of the coming +creature; the dining-room is built large or small to contain a giant or +a dwarf still germinating in the ovarian ducts. The mother, therefore, +knows the sex of her egg beforehand. + +A strange conclusion, which plays havoc with our current notions! The +logic of the facts leads us to it directly. And yet it seems so absurd +that, before accepting it, we seek to escape the predicament by another +absurdity. We wonder whether the quantity of food may not decide the +fate of the egg, originally sexless. Given more food and more room, +the egg would become a female; given less food and less room, it would +become a male. The mother, obeying her instincts, would store more food +in this case and less in that; she would build now a large and now +a small cell; and the future of the egg would be determined by the +conditions of food and shelter. + +Let us make every test, every experiment, down to the absurd: the crude +absurdity of the moment has sometimes proved to be the truth of the +morrow. Besides, the well-known story of the Hive-bee should make us +wary of rejecting paradoxical suppositions. Is it not by increasing the +size of the cell, by modifying the quality and quantity of the food, +that the population of a hive transforms a worker larva into a female or +royal larva? It is true that the sex remains the same, since the workers +are only incompletely developed females. The change is none the less +miraculous, so much so that it is almost lawful to enquire whether the +transformation may not go further, turning a male, that poor abortion, +into a sturdy female by means of a plentiful diet. Let us therefore +resort to experiment. + +I have at hand some long bits of reed in the hollow of which an Osmia, +the Three-horned Osmia, has stacked her cells, bounded by earthen +partitions. I have related elsewhere (Cf. "Bramble-bees and Others": +chapters 2 to 5.--Translator's Note.) how I obtain as many of these +nests as I could wish for. When the reed is split lengthwise, the cells +come into view, together with their provisions, the egg lying on the +paste, or even the budding larva. Observations multiplied ad nauseam +have taught me where to find the males and where the females in this +apiary. The males occupy the fore-part of the reed, the end next to the +opening; the females are at the bottom, next to the knot which serves +as a natural stopper to the channel. For the rest, the quantity of the +provisions in itself points to the sex: for the females it is twice or +thrice as great as for the males. + +In the scantily-provided cells, I double or treble the ration with food +taken from other cells; in the cells which are plentifully supplied, I +reduce the portion to a half or a third. Controls are left: that is to +say, some cells remain untouched, with their provisions as I found them, +both in the part which is abundantly provided and in that which is more +meagrely rationed. The two halves of the reed are then restored to their +original position and firmly bound with a few turns of wire. We shall +see, when the time comes, whether these changes increasing or decreasing +the victuals have determined the sex. + +Here is the result: the cells which at first were sparingly provided, +but whose supplies were doubled or trebled by my artifice, contain +males, as foretold by the original amount of victuals. The surplus which +I added has not completely disappeared, far from it: the larva has had +more than it needed for its evolution as a male; and, being unable to +consume the whole of its copious provisions, it has spun its cocoon in +the midst of the remaining pollen-dust. These males, so richly supplied, +are of handsome but not exaggerated proportions; you can see that the +additional food has profited them to some small extent. + +The cells with abundant provisions, reduced to a half or a third by +my intervention, contain cocoons as small as the male cocoons, pale, +translucent and limp, whereas the normal cocoons are dark-brown, opaque +and firm to the touch. These, we perceive at once, are the work of +starved, anaemic weavers, who, failing to satisfy their appetite and +having eaten the last grain of pollen, have, before dying, done their +best with their poor little drop of silk. Those cocoons which correspond +with the smallest allowance of food contain only a dead and shrivelled +larva; others, in whose case the provisions were less markedly +decreased, contain females in the adult form, but of very diminutive +size, comparable with that of the males, or even smaller. As for the +controls which I was careful to leave, they confirm the fact that I had +males in the part near the orifice of the reed and females in the part +near the knot closing the channel. + +Is this enough to dispose of the very improbable supposition that the +determination of the sex depends on the quantity of food? Strictly +speaking, there is still one door open to doubt. It may be said that +experiment, with its artifices, does not succeed in realizing the +delicate natural conditions. To make short work of all objections, I +cannot do better than have recourse to facts in which the experimenter's +hand has not intervened. The parasites will supply us with these facts; +they will show us how alien the quantity and even the quality of the +food are from either specific or sexual characters. The subject +of enquiry thus becomes double, instead of single as it was when I +plundered one cell in my split reeds to enrich another. Let us follow +this double current for a little while. + +An Ammophila, the Silky Ammophila (Cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapter +13.--Translator's Note.), which feeds on Looper caterpillars (Known also +as Measuring-worms, Inchworms, Spanworms and Surveyors: the caterpillars +of the Geometrid Moths.--Translator's Note.), has just been reared in +my refectory on Spiders. Replete to the regulation point, it spins its +cocoon. What will emerge from this? If the reader expects to see any +modifications, caused by a diet which the species, left to itself, had +never effected, let him be undeceived and that quickly. The Ammophila +fed on Spiders is precisely the same as the Ammophila fed on +caterpillars, just as man fed on rice is the same as man fed on wheat. +In vain I pass my lens over the product of my art: I cannot distinguish +it from the natural product; and I defy the most meticulous entomologist +to perceive any difference between the two. It is the same with my other +boarders who have had their diet altered. + +I see the objection coming. The differences may be inappreciable, for my +experiments touch only a first rung of the ladder. What would happen +if the ladder were prolonged, if the offspring of the Ammophila fed +on Spiders were given the same food generation after generation? These +differences, at first imperceptible, might become accentuated until they +grew into distinct specific characters; the habits and instincts might +also change; and in the end the caterpillar-huntress might become a +Spider-huntress, with a shape of her own. A species would be created, +for, among the factors at work in the transformation of animals, the +most important of all is incontestably the type of food, the nature +of the thing wherewith the animal builds itself. All this is much more +important than the trivialities which Darwin relies upon. + +To create a species is magnificent in theory, so that we find ourselves +regretting that the experimenter is not able to continue the attempt. +But, once the Ammophila has flown out of the laboratory to slake her +thirst at the flowers in the neighbourhood, just to try to find her +again and induce her to entrust you with her eggs, which you would rear +in the refectory, to increase the taste for Spiders from generation +to generation! Merely to dream of it were madness. Shall we, in our +helplessness, admit ourselves beaten by the evolutionary effects of +diet? Not a bit of it! One experiment--and you could not wish for a more +decisive--is continually in progress, apart from all artifices, on an +enormous scale. It is brought to our notice by the parasites. + +They must, we are told, have acquired the habit of living on others +in order to save themselves work and to lead an easier life. The poor +wretches have made a sorry blunder. Their life is of the hardest. If a +few establish themselves comfortably, dearth and dire famine await most +of the rest. There are some--look at certain of the Oil-beetles--exposed +to so many chances of destruction that, to save one, they are obliged to +procreate a thousand. They seldom enjoy a free meal. Some stray into +the houses of hosts whose victuals do not suit them; others find only +a ration quite insufficient for their needs; others--and these are very +numerous--find nothing at all. What misadventures, what disappointments +do these needy creatures suffer, unaccustomed as they are to work! Let +me relate some of their misfortunes, gleaned at random. + +The Girdled Dioxys (D. cincta) loves the ample honey-stores of the +Chalicodoma of the Pebbles. There she finds abundant food, so abundant +that she cannot eat it all. I have already passed censure on this waste. +(Cf. "The Mason-bees": chapter 10.--Translator's Note.) Now a little +Osmia (O. cyanoxantha, Perez) makes her nest in the Mason's deserted +cells; and this Bee, a victim of her ill-omened dwelling, also harbours +the Dioxys. This is a manifest error on the parasite's part. The nest of +the Chalicodoma, the hemisphere of mortar on its pebble, is what she is +looking for, to confide her eggs to it. But the nest is now occupied +by a stranger, by the Osmia, a circumstance unknown to the Dioxys, who +comes stealing up to lay her egg in the mother's absence. The dome +is familiar to her. She could not know it better if she had built it +herself. Here she was born; here is what her family wants. Moreover, +there is nothing to arouse her suspicions: the outside of the home has +not changed its appearance in any respect; the stopper of gravel and +green putty, which later will form a violent contrast with its white +front, is not yet constructed. She goes in and sees a heap of honey. +To her thinking this can be nothing but the Chalicodoma's portion. We +ourselves would be beguiled, in the Osmia's absence. She lays her eggs +in this deceptive cell. + +Her mistake, which is easy to understand, does not in any way detract +from her great talents as a parasite, but it is a serious matter for +the future larva. The Osmia, in fact, in view of her small dimensions, +collects but a very scanty store of food: a little loaf of pollen and +honey, hardly the size of an average pea. Such a ration is insufficient +for the Dioxys. I have described her as a waster of food when her larva +is established, according to custom, in the cell of the Mason-bee. This +description no longer applies; not in the very least. Inadvertently +straying to the Osmia's table, the larva has no excuse for turning up +its nose; it does not leave part of the food to go bad; it eats up the +lot without having had enough. + +This famine-stricken refectory can give us nothing but an abortion. As +a matter of fact, the Dioxys subjected to this niggardly test does not +die, for the parasite must have a tough constitution to enable it to +face the disastrous hazards which lie in wait for it; but it attains +barely half its ordinary dimensions, which means one-eighth of its +normal bulk. To see it thus diminished, we are surprised at its +tenacious vitality, which enables it to reach the adult form in spite +of the extreme deficiency of food. Meanwhile, this adult is still +the Dioxys; there is no change of any kind in her shape or colouring. +Moreover, the two sexes are represented; this family of pigmies has its +males and females. Dearth and the farinaceous mess in the Osmia's cell +has had no more influence over species or sex than abundance and flowing +honey in the Chalicodoma's home. + +The same may be said of the Spotted Sapyga (S. punctata (A parasitic +Wasp. Cf. "The Mason-bees": chapters 9 and 10.--Translator's Note.)), +which, a parasite of the Three-pronged Osmia, a denizen of the bramble, +and of the Golden Osmia, an occupant of empty Snail-shells, strays into +the house of the Tiny Osmia (O. parvula (This bee makes her home in +the brambles. Cf. "Bramble-dwellers and Others": chapters 2 and +3.--Translator's Note.)), where, for lack of sufficient food, it does +not attain half its normal size. + +A Leucopsis (Cf. "The Mason-bees": chapter 11.--Translator's Note.) +inserts her eggs through the cement wall of our three Chalicodomae. I +know her under two names. When she comes from the Chalicodoma of the +Pebbles or Walls, whose opulent larva saturates her with food, she +deserves by her large size the name of Leucopsis gigas, which Fabricius +bestows upon her; when she comes from the Chalicodoma of the Sheds, she +deserves no more than the name of L. grandis, which is all that +Klug grants her. With a smaller ration "the giant" is to some degree +diminished and becomes no more than "the large." When she comes from +the Chalicodoma of the Shrubs, she is smaller still; and, if some +nomenclator were to seek to describe her, she would no longer deserve +to be called more than middling. From dimension 2 she has descended to +dimension 1 without ceasing to be the same insect, despite the change +of diet; and at the same time both sexes are present in the three +nurselings, despite the variation in the quantity of victuals. + +I obtain Anthrax sinuata ("The Mason-bees": chapters 8, 10 and +11.--Translator's Note.) from various bees' nests. When she issues from +the cocoons of the Three-horned Osmia, especially the female cocoons, +she attains the greatest development that I know of. When she issues +from the cocoons of the Blue Osmia (O. cyanea, KIRB.), she is sometimes +hardly one-third the length which the other Osmia gives her. And +we still have the two sexes--that goes without saying--and still +identically the same species. + +Two Anthidia, working in resin, A. septemdentatum, LATR., and A. +bellicosum, LEP. (For these Resin-bees, cf. "Bramble-bees and Others": +chapter 10.--Translator's Note.), establish their domicile in old +Snail-shells. The second harbours the Burnt Zonitis (Z. proeusta (Cf. +"The Glow-worm and Other Beetles": chapter 6.--Translator's Note.)). +Amply nourished this Meloe then acquires her normal size, the size in +which she usually figures in the collections. A like prosperity awaits +her when she usurps the provisions of Megachile sericans. (For this +Bee, the Silky Leaf-cutter, cf. "Bramble-bees and Others": chapter +8.--Translator's Note.) But the imprudent creature sometimes allows +itself to be carried away to the meagre table of the smallest of +our Anthidia (A. scapulare, LATR. (A Cotton-bee, cf. idem: chapter +9.--Translator's Note.)), who makes her nests in dry bramble-stems. The +scanty fare makes a wretched dwarf of the offspring belonging to either +sex, without depriving them of any of their racial features. We still +see the Burnt Zonitis, with the distinctive sign of the species: the +singed patch at the tip of the wing-cases. + +And the other Meloidae--Cantharides, Cerocomae, Mylabres (For these +Blister-beetles or Oil-beetles, cf. "The Glow-worm and Other Beetles": +chapter 6.--Translator's Note.)--to what inequalities of size are +they not subject, irrespective of sex! There are some--and they are +numerous--whose dimensions fall to a half, a third, a quarter of the +regular dimensions. Among these dwarfs, these misbegotten ones, these +victims of atrophy, there are females as well as males; and their +smallness by no means cools their amorous ardour. These needy creatures, +I repeat, have a hard life of it. Whence do they come, these diminutive +Beetles, if not from dining-rooms insufficiently supplied for their +needs? Their parasitical habits expose them to harsh vicissitudes. No +matter: in dearth as well as in abundance the two sexes appear and the +specific features remain unchanged. + +It is unnecessary to linger longer over this subject. The demonstration +is completed. The parasites tell us that changes in the quantity and +quality of food do not lead to any transformation of species. Fed +upon the larva of the Three-horned Osmia or of the Blue Osmia, Anthrax +sinuata, whether of handsome proportions or a dwarf, is still +Anthrax sinuata; fed upon the allowance of the Anthidium of the empty +Snail-shells, the Anthidium of the brambles, the Megachile or doubtless +many others, the Burnt Zonitis is still the Burnt Zonitis. Yet variation +of diet ought to be a very potential factor in the problem of progress +towards another form. Is not the world of living creatures ruled by the +stomach? And the value of this factor is unity, changing nothing in the +product. + +The same parasites tell us--and this is the chief object of my +digression--that excess or deficiency of nutriment does not determine +the sex. So we are once more confronted with the strange proposition, +which is now more positive than ever, that the insect which amasses +provisions in proportion to the needs of the egg about to be laid knows +beforehand what the sex of this egg will be. Perhaps the reality is even +more paradoxical still. I shall return to the subject after discussing +the Osmiae, who are very weighty witnesses in this grave affair. (Cf. +"Bramble-bees and Others": chapters 3 to 5. The student is recommended +to read these three chapters in conjunction with the present chapter, +to which they form a sequel, with that on the Osmiae (chapter 2 of the +above volume) intervening.--Translator's Note.) + + + +CHAPTER 10. THE BEE-EATING PHILANTHUS. + +To meet among the Wasps, those eager lovers of flowers, a species that +goes hunting more or less on its own account is certainly a notable +event. That the larder of the grub should be provided with prey is +natural enough; but that the provider, whose diet is honey, should +herself make use of the captives is anything but easy to understand. We +are quite astonished to see a nectar-drinker become a blood-drinker. But +our astonishment ceases if we consider things more closely. The double +method of feeding is more apparent than real: the crop which fills +itself with sugary liquid does not gorge itself with game. The Odynerus, +when digging into the body of her prey, does not touch the flesh, a fare +absolutely scorned as contrary to her tastes; she satisfies herself with +lapping up the defensive drop which the grub (The Larva of Chrysomela +populi, the Poplar Leaf-beetle.--Translator's Note.) distils at the +end of its intestine. This fluid no doubt represents to her some +highly-flavoured beverage with which she seasons from time to time +the staple diet fetched from the drinking-bar of the flowers, some +appetizing condiment or perhaps--who knows?--some substitute for honey. +Though the qualities of the delicacy escape me, I at least perceive that +the Odynerus does not covet anything else. Once its jar is emptied, +the larva is flung aside as worthless offal, a certain sign of a +non-carnivorous appetite. Under these conditions, the persecutor of the +Chrysomela ceases to surprise us by indulging in the crying abuse of a +double diet. + +We even begin to wonder whether other species may not be inclined to +derive a direct advantage from the hunting imposed upon them for the +maintenance of the family. The Odynerus' method of work, the splitting +open of the anal still-room, is too far removed from the obvious +procedure to have many imitators; it is a secondary detail and +impracticable with a different kind of game. But there is sure to be a +certain variety in the direct means of utilizing the capture. Why, for +instance, when the victim paralysed by the sting contains a delicious +broth in some part of its stomach, should the huntress scruple to +violate her dying prey and force it to disgorge without injuring +the quality of the provisions? There must be those who rob the dead, +attracted not by the flesh but by the exquisite contents of the crop. + +In point of fact, there are; and they are even numerous. We may +mention in the first rank the Wasp that hunts Hive-bees, the Bee-eating +Philanthus (P. apivorus, LATR.). I long suspected her of perpetrating +these acts of brigandage on her own behalf, having often surprised her +gluttonously licking the Bee's honey-smeared mouth; I had an inkling +that she did not always hunt solely for the benefit of her larvae. The +suspicion deserved to be confirmed by experiment. Also, I was engaged +in another investigation, which might easily be conducted simultaneously +with the one suggested: I wanted to study, with all the leisure of work +done at home, the operating-methods employed by the different Hunting +Wasps. I therefore made use, for the Philanthus, of the process of +experimenting under glass which I roughly outlined when speaking of the +Odynerus. It was even the Bee-huntress who gave me my first data in this +direction. She responded to my wishes with such zeal that I believed +myself to possess an unequalled means of observing again and again, even +to excess, what is so difficult to achieve on the actual spot. Alas, +the first-fruits of my acquaintance with the Philanthus promised me more +than the future held in store for me! But we will not anticipate; and +we will place the huntress and her game together under the bell-glass. +I recommend this experiment to whoever would wish to see with what +perfection in the art of attack and defence a Hunting Wasp wields the +stiletto. There is no uncertainty here as to the result, there is no +long wait: the moment when she catches sight of the prey in an attitude +favourable to her designs, the bandit rushes forward and kills. I will +describe how things happen. + +I place under the bell-glass a Philanthus and two or three Hive-bees. +The prisoners climb the glass wall, towards the light; they go up, come +down again and try to get out; the vertical polished surface is to them +a practicable floor. They soon quiet down; and the spoiler begins to +notice her surroundings. The antennae are pointed forwards, enquiringly; +the hind-legs are drawn up with a little quiver of greed in the tarsi; +the head turns to right and left and follows the evolutions of the Bees +against the glass. The miscreant's posture now becomes a striking piece +of acting: you can read in it the fierce longings of the creature lying +in ambush, the crafty waiting for the moment to commit the crime. The +choice is made: the Philanthus pounces on her prey. + +Turn by turn tumbling over and tumbled, the two insects roll upon the +ground. The tumult soon abates; and the murderess prepares to strangle +her capture. I see her adopt two methods. In the first, which is more +usual than the other, the Bee is lying on her back; and the Philanthus, +belly to belly with her, grips her with her six legs while snapping +at her neck with her mandibles. The abdomen is now curved forward from +behind, along the prostrate victim, feels with its tip, gropes about +a little and ends by reaching the under part of the neck. The sting +enters, lingers for a moment in the wound; and all is over. Without +releasing her prey, which is still tightly clasped, the murderess +restores her abdomen to its normal position and keeps it pressed against +the Bee's. + +In the second method, the Philanthus operates standing. Resting on her +hind-legs and on the tips of her unfurled wings, she proudly occupies +an erect attitude, with the Bee held facing her between her four +front legs. To give the poor thing a position suited to receive the +dagger-stroke, she turns her round and back again with the rough +clumsiness of a child handling its doll. Her pose is magnificent to look +at. Solidly planted on her sustaining tripod, the two hinder tarsi and +the tips of the wings, she at last crooks her abdomen upwards and +again stings the Bee under the chin. The originality of the Philanthus' +posture at the moment of the murder surpasses the anything that I have +hitherto seen. + +The desire for knowledge in natural history has its cruel side. To learn +precisely the point attacked by the sting and to make myself +thoroughly acquainted with the horrible talent of the murderess, I +have investigated more assassinations under glass than I would dare to +confess. Without a single exception, I have always seen the Bee stung +in the throat. In the preparations for the final blow, the tip of the +abdomen may well come to rest on this or that point of the thorax +or abdomen; but it does not stop at any of these, nor is the sting +unsheathed, as can readily be ascertained. Indeed, once the contest is +opened, the Philanthus becomes so entirely absorbed in her operation +that I can remove the cover and follow every vicissitude of the tragedy +with my pocket-lens. + +After recognizing the invariable position of the wound, I bend back and +open the articulation of the head. I see under the Bee's chin a white +spot, measuring hardly a twenty-fifth of an inch square, where the horny +integuments are lacking and the delicate skin is shown uncovered. It +is here, always here, in this tiny defect in the armour, that the sting +enters. Why is this spot stabbed rather than another? Can it be the only +vulnerable point, which would necessarily determine the thrust of the +lancet? Should any one entertain so petty a thought, I advise him to +open the articulation of the corselet, behind the first pair of legs. +He will there see what I see: the bare skin, quite as fine as under the +neck, but covering a much larger surface. The horny breast-plate offers +no wider breach. If the Philanthus were guided in her operation solely +by the question of vulnerability, it is here certainly that she ought to +strike, instead of persistently seeking the narrow slit in the neck. The +weapon would not need to hesitate and grope; it would obtain admission +into the tissues off-hand. No, the stroke of the lancet is not forced +upon it mechanically: the assassin scorns the large defect in the +corselet and prefers the place under the chin, for eminently logical +reasons which we will now attempt to unravel. + +Immediately after the operation I take the Bee from the Philanthus. What +strikes me is the sudden inertia of the antennae and the mouth-parts, +organs which in the victims of most of the Hunting Wasps continue to +move for so long a time. There are here not any of the signs of life to +which I have been accustomed in my old studies of insect paralysis: the +antennary threads waving slowly to and fro, the palpi quivering, the +mandibles opening and closing for days, weeks and months on end. At +most, the tarsi tremble for a minute or two; that constitutes the whole +death-struggle. Complete immobility ensues. The inference drawn from +this sudden inertia is inevitable: the Wasp has stabbed the cervical +ganglia. Hence the immediate cessation of movement in all the organs of +the head; hence the real instead of the apparent death of the Bee. The +Philanthus is a butcher and not a paralyser. + +This is one step gained. The murderess chooses the under part of +the chin as the point attacked in order to strike the principal +nerve-centres, the cephalic ganglia, and thus to do away with life +at one blow. When this vital seat is poisoned by the toxin, death +is instantaneous. Had the Philanthus' object been simply to effect +paralysis, the suppression of locomotor movements, she would have driven +her weapon into the flaw in the corselet, as the Cerceres do with the +Weevils, who are much more powerfully armoured than the Bee. But her +intention is to kill outright, as we shall see presently; she wants a +corpse, not a paralytic patient. This being so, we must agree that her +operating-method is supremely well-inspired: our human murderers could +achieve nothing more thorough or immediate. + +We must also agree that her attitude when attacking, an attitude +very different from that of the paralysers, is infallible in its +death-dealing efficacy. Whether she deliver her thrust lying on the +ground or standing erect, she holds the Bee in front of her, breast to +breast, head to head. In this posture all that she need do is to curve +her abdomen in order to reach the gap in the neck and plunge the sting +with an upward slant into her captive's head. Suppose the two insects +to be gripping each other in the reverse attitude, imagine the dirk +to slant slightly in the opposite direction; the results would be +absolutely different and the sting, driven downwards, would pierce +the first thoracic ganglion and produce merely partial paralysis. What +skill, to sacrifice a wretched Bee! In what fencing-school was the +slayer taught her terrible upward blow under the chin? + +If she learnt it, how is it that her victim, such a past mistress in +architecture, such an adept in socialistic polity, has so far learnt no +corresponding trick to serve in her own defence? She is as powerful +as her executioner; like the other, she carries a rapier, an even more +formidable one and more painful, at least to my fingers. For centuries +and centuries the Philanthus has been storing her away in her cellars; +and the poor innocent meekly submits, without being taught by the annual +extermination of her race how to deliver herself from the aggressor by a +well-aimed thrust. I despair of ever understanding how the assailant has +acquired her talent for inflicting sudden death, when the assailed, +who is better-armed and quite as strong, wields her dagger anyhow and +therefore ineffectively. If the one has learnt by prolonged practice +in attack, the other should also have learnt by prolonged practice in +defence, for attack and defence possess a like merit in the fight for +life. Among the theorists of the day, is there one clear-sighted enough +to solve the riddle for us? + +If so, I will take the opportunity of putting to him a second problem +that puzzles me: the carelessness, nay, more, the stupidity of the Bee +in the presence of the Philanthus. You would be inclined to think that +the victim of persecution, learning gradually from the misfortunes +suffered by her family, would show distress at the ravisher's approach +and at least attempt to escape. In my cages I see nothing of the sort. +Once the first excitement due to incarceration under the bell-glass or +the wire-gauze cover has passed, the Bee seems hardly to trouble about +her formidable neighbour. I see one side by side with the Philanthus on +the same honeyed thistle-head: assassin and future victim are drinking +from the same flask. I see some one who comes heedlessly to enquire who +that stranger can be, crouching in wait on the table. When the spoiler +makes her rush, it is usually at a Bee who meets her half-way, and, so +to speak, flings herself into her clutches, either thoughtlessly or out +of curiosity. There is no wild terror, no sign of anxiety, no tendency +to make off. How comes it that the experience of the ages, that +experience which, we are told, teaches the animal so many things, has +not taught the Bee the first element of apiarian wisdom: a deep-seated +horror of the Philanthus? Can the poor wretch take comfort by relying on +her trusty dagger? But she yields to none in her ignorance of fencing; +she stabs without method, at random. However, let us watch her at the +supreme moment of the killing. + +When the ravisher makes play with her sting, the Bee does the same with +hers and furiously. I see the needle now moving this way or that way +in space, now slipping, violently curved, along the murderess' convex +surface. These sword-thrusts have no serious results. The manner +in which the two combatants are at grips has this effect, that the +Philanthus' abdomen is inside and the Bee's outside. The latter's sting +therefore finds under its point only the dorsal surface of the foe, +a convex, slippery surface and so well armoured as to be almost +invulnerable. There is here no breach into which the weapon can slip +by accident; and so the operation is conducted with absolute surgical +safety, notwithstanding the indignant protests of the patient. + +After the fatal stroke has been administered, the murderess remains for +a long time belly to belly with the dead, for reasons which we shall +shortly perceive. There may now be some danger for the Philanthus. The +attitude of attack and defence is abandoned; and the ventral surface, +more vulnerable than the other, is within reach of the sting. Now the +deceased still retains the reflex use of her weapon for a few minutes, +as I learnt to my cost. Having taken the Bee too early from the +bandit and handling her without suspecting any risk, I received a most +downright sting. Then how does the Philanthus, in her long contact with +the butchered Bee, manage to protect herself against that lancet, which +is bent upon avenging the murder? Is there any chance of a commutation +of the death-penalty? Can an accident ever happen in the Bee's favour? +Perhaps. + +One incident strengthens my faith in this perhaps. I had placed four +Bees and as many Eristales under the bell-glass at the same time, with +the object of estimating the Philanthus' entomological knowledge in the +matter of the distinction of species. Reciprocal quarrels break out +in the mixed colony. Suddenly, in the midst of the fray, the killer is +killed. She tumbles over on her back, she waves her legs; she is dead. +Who struck the blow? It was certainly not the excitable but pacific +Drone-fly; it was one of the Bees, who struck home by accident during +the thick of the fight. Where and how? I cannot tell. The incident +occurs only once in my notes, but it throws a light upon the question. +The Bee is capable of withstanding her adversary; she can then and there +slay her would-be slayer with a thrust of the sting. That she does +not defend herself to better purpose, when she falls into her enemy's +clutches, is due to her ignorance of fencing and not to the weakness +of her weapon. And here again arises, more insistently than before, the +question which I asked above: how is it that the Philanthus has learnt +for offensive what the Bee has not learnt for defensive purposes? I see +but one answer to the difficulty: the one knows without having learnt; +the other does not know because she is incapable of learning. + +Let us now consider the motives that induce the Philanthus to kill her +Bee instead of paralysing her. When the crime has been perpetrated, +she manipulates her dead victim without letting go of it for a +moment, holding its belly pressed against her own six legs. I see +her recklessly, very recklessly, rooting with her mandibles in the +articulation of the neck, sometimes also in the larger articulation of +the corselet, behind the first pair of legs, an articulation of whose +delicate membrane she is perfectly well aware, even though, when using +her sting, she did not take advantage of this point, which is the most +readily accessible of all. I see her rough-handling the Bee's belly, +squeezing it against her own abdomen, crushing it in the press. The +recklessness of the treatment is striking; it shows that there is no +need for keeping up precautions. The Bee is a corpse; and a little +hustling here and there will not deteriorate its quality, provided there +be no effusion of blood. In point of fact, however rough the handling, I +fail to discover the slightest wound. + +These various manipulations, especially the squeezing of the neck, at +once bring about the desired results: the honey in the crop mounts +to the Bee's throat. I see the tiny drops spurt out, lapped up by the +glutton as soon as they appear. The bandit greedily, over and over +again, takes the dead insect's lolling, sugared tongue into her mouth; +then she once more digs into the neck and thorax, subjecting the +honey-bag to the renewed pressure of her abdomen. The syrup comes and is +instantly lapped up and lapped up again. In this way the contents of +the crop are exhausted in small mouthfuls, yielded one at a time. This +odious meal at the expense of a corpse's stomach is taken in a sybaritic +attitude; the Philanthus lies on her side with the Bee between her legs. +The atrocious banquet sometimes lasts for half an hour or longer. At +last the drained Bee is discarded, not without regret, it seems, for +from time to time I see the manipulation renewed. After taking a turn +round the top of the bell-jar, the robber of the dead returns to her +prey and squeezes it, licking its mouth until the last trace of honey +has disappeared. + +This frenzied passion of the Philanthus for the Bee's syrup is declared +in yet another fashion. When the first victim has been sucked dry, I +slip under the glass a second victim, which is promptly stabbed under +the chin and then subjected to pressure to extract the honey. A third +follows and undergoes the same fate without satisfying the bandit. I +offer a fourth and a fifth. They are all accepted. My notes mention one +Philanthus who in front of my eyes sacrificed six Bees in succession and +squeezed out their crops in the regulation manner. The slaughter came to +an end not because the glutton was sated but because my functions as a +purveyor were becoming rather difficult: the dry month of August causes +the insects to avoid my harmas, which at this season is denuded of +flowers. Six crops emptied of their honey: what an orgy! And even then +the ravenous creature would very likely not have scorned a copious +additional course, had I possessed the means of supplying it! + +There is no reason to regret this break in the service; the little that +I have said is more than enough to prove the singular characteristics of +the Bee-slayer. I am far from denying that the Philanthus has an honest +means of earning her livelihood; I find her working on the flowers as +assiduously as the other Wasps, peacefully drawing her honeyed +beakers. The males even, possessing no lancet, know no other manner of +refreshment. The mothers, without neglecting the table d'hote of the +flowers, support themselves by brigandage as well. We are told of the +Skua, that pirate of the seas, that he swoops down upon the fishing +birds, at the moment when they rise from the water with a capture. With +a blow of the beak delivered in the pit of the stomach he makes them +give up their prey, which is caught by the robber in mid-air. The +despoiled bird at least gets off with nothing worse than a contusion +at the base of the throat. The Philanthus, a less scrupulous pirate, +pounces on the Bee, stabs her to death and makes her disgorge in order +to feed upon her honey. + +I say feed and I do not withdraw the word. To support my statement I +have better reasons than those set forth above. In the cages in which +various Hunting Wasps, whose stratagems of war I am engaged in studying, +are waiting till I have procured the desired prey--not always an easy +thing--I have planted a few flower-spikes, a thistle-head or two, on +which are placed drops of honey renewed at need. Here my captives come +to take their meals. With the Philanthus, the provision of honeyed +flowers, though favourably received, is not indispensable. I have only +to let a few live Bees into her cage from time to time. Half a dozen +a day is about the proper allowance. With no other food than the syrup +extracted from the slain, I keep my insects going for a fortnight or +three weeks. + +It is as plain as a pikestaff: outside my cages, when the opportunity +offers, the Philanthus must also kill the Bee on her own account. The +Odynerus asks nothing from the Chrysomela but a mere condiment, the +aromatic juice of the rump; the other extracts from her victim an ample +supplement to her victuals, the crop full of honey. What a hecatomb +of Bees must not a colony of these freebooters make for their personal +consumption, not to mention the stored provisions! I recommend the +Philanthus to the signal vengeance of our Bee-masters. + +Let us go no deeper into the first causes of the crime. Let us accept +things as we know them for the moment, with their apparent or real +atrocity. To feed herself, the Philanthus levies tribute on the Bee's +crop. Having made sure of this, let us consider the bandit's method +more closely. She does not paralyse her capture according to the rites +customary among the Hunting Wasps; she kills it. Why kill it? If the +eyes of our understanding be not closed, the need for sudden death is +clear as daylight. The Philanthus proposes to obtain the honeyed broth +without ripping up the Bee, a proceeding which would damage the game +when it is hunted on behalf of the larvae, without resorting to the +murderous extirpation of the crop. She must, by able handling, by +skilful pressure, make the Bee disgorge, she must milk her, in a manner +of speaking. Suppose the Bee stung behind the corselet and paralysed. +That deprives her of her power of locomotion, but not of her vitality. +The digestive organs in particular retain or very nearly retain their +normal energy, as is proved by the frequent excretions that take place +in the paralysed prey, so long as the intestine is not empty, as is +proved above all by the victims of the Languedocian Sphex (Cf. "The +Hunting Wasp": chapters 8 to 10.--Translator's Note.), those helpless +creatures which I used to keep alive for forty days on end with a soup +consisting of sugar and water. It is absurd to hope, without therapeutic +means, without a special emetic, to coax a sound stomach into emptying +its contents. The stomach of the Bee, who is jealous of her treasure, +would lend itself to the process even less readily than another. When +paralysed, the insect is inert; but there are always internal energies +and organic forces which will not yield to the manipulator's pressure. +The Philanthus will nibble at the throat and squeeze the sides in vain: +the honey will not rise to the mouth so long as a vestige of life keeps +the crop closed. + +Things are different with a corpse. The tension is relaxed, the muscles +become slack, the resistance of the stomach ceases and the bag of honey +is emptied by the robber's vigorous pressure. You see, therefore, that +the Philanthus is expressly obliged to inflict a sudden death, which +will do away at once with the elasticity of the organs. Where is the +lightning stroke to be delivered? The slayer knows better than we do, +when she sticks the Bee under the chin. The cerebral ganglia are reached +through the little hole in the neck and death ensues immediately. + +The relation of these acts of brigandage cannot satisfy my distressing +habit of following each reply obtained with a fresh question, until the +granite wall of the unknowable rises before me. If the Philanthus is +an expert in killing Bees and emptying crops swollen with honey, this +cannot be merely an alimentary resource, especially when, in common with +the others, she has the banqueting-hall of the flowers. I cannot accept +her atrocious talent as inspired merely by the craving for a feast +obtained at the expense of an empty stomach. Something certainly escapes +us: the why and wherefore of that crop drained dry. A creditable motive +may lie hidden behind the horrors which I have related. What is it? + +Any one can understand the vagueness of the observer's mind when he +first asks himself this question. The reader is entitled to be treated +with consideration. I will spare him the recital of my suspicions, my +gropings and my failures and will come straight to the results of my +long investigation. Everything has its harmonious reason for existence. +I am too fully persuaded of this to believe that the Philanthus pursues +her habit of profaning corpses solely to satisfy her greed. What does +the emptied crop portend? May it not be that...? Why, yes.... After all, +who knows?... Let us try along these lines. + +The mother's first care is the welfare of the family. So far, we have +seen the Philanthus hunting only for her stomach's sake; let us watch +her hunting as a mother. Nothing is easier than to distinguish the two +performances. When the Wasp wants a few good mouthfuls and nothing more, +she scornfully abandons the Bee after picking her crop. The Bee is +to her a worthless remnant, which will shrivel where it lies and be +dissected by the Ants. If, on the other hand, she wants to stow away +the Bee as a provision for her larvae, she clasps her in her two +intermediate legs and, walking on the other four, goes round and round +the edge of the bell-glass, seeking for an outlet through which to fly +off with her prey. When she recognizes the circular track as impossible, +she climbs up the sides, this time holding the Bee by the antennae with +her mandibles and clinging to the polished and perpendicular surface +with her six feet. She reaches the top of the glass, stays for a little +while in the hollow of the knob at the top, returns to the ground, +resumes her circling and her climbing and does not decide to relinquish +her Bee until she has stubbornly attempted every means of escape. This +persistence on her part to retain her hold on the cumbrous burden tells +us pretty plainly that the game would go straight to the cells if the +Philanthus had her liberty. + +Well, these Bees intended for the larvae are stung under the chin like +the others; they are real corpses; they are manipulated, squeezed, +drained of their honey exactly as the others are. In all these respects, +there is no difference between the hunt conducted to provide food +for the larvae and the hunt conducted merely to gratify the mother's +appetite. + +As the worries of captivity might well be the cause of a few anomalies +in the insect's actions, I felt that I ought to enquire how things +happen in the open. I lay in wait near some colonies of Philanthi, +for longer perhaps than the question deserved, as it had already been +settled by what had happened under glass. My tedious watches were +rewarded from time to time. Most of the huntresses returned home +immediately, with the Bee under their abdomen; some halted on the +brambles hard by; and here I saw them squeezing the dead Bee and making +her disgorge the honey, which was greedily lapped up. After these +preliminaries the corpse was stored. Every doubt is therefore removed: +the provisions of the larva are first carefully drained of their honey. + +Since we are on the spot, let us prolong our stay and enquire into the +customs of the Philanthus in a state of liberty. Serving dead prey, +which goes bad in a few days, the Bee-huntress cannot adopt the method +of certain insects which paralyse a number of separate heads of game and +fill the cell with provisions, completing the ration before laying +the egg. She needs the method of the Bembex, whose larva receives +the necessary nourishment at intervals, as it grows larger. The facts +confirm this deduction. Just now I described as tedious my watches near +the colonies of the Philanthi. They were tedious in fact, even more so +perhaps than those which the Bembeces used to inflict upon me in the old +days. Outside the burrows of the Great Cerceris and other Weevil-lovers, +outside those of the Yellow-winged Sphex, the Cricket-slayer, there is +plenty of distraction, thanks to the bustling movement of the hamlet. +The mother has hardly come back home before she goes out again, soon +returning laden with a new prey and once more setting out upon the +chase. The going and coming is repeated at close intervals until the +warehouse is full. + +The burrow of the Philanthus is far from showing any such animation, +even in a populous colony. In vain were my watches prolonged for whole +mornings or afternoons; it was but very rarely that the mother whom I +had seen go in with a Bee came out again for a second expedition. Two +captures at most by the same huntress was all that I was able to +see during my long vigils. Feeding from day to day involves this +deliberation. Once the family is supplied with a sufficient ration for +the moment, the mother suspends her hunting-trips until further need +arises and occupies herself with mining-work in her underground house. +Cells are dug; I see the rubbish gradually pushed up to the surface. +Beyond this there is not a sign of activity; it is as though the burrow +were deserted. + +The inspection of the site is no easy matter. The shaft descends to +a depth of nearly three feet in a compact soil, either vertically or +horizontally. The spade and pick, wielded by stronger but less expert +hands than mine, are indispensable, for which reason the process of +excavation is far from satisfying me fully. At the end of this long +tunnel, which the straw which I use for sounding despairs of ever +reaching, the cells are at last encountered, oval cavities with a +horizontal major axis. Their number and general arrangement escape me. + +Some of them already contain the cocoon, which is slender and +semitransparent, like those of the Cerceris, and, like them, suggests +the shape of certain homoeopathic phials, with oval bellies surmounted +by a tapering neck. The cocoon is fastened to the end of the cell by +the tip of this neck, which is darkened and hardened by the larva's +excrement; it has no other support. It looks like a short club fixed by +the end of the handle along the horizontal axis of the nest. Other cells +contain the larva in a more or less advanced stage. The grub is munching +the last morsel served to it, with the scraps of the victuals already +consumed lying around it. Others lastly show me a Bee, one only, still +untouched and bearing an egg laid on her breast. This is the first +partial ration; the others will come as and when the grub grows larger. +My anticipations are thus confirmed: following the example of the +Bembeces, the Fly-killers, the Philanthus, the Bee-killer, lays her egg +on the first piece warehoused and at intervals adds to her nurselings' +repast. + +The problem of the dead game is solved. There remains this other +problem, one of incomparable interest: why are the Bees robbed of their +honey before being served to the larvae? I have said and I say again +that the killing and squeezing cannot be explained and excused simply by +reference to the Philanthus' love of gormandizing. Robbing the worker +of her booty is nothing out of the way: we see it daily; but cutting her +throat in order to empty her stomach is going beyond a joke. And, as +the Bees packed away in the cellar are squeezed dry just as much as the +others, the thought occurs to my mind that a rumpsteak with jam is not +to everybody's liking and that the game stuffed with honey might well be +a distasteful or even unwholesome dish for the Philanthus' larvae. What +will the grub do when, sated with blood and meat, it finds the Bee's +honey-bag under its mandibles and especially when, nibbling at random, +it rips open the crop and spoils its venison with syrup? Will it thrive +on the mixture? Will the little ogre pass without repugnance from the +gamy flavour of a carcase to the scent of flowers? A blunt statement or +denial would serve no purpose. We must see. Let us see. + +I rear some young Philanthus-grubs, already waxing large; but, instead +of supplying them with the prey taken from the burrows, I give them game +of my own catching, game replete with nectar from the rosemaries. My +Bees, whom I kill by crushing their heads, are readily accepted; and +I at first see nothing that corresponds with my suspicions. Then my +nurselings languish, disdain their food, give a careless bite here and +there and end by perishing, from the first to the last, beside their +unfinished victuals. All my attempts miscarry: I do not once succeed in +rearing my larvae to the stage of spinning the cocoon. And yet I am no +novice in the functions of a foster-father. How many pupils have not +passed through my hands and reached maturity in my old sardine-boxes as +comfortably as in their natural burrows! + +I will not draw rash conclusions from this check; I am conscientious +enough to ascribe it to another cause. It may be that the atmosphere +of my study and the dryness of the sand serving as a bed have had a +bad effect on my charges, whose tender skins are accustomed to the warm +moisture of the subsoil. Let us therefore try another expedient. + +It is hardly feasible to decide positively by the methods which I have +been following whether the honey is or is not repugnant to the grubs of +the Philanthus. The first mouthfuls consist of meat; and then nothing +particular occurs: it is the natural diet. The honey is met with later, +when the morsel has been largely bitten into. If hesitation and lack of +appetite are displayed at this stage, they come too late in the day +to be conclusive: the larva's discomfort may be due to other, known or +unknown, causes. The thing to do would be to offer the grub honey from +the first, before artificial rearing has affected its appetite. It is +useless, of course, to make the attempt with pure honey: no carnivorous +creature would touch it, though it were starving. The jam-sandwich is +the only device favourable to my plans, a meagre jam-sandwich, that is +to say, the dead Bee lightly smeared or varnished with honey by means of +a camel's-hair pencil. + +Under these conditions, the problem is solved with the first few +mouthfuls. The grub that has bitten into the honeyed prey draws back in +disgust, hesitates a long time and then, urged by hunger, begins again, +tries this side and that and ends by refusing to touch the dish. For a +few days it pines away on top of its almost intact provisions; then it +dies. All that are subjected to this regimen succumb. Do they merely +perish of inanition in the presence of an unaccustomed food, which +revolts their appetite, or are they poisoned by the small quantity of +honey absorbed with the early mouthfuls? I cannot tell. The fact remains +that, whether poisonous or repugnant, the Bee in the state of bread and +jam is death to them; and this result explains, more clearly than the +unfavourable circumstance of my former experiment, my failures with the +Bee that had not been made to disgorge. + +This refusal to touch the unwholesome or distasteful honey is connected +with principles of nutrition which are too general to constitute a +gastronomic peculiarity of the Philanthus. The other carnivorous larvae, +at least in the order of the Hymenoptera, are bound to share it. Let us +try. We will go to work as before. I unearth the larvae when they have +attained a medium size, to avoid the weakness of infancy; I take away +the natural provisions, smear the carcases separately with honey and, +when this is done, restore its victuals to each of the grubs. I had to +make a choice: not every subject was equally suited to my experiments. I +must reject the larvae which are fed on one fat joint, such as those +of the Scolia. The grub in fact attacks its prey at a determined point, +dips its head and neck into the insect's body, rooting skilfully in the +entrails to keep the game fresh until the end of the meal, and does +not withdraw from the breach until the whole skin is emptied of its +contents. + +To make it let go with the object of coating the inside of the venison +with honey had two drawbacks: I should be compromising the lingering +vitality which saves the insect that is being devoured from going bad +and, at the same time, I should be disturbing the delicate art of the +devouring insect, which, if removed from the lode which it was working, +would no longer be able to recover it or to distinguish between the +lawful and the unlawful morsels. The larva of the Scolia, consuming its +Cetonia-grub, has taught us all that we want to know on this subject in +my earlier volume. (Chapters 2 to 5 of the present volume contain the +whole of the matter referred to above.--Translator's Note.) The only +acceptable larvae are those supplied with a heap of small insects, which +are attacked without any special art, dismembered at random and eaten up +quickly. Among these I have tested such as chance threw in my way: those +of various Bembeces, all fed on Flies, those of the Palarus, whose bill +of fare consists of a very large assortment of Hymenoptera; those of the +Tarsal Tachytes, supplied with young Locusts; those of the Nest-building +Odynerus, furnished with Chrysomela-grubs; those of the Sand Cerceris, +endowed with a pinch of Weevils. A goodly variety, as you see, of +consumers and consumed. Well, to all of these the seasoning with honey +proved fatal. Whether poisoned or disgusted, they all died in a few +days. + +A strange result indeed! Honey, the nectar of the flowers, the sole diet +of the Bee-tribe in both its forms and the sole resource of the Wasp +in her a adult form, is to the larvae of the latter an object +of insurmountable repugnance and probably a toxic dish. Even the +transformation of the nymphosis surprises me less than this inversion +of the appetite. What happens in the insect's stomach to make the adult +seek passionately what the youngster refused lest it should die? This is +not a question of organic debility unable to endure a too substantial, +too hard, too highly spiced dish. The grub that gnaws the Cetonia-larva, +that generous piece of butcher's meat; the glutton that crunches its +batch of tough Locusts; the one that battens on nitrobenzine-flavoured +game: they certainly own unfastidious gullets and accommodating +stomachs. And these robust eaters allow themselves to die of hunger +or digestive troubles because of a drop of syrup, the lightest food +imaginable, suited to the weakness of extreme youth and a feast for the +adult besides! What a gulf of obscurity in the stomach of a wretched +grub! + +These gastronomical researches called for a counterexperiment. The +carnivorous larva is killed by honey. Conversely, is the mellivorous +larva killed by animal food? Reservations are needful here, as in the +previous tests. We should be courting a flat refusal if we offered +a pinch of Locusts to the larvae of the Anthophora or the Osmia, for +instance. (For both these Wild Bees cf. "Bramble-bees and Others": +passim.--Translator's Note.) The honey-fed insect would not bite +into it. There would be no use whatever in trying. We must find the +equivalent of the jam-sandwich aforesaid; in other words, we must give +the larva its natural fare with a mixture of animal food. The addition +made by my artifices shall be albumen, as found in the egg of the Hen, +albumen the isomer of fibrin, which is the essential factor in any form +of prey. + +On the other hand, the Three-horned Osmia lends herself most admirably +to my plans, because of her dry honey, consisting for the greater part +of floury pollen. I therefore knead this honey with albumen, graduating +the dose until its weight largely exceeds that of the flour. In this way +I obtain pastes of different degrees of consistency, but all firm enough +to bear the larva without danger of immersion. With too fluid a +mixture there would be a risk of death by drowning. Lastly I install a +moderately-developed larva on each of my albuminous cakes. + +The dish of my inventing does not incite dislike: far from it. The grubs +attack it without hesitation and consume it with every appearance of +the usual appetite. Things could not go better if the food had not been +altered by my culinary recipes. Everything goes down, including the +morsels in which I feared that I had overdone the addition of albumen. +And--an even more important point--the Osmia-larvae fed in this manner +attain their normal dimensions and spin their cocoons, from which adult +insects issue in the following year. Notwithstanding the albuminous +regimen, the cycle of the evolution is achieved without impediment. + +What are we to conclude from all this? I feel greatly embarrassed. Omne +vivum ex ovo, the physiologists tell us. Every animal is carnivorous, in +its first beginnings: it is formed and nourished at the cost of its egg, +in which albumen predominates. The highest, the mammal, adheres to this +diet for a long time: it has its mother's milk, rich in casein, another +isomer of albumen. The gramnivorous nestling is first fed on grubs, +which are better adapted to the niceties of its stomach; many of the +minutest new-born creatures, being at once left to their own devices, +take to animal food. In this way the original method of nourishment is +continued for all alike: the method which allows flesh to be made from +flesh and blood from blood, with no chemical process beyond the simplest +modification. At maturity, when the stomach has acquired its full +strength, vegetable food is adopted, involving a more complicated +chemistry but easier to obtain. Milk is followed by fodder, worms by +seeds, the prey in the burrow by the nectar of the flowers. + +This supplies a partial explanation of the twofold diet of the +Hymenoptera with carnivorous larvae: meat first, honey next. But then +the note of interrogation is shifted. It stood elsewhere; it now stands +here. Why is the Osmia, who as a larva fares so well on albumen, fed on +honey at the start? Why do the Bee-tribe receive a vegetable diet when +the other members of the order receive an animal diet? + +If I were a believer in evolution, I should say yes, by the fact of its +germ, every animal is originally carnivorous. The insect in particular +starts with albuminoid materials. Many larvae adhere to the egg-food, +many adult insects do likewise. But the struggle to fill the belly, +which after all is the struggle for life, demands something better than +the precarious hazards of the chase. Man, at first a ravenous hunter +after game, brought the flock into existence and turned shepherd to +avoid a time of dearth. An even greater progress inspired him to scrape +the earth and to sow seed, which assures him of a living. The evolution +from scarcity to moderation and from moderation to plenty has led to the +resources of husbandry. + +The animals forestalled us this path of progress. The ancestors of the +Philanthus, in the remote ages of the lacustrian tertiary formations, +lived by prey in both the larval and the adult forms: they hunted for +themselves as well as for the family. They did not confine themselves +to emptying the Bee's crop, as their descendants do to this day: they +devoured the deceased. From the beginning to the end they remained +flesh-eaters. Later, fortunate innovators, whose race supplanted the +laggards, discovered an inexhaustible nourishment, obtained without +dangerous conflicts or laborious search: the sugary secretions of the +flowers. The costly habit of living on prey, which does not favour large +populations, was maintained for the feeble larvae; but the vigorous +adult broke herself of it to lead an easier and more prosperous life. +Thus, gradually, was formed the Philanthus of our day; thus was acquired +the twofold diet of the various predatory insects our contemporaries. + +The Bee has done better still: from the moment of leaving the egg she +delivered herself completely from food-stuffs the acquisition of which +depended on chance. She discovered honey, the grubs' food. Renouncing +the chase for ever and becoming an agriculturalist pure and simple, +the insect attains a degree of physical and moral prosperity which the +predatory species are far from sharing. Hence the flourishing colonies +of the Anthophorae, the Osmiae, the Eucerae (A genus of long-horned +Burrowing Bees.--Translator's Note.), the Halicti and other +honey-manufacturers, whereas the predatory insects work in isolation; +hence the societies in which the Bee displays her wonderful tendencies, +the supreme expression of instinct. + +This is what I should say if I belonged to that school. It all forms a +chain of very logical deductions and proffers itself with a certain air +of likelihood which we should be glad to find in a host of evolutionist +arguments put forward as irrefutable. Well, I will make a present of my +deductive views, without regret, to whoever cares to have them: I don't +believe one word of them; and I confess my profound ignorance of the +origin of the twofold diet. + +What I do understand more clearly, after all these investigations, is +the tactics of the Philanthus. When witnessing her ferocious feasting, +the real reason of which was unknown to me, I heaped the most +ill-sounding epithets upon her, calling her a murderess, a bandit, a +pirate, a robber of the dead. Ignorance is always evil-tongued; the +man who does not know indulges in rude assertions and mischievous +interpretations. Now that my eyes have been opened to the facts, I +hasten to apologize and to restore the Philanthus to her place in my +esteem. In draining the crops of her Bees the mother is performing the +most praiseworthy of all actions: she is protecting her family against +poison. If she happens to kill on her own account and to abandon the +corpse after making it disgorge, I dare not reckon this against her as a +crime. When the habit has been formed of emptying the Bee's crop with +a good motive, there is a great temptation to do it again with no other +excuse than hunger. Besides, who knows? Perhaps there is always at the +back of her hunting some thought of game which might be useful for the +larvae. Although not carried into effect, the intention excuses the +deed. + +I therefore withdraw my epithets in order to admire the insect's +maternal logic and to hold it up to the admiration of others. The honey +would be pernicious to the health of the larvae. How does the mother +know that the syrup, a treat for her, is unwholesome for her young? +To this question our science offers no reply. The honey, I say, would +imperil the grubs' lives, The Bee must therefore first be made to +disgorge. The disgorging must be effected without lacerating the victim, +which the nurseling must receive in the fresh state; and the operation +is impracticable on a paralysed insect because of the resistance of +the stomach. The Bee must therefore be killed outright instead of being +paralysed, or the honey will not be voided. Instantaneous death can be +inflicted only by wounding the primordial centre of life. The sting must +therefore aim at the cervical ganglia, the seat of innervation on which +the rest of the organism depends. To reach them there is only one way, +through the little gap in the throat. It is here therefore that the +sting must be inserted; and it is here in fact that it is inserted, in +a spot hardly as large as the twenty-fifth of an inch square. Suppress +a single link of this compact chain, and the Bee-fed Philanthus becomes +impossible. + +That honey is fatal to carnivorous larvae is a fact which teems with +consequences. Several Hunting Wasps feed their families upon Bees. These +include, to my knowledge, the Crowned Philanthus (P. coronatus, FAB.), +who lines her burrows with big Halicti; the Robber Philanthus (P. +raptor, LEP.), who chases all the smaller-sized Halicti, suited to her +own dimensions, indifferently; the Ornate Cerceris (C. ornata, FAB.), +another passionate lover of Halicti; and the Palarus (P. flavipes, +FAB.), who, with a curious eclecticism, stacks in her cells the greater +part of the Hymenopteron clan that does not exceed her powers. What do +these four huntresses and the others of similar habits do with their +victims whose crops are more or less swollen with honey? They must +follow the example of the Bee-eating Philanthus and make them disgorge, +lest their family perish of a honeyed diet; they must manipulate the +dead Bee, squeeze her and drain her dry. Everything goes to show it. I +leave it to the future to display these dazzling proofs of my doctrine +in their proper light. + + + +CHAPTER 11. THE METHOD OF THE AMMOPHILAE. + +(For these Sand-wasps, cf. "The Hunting Wasps": chapters 13 and 18 to +20.--Translator's Note.) + +My readers may differ in appraising the comparative value of the +trifling discoveries which entomology owes to my labours. The geologist, +the recorder of forms, will prefer the hypermetamorphosis of the +Oil-beetles (The chapter treating of this subject has not yet been +translated into English and will appear in a later volume.--Translator's +Note.), the development of the Anthrax (Cf. "The Life of the Fly": +chapter 2.--Translator's Note.) or larval dimorphism; the embryogenist, +searching into the mysteries of the egg, will have some esteem for my +enquiries into the egg-laying habits of the Osmia (Cf. "Bramble-bees and +Others": chapter 4.--Translator's Note.); the philosopher, racking his +brain over the nature of instinct, will award the palm to the operations +of the Hunting Wasps. I agree with the philosopher. Without hesitation, +I would abandon all the rest of my entomological baggage for this +discovery, which happens to be the earliest in date and that of which +I have the fondest memories. Nowhere do I find a more brilliant, more +lucid, more eloquent proof of the intuitive wisdom of instinct; nowhere +does the theory of evolution suffer a more obstinate check. + +Darwin, a true judge, made no mistake about it. (Charles Robert Darwin, +born the 12th of February, 1809, at Shrewsbury, died at Down, in Kent, +on the 19th of April, 1882. For an account of certain experiments +which the author conducted on his behalf, cf. "The Mason-bees": chapter +4.--Translator's Note.) He greatly dreaded the problem of the instincts. +My first results in particular left him very anxious. If he had known +the tactics of the Hairy Ammophila, the Mantis-hunting Tachytes, the +Bee-eating Philanthus, the Calicurgi and other marauders, his anxiety, +I believe, would have ended in a frank admission that he was unable to +squeeze instinct into the mould of his formula. Alas, the philosopher of +Down quitted this world when the discussion, with experiments to support +it, had barely begun: a method superior to any argument! The little +that I had published at that time left him with still some hope of an +explanation. In his eyes, instinct was always an acquired habit. The +predatory Wasps killed their prey at first by stabbing it at random, +here and there, in the softest parts. By degrees they found the spot +where the sting was most effectual; and the habit once formed became a +true instinct. Transitions from one method of operation to the other, +intermediary changes, sufficed to bolster up these sweeping assertions. +In a letter of the 16th of April, 1881, he asks G.J. Romanes to consider +the problem: + +"I do not know," he says "whether you will discuss in your book on the +mind of animals any of the more complex and wonderful instincts. It is +unsatisfactory work, as there can be no fossilised instincts, and the +sole guide is their state in other members of the same order, and mere +PROBABILITY. + +"But if you do discuss any (and it will perhaps be expected of you), I +should think that you could not select a better case than that of +the sand-wasps which paralyse their prey as described by Fabre in his +wonderful paper in the 'Anales des sciences naturelles,' and since +amplified in his admirable 'Souvenirs...'" + +I thank you, O illustrious master, for your eulogistic expressions, +proving the keen interest which you took in my studies of instinct, no +ungrateful task--far from it--when we tackle it as it should be tackled: +from the front, with the aid of facts, and not from the flank, with +the aid of arguments. Arguments are here out of place, if we wish to +maintain our position in the light. Besides, where would they lead us? +To evoking the instincts of bygone ages, which have not been preserved +by fossilization? Any such appeal to the dim and distant past is quite +unnecessary, if we wish for variations of instinct, leading by degrees, +according to you, from one instinct to another; the present world offers +us plenty. + +Each operator has her particular method, her particular kind of game, +her particular points of attack and tricks of fence; but in the midst +of this variety of talents we observe, immutable and predominant, the +perfect accordance of the surgery with the victim's organization and the +larva's needs. The art of one will not explain the art of another, +no less exact in the delicacy of its rules. Each operator has her own +tactics, which tolerate no apprenticeship. The Ammophila, the Scolia, +the Philanthus and the others all tell us the same thing: none can +leave descendants if she be not from the outset the skilful paralyser or +slayer that she is to-day. The "almost" is impracticable when the future +of the race is at stake. What would have become of the first-born mammal +but for its perfect instinct of suckling? + +And then, to suppose the impossible: a Wasp discovers by chance the +operative method which will be the saving attribute of her race. How are +we to admit that this fortuitous act, to which the mother has vouchsafed +no more attention than to her other less fortunate attempts, could leave +a profound trace behind it and be faithfully transmitted by heredity? Is +it not going beyond reason, going beyond the little that is known to +us as certain, if we grant to atavism this strange power, of which our +present world knows no instance? There is a good deal to be said for +this point of view, my revered master! But, once more, arguments are +here out of place; there is room only for facts, of which I will resume +the recital. + +Hitherto I had but one means of studying the operative methods of the +spoilers: to surprise the Wasp in possession of her capture, to rob her +of her prey and immediately to give her in exchange a similar prey, but +a living one. This method of substitution is an excellent expedient. Its +only defect--a very grave one--is that it subjects observation to +very uncertain chances. There is little prospect of meeting the insect +dragging its victim along; and, in the second place, should good fortune +suddenly smile upon you, preoccupied as you are with other matters +you have not the substitute at hand. If we provide ourselves with the +necessary head of game in advance, the huntress is not there. We +avoid one reef to founder on another. Moreover, these unlooked for +observations, made sometimes on the public highway, the worst of +laboratories, are only half-satisfactory. In the case of swiftly-enacted +scenes, which it is not in our power to renew again and again until +perfect conviction is reached, we always fear lest we may not have seen +accurately, may not have seen everything. + +A method which could be controlled at will would offer the best +guarantees, above all if employed at home, under comfortable conditions, +favourable to precision. I wished, therefore, to see my insects at work +on the actual table at which I am writing their history. Here very few +of their secrets would escape me. This wish of mine was an old one. As +a beginner, I made some experiments under glass with the Great Cerceris +(C. tuberculata) and the Yellow-winged Sphex. Neither of them responded +to my desires. The refusal of each to attack respectively her Cleonus or +her Cricket discouraged further progress in this direction. I was wrong +to abandon my attempts so soon. Now, very long afterwards, the idea +occurs to me to place under glass the Bee-eating Philanthus, whom I +sometimes surprise in the open engaged in forcing a bee to disgorge her +honey. The captive massacres her bees in such a spirited fashion that +the old hope revives stronger than ever. I contemplate reviewing all the +wielders of the stiletto and forcing each to reveal her tactics. + +I was obliged to abate these ambitions considerably. I had some +successes and many more failures. I will tell you of the former. My +insect-cage is a spacious dome of wire-gauze resting on a bed of sand. +Here I keep in reserve the captives of my hunting-expeditions. I feed +them on honey, placed in little drops on spikes of lavender, on heads +of thistle, or field eryngo, or globe-thistle, according to the season. +Most of my prisoners do well on this diet and seem scarcely affected by +their internment; others pine away and die in two or three days. +These victims of despair nearly always throw me back, because of the +difficulty of obtaining the necessary prey at short notice. + +Indeed it entails no small trouble to secure in the nick of time the +game demanded by the huntress who has recently fallen a captive to my +net. As assistant-purveyors I have a few small schoolboys, who, released +from the tedium of their declensions and conjugations, set out, on +leaving the classroom, to inspect the greenswards and beat the bushes +in the neighbourhood on my behalf. The gros sou, the penny-piece, if you +please, stimulates their zeal; but with misadventurous results! What I +need to-day is Crickets. The band sallies forth and returns with not a +single Cricket, but numbers of Ephippigers, for which I asked the day +before yesterday and which I no longer need, my Languedocian Sphex +being dead. General surprise at this sudden change of market. My young +scatterbrains find it hard to understand that the beast which was so +precious two days ago is now of no value whatever. When, owing to the +chances of my net, a renewed demand for the Ephippiger sets in, then +they will bring me the Cricket, the despised Cricket. + +Such a trade could never hold out if now and again my speculators were +not encouraged by some success. At the moment when urgent necessity is +sending up prices, one of them brings me a magnificent Gad-fly intended +for the Bembex. For two hours, when the sun was at its height, he kept +watch on the threshing-floor hard by, waiting for the blood-sucker, in +order to catch him on the buttocks of the Mules which trot round and +round trampling the corn. This gallant fellow shall have his gros sou +and a slice of bread and jam as well. A second, no less fortunate, has +found a fat Spider, the Epeira, for whom my Pompili are waiting. To the +two sous of this fortunate youth I add a little picture for his missal. +Thus are my purveyors kept going; and, after all, their help would be +very inadequate if I did not take upon myself the main burden of these +wearisome quests. + +Once in possession of the requisite prey, I transfer the huntress from +my warehouse, the wire-gauze cage, to a bell-glass varying in capacity +from one to three or four litres (1 3/4 to 5 or 7 pints.--Translator's +Note.), according to the size and habits of the combatants; I place the +victim in the arena; I expose the bell-glass to the direct rays of +the sun, without which condition the executioner as a rule declines to +operate; I arm myself with patience and await events. + +We will begin with the Hairy Ammophila, my neighbour. Year after year, +when April comes, I see her in considerable numbers, very busy on the +paths in my enclosure. Until June I see her digging her burrows and +searching for the Grey Worm, to be placed in the meat-cellar. Her +tactics are the most complex that I know and more than any other +deserves to be thoroughly studied. To capture the cunning vivisector, to +release her and catch her again I find an easy matter for the best part +of a month; she works outside my door. + +I have still to obtain the Grey Worm. This means a repetition of the +disappointments which I had before, when, to find a caterpillar, I was +obliged to watch the Ammophila while hunting and to be guided by her +hints, as the truffle-hunter is guided by the scent of his Dog. A +patient exploration of the harmas, one tuft of thyme after another, does +not give me a single worm. My rivals in this search are finding their +game at every moment; I cannot find it even once. Yet one more reason +for bowing to the superiority of the insect in the management of her +affairs. My band of schoolboys get to work in the surrounding fields. +Nothing, always nothing! I in my turn explore the outer world; and for +ten days the pursuit of a caterpillar torments me till I lose my power +of sleep. Then, at last, victory! At the foot of a sunny wall, under the +budding rosettes of the panicled centaury, I find a fair supply of the +precious Grey Worm or its equivalent. + +Behold the worm and the Ammophila face to face beneath the bell-glass. +Usually the attack is prompt enough. The caterpillar is grabbed by the +neck with the mandibles, wide, curved pincers capable of embracing the +greater part of the living cylinder. The creature thus seized twists +and turns and sometimes, with a blow of its tail, sends the assailant +rolling to a distance. The latter is unconcerned and thrusts her sting +thrice in rapid succession into the thorax, beginning with the third +segment and ending with the first, where the weapon is driven home with +greater determination than elsewhere. + +The caterpillar is then released. The Ammophila stamps on the ground; +with her quivering tarsi she taps the cardboard on which the bell-glass +stands; she lies down flat, drags herself along, gets up again, flattens +herself once more. The wings jerk convulsively. From time to time the +insect places its mandibles and forehead on the ground, then rears high +upon its hind-legs as though to turn head over heels. In all this I +see a manifestation of delight. We rub our hands when rejoicing at a +success; the Ammophila is celebrating her triumph over the monster in +her own fashion. During this fit of delirious joy, what is the wounded +caterpillar doing? It can no longer walk; but all the part behind the +thorax struggles violently, curling and uncurling when the Ammophila +sets a foot upon it. The mandibles open and shut menacingly. + +SECOND ACT.--When the operation is resumed, the caterpillar is seized +by the back. From front to rear, in order, all the segments are stung on +the ventral surface, except the three operated on. All serious danger is +averted by the stabs of the first act; therefore, the Wasp is now able +to work upon her patient without the haste displayed at the outset. +Deliberately and methodically she drives in her lancet, withdraws it, +selects the spot, stabs it and begins again, passing from segment to +segment, taking care, each time, to lay hold of the back a little more +to the rear, in order to bring the segment to be paralysed within reach +of the needle. For the second time, the caterpillar is released. It +is absolutely inert, except the mandibles, which are still capable of +biting. + +THIRD ACT.--The Ammophila clasps the paralysed victim between her legs; +with the hooks of her mandibles she seizes the back of its neck, at the +base of the first thoracic segment. For nearly ten minutes she munches +this weak spot, which lies close to the cerebral nerve-centres. The +pincers squeeze suddenly but at intervals and methodically, as though +the manipulator wished each time to judge of the effect produced; the +squeezes are repeated until I am tired of trying to count them. When +they cease, the caterpillar's mandibles are motionless. Then comes the +transportation of the carcase, a detail which is not relevant in this +place. + +I have set forth the complete tragedy, as it is fairly often enacted, +but not always. The insect is not a machine, unvarying in the effect +of its mechanism; it is allowed a certain latitude, enabling it to +cope with the eventualities of the moment. Any one expecting to see +the incidents of the struggle unfolding themselves exactly as I have +described will risk disappointment. Special instances occur--they are +even numerous--which are more or less at variance with the general rule. +It will be well to mention the more important, in order to put future +observers on their guard. + +Not infrequently the first act, that of paralysing the thorax, is +restricted to two thrusts of the sting instead of three, or even to one, +which is then delivered in the foremost segment. This, it would seem, +from the persistency with which the Ammophila inflicts it, is the most +important prick of all. Is it unreasonable to suppose that the operator, +when she begins by pricking the thorax, intends to subdue her capture +and to make it incapable of injuring her, or even of disturbing her when +the moment comes for the delicate and protracted surgery of the second +act? This idea seems to me highly admissible; and then, instead of three +dagger-thrusts, why not two only, why not merely one, if this would +suffice for the time being? The amount of vigour displayed by the +caterpillar must be taken into consideration. Be this as it may, the +segments spared in the first act are stabbed in the second. I have +sometimes even seen the three thoracic segments stung twice over: at +the beginning of the attack and again when the Wasp returned to her +vanquished prey. + +The Ammophila's triumphant transports beside her wounded and writhing +victim are also subject to exceptions. Sometimes, without releasing +its prey for a moment, the insect proceeds from the thorax to the next +segments and completes its operation in a single spell. The joyous +entr'acte does not take place; the convulsive movements of the wings and +the acrobatic postures are suppressed. + +The rule is paralysis of all the segments, however many, in regular +order from front to back, including even the anal segment if this boast +of legs. By a fairly frequent exception the last two or three segments +are spared. Another exception, but a very rare one, of which I have +observed only a single instance, consists in the inversion of the +dagger-thrusts of the second act, the thrusts being delivered from back +to front. The caterpillar is then seized by its hinder extremity; and +the Ammophila, progressing towards the head, stings in reverse order, +passing from the succeeding to the preceding segment, including the +thorax already stabbed. This reversal of the usual tactics I am inclined +to attribute to negligence on the insect's part. Negligence or not, +the inverted method has the same final result as the direct method: the +paralysis of all the segments. + +Lastly, the compression of the neck by the mandibulary pincers, the +munching of the weak spot between the base of the skull and the first +segment of the thorax, is sometimes practised and sometimes neglected. +If the caterpillar's jaws open and threaten, the Ammophila stills them +by biting the neck; if they are already growing quiescent, she refrains. +Without being indispensable, this operation is useful at the moment of +carting the prey. The caterpillar, too heavy to be carried on the wing, +is dragged, head first, between the Ammophila's legs. If the mandibles +are working, the least clumsiness may render them dangerous to the +carrier, who is exposed to their bite without any means of defence. + +Moreover, once on the way, thickets of grass are traversed in which +the Grey Worm can seize a blade and offer a desperate resistance to +the traction. Nor is this all. The Ammophila does not as a rule trouble +about her burrow, or at least does not complete it, until she has +caught her caterpillar. During the mining-operations, the game is laid +somewhere high up, out of reach of the Ants, on some tuft of grass, or +the twigs of a shrub, whither the huntress, from time to time, stopping +her well-sinking, hastens to see if her quarry is still there. For her +this is a means of refreshing her memory of the spot where she has laid +it, often at some distance from the burrow, and of preventing attempts +at robbery. When the moment comes for removing the game from its +hiding-place, the difficulty would be insurmountable were the worm, +gripping the shrub with all the might of its jaws, to anchor itself +there. Hence inertia of the powerful hooks, which are the paralysed +creature's sole means of resistance, becomes essential during the +carting. The Ammophila obtains it by compressing the cerebral ganglia, +by munching the neck. The inertia is temporary; it wears off sooner +or later; but by this time the carcase is in the cell and the egg, +prudently laid at a distance on the ventral surface of the worm, has +nothing to fear from the caterpillar's grapnels. No comparison is +permissible between the methodical squeezes of the Ammophila benumbing +the cephalic nerve-centres and the brutal manipulations of the +Philanthus emptying the crop of her Bee. The huntress of Grey Worms +induces a temporary torpor of the mandibles; the ravisher of Bees makes +them eject their honey. No one gifted with the least perspicacity will +confound the two operations. + +For the moment we will not dwell any longer on the method of the +Hairy Ammophila; we will see instead how her kinswomen behave. After +protracted refusals the Sandy Ammophila (A. sabulosa, FAB.),on whom +I experimented in September, ended by accepting the proffered prey, a +powerful caterpillar as thick as a lead-pencil. The surgical method did +not differ from that employed by the Hairy Ammophila when operating on +her Grey Worm in one spell. All the segments, excepting the last three, +were stung from front to back, beginning with the prothorax. This single +success with a simplified method left me in ignorance of the accessory +manoeuvres, which I do not doubt must more or less closely recall those +of the preceding species. + +I am all the more inclined to accept these secondary manoeuvres, not +as yet recorded--the transports of triumph and the compressions of the +neck--inasmuch as I see them practised upon the Looper caterpillars, +which differ so greatly from the others in external structure, exactly +as I have described them in the case of the Grey Worm, which is of the +ordinary form. Two species, the Silky Ammophila (A. holoserica, +FAB.) and Jules' Ammophila (See in the first volume of the "Souvenirs +entomologiques" what I mean by this denomination.--Author's Note.), +affect this curious prey, which moves with the stride of a pair of +compasses. The first, often renewed under glass during the greater part +of August, has always refused my offers; the second, her contemporary, +has, on the contrary, promptly accepted them. + +I present Jules' Ammophila with a slender, brownish Looper which I +caught on the jasmine. The attack is not slow in coming. The caterpillar +is grabbed by the neck: lively contortions of the victim, which rolls +the aggressor over and drags her along, now uppermost, now undermost in +the struggle. First the thorax is stung, in its three rings, from +back to front. The sting lingers longest near the throat, in the first +segment. This done, the Ammophila releases her victim and proceeds +to stamp her tarsi, to polish her wings, to stretch herself. Again I +observe the acrobatic postures, the forehead touching the ground, the +hinder part of the body raised. This mimic triumph is the same as that +of the huntress of the Grey Worm. Then the Looper is once more seized. +Despite its contortions, which are not in the least abated by the three +wounds in the thorax, it is stung from front to back in each segment +still unwounded, no matter how many, whether supplied with legs or not. +I expected to see the sting refrain more or less in the long interval +which separates the true legs in front from the pro-legs at the back +(Fleshy legs found on the abdominal segments of caterpillars and certain +other larvae.--Translator's Note.): segments devoid of organs of defence +or locomotion did not seem to me to deserve conscientious surgery. I was +mistaken: not a segment of the Looper is spared, not even the last ones. +It is true that these, being eminently capable of catching hold with +their false legs, would be dangerous later were the Wasp to neglect +them. + +I observe, however, that the lancet works more rapidly in the second +part of the operation than in the first, either because the caterpillar, +half subjugated by the triple wound at the outset, is easier to reach +with the sting, or because the segments more remote from the head are +rendered harmless with a smaller injection of poison. Nowhere do we see +repeated the care expended upon paralysing the thorax, still less the +insistent attention to the first segment. On returning to her Looper +after the entr'acte devoted to the joys of success, the Ammophila stabs +so swiftly that, on one occasion, I saw her obliged to begin all over +again. Lightly stung along its whole length, the victim still struggles. +Without hesitation, the operator unsheathes her scalpel for the second +time and operates on the Looper afresh, with the exception of the +thorax, which was already sufficiently anaesthetized. This done, all is +in order; there is no more movement. + +After the stiletto the hooks of the mandibles rarely fail to intervene. +Long and curved, they nibble at the paralysed victim's neck, sometimes +from above, sometimes from below. It is a repetition of what the Hairy +Ammophila showed us: the same sudden squeezes of the pincers, with +rather long intervals between. These intervals, these measured bites and +the insect's watchful attitude have every appearance of telling us that +the operator is noting the effect produced before giving a fresh pinch +of the nippers. + +It will be seen how valuable is the evidence of Jules' Ammophila: +it tells us that the immolaters of Looper caterpillars and those of +ordinary caterpillars follow precisely the same method; that victims +displaying very dissimilar external structure do not entail any +modification of the operative tactics so long as the internal +organization remains the same. The number, arrangement and degree of +mutual independence of the nerve-centres guide the sting; the anatomy of +the game, rather than its form, controls the huntress' tactics. + +Let me mention, before I dismiss the subject, a superb example of this +marvellous anatomical discrimination. I once took from between the legs +of a Hairy Ammophila, which had just paralysed it, a caterpillar of +Dicranura vinula. What a strange capture compared with the ordinary +caterpillar! Bridling in thick folds beneath its pink neckerchief, +its fore-part raised in a sphinx-like attitude, its hinder-part slowly +waving two long caudal threads, the curious animal is no caterpillar +to the schoolboy who brings it to me, nor to the man who comes upon +it while cutting his bundle of osiers; but it is a caterpillar to the +Ammophila, who treats it accordingly. I explore the queer creature's +segments with the point of a needle. All are insensitive; all therefore +have been stung. + + + +CHAPTER 12. THE METHOD OF THE SCOLIAE. + +After the Ammophilae, the paralysers who multiply their lancet-thrusts +to destroy the influence of the various nerve-centres, excepting those +of the head, it seemed advisable to interrogate other insects which also +are accustomed to a naked prey, vulnerable at all points save the +head, but which deliver only a single thrust of the sting. Of these two +conditions the Scoliae fulfilled one, with their regular quarry, the +tender Cetonia-, Oryctes-or Anoxia-larva, according to the Scolia's +species. Did they fulfil the second? I was convinced beforehand that +they did. From the anatomy of the victims, with their concentrated +nervous system, I foresaw, when compiling my history of the Scoliae, +that the sting would be unsheathed once only; I even mentioned the exact +spot into which the weapon would be plunged. + +These were assertions dictated by the anatomist's scalpel, without the +slightest direct proof derived from observed facts. Manoeuvres executed +underground escaped the eye, as it seemed to me that they must always +do. How indeed could I hope that a creature whose art is practised in +the darkness of a heap of mould would decide to work in broad daylight? +I did not reckon upon it all. Nevertheless, to salve my conscience, +I tried bringing the Scolia into contact with her prey under the +bell-glass. I was well-advised to do so, for my success was in inverse +ratio to my hopes. Next to the Philanthus, none of the Hunting Wasps +displayed such ardour in attacking under artificial conditions. All the +insects experimented upon, some sooner, some later, rewarded me for my +patience. Let us watch the Two-banded Scolia (S. bifasciata, VAN DER +LIND) operating on her Cetonia grub. + +The incarcerated larva strives to escape its terrible neighbour. Lying +on its back, it fiercely wends its way round and round the glass circus. +Presently the Scolia's attention awakens and is betrayed by a continued +tapping with the tips of the antennae upon the table, which now +represents the accustomed soil. The Wasp attacks the game, delivering +her assault upon the monster's hinder end. She climbs upon the +Cetonia-grub, obtaining a purchase with the tip of her abdomen. The +quarry merely travels the more quickly on its back, without coiling +itself into a defensive posture. The Scolia reaches the fore-part, +with tumbles and other accidents which vary greatly with the amount +of tolerance displayed by the larva, her improvised steed. With her +mandibles she nips a point of the thorax, on the upper surface; she +places herself athwart the beast, arches herself and makes every effort +to reach with the end of her abdomen the region into which the sting +is to be driven. The arch is a little too narrow to embrace almost the +whole circumference of her corpulent prey; and she renews her +attempts and efforts for a long time. The tip of the belly tries every +conceivable expedient, touching here, there and everywhere, but as yet +stopping nowhere. This persistent search in itself demonstrates the +importance which the paralyser attaches to the point at which her lancet +is to penetrate the flesh. + +Meanwhile, the larva continues to move along on its back. Suddenly it +curls up; with a stroke of its head it hurls the enemy to a distance. +Undiscouraged by all her set-backs, the Wasp picks herself up, brushes +her wings and resumes her attack upon the colossus, almost always by +mounting the larva's hinder end. At last after all these fruitless +attempts, the Scolia succeeds in achieving the correct position. She +is seated athwart the Cetonia-grub; the mandibles grip a point on the +dorsal surface of the thorax; the body, bent into a bow, passes under +the larva and with the tip of the belly reaches the region of the neck. +The Cetonia-grub, placed in serious peril, writhes, coils and uncoils +itself, spinning round upon its axis. The Scolia does not interfere. +Holding the victim tightly gripped, she turns with it, allows herself to +be dragged upwards, downwards, sidewards, following its contortions. Her +obstinacy is such that I can now remove the bell-glass and follow the +details of the drama in the open. + +Briefly, in spite of the turmoil, the tip of the abdomen feels that the +right spot has been found. Then and only then the sting is unsheathed. +It plunges in. The thing is done. The larva, at first plump and active, +suddenly becomes flaccid and inert. It is paralysed. Henceforth there +are no movements save of the antennae and the mouthparts, which will for +a long time yet bear witness to a remnant of life. The point wounded +has never varied in the series of combats under glass: it occupies +the middle of the line of demarcation between the prothorax and the +mesothorax, on the ventral surface. Note that the Cerceres, operating on +Weevils, whose nervous system is as compact as the Cetonia-grub's, +drive in the needle at the same spot. Similarity of nervous organization +occasions similarity of method. Note also that the Scolia's sting +remains in the wound for some time and roots about with marked +persistence. Judging by the movements of the tip of the abdomen, one +would certainly say that the weapon is exploring and selecting. Free to +shift in one direction or the other, within narrow limits, its point is +most probably seeking for the little mass of nerve-tissue which must +be pricked, or at least sprinkled with poison, to obtain overwhelming +paralysis. + +I will not close this report of the duel without relating a few further +facts, of minor importance. The Two-banded Scolia is a fierce persecutor +of the Cetonia. In one sitting the same mother stabs three larvae, one +after the other, in front of my eyes. She refuses the fourth, perhaps +owing to fatigue or to exhaustion of the poison-bag. Her refusal is only +temporary. Next day, she begins again and paralyses two grubs; the day +after that, she does the same, but with a zeal that decreases from day +to day. + +The other Hunting Wasps that pursue the chase far afield grip, drag, +carry their prey, after depriving it of movement, each in her own +fashion and, laden with their burden, make prolonged attempts to escape +from the bell-glass and to gain the burrow. Discouraged by these futile +endeavours, they abandon them at last. The Scolia does not remove her +quarry, which lies on its back for an indefinite time on the actual spot +of the sacrifice. When she has withdrawn her dagger from the wound, she +leaves her victim where it lies and, without taking further notice +of it, begins to flutter against the side of the glass. The paralysed +carcase is not transported elsewhere, into a special cellar; there where +the struggle has occurred it receives, upon its extended abdomen, the +egg whence the consumer of the succulent tit-bit will emerge, thus +saving the expense of setting up house. It goes without saying that +under the bell-glass the laying does not take place: the mother is too +cautious to abandon her egg to the perils of the open air. + +Why then, recognizing the absence of her underground burrow, does the +Scolia uselessly pursue the Cetonia with the frantic ardour of the +Philanthus flinging herself upon the Bee? The action of the Philanthus +is explained by her passion for honey; hence the murders committed in +excess of the needs of her family. The Scolia leaves us perplexed: she +takes nothing from the Cetonia-grub, which is left without an egg; she +stabs, though well aware of the uselessness of her action: the heap of +mould is lacking and it is not her custom to transport her prey. The +other prisoners, once the blow is struck, at least seek to escape with +their capture between their legs; the Scolia attempts nothing. + +After due reflection, I lump together in my suspicions all these +surgeons and ask myself whether they possess the slightest foresight, +where the egg is concerned. When, exhausted by their burden, they +recognize the impossibility of escape, the more expert among them ought +not to begin all over again; yet they do so begin a few minutes later. +These wonderful anatomists know absolutely nothing about anything, they +do not even know what their victims are good for. Admirable artists +in killing and paralysis, they kill or paralyse at every favourable +opportunity, no matter what the final result as regards the egg. +Their talent, which leaves our science speechless, has not a shadow of +consciousness of the task accomplished. + +A second detail strikes me: the desperate persistence of the Scolia. I +have seen the struggle continue for more than a quarter of an hour, with +frequent alternations of good luck and bad, before the Wasp achieved the +required position and reached with the end of her abdomen the spot where +the sting should penetrate. During these assaults, which were resumed as +soon as they were repulsed, the aggressor repeatedly applied the tip of +her belly to the larva, but without unsheathing, as I could see by the +absence of the start which the larva gives when it feels the pain of the +sting. The Scolia therefore does not prick the Cetonia anywhere until +the weapon covers the requisite spot. If no wounds are inflicted +elsewhere, this is not in any way due to the structure of the larva, +which is soft and vulnerable all over, except in the head. The point +sought by the sting is no more unprotected than any other part of the +skin. + +In the scuffle, the Scolia, curved into a bow, is sometimes seized by +the vice-like grip of the Cetonia-grub, which is violently coiling and +uncoiling. Heedless of the powerful grip, the Wasp does not let go for +a moment, either with her mandibles or with the tip of her abdomen. At +such times the two creatures, locked in a mutual embrace, turn over and +over in a mad whirl, each of them now on top, now underneath. When it +contrives to rid itself of its enemy, the larva uncoils again, stretches +itself out and proceeds to make off upon its back with all possible +speed. Its defensive ruses are exhausted. Formerly, before I had seen +things for myself, taking probability as my guide I willingly granted to +the larva the trick of the Hedgehog, who rolls himself into a ball and +sets the Dog at defiance. Coiled upon itself, with an energy which my +fingers have some difficulty in overcoming, the larva, I thought, would +defy the Scolia, powerless to unroll it and disdaining any point but +the one selected. I hoped and believed that it possessed this means of +defence, a means both efficacious and extremely simple. I had presumed +too much upon its ingenuity. Instead of imitating the Hedgehog and +remaining contracted, it flees, belly in air; it foolishly adopts the +very posture which allows the Scolia to mount to the assault and to +reach the spot for the fatal stroke. The silly beast reminds me of +the giddy Bee who comes and flings herself into the clutches of the +Philanthus. Yet another who has learnt no lesson from the struggle for +life. + +Let us proceed to further examples. I have just captured an Interrupted +Scolia (Colpa interrupta, LATR.), exploring the sand, doubtless in +search of game. It is a matter of making the earliest possible use of +her, before her spirit is chilled by the tedium of captivity. I know her +prey, the larva of Anoxia australis (The Anoxia are a genus of Beetles +akin to the Cockchafers.--Translator's Note.); I know, from my past +excavations, the points favoured by the grub: the mounds of sand +heaped up by the wind at the foot of the rosemaries on the neighbouring +hill-sides. It will be a hard job to find it, for nothing is rarer than +the common if one wants it then and there. I appeal for assistance to my +father, an old man of ninety, still straight as a capital I. Under a sun +hot enough to broil an egg, we set off, shouldering a navvy's shovel +and a three-pronged luchet. (The local pitchfork of southern +France.--Translator's Note.) Employing our feeble energies in turns, we +dig a trench in the sand where I hope to find the Anoxia. My hopes are +not disappointed. After having by the sweat of our brow--never was the +expression more justified--removed and sifted two cubic yards at least +of sandy soil with our fingers, we find ourselves in possession of two +larvae. If I had not wanted any, I should have turned them up by the +handful. But my poor and costly harvest is sufficient for the moment. +To-morrow I will send more vigorous arms to continue the work of +excavation. + +And now let us reward ourselves for our trouble by studying the tragedy +in the bell-glass. Clumsy, awkward in her movements, the Scolia slowly +goes the round of the circus. At the sight of the game, her attention +is aroused. The struggle is announced by the same preparations as those +displayed by the Two-banded Scolia: the Wasp polishes her wings and taps +the table with the tips of her antennae. And view, halloo! The attack +begins. Unable to move on a flat surface, because of its short and +feeble legs, deprived moreover of the Cetonia-larva's eccentric means +of travelling on its back, the portly grub has no thought of fleeing; it +coils itself up. The Scolia, with her powerful pincers, grips its skin +now here, now elsewhere. Curved into a circle with the two ends almost +touching, she strives to thrust the tip of her abdomen into the narrow +opening in the coil formed by the larva. The contest is conducted +calmly, without violent bouts at each varying accident. It is the +determined attempt of a living split ring trying to slip one of its ends +into another living split ring, which with equal determination +refuses to open. The Scolia holds the victim subdued with her legs +and mandibles; she tries one side, then the other, without managing to +unroll the circle, which contracts still more as it feels its danger +increasing. The actual circumstances make the operation more difficult: +the prey slips and rolls about the table when the insect handles it too +violently; there are no points of purchase and the sting cannot reach +the desired spot; the fruitless efforts are continued for more than an +hour, interrupted by periods of rest, during which the two adversaries +represent two narrow, interlocked rings. + +What ought the powerful Cetonia-grub to do to defy the Two-banded +Scolia, who is far less vigorous than her victim? It should imitate +the Anoxia-larva and remain rolled up like a Hedgehog until the enemy +retires. It tries to escape, unrolls itself and is lost. The other does +not stir from its posture of defence and resists successfully. Is this +due to acquired caution? No, but to the impossibility of doing otherwise +on the slippery surface of a table. Clumsy, obese, weak in the legs, +curved into a hook like the common White Worm (The larva of the +Cockchafer.--Translator's Note.), the Anoxia-larva is unable to move +along a smooth surface; it writhes laboriously, lying on its side. It +needs the shifting soil in which, using its mandibles as a plough-share, +it digs into the ground and buries itself. + +Let us try if sand will shorten the struggle, for I see no end to it +yet, after more than an hour of waiting. I lightly powder the arena. +The attack is resumed with a vengeance. The larva, feeling the sand, its +native element, tries to escape. Imprudent creature! Did I not say that +its obstinacy in remaining rolled up was due to no acquired prudence but +to the necessity of the moment? The sad experience of past adversities +has not yet taught it the precious advantage which it might derive from +keeping its coils closed so long as danger remains. For that matter, +on the unyielding support of my table, they are not one and all so +cautious. The larger seem even to have forgotten what they knew so well +in their youth: the defensive art of coiling themselves up. + +I continue my story with a fine-sized specimen, less likely to slip +under the Scolia's onslaught. When attacked, the larva does not curl up, +does not shrink into a ring as did the last, which was younger and only +half as large. It struggles awkwardly, lying on its side, half-open. +For all defence it twists about; it opens, closes and reopens the great +hooks of its mandibles. The Scolia grabs it at random, clasps it in +her shaggy legs and for nearly a quarter of an hour battles with the +luscious tit-bit. At last, after a not very tumultuous struggle, when +the favourable position is attained and the propitious moment has come, +the sting is implanted in the creature's thorax, in a central point, +below the throat, level with the fore-legs. The effect is instantaneous: +total inertia, except of the appendages of the head, the antennae and +mouth-parts. I achieved the same results, the same prick at a definite, +invariable point, with my several operators, renewed from time to time +by some lucky cast of the net. + +Let us mention, in conclusion, that the attack of the Interrupted Scolia +is far less fierce than that of the Two-banded Scolia. The Wasp, a +rough sand-digger, has a clumsy gait; her movements are stiff and almost +automatic. She does not find it easy to repeat her dagger-thrust. Most +of the specimens with which I experimented refused a second victim on +the first two days after their exploits. As though somnolent, they did +not stir unless excited by my teasing them with a bit of straw. Although +more active and more ardent in the chase, the Two-banded Scolia likewise +does not draw her weapon every time that I invite her. For all these +huntresses there are moments of inaction which the presence of a fresh +prey is powerless to disturb. + +The Scoliae have taught me nothing further, in the absence of subjects +belonging to other species. No matter: the results obtained represent no +small triumph for my ideas. Before seeing the Scoliae operate, I said, +guided solely by the anatomy of the victims, that the Cetonia-, Anoxia- +and Oryctes-larvae must be paralysed by a single thrust of the lancet; +I even named the point where the sting must strike, a central point, +in the immediate vicinity of the fore-legs. Of the three genera of +paralysers, two have allowed me to witness their surgical methods, which +the third, I feel certain, will confirm. In both cases, a single thrust +of the lancet; in both cases, injection of the venom at a predetermined +point. A calculator in an observatory could not compute the position of +his planet with greater accuracy. An idea may be taken as proved when +it attains to this mathematical forecast of the future, this certain +knowledge of the unknown. When will the acclaimers of chance achieve a +like success? Order appeals to order; and chance knows no laws. + + + +CHAPTER 13. THE METHOD OF THE CALICURGI. + +The non-armoured victims, vulnerable by the sting over almost their +whole body, ordinary caterpillars and Looper caterpillars, Cetonia- and +Anoxia-larvae, whose only means of defence, apart from their mandibles, +consists of rollings and contortions, called for the testimony of +another victim, the Spider, almost as ill-protected, but armed with +formidable poison-fangs. How, in particular, will the Ringed Calicurgus +set to work in operating on the Black-bellied Tarantula, the terrible +Lycosa, who with a single bite kills the Mole or the Sparrow and +endangers the life of man? How does the bold Pompilus overcome an +adversary more powerful than herself, better-equipped with virulent +poison and capable of making a meal of her assailant? Of all the Hunting +Wasps, none risks such unequal conflicts, in which appearances would +proclaim the aggressor to be the victim and the victim the aggressor. + +The problem was one deserving patient study. True, I foresaw, from the +Spider's organization, a single sting in the centre of the thorax; but +that did not explain the victory of the Wasp, emerging safe and sound +from her tussle with such a quarry. I had to see what occurred. The +chief difficulty was the scarcity of the Calicurgus. It is easy for me +to obtain the Tarantula at the desired moment: the part of the plateau +in my neighbourhood left untilled by the vine-growers provides me with +as many as are necessary. To capture the Pompilus is another matter. I +have so little hope of finding her that special quests are regarded as +useless. To search for her would perhaps be just the way not to find +her. Let us rely on the uncertainties of chance. Shall I get her or +shall I not? + +I've got her. I catch her unexpectedly on the flowers. Next day I supply +myself with half a dozen Tarantulae. Perhaps I shall be able to +employ them one after the other in repeated duels. As I return from my +Lycosa-hunt, luck smiles upon me again and crowns my desires. A +second Calicurgus offers herself to my net; she is dragging her heavy, +paralysed Spider by one leg, in the dust of the highway. I attach great +value to my find: the laying of the egg has become a pressing matter; +and the mother, I believe, will accept a substitute for her victim +without much hesitation. Here then are my two captives, each under her +bell-glass with her Tarantula. + +I am all eyes. What a tragedy there will be in a moment! I wait, +anxiously... But... but... what is this? Which of the two is the +assailed? Which is the assailant? The characters seem to be inverted. +The Calicurgus, unable to climb up the smooth glass wall, strides round +the ring of the circus. With a proud and rapid gait, her wings and +antennae vibrating, she goes and returns. The Lycosa is soon seen. The +Calicurgus approaches her without the least sign of fear, walks round +her and appears to have the intention of seizing one of her legs. But at +that moment the Tarantula rises almost vertically on her four hinder +legs, with her four front legs lifted and outspread, ready for the +counterstroke. The poison-fangs gape widely; a drop of venom moistens +their tips. The very sight of them makes my flesh creep. In this +terrible attitude, presenting her powerful thorax and the black velvet +of her belly to the enemy, the Spider overawes the Pompilus, who +suddenly turns tail and moves away. The Lycosa then closes her bundle of +poisoned daggers and resumes her natural pose, standing on her eight +legs; but, at the slightest attempt at aggression on the Wasp's part, +she resumes her threatening position. + +She does more: suddenly she leaps and flings herself upon the +Calicurgus; swiftly she clasps her and nibbles at her with her fangs. +Without wielding her sting in self-defence, the other disengages +herself and merges unscathed from the angry encounter. Several times in +succession I witness the attack; and nothing serious ever befalls the +Wasp, who swiftly withdraws from the fray and appears to have received +no hurt. She resumes her marching and countermarching no less boldly and +swiftly than before. + +Is this Wasp invulnerable, that she thus escapes from the terrible +fangs? Evidently not. A real bite would be fatal to her. Big, sturdily +built Acridians succumb (Locusts and Grasshoppers.--Translator's Note.); +how is it that she, with her delicate organism, does not! The Spider's +daggers, therefore, make no more than an idle feint; their points do not +enter the flesh of the tight-clasped Wasp. If the strokes were real, I +should see bleeding wounds, I should see the fangs close for a moment on +the part seized; and with all my attention I cannot detect anything of +the kind. Then are the fangs powerless to pierce the Wasp's integuments? +Not so. I have seen them penetrate, with a crackling of broken armour, +the corselet of the Acridians, which offers a far greater resistance. +Once again, whence comes this strange immunity of the Calicurgus held +between the legs and assailed by the daggers of the Tarantula? I do not +know. Though in mortal peril from the enemy confronting her, the Lycosa +threatens her with her fangs and cannot decide to bite, owing to a +repugnance which I do not undertake to explain. + +Obtaining nothing more than alarums and excursions of no great +seriousness, I think of modifying the gladiatorial arena and +approximating it to natural conditions. The soil is very imperfectly +represented by my work-table; and the Spider has not her fortress, her +burrow, which plays a part of some importance both in attack and in +defence. A short length of reed is planted perpendicularly in a large +earthenware pan filled with sand. This will be the Lycosa's burrow. In +the middle I stick some heads of globe-thistle garnished with honey as +a refectory for the Pompilus; a couple of Locusts, renewed as and +when consumed, will sustain the Tarantula. These comfortable quarters, +exposed to the sun, receive the two captives under a wire-gauze dome, +which provides adequate ventilation for a prolonged residence. + +My artifices come to nothing; the session closes without result. A +day passes, two days, three; still nothing happens. The Pompilus is +assiduous in her visits to the honeyed flower-clusters; when she has +eaten her fill, she clambers up the dome and makes interminable circuits +of the netting; the Tarantula quietly munches her Locust. If the other +passes within reach, she swiftly raises herself and waves her off. The +artificial burrow, the reed-stump, fulfills its purpose excellently. The +Lycosa and the Pompilus resort to it in turns, but without quarrelling. +And that is all. The drama whose prologue was so full of promise appears +to be indefinitely postponed. + +I have a last resource, on which I base great hopes: it is to remove my +two Calicurgi to the very site of their investigations and to install +them at the door of the Spider's lodging, at the top of the natural +burrow. I take the field with an equipment which I am carrying across +the country for the first time: a glass bell-jar, a wire-gauze cover and +the various implements needed for handling and transferring my irascible +and dangerous subjects. My search for burrows among the pebbles and the +tufts of thyme and lavender is soon successful. + +Here is a splendid one. I learn by inserting a straw that it is +inhabited by a Tarantula of a size suited to my plans. The soil around +the aperture is cleared and flattened to receive the wire-gauze, under +which I place a Pompilus. This is the time to light a pipe and wait, +lying on the pebbles...Yet another disappointment. Half an hour goes by; +and the Wasp confines herself to travelling round and round the netting +as she did in my study. She gives no sign of greed when confronted with +the burrow, though I can see the Tarantula's diamond eyes glittering at +the bottom. + +The trellised wall is replaced by the glass wall, which, since it does +not allow her to scale its heights, will oblige the Wasp to remain on +the ground and at last to take cognizance of the shaft, which she seems +to ignore. This time we have done the trick! + +After a few circuits of her cage, the Calicurgus notices the pit yawning +at her feet. She goes down it. This daring confounds me. I should never +have ventured to anticipate as much. That she should suddenly fling +herself upon the Tarantula when the latter is outside her stronghold, +well and good; but to rush into the lair, when the terrible monster is +waiting for you below with those two poisoned daggers of hers! What will +come of such temerity? A buzzing of wings ascends from the depths. Run +to earth in her private apartments, the Lycosa is no doubt at grips with +the intruder. That hum of wings is the Calicurgus' paean of triumph, +until it be her death-song. The slayer may well be the slain. Which of +the two will come up alive? + +It is the Lycosa, who hurriedly scampers out and posts herself just over +the orifice of the burrow, in her posture of defence, her fangs open, +her four front legs uplifted. Can the other have been stabbed? Not at +all, for she emerges in her turn, not without receiving on the way a +cuff from the Spider, who immediately regains her lair. Dislodged from +her basement a second and yet a third time, the Tarantula always +comes up unwounded; she always awaits her adversary on her threshold, +administers punishment and reenters her dwelling. In vain do I try +my two Pompili alternately and change the burrow; I do not succeed +in observing anything else. Certain conditions not realized by my +stratagems are lacking to complete the tragedy. + +Discouraged by the repetition of my futile attempts, I throw up the +game, the richer however by one fact of some value: the Calicurgus, +without the least fear, descends into the Tarantula's den and dislodges +her. I imagine that things happen in the same fashion outside my cages. +When expelled from her dwelling, the Spider is more timid and more +vulnerable to attack. Moreover, while hampered by a narrow shaft, the +operator would not wield her lancet with the precision called for by her +designs. The bold irruption shows us once again, more plainly than the +tussles on my table, the Lycosa's reluctance to sink her fangs into her +enemy's body. When the two are face to face at the bottom of the lair, +then or never is the moment to have it out with the foe. The Tarantula +is in her own house, with all its conveniences; every nook and corner of +the bastion is familiar to her. The intruder's movements are hampered by +her ignorance of the premises. Quick, my poor Lycosa, quick, a bite; and +it's all up with your persecutor! But you refrain, I know not why, and +your reluctance is the saving of the rash invader. The silly Sheep does +not reply to the butcher's knife by charging with lowered horns. Can it +be that you are the Pompilus' Sheep? + +My two subjects are reinstalled in my study under their wire-gauze +covers, with bed of sand, reed-stump burrow and fresh honey, complete. +Here they find again their first Lycosae, fed upon Locusts. Cohabitation +continues for three weeks without other incidents than scuffles and +threats which become less frequent day by day. No serious hostility is +displayed on either side. At last the Calicurgi die: their day is over. +A pitiful end after such an enthusiastic beginning. + +Shall I abandon the problem? Why, not a bit of it! I have encountered +greater difficulties, but they have never deterred me from a +warmly-cherished project. Fortune favours the persevering. She proves +as much by offering me, in September, a fortnight after the death of my +Tarantula-huntresses, another Calicurgus, captured for the first time. +This is the Harlequin Calicurgus (C. scurra, LEP.), who sports the same +gaudy costume as the first and is almost of the same size. + +Now what does this newcomer, of whom I know nothing, want? A Spider, +that is certain; but which? A huntress like this will need a corpulent +quarry: perhaps the Silky Epeira (E. serica), perhaps the Banded +Epeira (E. fasciata), the largest Spiders in the district, next to the +Tarantula. The first of these spreads her large upright net, in which +Locusts are caught, from one clump of brushwood to another. I find +her in the copses on the neighbouring hills. The second stretches +hers across the ditches and the little streams frequented by the +Dragon-flies. I find her near the Aygues, beside the irrigation-canals +fed by the torrent. A couple of trips procures me the two Epeirae, whom +I offer to my captive next day, both at the same time. It is for her to +choose according to her taste. + +The choice is soon made: the Banded Epeira is the one preferred. But she +does not yield without protest. On the approach of the Wasp, she rises +and assumes a defensive attitude, just like that of the Lycosa. The +Calicurgus pays no attention to threats: under her harlequin's coat, she +is violent in attack and quick on her legs. There is a rapid exchange of +fisticuffs; and the Epeira lies overturned on her back. The Pompilus is +on top of her, belly to belly, head to head; with her legs she masters +the Spider's legs; with her mandibles she grips the cephalothorax. She +curves her abdomen, bringing the tip of it beneath her; she draws her +sting and... + +One moment, reader, if you please. Where is the sting about to strike? +From what we have learnt from the other paralysers, it will be driven +into the breast, to suppress the movement of the legs. That is your +opinion; it was also mine. Well, without blushing too deeply at our +common and very excusable error, let us confess that the insect knows +better than we do. It knows how to assure success by a preparatory +manoeuvre of which you and I had never dreamt. Ah, what a school is that +of the animals! Is it not true that, before striking the adversary, you +should take care not to get wounded yourself? The Harlequin Pompilus +does not disregard this counsel of prudence. The Epeira carries beneath +her throat two sharp daggers, with a drop of poison at their points; +the Calicurgus is lost if the Spider bites her. Nevertheless, her +anaesthetizing demands perfect steadiness of the lancet. What is to +be done in the face of this danger which might disconcert the most +practised surgeon? The patient must first be disarmed and then operated +on. + +And in fact the Calicurgus' sting, aimed from back to front, is driven +into the Epeira's mouth, with minute precautions and marked persistency. +On the instant, the poison-fangs close lifelessly and the formidable +quarry is powerless to harm. The Wasp's abdomen then extends its arc and +drives the needle behind the fourth pair of legs, on the median line, +almost at the junction of the belly and the cephalothorax. At this +point the skin is finer and more easily penetrable than elsewhere. The +remainder of the thoracic surface is covered with a tough breast-plate +which the sting would perhaps fail to perforate. The nerve-centres, the +source of the leg-movements, are situated a little above the wounded +point, but the back-to-front direction of the sting makes it possible +to reach them. This last wound results in the paralysis of all the eight +legs at once. + +To enlarge upon it further would detract from the eloquence of this +performance. First of all, to safeguard the operator, a stab in the +mouth, that point so terribly armed, the most formidable of all; then, +to safeguard the larva, a second stab in the nerve-centres of the +thorax, to suppress the power of movement. I certainly suspected that +the slayers of robust Spiders were endowed with special talents; but +I was far from expecting their bold logic, which disarms before +it paralyses. So the Tarantula-huntress must behave, who, under my +bell-glasses, refused to surrender her secret. I now know what her +method is; it has been divulged by a colleague. She throws the terrible +Lycosa upon her back, pricks her prickers by stinging her in the mouth +and then, in comfort, with a single thrust of the lancet, obtains +paralysis of the legs. + +I examine the Epeira immediately after the operation and the Tarantula +when the Calicurgus is dragging her by one leg to her burrow, at the +foot of some wall. For a little while longer, a minute at most, the +Epeira convulsively moves her legs. So long as these throes continue, +the Pompilus does not release her prey. She seems to watch the progress +of the paralysis. With the tips of her mandibles she explores the +Spider's mouth several times over, as though to ascertain if the +poison-fangs are really innocuous. When all movement subsides, the +Pompilus makes ready to drag her prey elsewhere. It is then I take +charge of it. + +What strikes me more than anything else is the absolute inertia of the +fangs, which I tickle with a straw without succeeding in rousing +them from their torpor. The palpi, on the other hand, their immediate +neighbours, wave at the least touch. The Epeira is placed in safety, in +a flask, and undergoes a fresh examination a week later. Irritability +has in part returned. Under the stimulus of a straw, I see her legs move +a little, especially the lower joints, the tibiae and tarsi. The palpi +are even more irritable and mobile. These different movements, however, +are lacking in vigour and coordination; and the Spider cannot employ +them to turn over, much less to escape. As for the poison-fangs, I +stimulate them in vain: I cannot get them to open or even to stir. They +are therefore profoundly paralysed and in a special manner. The peculiar +insistence of the sting when the mouth was stabbed told me as much in +the beginning. + +At the end of September, almost a month after the operation, the Epeira +is in the same condition, neither dead nor alive: the palpi still quiver +when touched with a straw, but nothing else moves. At length, after +six or seven weeks' lethargy, real death supervenes, together with its +comrade, putrefaction. + +The Tarantula of the Ringed Calicurgus, as I take her from the owner +at the moment of transportation, presents the same peculiarities. The +poison-fangs are no longer irritable when tickled with my straw: a fresh +proof, added to those of analogy, to show that the Lycosa, like the +Epeira, has been stung in the mouth. The palpi, on the other hand, are +and will be for weeks highly irritable and mobile. I wish to emphasise +this point, the importance of which will be recognized presently. + +I found it impossible to provoke a second attack from my Harlequin +Calicurgus: the tedium of captivity did not favour the exercise of her +talents. Moreover, the Epeira sometimes had something to do with her +refusals; a certain ruse de guerre which was twice employed before my +eyes may well have baffled the aggressor. Let me describe the incident, +if only to increase our respect a little for these foolish Spiders, who +are provided with perfected weapons and do not dare to make use of them +against the weaker but bolder assailant. + +The Epeira occupies the wall of the wire-gauze cage, with her eight legs +wide-spread upon the trelliswork; the Calicurgus is wheeling round +the top of the dome. Seized with panic at the sight of the approaching +enemy, the Spider drops to the ground, with her belly upwards and her +legs gathered together. The other dashes forward, clasps her round the +body, explores her and prepares to sting her in the mouth. But she does +not bare her weapon. I see her bending attentively over the poisoned +fangs, as though to investigate their terrible mechanism; she then goes +away. The Spider is still motionless, so much so that I really believe +her dead, paralysed unknown to me, at a moment when I was not looking. +I take her from the cage to examine her comfortably. No sooner is she +placed on the table than behold, she comes to life again and promptly +scampers off! The cunning creature was shamming death beneath the Wasp's +stiletto, so artfully that I was taken in. She deceived an enemy more +cunning than myself, the Pompilus, who inspected her very closely +and took her for a corpse unworthy of her dagger. Perhaps the simple +creature, like the Bear in the fable of old, already noticed the smell +of high meat. + +This ruse, if ruse it be, appears to me more often than not to turn to +the disadvantage of the Spider, whether Tarantula, Epeira or another. +The Calicurgus who has just put the Spider on her back after a brisk +fight knows quite well that her prostrate foe is not dead. The latter, +thinking to protect itself, simulates the inertia of a corpse; the +assailant profits by this to deliver her most perilous blow, the stab in +the mouth. Were the fangs, each tipped with its drop of poison, to open +then; were they to snap, to give a desperate bite, the Pompilus would +not dare to expose the tip of her abdomen to their deadly scratch. The +shamming of death is exactly what enables the huntress to succeed in her +dangerous operation. They say, O guileless Epeirae, that the struggle +for life has taught you to adopt this inert attitude for purposes of +defence. Well, the struggle for life was a very bad counsellor. Trust +rather to common sense and learn, by degrees, at your own cost, that to +hit back, above all if you can do so promptly, is still the best way to +intimidate the enemy. (Fabre does not believe in the actual shamming +of death by animals. Cf. "The Glow-worm and Other Beetles," by J. +Henri Fabre, translated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos: chapters 8 to +15.--Translator's Note.) + +The remainder of my observations on these insects under glass is little +more than a long series of failures. Of two operators on Weevils, one, +the Sandy Cerceris (C. arenaria), persistently scorned the victims +offered; the other, Ferrero's Cerceris (C. Ferreri), allowed herself to +be empted after two days' captivity. Her tactical method, as I expected, +is precisely that of the Cleonus-huntress, the Great Cerceris, with whom +my investigations commenced. When confronted with the Acorn-weevil, she +seizes the insect by the snout, which is immensely long and shaped +like a pipe-stem, and plants her sting in its body to the rear of the +prothorax, between the first and second pair of legs. It is needless to +insist: the spoiler of the Cleoni has taught us enough about this mode +of operation and its results. + +None of the Bembex-wasps, whether chosen among the huntresses of +the Gadfly or among the lovers of the House-fly rabble, satisfied my +aspirations. Their method is as unknown to me now as at the distant +period when I used to watch it in the Bois des Issards. (Cf. "The +Hunting Wasps": chapters 14 to 18.--Translator's Note.) Their impetuous +flight, their love of long journeys are incompatible with captivity. +Stunned by colliding with the walls of their glass or wire-gauze prison, +they all perish within twenty-four hours. Swifter in their movements +and apparently satisfied with their honeyed thistle-heads, the Spheges, +huntresses of Crickets or Ephippigers, die as quickly of nostalgia. All +I offer them leaves them indifferent. + +Nor can I get anything out of the Eumenes, notably the biggest of them, +the builder of gravel cupolas, Amedeus' Eumenes. All the Pompili, except +the Harlequin Calicurgus, refuse my Spiders. The Palarus, who preys upon +an indefinite number of the Hymenopteron clan, refuses to tell me if she +drinks the honey of the Bees, as does the Philanthus, or if she lets the +others go without manipulating them to make them disgorge. The Tachytes +do not vouchsafe their Locusts a glance; Stizus ruficornis promptly +gives up the ghost, disdaining the Praying Mantis which I provide for +her. + +What is the use of continuing this list of checks? The rule may +be gathered from these few examples: occasional successes and many +failures. What can be the reason? With the exception of the Philanthus, +tempted from time to time by a bumper of honey, the predatory Wasps do +not hunt on their own account; they have their victualling-time, when +the egg-laying is imminent, when the family calls for food. Outside +these periods, the finest heads of game might well leave these +nectar-bibbers indifferent. I am careful therefore, as far as possible, +to capture my subjects at the proper season; I give preference to +mothers caught upon the threshold of the burrow with their prey between +their legs. This diligence of mine by no means always succeeds. There +are demoralized insects which, once under glass, even after a brief +delay, no longer care about the equivalent of their prize. + +All the species do not perhaps pursue their game with the same ardour; +mood and temperament are more variable even than conformation. To these +factors, which are of the nicest order, we may add that of the hour, +which is often unfavourable when the subject is caught at haphazard on +the flowers, and we shall have more than enough to explain the frequency +of the failures. After all, I must beware of representing my failures +as the rule: what does not succeed one day may very well succeed another +day, under different conditions. With perseverance and a little skill, +any one who cares to continue these interesting studies will, I am sure, +fill up many gaps. The problem is difficult but not impossible. + +I will not quit my bell-jars without saying a word on the entomological +tact of the captives when they decide to attack. One of the pluckiest +of my subjects, the Hairy Ammophila, was not always provided with +the hereditary dish of her family, the Grey Worm. I offered her +indiscriminately any bare-skinned caterpillars that I chanced to find. +Some were yellow, some green, some brown with white edges. All were +accepted without hesitation, provided that they were of suitable size. +Tasty game was recognized wonderfully under very dissimilar liveries. +But a young Zeuzera-caterpillar, dug out of the branches of a +lilac-tree, and a silkworm of small dimensions were definitely refused. +The over-fed products of our silkworm-nurseries and the mystery-loving +caterpillar which gnaws the inner wood of the lilac inspired her with +suspicion and disgust, despite their bare skin, which favoured the +sting, and their shape, which was similar to that of the victims +accepted. + +Another ardent huntress, the Interrupted Scolia, refused the +Cetonia-grub, which is of like habits with the Anoxia-larva; the +Two-banded Scolia also refused the Anoxia. The Philanthus, the headlong +murderess of Bees, saw through my trickery when I confronted her with +the Virgilian Bee, the Eristalis (E. tenax). She, a Philanthus, take +this Fly for a Bee! What next! The popular idea is mistaken; antiquity +too is mistaken, as witness the "Georgics," which make the putrid +remains of a sacrificed Bull give birth to a swarm; but the Wasp makes +no mistake. In her eyes, which see farther than ours, the Eristalis is +an odious Dipteron, a lover of corruption, and nothing more. + + + +CHAPTER 14. OBJECTIONS AND REJOINDERS. + +No idea of any scope can begin its soaring flight but straightway the +curmudgeons are after it, eager to break its wings and to stamp the +wounded thing under foot. My discovery of the surgical methods that give +the Hunting Wasps their preserved foodstuffs has undergone the common +rule. Let theories be discussed, by all means: the realm of the +imagination is an untilled domain, in which every one is free to plant +his own conceptions. But realities are not open to discussion. It is a +bad policy to deny facts with no more authority than one's wish to find +them untrue. No one that I know of has impugned by contrary observations +what I have so long been saying about the anatomical instinct of the +Wasps that hunt their prey; instead, I am met with arguments. Mercy on +us! First use your eyes and then you shall have leave to argue! And, to +persuade people to use their eyes, I mean to reply, since we have time +to spare, to the objections which have been or may be raised. Of course, +I pass over in silence those in which childish disparagement shows its +nose too plainly. + +The sting, I am told, is directed at one point rather than another +because that is the only vulnerable point. The insect cannot choose what +wound it will inflict; it stings where it must. Its wonderful operative +method is the necessary result of the victim's structure. Let us first, +if we attach any importance to lucidity, come to an understanding about +the word "vulnerable." Do you mean by this that the point or rather +points wounded by the sting are the only points at which a lesion will +suddenly cause either death or paralysis? If so, I share your opinion; +not only do I share it, but I was the first to proclaim it. My whole +thesis is contained in that. Yes, a hundred times yes, the points +wounded are the only vulnerable points; they are even very vulnerable; +they are the only points which lend themselves to the infliction of +sudden death or else paralysis, according to the operator's intention. + +But this is not how you understand the matter: you mean accessible to +the sting, in a word, penetrable. Here we part company. I have against +me, I admit, the Weevils and the Buprestes of the Cerceres. These mailed +ones hardly give the sting a chance, save behind the prothorax, the +point at which the lancet is actually directed. If I were one to stand +on trifles, I might observe that in front of the prothorax, under the +throat, is an accessible spot and that the Cerceres will have nothing to +do with it. But let us proceed; I give up the horn-clad Beetle. + +What are we to say of the Grey Worm and other caterpillars beloved of +the Ammophilae? Here are victims accessible to the sting underneath, on +the back, on the sides, fore and aft, everywhere with the same facility, +excepting the top of the head. And of this infinity of points, which are +equally penetrable, the Wasp selects ten, always the same, differing +in no way from the rest, unless it be by the close proximity of the +nerve-centres. What are we to say of the Cetonia- and Anoxia-larvae, +which are always attacked in the first thoracic segment, after long +and painful struggles, when the assailant can sting the grub freely +at whatever point she chooses, since it is quite naked and offers no +greater resistance to the lancet at one point than at another? + +What are we to think of the Sphex' Crickets and Ephippigers, stabbed +three times on the side of the thorax, which is fairly well defended, +whereas the abdomen, soft and bulky, into which the sting would sink +like a needle into a pat of butter, is neglected? Do not let us forget +the Philanthus, who takes no account either of the fissures beneath the +abdominal plates or of the wide hiatus behind the corselet, but plunges +her weapon, at the base of the throat, through a gap of a fraction of +a millimetre. Let us just mention the Mantis-hunting Tachytes. Does she +make for the most undefended point when she stabs, first of all, at its +base, the Mantis' dreadful engine--the arm-pieces each fitted with a +double saw--at the risk of being seized, transfixed and crunched on the +spot if she misses her blow? Why does she not strike at the creature's +long abdomen? That would be quite easy and free from danger. + +And the Calicurgi, if you please. Are they also unskilled duelists, +plunging the dirk into the only easily accessible point, when their very +first move is to paralyse the poison-fangs? If there is one point about +the Tarantula and the Epeira that is dangerous and difficult to attack, +it is certainly the mouth which bites with its two poisoned harpoons. +And these desperadoes dare to brave that deadly trap! Why do they not +follow your judicious advice? They should sting the plump belly, which +is wholly unprotected. They do not; and they have their reasons, as have +the others. + +All, from the first to the last, show us, clear as water from the rock, +that the outer structure of the victims operated on counts for nothing +in the method of operating. This is determined by the inner anatomy. The +points wounded are not stung because they are the only points penetrable +by the lancet; they are stung because they fulfil an important +condition, without which penetrability loses its value. This condition +is none other than the immediate proximity of the nerve-centres whose +influence has to be suppressed. When at close quarters with her prey, +whether soft or armour-clad, the huntress behaves as if she understood +the nervous system better than any of us. The thoughtless objection +about the only penetrable points is, I hope, swept aside forever. + +I am also told: + +"It is possible, if it comes to that, for the sting to be delivered in +the neighbourhood of the nerve-centres; in a victim at most three or +four centimetres long, distances are very small. But a casual there or +thereabouts is a very different thing from the precision of which you +speak." + +Oh, they are "thereabouts," are they? We shall see! You want figures, +millimetres, fractions? You shall have them! + +First I call to witness the Interrupted Scolia. If the reader no longer +has her method of operating in mind, I will beg him to refresh his +memory. The two adversaries, in the preliminary conflict, may be fairly +well represented by two rings interlocked not in the same plane but at +right angles. The Scolia grips a point of the Anoxia-grub's thorax; she +curves her body underneath it and, while encircling the grub, gropes +with the tip of her abdomen along the median line of the larva's neck. +Owing to her transversal position, the assailant is now free to aim her +weapon in a slightly slanting direction, whether towards the head or +towards the thorax, at the same point of entry in the larva's throat. +Between the two opposite slants of the sting, which is itself +very short, what can the distance be? Two millimetres (.078 +inch.--Translator's Note.), perhaps less. That is very little. No +matter: let the operator make a mistake of this length--negligible, you +may tell me--let the sting slant towards the head instead of slanting +towards the thorax; and the result of the operation will be entirely +different. With a slant towards the head, the cerebral ganglia are +wounded and their lesion causes sudden death. This is the stroke of +the Philanthus, who kills her Bee by stinging her from below, under the +chin. The Scolia needed a motionless but not dead victim, one that would +supply fresh victuals; she will now have only a corpse, which will soon +go bad and poison the larva. + +With a slant towards the thorax, the sting wounds the little mass of +nerve-cells in the thorax. This is the regulation stroke, the one which +will induce paralysis and leave the small amount of life needed to keep +the provisions fresh. A millimetre higher kills; a millimetre lower +paralyses. On this tiny deviation the salvation of the Scolia race +depends. You need not fear that the operator will make any mistake in +this micrometrical performance: her sting always slants towards the +thorax, although the opposite inclination is just as practicable and +easy. What would be the outcome of a there or thereabouts under these +conditions? Very often a corpse, a form of food fatal to the grub. + +The Two-banded Scolia stings a little lower down, on the line of +demarcation between the first two thoracic segments. Her position is +likewise transversal in relation to the Cetonia-grub; but the distance +of the cervical ganglia from the point where the sting enters would +possibly not allow the weapon turned towards the head to inflict a +lesion followed by sudden death as in the above instance. I am calling +this witness with another object. It is extremely unusual for the +operator, no matter what her prey or her method, to make a slight +mistake and sting merely somewhere near the requisite point. I see them +all groping with the tip of the abdomen, sometimes seeking persistently, +before unsheathing. They thrust only when the point beneath the sting +is precisely that at which the wound will produce its full effect. The +Two-banded Scolia in particular will struggle with the Cetonia-grub for +half an hour at a time to enable herself to drive in the stiletto at the +right spot. + +Wearied by an endless scuffle, one of my captives committed before my +eyes a slight blunder, an unprecedented thing. Her weapon entered a +little to one side, not quite a millimetre from the central point and +still, of course, on the line of demarcation between the first two +thoracic segments. I at once laid hold of the precious specimen, which +was to teach me curious matters about the effects of an ill-delivered +stroke. If I myself had made the insect sting at this or that point, +there would have been no particular interest in it: the Scolia, held +between the finger-tips, would wound at random, like a Bee defending +herself; her undirected sting would inject the poison at haphazard. +But here everything happened by rule, except for the little error of +position. + +Well, the victim of this clumsy operation has its legs paralysed only on +the left side, the side towards which the weapon was deflected; it is +a case of hemiplegia. The legs on the right side move. If the operation +had been performed in the normal fashion the result would have been +sudden inertia of all six legs. The hemiplegia, it is true does not last +long. The torpor of the left half rapidly gains the right half of the +body and the creature lies motionless, incapable of burying itself in +the mould, without, however, realizing the conditions indispensable to +the safety of the egg or the young grub. If I seize one of its legs or +a point of the skin with the tweezers, it suddenly shrivels and curls +up and swells out again, as it does when in complete possession of its +energies. What would become of an egg laid on such victuals? At the +first closing of this ruthless vice, at the first contraction, it would +be crushed, or at least detached from its place; and any egg removed +from the point where the mother has fastened it is bound to perish. It +needs, on the Cetonia's abdomen, a yielding support which the bites of +the new-born larva will not set aquiver. The slightly eccentric sting +gives none of this soft mass of fat, always outstretched and quiescent. +Only on the following day, after the torpor has made progress, does the +larva become suitably inert and limp. But it is too late; and in the +meantime the egg would be in serious danger on this half-paralysed +victim. The sting, by straying less than a millimetre, would leave the +Scolia without progeny. + +I promised fractions. Here they are. Let us consider the Tarantula and +the Epeira on whom the Calicurgi have just operated. The first thrust +of the sting is delivered in the mouth. In both victims the poison-fangs +are absolutely lifeless: tickling with a bit of straw never once +succeeds in making them open. On the other hand, the palpi, their very +near neighbours, their adjuncts as it were, possess their customary +mobility. Without any previous touches, they keep on moving for weeks. +In entering the mouth the sting did not reach the cervical ganglia, +or sudden death would have ensued and we should have before our eyes +corpses which would go bad in a few days, instead of fresh carcases +in which traces of life remain manifest for a long time. The cephalic +nerve-centres have been spared. + +What is wounded then, to procure this profound inertia of the +poison-fangs? I regret that my anatomical knowledge leaves me undecided +on this point. Are the fangs actuated by a special ganglion? Are they +actuated by fibres issuing from centres exercising further functions? I +leave to anatomists equipped with more delicate instruments than I the +task of elucidating this obscure question. The second conjecture appears +to me the more probable, because of the palpi, whose nerves, it seems to +me, must have the same origin as those of the fangs. Basing our argument +on this latter hypothesis, we see that the Calicurgus has only one means +of suppressing the movement of the poisoned pincers without affecting +the mobility of the palpi, above all without injuring the cephalic +centres and thus producing death, namely, to reach with her sting the +two fibres actuating the fangs, fibres as fine as a hair. + +I insist upon this point. Despite their extreme delicacy, these two +filaments must be injured directly; for, if it were enough for the sting +to inject its poison "there or thereabouts," the nerves of the palpi, so +close to the first, would undergo the same intoxication as the adjacent +region and would leave those appendages motionless. The palpi move; +they retain their mobility for a considerable period; the action of the +poison, therefore, is evidently situated in the nerves of the fangs. +There are two of these nerve-filaments, very fine, very difficult to +discover, even by the professional anatomist. The Calicurgus has +to reach them one after the other, to moisten them with her poison, +possibly to transfix them, in any case to operate upon them in a very +restricted manner; so that the diffusion of the virus may not involve +the adjoining parts. The extreme delicacy of this surgery explains +why the weapon remains in the mouth so long; the point of the sting is +seeking and eventually finds the tiny fraction of a millimetre where the +poison is to act. This is what we learn from the movements of the palpi +close to the motionless fangs; they tell us that the Calicurgi are +vivisectors of alarming accuracy. + +If we accept the hypothesis of a special nerve-centre for the mandibles, +the difficulty would be a little less, without detracting from the +operator's talent. The sting would then have to reach a barely visible +speck, an atom in which we should hardly find room for the point of a +needle. This is the difficulty which the various paralysers solve in +ordinary practice. Do they actually wound with their dirks the ganglion +whose influence is to be done away with? It is possible, but I have +tried no test to make sure, the infinitely tiny wound appearing to be +too difficult to detect with the optical instruments at my disposal. Do +they confine themselves to lodging their drop of poison on the ganglion, +or at all events in its immediate neighbourhood? I do not say no. + +I declare moreover, that, to provoke lightning paralysis, the poison, if +it is not deposited inside the mass of nervous substance, must act +from somewhere very near. This assertion is merely echoing what the +Two-banded Scolia has just shown us: her Cetonia-grub, stung less than +a millimetre from the regular spot, did not become motionless until next +day. There is no doubt, judging by this instance, that the effect of the +virus spreads in all directions within a radius of some extent; but +this diffusion is not enough for the operator, who requires for her egg, +which is soon to be laid, absolute safety from the very first. + +On the other hand, the actions of the paralysers argue a precise search +for the ganglia, at all events for the first thoracic ganglion, the +most important of all. The Hairy Ammophila, among others, affords us an +excellent example of this method. Her three thrusts in the caterpillar's +thorax and especially the last, between the first and second pair of +legs, are more prolonged than the stabs distributed among the abdominal +ganglia. Everything justifies us in believing that, for these decisive +inoculations, the sting seeks out the corresponding ganglion and acts +only when it finds it under its point. On the abdomen this peculiar +insistence ceases; the sting passes swiftly from one segment to another. +For these segments, which are less dangerous, the Ammophila perhaps +relies on the diffusion of her venom; in any case, the injections, +though hastily administered, do not diverge from a close vicinity of the +ganglia, for their field of action is very limited, as is proved by the +number of inoculations necessary to induce complete torpor, or, more +simply, by the following example. + +A Grey Worm which had just received its first sting on the third +thoracic segment repulses the Ammophila and with a jerk hurls her to a +distance. I profit by the occasion and take hold of the grub. The legs +of this third segment only are paralysed; the others retain their usual +mobility. However helpless in the two injured legs, the animal can walk +very well; it buries itself in the earth, returning to the surface at +night to gnaw the stump of lettuce with which I have served it. For a +fortnight my paralytic retains perfect liberty of action, except in the +segment operated on; then it dies, not of its wound but accidentally. +All this time the effect of the poison has not spread beyond the +inoculated segment. + +At any point where the sting enters, anatomy informs us of the presence +of a nervous nucleus. Is this centre directly smitten by the weapon? +Or is it poisoned with virus, from a very small distance, by the +progressive impregnation of the neighbouring tissues? This is the +doubtful point, though it does not in any way invalidate the precision +of the abdominal injections, which are comparatively neglected. As for +those in the caterpillar's thorax, their precision is beyond dispute. +After the Ammophilae, the Scoliae and, above all, the Calicurgi, is it +really necessary to bring into court yet other witnesses, who would all +swear that, with modifications of detail, the movement of their lancet +is strictly regulated by the nervous system of the prey? This ought +to be enough. The proof is established for those who have ears to hear +with. + +Others delight in objections whose oddity surprises me. They see in the +poison of the Hunting Wasps an antiseptic liquid and in victuals stored +in their burrows preserved meats which are kept fresh not by a remnant +of life but by the virus and its microbes. Come, my learned masters, let +us just talk the matter over, between ourselves. Have you ever seen the +larder of a skilled Hunting Wasp, a Sphex for instance, a Scolia, an +Ammophila? You haven't, have you? I thought as much. Yet it would be +better to begin by doing so, before bringing the preservative microbe +on the scene. The slightest examination would have shown you that the +victuals cannot be compared exactly with smoked hams. The thing moves, +therefore it is not dead. There you have the whole matter, in its +artless simplicity. The palpi move, the mandibles open and shut, the +tarsi quiver, the antennae and the abdominal filaments wave to and +fro, the abdomen throbs, the intestine rejects its contents, the animal +reacts to the stimulus of a needle, all of which signs are hardly +compatible with the idea of pickled meat. + +Have you had the curiosity to look through the pages in which I set +forth the detailed results of my observations? You haven't, have +you? Again, I thought as much. It is a pity. You would there find, in +particular, the history of certain Ephippigers who, after being stung +by the Sphex according to rule, were reared by myself by hand. You must +agree that these are queer preserves to be produced by the use of an +antiseptic fluid. They accept the mouthfuls which I offer them on the +tip of a straw; they feed, they sit up and take nourishment. I shall +never live to see tinned sardines doing as much. + +I will avoid tedious repetition and content myself with adding to my +old sheaf of proofs a few facts which have not yet been related. The +Nest-building Odynerus showed us in her cells a few Chrysomela-larvae +fixed by the hinder part to the side of the reed. The grub fastens +itself in this way to the poplar-leaf to obtain a purchase when the +moment has come for leaving the larval slough. Do not these preparations +for the nymphosis tell us plainly that the creature is not dead? + +The Hairy Ammophila affords us an even better example. A number of +caterpillars operated on before my eyes attained, some sooner, some +later, the chrysalis stage. My notes are explicit on the subject of some +of them, taken on Verbascum sinuatum. Sacrificed on the 14th of April, +they were still irritable when tickled with a straw a fortnight after. +A little later, the pale-green colouring of the early stages is replaced +by a reddish brown, except on two or three segments of the median +ventral surface. The skin wrinkles and splits, but does not come +detached of its own accord. I can easily remove it in shreds. Under +this slough appears the firm, chestnut-brown horn integument of the +chrysalis. The development of the nymphosis is so correct that for a +moment the crazy hope occurs to me that I may see a Turnip-moth come out +of this mummy, the victim of a dozen dagger-thrusts. For the rest, there +is no attempt at spinning a cocoon, no jet of silky threads flung out +by the caterpillar before turning into a chrysalis. Perhaps under normal +conditions metamorphosis takes place without this protection. However, +the moth whom I expected to see was beyond the limits of the possible. +In the middle of May, a month after the operation on the caterpillars, +my three chrysalids, still incomplete underneath, in the three or four +middle segments, withered and at last went mouldy. Is the evidence +conclusive this time? Who can conceive such a silly idea as that a prey +really dead, a corpse preserved from putrefaction by an antiseptic, +could contain what is perhaps the most delicate work of life, the +development of the grub into the perfect insect? + +The truth must be driven into recalcitrant brains with great blows of +the sledge-hammer. Let us once more employ this method. In September +I unearth from a heap of mould five Cetonia-grubs, paralysed by the +Two-banded Scolia and bearing on the abdomen the as yet unhatched egg of +the Wasp. I remove the eggs and install the helpless creatures on a bed +of leaf-mould with a glass cover. I propose to see how long I can keep +them fresh, able to move their mandibles and palpi. Already the victims +of various Hunting Wasps had instructed me on a similar matter; I knew +that traces of life linger for two, three, four weeks and longer. For +instance, I had seen the Ephippigers of the Languedocian Sphex continue +the waving of their antennae and their paralytic shudders for forty days +of artificial feeding by hand; and I used to wonder whether the more or +less early death of the other victims was not due to lack of nourishment +quite as much as to the operation which they had undergone. However, +the insect in its adult form usually has a very brief existence. It soon +dies, killed by the mere fact of living, without any other accident. +A larva is preferable for these investigations. Its constitution is +livelier, better able to support protracted abstinence, above all during +the winter torpor. The Cetonia-grub, a regular lump of bacon, nourished +by its own fat during the winter season, fulfils the needful conditions +to perfection. What will become of it, lying belly upwards on its bed of +leaf-mould? Will it survive the winter? + +At the end of a month, three of my grubs turn brown and lapse into +rottenness. The other two keep perfectly fresh and move their antennae +and palpi at the touch of a straw. The cold weather comes and tickling +no longer elicits these signs of life. The inertia is complete; +nevertheless their appearance remains excellent, without a trace of the +brownish tinge, the sign of deterioration. At the return of the warm +weather, in the middle of May, there is a sort of resurrection. I +find my two larvae turned over, belly downwards; much more: they are +half-buried in the mould. When teased, they coil up lazily; they move +their legs as well as their mouth-parts, but slowly and without vigour. +Then their strength seems to revive. The convalescent, resuscitated +grubs dig with clumsy efforts into their bed of mould; they dive into +it and disappear to a depth of about two inches. Recovery seems to be +imminent. + +I am mistaken. In June I unearth the invalids. This time, the larvae +are dead; their brown colour tells me as much. I expected better things. +Never mind: this is no trifling success. For nine months, nine long +months, the grubs stabbed by the Scolia kept fresh and alive. Towards +the end, torpor was dispelled, strength and movement returned, +sufficiently to enable them to leave the surface where I had placed them +and to regain the depths by boring a passage through the soil. I +really think that after this resurrection there will be no more talk of +antiseptics, unless and until tinned Herrings begin to frolic in their +brine. (The subject of this and the preceding chapters is continued in +an essay entitled "The Poison of the Bee" for which cf. "Bramble-bees +and Others": chapter 11.--Translator's Note.) + + + + +INDEX. + +Acorn-weevil. + +Amedeus' Eumenes. + +Ameles decolor (see Grey Mantis). + +Ammophila (see also the varieties below). + +Ammophila hursuta (see Hairy Ammophila). + +Ammophila holoserica (see Silky Ammophila). + +Ammophila Julii (see Jules' Ammophila). + +Ammophila sabulosa (see Sandy Ammophila). + +Anathema Tachytes. + +Anoxia (see also the varieties below). + +Anoxia australis. + +Anoxia matutinalis (see Morning Anoxia). + +Anoxia villosa (see Shaggy Anoxia). + +Ant. + +Anthidium (see also the varieties below). + +Anthidium bellicosum. + +Anthidium scapulare. + +Anthidium septemdentatum. + +Anthophora. + +Anthrax (see also Anthrax sinuata). + +Anthrax sinuata. + +Ape. + +Aphis (see Plant-louse). + +Ass. + +Astata. + +Balaninus (see also Balaninus glandum). + +Balaninus glandum (see Acorn-weevil). + +Banded Epeira. + +Bat. + +Bee (see also Bumble-bee, Hive-bee, Mason-bee). + +Bee-eating Philanthus. + +Beetle. + +Bembex (see also the varieties below). + +Bembex bidentata (see Two-pronged Bembex). + +Bembex rostrata (see Rostrate Bembex). + +Black, Adam and Charles. + +Black-bellied Tarantula. + +Black Spider (see Cellar Spider). + +Black Tachytes. + +Blister-beetle (see Oil-beetle). + +Bluebottle. + +Blue Osmia. + +Bombylius. + +Boyle, Robert. + +Brachycera. + +Brachyderes pubescens (see Pubescent Brachyderes). + +Breguet, Louis. + +Brillat-Savarin, Anthelme. + +Brown-winged Solenius. + +Bug. + +Bull. + +Bull, the author's Dog. + +Bullock. + +Bumble-bee. + +Buprestis. + +Buprestis-hunting Cerceris. + +Burnt Zonitis. + +Butterfly. + +Cabbage Pieris. + +Calicurgus (see Pompilus and the varieties below). + +Calicurgus annulatus (see Ringed Calicurgus). + +Calicurgus scurra (see Harlequin Calicurgus). + +Callot, Jacques. + +Cantharides. + +Carpenter-bee. + +Cellar Spider. + +Century co. + +Cerceris (see also Buprestis-hunting Cerceris and the varieties below). + +Cerceris arenaria (see Sand Cerceris). + +Cerceris Ferreri (see Ferrero's Cerceris). + +Cerceris ornata (see Ornate Cerceris). + +Cerceris tuberculata (see Great Cerceris). + +Cerocoma. + +Cetonia (see also the varieties below). + +Cetonia aurata (see Golden Cetonia). + +Cetonia morio. + +Chaffinch. + +Chalicodoma (see Mason-bee). + +Chaoucho-grapaou (see Nightjar). + +Chimpanzee. + +Chrysomela populi (see Poplar Leaf-beetle). + +Cicada. + +Cicadella. + +Cleonus (see also Cleonus ophthalmicus). + +Cleonus ophthalmicus. + +Cneorhinus. + +Cockchafer. + +Colpa interrupta (see Interrupted Scolia). + +Common Cockchafer (see Cockchafer). + +Common Wasp. + +Cotton-bee (see Anthidium scapulare). + +Cow. + +Crab. + +Crabro (see Hornet). + +Crabro chrysostomus (see Golden-mouthed Hornet). + +Cricket. + +Crowned Philanthus. + +Cuckoo. + +Darwin, Charles Robert. + +David the painter. + +David, Felicien Cesar. + +Death's-head Hawk-moth. + +Devilkin (see Empusa). + +Dicranura vinula. + +Dioxys cincta (see Girdled Dioxys). + +Dog (see also Bull). + +Drone-fly. + +Dufour, Jean Marie Leon. + +Duges, Louis Antoine. + +Earth-worm. + +Eight-spotted Pompilus. + +Empusa. + +Epeira (see also the varieties below). + +Epeira fasciata (see Banded Epeira). + +Epeira serica (see Silky Epeira). + +Ephippiger. + +Eristalis E. tenax (see Drone-fly). + +Eucera. + +Euchlora Julii. + +Eumenes (see also Amedeus Eumenes). + +Fabricius, Johan Christian. + +Favier, the author's factotum. + +Ferrero's Cerceris. + +Field-mouse. + +Fly (see also Gad-fly, House-fly). + +Fox. + +Frog. + +Gad-fly. + +Galileo. + +Garden Scolia. + +Garden Spider (see Epeira). + +Geonomus. + +Girdled Dioxys. + +Gnat. + +Goat. + +Goatsucker (see Nightjar). + +Golden Cetonia. + +Golden-crested Wren. + +Golden-mouthed Hornet. + +Golden Osmia. + +Gorilla. + +Grasshopper. + +Great Cellar Spider (see Cellar Spider). + +Great Cerceris. + +Grey Mantis. + +Grey Worm. + +Hairy Ammophila. + +Halictus. + +Harlequin Calicurgus. + +Hedgehog. + +Helophilus pendulus. + +Hemorrhoidal Scolia. + +Hen. + +Herring. + +Hive-bee. + +Hog. + +Hornet (see also Golden-mouthed Hornet). + +House-fly. + +Interrupted Scolia. + +Jules, Ammophila. + +Klug. + +Lalande, Joseph Jerome Le Francais de. + +Lamellicorn. + +Languedocian Sphex. + +Lark. + +Latreille, Pierre Andre. + +Leucopsis gigas, L. grandis. + +Lily-beetle. + +Linnet. + +Locust. + +Looper. + +Lycosa (see Black-bellied Tarantula). + +Macmillan Co. + +Mantis (see also Grey Mantis, Praying Mantis). + +Mantis-hunting Tachytes (see Mantis-killing Tachytes). + +Mantis-killing Tachytes. + +Mariotte, Edme. + +Mason-bee (see also the Anthophora and the varieties below). + +Mason-bee of the Pebbles (see Mason-bee of the Walls). + +Mason-bee of the Sheds. + +Mason-bee of the Shrubs. + +Mason-bee of the Walls. + +Measuring-worm (see Looper). + +Megachile sericans. + +Melanophora. + +Meloe (see Oil-beetle). + +Miall, Bernard. + +Midge. + +Mithradates VI. + +Mole. + +Mole-cricket. + +Monkey. + +Monoceros (see Oryctes nasicornis). + +Morning Anoxia. + +Mosquito. + +Moth. + +Mule. + +Muscid (see House-fly). + +Mylabris. + +Narbonne Lycosa (see Black-bellied Tarantula). + +Nest-building Odynerus. + +Nightjar. + +Nut-weevil. + +Odynerus (see also Nest-building Odynerus). + +Oil-beetle. + +Ornate Cerceris. + +Oryctes nasicornis. + +Oryctes Silenus. + +Osmia (see also the varieties below). + +Osmia cyanea (see Blue Osmia). + +Osmia cyanoxantha. + +Osmia Latreillii (see Latreille's Osmia). + +Osmia parvula (see Tiny Osmia). + +Osmia tricornis (see Three-horned Osmia). + +Ostrich. + +Otiorhynchus. + +Palarus (see also Palarus flavipes). + +Palarus flavipes. + +Pangonia. + +Panzer's Tachytes. + +Paragus. + +Pascal, Blaise. + +Passerini. + +Pea-weevil. + +Pelopaeus. + +Pentodon punctatus. + +Perez, J. + +Phaneropteron falcata. + +Philanthus (see also the varieties below). + +Philanthus apivorus (see Bee-eating Philanthus). + +Philanthus coronatus (see Crowned Philanthus). + +Philanthus raptor (see Robber Philanthus). + +Phynotomus. + +Pieris (see Cabbage Pieris). + +Pig. + +Pine-chafer. + +Pithecanthropus. + +Plant-louse. + +Pompilus (see also the varieties below). + +Pompilus annulatus (see Ringed Calicurgus). + +Pompilus apicalis. + +Pompilus octopunctatus (see Eight-spotted Pompilus). + +Poplar Leaf-Beetle. + +Praying Mantis. + +Pubescent Brachyderes. + +Rat. + +Resin-bee (see Anthidium bellicosum, Anthidium septemdentatum). + +Rhinoceros Beetle (see Oryctes nasicornis). + +Rhynchites betuleti. + +Ringed Calicurgus. + +Ringed Pompilus (see Ringed Calicurgus). + +Robber Philanthus. + +Robber-fly. + +Robin. + +Romanes, George John. + +Rose-chafer (see Cetonia, Golden Cetonia). + +Rostrate Bembex. + +Sand Cerceris. + +Sandy Ammophila. + +Sapyga punctata (see Spotted Sapyga). + +Sarcophaga. + +Scarabaeid. + +Scarabaeus pentodon. + +Scolia (see also the varieties below). + +Scolia bifasciata (see Two-banded Scolia). + +Scolia haemorrhoidalis (see Hemorrhoidal Scolia). + +Scolia hortorum (see Garden Scolia). + +Scolia interrupta (see Interrupted Scolia). + +Screech-owl. + +Seal. + +Segestria perfidia (see Cellar Spider). + +Shaggy Anoxia. + +Sheep. + +Silkworm. + +Silky Ammophila. + +Silky Epeira. + +Silky Leaf-cutter (see Megachile sericans). + +Sitones. + +Skua. + +Slug. + +Snail. + +Socrates. + +Solenius fascipennis (see Brown-winged Solenius). + +Solenius vagus (see Wandering Solenius). + +Sparrow. + +Sparrow-hawk. + +Sphaerophoria. + +Sphex (see also Languedocian Sphex, White-banded Sphex, Yellow-winged +Sphex.) + +Spider (see also Black-bellied Tarantula, Cellar Spider, Epeira. + +Spotted Sapyga. + +Spurge Hawk-moth. + +Stizus (see also the varieties below). + +Stizus ruficornis. + +Stizus tridentatus. + +Strophosomus. + +Swallow. + +Swammerdam, Jan. + +Syritta perpens. + +Syrphus. + +Tachytes (see also Mantis-killing Tachytes and the varieties below). + +Tachytes anathema (see Anathema Tachytes). + +Tachytes nigra (see Black Tachytes). + +Tachytes Panzeri (see Panzer's Tachytes). + +Tachytes tarsina (see Tarsal Tachytes). + +Tachytes unicolor. + +Tarantula (see Black-bellied Tarantula). + +Tarsal Bembex. + +Tarsal Tachytes. + +Teixeira de Mattos, Alexander. + +Three-horned Osmia. + +Tiny Osmia. + +Toad. + +Toricelli, Evangelista. + +Toussenel, Alphonse. + +Turkey. + +Turnip Moth. + +Two-banded Scolia. + +Two-pronged Bembex. + +Unwin, T. Fisher, Ltd. + +Vespa crabro (see Hornet). + +Virgilian Bee, Virgil's Bee (see Drone-fly). + +Wandering Solenius. + +Wasp (see Common Wasp). + +Weevil (see also Acorn-weevil, Nut-weevil, Pea-weevil). + +Whale. + +Whippoorwill (see Nightjar). + +White-banded Sphex. + +White Worm. + +Wolf. + +Yellow-winged Sphex. + +Zeuzera. + +Zonitis praeusta (see Burnt Zonitis). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of More Hunting Wasps, by J. 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