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diff --git a/34612.txt b/34612.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7578164 --- /dev/null +++ b/34612.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15719 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 3, Slice 6, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 6 + "Bent, James" to "Bibirine" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 9, 2010 [EBook #34612] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM: "His first term as governor, during + which he seems to have been extremely popular with the majority of + the colonists, was notable principally for his religious + intolerance and his expulsion of the Puritans, who were in a great + minority." 'expulsion' amended from 'expulson'. + + ARTICLE BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH: "To prevent + underground intrigues, Bestuzhev now proposed the erection of a + council of ministers, to settle all important affairs ..." + 'underground' amended from 'undergound'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME III, SLICE VI + + Bent, James to Bibirine + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + BENT, JAMES THEODORE BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE + BENT BERSERKER + BENTHAM, GEORGE BERT, PAUL + BENTHAM, JEREMY BERTANI, AGOSTINO + BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM BERTAT + BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM CAVENDISH BERTAUT, JEAN + BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI BERTH + BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN PIERRE EUGENE + BENTLEY, RICHARD (scholar) BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE + BENTLEY, RICHARD (publisher) BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS + BENTON, THOMAS HART BERTHON, EDWARD LYON + BENTON HARBOR BERTHOUD, FERDINAND + BENUE BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE + BEN VENUE BERTIN + BENZALDEHYDE BERTINORO, OBADIAH + BENZENE BERTINORO + BENZIDINE BERTOLD + BENZOIC ACID BERTOLD VON REGENSBURG + BENZOIN (ketone-alcohol) BERTRAM, CHARLES + BENZOIN (balsamic resin) BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN + BENZOPHENONE BERTRICH + BENZYL ALCOHOL BERULLE, PIERRE DE + BEOTHUK BERVIE + BEOTHY, ODON BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES + BEOWULF BERWICKSHIRE + BEQUEST BERWICK-UPON-TWEED + BERAIN, JEAN BERYL + BERANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE BERYLLIUM + BERAR BERYLLONITE + BERARD, JOSEPH FREDERIC BERZELIUS, JONS JAKOB + BERAT BES + BERAUN BESANCON + BERBER BESANT, SIR WALTER + BERBERA BESENVAL DE BRONSTATT, PIERRE VICTOR + BERBERINE BESKOW, BERNHARD VON + BERBERS BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT + BERCEUSE BESOM + BERCHEM, NICOLAAS BESSARABIA + BERCHTA BESSARION, JOHANNES + BERCHTESGADEN BESSBOROUGH, EARLS OF + BERCK BESSEGES + BERDICHEV BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM + BERDYANSK BESSEL FUNCTION + BEREA BESSEMER, SIR HENRY + BEREKHIAH NAQDAN BESSEMER + BERENGARIUS BESSIERES, JEAN BAPTISTE + BERENGER, ALPHONSE THOMAS BESSUS + BERENICE (princesses) BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS + BERENICE (seaport of Egypt) BESTIA + BERESFORD, LORD DE LA POER BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH + BERESFORD, JOHN BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, MIKHAIL PETROVICH + BERESFORD, WILLIAM BERESFORD BET and BETTING + BEREZINA BETAINE + BEREZOV BETEL NUT + BEREZOVSK BETHANY + BERG BETHEL + BERGAMASK BETHENCOURT, JEAN DE + BERGAMO BETHESDA (Jerusalem) + BERGAMOT, OIL OF BETHESDA (Wales) + BERGEDORF BETH-HORON + BERGEN BETHLEHEM (Palestine) + BERGEN-OP-ZOOM BETHLEHEM (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.) + BERGERAC BETHLEHEMITES + BERGHAUS, HEINRICH BETHLEN, GABRIEL + BERGK, THEODOR BETHNAL GREEN + BERGLER, STEPHAN BETHUNE {family) + BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF BETHUNE, CONON DE + BERGSCHRUND BETHUNE (town of France) + BERGUES BETROTHAL + BERHAMPUR (Bengal, India) BETTERMENT + BERHAMPUR (Madras, India) BETTERTON, THOMAS + BERI-BERI BETTIA + BERING, VITUS BETTINELLI, SAVERIO + BERING ISLAND, SEA and STRAIT BETTWS Y COED + BERING SEA ARBITRATION BETTY, WILLIAM HENRY WEST + BERIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE BETUL + BERJA BETWA + BERKA BEUDANT, FRANCOIS SULPICE + BERKELEY (English family) BEUGNOT, JACQUES CLAUDE + BERKELEY, GEORGE BEULE, CHARLES ERNEST + BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH BEURNONVILLE, PIERRE DE RUEL + BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON + BERKELEY (California, U.S.A.) BEUTHEN (Niederbeuthen) + BERKELEY (town of England) BEUTHEN (Oberbeuthen) + BERKHAMPSTEAD BEVEL + BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD BEVERLEY, WILLIAM ROXBY + BERKSHIRE BEVERLEY + BERLAD BEVERLY + BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ BEVIS OF HAMPTON + BERLIN, ISAIAH BEWDLEY + BERLIN (German city) BEWICK, THOMAS + BERLIN (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) BEXHILL + BERLIN (Ontario, Canada) BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART + BERLIN (carriage) BEXLEY + BERLIOZ, HECTOR BEY + BERM BEYBAZAR + BERMONDSEY BEYLE, MARIE HENRI + BERMUDAS BEYRICH, HEINRICH ERNST VON + BERMUDEZ BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD + BERN (Swiss canton) BEZA, THEODORE + BERN (Swiss city) BEZANT + BERNARD, SAINT BEZANTEE + BERNARD OF CHARTRES BEZBORODKO, ALEKSANDER ANDREEVICH + BERNARD, CHARLES DE BEZEL + BERNARD, CLAUDE BEZIQUE + BERNARD, JACQUES BEZWADA + BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE BHAGALPUR + BERNARD, SIMON BHAMO + BERNARD, SIR THOMAS BHANDARA + BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST BHANG + BERNAUER, AGNES BHARAHAT + BERNAY BHARAL + BERNAYS, JAKOB BHARATPUR + BERNBURG BHATGAON + BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER BHATTIANA + BERNERS, JULIANA BHAU DAJI + BERNHARD OF SAXE-WEIMAR BHAUNAGAR + BERNHARDT, SARAH BHEESTY + BERNHARDY, GOTTFRIED BHERA + BERNI, FRANCESCO BHILS + BERNICIA BHIMA + BERNICIAN SERIES BHIWANI + BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO BHOPAL + BERNIS, FRANCOIS PIERRE DE BHOPAWAR + BERNKASTEL BHOR + BERNOULLI BHUJ + BERNSTEIN, AARON BHUTAN + BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO + BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GUNTHER BIARRITZ + BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST BIAS (Sage of Greece) + BEROSSUS BIAS (something oblique) + BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT BIBACULUS, MARCUS FURIUS + BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON + BERRY, JOHN BIBERACH + BERRY BIBIRINE + + + + +BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852-1897), English traveller, was the son of +James Bent of Baildon House, near Leeds, Yorkshire, where he was born on +the 30th of March 1852. He was educated at Repton school and Wadham +College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1875. In 1877 he married Mabel, +daughter of R.W. Hall-Dare of Newtownbarry, Co. Wexford, and she became +his companion in all his travels. He went abroad every year and became +thoroughly acquainted with Italy and Greece. In 1879 he published a book +on the republic of San Marino, entitled _A Freak of Freedom_, and was +made a citizen of San Marino; in the following year appeared _Genoa: How +the Republic Rose and Fell_, and in 1881 a _Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi_. +He spent considerable time in the Aegean archipelago, of which he wrote +in _The Cyclades: or Life among the Insular Greeks_ (1885). From this +period Bent devoted himself particularly to archaeological research. The +years 1885-1888 were given up to investigations in Asia Minor, his +discoveries and conclusions being communicated to the _Journal of +Hellenic Studies_ and other magazines and reviews. In 1889 he undertook +excavations in the Bahrein Islands of the Persian Gulf, and found +evidence that they had been a primitive home of the Phoenician race. +After an expedition in 1890 to Cilicia Trachea, where he obtained a +valuable collection of inscriptions, Bent spent a year in South Africa, +with the object, by investigation of some of the ruins in Mashonaland, +of throwing light on the vexed question of their origin and on the early +history of East Africa. He made the first detailed examination of the +Great Zimbabwe. Bent described his work in _The Ruined Cities of +Mashonaland_ (1892). In 1893 he investigated the ruins of Axum and other +places in the north of Abyssinia, partially made known before by the +researches of Henry Salt and others, and _The Sacred City of the +Ethiopians_ (1893) gave an account of this expedition. Bent now visited +at considerable risk the almost unknown Hadramut country (1893-1894), +and during this and later journeys in southern Arabia he studied the +ancient history of the country, its physical features and actual +condition. On the Dhafar coast in 1894-1895 he visited ruins which he +identified with the Abyssapolis of the frankincense merchants. In +1895-1896 he examined part of the African coast of the Red Sea, finding +there the ruins of a very ancient gold-mine and traces of what he +considered Sabean influence. While on another journey in South Arabia +(1896-1897), Bent was seized with malarial fever, and died in London on +the 5th of May 1897, a few days after his return. Mrs Bent, who had +contributed by her skill as a photographer and in other ways to the +success of her husband's journeys, published in 1900 _Southern Arabia, +Soudan and Sakotra_, in which were given the results of their last +expedition into that region. The conclusions at which Bent arrived as to +the Semitic origin of the ruins in Mashonaland have not been accepted by +archaeologists, but the value of his pioneer work is undeniable (see +ZIMBABWE). + + + + +BENT. 1. (From "to bend"), primarily the result of bending; hence any +inclination from the straight, as in curved objects like a hook or a +bow; this survives in the modern phrase "to follow one's own bent," i.e. +to pursue a certain course in a direction deviating from the normal, as +also in such phrases as Chaucer's "Downward on a hill under a bent," +indicating a hollow or declivity in the general configuration of the +land. From the bending of a bow comes the idea of tension, as in Hamlet, +"they fool me to the top of my bent," i.e. to the utmost of my capacity. +2. (From the O. Eng. _beonet_, a coarse, rushy grass growing in wet +places; cf. the Ger. _Binse_, a reed), the name ("bent" or "bennet") +popularly applied to several kinds of grass and surviving in the form +"bent-grass." + + + + +BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884), English botanist, was born at Stoke near +Portsmouth on the 22nd of September 1800. His father, Sir Samuel Bentham +(1757-1831), was the only brother of Jeremy Bentham, the publicist, and +of scarcely inferior ability though in a different direction. Devoting +himself in early life to the study of naval architecture, Sir Samuel +went to Russia to visit the naval establishments in the Baltic and Black +Seas. He was induced to enter the service of the empress Catherine II., +built a flotilla of gunboats and defeated the Turkish fleet. For this he +was made, in addition to other honours, colonel of a cavalry regiment. +On the death of the empress he returned to England to be employed by the +admiralty, and was sent (1805-1807) again to Russia to superintend the +building of some ships for the British navy. He attained the rank, under +the admiralty, of inspector-general of naval works. He introduced a +multitude of improvements in naval organization, and it was largely +through his recommendation that M.I. Brunel's block-making machinery was +installed at Portsmouth. + +George Bentham had neither a school nor a college education, but early +acquired the power of giving sustained and concentrated attention to any +subject that occupied him--one essential condition of the success he +attained as perhaps the greatest systematic botanist of the 19th +century. Another was his remarkable linguistic aptitude. At the age of +six to seven he could converse in French, German and Russian, and he +learnt Swedish during a short residence in Sweden when little older. At +the close of the war with France, the Benthams made a long tour through +that country, staying two years at Montauban, where Bentham studied +Hebrew and mathematics in the Protestant Theological School. They +eventually settled in the neighbourhood of Montpellier where Sir Samuel +purchased a large estate. + +The mode in which George Bentham was attracted to the botanical studies +which became the occupation of his life is noteworthy; it was through +the applicability to them of the logical methods which he had imbibed +from his uncle's writings, and not from any special attraction to +natural history pursuits. While studying at Angouleme a copy of A.P. de +Candolle's _Flore francaise_ fell into his hands and he was struck with +the analytical tables for identifying plants. He immediately proceeded +to test their use on the first that presented itself. The result was +successful and he continued to apply it to every plant he came across. A +visit to London in 1823 brought him into contact with the brilliant +circle of English botanists. In 1826, at the pressing invitation of his +uncle, he agreed to act as his secretary, at the same time entering at +Lincoln's Inn and reading for the bar. He was called in due time and in +1832 held his first and last brief. The same year Jeremy Bentham died, +leaving his property to his nephew. His father's inheritance had fallen +to him the previous year. He was now in a position of modest +independence, and able to pursue undistractedly his favourite studies. +For a time these were divided between botany, jurisprudence and logic, +in addition to editing his father's professional papers. Bentham's first +publication was his _Catalogue des plantes indigenes des Pyrenees et du +Bas Languedoc_ (Paris, 1826), the result of a careful exploration of the +Pyrenees in company with G.A. Walker Arnott (1799-1868), afterwards +professor of botany in the university of Glasgow. It is interesting to +notice that in it Bentham adopted the principle from which he never +deviated, of citing nothing at second-hand. This was followed by +articles on various legal subjects: on codification, in which he +disagreed with his uncle, on the laws affecting larceny and on the law +of real property. But the most remarkable production of this period was +the _Outline of a New System of Logic, with a Critical Examination of Dr +Whately's Elements of Logic_ (1827). In this the principle of the +quantification of the predicate was first explicitly stated. This +Stanley Jevons declared to be "undoubtedly the most fruitful discovery +made in abstract logical science since the time of Aristotle." Before +sixty copies had been sold the publisher became bankrupt and the stock +went for wastepaper. The book passed into oblivion, and it was not till +1873 that Bentham's claims to priority were finally vindicated against +those of Sir William Hamilton by Herbert Spencer. In 1836 he published +his _Labiatarum genera et species_. In preparing this work he visited, +between 1830-1834, every European herbarium, several more than once. The +following winter was passed in Vienna, where he produced his +_Commentationes de Leguminosarum generibus_, published in the annals of +the Vienna Museum. In 1842 he removed to Pontrilas in Herefordshire. His +chief occupation for some succeeding years was his contributions to the +_Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis_, which was being +carried on by his friend, A.P. deCandolle. In all these dealt with some +4730 species. + +In 1854 he found the maintenance of a herbarium and library too great a +tax on his means. He therefore offered them to the government on the +understanding that they should form the foundation of such necessary +aids to research in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. At the same time +he contemplated the abandonment of botanical work. Fortunately, he +yielded to the persuasion of Sir William Hooker, John Lindley and other +scientific friends. In 1855 he took up his residence in London, and +worked at Kew for five days a week, with a brief summer holiday, from +this time onwards till the end of his life. As his friend Asa Gray +wrote: "With such methodical habits, with freedom from professional or +administrative functions, which consume the time of most botanists, with +steady devotion to his chosen work, and with nearly all authentic +material and needful appliances at hand or within reach, it is not so +surprising that he should have undertaken and have so well accomplished +such a vast amount of work, and he has the crowning merit and happy +fortune of having completed all that he undertook." The government, in +1857, sanctioned a scheme for the preparation of a series of Floras or +descriptions in the English language of the indigenous plants of British +colonies and possessions. Bentham began with the _Flora Hongkongensis_ +in 1861, which was the first comprehensive work on any part of the +little-known flora of China. This was followed by the _Flora +Australiensis_, in seven volumes (1863-1878), the first flora of any +large continental area that had ever been finished. His greatest work +was the _Genera Plantarum_, begun in 1862, and concluded in 1883 in +collaboration with Sir Joseph Hooker, "the greater portion being," as +Sir Joseph Hooker tells us, "the product of Bentham's indefatigable +industry." As age gradually impaired his bodily powers, he seemed at +last only to live for the completion of this monumental work. + +When the last revise of the last sheet was returned to the printer, the +stimulus was withdrawn, and his powers seemed suddenly to fail him. He +began a brief autobiography, but the pen with which he had written his +two greatest works broke in his hand in the middle of a page. He +accepted the omen, laid aside the unfinished manuscript and patiently +awaited the not distant end. He died on the both of September 1884, +within a fortnight of his 84th birthday. + +The scientific world received the _Genera Plantarum_ with as unanimous +an assent as was accorded to the _Species Plantarum_ of Linnaeus. +Bentham possessed, as Professor Daniel Oliver remarked, "an insight of +so special a character as to deserve the name of genius, into the +relative value of characters for practical systematic work, and as a +consequence of this, a sure sifting of essentials from non-essentials in +each respective grade." His preparation for his crowning work had been +practically lifelong. There are few parts of the world upon the botany +of which he did not touch. In the sequence and arrangement of the great +families of flowering plants, different views from those of Bentham may +be adopted. But Bentham paved the way by an intimate and exact statement +of the structural facts and their accurate relationship, which is not +likely to be improved. In method and style, in descriptive work, Bentham +was a supreme master. This, to quote Professor Oliver again, is +"manifest not only in its terseness, aptness and precision, but +especially in the judicious selection of diagnostic marks, and in the +instinctive estimate of probable range in variation, which long +experience and innate genius for such work could alone inspire." + (W. T. T.-D.) + + + + +BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832), English philosopher and jurist, was born on +the 15th of February 1748 in Red Lion Street, Houndsditch, London, in +which neighbourhood his grandfather and father successively carried on +business as attorneys. His father, who was a wealthy man and possessed +at any rate a smattering of Greek, Latin and French, was thought to have +demeaned himself by marrying the daughter of an Andover tradesman, who +afterwards retired to a country house near Reading, where young Jeremy +spent many happy days. The boy's talents justified the ambitious hopes +which his parents entertained of his future. When three years old he +read eagerly such works as Rapin's _History_ and began the study of +Latin. A year or two later he learnt to play the violin and to speak +French. At Westminster school he obtained a reputation for Greek and +Latin verse writing; and he was only thirteen when he was matriculated +at Queen's College, Oxford, where his most important acquisition seems +to have been a thorough acquaintance with Sanderson's logic. He became a +B.A. in 1763, and in the same year entered at Lincoln's Inn, and took +his seat as a student in the queen's bench, where he listened with +rapture to the judgments of Lord Mansfield. He managed also to hear +Blackstone's lectures at Oxford, but says that he immediately detected +the fallacies which underlay the rounded periods of the future judge. + +Bentham's family connexions would naturally have given him a fair start +at the bar, but this was not the career for which he was preparing +himself. He spent his time in making chemical experiments and in +speculating upon legal abuses, rather than in reading Coke upon +Littleton and the Reports. On being called to the bar he "found a cause +or two at nurse for him, which he did his best to put to death," to the +bitter disappointment of his father, who had confidently looked forward +to seeing him upon the woolsack. The first fruits of Bentham's studies, +the _Fragment on Government_, appeared in 1776. This masterly attack +upon Blackstone's praises of the English constitution was variously +attributed to Lord Mansfield, Lord Camden and Lord Ashburton. One +important result of its publication was that, in 1781, Lord Shelburne +(afterwards first marquess of Lansdowne) called upon its author in his +chambers at Lincoln's Inn. Henceforth Bentham was a frequent guest at +Bowood, where he saw the best society and where he met Miss Caroline Fox +(daughter of the second Lord Holland), to whom he afterwards made a +proposal of marriage. In 1785 Bentham started, by way of Italy and +Constantinople, on a visit to his brother, Samuel Bentham, a naval +engineer, holding the rank of colonel in the Russian service; and it was +in Russia that he wrote his _Defence of Usury_. Disappointed after his +return to England in 1788 in the hope which he had entertained, through +a misapprehension of something said by Lord Lansdowne, of taking a +personal part in the legislation of his country, he settled down to the +yet higher task of discovering and teaching the principles upon which +all sound legislation must proceed. The great work, upon which he had +been engaged for many years, the _Principles of Morals and +Legislation_, was published in 1789. His fame spread widely and rapidly. +He was made a French citizen in 1792; and his advice was respectfully +received in most of the states of Europe and America, with many of the +leading men of which he maintained an active correspondence. In 1817 he +became a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. His ambition was to be allowed to +prepare a code of laws for his own or some foreign country. During +nearly a quarter of a century he was engaged in negotiations with the +government for the erection of a "Panopticon," for the central +inspection of convicts; a plan suggested to him by a building designed +by his brother Samuel, for the better supervision of his Russian +shipwrights. This scheme, which it was alleged would render +transportation unnecessary, was eventually abandoned, and Bentham +received in 1813, in pursuance of an act of parliament, L23,000 by way +of compensation. It was at a later period of his life that he propounded +schemes for cutting canals through the isthmus of Suez and the isthmus +of Panama. In 1823 he established the _Westminster Review_. Emboldened +perhaps by the windfall of 1813, Bentham in the following year took a +lease of Ford Abbey, a fine mansion with a deer-park, in Dorsetshire; +but in 1818 returned to the house in Queen's Square Place which he had +occupied since the death of his father in 1792. It was there that he +died on the 6th of June 1832 in his eighty-fifth year. In accordance +with his directions, his body was dissected in the presence of his +friends, and the skeleton is still preserved in University College, +London. + +Bentham's life was a happy one of its kind. His constitution, weakly in +childhood, strengthened with advancing years so as to allow him to get +through an incredible amount of sedentary labour, while he retained to +the last the fresh and cheerful temperament of a boy. An ample inherited +fortune permitted him to pursue his studies undistracted by the +necessity for earning a livelihood, and to maximize the results of his +time and labour by the employment of amanuenses and secretaries. He was +able to gather around him a group of congenial friends and pupils, such +as the Mills, the Austins and Bowring, with whom he could discuss the +problems upon which he was engaged, and by whom several of his books +were practically rewritten from the mass of rough though orderly +memoranda which the master had himself prepared. Thus, for instance, was +the _Rationale of Judicial Evidence_ written out by J.S. Mill and the +_Book of Fallacies_ by Bingham. The services which Dumont rendered in +recasting as well as translating the works of Bentham were still more +important. + +The popular notion that Bentham was a morose visionary is far removed +from fact. It is true that he looked upon general society as a waste of +time and that he disliked poetry as "misrepresentation"; but he +intensely enjoyed conversation, gave good dinners and delighted in +music, in country sights and in making others happy. These features of +Bentham's character are illustrated in the graphic account given by the +American minister, Richard Rush, of an evening spent at his London house +in the summer of the year 1818. "If Mr Bentham's character is peculiar," +he says, "so is his place of residence. It was a kind of blind-alley, +the end of which widened into a small, neat courtyard. There by itself +stands Mr Bentham's house. Shrubbery graced its area and flowers its +window-sills. It was like an oasis in the desert. Its name is the +Hermitage. Mr Bentham received me with the simplicity of a philosopher. +I should have taken him for seventy or upwards. Everything inside the +house was orderly. The furniture seemed to have been unmoved since the +days of his fathers, for I learned that it was a patrimony. A parlour, +library and dining-room made up the suite of apartments. In each was a +piano, the eccentric master of the whole being fond of music as the +recreation of his literary hours. It is a unique, romantic-like +homestead. Walking with him into the garden, I found it dark with the +shade of ancient trees. They formed a barrier against all intrusion. The +company was small but choice. Mr Brougham; Sir Samuel Romilly; Mr Mill, +author of the well-known work on India; M. Dumont, the learned Genevan, +once the associate of Mirabeau, were all who sat down to table. Mr +Bentham did not talk much. He had a benevolence of manner suited to the +philanthropy of his mind. He seemed to be thinking only of the +convenience and pleasure of his guests, not as a rule of artificial +breeding as from Chesterfield or Madame Genlis, but from innate feeling. +Bold as are his opinions in his works, here he was wholly unobtrusive of +theories that might not have commended the assent of all present. When +he did converse it was in simple language, a contrast to his later +writings, where an involved style and the use of new or universal words +are drawbacks upon the speculations of a genius original and profound, +but with the faults of solitude. Yet some of his earlier productions are +distinguished by classical terseness."--(_Residence at the Court of +London_, p. 286.) Bentham's love of flowers and music, of green foliage +and shaded walks, comes clearly out in this pleasant picture of his home +life and social surroundings. + +Whether or no he can be said to have founded a school, his doctrines +have become so far part of the common thought of the time, that there is +hardly an educated man who does not accept as too clear for argument +truths which were invisible till Bentham pointed them out. His +sensitively honourable nature, which in early life had caused him to +shrink from asserting his belief in Thirty-nine articles of faith which +he had not examined, was shocked by the enormous abuses which confronted +him on commencing the study of the law. He rebelled at hearing the +system under which they flourished described as the perfection of human +reason. But he was no merely destructive critic. He was determined to +find a solid foundation for both morality and law, and to raise upon it +an edifice, no stone of which should be laid except in accordance with +the deductions of the severest logic. This foundation is "the greatest +happiness of the greatest number," a formula adopted from Priestly or +perhaps first from Beccaria. The phrase may, however, be found in +writers of an earlier date than these, e.g. in Hutcheson's _Enquiry_, +published in 1725. The pursuit of such happiness is taught by the +"utilitarian" philosophy, an expression used by Bentham himself in 1802, +and therefore not invented by J.S. Mill, as he supposed, in 1823. In +order to ascertain what modes of action are most conducive to the end in +view, and what motives are best fitted to produce them, Bentham was led +to construct marvellously exhaustive, though somewhat mechanical, tables +of motives. With all their elaboration, these tables are, however, +defective, as omitting some of the highest and most influential springs +of action. But most of Bentham's conclusions may be accepted without any +formal profession of the utilitarian theory of morals. They are, indeed, +merely the application of a rigorous common sense to the facts of +society. That the proximate ends at which Bentham aimed are desirable +hardly any one would deny, though the feasibility of the means by which +he proposes to attain them may often be questioned, and much of the new +nomenclature in which he thought fit to clothe his doctrines may be +rejected as unnecessary. To be judged fairly, Bentham must be judged as +a teacher of the principles of legislation. With the principles of +private morals he really deals only so far as is necessary to enable the +reader to appreciate the impulses which have to be controlled by law. + +As a teacher of legislation he inquires of all institutions whether +their utility justifies their existence. If not, he is prepared to +suggest a new form of institution by which the needful service may be +rendered. While thus engaged no topic is too large for his mental grasp, +none too small for his notice; and, what is still rarer, every topic is +seen in its due relation to the rest. English institutions had never +before been thus comprehensively and dispassionately surveyed. Such +improvements as had been necessitated were mere makeshifts, often made +by stealth. The rude symmetry of the feudal system had been long ago +destroyed by partial and unskilful adaptations to modern commercial +life, effected at various dates and in accordance with various theories. +The time had come for deliberate reconstruction, for inquiring whether +the existence of many admitted evils was, as it was said to be, +unavoidable; for proving that the needs of society may be classified and +provided for by contrivances which shall not clash with one another +because all shall be parts of a consistent whole. This task Bentham +undertook, and he brought to it a mind absolutely free from professional +or class feeling, or any other species of prejudice. He mapped out the +whole subject, dividing and subdividing it in accordance with the +principle of "dichotomy." Having reached his ultimate subdivisions he +subjects each to the most thorough and ingenious discussion. His earlier +writings exhibit a lively and easy style, which gives place in his later +treatises to sentences which are awkward from their effort after +unattainable accuracy, and from the newly-invented technical +nomenclature in which they are expressed. Many of Bentham's phrases, +such as "international," "utilitarian," "codification," are valuable +additions to our language; but the majority of them, especially those of +Greek derivation, have taken no root in it. His neology is one among +many instances of his contempt for the past and his wish to be clear of +all association with it. His was, indeed, a typically logical, as +opposed to a historical, mind. For the history of institutions which, +thanks largely to the writings of Sir Henry Maine, has become a new and +interesting branch of science, Bentham cared nothing. Had he possessed +such a knowledge of Roman law as is now not uncommon in England, he must +doubtless have taken a different view of many subjects. The logical and +historical methods can, however, seldom be combined without confusion; +and it is perhaps fortunate that Bentham devoted his long life to +showing how much may be done by pursuing the former method exclusively. +His writings have been and remain a storehouse of instruction for +statesmen, an armoury for legal reformers. "Pille par tout le monde," as +Talleyrand said of him, "il est toujours riche." To trace the results of +his teaching in England alone would be to write a history of the +legislation of half a century. Upon the whole administrative machinery +of government, upon criminal law and upon procedure, both criminal and +civil, his influence has been most salutary; and the great legal +revolution which in 1873 purported to accomplish the fusion of law and +equity is not obscurely traceable to the same source. Those of Bentham's +suggestions which have hitherto been carried out have affected the +matter or contents of the law. The hopes which have been from time to +time entertained, that his suggestions for the improvement of its form +and expression were about to receive the attention which they deserved, +have hitherto been disappointed. The services rendered by Bentham to the +world would not, however, be exhausted even by the practical adoption of +every one of his recommendations. There are no limits to the good +results of his introduction of a true method of reasoning into the moral +and political sciences. + + Bentham's _Works_, together with an Introduction by J. Hill Burton, + selections from his correspondence and a biography, were published by + Dr Bowring, in eleven closely printed volumes (1838-1843). This + edition does not include the _Deontology_, which, much rewritten, had + been published by Bowring in 1834. Translations of the _Works_ or of + separate treatises have appeared in most European languages. Large + masses of Bentham's MSS., mostly unpublished, are preserved at + University College, London (see T. Whittaker's _Report_, 1892, on + these MSS., as newly catalogued and reclassified by him in 155 + parcels); also in the British Museum (see E. Nys, _Etudes de droit + international et de droit politique_, 1901, pp. 291-333). See farther + on the life and writings of Bentham: J.H. Burton, _Benthamiana_ + (1843); R. von Mohl, _Geschichte und Literatur der + Staatswissenschaften_, bk. iii. (1858), pp. 595-635; R.K. Wilson, + _History of Modern English Law_ (1875), pp. 133-170; J.S. Mill, + _Dissertations_ (1859), vol. i. pp. 330-392; L. Stephen, _The English + Utilitarians_ (1900), vol. i.; _A Fragment on Government_, edited by + F.C. Montague (1891); _The Law Quarterly Review_ (1895), two articles + on Bentham's influence in Spain; A.V. Dicey, _Law and Opinion in + England_ (1905), pp. 125-209; C.M. Atkinson, _Jeremy Bentham_ (1905). + (T. E. H.) + + + + +BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM (1774-1839), governor-general of India, was the +second son of the 3rd duke of Portland and was born on the 14th of +September 1774. He entered the army, rose to the rank of +lieutenant-colonel and was present at Marengo. In 1803 he was nominated +governor of Madras, where he quarrelled with the chief justice, Sir +Henry Gwillim, and several members of his council. The sepoy mutiny at +Vellore in 1807 led to his recall. His name was considered at this time +for the post of governor-general, but Lord Minto was selected instead; +and it was not until twenty years later that he succeeded Lord Amherst +in that office. His governor-generalship (1827-1835) was notable for +many reforms, chief among which were the suppression of the Thugs +(q.v.), the abolition of suttee, and the making of the English language +the basis of education in India. It was on this last subject that Lord +Macaulay's famous minute was written. Lord William's administration was +essentially peaceful, but progressive and successful. He died at Paris +on the 17th of June 1839. + + See Demetrius C. Boulger, _Lord William Bentinck_, in the "Rulers of + India" series (1892). + + + + +BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK CAVENDISH, better known as LORD +GEORGE BENTINCK (1802-1848), British politician, was the second +surviving son of the fourth duke of Portland, by Henrietta, sister of +Viscountess Canning, and was born on the 27th of February 1802. He was +educated at home until he obtained his commission as cornet in the 10th +hussars at the age of seventeen. He practically retired from the army in +1822 and acted for some time as private secretary to his uncle George +Canning. In 1828 he succeeded his uncle Lord William Bentinck as member +for Lynn-Regis, and continued to represent that constituency during the +remaining twenty years of his life. His failures as a speaker in +parliament seem to have discouraged him from the attempt to acquire +reputation as a politician, and till within three years of his death he +was little known out of the sporting world. As one of the leaders on +"the turf," however, he was distinguished by that integrity, judgment +and indomitable determination which, when brought to bear upon weightier +matters, quickly gave him a position of first-rate importance in the +political world. On his first entrance into parliament he belonged to +the moderate Whig party, and voted in favour of Catholic emancipation, +as also for the Reform Bill, though he opposed some of its principal +details. Soon after, however, he joined the ranks of the opposition, +with whom he sided up to the important era of 1846. When, in that year, +Sir Robert Peel openly declared in favour of free trade, the advocates +of the corn-laws, then without a leader, after several ineffectual +attempts at organization, discovered that Lord George Bentinck was the +only man of position and family (for Disraeli's time was not yet come) +around whom the several sections of the opposition could be brought to +rally. His sudden elevation took the public by surprise; but he soon +gave convincing evidence of powers so formidable that the Protectionist +party under his leadership was at once stiffened into real importance. +Towards Peel, in particular, his hostility was uncompromising. +Believing, as he himself expressed it, that that statesman and his +colleagues had "hounded to the death his illustrious relative" Canning, +he combined with his political opposition a degree of personal animosity +that gave additional force to his invective. On entering on his new +position, he at once abandoned his connexion with the turf, disposed of +his magnificent stud and devoted his whole energies to the laborious +duties of a parliamentary leader. Apart from the question of the +corn-laws, however, his politics were decidedly independent. In +opposition to the rest of his party, he supported the bill for removing +the Jewish disabilities, and was favourable to the scheme for the +payment of the Roman Catholic clergy in Ireland by the landowners. The +result was that on December 23rd, 1847, he wrote a letter resigning the +Protectionist leadership, though he still remained active in politics. +But his positive abilities as a constructive statesman were not to be +tested, for he died suddenly at Welbeck on the 21st of September 1848. +It was to be left to Disraeli to bring the Conservative party into +power, with Protection outside its programme. + + See _Lord George Bentinck: a Political Biography_ (1851), by B. + Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield). + + + + +BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI (1443-1508), tyrant of Bologna, descended from a +powerful family which exercised great influence in Bologna during the +15th century, was born after the murder of his father, then chief +magistrate of the commune. In 1462 Giovanni contrived to make himself +master of the city, although it was nominally a fief of the church under +a papal legate. He ruled with a stern sway for nearly half a century, +but the brilliance of his court, his encouragement of the fine arts and +his decoration of the city with sumptuous edifices, to some extent +compensated the Bolognese for the loss of their liberty. Cesare Borgia +(q.v.) contemplated the subjugation of Bologna in 1500, when he was +crushing the various despots of Romagna, but Bentivoglio was saved for +the moment by French intervention. In 1502 he took part in the +conspiracy against Cesare, but, when the latter obtained French +assistance, he abandoned his fellow-conspirators and helped Borgia to +overcome them. During the brief pontificate of Pius III., who succeeded +Alexander VI. in 1503, Bentivoglio enjoyed a respite, but the new pope, +Julius II., was determined to reduce all the former papal states to +obedience. Having won Louis XII. of France to his side, he led an army +against Bologna, excommunicated Bentivoglio and forced him to abandon +the city (November 1506). The deposed tyrant took refuge with the +French, whom he trusted more than the pope, and died at Milan in 1508. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--P. Litta, _Le Famiglie celebri Italiane_, vol, iii. + (Milan, 1834); P. Villari, _Machiavelli_ (Eng. trans., London, 1892); + M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_ (London, 1897); A. von Reumont, + _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1868). (L. V.*) + + + + +BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO (1579-1644), Italian cardinal, statesman and +historian, was born at Ferrara in 1579. After studying at Padua, he went +to reside at Rome, and was received with great favour by Pope Clement +VIII., who made him his private chamberlain. The next pope, Paul V., +created him archbishop of Rhodes in 1607, and appointed him as nuncio to +Flanders and afterwards to France; on his return to Rome in 1621 he was +created cardinal and entrusted by Louis XIII. with the management of +French affairs at the papal court. He became the intimate friend of Pope +Urban VIII., who appointed him to the suburban see of Palestrina in +1691. An able writer and skilful diplomatist, Bentivoglio was marked out +as Urban's successor, but he died suddenly on the 7th of September 1644 +at the opening of the conclave. Bentivoglio's principal works +are:--_Della Guerra di Fiandria_ (best edition, Cologne, 1633-1639), +translated into English by Henry, earl of Monmouth (London, 1654); +_Relazioni di G. Bentivoglio in tempo delle sue Nunziature di Fiandria e +di Francia_ (Cologne, 1630); _Lettere diplomatiche di Guido Bentivoglio_ +(Brussels, 1631, frequently reprinted, best edition by L. Scarabelli, 2 +vols., Turin, 1852). The complete edition of his works was published at +Venice in 1668 in 4to. A selection of his letters has been adopted as a +classic in the Italian schools. + + + + +BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742), English scholar and critic, was born at +Oulton near Wakefield, Yorkshire, on the 27th of January 1662. His +grandfather had suffered in person and estate in the royalist cause, and +the family were in consequence in reduced circumstances. Bentley's +mother, the daughter of a stonemason in Oulton, was a woman of excellent +understanding and some education, as she was able to give her son his +first lessons in Latin. From the grammar school of Wakefield Richard +Bentley passed to St John's College, Cambridge, being admitted subsizar +in 1676. He afterwards obtained a scholarship and took the degree of +B.A. in 1680 (M.A. 1683). He never succeeded to a fellowship, being +appointed by his college, before he was twenty-one, headmaster of +Spalding grammar school. In this post he did not remain long, being +selected by Dr Edward Stillingfleet, dean of St Paul's, to be domestic +tutor to his son. This appointment introduced Bentley at once to the +society of the most eminent men of the day, threw open to him the best +private library in England, and brought him into familiar intercourse +with Dean Stillingfleet, a man of sound understanding, who had not +shrunk from exploring some of the more solid and abstruse parts of +ancient learning. The six years which he passed in Stillingfleet's +family were employed, with the restless energy characteristic of the +man, in exhausting the remains of the Greek and Latin writers, and +laying up those stores of knowledge upon which he afterwards drew as +circumstances required. + +In 1689 Stillingfleet became bishop of Worcester, and Bentley's pupil +went to reside at Oxford in Wadham College, accompanied by his tutor. +Bentley's introductions and his own merits placed him at once on a +footing of intimacy with the most distinguished scholars in the +university, Dr John Mill, Humphrey Hody, Edward Bernard. Here he +revelled in the MS. treasures of the Bodleian, Corpus and other college +libraries. He projected and occupied himself with collections for vast +literary schemes. Among these are specially mentioned a _corpus_ of the +fragments of the Greek poets and an edition of the Greek lexicographers. +But his first publication was in connexion with a writer of much +inferior note. The Oxford (Sheldonian) press was about to bring out an +edition (the _editio princeps_) from the unique MS. in the Bodleian of +the Greek _Chronicle_ (a universal history down to A.D. 560) of John of +Antioch (date uncertain, between 600 and 1000), called John Malalas or +"John the Rhetor"; and the editor, Dr John Mill, principal of St Edmund +Hall, had requested Bentley to look through the sheets and make any +remarks on the text. This originated Bentley's _Epistola ad Millium_, +which occupies less than one hundred pages at the end of the Oxford +_Malalas_ (1691). This short tractate at once placed Bentley at the head +of all living English scholars. The ease with which, by a stroke of the +pen, he restores passages which had been left in hopeless corruption by +the editors of the _Chronicle_, the certainty of the emendation and the +command over the relevant material, are in a style totally different +from the careful and laborious learning of Hody, Mill or E. Chilmead. To +the small circle of classical students (lacking the great critical +dictionaries of modern times) it was at once apparent that there had +arisen in England a critic whose attainments were not to be measured by +the ordinary academical standard, but whom these few pages had sufficed +to place by the side of the great Grecians of a former age. +Unfortunately this mastery over critical science was accompanied by a +tone of self-assertion and presumptuous confidence which not only +checked admiration, but was calculated to rouse enmity. Dr Monk, indeed, +Bentley's biographer, charged him (in his first edition, 1830) with an +indecorum of which he was not guilty. "In one place," writes Dr Monk, +"he accosts Dr Mill as [Greek: o Ioannidion] (Johnny), an indecorum +which neither the familiarity of friendship, nor the licence of a dead +language, can justify towards the dignified head of a house." But the +object of Bentley's apostrophe was not his correspondent Dr Mill, but +his author John Malalas, whom in another place he playfully appeals to +as "Syrisce." From this publication, however, dates the origin of those +mixed feelings of admiration and repugnance which Bentley throughout his +career continued to excite among his contemporaries. + +In 1690 Bentley had taken deacon's orders in the Church. In 1692 he was +nominated first Boyle lecturer, a nomination which was repeated in 1694. +He was offered the appointment a third time in 1695 but declined it, +being by that time involved in too many other undertakings. In the first +series of lectures ("A Confutation of Atheism") he endeavours to present +the Newtonian physics in a popular form, and to frame them (especially +in opposition to Hobbes) into a proof of the existence of an intelligent +Creator. He had some correspondence with Newton, then living in Trinity +College, on the subject. The second series, preached in 1694, has not +been published and is believed to be lost. Andrew Kippis, the editor of +the _Biographia Britannica_, mentions MS. copies of them as in +existence. Scarcely was Bentley in priest's orders before he was +preferred to a prebendal stall in Worcester cathedral. In 1693 the +keepership of the royal library becoming vacant, great efforts were made +by his friends to obtain the place for Bentley, but through court +interest the post was given to Mr Thynne. An arrangement, however, was +made, by which the new librarian resigned in favour of Bentley, on +condition that he received an annuity of L130 for life out of the +salary, which only amounted to L200. To these preferments were added in +1695 a royal chaplaincy and the living of Hartlebury. In the same year +Bentley was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1696 proceeded +to the degree of D.D. The recognition of continental scholars came in +the shape of a dedication, by Graevius, prefixed to a dissertation of +Albert Rubens, _De Vita Flavii Mallii Theodori_, published at Utrecht in +1694. + +While these distinctions were being accumulated upon Bentley, his energy +was making itself felt in many and various directions. He had official +apartments in St James's Palace, and his first care was the royal +library. He made great efforts to retrieve this collection from the +dilapidated condition into which it had been allowed to fall. He +employed the mediation of the earl of Marlborough to beg the grant of +some additional rooms in the palace for the books. The rooms were +granted, but Marlborough characteristically kept them for himself. +Bentley enforced the law against the publishers, and thus added to the +library nearly 1000 volumes which they had neglected to deliver. He was +commissioned by the university of Cambridge to obtain Greek and Latin +founts for their classical books, and accordingly he had cast in Holland +those beautiful types which appear in the Cambridge books of that date. +He assisted Evelyn in his _Numismata_. All Bentley's literary +appearances at this time were of this accidental character. We do not +find him settling down to the steady execution of any of the great +projects with which he had started. He designed, indeed, in 1694 an +edition of Philostratus, but readily abandoned it to G. Olearius, +(Ohlschlager), "to the joy," says F.A. Wolf, "of Olearius and of no one +else." He supplied Graevius with collations of Cicero, and Joshua Barnes +with a warning as to the spuriousness of the _Epistles of Euripides_, +which was thrown away upon that blunderer, who printed the epistles and +declared that no one could doubt their genuineness but a man _perfrictae +frontis aut judicii imminuti_. Bentley supplied to Graevius's +_Callimachus_ a masterly collection of the fragments with notes, +published at Utrecht in 1697. + +The _Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris_, the work on which +Bentley's fame in great part rests, originated in the same casual way. +William Wotton, being about to bring out in 1697 a second edition of his +book on _Ancient and Modern Learning_, claimed of Bentley the fulfilment +of an old promise to write a paper exposing the spuriousness of the +_Epistles of Phalaris_. This paper was resented as an insult by the +Christ Church editor of Phalaris, Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of +Orrery, who in getting the MS. in the royal library collated for his +edition (1695) had had a little quarrel with Bentley. Assisted by his +college friends, particularly Atterbury, Boyle wrote a reply, "a +tissue," says Dr Alexander Dyce (in his edition of Bentley's Works, +1836-1838), "of superficial learning, ingenious sophistry, dexterous +malice and happy raillery." The reply was hailed by the public as +crushing and went immediately into a second edition. It was incumbent on +Bentley to rejoin. This he did (1699) in what Porson styles "that +immortal dissertation," to which no answer was or could be given, +although the truth of its conclusions was not immediately recognized. +(See PHALARIS.) + +In the year 1700 Bentley received that main preferment which, says De +Quincey, "was at once his reward and his scourge for the rest of his +life." The six commissioners of ecclesiastical patronage unanimously +recommended Bentley to the crown for the mastership of Trinity College, +Cambridge. This college, the most splendid foundation in the university +of Cambridge, and in the scientific and literary reputation of its +fellows the most eminent society in either university, had in 1700 +greatly fallen from its high estate. It was not that it was more +degraded than the other colleges, but its former lustre made the abuse +of endowments in its case more conspicuous. The eclipse had taken place +during the reaction which followed 1660, and was owing to causes which +were not peculiar to Trinity, but which influenced the nation at large. +The names of John Pearson and Isaac Barrow, and, greater than either, +that of Newton, adorn the college annals of this period. But these were +quite exceptional men. They had not inspired the rank and file of +fellows of Trinity with any of their own love for learning or science. +Indolent and easy-going clerics, without duties, without a pursuit or +any consciousness of the obligation of endowments, they haunted the +college for the pleasant life and the good things they found there, +creating sinecure offices in each other's favour, jobbing the +scholarships and making the audits mutually pleasant. Any excuse served +for a banquet at the cost of "the house," and the celibacy imposed by +the statutes was made as tolerable as the decorum of a respectable +position permitted. To such a society Bentley came, obnoxious as a St +John's man and an intruder, unwelcome as a man of learning whose +interests lay outside the walls of the college. Bentley replied to their +concealed dislike with open contempt, and proceeded to ride roughshod +over their little arrangements. He inaugurated many beneficial reforms +in college usages and discipline, executed extensive improvements in the +buildings, and generally used his eminent station for the promotion of +the interests of learning both in the college and in the university. But +this energy was accompanied by a domineering temper, an overweening +contempt for the feelings and even for the rights of others, and an +unscrupulous use of means when a good end could be obtained. Bentley, at +the summit of classical learning, disdained to associate with men whom +he regarded as illiterate priests. He treated them with contumely, while +he was diverting their income to public purposes. The continued drain +upon their purses--on one occasion the whole dividend of the year was +absorbed by the rebuilding of the chapel--was the grievance which at +last roused the fellows to make a resolute stand. After ten years of +stubborn but ineffectual resistance within the college, they had +recourse in 1710 to the last remedy--an appeal to the visitor, the +bishop of Ely (Dr Moore). Their petition is an ill-drawn invective, full +of general complaints and not alleging any special delinquency. +Bentley's reply (_The Present State of Trinity College, &c._, 1710) is +in his most crushing style. The fellows amended their petition and put +in a fresh charge, in which they articled fifty-four separate breaches +of the statutes as having been committed by the master. Bentley, called +upon to answer, demurred to the bishop of Ely's jurisdiction, alleging +that the crown was visitor. He backed his application by a dedication of +his _Horace_ to the lord treasurer (Harley). The crown lawyers decided +the point against him; the case was heard (1714) and a sentence of +ejection from the mastership ordered to be drawn up, but before it was +executed the bishop of Ely died and the process lapsed. The feud, +however, still went on in various forms. In 1718 Bentley was deprived by +the university of his degrees, as a punishment for failing to appear in +the vice-chancellor's court in a civil suit; and it was not till 1724 +that the law compelled the university to restore them. In 1733 he was +again brought to trial before the bishop of Ely (Dr Greene) by the +fellows of Trinity and was sentenced to deprivation, but the college +statutes required the sentence to be exercised by the vice-master (Dr +Walker), who was Bentley's friend and refused to act. In vain were +attempts made to compel the execution of the sentence, and though the +feud was kept up till 1738 or 1740 (about thirty years in all) Bentley +remained undisturbed. + +During the period of his mastership, with the exception of the first two +years, Bentley pursued his studies uninterruptedly, although the results +in the shape of published works seem incommensurable. In 1709 he +contributed a critical appendix to John Davies's edition of Cicero's +_Tusculan Disputations_. In the following year he published his +emendations on the _Plutus_ and _Nubes_ of Aristophanes, and on the +fragments of Menander and Philemon. The last came out under the name of +"Phileleutherus Lipsiensis," which he made use of two years later in his +_Remarks on a late Discourse of Freethinking_, a reply to Anthony +Collins the deist. For this he received the thanks of the university, in +recognition of the service thereby rendered to the church and clergy. +His _Horace_, long contemplated and in the end written in very great +haste and brought out to propitiate public opinion at a critical period +of the Trinity quarrel, appeared in 1711. In the preface he declared his +intention of confining his attention to criticism and correction of the +text, and ignoring exegesis. Some of his 700 or 800 emendations have +been accepted, but the majority of them are now rejected as unnecessary +and prosaic, although the learning and ingenuity shown in their support +are remarkable. In 1716, in a letter to Dr Wake, archbishop of +Canterbury, he announced his design of preparing a critical edition of +the New Testament. During the next four years, assisted by J.J. +Wetstein, an eminent biblical critic, who claimed to have been the first +to suggest the idea to Bentley, he collected materials for the work, and +in 1720 published _Proposals for a New Edition of the Greek Testament_, +with specimens of the manner in which he intended to carry it out. He +proposed, by comparing the text of the Vulgate with that of the oldest +Greek MSS., to restore the Greek text as received by the church at the +time of the council of Nice. A large number of subscribers to the work +was obtained, but it was never completed. His _Terence_ (1726) is more +important than his _Horace_, and it is upon this, next to the +_Phalaris_, that his reputation mainly rests. Its chief value consists +in the novel treatment of the metrical questions and their bearing on +the emendation of the text. To the same year belong the _Fables_ of +Phaedrus and the _Sententiae_ of Publius Syrus. The _Paradise Lost_ +(1732), undertaken at the suggestion of Queen Caroline, is generally +regarded as the most unsatisfactory of all his writings. It is marred by +the same rashness in emendation and lack of poetical feeling as his +Horace; but there is less excuse for him in this case, since the English +text could not offer the same field for conjecture. He put forward the +idea that Milton employed both an amanuensis and an editor, who were to +be held responsible for the clerical errors, alterations and +interpolations which Bentley professed to detect. It is uncertain +whether this was a device on the part of Bentley to excuse his own +numerous corrections, or whether he really believed in the existence of +this editor. Of the contemplated edition of Homer nothing was published; +all that remains of it consists of some manuscript and marginal notes in +the possession of Trinity College. Their chief importance lies in the +attempt to restore the metre by the insertion of the lost digamma. Among +his minor works may be mentioned: the _Astronomica_ of Manilius (1739), +for which he had been collecting materials since 1691; a letter on the +Sigean inscription on a marble slab found in the Troad, now in the +British Museum; notes on the _Theriaca_ of Nicander and on Lucan, +published after his death by Cumberland; emendations of Plautus (in his +copies of the editions by Pareus, Camerarius and Gronovius, edited by +Schroder, 1880, and Sonnenschein, 1883). _Bentleii Critica Sacra_ +(1862), edited by A.A. Ellis, contains the epistle to the Galatians (and +excerpts), printed from an interleaved folio copy of the Greek and Latin +Vulgate in Trinity College. A collection of his _Opuscula Philologica_ +was published at Leipzig in 1781. The edition of his works by Dyce +(1836-1838) is incomplete. + +He had married in 1701 Joanna, daughter of Sir John Bernard of Brampton +in Huntingdonshire. Their union lasted forty years. Mrs Bentley died in +1740, leaving a son, Richard, and two daughters, one of whom married in +1728 Mr Denison Cumberland, grandson of Richard Cumberland, bishop of +Peterborough. Their son was Richard Cumberland, the dramatist. +Surrounded by his grandchildren, Dr Bentley experienced the joint +pressure of age and infirmity as lightly as is consistent with the lot +of humanity. He continued to amuse himself with reading; and though +nearly confined to his arm-chair, was able to enjoy the society of his +friends and several rising scholars, J. Markland, John Taylor, his +nephews Richard and Thomas Bentley, with whom he discussed classical +subjects. He was accustomed to say that he should live to be eighty, +adding that a life of that duration was long enough to read everything +worth reading. He fulfilled his own prediction, dying of pleurisy on the +14th of July 1742. Though accused by his enemies of being grasping, he +left not more than L5000 behind him. A few Greek MSS., brought from +Mount Athos, he left to the college library; his books and papers to his +nephew, Richard Bentley. Richard, who was a fellow of Trinity, at his +death in 1786 left the papers to the college library. The books, +containing in many cases valuable manuscript notes, were purchased by +the British Museum. + +Of his personal habits some anecdotes are related by his grandson, +Richard Cumberland, in vol. i. of his _Memoirs_ (1807). The hat of +formidable dimensions, which he always wore during reading to shade his +eyes, and his preference of port to claret (which he said "would be port +if it could") are traits embodied in Pope's caricature (_Dunciad_, b. +4), which bears in other respects little resemblance to the original. He +did not take up the habit of smoking till he was seventy. He held the +archdeaconry of Ely with two livings, but never obtained higher +preference in the church. He was offered the (then poor) bishopric of +Bristol but refused it, and being asked what preferment he would +consider worth his acceptance, replied, "That which would leave him no +reason to wish for a removal." + +Bentley was the first, perhaps the only, Englishman who can be ranked +with the great heroes of classical learning, although perhaps not a +great classical scholar. Before him there were only John Selden, and, in +a more restricted field, Thomas Gataker and Pearson. But Selden, a man +of stupendous learning, wanted the freshness of original genius and +confident mastery over the whole region of his knowledge. "Bentley +inaugurated a new era of the art of criticism. He opened a new path. +With him criticism attained its majority. Where scholars had hitherto +offered suggestions and conjectures, Bentley, with unlimited control +over the whole material of learning, gave decisions" (Mahly). The modern +German school of philology does ungrudging homage to his genius. +Bentley, says Bunsen, "was the founder of historical philology." And +Jakob Bernays says of his corrections of the _Tristia_, "corruptions +which had hitherto defied every attempt even of the mightiest, were +removed by a touch of the fingers of this British Samson." The English +school of Hellenists, by which the 18th century was distinguished, and +which contains the names of R. Dawes, J. Markland, J. Taylor, J. Toup, +T. Tyrwhitt, Richard Porson, P.P. Dobree, Thomas Kidd and J.H. Monk, was +the creation of Bentley. And even the Dutch school of the same period, +though the outcome of a native tradition, was in no small degree +stimulated and directed by the example of Bentley, whose letters to the +young Hemsterhuis on his edition of Julius Pollux produced so powerful +an effect on him, that he became one of Bentley's most devoted admirers. + +Bentley was a source of inspiration to a following generation of +scholars. Himself, he sprang from the earth without forerunners, without +antecedents. Self-taught, he created his own science. It was his +misfortune that there was no contemporary gild of learning in England by +which his power could be measured, and his eccentricities checked. In +the _Phalaris_ controversy his academical adversaries had not sufficient +knowledge to know how absolute their defeat was. Garth's couplet-- + + "So diamonds take a lustre from their foil, + And to a Bentley 'tis we owe a Boyle"-- + +expressed the belief of the wits or literary world of the time. The +attacks upon him by Pope, John Arbuthnot and others are evidence of +their inability to appreciate his work. To them, textual criticism +seemed mere pedantry and useless labour. It was not only that he had to +live with inferiors, and to waste his energy in a struggle forced upon +him by the necessities of his official position, but the wholesome +stimulus of competition and the encouragement of a sympathetic circle +were wanting. In a university where the instruction of youth or the +religious controversy of the day were the only known occupations, +Bentley was an isolated phenomenon, and we can hardly wonder that he +should have flagged in his literary exertions after his appointment to +the mastership of Trinity. All his vast acquisitions and all his +original views seem to have been obtained before 1700. After this period +he acquired little and made only spasmodic efforts--the _Horace_, the +_Terence_ and the _Milton_. The prolonged mental concentration and +mature meditation, which alone can produce a great work, were wanting to +him. + + F.A. Wolf, _Literarische Analekten_, i. (1816); Monk, _Life of + Bentley_ (1830); J. Mahly, _Richard Bentley, eine Biographie_ (1868); + R.C. Jebb, _Bentley_ ("English Men of Letters" series, 1882), where a + list of authorities bearing on Bentley's life and work is given. For + his letters see _Bentlei et doctorum virorum ad eum Epistolae_ (1807); + _The Correspondence of Richard Bentley_, edited by C. Wordsworth + (1842). See also J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_, ii. + 401-410 (1908); and the _Bibliography of Bentley_, by A.T. Bartholomew + and J.W. Clark (Cambridge, 1908). + + + + +BENTLEY, RICHARD (1794-1871), British publisher, was born in London in +1794. His father owned the _General Evening Post_ in conjunction with +John Nichols, to whom Richard Bentley, on leaving St Paul's school, was +apprenticed to learn the printing trade. With his brother SAMUEL +(1785-1868), an antiquarian of some repute, he set up a printing +establishment, but in 1829 he began business as a publisher in +partnership with Henry Colburn in New Burlington Street. Colburn retired +in 1832 and Bentley continued business on his own account. In 1837 he +began _Bentley's Miscellany_, edited for the first three years of its +existence by Charles Dickens, whose _Oliver Twist_, with Cruikshank's +illustrations, appeared in its pages. Bentley and his son GEORGE +(1828-1895), as Richard Bentley & Son, published works by R.H. Barham, +Theodore Hook, Isaac D'Israeli, Judge Haliburton and others; also the +"Library of Standard Novels" and the "Favourite Novel Library." In the +latter series Mrs Henry Wood's _East Lynne_ appeared. In 1866 the firm +took over the publication of _Temple Bar_, with which _Bentley's +Miscellany_ was afterwards incorporated. Richard Bentley died on the +10th of September 1871. His son, George Bentley, and his grandson, +Richard Bentley, junior, continued the business until it was absorbed +(1898) by Macmillan & Co. + + See also _R. Bentley & Son_ (Edinburgh, 1886), a history of the firm + reprinted from _Le Livre_ (October, 1885). + + + + +BENTON, THOMAS HART (1782-1858), American statesman, was born at +Hillsborough, Orange county, North Carolina, on the 14th of March 1782. +His father, an Englishman of refinement and scholarship, died in 1790, +leaving the boy under the influence of a very superior mother, from whom +he received lessons in book learning, piety and temperance quite unusual +in the frontier country. His home studies, facilitated by his father's +fine library, were supplemented by a brief stay at the university of +North Carolina (Chapel Hill) in 1799. The family removed, probably in +this year, to a large tract of land which had been acquired by the +father on the outskirts of the Indian country (at Benton Town, now +Leipers Fork) near Franklin, Tennessee. The following years, during +which Benton was at various times school teacher, farmer, lawyer and +politician, were the distinctively formative period of his life. His +intense democracy and many features of his boldly cast personality were +perfectly representative of the border people among whom he lived; +although his education, social standing and force of character placed +him above his fellows. In 1809 he served a term as state senator. +Between 1815 and 1817 he transferred his interests to St Louis, +Missouri, and in 1820 was elected United States senator from the new +state. His senatorial career of thirty years (1821-1851) was one of +extreme prominence. A friendship early formed in Tennessee for Andrew +Jackson was broken in 1813 by an armed fracas between the principals and +their friends, but after the presidential election of 1824 Benton became +a Jacksonian Democrat and Jackson's close friend, and as such was long +the Democratic leader in the Senate, his power being greatest during +Jackson's second term. He continued to be the administration's +right-hand man under Van Buren, but gradually lost influence under Polk, +with whom he finally broke both personally and politically. + +The events of Benton's political life are associated primarily with +three things: the second United States Bank, westward expansion and +slavery. In the long struggles over the bank, the deposits and the +"expunging resolution" (i.e. the resolution to expunge from the records +of the Senate the vote of censure of President Jackson for his removal +of the government deposits from the bank), Benton led the Jackson +Democrats. His opposition to a national bank and insistence on the +peculiar virtues of "hard money," whence his sobriquet of "Old Bullion," +went back to his Tennessee days. In all that concerned the expansion of +the country and the fortunes of the West no public man was more +consistent or more influential than Benton, and none so clear of vision. +Reared on the border, and representing a state long the farthermost +outpost across the Mississippi in the Indian country, he held the +ultra-American views of his section as regarded foreign relations +generally, and the "manifest destiny" of expansion westward especially. +It was quite natural that he should advocate the removal westward of the +Indian tribes, should urge the encouragement of trade with Sante Fe (New +Mexico), and should oppose the abandonment in the Spanish treaty of 1819 +of American claims to Texas. He once thought the Rocky Mountains the +proper western limit of the United States (1824), but this view he soon +outgrew. He was the originator of the policy of homestead laws by which +the public lands were used to promote the settlement of the west by +home-seekers. No other man was so early and so long active for +transcontinental railways. But Benton was not a land-grabber, whether in +the interest of slavery or of mere jingoism. In the case of Oregon, for +instance, he was firmly against joint occupation with Great Britain, but +he was always for the boundary of 49 deg. and never joined in the +campaign-jingo cry of "Fifty-four Forty or Fight." It was he who chiefly +aided Polk in withdrawing from that untenable position. He despised +pretexts and intrigues. Both in the case of Oregon and in that of Texas, +though one of the earliest and most insistent of those who favoured +their acquisition, yet in the face of southern and western sentiment he +denounced the sordid and devious intrigues and politics connected with +their acquisition, and kept clear of these. For the same reason he +opposed the Mexican War, though not its prosecution once begun. In the +Texas question slavery was prominent. Toward slavery Benton held a +peculiarly creditable attitude. A southerner, he was a slaveholder; but +he seems to have gradually learned that slavery was a curse to the +South, for in 1844 he declared that he would not introduce it into Texas +lands "where it was never known," and in 1849 proclaimed that his +personal sentiments were "against the institution of slavery." In the +long struggle over slavery in the territories, following 1845, he was +for the extreme demands of neither section; not because he was timorous +or a compromiser,--no man was less of either,--but because he stood +unwaveringly for justice to both sections, never adopting exaggerated +views that must or even could be compromised. The truth is that he was +always a westerner before he was a southerner and a union man before all +things else; he was no whit less national than Webster. Hence his +distrust and finally hatred of Calhoun, dating from the nullification +episode of 1832-1833. As the South under Calhoun's lead became +increasingly sectional and aggressive, Benton increasingly lost sympathy +with her. Though he despised political inaction Abolitionists, and hated +their propaganda as inimical to the Union, he would not therefore close +the national mails to Abolition literature, nor abridge the right of +petition. No statesman was more prescient of the disunion tendencies of +Calhoun's policies, and as early as 1844 he prophetically denounced the +treason to the Union toward which the South was drifting. He would not +drift with her for the sake of slavery, and this was his political +undoing. In 1851 Missouri rejected him in his sixth candidacy for the +Senate, after he had been an autocrat in her politics for thirty years. +In 1852 he was elected to the House of Representatives, but his +opposition to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise caused his defeat in +1854. An unsuccessful campaign for the governorship of Missouri in 1856 +ended his political career. He died at Washington on the 10th of April +1858. + +Benton's entire career was eminently creditable, and he is, besides, one +of the most picturesque figures in American political history. His +political principles--whether as regarded lobbying, congressional +jobbing, civil service or great issues of legislation and foreign +affairs--were of the highest. He was so independent that he had great +dislike for caucuses, and despised party platforms--although he never +voted any but the Democratic ticket, even when his son-in-law, J.C. +Fremont, was the Republican presidential candidate in 1856; nor would he +accept instructions from the Missouri legislature. His career shows no +truckling to self-interest, and on large issues he outgrew partisanship. +Although palpably inferior to each of his great senatorial colleagues, +Webster, Clay and Calhoun, in some gifts, yet if character, qualities +and career be taken in the whole his were possibly the most creditable +of all. Benton was austere, aggressive and vain; besides, he had a fatal +deficiency of humour. Nevertheless he had great influence, which was a +deserved tribute to his ability and high character. An indefatigable +student, he treated all subjects capably, and especially in questions of +his country's history and the exploration of the West had few +equals--in the latter none. He acted always with uncalculating boldness, +and defended his acts with extraordinary courage and persistence. Benton +wrote a _Thirty Years' View ... of the American Government_ (2 vols., +1854-1856), characteristic of the author's personality; it is of great +value for the history of his time. He also compiled an _Abridgment of +the Debates of Congress_, 1789-1850 (16 vols., 1857-1861), likewise of +great usefulness; and published a bitter review of the Dred Scott +decision full of extremely valuable historical details--_Historical and +Legal Examination of ... the Dred Scott Case_ (1857). All were written +in the last eight years of his life and mostly in the last three. + + The best biography is that by W.M. Meigs, _Life of Thomas Hart Benton_ + (Philadelphia and London, 1904). See also Theodore Roosevelt's _Thomas + Hart Benton_ (Boston, 1887), in the "American Statesmen" series, which + admirably brings out Benton's significance as a western man; and + Joseph M. Rogers's _Thomas Hart Benton_ (Philadelphia, 1905) in the + "American Crisis" series. + + + + +BENTON HARBOR, a city of Berrien county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the Saint +Joseph river, about 1 m. from Lake Michigan (with which it is connected +by a ship canal), near the S.W. corner of the state, and 1 m. N.E. of St +Joseph. Pop. (1890) 3692; (1900) 6562, of whom 795 were foreign-born; +(1904) 6702; (1910) 9185. It is served by the Pere Marquette, the +Michigan Central, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis +railways, by electric railways to St Joseph and Niles, Mich., and South +Bend, Indiana, and for a part of the year by steamboat lines to Chicago +and Milwaukee. One mile south-east of the city are a sanitarium and the +Eastman mineral springs; within the city also there are springs and +bath-houses. Near the city is a communistic religious community, the +Israelite House of David, founded in 1903, the members believe that they +are a part of the 144,000 elect (Revelation, vii, xiv) ultimately to be +redeemed. Benton Harbor has a large trade in fruit (peaches, grapes, +pears, cherries, strawberries, raspberries and apples) and other market +garden produce raised in the vicinity. The city's manufactures include +fruit baskets, preserved fruits, cider, vinegar, pickles, furniture, +lumber and stationers' supplies, particularly material for the +"loose-leaf ledger" system of accounting. Benton Harbor, which was known +as Bronson Harbor until 1865, was incorporated as a village in 1869, was +chartered as a city in 1891, and in 1903 received a new charter. + + + + +BENUE, a river of West Africa, the largest and most important affluent +of the Niger (q.v.), which it joins after a course of over 800 m. in a +general east to west direction from its source in the mountains of +Adamawa. Through the Tuburi marshes there is a water connexion between +the Benue (Niger) and Shari (Lake Chad) systems. + + + + +BEN VENUE, a mountain in south-west Perthshire, Scotland, 10 m. W. of +Callander. Its principal peaks are 2393 and 2386 ft. high, and, owing to +its position near the south-eastern shore of Loch Katrine, its imposing +contour is one of the most familiar features in the scenery of the +Trossachs, the mountain itself figuring prominently in _The Lady of the +Lake_. On its northern base, close to the lake, Sir Walter Scott placed +the Coir-nan-Uriskin, or "Goblin's Cave." Immediately to the south of +the cave is the dell called Beal(ach)-nam-Bo, or "Cattle Pass," through +which were driven to the refuge of the Trossachs the herds lifted by the +Highland marauders in their excursions to the lands south of Loch +Lomond. The pass, though comparatively unvisited, offers the grandest +scenery in the district. + + + + +BENZALDEHYDE (oil of bitter almonds), C6H5CHO, the simplest +representative of the aromatic aldehydes. It was first isolated in 1803 +and was the subject of an important investigation by J. v. Liebigin 1837 +(_Annalen_, 1837, 22, p. 1). It occurs naturally in the form of the +glucoside amygdalin (C20H27NO11), which is present in bitter almonds, +cherries, peaches and the leaves of the cherry laurel; and is obtained +from this substance by hydrolysis with dilute acids: + + C20H27NO11 + 2H2O = HCN + 2C6H12O6 + C6H5CHO. + +It occurs free in bitter almonds, being formed by an enzyme +decomposition of amygdalin (q.v.). It may also be prepared by oxidizing +benzyl alcohol with concentrated nitric acid; by distilling a mixture of +calcium benzoate and calcium formate; by the condensation of +chlor-oxalic ester with benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride, +the ester of the ketonic acid formed being then hydrolysed and the +resulting acid distilled: + + C6H6 + Cl.CO.COOC2H5 = C6H5CO.COOC2H5 + HCl, + C6H5CO.COOH = C6H5CHO + CO2; + +by the action of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid and hydrochloric acid on +benzene, an aldime being formed as an intermediate product: + + C6H6 + HCN + HCl = C6H5CH : NH.HCl, + Benzaldine hydrochloride + + C6H5CH : NH.HCl + H2O = NH4Cl + C6H5CHO; + +and by the action of chromium oxychloride on toluene dissolved in carbon +bisulphide (A. Etard, _Berichte_, 1884, 17, pp. 1462, 1700). + +Technically it is prepared from toluene, by converting it into benzyl +chloride, which is then heated with lead nitrate: + + C6H5CH2Cl + Pb(NO3)2 = 2NO2 + PbCl.OH + C6H5CHO, + +or, by conversion into benzal chloride, which is heated with milk of +lime under pressure. + + C6H5CHCl2 + CaO = CaCL2 + C6H5CHO. + +E. Jacobsen has also obtained benzaldehyde by heating benzal chloride +with glacial acetic acid: + + C6H5CHCl2 + CH3COOH = CH3COCl + HCl + C6H5CHO. + +Benzaldehyde is a colourless liquid smelling of bitter almonds. Its +specific gravity is 1.0636 (0/0 deg. C.), and it boils at 179.1 deg. C. +(751.3 mm). It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily +volatile in steam. It possesses all the characteristic properties of an +aldehyde; being readily oxidized to benzoic acid; reducing solutions of +silver salts; forming addition products with hydrogen, hydrocyanic acid +and sodium bisulphite; and giving an oxime and a hydrazone. On the other +hand, it differs from the aliphatic aldehydes in many respects; it does +not form an addition product with ammonia but condenses to +hydrobenzamide (C6H5CH)3N2; on shaking with alcoholic potash it +undergoes simultaneous oxidation and reduction, giving benzoic acid and +benzyl alcohol (S. Cannizzaro); and on warming with alcoholic potassium +cyanide it condenses to benzoin (q.v.). + +The oxidation of benzaldehyde to benzoic acid when exposed to air is not +one of ordinary oxidation, for it has been observed in the case of many +compounds that during such oxidation, as much oxygen is rendered +"active" as is used up by the substance undergoing oxidation; thus if +benzaldehyde is left for some time in contact with air, water and +indigosulphonic acid, just as much oxygen is used up in oxidizing the +indigo compound as in oxidizing the aldehyde. A. v. Baeyer and V. +Villiger (_Berichte_, 1900, 33, pp. 858, 2480) have shown that benzoyl +hydrogen peroxide C6H5.CO.O.OH is formed as an intermediate product and +that this oxidizes the indigo compound, being itself reduced to benzoic +acid; they have also shown that this peroxide is soluble in benzaldehyde +with production of benzoic acid, and it must be assumed that the +oxidation of benzaldehyde proceeds as shown in the equations: + + C6H5CHO + O2 = C6H5.CO.O.OH, + C6H5CO.O.OH + C6H5CHO = 2C6H5COOH. + + Further see G. Bodlander, _Ahrens Sammlung_, 1899, iii. 470; W.P. + Jorissen, _Zeit. fur phys. Chem._, 1897, 22, p. 56; C. Engler and W. + Wild, _Berichte_, 1897, 30, p. 1669. + +The oxime of benzaldehyde (C6H5CH:N.OH), formed by the addition of +hydroxylamine to the aldehyde, exhibits a characteristic behaviour when +hydrochloric acid gas is passed into its ethereal solution, a second +modification being produced. The former (known as the [alpha] or +benz-anti-aldoxime) melts at 34-35 deg. C.; the latter ([beta] or +benz-syn-aldoxime) melts at 130 deg. C. and is slowly transformed into +the [alpha] form. The difference between the two forms has been +explained by A. Hantzsch and A. Werner (_Berichte_, 1890, 23, p. 11) by +the assumption of the different spatial arrangement of the atoms (see +STEREO-ISOMERISM). On account of the readiness with which it condenses +with various compounds, benzaldehyde is an important synthetic reagent. +With aniline it forms benzylidine aniline C6H5CH:N.C6H5, and with +acetone, benzal acetone C6H5CH : CH.CO.CH3. Heated with anhydrous sodium +acetate and acetic anhydride it gives cinnamic acid (q.v.); with ethyl +bromide and sodium it forms triphenyl-carbinol (C6H5)3C.OH; with +dimethylaniline and anhydrous zinc chloride it forms leuco-malachite +green C6H5CH[C6H4N(CH3)2]2; and with dimethylaniline and concentrated +hydrochloric acid it gives dimethylaminobenzhydrol, +C6H5CH(OH)C6H4N(CH3)2. Heated with sulphur it forms benzoic acid and +stilbene: + + 2C7H6O + S = C6H5COOH + C6H6CHS, + 2C6H5CHS = 2S + C14H12. + +Its addition compound with hydrocyanic acid gives mandelic acid +C6H5CH(OH).COOH on hydrolysis; when heated with sodium succinate and +acetic anhydride, phenyl-iso-crotonic acid C6H5CH : CH.CH2COOH is +produced, which on boiling is converted into [alpha]-naphthol C10H7OH. +It can also be used for the synthesis of pyridine derivatives, since A. +Hantzsch has shown that aldehydes condense with aceto-acetic ester and +ammonia to produce the homologues of pyridine, thus: + + R R + | | + ROOC.CH2 CHO CH2.COOR ROOC.C-CH-C.COOR + | + + | = || || + 3H2O. + H3C.CO NH3 CO.CH3 H3C.C-NH-C.CH3 + +On nitration it yields chiefly meta-nitro-benzaldehyde, crystallizing in +needles which melt at 58 deg. C. The ortho-compound may be obtained by +oxidizing ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with alkaline potassium permanganate +in the presence of benzene; or from ortho-nitrobenzyl chloride by +condensing it with aniline, oxidizing the product so obtained to +ortho-nitrobenzylidine aniline, and then hydrolysing this compound with +an acid (_Farben fabrik d. Meister, Lucius und Bruning_). It +crystallizes in yellowish needles, which are volatile in steam and melt +at 46 deg. C. It is used in the artificial production of indigo (see +_German Patent_ 19768). + +Para-nitrobenzaldehyde crystallizes in prisms melting at 107 deg. C. and +is prepared by the action of chromium oxychloride on para-nitrotoluene, +or by oxidizing para-nitrocinnamic acid. By the reduction of +ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with ferrous sulphate and ammonia, +ortho-aminobenzaldehyde is obtained. This compound condenses in alkaline +solution with compounds containing the grouping -CH2-CO- to form +quinoline (q.v.) or its derivatives; thus, with acetaldehyde it forms +quinoline, and with acetone, [alpha]-methyl quinoline. With urea it +gives quinazolone + + CH + /\ / \\N + | | | + | | CO , + \/ \ / + NH + +and with mandelic nitrile and its homologues it forms oxazole +derivatives (S.S. Minovici, _Berichte_, 1896, 29, p. 2097). + + + + +BENZENE, C6H6, a hydrocarbon discovered in 1825 by Faraday in the liquid +produced in the compression of the illuminating gas obtained by +distilling certain oils and fats. E. Mitscherlich prepared it in 1834 by +distilling benzoic acid with lime; and in 1845 Hofmann discovered it in +coal-tar. It was named "benzin" or "benzine" by Mitscherlich in 1833, +but in the following year Liebig proposed "benzol" (the termination _ol_ +being suggested by the Lat. _oleum_, oil); the form "benzene" was due to +A.W. Hofmann. The word "benzine" is sometimes used in commerce for the +coal-tar product, but also for the light petroleum better known as +petroleum-benzine; a similar ambiguity is presented by the word +"benzoline," which is applied to the same substances as the word +"benzine." "Benzene" is the term used by English chemists, "benzol" is +used in Germany, and "benzole" in France. + +Benzene is manufactured from the low-boiling fractions of the coal-tar +distillate (see COAL-TAR). The first successful fractionation of +coal-tar naphtha was devised by C.B. Mansfield (1819-1855), who +separated a benzol distilling below 100 deg. from a less volatile +naphtha by using a simple dephlegmator. At first, the oil was +manufactured principally for combustion in the Read-Holliday lamp and +for dissolving rubber, but the development of the coal-tar colour +industry occasioned a demand for benzols of definite purity. In the +earlier stages 30%, 50% and 90% benzols were required, the 30% being +mainly used for the manufacture of "aniline for red," and the 90% for +"aniline for blue." (The term "30% benzol" means that 30% by volume +distils below 100 deg.) A purer benzol was subsequently required for the +manufacture of aniline black and other dye-stuffs. The process +originally suggested by Mansfield is generally followed, the success of +the operation being principally conditioned by the efficiency of the +dephlegmator, in which various improvements have been made. The light +oil fraction of the coal-tar distillate, which comes over below 140 deg. +and consists principally of benzene, toluene and the xylenes, yields on +fractionation (1) various volatile impurities such as carbon disulphide, +(2) the benzene fraction boiling at about 80 deg. C., (3) the toluene +fraction boiling at 100 deg., (4) the xylene fraction boiling at 140 +deg. The fractions are agitated with strong sulphuric acid, and then +washed with a caustic soda solution. The washed products are then +refractionated. The toluene fraction requires a more thorough washing +with sulphuric acid in order to eliminate the thiotolene, which is +sulphonated much less readily than thiophene. + +Benzene is a colourless, limpid, highly refracting liquid, having a +pleasing and characteristic odour. It may be solidified to rhombic +crystals which melt at 5.4 deg. C. (Mansfield obtained perfectly pure +benzene by freezing a carefully fractionated sample.) It boils at 80.4 +deg., and the vapour is highly inflammable, the flame being extremely +smoky. Its specific gravity is 0.899 at 0 deg. C. It is very slightly +soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol, and completely miscible with +ether, acetic acid and carbon disulphide. It is an excellent solvent for +gums, resins, fats, &c.; sulphur, phosphorus and iodine also dissolve in +it. It sometimes separates with crystals of a solute as "benzene of +crystallization," as for example with triphenylmethane, thio-p-tolyl +urea, tropine, &c. + +Benzene is of exceptional importance commercially on account of the many +compounds derivable from it, which are exceedingly valuable in the arts. +Chemically it is one of the most interesting substances known, since it +is the parent of the enormous number of compounds styled the "aromatic" +or "benzenoid" compounds. The constitution of the benzene ring, the +isomerism of its derivatives, and their syntheses from aliphatic or +open-chain compounds, are treated in the article CHEMISTRY. A summary of +its chemical transformations may be given here, and reference should be +made to the articles on the separate compounds for further details. + +Passed through a red-hot tube, benzene vapour yields hydrogen, diphenyl, +diphenylbenzenes and acetylene; the formation of the last compound is an +instance of a reversible reaction, since Berthelot found that acetylene +passed through a red-hot tube gave some benzene. Benzene is very stable +to oxidants, in fact resistance to oxidation is a strong characteristic +of the benzene ring. Manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid oxidize it to +benzoic and o-phthalic acid; potassium chlorate and sulphuric acid +breaks the ring; and ozone oxidizes it to the highly explosive white +solid named ozo-benzene, C6H6O6. Hydriodic acid reduces it to +hexamethylene (cyclo-hexane or hexa-hydro-benzene); chlorine and bromine +form substitution and addition products, but the action is slow unless +some carrier such as iodine, molybdenum chloride or ferric chloride for +chlorine, and aluminium bromide for bromine, be present. It is readily +nitrated to nitrobenzene, two, and even three nitro groups being +introduced if some dehydrator such as concentrated sulphuric acid be +present. Sulphuric acid gives a benzene sulphonic acid. + + + + +BENZIDINE (DIPARA-DIAMINO-DIPHENYL), NH2.C6H4.C6H4.NH2, a chemical base +which may be prepared by the reduction of the corresponding +dinitro-diphenyl, or by the reduction of azo-benzene with tin and +hydrochloric acid. In this latter case hydrazo-benzene C6H5NH.NH.C6H5 is +first formed and then undergoes a peculiar re-arrangement into benzidine +(see H. Schmidt and G. Schultz, _Annalen_, 1881, 207, p. 320; O.N. Witt +and Hans v. Helmont, _Berichte_, 1894, 27, p. 2352; P. Jacobson, +_Berichte_, 1892, 25, p. 994). Benzidine crystallizes in plates (from +water) which melt at 122 deg. C., and boil above 360 deg. C., and is +characterized by the great insolubility of its sulphate. It is a di-acid +base and forms salts with the mineral acids. It is readily brominated +and nitrated; when the nitration is carried out in the presence of +sulphuric acid, the nitro-groups take up the meta position with regard +to the amino-groups. Benzidine finds commercial application since its +tetrazo compound couples readily with amino-sulphonic acids, phenol +carboxylic acids, and phenol and naphthol-sulphonic acids to produce +substantive cotton dyes (see DYEING). Among such dyestuffs are +chrysamine or flavophenine, obtained from salicylic acid and diazotized +benzidine, and congo red obtained from sodium naphthionate and +diazotized benzidine. On the constitution of benzidine see G. Schultz +(_Annalen_, 1874, 174, p. 227). + +_The Benzidine and Semidine Change._--Aromatic hydrazo compounds which +contain free para positions are readily converted by the action of +acids, acid chlorides and anhydrides into diphenyl derivatives; thus, as +mentioned above, hydrazo-benzene is converted into benzidine, a small +quantity of diphenylin being formed at the same time. The two products +are separated by the different solubilities of their sulphates. This +reaction is known as the _benzidine transformation_. If, however, one of +the para positions in the hydrazo compound is substituted, then either +diphenyl derivatives or azo compounds are formed, or what is known as +the _semidine change_ takes place (P. Jacobson, _Berichte_, 1892, 25, p. +992; 1893, 26, p. 681; 1896, 29, p. 2680; _Annalen_, 1895, 287, p. 97; +1898, 303, p. 290). A para mono substituted hydrazo compound in the +presence of a hydrochloric acid solution of stannous chloride gives +either a para diphenyl derivative (the substituent group being +eliminated), an ortho-semidine, a para-semidine, or a diphenyl base, +whilst a decomposition with the formation of amines may also take place. +The nature of the substituent exerts a specific influence on the +reaction; thus with chlorine or bromine, ortho-semidines and the +diphenyl bases are the chief products; the dimethylamino, -N(CH3)2, and +acetamino, -NHCOCH3, groups give the diphenyl base and the para-semidine +respectively. With a methyl group, the chief product is an +ortho-semidine, whilst with a carboxyl group, the diphenyl derivative is +the chief product. The ortho- and para- semidines can be readily +distinguished by their behaviour with different reagents; thus with +nitrous acid the ortho-semidines give azimido compounds, whilst the +para-semidines give complex diazo derivatives; with formic or acetic +acids the ortho-semidines give anhydro compounds of a basic character, +the para-semidines give acyl products possessing no basic character. The +carbon disulphide and salicylic aldehyde products have also been used as +means of distinction, as has also the formation of the stilbazonium +bases obtained by condensing ortho-semidines with benzil (O.N. Witt, +_Berichte_, 1892, 25, p. 1017). + +Structurally we have:-- + + __ __ __ __ __ __NH2 + / \_NH.NH _/ \-->NH2 / \_/ \NH2 and NH2 / \_/ \ + \__/ \__/ \__/ \__/ \__/ \__/ + Hydrobenzene. Benzidine. Diphenylin. + __ __ __ __ __ __ + R/ \_NH.NH _/ \--> / \_NH_/ \or R/ \_NH_/ \NH2 + \__/ \__/ \__/ \__/ \__/ \__/ + Ortho-semidine. Para-semidine. + + __NH2__ + or / \_/ \NH2. + \__/ \__/ + R + + + + +BENZOIC ACID, C7H6O2 or C6H5COOH, the simplest representative of the +aromatic acids. It occurs naturally in some resins, especially in gum +benzoin (from _Styrax benzoin_), in dragon's blood, and as a benzyl +ester in Peru and Tolu balsams. It can be prepared by the oxidation of +toluene, benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde and cinnamic acid; by the +oxidation of benzene with manganese dioxide and concentrated sulphuric +acid in the cold (L. Carius, _Ann_. 1868, 148, p. 51); by hydrolysis of +benzonitrile or of hippuric acid; by the action of carbon dioxide on +benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and J.M. +Crafts, _Ann. chim. phys._ 1888 [6], 14, p. 441); by the action of +carbon dioxide on monobrombenzene in the presence of sodium; by +condensing benzene and carbonyl chloride in presence of aluminium +chloride, the benzoyl chloride formed being subsequently hydrolysed; and +similarly from benzene and chlorformamide:-- + + C6H6 + Cl.CONH2 = HCl + C6H5CONH2, + +the benzamide being then hydrolysed. It may also be prepared by boiling +benzyl chloride with dilute nitric acid (G. Lunge, _Berichte_, 1877, 10, +p. 1275); by fusing sodium benzene sulphonate with sodium formate: +C6H5SO3Na + HCO2Na = C6H5COONa + NaHSO3; by heating calcium phthalate +with calcium hydroxide to 330 deg.-350 deg. C.; by heating +benzotrichloride with water in a sealed tube, and from the hippuric acid +which is found in the urine of the herbivorae. For this purpose the +urine is concentrated and the hippuric acid precipitated by the addition +of hydrochloric acid; it is then filtered and boiled for some time with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, when it is hydrolysed into benzoic and +amido-acetic acid. It is made commercially by boiling benzotrichloride +(obtained from toluene) with milk of lime, the calcium benzoate so +obtained being then decomposed by hydrochloric acid + + 2C6H5CCl3 + 4Ca(OH)2 = (C6H5COO)2Ca + 3CaCl2 + 4H2O. + +Benzoic acid crystallizes in glistening leaflets (from water) which melt +at 121.4 deg. C. and boil at 249.2 deg. C. (H. Kopp). Its specific heat +is 0.1946. It sublimes readily and is volatile in steam. It is readily +soluble in hot water and the ordinary organic solvents, but is only +slightly soluble in cold water. When heated with lime, it is decomposed, +benzene being formed; if its vapours are passed over heated zinc dust, +it is converted into benzaldehyde (A. Baeyer, _Ann_. 1866, 140, p. 296). +Distillation of its calcium salt gives benzophenone (q.v.) with small +quantities of other substances, but if the calcium salt be mixed with +calcium formate and the mixture distilled, benzaldehyde is produced. By +the action of sodium amalgam on an aqueous solution of the acid, benzyl +alcohol, tetrahydrobenzoic acid and hexahydrobenzoic acid are formed. +The salts of benzoic acid are known as the benzoates and are mostly +soluble in water. They are readily decomposed by mineral acids with the +production of benzoic acid, and on addition of ferric chloride to their +neutral solutions give a reddish-brown precipitate of ferric benzoate. + +Benzoic anhydride, (C6H5CO)2O, is prepared by the action of benzoyl +chloride on sodium benzoate, or by heating benzoyl chloride with +anhydrous oxalic acid (R. Anschutz, _Ann_. 1884, 226, p. 15). It +crystallizes in needles, melting at 42 deg.C., and boiling at 360 deg. +C. It is insoluble in water but readily soluble in alcohol and ether. + +Benzoyl chloride, C6H5COCl, is formed by distilling a mixture of +phosphorus pentachloride and benzoic acid; by the action of chlorine on +benzaldehyde, or by passing a stream of hydrochloric acid gas over a +mixture of benzoic acid and phosphorus pentoxide heated to 200 deg. C. +(C. Friedel, _Ber._ 1869, 2, p. 80). It is a colourless liquid of very +unpleasant smell, which boils at 198 deg. C., and solidifies in a +freezing mixture, the crystals obtained melting at -1 deg. C. It shows +all the characteristic properties of an acid chloride. + +Ethyl benzoate, C6H5COOC2H5, is best prepared by boiling benzoic acid +and alcohol with a small quantity of sulphuric acid for some hours (E. +Fischer and A. Speier, _Berichte_, 1896, 28, p. 3252). It is a +colourless liquid of boiling point 213 deg. C. + +_Benzamide_, C6H5CONH2, is prepared by the action of benzoyl chloride on +ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or from ethyl benzoate and ammonia. It +crystallizes (from water) in glistening leaflets which melt at 130 deg. +C. and boil at 288 deg. C. Its silver salt behaves as if it were the +salt of an imido benzoic acid, since it yields benzimido ethyl ether +C6H5.C( : NH).OC2H5 with ethyl iodide (J. Tafel and C. Enoch, +_Berichte_, 1890, 23, p. 1550). + +Chlor-, brom-, iodo- and fluor-benzoic acids are known and can be +obtained by oxidizing the corresponding halogen toluenes, or from the +amido acids, or by substitution. Nitration of benzoic acid gives chiefly +meta-nitro-benzoic acid. The ortho- and para-nitro-benzoic acids can be +obtained by oxidizing ortho-and para-nitro-cinnamic acids. +Ortho-amino-benzoic acid, C6H4.NH2.COOH (anthranilic acid), is closely +related to indigo (q.v.). + +Gum benzoin, which contains from 12 to 20% of benzoic acid, is used in +medicine as the essential constituent of benzoated lard, _Adeps +benzoatus_, which owes its antiseptic properties to benzoic acid; and in +friar's balsam, _Tinctura benzoini composita_, which is an ancient and +valuable medicament, still largely used for inhalation in cases of +laryngitis, bronchitis and other inflammatory or actually septic +conditions of the respiratory tract. It owes its value to the benzoic +acid which it contains. A fluid drachm of friar's balsam may be added to +a pint of water at a temperature of about 140 deg. F., and the resultant +vapour may be inhaled from the spout of a kettle or from a special +inhaler. Benzoic acid itself, ammonium benzoate and sodium benzoate are +all administered internally in doses of from five to thirty grains. The +ammonium salt is most often employed, owing to the stimulant character +of the ammonium base. The acid itself is a powerful antiseptic. When +administered internally, it causes the appearance of hippuric acid in +the urine. This is due to its combination in the body with glycocoll. +The combination probably occurs in the kidney. The hippuric acid in the +urine acts as a stimulant and disinfectant to the urinary mucous +membrane. Benzoic acid is also excreted by the bronchi and tends to +disinfect and stimulate the bronchial mucous membrane. Hence the value +of friar's balsam. The acid and its salts are antipyretic and were used +in Germany instead of salicylates in rheumatic fever. But the most +important fact is that ammonium benzoate is largely used--often in +combination with urinary anodynes such as tincture of hyoscyamus--as a +urinary antiseptic in cases of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder) +and pyelitis (inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney). + + + + +BENZOIN, C6H5CHOH.CO.C6H5, a ketone-alcohol, which may be prepared by +boiling an alcoholic solution of benzaldehyde with potassium cyanide; by +reducing benzil (C6H5CO.CO.C6H5) with zinc and acetic acid; or by the +oxidation of hydrobenzoin (C6H5.CHOH.CHOH.C6H5). It is a colourless, +crystalline solid, readily soluble in alcohol and ether, melting at 137 +deg. C. and boiling at 343-344 deg.C. On passing the vapour of benzoin +over heated lead oxide, it is converted into benzil and benzophenone. +Owing to the readiness with which it is oxidized, it acts as a reducing +agent, giving a red precipitate of cuprous oxide with Fehling's solution +in the cold. Chlorine and nitric acid oxidize it to benzil; chromic acid +mixture and potassium permanganate, to benzoic acid and benzaldehyde. On +heating with zinc dust, desoxy-benzoin (C6H5CO.CH2.C6H5) is obtained; +sodium amalgam converts it into hydrobenzoin; and fuming hydriodic acid +at 130 deg. C. gives dibenzyl (C6H5CH2.CH2.C6H5). By fusion with alkali +it is converted into benzil; and with an alcoholic solution of +benzaldehyde in presence of ammonia it forms amarine (triphenyl +dihydro-glyoxaline). In the presence of sulphuric acid it condenses with +nitriles to oxazoles (q.v.). + + + + +BENZOIN, or GUM BENJAMIN (supposed to be from Arab. _luban_, +frankincense, the first syllable being dropped in Romanic as if it were +the article), a balsamic resin obtained from _Styrax benzoin_, a tree of +considerable size, native to Sumatra and Java, and from other species of +_Styrax_. It is obtained by making incisions in the bark of the trees, +and appears to be formed as the result of the wound, not to be secreted +normally. There are several varieties of benzoin in commerce: (1) Siam +benzoin, which apparently does not come from _Styrax benzoin_, is the +finest and most aromatic, and occurs in the form of small "tears," +rarely exceeding 2 in. in length by 1/2 in. in thickness, and of +"blocks" made up of these tears agglomerated by a clear reddish-brown +resin. The odour of Siam benzoin is partly due to the presence of +vanillin, and the substance contains as much as 38% of benzoic acid but +no cinnamic acid. (2) Sumatra benzoin occurs only in masses formed of +dull red resin enclosing white tears. It contains about 20% of cinnamic +acid in addition to 18 or even more of benzoic. (3) Palembang benzoin, +an inferior variety, said to be obtained from _Styrax benzoin_ in +Sumatra, consists of greyish translucent resinous masses, containing +small white opaque tears. It does not appear to contain cinnamic acid. +Large quantities of benzoin are used as incense. Its medicinal uses +depend on the contained benzoic acid (q.v.). + + + + +BENZOPHENONE (DIPHENYL KETONE), C6H5.CO.C6H5, the simplest +representative of the true aromatic ketones. It may be prepared by +distilling calcium benzoate; by condensing benzene with benzoyl chloride +in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride; by the action of +mercury diphenyl on benzoyl chloride, or by oxidizing diphenylmethane +with chromic acid. It is a dimorphous substance existing in two +enantiotropic forms, one melting at 26 deg. C. and the other at 48 deg. +C: (Th. Zmcke, _Berichte_, 1871, 4, p. 576). It boils at 306.1 deg. C., +under a pressure of 760.32 mm. It is reduced by sodium amalgam to +_benzhydrol_ or _diphenyl carbinol_ C6H5.CHOH.C6H5; a stronger reducing +agent, such as hydriodic acid in the presence of amorphous phosphorus +converts it into _diphenylmethane_ (C6H5)2-CH2. Potash fusion converts +it into benzene and benzoic acid. With phenylhydrazine it forms a +hydrazone, and with hydroxylamine an oxime, which exists in one form +only; if, however, one of the phenyl groups in the oxime be substituted +in any way then two stereo-isomeric oximes are produced (cf. +STEREO-ISOMERISM); thus parachlorbenzophenone oxime exists in two +different forms (V. Meyer and K.F. Auwers, _Berichte_, 1890, 23, p. +2403). Many derivatives are known, thus ortho-amino-benzophenone, +melting at 106 deg. C., can be obtained by reduction of the +corresponding nitro compound; it condenses under the influence of heated +lead monoxide to an acridine derivative and with acetone in presence of +caustic soda it gives a quinoline. _Tetramethyl-diamido-benzophenone_ or +_Michler's ketone_, CO[C6H4N.(CH3)2]3, melting at 173 deg., is of +technical importance, as by condensation with various substances it can +be made to yield dye-stuffs. It is prepared by the action of carbonyl +chloride on dimethyl aniline in the presence of aluminium chloride: +COCl2 + 2C6H5N(CH3)2 = 2HCl + CO[C6H4N(CH3)2]2. + + + + +BENZYL ALCOHOL (PHENYL CARBINOL), C6H5CH2OH, occurs as a benzoic ester +in Peru balsam, as cinnamic ester in Tolu balsam, as acetic ester in +essential oil of jasmine, and also in storax. It may be synthetically +prepared by the reduction of benzoyl chloride; by the action of nitrous +acid on benzylamine; by boiling benzyl chloride with an aqueous solution +of potassium carbonate, or by the so-called "Cannizzaro" reaction, in +which benzaldehyde is shaken up with caustic potash, one half of the +aldehyde being oxidized to benzoic acid, and the other half reduced to +the alcohol. (_Berichte_, 1881, 14, p. 2394). + + 2C6H5CHO + KOH = C6H5COOK + C6H5CH2OH. + +It is a colourless liquid, with a faint aromatic smell, and boils at 206 +deg. C. On oxidation with nitric acid it is converted into benzaldehyde, +whilst chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid. Reduction by means of +hydriodic acid and phosphorus at 140 deg. C. gives toluene, whilst on +distillation with alcoholic potash, toluene and benzoic acid are formed. + + + + +BEOTHUK, a tribe of North American Indians formerly dwelling in the +interior of Newfoundland. A certain mystery attaches to them, since +investigation of the few words of their language which have survived +suggests that they were of distinct stock. The name (of Micmac origin) +is said to mean simply "red men." They were bitterly hostile to the +French settlers, and were hunted down and killed off until 1820, when a +few survivors made their escape into Labrador. The last of them is +believed to have died in 1829. + + + + +BEOTHY, ODON (1796-1854), Hungarian deputy and orator, was born at +Grosswardein, his father being a retired officer and deputy +lord-lieutenant of the county of Bihar. At the age of sixteen he served +in the war against Napoleon, and was present at the great battle of +Leipzig. Like so many others of his compatriots, he picked up Liberal +ideas abroad. He was sent to parliament by his county in 1826 and again +in 1830, but did not become generally known till the session of +1832-1836, when along with Deak he, as a liberal Catholic, defended the +Protestant point of view in "the mixed marriages question." He was also +an energetic advocate of freedom of speech. After parliament rose he +carried his principles to their logical conclusion by marrying a +Protestant lady and, being denied a blessing on the occasion by an +indignant bishop, publicly declared that he could very well dispense +with such blessings. In 1841 he was elected deputy lord-lieutenant of +his county to counteract the influence of the lord-lieutenant, Lajos +Tisza, and powerfully promoted the popular cause by his eloquence and +agitation. After 1843 the conservatives succeeded in excluding him both +from parliament and from his official position in the county; but during +the famous "March Days" (1848) he regained all his authority, becoming +at the same time a commander of militia, a deputy and lord-lieutenant. +At the first session of the Upper House (5th of July 1848), he moved +that it should be radically reformed, and during the war of Independence +he energetically served the Hungarian government as a civil commissioner +and lord justice. Towards the end of the war he reappeared as a deputy +at the Szeged diet, and on the flight of the government took refuge +first with Richard Cobden in London and subsequently in Jersey, where he +made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo. Thence he went to Hamburg, to meet +his wife, and died there on the 7th of December 1854. Beothy was a man +of extraordinary ability and character, and an excellent debater. He +also exercised as much influence socially over his contemporaries as +politically, owing to his unfailing tact and pleasant wit. + + See Antal Csengery, _Hungarian Orators and Statesmen_ (Hung., + Budapest, 1851). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BEOWULF. The epic of Beowulf, the most precious relic of Old English, +and, indeed, of all early Germanic literature, has come down to us in a +single MS., written about A.D. 1000, which contains also the Old English +poem of Judith, and is bound up with other MSS. in a volume in the +Cottonian collection now at the British Museum. The subject of the poem +is the exploits of Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow and nephew of Hygelac, king +of the "Geatas," i.e. the people, called in Scandinavian records Gautar, +from whom a part of southern Sweden has received its present name +Gotland. + +_The Story._--The following is a brief outline of the story, which +naturally divides itself into five parts. + +1. Beowulf, with fourteen companions, sails to Denmark, to offer his +help to Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose hall (called "Heorot") has +for twelve years been rendered uninhabitable by the ravages of a +devouring monster (apparently in gigantic human shape) called Grendel, a +dweller in the waste, who used nightly to force an entrance and +slaughter some of the inmates. Beowulf and his friends are feasted in +the long-deserted Heorot. At night the Danes withdraw, leaving the +strangers alone. When all but Beowulf are asleep, Grendel enters, the +iron-barred doors having yielded in a moment to his hand. One of +Beowulf's friends is killed; but Beowulf, unarmed, wrestles with the +monster, and tears his arm from the shoulder. Grendel, though mortally +wounded, breaks from the conqueror's grasp, and escapes from the hall. +On the morrow, his bloodstained track is followed until it ends in a +distant mere. + +2. All fear being now removed, the Danish king and his followers pass +the night in Heorot, Beowulf and his comrades being lodged elsewhere. +The hall is invaded by Grendel's mother, who kills and carries off one +of the Danish nobles. Beowulf proceeds to the mere, and, armed with +sword and corslet, plunges into the water. In a vaulted chamber under +the waves, he fights with Grendel's mother, and kills her. In the vault +he finds the corpse of Grendel; he cuts off the head, and brings it back +in triumph. + +3. Richly rewarded by Hrothgar, Beowulf returns to his native land. He +is welcomed by Hygelac. and relates to him the story of his adventures, +with some details not contained in the former narrative. The king +bestows on him lands and honours, and during the reigns of Hygelac and +his son Heardred he is the greatest man in the kingdom. When Heardred is +killed in battle with the Swedes, Beowulf becomes king in his stead. + +4. After Beowulf has reigned prosperously for fifty years, his country +is ravaged by a fiery dragon, which inhabits an ancient burial-mound, +full of costly treasure. The royal hall itself is burned to the ground. +The aged king resolves to fight, unaided, with the dragon. Accompanied +by eleven chosen warriors, he journeys to the barrow. Bidding his +companions retire to a distance, he takes up his position near the +entrance to the mound--an arched opening whence issues a boiling stream. +I The dragon hears Beowulf's shout of defiance, and rushes forth, +breathing flames. The fight begins; Beowulf is all but overpowered, and +the sight is so terrible that his men, all but one, seek safety in +flight. The young Wiglaf, son of Weohstan, though yet untried in battle, +cannot, even in obedience to his lord's prohibition, refrain from going +to his help. With Wiglaf's aid, Beowulf slays the dragon, but not before +he has received his own death-wound. Wiglaf enters the barrow, and +returns to show the dying king the treasures that he has found there. +With his last breath Beowulf names Wiglaf his successor, and ordains +that his ashes shall be enshrined in a great mound, placed on a lofty +cliff, so that it may be a mark for sailors far out at sea. + +5. The news of Beowulf's dear-bought victory is carried to the army. +Amid great lamentation, the hero's body is laid on the funeral pile and +consumed. The treasures of the dragon's hoard are buried with his ashes; +and when the great mound is finished, twelve of Beowulf's most famous +warriors ride around it, celebrating the praises of the bravest, +gentlest and most generous of kings. + +_The Hero._--Those portions of the poem that are summarized above--that +is to say, those which relate the career of the hero in progressive +order--contain a lucid and well-constructed story, told with a vividness +of imagination and a degree of narrative skill that may with little +exaggeration be called Homeric. And yet it is probable that there are +few readers of Beowulf who have not felt--and there are many who after +repeated perusal continue to feel--that the general impression produced +by it is that of a bewildering chaos. This effect is due to the +multitude and the character of the episodes. In the first place, a very +great part of what the poem tells about Beowulf himself is not presented +in regular sequence, but by way of retrospective mention or narration. +The extent of the material thus introduced out of course may be seen +from the following abstract. + +When seven years old the orphaned Beowulf was adopted by his grandfather +king Hrethel, the father of Hygelac, and was regarded by him with as +much affection as any of his own sons. In youth, although famed for his +wonderful strength of grip, he was generally despised as sluggish and +unwarlike. Yet even before his encounter with Grendel, he had won renown +by his swimming contest with another youth named Breca, when after +battling for seven days and nights with the waves, and slaying many +sea-monsters, he came to land in the country of the Finns. In the +disastrous invasion of the land of the Hetware, in which Hygelac was +killed, Beowulf killed many of the enemy, amongst them a chieftain of +the Hugas, named Daeghrefn, apparently the slayer of Hygelac. In the +retreat he once more displayed his powers as a swimmer, carrying to his +ship the armour of thirty slain enemies. When he reached his native +land, the widowed queen offered him the kingdom, her son Heardred being +too young to rule. Beowulf, out of loyalty, refused to be made king, and +acted as the guardian of Heardred during his minority, and as his +counsellor after he came to man's estate. By giving shelter to the +fugitive Eadgils, a rebel against his uncle the king of the "Sweon" (the +Swedes, dwelling to the north of the Gautar), Heardred brought on +himself an invasion, in which he lost his life. When Beowulf became +king, he supported the cause of Eadgils by force of arms; the king of +the Swedes was killed, and his nephew placed on the throne. + +_Historical Value._--Now, with one brilliant exception--the story of the +swimming-match, which is felicitously introduced and finely told--these +retrospective passages are brought in more or less awkwardly, interrupt +inconveniently the course of the narrative, and are too condensed and +allusive in style to make any strong poetic impression. Still, they do +serve to complete the portraiture of the hero's character. There are, +however, many other episodes that have nothing to do with Beowulf +himself, but seem to have been inserted with a deliberate intention of +making the poem into a sort of cyclopaedia of Germanic tradition. They +include many particulars of what purports to be the history of the royal +houses, not only of the Gautar and the Danes, but also of the Swedes, +the continental Angles, the Ostrogoths, the Frisians and the +Heathobeards, besides references to matters of unlocalized heroic story +such as the exploits of Sigismund. The Saxons are not named, and the +Franks appear only as a dreaded hostile power. Of Britain there is no +mention; and though there are some distinctly Christian passages, they +are so incongruous in tone with the rest of the poem that they must be +regarded as interpolations. In general the extraneous episodes have no +great appropriateness to their context, and have the appearance of being +abridged versions of stories that had been related at length in poetry. +Their confusing effect, for modern readers, is increased by a curiously +irrelevant prologue. It begins by celebrating the ancient glories of the +Danes, tells in allusive style the story of Scyld, the founder of the +"Scylding" dynasty of Denmark, and praises the virtues of his son +Beowulf. If this Danish Beowulf had been the hero of the poem, the +opening would have been appropriate; but it seems strangely out of place +as an introduction to the story of his namesake. + +However detrimental these redundancies may be to the poetic beauty of +the epic, they add enormously to its interest for students of Germanic +history or legend. If the mass of traditions which it purports to +contain be genuine, the poem is of unique importance as a source of +knowledge respecting the early history of the peoples of northern +Germany and Scandinavia. But the value to be assigned to _Beowulf_ in +this respect can be determined only by ascertaining its probable date, +origin and manner of composition. The criticism of the Old English epic +has therefore for nearly a century been justly regarded as indispensable +to the investigation of Germanic antiquities. + +The starting-point of all _Beowulf_ criticism is the fact (discovered by +N.F.S. Grundtvig in 1815) that one of the episodes of the poem belongs +to authentic history. Gregory of Tours, who died in 594, relates that in +the reign of Theodoric of Metz (511-534) the Danes invaded the kingdom, +and carried off many captives and much plunder to their ships. Their +king, whose name appears in the best MSS. as Chlochilaicus (other copies +read Chrochilaicus, Hrodolaicus, &c.), remained on shore intending to +follow afterwards, but was attacked by the Franks under Theodobert, son +of Theodoric, and killed. The Franks then defeated the Danes in a naval +battle, and recovered the booty. The date of these events is ascertained +to have been between 512 and 520. An anonymous history written early in +the eighth century (_Liber Hist. Francorum_, cap. 19) gives the name of +the Danish king as Chochilaicus, and says that he was killed in the land +of the Attoarii. Now it is related in _Beowulf_ that Hygelac met his +death in fighting against the Franks and the Hetware (the Old English +form of Attoarii). The forms of the Danish king's name given by the +Frankish historians are corruptions of the name of which the primitive +Germanic form was Hugilaikaz, and which by regular phonetic change +became in Old English _Hygelac_, and in Old Norse Hugleikr. It is true +that the invading king is said in the histories to have been a Dane, +whereas the Hygelac of Beowulf belonged to the "Geatas" or Gautar. But a +work called _Liber Monstrorum_,[1] preserved in two MSS. of the 10th +century, cites as an example of extraordinary stature a certain +"Huiglaucus, king of the Getae," who was killed by the Franks, and whose +bones were preserved on an island at the mouth of the Rhine, and +exhibited as a marvel. It is therefore evident that the personality of +Hygelac, and the expedition in which, according to _Beowulf_, he died, +belong not to the region of legend or poetic invention, but to that of +historic fact. + +This noteworthy result suggests the possibility that what the poem tells +of Hygelac's near relatives, and of the events of his reign and that of +his successor, is based on historic fact. There is really nothing to +forbid the supposition; nor is there any unlikelihood in the view that +the persons mentioned as belonging to the royal houses of the Danes and +Swedes had a real existence. It can be proved, at any rate, that several +of the names are derived from the native traditions of these two +peoples. The Danish king Hrothgar and his brother Halga, the sons of +Healf-dene, appear in the _Historia Danica_ of Saxo as Roe (the founder +of Roskilde) and Helgo, the sons of Haldanus. The Swedish princes +Eadgils, son of Ohthere, and Onela, who are mentioned in _Beowulf_, are +in the Icelandic _Heimskringla_ called Adils son of Ottarr, and Ali; the +correspondence of the names, according to the phonetic laws of Old +English and Old Norse, being strictly normal. There are other points of +contact between _Beowulf_ on the one hand and the Scandinavian records +on the other, confirming the conclusion that the Old English poem +contains much of the historical tradition of the Gautar, the Danes and +the Swedes, in its purest accessible form. + +Of the hero of the poem no mention has been found elsewhere. But the +name (the Icelandic form of which is Bjolfr) is genuinely Scandinavian. +It was borne by one of the early settlers in Iceland, and a monk named +Biuulf is commemorated in the _Liber Vitae_ of the church of Durham. As +the historical character of Hygelac has been proved, it is not +unreasonable to accept the authority of the poem for the statement that +his nephew Beowulf succeeded Heardred on the throne of the Gautar, and +interfered in the dynastic quarrels of the Swedes. His swimming exploit +among the Hetware, allowance being made for poetic exaggeration, fits +remarkably well into the circumstances of the story told by Gregory of +Tours; and perhaps his contest with Breca may have been an exaggeration +of a real incident in his career; and even if it was originally related +of some other hero, its attribution to the historical Beowulf may have +been occasioned by his renown as a swimmer. + +On the other hand, it would be absurd to imagine that the combats with +Grendel and his mother and with the fiery dragon can be exaggerated +representations of actual occurrences. These exploits belong to the +domain of pure mythology. That they have been attributed to Beowulf in +particular might seem to be adequately accounted for by the general +tendency to connect mythical achievements with the name of any famous +hero. There are, however, some facts that seem to point to a more +definite explanation. The Danish king "Scyld Scefing," whose story is +told in the opening lines of the poem, and his son Beowulf, are plainly +identical with Sceldwea, son of Sceaf, and his son Beaw, who appear +among the ancestors of Woden in the genealogy of the kings of Wessex +given in the _Old English Chronicle_. The story of Scyld is related, +with some details not found in _Beowulf_, by William of Malmesbury, and, +less fully, by the 10th-century English historian Ethelwerd, though it +is told not of Scyld himself, but of his father Sceaf. According to +William's version, Sceaf was found, as an infant, alone in a boat +without oars, which had drifted to the island of "Scandza." The child +was asleep with his head on a _sheaf_, and from this circumstance he +obtained his name. When he grew up he reigned over the Angles at +"Slaswic." In _Beowulf_ the same story is told of Scyld, with the +addition that when he died his body was placed in a ship, laden with +rich treasure, which was sent out to sea unguided. It is clear that in +the original form of the tradition the name of the foundling was Scyld +or Sceldwea, and that his cognomen _Scefing_ (derived from _sceaf_, a +sheaf) was misinterpreted as a patronymic. Sceaf, therefore, is no +genuine personage of tradition, but merely an etymological figment. + +The position of Sceldwea and Beaw (in Malmesbury's Latin called Sceldius +and Beowius) in the genealogy as anterior to Woden would not of itself +prove that they belong to divine mythology and not to heroic legend. But +there are independent reasons for believing that they were originally +gods or demi-gods. It is a reasonable conjecture that the tales of +victories over Grendel and the fiery dragon belong properly to the myth +of Beaw. If Beowulf, the champion of the Gautar, had already become a +theme of epic song, the resemblance of name might easily suggest the +idea of enriching his story by adding to it the achievements of Beaw. At +the same time, the tradition that the hero of these adventures was a son +of Scyld, who was identified (whether rightly or wrongly) with the +eponymus of the Danish dynasty of the Scyldings, may well have prompted +the supposition that they took place in Denmark. There is, as we shall +see afterwards, some ground for believing that there were circulated in +England two rival poetic versions of the story of the encounters with +supernatural beings: the one referring them to Beowulf the Dane, while +the other (represented by the existing poem) attached them to the legend +of the son of Ecgtheow, but ingeniously contrived to do some justice to +the alternative tradition by laying the scene of the Grendel incident at +the court of a Scylding king. + +As the name of Beaw appears in the genealogies of English kings, it +seems likely that the traditions of his exploits may have been brought +over by the Angles from their continental home. This supposition is +confirmed by evidence that seems to show that the Grendel legend was +popularly current in this country. In the schedules of boundaries +appended to two Old English charters there occurs mention of pools +called "Grendel's mere," one in Wiltshire and the other in +Staffordshire. The charter that mentions the Wiltshire "Grendel's mere" +speaks also of a place called _Beowan ham_ ("Beowa's home"), and another +Wiltshire charter has a "Scyld's tree" among the landmarks enumerated. +The notion that ancient burial mounds were liable to be inhabited by +dragons was common in the Germanic world: there is perhaps a trace of it +in the Derbyshire place-name Drakelow, which means "dragon's barrow." + +While, however, it thus appears that the mythic part of the Beowulf +story is a portion of primeval Angle tradition, there is no proof that +it was originally peculiar to the Angles; and even if it was so, it may +easily have passed from them into the poetic cycles of the related +peoples. There are, indeed, some reasons for suspecting that the +blending of the stories of the mythic Beaw and the historical Beowulf +may have been the work of Scandinavian and not of English poets. Prof. +G. Sarrazin has pointed out the striking resemblance between the +Scandinavian legend of Bodvarr Biarki and that of the Beowulf of the +poem. In each, a hero from Gautland slays a destructive monster at the +court of a Danish king, and afterwards is found fighting on the side of +Eadgils (Adils) in Sweden. This coincidence cannot well be due to mere +chance; but its exact significance is doubtful. On the one hand, it is +possible that the English epic, which unquestionably derived its +historical elements from Scandinavian song, may be indebted to the same +source for its general plan, including the blending of history and myth. +On the other hand, considering the late date of the authority for the +Scandinavian traditions, we cannot be sure that the latter may not owe +some of their material to English minstrels. There are similar +alternative possibilities with regard to the explanation of the striking +resemblances which certain incidents of the adventures with Grendel and +the dragon bear to incidents in the narratives of Saxo and the Icelandic +sagas. + +_Date and Origin._--It is now time to speak of the probable date and +origin of the poem. The conjecture that most naturally presents itself +to those who have made no special study of the question, is that an +English epic treating of the deeds of a Scandinavian hero on +Scandinavian ground must have been composed in the days of Norse or +Danish dominion in England. This, however, is impossible. The forms +under which Scandinavian names appear in the poem show clearly that +these names must have entered English tradition not later than the +beginning of the 7th century. It does not indeed follow that the extant +poem is of so early a date; but its syntax is remarkably archaic in +comparision with that of the Old English poetry of the 8th century. The +hypothesis that _Beowulf_ is in whole or in part a translation from a +Scandinavian original, although still maintained by some scholars, +introduces more difficulties than it solves, and must be dismissed as +untenable. The limits of this article do not permit us to state and +criticize the many elaborate theories that have been proposed respecting +the origin of the poem. All that can be done is to set forth the view +that appears to us to be most free from objection. It may be premised +that although the existing MS. is written in the West-Saxon dialect, the +phenomena of the language indicate transcription from an Anglian (i.e. a +Northumbrian or Mercian) original; and this conclusion is supported by +the fact that while the poem contains one important episode relating to +the Angles, the name of the Saxons does not occur in it at all. + +In its original form, _Beowulf_ was a product of the time when poetry +was composed not to be read, but to be recited in the halls of kings and +nobles. Of course an entire epic could not be recited on a single +occasion; nor can we suppose that it would be thought out from beginning +to end before any part of it was presented to an audience. A singer who +had pleased his hearers with a tale of adventure would be called on to +tell them of earlier or later events in the career of the hero; and so +the story would grow, until it included all that the poet knew from +tradition, or could invent in harmony with it. That _Beowulf_ is +concerned with the deeds of a foreign hero is less surprising than it +seems at first sight. The minstrel of early Germanic times was required +to be learned not only in the traditions of his own people, but also in +those of the other peoples with whom they felt their kinship. He had a +double task to perform. It was not enough that his songs should give +pleasure; his patrons demanded that he should recount faithfully the +history and genealogy both of their own line and of those other royal +houses who shared with them the same divine ancestry, and who might be +connected with them by ties of marriage or warlike alliance. Probably +the singer was always himself an original poet; he might often be +content to reproduce the songs that he had learned, but he was doubtless +free to improve or expand them as he chose, provided that his inventions +did not conflict with what was supposed to be historic truth. For all we +know, the intercourse of the Angles with Scandinavia, which enabled +their poets to obtain new knowledge of the legends of Danes, Gautar and +Swedes, may not have ceased until their conversion to Christianity in +the 7th century. And even after this event, whatever may have been the +attitude of churchmen towards the old heathen poetry, the kings and +warriors would be slow to lose their interest in the heroic tales that +had delighted their ancestors. It is probable that down to the end of +the 7th century, if not still later, the court poets of Northumbria and +Mercia continued to celebrate the deeds of Beowulf and of many another +hero of ancient days. + +Although the heathen Angles had their own runic alphabet, it is unlikely +that any poetry was written down until a generation had grown up trained +in the use of the Latin letters learned from Christian missionaries. We +cannot determine the date at which some book-learned man, interested in +poetry, took down from the lips of a minstrel one of the stories that he +had been accustomed to sing. It may have been before 700; much later it +can hardly have been, for the old heathen poetry, though its existence +might be threatened by the influence of the church, was still in +vigorous life. The epic of Beowulf was not the only one that was reduced +to writing: a fragment of the song about Finn, king of the Frisians, +still survives, and possibly several other heroic poems were written +down about the same time. As originally dictated, _Beowulf_ probably +contained the story outlined at the beginning of this article, with the +addition of one or two of the episodes relating to the hero +himself--among them the legend of the swimming-match. This story had +doubtless been told at greater length in verse, but its insertion in its +present place is the work of a poet, not of a mere redactor. The other +episodes were introduced by some later writer, who had heard recited, or +perhaps had read, a multitude of the old heathen songs, the substance of +which he piously sought to preserve from oblivion by weaving it in an +abridged form, into the texture of the one great poem which he was +transcribing. The Christian passages, which are poetically of no value, +are evidently of literary origin, and may be of any date down to that of +the extant MS. The curious passage which says that the subjects of +Hrothgar sought deliverance from Grendel in prayer at the temple of the +Devil, "because they knew not the true God," must surely have been +substituted for a passage referring sympathetically to the worship of +the ancient gods. + +An interesting light on the history of the written text seems to be +afforded by the phenomena of the existing MS. The poem is divided into +numbered sections, the length of which was probably determined by the +size of the pieces of parchment of which an earlier exemplar consisted. +Now the first fifty-two lines, which are concerned with Scyld and his +son Beowulf, stand outside this numbering. It may reasonably be inferred +that there once existed a written text of the poem that did not include +these lines. Their substance, however, is clearly ancient. Many +difficulties will be obviated if we may suppose that this passage is the +beginning of a different poem, the hero of which was not Beowulf the son +of Ecgtheow, but his Danish namesake. It is true that Beowulf the +Scylding is mentioned at the beginning of the first numbered section; +but probably the opening lines of this section have undergone alteration +in order to bring them into connexion with the prefixed matter. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The volume containing the _Beowulf_ MS. (then, as now, + belonging to the Cottonian collection, and numbered "Vitellius A. + xv.") was first described by Humphrey Wanley in 1705, in his catalogue + of MSS., published as vol. iii. of G. Hickes's _Thesaurus Veterum + Linguarum Septentrionalium_. In 1786 G.J. Thorkelin, an Icelander, + made or procured two transcripts of the poem, which are still + preserved in the Royal Library at Copenhagen, and are valuable for the + criticism of the text, the MS. having subsequently become in places + less legible. Thorkelin's edition (1815) is of merely historic + interest. The first edition showing competent knowledge of the + language was produced in 1833 by J.M. Kemble. Since then editions have + been very numerous. The text of the poem was edited by C.W.M. Grein in + his _Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Poesie_ (1857), and again + separately in 1867. Autotypes of the MS. with transliteration by + Julius Zupitza, were issued by the Early English Text Society in 1882. + The new edition of Grein's _Bibliothek_, by R.P. Wulker, vol. i. + (1883), contains a revised text with critical notes. The most + serviceable separate editions are those of M. Heyne (7th ed., revised + by A. Socin, 1903), A.J. Wyatt (with English notes and glossary, + 1898), and F. Holthausen (vol. i., 1905). + + Eleven English translations of the poem have been published (see C.B. + Tinker, _The Translations of Beowulf_, 1903). Among these may be + mentioned those of J.M. Garnett (6th ed., 1900), a literal rendering + in a metre imitating that of the original; J. Earle (1892) in prose; + W. Morris (1895) in imitative metre, and almost unintelligibly + archaistic in diction; and C.B. Tinker (1902) in prose. + + For the bibliography of the earlier literature on _Beowulf_, and a + detailed exposition of the theories therein advocated, see R.P. + Wulker, _Grundriss der angelsachsischen Litteratur_ (1882). The views + of Karl Mullenhoff, which, though no longer tenable as a whole, have + formed the basis of most of the subsequent criticism, may be best + studied in his posthumous work, _Beovulf, Untersuchungen uber das + angelsachsische Epos_ (1889). Much valuable matter may be found in B. + ten Brink, _Beowulf, Untersuchungen_ (1888). The work of G. Sarrazin, + _Beowulf-studien_ (1888), which advocates the strange theory that + _Beowulf_ is a translation by Cynewulf of a poem by the Danish singer + Starkadr, contains, amid much that is fanciful, not a little that + deserves careful consideration. The many articles by E. Sievers and S. + Bugge, in _Beitradge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und + Litteratur_ and other periodicals, are of the utmost importance for + the textual criticism and interpretation of the poem. (H. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Printed in Berger de Xivrey, _Traditions Teratologiques_ (1836), + from a MS. in private hands. Another MS., now at Wolfenbuttel, reads + "Hunglacus" for Huiglaucus, and (ungrammatically) "gentes" for + _Getis_. + + + + +BEQUEST (from O. Eng. _becwethan_, to declare or express in words; cf. +"quoth"), the disposition of property by will. Strictly, "bequest" is +used of personal, and "devise" of real property. (See LEGACY; WILL OR +TESTAMENT.) + + + + +BERAIN, JEAN (1638-1711), known as "the Elder," Belgian draughtsman and +designer, painter and engraver of ornament, was born in 1638 or 1639 at +Saint Mihiel (Meuse) and died in Paris on the 24th of January 1711. In +1674 he was appointed _dessinateur de la chambre et du cabinet de Roi_, +in succession to Gissey, whose pupil he is believed to have been. From +1677 onward he had apartments, near to those of Andre Charles Boulle +(q.v.), for whom he made many designs, in the Louvre, where he died. +After the death of Le Brun he was commissioned to compose and supervise +the whole of the exterior decoration of the king's ships. Without +possessing great originality he was inventive and industrious, and knew +so well how to assimilate the work of those who had preceded him +(especially Raffaelle's arabesques) and to adapt it to the taste of the +time that his designs became the rage. He furnished designs for the +decorations and costumes used in the opera performances, for court +festivals, and for public solemnities such as funeral processions, and +inspired the ornamentations of rooms and of furniture to such an extent +that a French writer says that nothing was done during his later years +which he had not designed, or at least which was not in his manner. He +was, in fact, the oracle of taste and the supreme pontiff whose fiat was +law in all matters of decoration. His numerous designs were for the most +part engraved under his own superintendence, and a collection of them +was published in Paris in 1711 by his son-in-law, Thuret, clockmaker to +the king. There are three books, _Oeuvre de J. Berain, Ornements +inventes par J. Berain_ and _Oeuvres de J. Berain contenant des +ornements d'architecture_. His earliest known works show him as +engraver--twelve plates in the collection of _Diverses pieces de +serrurerie inventees par Hughes Brisville el gravees par Jean Berain_ +(Paris, 1663), and in 1667 ten plates of designs for the use of +gunsmiths. M. Guilmard in _Les Maitres ornemanistes_, gives a complete +list of his published works. + +His son JEAN BERAIN, "the Younger" (1678-1726), was born in Paris, where +he also died. He was his father's pupil, and exercised the same official +functions after his death. Thus he planned the funeral ceremonies at St +Denis on the death of the dauphin, and afterwards made the designs for +the obsequies of Louis XIV. He is perhaps best known as an engraver. He +engraved eleven plates of the collection _Ornements de peinture et de +sculpture qui sont dans la galerie d'Apollon au chasteau du Louvre, et +dans le grand appartement du roy au palais des Tuileries_ (Paris, 1710), +which have been wrongly attributed to his father, the _Mausolei du duc +de Bourgogne_, and that of _Marie-Louise Gabrielle de Savoie, reine +d'Espagne_ (1714), &c. His work is exceedingly difficult to distinguish +from his father's, the similarity of style being remarkable. + +CLAUDE BERAIN, brother of the elder Jean, was still living in 1726. He +was engraver to the king, and executed a good number of plates of +ornament and arabesque of various kinds, some of which are included in +his more distinguished brother's works. (J. P. B.) + + + + +BERANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE (1780-1857), French song-writer, was born in +Paris on the 19th of August 1780. The aristocratic _de_ was a piece of +groundless vanity on the part of his father, who had assumed the name of +Beranger de Mersix. He was descended in truth from a country innkeeper +on the one side, and, on the other, from a tailor in the rue +Montorgueil. Of education, in the narrower sense, he had but little. +From the roof of his first school he beheld the capture of the Bastille, +and this stirring memory was all that he acquired. Later on he passed +some time in a school at Peronne, founded by one Bellenglise on the +principles of Rousseau, where the boys were formed into clubs and +regiments, and taught to play solemnly at politics and war. Beranger was +president of the club, made speeches before such members of Convention +as passed through Peronne, and drew up addresses to Tallien or +Robespierre at Paris. In the meanwhile he learned neither Greek nor +Latin--not even French, it would appear; for it was after he left +school, from the printer Laisney, that he acquired the elements of +grammar. His true education was of another sort. In his childhood, shy, +sickly and skilful with his hands, as he sat at home alone to carve +cherry stones, he was already forming for himself those habits of +retirement and patient elaboration which influenced the whole tenor of +his life and the character of all that he wrote. At Peronne he learned +of his good aunt to be a stout republican; and from the doorstep of her +inn, on quiet evenings, he would listen to the thunder of the guns +before Valenciennes, and fortify himself in his passionate love of +France and distaste for all things foreign. Although he could never read +Horace save in a translation, he had been educated on _Telemaque_, +Racine and the dramas of Voltaire, and taught, from a child, in the +tradition of all that is highest and most correct in French. + +After serving his aunt for some time in the capacity of waiter, and +passing some time also in the printing-office of one Laisney, he was +taken to Paris by his father. Here he saw much low speculation, and many +low royalist intrigues. In 1802, in consequence of a distressing +quarrel, he left his father and began life for himself in the garret of +his ever memorable song. For two years he did literary hackwork, when he +could get it, and wrote pastorals, epics and all manner of ambitious +failures. At the end of that period (1804) he wrote to Lucien Bonaparte, +enclosing some of these attempts. He was then in bad health, and in the +last state of misery. His watch was pledged. His wardrobe consisted of +one pair of boots, one greatcoat, one pair of trousers with a hole in +the knee, and "three bad shirts which a friendly hand wearied itself in +endeavouring to mend." The friendly hand was that of Judith Frere, with +whom he had been already more or less acquainted since 1796, and who +continued to be his faithful companion until her death, three months +before his own, in 1857. She must not be confounded with the Lisette of +the songs; the pieces addressed to her (_La Bonne Vieille, Maudit +printemps_, &c.) are in a very different vein. Lucien Bonaparte +interested himself in the young poet, transferred to him his own pension +of 1000 francs from the Institute, and set him to work on a _Death of +Nero_. Five years later, through the same patronage, although +indirectly, Beranger became a clerk in the university at a salary of +another thousand. + +Meanwhile he had written many songs for convivial occasions, and "to +console himself under all misfortunes"; some, according to M. Boiteau, +had been already published by his father, but he set no great store on +them himself; and it was only in 1812, while watching by the sick-bed of +a friend, that it occurred to him to write down the best he could +remember. Next year he was elected to the _Caveau Moderne_, and his +reputation as a song-writer began to spread. Manuscript copies of _Les +Gueux, Le Senateur_, above all, of _Le Roi d'Yvetot_, a satire against +Napoleon, whom he was to magnify so much in the sequel, passed from hand +to hand with acclamation. It was thus that all his best works went +abroad; one man sang them to another over all the land of France. He was +the only poet of modern times who could altogether have dispensed with +printing. + +His first collection escaped censure. "We must pardon many things to the +author of _Le Roi d'Yvetot_," said Louis XVIII. The second (1821) was +more daring. The apathy of the Liberal camp, he says, had convinced him +of the need for some bugle call of awakening. This publication lost him +his situation in the university, and subjected him to a trial, a fine of +500 francs and an imprisonment of three months. Imprisonment was a small +affair for Beranger. At Sainte Pelagie he occupied a room (it had just +been quitted by Paul Louis Courier), warm, well furnished, and +preferable in every way to his own poor lodging, where the water froze +on winter nights. He adds, on the occasion of his second imprisonment, +that he found a certain charm in this quiet, claustral existence, with +its regular hours and long evenings alone over the fire. This second +imprisonment of nine months, together with a fine and expenses amounting +to 1100 francs, followed on the appearance of his fourth collection. The +government proposed through Laffitte that, if he would submit to +judgment without appearing or making defences, he should only be +condemned in the smallest penalty. But his public spirit made him refuse +the proposal; and he would not even ask permission to pass his term of +imprisonment in a _Maison de sante_, although his health was more than +usually feeble at the time. "When you have taken your stand in a contest +with government, it seems to me," he wrote, "ridiculous to complain of +the blows it inflicts on you, and impolitic to furnish it with any +occasion of generosity." His first thought in La Force was to alleviate +the condition of the other prisoners. + +In the revolution of July he took no inconsiderable part. Copies of his +song, _Le Vieux Drapeau_, were served out to the insurgent crowd. He had +been for long the intimate friend and adviser of the leading men; and +during the decisive week his counsels went a good way towards shaping +the ultimate result. "As for the republic, that dream of my whole life," +he wrote in 1831, "I did not wish it should be given to us a second time +unripe." Louis Philippe, hearing how much the song-writer had done +towards his elevation, expressed a wish to see and speak with him; but +Beranger refused to present himself at court, and used his favour only +to ask a place for a friend, and a pension for Rouget de l'Isle, author +of the famous _Marseillaise_, who was now old and poor, and whom he had +been already succouring for five years. + +In 1848, in spite of every possible expression of his reluctance, he was +elected to the Constituent Assembly, and that by so large a number of +votes (204,471) that he felt himself obliged to accept the seat. Not +long afterwards, and with great difficulty, he obtained leave to resign. +This was the last public event of Beranger's life. He continued to +polish his songs in retirement, visited by nearly all the famous men of +France. He numbered among his friends Chateaubriand, Thiers, Jacques +Laffitte, Michelet, Lamennais, Mignet. Nothing could exceed the +amiability of his private character; so poor a man has rarely been so +rich in good actions; he was always ready to receive help from his +friends when he was in need, and always forward to help others. His +correspondence is full of wisdom and kindness, with a smack of +Montaigne, and now and then a vein of pleasantry that will remind the +English reader of Charles Lamb. He occupied some of his leisure in +preparing his own memoirs, and a certain treatise on _Social and +Political Morality_, intended for the people, a work he had much at +heart, but judged at last to be beyond his strength. He died on the 16th +July 1857. It was feared that his funeral would be the signal for some +political disturbance; but the government took immediate measures, and +all went quietly. The streets of Paris were lined with soldiers and full +of townsfolk, silent and uncovered. From time to time cries +arose:--"_Honneur, honneur a Beranger!_" + +The songs of Beranger would scarcely be called songs in England. They +are elaborate, written in a clear and sparkling style, full of wit and +incision. It is not so much for any lyrical flow as for the happy turn +of the phrase that they claim superiority. Whether the subject be gay or +serious, light or passionate, the medium remains untroubled. The special +merits of the songs are merits to be looked for rather in English prose +than in English verse. He worked deliberately, never wrote more than +fifteen songs a year and often less, and was so fastidious that he has +not preserved a quarter of what he finished. "I am a good little bit of +a poet," he says himself, "clever in the craft, and a conscientious +worker to whom old airs and a modest choice of subjects (_le coin ou je +me suis confine_) have brought some success." Nevertheless, he makes a +figure of importance in literary history. When he first began to +cultivate the _chanson_, this minor form lay under some contempt, and +was restricted to slight subjects and a humorous guise of treatment. +Gradually he filled these little chiselled toys of verbal perfection +with ever more and more of sentiment. From a date comparatively early he +had determined to sing for the people. It was for this reason that he +fled, as far as possible, the houses of his influential friends and came +back gladly to the garret and the street corner. Thus it was, also, that +he came to acknowledge obligations to Emile Debraux, who had often stood +between him and the masses as interpreter, and given him the key-note of +the popular humour. Now, he had observed in the songs of sailors, and +all who labour, a prevailing tone of sadness; and so, as he grew more +masterful in this sort of expression, he sought more and more after what +is deep, serious and constant in the thoughts of common men. The +evolution was slow; and we can see in his own works examples of every +stage, from that of witty indifference in fifty pieces of the first +collection, to that of grave and even tragic feeling in _Les Souvenirs +du peuple_ or _Le Vieux Vagabond_. And this innovation involved another, +which was as a sort of prelude to the great romantic movement. For the +_chanson_, as he says himself, opened up to him a path in which his +genius could develop itself at ease; he escaped, by this literary +postern, from strict academical requirements, and had at his disposal +the whole dictionary, four-fifths of which, according to La Harpe, were +forbidden to the use of more regular and pretentious poetry. If he still +kept some of the old vocabulary, some of the old imagery, he was yet +accustoming people to hear moving subjects treated in a manner more free +and simple than heretofore; so that his was a sort of conservative +reform, preceding the violent revolution of Victor Hugo and his army of +uncompromising romantics. He seems himself to have had glimmerings of +some such idea; but he withheld his full approval from the new movement +on two grounds:--first, because the romantic school misused somewhat +brutally the delicate organism of the French language; and second, as he +wrote to Sainte-Beuve in 1832, because they adopted the motto of "Art +for art," and set no object of public usefulness before them as they +wrote. For himself (and this is the third point of importance) he had a +strong sense of political responsibility. Public interest took a far +higher place in his estimation than any private passion or favour. He +had little toleration for those erotic poets who sing their own loves +and not the common sorrows of mankind, "who forget," to quote his own +words, "forget beside their mistress those who labour before the Lord." +Hence it is that so many of his pieces are political, and so many, in +the later times at least, inspired with a socialistic spirit of +indignation and revolt. It is by this socialism that he becomes truly +modern and touches hands with Burns. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Ma biographie_ (his own memoirs) (1858); _Vie de + Beranger_, by Paul Boiteau (1861); _Correspondance de Beranger_, + edited by Paul Boiteau (4 vols., 1860); _Beranger et Lamennais_, by + Napoleon Peyrat (1857); _Quarante-cinq lettres de Beranger publiees + par Madame Louise Colet_ (almost worthless) (1857); _Beranger, ses + amis, ses ennemis et ses critiques_, by A. Arnould (2 vols., 1864); J. + Janin, _Beranger et son temps_ (2 vols., 1866); also Sainte-Beuve's + _Portraits contemporains_, vol. i.; J. Carson, _Beranger et la legende + napoleonienne_ (1897) A bibliography of Beranger's works was published + by Jules Brivois in 1876. (R. L. S.) + + + + +BERAR, known also as the HYDERABAD ASSIGNED DISTRICTS, formerly a +province administered on behalf of the nizam of Hyderabad by the British +government, but since the 1st of October 1903 under the administration +of the commissioner-general for the Central Provinces (q.v.). The origin +of the name Berar is not known, but may perhaps be a corruption of +Vidarbha, the name of a kingdom in the Deccan of which, in the period of +the Mahabharata, Berar probably formed part. The history of Berar +belongs generally to that of the Deccan, the country falling in turn +under the sway of the various dynasties which successively ruled in +southern India, the first authentic records showing it to have been part +of the Andhra or Satavahana empire. On the final fall of the Chalukyas +in the 12th century, Berar came under the sway of the Yadavas of +Deogiri, and remained in their possession till the Mussulman invasions +at the end of the 13th century. On the establishment of the Bahmani +dynasty in the Deccan (1348) Berar was constituted one of the four +provinces into which their kingdom was divided, being governed by great +nobles, with a separate army. The perils of this system becoming +apparent, the province was divided (1478 or 1479) into two separate +governments, named after their capitals Gawil and Mahur. The Bahmani +dynasty was, however, already tottering to its fall; and in 1490 +Imad-ul-Mulk, governor of Gawil, who had formerly held all Berar, +proclaimed his independence and proceeded to annex Mahur to his new +kingdom. Imad-ul-Mulk was by birth a Kanarese Hindu, but had been +captured as a boy in one of the expeditions against Vijayanagar and +reared as a Mussulman. He died in 1504 and his direct descendants held +the sultanate of Berar until 1561, when Burhan Imad Shah was deposed by +his minister Tufal Khan, who assumed the kingship. This gave a pretext +for the intervention of Murtaza Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar, who in 1572 +invaded Berar, imprisoned and put to death Tufal Khan, his son +Shams-ul-Mulk, and the ex-king Burhan, and annexed Berar to his own +dominions. In 1595 Sultan Murad, son of the emperor Akbar, besieged +Ahmednagar, and was bought off by the formal cession of Berar. + +Murad, founding the city of Shahpur, fixed his seat at Berar, and after +his death in 1598, and the conquest of the Deccan by Akbar, the province +was united with Ahmednagar and Khandesh under the emperor's fifth son, +Daniyal (d. 1605), as governor. After Akbar's death (1605) Berar once +more became independent under the Abyssinian Malik Ambar (d. 1626), but +in the first year of Shah Jahan's reign it was again brought under the +sway of the Mogul empire. Towards the close of the 17th century the +province began to be overrun by the Mahrattas, and in 1718 the Delhi +government formally recognized their right to levy blackmail (_chauth_) +on the unhappy population. In 1724 the Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah +established the independent line of the nizams of Hyderabad, and +thenceforth the latter claimed to be _de jure_ sovereigns of Berar, with +exception of certain districts (Mehkar, Umarkhed, &c.) ceded to the +peshwa in 1760 and 1795. The claim was contested by the Bhonsla rajas, +and for more than half a century the miserable country was ground +between the upper and the nether millstone. + +This condition of things was ended by Wellesley's victories at Assaye +and Argaon (1803), which forced the Bhonsla raja to cede his territories +west of the Wardha, Gawilgarh and Narnala. By the partition treaty of +Hyderabad (1804) these ceded territories in Berar were transferred to +the nizam, together with some tracts about Sindkhed and Jalna which had +been held by Sindhia. By a treaty of 1822, which extinguished the +Mahratta right to levy _chauth_, the Wardha river was fixed as the +eastern boundary of Berar, the Melghat and adjoining districts in the +plains being assigned to the nizam in exchange for the districts east of +the Wardha held by the peshwa. + +Though Berar was no longer oppressed by its Mahratta taskmasters nor +harried by Pindari and Bhil raiders, it remained long a prey to the +turbulent elements let loose by the sudden cessation of the wars. From +time to time bands of soldiery, whom the government was powerless to +control, scoured the country, and rebellion succeeded rebellion till +1859, when the last fight against open rebels took place at Chichamba +near Risod. Meanwhile the misery of the country was increased by the +reckless raising of loans by the nizam's government and the pledging of +the revenues to a succession of great farmers-general. At last the +British government had to intervene effectively, and in 1853 a new +treaty was signed with the nizam, under which the Hyderabad contingent +was to be maintained by the British government, while for the pay of +this force and in satisfaction of other claims, certain districts were +"assigned" to the East India Company. It was these "Hyderabad Assigned +Districts" which were popularly supposed to form the province of Berar, +though they coincided in extent neither with the Berar of the nizams nor +with the old Mogul province. In 1860, by a new treaty which modified in +the nizam's favour that of 1853, it was agreed that Berar should be held +in trust by the British government for the purposes specified in the +treaty of 1853. + +Under British control Berar rapidly recovered its prosperity. Thousands +of cultivators who had emigrated across the Wardha to the peshwa's +dominions, in order to escape the ruinous fiscal system of the nizam's +government, now returned; the American Civil War gave an immense +stimulus to the cotton trade; the laying of a line of railway across the +province provided yet further employment, and the people rapidly became +prosperous and contented. + + See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), and authorities + there quoted. + + + + +BERARD, JOSEPH FREDERIC (1789-1828), French physician and philosopher, +was born at Montpellier. Educated at the medical school of that town, he +afterwards went to Paris, where he was employed in connexion with the +_Dictionnaire des sciences medicales_. He returned in 1816, and +published a work, _Doctrine medicale de l'ecole de Montpellier_ (1819), +which is indispensable to a proper understanding of the principles of +the Vitalistic school. In 1823 he was called to a chair of medicine at +Paris, which he held for three years; he was then nominated professor of +hygiene at Montpellier. His health gave way under his labours, and he +died in 1828. His most important book is his _Doctrines des rapports du +physique et du moral_ (Paris, 1823). He held that consciousness or +internal perception reveals to us the existence of an immaterial, +thinking, feeling and willing subject, the self or soul. Alongside of +this there is the vital force, the nutritive power, which uses the +physical frame as its organ. The soul and the principle of life are in +constant reciprocal action, and the first owes to the second, not the +formation of its faculties, but the conditions under which they are +evolved. He showed himself unable to understand the points of view of +those whom he criticized, and yet his own theories, midway between +vitalism and animism, are entirely destitute of originality. + + To the _Esprit des doctrines medicales de Montpellier_, published + posthumously (Paris, 1830), the editor, H. Petiot, prefixed an account + of his life and works; see also Damiron, _Phil. en France au XIX^e + siecle_ (Paris, 1834); C.J. Tissot, _Anthropologie generale_ (1843). + + + + +BERAT (Slav. _Byelgorod_; Turk. _Arnaut-Beligradi_), the capital of a +sanjak in the vilayet of Iannina, southern Albania, Turkey; on the river +Ergene, Ergeni or Osum, a left-hand tributary of the Semeni. Pop. (1900) +about 15,000. Berat is a fortified town, situated in a fertile valley, +which produces wine, olive-oil, fruit and grain. It is the see of an +Orthodox metropolitan, and the inhabitants, of whom two-thirds are +Albanian and the remainder principally Greek, are equally divided in +religion between Christianity and Islam. + + + + +BERAUN (Czech _Beroun_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 27 m. S.W. of +Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9693, mostly Czech. It is situated at the +confluence of the Beraun with the Litawa river, and is the seat of +important textile industry, sugar-refining, corn-milling and brewing. +Lime-kilns and the manufacture of cement, and smelting and iron works +are carried on in the environs. Beraun is a place of immemorial +antiquity. It was originally called _na Brode_ (by the ford), and +received the name of Bern, Berun or Verona in the 13th century, when it +obtained the privileges of a city from the emperor Charles IV., who was +specially attached to the place, calling it "Verona mea." Under his +patronage the town rapidly prospered. In 1421 Zizka stormed the town, +which later on was retaken and devastated by the troops of Duke Leopold, +bishop of Passau. During the Thirty Years' War it was sacked by the +Imperialists, the Saxons and the Swedes in turn; and in the first +Silesian war the same fate befell it at the hands of the French and +Bavarians. + + + + +BERBER, a town and mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The +town is on the right bank of the Nile, 1140 ft. above sea-level, in 18 +deg. 1' N., 33 deg. 59' E., and 214 m. by rail N.W. of Khartum. Pop. +about 6000. Berber derived its importance from being the starting-point +of the caravan route, 242 m. long, across the Nubian desert to the Red +Sea at Suakin, a distance covered in seven to twelve days. It was also +one of the principal stopping-places between Cairo and Khartum. The +caravan route to the Red Sea was superseded in 1906 by a railway, which +leaves the Wadi Halfa-Khartum line at the mouth of the Atbara. Berber +thus lost the Red Sea trade. It remains the centre and market-place for +the produce of the Nile valley for a considerable distance. East of the +town is an immense plain, which, if irrigated, would yield abundant +crops. + +Berber, or El Mekerif, is a town of considerable antiquity. Before its +conquest by the Egyptians in 1820 its ruler owed allegiance to the kings +of Sennar. It was captured by the Mahdists on the 26th of May 1884, and +was re-occupied by the Anglo-Egyptian army on the 6th of September 1897. +It was the capital of the mudiria until 1905, in which year the +headquarters of the province were transferred to Ed Damer, a town near +the confluence of the Nile and Atbara. At the northern end of the +mudiria is Abu Hamed (q.v.), important as a railway junction for Dongola +mudiria. The best-known of the tribes inhabiting the province are the +Hassania, Jaalin, Bisharin and Kimilab. During the Mahdia most of these +tribes suffered severely at the hands of the dervishes. In 1904 the +total population of the province was estimated at 83,000. It has since +considerably increased. The riverain population is largely engaged in +agriculture, the chief crops cultivated being durra, barley, wheat and +cotton. + + + + +BERBERA, chief town and principal port of the British Somaliland +protectorate, North-East Africa, 155 m. S. of Aden, in 10 deg. 26' N., +45 deg. 4' E. Berbera stands at the head of a deep inlet which forms the +only completely sheltered haven on the south side of the Gulf of Aden. +It is the residence of the commissioner of the protectorate and the +headquarters of the Somaliland battalion of the King's African Rifles. +The harbour is eleven to thirteen fathoms deep at the entrance +(indicated by a lighthouse), decreasing to five fathoms near the shore. +Ocean-going steamers find ample accommodation. There are two piers and +numerous warehouses. The town is built in two divisions--the native town +to the east, the new town, laid out by the Egyptians (1875-1877), to the +west. The majority of the better-class houses are of rubble, +one-storeyed and flat-roofed. The public buildings include the fort, +hospital and barracks. There are a Roman Catholic mission-house and +convent and a government school. The affairs of the town are +administered by a municipality. The water-supply is brought to the town +by an aqueduct from the hills some 8 m. distant. The bulk of the +inhabitants are Somali, who have abandoned a nomadic life and adopted +largely the ways of the Arab and Indian traders. The permanent +population is under 10,000; but from October to April the population +rises to 30,000 or more by the arrival of caravans from Ogaden and +Dolbahanta. The traders bring with them tents on the backs of camels and +these are pitched near the native town. Their merchandise consists of +sheep and goats, gum and resin, skins and ostrich feathers. The trade is +almost entirely with Aden, of which Berbera may be considered a +commercial dependency. The value of the goods brought in yearly by +caravan exceeds on the average L100,000. The total trade of the port for +the five years 1901-1902 to 1905-1906 averaged over L200,000 a year. The +chief articles of import are cotton goods (European white longcloth and +American grey shirting), rice and jowari, flour, dates, sugar and +tobacco (the last from Rotterdam). Berbera is said to have been founded +by the Ptolemies among the _Barbari_ of the adjacent coast lands. It +fell subsequently into the possession of Arabs and was included in the +Mahommedan state of Adel. At the time of the visit to the town of R.F. +Burton and J.H. Speke (1854) it was governed by its own sheiks. In 1870 +it was claimed by the khedive Ismail, but was not permanently occupied +by Egypt until 1875. In 1884 it passed into the possession of Great +Britain (see SOMALILAND, S 2, _History_). + + + + +BERBERINE, C20H17NO4, an alkaloid occurring together with the alkaloids +oxyacanthine C18H19NO3, berbamine C18H19NO3, hydrastine C21H21NO6, and +canadine C20H21NO4, in _Berberis vulgaris_; it also occurs in other +plants, _Berberis aristata, B. aquifolium, Hydrastis canadensis_, &c. It +is a yellow, crystalline solid, insoluble in ether and chloroform, +soluble in 4-1/2 parts of water at 21 deg., and moderately soluble in +alcohol. It is a monacid base; the hydrochloride, C20H17NO4.HCl, is +insoluble in cold alcohol, ether and chloroform, and soluble in 500 +parts of water; the acid sulphate, C20H17NO4.H2SO4 dissolves in about +100 parts of water. Canadine is a tetrahydroberberine. + +Its constitution was worked out by W.H. Perkin (_J.C.S._, 1889, 55, p. +63; 1890, 57, p. 991). This followed from a study of the decomposition +products, there being obtained hemipinic acid (CH3O)2C6H2(COOH)2, and a +substance which proved to be [omega]-amino-ethyl-piperonyl carboxylic +acid, CH2O2:C6H2.COOH.CH2.CH2NH2. His formula was modified by Gadamer +(_Abs. J.C.S._, 1902, 1, p. 555), who made the free base an aldehyde, +but the salts of an _iso_-quinolinium type. This formula, which +necessitates the presence of two asymmetric carbon atoms in an alkyl +tetrahydroberberine, has been accepted by M. Freund and F. Mayer (_Abs. +J.C.S._, 1907, 1, p. 632), who showed that two racemic propyl +tetrahydroberberines are produced when propyl dihydroberberine is +reduced. + + + + +BERBERS, + + Ethnology. + +the name under which are included the various branches of the +indigenous "Libyan" race of North Africa. Since the dawn of history the +Berbers have occupied the tract between the Mediterranean and the Sahara +from Egypt to the Atlantic. The origin of the name is doubtful. Some +believe it to be derived from the word [Greek: barbaroi] (barbarians), +employed first by the Greeks and later by the Romans. Others attribute +the first use of the term to the Arab conquerors. However this may be, +tribal titles, _Barabara_ and _Beraberata_, appear in Egyptian +inscriptions of 1700 and 1300 B.C., and the Berbers were probably +intimately related with the Egyptians in very early times. Thus the true +ethnical name may have become confused with _Barbari_, the designation +naturally used by classical conquerors. To the Egyptians they were known +as "Lebu," "Mashuasha," "Tamahu," "Tehennu" and "Kahaka"; a long list of +names is found in Herodotus, and the Romans called them Numidae, Gaetuli +and Mauri, terms which have been derived respectively from the Greek +[Greek: nomades] (nomads), the name Gued'oula, of a great Berber tribe, +and the Hebrew _mahur_ (western). To speak of more modern times there +can be enumerated the Zouaoua and Jebalia (Tripoli and Tunisia); the +Chauwia, Kabyles and Beni-Mzab (Algeria); the Shluh (Chlouah), Amazigh +and Berbers (Morocco); the Tuareg, Arnoshagh, Sorgu, &c. (Sahara). +These tribes have many sub-tribes, each with a distinctive name. Among +the Azgar, an important division of the Tuareg, one of the noble or free +tribes, styled Aouraghen, is said to descend from a tribe named Avrigha. +The Avrigha, or Afrigha, in ancient times occupied the coast lands near +Carthage, and some scholars derive the word Africa from their name (see +AFRICA, ROMAN). In regard to the ethnic relations of the Berbers there +has been much dispute. The antiquity of their type is evidenced by the +monuments of Egypt, where their ancestors are pictured with the same +comparatively blond features which many of them still display. The +aborigines of the Canary Islands, the Guanches, would seem almost +certainly, from the remains of their language, to have been Berbers. But +the problem of the actual origin of the Berber race has not yet been +solved. Perhaps the most satisfactory theory is that of Sergi, who +includes the Berbers in the "Mediterranean Race." General L.L.C. +Faidherbe regards them as indigenous Libyans mingled with a fair-skinned +people of European origin. Dr Franz Pruner-Bey, Henri Duveyrier and +Prof. Flinders Petrie maintain that they are closely related to the +ancient Egyptians. Connexion has been traced between the early Libyan +race and the Cro-Magnon and other early European races and, later, the +Basque peoples, Iberians, Picts, Celts and Gauls. The megalithic +monuments of Iberia and Celtic Europe have their counterparts in +northern Africa, and it is suggested that these were all erected by the +same race, by whatever name they be known, Berbers and Libyans in +Africa, Iberians in Spain, Celts, Gauls and Picts in France and Britain. + + + Characteristics. + +In spite of a history of foreign conquest--Phoenician, Greek, Roman, +Vandal, Arab and French--the Berber physical type and the Berber +temperament and nationality have persisted since the stone age. The +numerous invasions have naturally introduced a certain amount of foreign +blood among the tribes fringing the Mediterranean, but those farther +inland have preserved their racial purity to a surprising degree. Though +considerable individual differences of type may be found in every +village, the Berbers are distinctively a "white" race, and the majority +would, if clad in European costume, pass unchallenged as Europeans. Dark +hair and brown or hazel eyes are the rule; blue-eyed blonds are found, +but their frequency has been considerably overstated. The invaders who +have most affected the Berber race are the Arabs, but the two races, +with a common religion, often a common government, with the same tribal +groupings, have failed to amalgamate to any great extent. This fact has +been emphasized by Dr R.G. Latham, who writes: "All that is not Arabic +in the kingdom of Morocco, all that is not Arabic in the French +provinces of Algeria, and all that is not Arabic in Tunis, Tripoli and +Fezzan, is Berber." The explanation lies in a profound distinction of +character. The Arab is a herdsman and a nomad; the Berber is an +agriculturist and a townsman. The Arab has built his social structure on +the Koran, which inculcates absolutism, aristocracy, theocracy; the +Berber, despite his nominal Mahommedanism, is a democrat, with his +_Jemaa_ or "Witangemot" and his _Kanum_ or unwritten code, the Magna +Carta of the individual's liberty as opposed to the community's good. +The _Kanum_ forbids no sort of exercise of individual will, so long as +it is not inimical to the right or rights of other individuals. The +Arabizing of the Berbers is indeed limited to little beyond the +conversion of the latter to Islam. The Arab, transported to a soil which +does not always suit him, so far from thriving, tends to disappear, +whereas the Berber becomes more and more aggressive, and yearly +increases in numbers. At present he forms at least three-fifths of the +population in Algeria, and in Morocco the proportion is greater. The +difference between the Berber and the Arab of the Barbary States is +summed up by Dr Randall MacIver in the following words:--"The Berber +gives the impression of being, as he is, the descendant of men who have +lived in sturdy independence, self-governing and self-reliant. The Arab +is the degenerate offspring of a race which only from its history and +past records can claim any title to respect. Cringing, venal, +avaricious, dishonest, the Arab combines all the faults of a vicious +nature with those which a degraded religion inculcates or encourages. +The Berber, on the other hand, is straightforward, honest, by no means +averse to money-making, but not unscrupulous in the methods which he +employs to this end, intelligent in a degree to which the ordinary Arab +never approaches, and trustworthy as no Arab can be." + + + Government. + +The Berber's village is his state, and the government is vested in an +assembly, the _Jemaa_, formed of all males old enough to observe the +fast of Ramadan. By them are determined all matters of peace or war, +legislation, taxation and justice. The executive officer is the _Amin_, +a kind of mayor, elected from some influential family in which the +dignity is often in practice hereditary. He owes his position to the +good-will of his fellows, receives no remuneration, and resigns as soon +as he loses the confidence of the people. By him are appointed certain +_Temman_ (sing. _Tamen_) who act as overseers, though without executive +powers, in the various quarters of the village. The poorest Berber has +as great a voice in affairs as the richest. The undue power of the +_Jemaa_ is checked by vendetta and a sort of lynch law, and by the +formation of parties (_sofs_), within or without the assembly, for +trade, political and other purposes. The Berbers are a warlike people +who have never been completely subjugated. Every boy as soon as he +reaches sixteen is brought into the _Jemaa_ and given weapons which he +carries till he is sixty. Though each village is absolutely independent +as far as its internal affairs are concerned, two or more are often +connected by administrative ties to form an _Arsh_ or tribe. A number of +these tribes form a _Thakebilt_ or confederation, which is an extremely +loose organization. An exception to this form of government is +constituted by the Tuareg, whose organization, owing to their peculiar +circumstances of life, is monarchical. Wars are declared by special +messengers; the exchange of sticks or guns renders an armistice +inviolable. In some tribes a tablet, on which is inscribed the name of +every man fit to bear arms, is placed in the mosque. The Berbers, though +Mahommedans, do not often observe the prescribed ablutions; they break +their fast at Ramadan; and eat wild boar's flesh and drink fig brandy. +On the other hand, saints, both male and female, are paid more reverence +by Berbers than by Arabs. Around their tombs their descendants settle, +and thus sacred villages, often of considerable size, spring up. Almost +every village, too, has its saint or prophet, and disputes as to their +relative sanctity and powers cause fierce feuds. The hereditary caste +known as Marabouts are frequently in open opposition to the absolute +authority of the _Jemaa_. They are possessed of certain privileges, such +as exemption from the chief taxes and the duty of bearing arms. They, +however, often take a foremost part in tribal administration, and are +frequently called upon to perform the office of arbitrators in questions +of disputed policy, &c. In the _Jemaa_, too, the Marabout at times takes +the place of honour and keeps order. The Berbers, if irreligious, are +very superstitious, never leaving their homes without exorcizing evil +spirits, and have a good and evil interpretation for every day of the +week. Many Berbers still retain certain Christian and Jewish usages, +relics of the pre-Islamitic days in North Africa, but of their primitive +religion there is no trace. They are seldom good scholars, but those +under French rule take all the advantage they can of the schools +instituted by the government. Their social tendencies are distinctly +communistic; property is often owned by the family in common, and a man +can call upon the services of his fellow villagers for certain purposes, +as the building of a house. Provision for the poor is often made by the +community. + + + Customs. + +The dress of the Berbers was formerly made of home-woven cloth, and the +manufacture of woollen stuffs has always been one of the chief +occupations of their women. The men wear a tunic reaching to the knees, +the women a longer garment. For work the men use a leather apron, and in +the cold season and in travelling a burnous, usually a family heirloom, +old and ragged; the women, in winter, throw a coloured cloth over their +shoulders. The men's hair is cut short but their beards are allowed to +grow. In some districts there are peculiar customs, such as the wearing +of small silver nose-rings, seen in El-Jofra. The Berbers' weapons are +those of the Arab: the long straight sword, the slightly curved and +highly ornamented dagger, and the long gun. Berbers are not great +town-builders. Their villages, however, are often of substantial +appearance: with houses of untrimmed stones, occasionally with two +storeys, built on hills, and invariably defended by a bank, a stone wall +or a hedge. Sometimes their homes are mere huts of turf, or of clay +tiles, with mortar made from lime and clay or cow-dung. The sloping roof +is covered with reeds, straw or stones. The living room is on the right, +the cattle-stall on the left. The dwelling is surrounded by a garden or +small field of grain. The second storey is not added till a son marries. +In the villages of the western Atlas the greater part of the upper +storey consists of a sort of rough verandah. In this mountain district +the natives spend the winter in vaults beneath the houses, and, for the +sake of warmth, the tenements are built very close. Agriculture, which +is carried on even in the mountain districts by means of laboriously +constructed terraces, is antiquated in its methods. The plough, often +replaced on the steeper slopes by the hoe, is similar to that depicted +in ancient Egyptian drawings, and hand irrigation is usual. A sickle, +toothed like a saw, is used for reaping. Corn is trodden by oxen, and +kept in osier baskets narrowing to the top, or clay granaries. The +staple crop is barley, but wheat, lentils, vetches, flax and gourds are +also cultivated. Tobacco, maize and potatoes have been introduced; and +the aloe and prickly pear, called in Morocco the Christian fig, are also +found. The Kabyles understand grafting, have fine orchards and grow +vines. The Beni-Abbas tribe in the Algerian Atlas is famed for its +walnuts, and many tribes keep bees, chiefly for the commercial value of +the wax. The Berber diet largely consists of cucumbers, gourds, +water-melons and onions, and a small artichoke (_Cynara humilis_) which +grows wild. At the beginning and end of their meal they drink a strongly +sweetened liquid made from green tea and mint. Tea-drinking probably +became a habit in Morocco about the beginning of the 19th century; +coffee came by way of Algiers. At feasts the food is served on large +earthenware dishes with high basket-work covers, like bee-skeps but +twice as high. + + + Industries. + +The Berbers have many industries. They mine and work iron, lead and +copper. They have olive presses and flour mills, and their own millstone +quarries, even travelling into Arab districts to build mills for the +Arabs. They make lime, tiles, woodwork for the houses, domestic utensils +and agricultural implements. They weave and dye several kinds of cloth, +tan and dress leather and manufacture oil and soap. Without the +assistance of the wheel the women produce a variety of pottery utensils, +often of very graceful design, and decorated with patterns in red and +black. Whole tribes, such as the Beni-Sliman, are occupied in the iron +trade; the Beni-Abbas made firearms before the French conquest, and even +cannon are said to have been made by boring. Before it was proscribed by +the French, the manufacture of gunpowder was general. The native +jewellers make excellent ornaments in silver, coral and enamel. In some +places wood-carving has been brought to considerable perfection; and +native artists know how to engrave on metal both by etching and the +burin. In its collective industry the Berber race is far superior to the +Arab. The Berbers are keen traders too, and, after the harvest, hawk +small goods, travelling great distances. + + + Women. + +A Berber woman has in many ways a better position than her Arab sister. +True, her birth is regarded as an event of no moment, while that of a +boy is celebrated by great rejoicings, and his mother acquires the right +to wear on her forehead the _tafzint_, a mark which only the women who +have borne an heir can assume. Her husband buys and can dismiss her at +will. She has most of the hard work to do, and is little better than a +servant. When she is old and past work, especially if she has not been +the mother of a male child, she is often abandoned. But she has a voice +in public affairs; she has laws to protect her, manages the household +and goes unveiled; she has a right to the money she earns; she can +inherit under wills, and bequeath property, though to avoid the +alienation of real property, succession to it is denied her. But most +characteristic of her social position is the Berber woman's right to +enter into a sacred bond or agreement, represented by the giving of the +_anaya_. This is some symbolic object, stick or what not, which passes +between the parties to a contract, the obligations under which, if not +fulfilled by the contracting parties during their lives, become +hereditary. Female saints, too, are held in high honour; and the Berber +pays his wife the compliment of monogamy. The Kabyle women have stood +side by side with their husbands in battle. Among many Berber tribes the +law of inheritance is such that the eldest daughter's son succeeds. +South of Morocco proper, Gerhard Rohlfs, who travelled extensively in +the region (c. 1861-1867), states that a Berber religious corporation, +the _Savia Kartas_, was ruled over by a woman, the chief's wife. The +Berbers consult their women in many matters, and only one woman is +really held in low esteem. She, curiously, is the _kuata_ or +"go-between," even though her services are only employed in the +respectable task of arranging marriages. Berber women are intelligent +and hard-working, and, when young, very pretty and graceful. The +Berbers, unlike the Arabs, do not admire fat women. Among the Kabyles +the adulteress is put to death, as are those women who have illegitimate +children, the latter suffering with their mothers. + + + Language. + +Though Arabic has to a considerable extent displaced the Berber +language, the latter is still spoken by millions of people from Egypt to +the Atlantic and from the Mediterranean to the Sudan. It is spoken +nowhere else, though, as has been said, place-names in the Canary +Islands and other remains of the aboriginal language there prove it to +have been the native tongue. Although the Berber tongue shows a certain +affinity with Semitic in the construction both of its words and +sentences Berber is quite distinct from the Semitic languages; and a +remarkable fact is that in spite of the enormous space over which the +dialects are spread and the thousands of years that some of the Berber +peoples have been isolated from the rest, these dialects show but slight +differences from the long-extinct Hamitic speech from which all are +derived. Whatever these dialects be called, the Kabyle, the Shilha, the +Zenati, the Tuareg or Tamashek, the Berber language is still essentially +one, and the similarity between the forms current in Morocco, Algeria, +the Sahara and the far-distant oasis of Siwa is much more marked than +between the Norse and English in the sub-Aryan Teutonic group. The +Berbers have, moreover, a writing of their own, peculiar and little used +or known, the antiquity of which is proved by monuments and inscriptions +ranging over the whole of North Africa. + +The various spoken dialects, though apparently very unlike each other, +are not more dissimilar than are Portuguese, Spanish, French and +Italian, and their differences are doubtless attributable to the lack of +a literary standard. Even where different words are used, there is +evidence of a common stem from which the various branches have sprung. +The great difficulty of satisfactory comparison arises from the fact +that few of the Beber dialects possess any writings. The _Tawahhid_ (The +Unity of God), said to have been written in Moroccan Berber and believed +to be the oldest African work in existence, except Egyptian and +Ethiopic, was the work of the Muwahhadi leader, Ibn Tumart the Mahdi, at +a time when the officials of the Kairawan mosque were dismissed because +they could not speak Berber. Most of the writings found, however, have +been in the form of inscriptions, chiefly on ornaments. A collection of +the various signs of the alphabet has shown thirty-two letters, four +more than Arabic. De Slane, in his notes on the Berber historian Ibn +Khaldun, shows the following points of similarity to the Semitic +class:--its tri-literal roots, the inflections of the verb, the +formation of derived verbs, the genders of the second and third +persons, the pronominal affixes, the aoristic style of tense, the whole +and broken plurals and the construction of the phrase. Among the +peculiar grammatical features of Berber may be mentioned two numbers (no +dual), two genders and six cases, and verbs with one, two, three and +four radicals, and imperative and aorist tense only. As might be +expected the Berber tongue is most common in Morocco and the western +Sahara--the regions where Arab dominion was least exercised. When Arabic +is mentioned as the language of Morocco it is seldom realized how small +a proportion of its inhabitants use it as their mother tongue. Berber is +the real language of Morocco, Arabic that of its creed and government. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--General A. Hanoteau and A. Letourneux, _La Kabylie et + les coutumes kabyles_ (3 vols., Paris, 1872-1873); D. Randall-MacIver + and Antony Wilkin, _Libyan Notes_ (London, 1901); Antony Wilkin, + _Among the Berbers of Algeria_ (London, 1900); G. Sergi, _The + Mediterranean Race_ (London, 1901), and _Africa, Antropologia della + Stirpe Comitica_ (Turin, 1897); Henri Duveyrier, _Exploration du + Sahara_ (1864), _Les Progres de la geographie en Algerie_ (1867-1871), + _Bull. de la Soc. Khediviale de Geog_. (1876); E. Renan, "La Societe + Berbere," _Revue des deux mondes_, vol. for 1873; M.G. Olivier, + "Recherches sur l'origine des Berberes," _Bull. de l'Acad. d'Hippone_ + (1867-1868); F.G. Rohlfs, _Reise durch Marokko_ (1869); _Quer durch + Afrika_ (1874-1875); General Faidherbe, _Collection complete des + inscriptions numidiques (lybiques)_ (1870), and _Les Dolmens + d'Afrique_ (1873); H.M. Flinders Petrie in _The Academy_, 20th of + April 1895; Jules Lionel, _Races berberes_ (1894); Sir H.H. Johnston, + "A Journey through the Tunisian Sahara," _Geog. Journal_, vol. xi., + 1898; De Slane's translation of Ibn Khaldun, _Hist, des Berberes_ + (Algiers, 1852); W.Z. Ripley, _Races of Europe_ (London, 1900); Dr + Malbot, "Les Chaouias" in _L'Anthropologie_, 1897 (p. 14); General + Faidherbe and Dr Paul Topinard, _Instructions sur l'anthropologie de + l'Algerie_ (Paris, 1874); E.T. Hamy, _La Necropole berbere d'Henchir + el-'Assel_ (Paris, 1896), and _Cites et necropoles berberes de + l'Enfida (Tunisie moyenne) (ib._ 1904). + + Berber dictionaries:--_Venture de Paradis_ (Paris, 1844); Brosselard + (_ib._ 1844); Delaporte (_ib._ 1844, by order of minister of war); + J.B. Creusat, _Essai de dictionnaire francais-kabyle_ (Algiers, 1873); + A. Hanoteau, _Essai de grammaire de la langue tamachek, &c._ (Paris, + 1860); Minutoli, _Siwah Dialect_ (Berlin, 1827). + + Folklore, &c.:--J. Riviere, _Recueil de contes populaires de la + Kabylie_ (1882); R. Basset, _Contes populaires berberes_ (1887); P. le + Blanc de Prebois, _Essai de contes kabyles, avec traduction en + francais_ (Batna, 1897); H. Stumine, _Marchen der Berbern van + Tamazratt in Sudtunisien_ (Leipzig, 1900). + + + + +BERCEUSE (Fr. for a "lullaby," from _berceau_, a cradle), a cradle-song, +the German _Wiegenlied_, a musical composition with a quiet rocking +accompaniment. + + + + +BERCHEM (or BERGHEM), NICOLAAS (1620-1683), Dutch painter, was born at +Haarlem. He received instruction from his father (Pieter Claasz van +Haarlem) and from the painters Van Goyen, Jan Wils and Weenix. It is not +known why he called himself Berchem (or Berighem, and other variants). +His pictures, of which he produced an immense number, were in great +demand, as were also his etchings and drawings. His landscapes are +highly esteemed; and many of them have been finely engraved by John +Visscher. His finest pictures are at the Amsterdam Museum and at the +Hermitage, St Petersburg. + + + + +BERCHTA (English Bertha), a fairy in South German mythology. She was at +first a benevolent spirit, the counterpart of Hulda in North German +myth. Later her character changed and she came to be regarded as a +witch. In Pagan times Berchta had the rank of a minor deity. + + + + +BERCHTESGADEN, a town of Germany, beautifully situated on the +south-eastern confines of the kingdom of Bavaria, 1700 ft. above the sea +on the southern declivity of the Untersberg, 6 m. S.S.E. from +Reichenhall by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,046. It is celebrated for its +extensive mines of rock-salt, which were worked as early as 1174. The +town contains three old churches, of which the early Gothic abbey church +with its Romanesque cloister is most notable, and some good houses. +Apart from the salt-mines, its industries include toys and other small +articles of wood, horn and ivory, for which the place has long been +famous. The district of Berchtesgaden was formerly an independent +spiritual principality, founded in 1100 and secularized in 1803. The +abbey is now a royal castle, and in the neighbourhood a hunting-lodge +was built by King Maximilian II. in 1852. + + + + +BERCK, a bathing resort of northern France, in the department of +Pas-de-Calais, 25 m. S. of Boulogne by rail. Pop. (1906) 7638. It +comprises two parts--Berck-Ville, 1-1/2 m. from the shore, and +Berck-Plage, the latter with a fine sandy beach. There are two +children's hospitals, the climate proving peculiarly beneficial in the +treatment of scrofulous affections. About 150 boats are employed in the +fisheries, and herrings form the staple of an active trade. +Boat-building and fish-curing are carried on. + + + + +BERDICHEV, a town of W. Russia, in the government of Kiev, 116 m. S.W. +of Kiev by rail and not far from the borders of Volhynia. The cathedral +of the Assumption, finished in 1832, is the principal place of worship. +The fortified Carmelite monastery, founded in 1627, was captured and +plundered by Chmielnicki, chief of the Zaporogian Cossacks, in 1647, and +disestablished in 1864. An extensive trade is carried on in peltry, silk +goods, iron and wooden wares, salt fish, grain, cattle and horses. Four +fairs are held yearly, the most important being on the 12th of June and +the 15th of August. The numerous minor industries include the +manufacture of tobacco, soap, candles, oil, bricks and leather. Pop. +(1867) 52,563; (1897) 53,728, Jews forming about 80%. In the treaty of +demarcation between the Lithuanians and the Poles in 1546 Berdichev was +assigned to the former. In 1768 Pulaski, leader of the confederacy of +Bar, fled, after the capture of that city, to Berdichev, and there +maintained himself during a siege of twenty-five days. The town belongs +to the Radziwill family. + + + + +BERDYANSK, a seaport town of Russia, in the government of Taurida, on +the north coast of the Sea of Azov, in 46 deg. 45' N. lat. and 36 deg. +40' E. long. The principal industries are in bricks and tiles, tallow +and macaroni. The roads are protected from every wind except the south, +which occasions a heavy surf; but against this a mole was constructed in +1863. The chief articles of export are cereals, flour, wool, hemp, skins +and fish; and the imports include hardwares, fruits, oil and petroleum. +In the immediate neighbourhood are salt-lagoons. Pop. (1867) 12,223; +(1900) 29,168. + + + + +BEREA, a town of Madison county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 131 m. by rail S. of +Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 762. Berea is served by the Louisville & +Nashville railway. It is pleasantly situated on the border between the +Blue Grass and the Mountain regions. The town is widely known as the +seat of Berea College, which has done an important work among the +mountaineers of Kentucky and of Tennessee. The college has about 70 +acres of ground (and about 4000 acres of mountain land for forestry +study), with a large recitation hall, a library, a chapel (seating 1400 +persons), a science hall, an industrial hall, a brick-making plant, a +woodwork building, a printing building, a tabernacle for commencement +exercises and other buildings. In 1908 Berea had 65 instructors and 1150 +students; and it paid the tuition of 141 negro students in Fisk +University (Nashville, Tennessee) and in other institutions. The school +out of which Berea College has developed was founded in the anti-slavery +interests in 1855. An attempt was made to procure for it a college +charter in 1859, but the slavery interests caused it to be closed before +the end of that year and it was not reopened until 1865, the charter +having then been obtained, as Berea College. Negroes as well as whites +were admitted until 1904, when education of the two races at the same +institution was prohibited by an act of the state legislature (upheld by +the U.S. Supreme Court in 1908). This act did not, however, prohibit an +institution from maintaining separate schools for the two races, +provided these schools were at least 25 m. apart, and a separate school +for the negroes was at once projected by Berea. + + + + +BEREKHIAH NAQDAN, Jewish fabulist, author of a collection of _Fox +Fables_, written in Hebrew. As his title implies (Naqdan=punctuator of +the Biblical text), Berekhiah was also a grammarian. He further wrote an +ethical treatise and was the author of various translations. His date is +disputed. Most authorities place him in the 13th century, but J. Jacobs +has identified him with Benedictus le Puncteur, an English Jew of the +12th century. + + + + +BERENGARIUS [BERENGAR] (d. 1088), medieval theologian, was born at Tours +early in the 11th century; he was educated in the famous school of +Fulbert of Chartres, but even in early life seems to have exhibited +great independence of judgment. Appointed superintendent of the +cathedral school of his native city, he taught with such success as to +attract pupils from all parts of France, and powerfully contributed to +diffuse an interest in the study of logic and metaphysics, and to +introduce that dialectic development of theology which is designated the +scholastic. The earliest of his writings of which we have any record is +an _Exhortatory Discourse_ to the hermits of his district, written at +their own request and for their spiritual edification. It shows a clear +discernment of the dangers of the ascetic life, and a deep insight into +the significance of the Augustinian doctrine of grace. Sometime before +1040 Berengar was made archdeacon of Angers. It was shortly after this +that rumours began to spread of his holding heretical views regarding +the sacrament of the eucharist. He had submitted the doctrine of +transubstantiation (already generally received both by priests and +people, although in the west it had been first unequivocally taught and +reduced to a regular theory by Paschasius Radbert in 831) to an +independent examination, and had come to the conclusion that it was +contrary to reason, unwarranted by Scripture, and inconsistent with the +teaching of men like Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine. He did not conceal +this conviction from his scholars and friends, and through them the +report spread widely that he denied the common doctrine respecting the +eucharist. His early friend and school companion, Adelmann, archdeacon +of Liege, wrote to him letters of expostulation on the subject of this +report in 1046 and 1048; and a bishop, Hugo of Langres, wrote (about +1049) a refutation of the views which he had himself heard Berengar +express in conversation. Berengar's belief was not shaken by their +arguments and exhortations, and hearing that Lanfranc, the most +celebrated theologian of that age, strongly approved the doctrine of +Paschasius and condemned that of "Scotus" (really Ratramnus), he wrote +to him a letter expressing his surprise and urging him to reconsider the +question. The letter, arriving at Bec when Lanfranc was absent at Rome +(1050), was sent after him, but was opened before it reached him, and +Lanfranc, fearing the scandal, brought it under the notice of Pope Leo +IX. Because of it Berengar was condemned as a heretic without being +heard, by a synod at Rome and another at Vercelli, both held in 1050. +His enemies in France cast him into prison; but the bishop of Angers and +other powerful friends, of whom he had a considerable number, had +sufficient influence to procure his release. At the council of Tours +(1054) he found a protector in the papal legate, the famous Hildebrand, +who, satisfied himself with the fact that Berengar did not deny the real +presence of Christ in the sacramental elements, succeeded in persuading +the assembly to be content with a general confession from him that the +bread and wine, after consecration, were the body and blood of the Lord, +without requiring him to define how. Trusting in Hildebrand's support, +and in the justice of his own cause, he presented himself at the synod +of Rome in 1059, but found himself surrounded by zealots, who forced him +by the fear of death to signify his acceptance of the doctrine "that the +bread and wine, after consecration, are not merely a sacrament, but the +true body and the true blood of Christ, and that this body is touched +and broken by the hands of the priests, and ground by the teeth of the +faithful, not merely in a sacramental but in a real manner." He had no +sooner done so than he bitterly repented his weakness; and acting, as he +himself says, on the principle that "to take an oath which never ought +to have been taken is to estrange one's self from God, but to retract +what one has wrongfully sworn to, is to return back to God," when he got +safe again into France he attacked the transubstantiation theory more +vehemently than ever. He continued for about sixteen years to +disseminate his views by writing and teaching, without being directly +interfered with by either his civil or ecclesiastical superiors, greatly +to the scandal of the multitude and of the zealots, in whose eyes +Berengar was "ille apostolus Satanae," and the academy of Tours the +"Babylon nostri temporis." An attempt was made at the council of +Poitiers in 1076 to allay the agitation caused by the controversy, but +it failed, and Berengar narrowly escaped death in a tumult. Hildebrand, +now pope as Gregory VII., next summoned him to Rome, and, in a synod +held there in 1078, tried once more to obtain a declaration of his +orthodoxy by means of a confession of faith drawn up in general terms; +but even this strong-minded and strong-willed pontiff was at length +forced to yield to the demands of the multitude and its leaders; and in +another synod at Rome (1079), finding that he was only endangering his +own position and reputation, he turned unexpectedly upon Berengar and +commanded him to confess that he had erred in not teaching a change _as +to substantial reality_ of the sacramental bread and wine into the body +and blood of Christ. "Then," says Berengar, "confounded by the sudden +madness of the pope, and because God in punishment for my sins did not +give me a steadfast heart, I threw myself on the ground, and confessed +with impious voice that I had erred, fearing the pope would instantly +pronounce against me the sentence of condemnation, and, as a necessary +consequence, that the populace would hurry me to the worst of deaths." +He was kindly dismissed by the pope not long after, with a letter +recommending him to the protection of the bishops of Tours and Angers, +and another pronouncing anathema on all who should do him any injury or +call him a heretic. He returned home overwhelmed with shame and bowed +down with sorrow for having a second time been guilty of a great +impiety. He immediately recalled his forced confession, and besought all +Christian men "to pray for him, so that his tears might secure the pity +of the Almighty." He now saw, however, that the spirit of the age was +against him, and hopelessly given over to the belief of what he had +combated as a delusion. He withdrew, therefore, into solitude, and +passed the rest of his life in retirement and prayer on the island of St +Come near Tours. He died there in 1088. + +Berengar left behind him a considerable number of followers. All those +who in the middle ages denied the substantial presence of the body and +blood of Christ in the eucharist were commonly designated Berengarians. +They differed, of course, in many respects, even in regard to the nature +of the supper. Berengar's own views on the subject may be thus summed +up:--1. That bread and wine should become flesh and blood and yet not +lose the properties of bread and wine was, he held, contradictory to +reason, and therefore irreconcilable with the truthfulness of God. 2. He +admitted a change (_conversio_) of the bread and wine into the body of +Christ, in the sense that to those who receive them they are transformed +by grace into higher powers and influences--into the true, the +intellectual or spiritual body of Christ. The unbelieving receive the +external sign or _sacramentum_; but the believing receive in addition, +although invisibly, the reality represented by the sign, the _res +sacramenti_. 3. He rejected the notion that the sacrament of the altar +was a constantly renewed sacrifice, and held it to be merely a +commemoration of the one sacrifice of Christ. 4. He dwelt strongly on +the importance of men looking away from the externals of the sacrament +to the spirit of love and piety. The transubstantiation doctrine seemed +to him full of evil, from its tendency to lead men to overvalue what was +sensuous and transitory. 5. He rejected with indignation the miraculous +stories told to confirm the doctrine of transubstantiation. 6. Reason +and Scripture seemed to him the only grounds on which a true doctrine of +the Lord's supper could be rested. He attached little importance to mere +ecclesiastical tradition or authority, and none to the voice of +majorities, even when sanctioned by the decree of a pope. In this, as in +other respects, he was a precursor of Protestantism. + + The opinions of Berengar are to be ascertained from the works written + in refutation of them by Adelmann, Lanfranc, Guitmund, &c.; from the + fragments of the _De sacr. coena adv. Lanfr. liber_, edited by + Staudlin (1820-1829); and from the _Liber posterior_, edited by A.F. + and F.T. Vischer (1834). See the collection of texts by Sudendorf + (1850); the _Church Histories_ of Gieseler, ii. 396-411 (Eng. trans.), + and Neander, vi. 221-260 (Eng. trans.); A. Harnack's _History of + Dogma_, Haureau's _Histoire de la philosophie scolastique_, i. + 225-238; Hermann Reuter, _Geschichte der religiosen Aufklarung des + Mittelalters_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1875); L. Schwabe, _Studien zur + Geschichte des Zweilen Abendmahlstreits_ (1887); and W. Broecking, + "Bruno von Angers und Berengar von Tours," in _Deutsche Zeitichrift + fur Geschichtewissenschaft_ (vol. xii., 1895). + + + + +BERENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAS (1785-1866), known as Berenger +de la Drome, French lawyer and politician, son of a deputy of the third +estate of Dauphine to the Constituent Assembly, was born at Valence on +the 31st of May 1785. He entered the magistracy and became _procureur +general_ at Grenoble, but resigned this office on the restoration of the +Bourbons. He now devoted himself mainly to the study of criminal law, +and in 1818 published _La Justice criminelle en France_, in which with +great courage he attacked the special tribunals, provosts' courts or +military commissions which were the main instruments of the Reaction, +and advocated a return to the old common law and trial by jury. The book +had a considerable effect in discrediting the reactionary policy of the +government; but it was not until 1828, when Berenger was elected to the +chamber, that he had an opportunity of exercising a personal influence +on affairs as a member of the group known as that of constitutional +opposition. His courage, as well as his moderation, was again displayed +during the revolution of 1830, when, as president of the parliamentary +commission for the trial of the ministers of Charles X., he braved the +fury of the mob and secured a sentence of imprisonment in place of the +death penalty for which they clamoured. + +His position in the chamber was now one of much influence, and he had a +large share in the modelling of the new constitution, though his effort +to secure a hereditary peerage failed. Above all he was instrumental in +framing the new criminal code, based on more humanitarian principles, +which was issued in 1835. It was due to him that, in 1832, the right, so +important in actual French practice, was given to juries to find +"extenuating circumstances" in cases when guilt involved the death +penalty. In 1831 he had been made a member of the court of appeal (_cour +de cassation_), and the same year was nominated a member of the academy +of moral and political sciences. He was raised to the peerage in 1839. +This dignity he lost owing to the revolution of 1848; and as a +politician his career now ended. As a judge, however, his activity +continued. He was president of the high courts of Bourges and Versailles +in 1840. Having been appointed president of one of the chambers of the +court of cassation, he devoted himself entirely to judicial work until +his retirement, under the age limit, on the 31st of May 1860. He now +withdrew to his native town, and occupied himself with his favourite +work of reform of criminal law. In 1833 he had shared in the foundation +of a society for the reclamation of young criminals, in which he +continued to be actively interested to the end. In 1851 and 1852, on the +commission of the academy of moral sciences, he had travelled in France +and England for the purpose of examining and comparing the penal systems +in the two countries. The result was published in 1855 under the title +_La Repression penale, comparaison du systeme penitentiaire en France et +en Angleterre._ He died on the 15th of May 1866. + +His son, RENE BERENGER (1830- ), continued the work of his father, and +at the outbreak of the revolution of 1870 was _avocat general_ of Lyons. +He served as a volunteer in the Franco-German War, being wounded at +Nuits on the 28th of December. Returned to the National Assembly by the +department of Drome, he was for a few days in 1873 minister of public +works under Thiers. He then entered the senate, of which he was +vice-president from 1894 to 1897. He founded in 1871 a society for the +reclamation of discharged prisoners, and presided over various bodies +formed to secure improvement of the public morals. He succeeded Charles +Lucas in 1890 at the Academy of Moral and Political Science. + + + + +BERENICE, or BERNICE, the Macedonian forms of the Greek Pherenice, the +name of (A) five Egyptian and (B) two Jewish princesses. + +(A) 1. BERENICE, daughter of Lagus, wife of an obscure Macedonian +soldier and subsequently of Ptolemy Soter, with whose bride Eurydice she +came to Egypt as a lady-in-waiting. Her son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, was +recognized as heir over the heads of Eurydice's children. So great was +her ability and her influence that Pyrrhus of Epirus gave the name +Berenicis to a new city. Her son Philadelphus decreed divine honours to +her on her death. (See Theocritus, _Idylls_ xv. and xvii.) + +2. BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, wife of Antiochus Theos +of Syria, who, according to agreement with Ptolemy (249), had divorced +his wife Laodice and transferred the succession to Berenice's children. +On Ptolemy's death, Antiochus repudiated Berenice and took back Laodice, +who, however, at once poisoned him and murdered Berenice and her son. +The prophecy in Daniel xi. 6 seq. refers to these events. + +3. BERENICE, the daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and the wife of +Ptolemy III. Euergetes. During her husband's absence on an expedition to +Syria, she dedicated her hair to Venus for his safe return, and placed +it in the temple of the goddess at Zephyrium. The hair having by some +unknown means disappeared, Conon of Samos, the mathematician and +astronomer, explained the phenomenon in courtly phrase, by saying that +it had been carried to the heavens and placed among the stars. The name +_Coma Berenices_, applied to a constellation, commemorates this +incident. Callimachus celebrated the transformation in a poem, of which +only a few lines remain, but there is a fine translation of it by +Catullus. Soon after her husband's death (221 B.C.) she was murdered at +the instigation of her son Ptolemy IV., with whom she was probably +associated in the government. + +4. BERENICE, also called CLEOPATRA, daughter of Ptolemy X., married as +her second husband Alexander II., grandson of Ptolemy VII. He murdered +her three weeks afterwards. + +5. BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, eldest sister of the great +Cleopatra. The Alexandrines placed her on the throne in succession to +her father (58 B.C.). She married Seleucus Cybiosactes, but soon caused +him to be slain, and married Archelaus, who had been made king of Comana +in Pontus (or in Cappadocia) by Pompey. Auletes was restored and put +both Berenice and Archelaus to death in 55 B.C. + +(B) 1. BERENICE, daughter of Salome, sister of Herod I., and wife of her +cousin Aristobulus, who was assassinated in 6 B.C. Their relations had +been unhappy and she was accused of complicity in his murder. By +Aristobulus she was the mother of Herod Agrippa I. Her second husband, +Theudion, uncle on the mother's side of Antipater, son of Herod I., +having been put to death for conspiring against Herod, she married +Archelaus. Subsequently she went to Rome and enjoyed the favour of the +imperial household. + +2. BERENICE, daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judaea, and born probably +about A.D. 28. She was first married to Marcus, son of the alabarch[1] +Alexander of Alexandria. On his early death she was married to her +father's brother, Herod of Chalcis, after whose death (A.D. 48) she +lived for some years with her brother, Agrippa II. Her third husband was +Polemon, king of Cilicia, but she soon deserted him, and returned to +Agrippa, with whom she was living in 60 when Paul appeared before him at +Caesarea (Acts xxvi.). During the devastation of Judaea by the Romans, +she fascinated Titus, whom along with Agrippa she followed to Rome as +his promised wife (A.D. 75). When he became emperor (A.D. 79) he +dismissed her finally, though reluctantly, to her own country. Her +influence had been exercised vainly on behalf of the Jews in A.D. 66, +but the burning of her palace alienated her sympathies. For her +influence see Juvenal, _Satires_, vi., and Tacitus, _Hist._ ii. 2. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Alabarch or Arabarch (Gr. [Greek: alabarchys], or [Greek: + arabarchys]), the name of the head magistrate of the Jews in + Alexandria under the Ptolemaic and Roman rules. + + + + +BERENICE, an ancient seaport of Egypt, on the west coast of the Red Sea, +in 23 deg. 56' N., 35 deg. 34' E. Built at the head of a gulf, the _Sinus +Immundus_, or Foul Bay, of Strabo, it was sheltered on the north by Ras +Benas (_Lepte Extrema_). The port is now nearly filled up, has a +sand-bar at its entrance and can be reached only by small craft. Most +important of the ruins is a temple; the remnants of its sculptures and +inscriptions preserve the name of Tiberius and the figures of many +deities, including a goddess of the emerald mines. Berenice was founded +by Ptolemy II. (285-247 B.C.) in order to shorten the dangerous Red Sea +voyages, and was named in honour of his mother. For four or five +centuries it became the entrepot of trade between India, Arabia and +Upper Egypt. From it a road, provided with watering stations, leads +north-west across the desert to the Nile at Coptos. In the neighbourhood +of Berenice are the emerald mines of Zabara and Saket. + + + + +BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER (1846- ), British admiral, +second son of the 4th marquess of Waterford, was born in Ireland, and +entered the "Britannia" as a naval cadet in 1859. He became lieutenant +in 1868, and commander in 1875. In 1874 he was returned to parliament as +Conservative M.P. for Waterford, retaining his seat till 1880, and he +was already known in this period as a gallant officer, with a special +interest in naval administration. In 1875-1876 he accompanied the then +prince of Wales on his visit to India as naval A.D.C.; from 1878 to 1881 +he was commander of the royal yacht "Osborne." He was in command of the +gunboat "Condor" in the Mediterranean when the Egyptian crisis of 1882 +occurred; and he became a popular hero in England in connexion with the +bombardment of Alexandria (July 11), when he took his ship close in to +the forts and engaged them with such conspicuous gallantry that the +admiral ordered a special signal "Well done, Condor!" He was promoted +captain for his services, and, after taking an active part in the +re-establishment of order in Alexandria, he served again in Egypt on +Lord Wolseley's staff in the expedition of 1884-85, commanding the naval +brigade at Abu Klea, Abu Kru and Metemmeh, and, with the river steamer +"Safieh," rescuing Sir C. Wilson and his party, who had been wrecked on +returning from Khartum (Feb. 4, 1885). In November 1885 he was again +returned to parliament as member for East Marylebone (re-elected 1886), +and in Lord Salisbury's ministry of 1886 he was appointed a lord of the +admiralty. The press agitation in favour of a stronger navy was now in +full swing, and it was well known that in Lord Charles Beresford it had +an active supporter; but very little impression was made on the +government, and in 1888 he resigned his office on this question, a +dramatic step which had considerable effect. In the House of Commons he +advocated an expenditure of twenty millions sterling on the fleet, and +the passing of the Naval Defence Act in 1889 was largely due to his +action. At the end of 1889 he became captain of the cruiser "Undaunted" +in the Mediterranean, and when this ship was paid off in 1893 he was +appointed in command of the steam reserve at Chatham, a post he held for +three years. In 1897 he became rear-admiral, and again entered +parliament, winning a by-election at York; he retained his seat till +1900, but was mainly occupied during these years by a mission to China +on behalf of the Associated Chambers of Commerce; he published his book +_The Break-up of China_ in 1899. In 1902 he was returned to parliament +for Woolwich, but resigned on his appointment to command the Channel +squadron (1903-1905); in 1905 he was given the command of the +Mediterranean fleet, and from 1906 to 1909 was commander-in-chief of the +Channel fleet; in 1906 he became a full admiral. At sea he had always +shown himself a remarkable disciplinarian, possessed of great influence +over his men, and his reputation as one who would, if necessary, prove a +great fighting commander was second to none; and, even when serving +afloat and therefore unable to speak direct to the public, he was in the +forefront of the campaign for increased naval efficiency. During the +administration (1903-1910) of Sir John Fisher (see FISHER, BARON) as +first sea lord of the admiralty it was notorious that considerable +friction existed between them, and both in the navy and in public a +great deal of party-spirit was engendered in the discussion of their +opposing views. When Lord Charles Beresford's term expired as +commander-in-chief in March 1909 he was finally "unmuzzled," and the +attack which for some years his supporters had made against Sir J. +Fisher's administration came to a head at a moment coinciding with the +new shipbuilding crisis occasioned by the revelations as to the increase +of the German fleet. He himself came forward with proposals for a large +increase in the navy and a reorganization of the administrative system, +his first step being a demand for an inquiry, to which the government +promptly assented (May) in the shape of a small Committee under the +prime minister. Its report (August), however, gave him no satisfaction, +and he proceeded with his public campaign, bitterly attacking the +ministerial policy. In January 1910, at the general election, he was +returned as Conservative M.P. for Portsmouth; but meanwhile Sir John +Fisher's term of office came to an end, and in his successor, Admiral +Sir Arthur Knyvet Wilson (b. 1842), the navy obtained a first sea lord +who commanded universal confidence. + + + + +BERESFORD, JOHN (1738-1805), Irish statesman, was a younger son of Sir +Marcus Beresford, who, having married Catherine, sole heiress of James +Power, 3rd earl of Tyrone, was created earl of Tyrone in 1746. After the +death of the earl in 1763, Beresford's mother successfully asserted her +claim _suo jure_ to the barony of La Poer. John Beresford, born on the +14th of March 1738, thus inherited powerful family connexions. He was +educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish bar, and +entered the Irish parliament as member for Waterford in 1760. His +industry, added to the influence of his family, procured his admission +to the privy council in 1768, and his appointment as one of the +commissioners of revenue two years later. In 1780 he became first +commissioner of revenue, a position which gave him powerful influence in +the Irish administration. He introduced some useful reforms in the +machinery of taxation; and he was the author of many improvements in the +architecture of the public buildings and streets of Dublin. He was first +brought into conflict with Grattan and the popular party, in 1784, by +his support of the proposal that the Irish parliament in return for the +removal of restrictions on Irish trade should be bound to adopt the +English navigation laws. In 1786 he was sworn a member of the English +privy council, and the power which he wielded in Ireland through his +numerous dependants and connexions grew to be so extensive that a few +years later he was spoken of as the "king of Ireland." He was a vehement +opponent of the increasing demand for relief of the Roman Catholics; and +when it became known that Lord Fitzwilliam was to succeed Lord +Westmorland as lord lieutenant in 1795 for the purpose of carrying out a +conciliatory policy, Beresford expressed strong hostility to the +appointment. One of Fitzwilliam's first acts was to dismiss Beresford +from his employment but with permission to retain his entire official +salary for life, and with the assurance that no other member of his +family would be removed. Beresford immediately exerted all his influence +with his friends in England, to whom he described himself as an injured +and persecuted man; he appealed to Pitt, and went in person to London to +lay his complaint before the English ministers. There is little doubt +that the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.), which was followed by such +momentous consequences in the history of Ireland, was, as the viceroy +himself believed, mainly due to Beresford's dismissal. There had been a +misunderstanding on the point between Pitt and Fitzwilliam. The latter, +whose veracity was unimpeachable, asserted that previous to his coming +to Ireland he had informed the prime minister of his intention to +dismiss Beresford, and that Pitt had raised no objection. Pitt denied +all recollection of any such communication, and on the contrary +described the dismissal as "an open breach of the most solemn +promise."[1] In a letter to Lord Carlisle, justifying his action, +Fitzwilliam mentioned that malversation had been imputed to Beresford. +Beresford sent a challenge to Fitzwilliam, but the combatants were +interrupted on the field and Fitzwilliam then made an apology. + +When Lord Camden replaced Fitzwilliam in the viceroyalty in March 1795, +Beresford resumed his former position. On the eve of the rebellion in +1798 his letters to Lord Auckland gave an alarming description of the +condition of Ireland, and he counselled strong measures of repression. +When first consulted by Pitt on the question of the union Beresford +appears to have disliked the idea; but he soon became reconciled to the +policy and warmly supported it. After the union Beresford continued to +represent Waterford in the imperial parliament, and he remained in +office till 1802, taking an active part in settling the financial +relations between Ireland and Great Britain. He died near Londonderry on +the 5th of November 1805. John Beresford was twice married: in 1760 to a +foreign lady, Constantia Ligondes, who died in 1772; and, secondly, in +1774 to Barbara Montgomery, a celebrated beauty who figures in Sir +Joshua Reynolds's picture of "The Graces." He had large families by both +marriages. His son, John Claudius, kept a riding school in Dublin, which +acquired an evil reputation as the chief scene of the floggings by which +evidence was extorted of the conspiracy which came to a head in 1798. He +took a prominent part in the Irish House of Commons, where he +unsuccessfully moved the reduction of the proposed Irish contribution to +the imperial exchequer in the debates on the Act of Union, of which, +unlike his father, he was to the last an ardent opponent. + + See _Correspondence of the Right Hon. John Beresford_, edited by W. + Beresford (2 vols., London, 1854); Edward Wakefield, _An Account of + Ireland_ (2 vols., London, 1812); Earl Stanhope, _Life of William + Pitt_ (4 vols., London, 1861); W.E.H. Lecky, _History of Ireland in + the Eighteenth Century_, vols. iii., iv., v. (5 vols., London, 1892). + (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, ii, 301. + + + + +BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD, VISCOUNT (1768-1854), British general +and Portuguese marshal, illegitimate son of the first marquess of +Waterford, was born on the 2nd of October 1768. He entered the British +army in 1785, and while in Nova Scotia with his regiment in the +following year lost the sight of one eye by a shooting accident. He +first distinguished himself at Toulon in 1793, receiving two years later +the command of the 88th regiment (Connaught Rangers). In 1799 his +regiment was ordered to India, and a few months later Beresford left +with Sir David Baird's expedition for Egypt, and was placed in command +of the first brigade which led the march from Kosseir across the desert. +When, on the evacuation of Egypt in 1803, he returned home, his +reputation was established. In 1805 he accompanied Sir David Baird to +South Africa, and was present at the capture of Cape Town and the +surrender of the colony. From South Africa he was despatched to South +America. He had little difficulty in capturing Buenos Aires with only a +couple of regiments. But this force was wholly insufficient to hold the +colony. Under the leadership of a French _emigre_, the chevalier de +Timers, the colonists attacked Beresford, and at the end of three days' +hard fighting he was compelled to capitulate. After six months' +imprisonment he escaped, and reached England in 1807, and at the end of +that year he was sent to Madeira, occupying the island in the name of +the king of Portugal. After six months in Madeira as governor and +commander-in-chief, during which he learnt Portuguese and obtained an +insight into the Portuguese character, he was ordered to join Sir Arthur +Wellesley's army in Portugal. He was first employed as commandant in +Lisbon, but accompanied Sir John Moore on the advance into Spain, and +took a conspicuous part in the battle of Corunna (see PENINSULAR WAR). +In February 1809 Beresford was given the task of reorganizing the +Portuguese army. In this task, by systematic weeding-out of inefficient +officers and men, he succeeded beyond expectation. By the summer of 1810 +he had so far improved the _moral_ and discipline of the force that +Wellington brigaded some of the Portuguese regiments with English ones, +and at Busaco Portuguese and English fought side by side. Beresford's +services in this battle were rewarded by the British government with a +knighthood of the Bath and by the Portuguese with a peerage. + +In the spring of 1811 Wellington was compelled to detach Beresford from +the Portuguese service. The latter was next in seniority to General +(Lord) Hill who had gone home on sick leave, and on him, therefore, the +command of Hill's corps now devolved. Unfortunately Beresford never +really gained the confidence of his new troops. At Campo Mayor his light +cavalry brigade got out of hand, and a regiment of dragoons was +practically annihilated. He invested Badajoz with insufficient forces, +and on the advance of Soult he was compelled to raise the siege and +offer battle at Albuera. His personal courage was even more than usually +conspicuous, but to the initiative of a junior staff officer, Colonel +(afterwards Viscount) Hardinge, rather than to Beresford's own +generalship, was the hardly-won victory to be attributed. Beresford then +went back to his work of reorganizing the Portuguese army. He was +present at the siege of Badajoz and at the battle of Salamanca, where he +was severely wounded (1812). In 1813 he was present at the battle of +Vittoria, and at the battles of the Pyrenees, while at the battle of the +Nivelle, the Nive and Orthez he commanded the British centre, and later +he led a corps at the battle of Toulouse. At the close of the Peninsular +War he was created Baron Beresford of Albuera and Cappoquin, with a +pension of L2000 a year, to be continued to his two successors. + +In 1819 the revolution in Portugal led to the dismissal of the British +officers in the Portuguese service. Beresford therefore left Portugal +and placed the question of the arrears of pay of his army before the +king at Rio Janeiro. On his return the new Portuguese government refused +to allow him to land, and he accordingly left for home. On arriving in +England he turned his attention to politics, and strongly supported the +duke of Wellington in the House of Lords. In 1823 his barony was made a +viscounty, and when the duke of Wellington formed his first cabinet in +1828 he gave Beresford the office of master-general of the ordnance. In +1830 Beresford retired from politics, and for some time subsequently he +was occupied in a heated controversy with William Napier, the historian +of the Peninsular War, who had severely criticised his tactics at +Albuera. On this subject Wellington's opinion of Beresford is to the +point. The duke had no illusions as to his being a great general, but he +thought very highly of his powers of organization, and he went so far as +to declare, during the Peninsular War, that, in the event of his own +death, he would on this ground recommend Beresford to succeed him. The +last years of Beresford's life were spent at Bedgebury, Kent, where he +had purchased a country estate. He died on the 8th of January 1854. + + + + +BEREZINA, a river of Russia, in the government of Minsk, forming a +tributary of the Dnieper. It rises in the marshes of Borizov and flows +south, inclining to east, for 350 m. (250 m. navigable), for the most +part through low-lying but well-wooded country. As a navigable river, +and forming a portion of the canal system which unites the Black Sea +with the Baltic, it is of importance for commerce, but is subject to +severe floods. It was just above Borizov that Napoleon's army forced the +passage of the Berezina, with enormous losses, on the 26th-28th of +November 1812, during the retreat from Moscow. + + + + +BEREZOV. a town of Asiatic Russia, in the government of Tobolsk, 700 m. +N. of the city of that name, situated on three hills on the left bank of +the Sosva, 26 m. above its mouth in the Ob, in 63 deg. 55' N. lat. and +65 deg. 7' E. long. It has more than once suffered from +conflagrations--for example, in 1710 and 1808. Prince Menshikov, the +favourite of Peter the Great and Catherine I., died here an exile, in +1729. In 1730 his enemy and rival, Prince Dolgoruki, was interned here +with his family; and in 1742 General Ostermann was sent to Berezov with +his wife and died there in 1747. The yearly mean temperature is 25 deg. +Fahr., the maximum cold being 4.7 deg. It has a cathedral, near which +lie buried Mary Menshikov, once betrothed to the tsar Peter II., and +some of the Dolgorukis. There is some trade in furs, mammoth bones, +dried and salted fish. Pop. (1897) 1073. + + + + +BEREZOVSK, a village of east Russia, in the government of Perm, on the +eastern slope of the Urals, 8 m. N.E. of Ekaterinburg. It is the centre +of an important gold-mining region (5 m. by 2-1/2) of the same name. The +mines have been known since 1747. The inhabitants also manufacture +boots, cut stone and carry on cabinet-making. + + + + +BERG (_Ducatus Montensis_), a former duchy of Germany, on the right bank +of the Rhine, bounded N. by the duchy of Cleves, E. by the countship of +La Marck and the duchy of Westphalia, and S. and W. by the bishopric of +Cologne. Its area was about 1120 sq. m. The district was raised in 1108 +to the rank of a countship, but did not become a duchy till 1380, after +it had passed into the possession of the Julich family. In 1423 the +duchy of Julich fell to Adolf of Berg, and in 1437 the countship of +Ravensberg was united to the duchies. The male line of the dukes of +Julich-Berg-Ravensberg became extinct in 1511, and the duchy passed by +marriage to John III. (d. 1539), duke of Cleves and count of La Marck, +whose male line became extinct with the death of John William, bishop of +Munster, in 1609. Of the latter's four sisters, the eldest (Marie +Eleonore) was married to Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, the second +(Anna) to Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburg, the third (Magdalena) +to John, count palatine of Zweibrucken, and the fourth (Sybille) to +Charles of Habsburg, margrave of Burgau. The question of the succession +led to a prolonged contest, which was one of the causes of the Thirty +Years' War. It was settled in 1614 by a partition, under which Berg, +with Julich, was assigned to the count palatine of Neuburg, in whose +line it remained till 1742, when it passed to the Sultzbach branch of +the house of Wittelsbach. On the death of Charles Theodore, the last of +this line, in 1799, Julich and Berg fell to Maximilian Joseph of +Zweibrucken (Maximilian I. of Bavaria), who ceded the duchies in 1806 to +Napoleon. Berg was bestowed by Napoleon, along with the duchy of Cleves +and other possessions, on Joachim Murat, who bore the title of +grand-duke of Berg; and after Murat's elevation to the throne of Naples, +it was transferred to Louis, the son of the king of Holland. By the +congress of Vienna in 1815 it was made over to Prussia. + + See B. Schonneshofer, _Geschichte des Bergischen Landes_ (Elberfeld, + 1895); Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire, &c._ vol. iii. (Leiden, + 1890-1893); and R. Gocke, _Das Grossherzogtum Berg unter Joachim + Murat, Napoleon I^er und Louis Napoleon, 1806-1813_ (Cologne, 1877). + + + + +BERGAMASK, or BERGOMASK (from the town of Bergamo in North Italy), a +clumsy rustic dance (cf. Shakespeare, _Midsummer Night's Dream_, v. 360) +copied from the natives of Bergamo, reputed to be very awkward in their +manners. + + + + +BERGAMO (anc. _Bergomum_), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, +capital of the province of Bergamo, situated at the foot of the Alps, at +the junction of the Brembo and Serio, 33-1/2 m. N.E. of Milan by rail, +and 26 m. direct. Pop. (1901) town, 25,425; commune, 46,861. The town +consists of two distinct parts, the older Citta Alta, upon a hill 1200 +ft. above sea-level, strongly fortified by the Venetians, and the new +town (Citta Bassa) below, the two being connected by a funicular +railway. The most interesting building of the former is the fine +Romanesque church of S. Maria Maggiore, founded in 1137 and completed in +1355, with a baroque interior and some interesting works of art. +Adjoining it to the north is the Cappella Colleoni, with a richly +sculptured polychrome facade, and a modernized interior, containing the +fine tombs of Bartolommeo Colleoni (c. 1400-1475), a native of Bergamo, +and his daughter Medea. The work was executed in 1470-1476 by Giovanni +Antonio Amadeo, who was also employed at the Certosa di Pavia. The +market-place (now Piazza Garibaldi) contains the Gothic Palazzo Vecchio +or Broletto; close by are the cathedral (1614) and a small baptistery of +1340, rebuilt in 1898. The lower town contains an important +picture-gallery, consisting of three collections of works of north +Italian masters, one of which was bequeathed in 1891 by the art critic +Giovanni Morelli. Bergamo has fine modern buildings and numerous silk +and cotton factories. It also has a considerable cattle market, though +its yearly Fiera di S. Alessandro (the patron saint) has lost some of +its importance. Railways radiate from it to Lecco, Ponte della Selva, +Usmate (for Monza or Seregno), Treviglio (on the main line from Milan to +Verona and Venice) and (via Rovato) to Brescia, and steam tramways to +Treviglio, Sarnico and Soncino. + +The ancient Bergomum was the centre of the tribe of the Orobii; it +became, after their subjection to Rome, a Roman municipality with a +considerable territory, and after its destruction by Attila, became the +capital of a Lombard duchy. From 1264 to 1428 it was under Milan, but +then became Venetian, and remained so until 1797. Remains of the Roman +city are not visible above ground, but various discoveries made are +recorded by G. Mantovani in _Not. Scav_., 1890, 25. (T. As.) + + + + +BERGAMOT, OIL OF, an essential oil obtained from the rind of the fruit +of the Citrus bergamia. The bergamot is a small tree with leaves and +flowers like the bitter orange, and a round fruit nearly 3 in. in +diameter, having a thin lemon-yellow smooth rind. The tree is cultivated +in southern Calabria, whence the entire supply of bergamot oil is drawn. +Machinery is mostly used to express the oil from the fruit, which is +gathered in November and December. The oil, which on standing deposits a +stearoptene, bergamot camphor or bergaptene, is a limpid greenish-yellow +fluid of a specific gravity of 0.882 to 0.886, and its powerful but +pleasant odour is mainly due to the presence of linalyl acetate, or +_bergamiol_, which can be artificially prepared by heating linalol with +acetic anhydride. The chief use of bergamot oil is in perfumery. The +word apparently is derived from the Italian town Bergamo. The name +Bergamot, for a variety of pear, is an entirely different word, supposed +to be a corruption of the Turkish _beg-armudi_ ( = prince's pear; cf. +Ger. _Furstenbirn_). + + + + +BERGEDORF, a town of Germany, in the territory of Hamburg, on the river +Bille, 10 m. by rail E. by S. from the city. Pop. (1900) 23,728. It +produces vegetables and fruit for the Hamburg markets, and carries on +tanning, glass manufacture, brewing and brick-making. It received civic +rights in 1275, belonged to Lubeck and Hamburg conjointly from 1420 to +1868, and in the latter year was purchased by Hamburg. The surrounding +district, exceptionally fertile marshland, is known as Die Vierlande, +being divided into four parishes, whence the name is derived. + + + + +BERGEN, a city and seaport of Norway, forming a separate county (_amt_), +on the west coast, in lat. 60 deg. 23' N. (about that of the Shetland +Islands). Pop. (1900) 72,179. It lies at the head of the broad Byfjord, +and partly on a rocky promontory (Nordnaes) between the fine harbour +(Vaagen) and the Puddefjord. Its situation is very beautiful, the moist +climate (mean annual rainfall, 74 in.) fostering on the steep +surrounding hills a vegetation unusually luxuriant for the latitude. +Behind the town lie the greater and lesser Lungegaard Lakes, so that the +site is in effect a peninsula. The harbour is crowded with picturesque +timber-ships and fishing-smacks, and is bordered by quays. The principal +street is Strandgaden, on the Nordnaes, parallel with the harbour, +communicating inland with the _torv_ or marketplace, which fronts the +harbour and contains the fish and fruit market. The portion of the city +on the mainland rises in an amphitheatre. The houses, of wood or stucco, +are painted in warm reds and yellows. On the banks of the lesser +Lungegaard Lake is the small town park, and above the greater lake the +pleasant Nygaards park, with an aquarium adjoining. Among the principal +buildings are the cathedral (rebuilt in the 16th century), and several +other churches, among which the Mariae Kirke with its Romanesque nave is +the earliest; a hospital, diocesan college, naval academy, school of +design and a theatre. An observatory and biological station are +maintained. The museums are of great interest. The Vestlandske fishery +and industrial museum also contains a picture gallery, and exhibition of +the Bergen Art Union (_Kunstforening_). The Bergen museum contains +antiquities and a natural history collection. The Hanseatic museum is +housed in a carefully-preserved _gaard_, or store-house and offices of +the Hanseatic League of German merchants, who inhabited the German +quarter (Tydskenbryggen) and were established here in great strength +from 1445 to 1558 (when the Norwegians began to find their presence +irksome), and brought much prosperity to the city in that period. The +Bergenhus and Fredriksberg forts defend the north and south entries of +the harbour respectively. The first was originally built in the 13th +century by King Haakon Haakonsson, and subsequently enlarged; and still +bears marks of an English attack when a Dutch fleet was driven to +shelter here in 1665. Near it are remains of another old fort, the +Sverresborg. Electric trams ply in the principal streets. + +Bergen is the birthplace of the poets Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754) and +Johan Welhaven (1807-1873), of Johan Dahl the painter (1788-1857), of +Ole Bull (1810-1880) and Edvard Grieg the musicians. There are statues +to Holberg and Bull, and also to Christie, president of the Storthing +(parliament) in 1815 and 1818. + +Bergen ranks first of the Norwegian ship-owning centres, having risen to +this position from fifth in 1879. The trade, however, is exceeded by +that of Christiania. The staple export trade is in fish and their +products: other exports are butter, copper ore and hides. The principal +imports are coal, machinery, salt, grain and provisions. The +manufactures are not extensive, but the preparation of fish products, +shipbuilding, weaving and distillery, with manufactures of paper, +pottery, tobacco and ropes are carried on. Bergen is an important centre +of the extensive tourist traffic of Norway. Regular steamers serve the +port from Hull and Newcastle (about 40 hours), from Hamburg, and from +all the Norwegian coast towns. Many local steamers penetrate the fjords, +touching at every village and _gaard_. Bergen is the nearest port to the +famous Hardanger Fjord, and is the starting-point of a remarkable +railway which runs through many tunnels and fine scenery towards +Vossevangen or Voss. In 1896 a beginning was made with the continuation +of this line through the mountains to connect with Christiania. In the +first 50 m. from Voss the line ascends 4080 ft., passing through a +tunnel 5796 yds. long. + +Bergen (formerly Bjorgvin) was founded by King Olaf Kyrre in 1070-1075, +and rapidly grew to importance, the Byfjord becoming the scene of +several important engagements in the civil wars of subsequent centuries. +The famous Hansa merchants maintained a failing position here till 1764. +The town suffered frequently from fire, as in 1702 and 1855, and the +broad open spaces (_Almenninge_) which interrupt the streets are +intended as a safeguard against the spread of flames. + + See Y. Nielsen, _Bergen fra die aldste tider indtil nutiden_ + (Christiania, 1877); H. Jager, _Bergen og Bergenserne_ (Bergen, 1889). + + + + +BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, a town in the province of North Brabant, Holland, +situated on both sides of the small river Zoom, near its confluence with +the East Scheldt, 38-1/2 m. by rail E. by N. of Flushing. It is +connected by steam tramway with Antwerp (20 m. S.) and with the islands +of Tholen and Duiveland to the north-west. Pop. (1900) 13,663. The +houses are well built, the market-places and squares handsome and +spacious. It possesses a port and an arsenal, and contains a fine town +hall, with portraits of the ancient margraves of Bergen-op-Zoom, a Latin +school, and an academy of design and architecture. The remains of the +old castle of the margraves have been converted into barracks. The tower +is still standing and is remarkable for its increase in size as it +rises, which causes it to rock in a strong wind. The church contains a +monument to Lord Edward Bruce, killed in a duel with Sir Edward +Sackville, afterwards earl of Dorset, in 1613. There are numerous +tile-works and potteries of fine ware; and a considerable trade is +carried on in anchovies and oysters caught in the Scheldt. A large +sugar-beet industry has also sprung up here in modern times. + +Bergen-op-Zoom is a very old town, but little is known of its early +history beyond the fact that it was taken by the Normans in 880. In the +13th century it became the seat of Count Gerhard of Wesemael, who +surrounded it with walls and built a castle. By the end of the 15th +century it had become one of the most prosperous towns of Holland, on +account of its fisheries and its cloth-trade. In 1576 the town joined +the United Netherlands, and was shortly afterwards fortified. In 1588 it +was successfully defended against the duke of Parma by an English and +Dutch garrison commanded by Colonel Morgan, and in 1605 it was suddenly +attacked by Du Terail. In 1622 the Spaniards, under Spinola, made +another attempt to take the town, but were forced to abandon the +enterprise after a siege of ten weeks and the loss of 1200 men. Towards +the end of the 17th century the fortifications were greatly strengthened +by Coehoorn, and in 1725 they were further extended. In 1747, however, +the town was taken by the French, under Marshal Lowendahl, who surprised +it by means of a subterranean passage. Restored at the end of the war, +it was again taken by the French under Pichegru in 1795. The English, +under Sir Thomas Graham, afterwards Lord Lynedoch, in March 1814 made an +attempt to take it by a _coup de main_, but were driven back with great +loss by the French, who surrendered the place, however, by the treaty of +peace in the following May. + +The lordship of Bergen-op-Zoom appears, after the definite union of the +Low Countries with the Empire in 924, as an hereditary fief of the +Empire, and the succession of its lords may be traced from Henry +(1098-1125), who also held Breda. In 1533 it was raised to a margraviate +by the emperor Charles V., and was held by various families until in +1799 it passed, through the Sultzbach branch of the Wittelsbachs, to the +royal house of Bavaria, by whom it was renounced in favour of the +Batavian republic in 1801. + + + + +BERGERAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Dordogne, on the right bank of the Dordogne, 60 m. +E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Cahors. Pop. (1906) town, 10,545; +commune, 15,623. The river is rendered navigable by a large dam and +crossed by a fine bridge which leads to the suburb of La Madeleine. +Apart from a few old houses in the older quarter by the river, the town +contains no monuments of antiquarian interest. There is a handsome +modern church built in the middle of the 19th century. Bergerac is the +seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce and a communal college. Wine of fine quality is grown in the +district and is the chief source of the commerce of the town, which is +mainly carried on with Libourne and Bordeaux. There is trade in grain, +truffles, chestnuts, brandy and in the salmon of the Dordogne. The town +has flour-mills, iron-works, tanneries, distilleries and +nursery-gardens, and it has manufactures of casks and of vinegar. There +are quarries of millstone in the vicinity. In the 16th century Bergerac +was a very flourishing and populous place, but most of its inhabitants +having embraced Calvinism it suffered greatly during the religious wars +and by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685). It was in 1577 the +scene of the signing of the sixth peace between the Catholics and +Protestants. Its fortifications and citadel were demolished by Louis +XIII. in 1621. + + + + +BERGHAUS, HEINRICH (1797-1884), German geographer, was born at Kleve on +the 3rd of May 1797. He was trained as a surveyor, and after +volunteering for active service under General Tauenzien in 1813, joined +the staff of the Prussian trigonometrical survey in 1816. He carried on +a geographical school at Potsdam in company with Heinrich Lange, August +Petermann, and others, and long held the professorship of applied +mathematics at the Bauakademie. But he is most famous in connexion with +his cartographical work. His greatest achievement was the +_Physikalischer Atlas_ (Gotha, 1838-1848), in which work, as in others, +his nephew HERMANN BERGHAUS (1828-1890) was associated with him. He had +also a share in the re-issue of the great _Stieler Handatlas_ +(originally produced by Adolf Stieler in 1817-1823). and in the +production of other atlases. His written works were numerous and +important, including _Allgemeine Lander- und Volkerkunde_ (Stuttgart, +1837-1840), _Grundriss der Geographie in funf Buckern_ (Berlin, 1842), +_Die Volker des Erdballs_ (Leipzig, 1845-1847), _Was man van der Erde +weiss_ (Berlin, 1856-1860), and various large works on Germany. In 1863 +he published _Briefwechsel mit Alexander van Humboldt_ (Leipzig). He +died at Stettin on the 17th of February 1884. + + + + +BERGK, THEODOR (1812-1881), German philologist, was born at Leipzig on +the 22nd of May 1812. After studying at the university of his native +town, where he profited by the instruction of G. Hermann, he was +appointed in 1835 to the lectureship in Latin at the orphan school at +Halle. After holding posts at Neustrelitz, Berlin and Cassel, he +succeeded (1842) K.F. Hermann as professor of classical literature at +Marburg. In 1852 he went to Freiburg, and in 1857 returned to Halle. In +1868 he resigned his professorship, and settled down to study and +literary work in Bonn. He died on the 20th of July 1881, at Ragatz in +Switzerland, where he had gone for the benefit of his health. Bergk's +literary activity was very great, but his reputation mainly rests upon +his work in connexion with Greek literature and the Greek lyric poets. +His _Poetae Lyrici Graeci_ (1843. 5th ed. 1900, &c.), and _Griechische +Litteraturgeschichte_ (1872-1887, completed by G. Hinrichs and R. +Peppmuller) are standard works. He also edited Anacreon (1834), the +fragments of Aristophanes (1840), Aristophanes (3rd ed., 1872), +Sophocles (and ed., 1868), a lyric anthology (4th ed., 1890). Among his +other works may be mentioned: _Augusti Rerum a se gestarum Index_ +(1873); _Inschriften romischer Schleudergeschosse_ (1876); _Zur +Geschichte und Topographie der Rheinlande in romischer Zeit_ (1882); +_Beitrage zur romischen Chronologie_ (1884). + + His _Kleine philologische Schriften_ have been edited by Peppmuller + (1884-1886), and contain, in addition to a complete list of his + writings, a sketch of his life. See Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol_ + iii. 146 (1908). + + + + +BERGLER, STEPHAN, German classical scholar, was born about 1680 at +Kronstadt in Transylvania. The date of his death is uncertain. After +studying at Leipzig, he went to Amsterdam, where he edited Homer and the +_Onomasticon_ of Julius Pollux for Wetzstein the publisher. +Subsequently, at Hamburg, he assisted the great bibliographer J.A. +Fabricius in the production of his _Bibliotheca Graeca_ and his edition +of Sextus Empiricus. He finally found a permanent post in Bucharest as +secretary to the prince of Walachia, Alexander Mavrocordato, whose work +[Greek: Peri ton kathaekonton] (_De Officiis_) he had previously +translated for Fritzsch, the Leipzig bookseller, by whom he had been +employed as proof-reader and literary hack. In the prince's library +Bergler discovered the introduction and the first three chapters of +Eusebius's _Demonstratio Evangelica_. He died in Bucharest, and was +buried at his patron's expense. According to another account, Bergler, +finding himself without means, drifted to Constantinople, where he came +to an untoward end (c. 1740). He is said to have become a convert to +Islam; this report was probably a mistake for the undisputed fact that +he embraced Roman Catholicism. Bergler led a wild and irregular life, +and offended his friends and made many enemies by his dissipated habits +and cynical disposition. In addition to writing numerous articles for +the Leipzig _Acta Eruditorum_, Bergler edited the editio princeps of the +Byzantine historiographer Genesius (1733), and the letters of Alciphron +(1715), in which seventy-five hitherto unpublished letters were for the +first time included. + + + + +BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF (1735-1784), Swedish chemist and naturalist, was +born at Katrineberg, Vestergotland, Sweden, on the 20th of March 1735. +At the age of seventeen he entered the university of Upsala. His father +wished him to read either law or divinity, while he himself was anxious +to study mathematics and natural science; in the effort to please both +himself and his father he overworked himself and injured his health. +During a period of enforced abstinence from study, he amused himself +with field botany and entomology, to such good purpose that he was able +to send Linnaeus specimens of several new kinds of insects, and in 1756 +he succeeded in proving that, contrary to the opinion of that +naturalist, _Coccus aquaticus_ was really the ovum of a kind of leech. +In 1758, having returned to Upsala, he graduated there, and soon +afterwards began to teach mathematics and physics at the university, +publishing papers on the rainbow, the aurora, the pyroelectric phenomena +of tourmaline, &c. In 1767 Johann Gottschalck Wallerius (1709-1785) +having resigned the chair of chemistry and mineralogy, Bergman +determined to become a candidate, though he had paid no particular +attention to chemistry. As evidence of his attainments he produced a +memoir on the manufacture of alum, but his pretensions were strongly +opposed, and it was only through the influence of Gustavus III., then +crown prince and chancellor of the university, that he gained the +appointment, which he held till the end of his life. He died at Medevi +on Lake Vetter on the 8th of July 1784. Bergman's most important +chemical paper is his _Essay on Elective Attractions_ (1775), a study of +chemical affinity. In methods of chemical analysis, both by the blowpipe +and in the wet way, he effected many improvements, and he made +considerable contributions to mineralogical and geological chemistry, +and to crystallography. He also made observations of the transit of +Venus in 1761, and published a _Physical Description of the Earth_ in +1766. + + His works were collected and printed in 6 vols. as _Opuscula Physica + et Chemica_ in 1779-1790, and were translated into French, German and + English. + + + + +BERGSCHRUND (Ger. _Berg_, mountain; _Schrund_, cleft or crevice), a +gaping crack in the upper part of a snowfield or glacier, near the rock +wall, caused by the glacier moving bodily away from the mountain-side as +the mass settles downwards. The crack is roughly parallel to the +rock-face of the upper edge of the glacier basin, and extends downwards +to the solid rock beneath the glacier where at the bottom of this huge +crevasse there are blocks of ice, and large pieces of rock torn off by +the lower portion of the glacier from the rock wall and floor. + + + + +BERGUES, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, at the +junction of the canal of the Colme with canals to Dunkirk and Furnes (in +Belgium), 5 m. S.S.E. of Dunkirk by rail. Pop. (1906) 4499. The town has +a belfry, the finest in French Flanders, dating from the middle of the +16th century and restored in the 19th century. The church of St Martin +is a brick building of the 17th century in the Gothic style with a +modern facade. The town hall, dating from the latter half of the 19th +century, contains a municipal library and an interesting collection of +pictures. The industries of the town include brewing and malting, and +the manufacture of brushes and oil. + + + + +BERHAMPUR, a town of British India, the headquarters of Murshidabad +district, in Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river Bhagirathi, +5 m. below Murshidabad city. Pop. (1901) 24,397. Berhampur was fixed +upon after the battle of Plassey as the site of the chief military +station for Bengal; and a huge square of brick barracks was erected in +1767, at a cost of L300,000. Here was committed the first overt act of +the mutiny, on the 25th of February 1857. No troops are now stationed +here, and the barracks have been utilized for a jail, a lunatic asylum +and other civic buildings. A college, founded by government in 1853, was +made over in 1888 to a local committee, being mainly supported by the +munificence of the rani Svarnamayi. In the municipality of Berhampur is +included the remnant of the once important, but now utterly decayed city +of Cossimbazar (q.v.). + + + + +BERHAMPUR, a town of British India, in the presidency of Madras. Pop. +(1901) 25,729. It is the headquarters of Ganjam district, and is +situated about 9 m. from the sea. It is a station on the East Coast +railway, which connects Calcutta with Madras. Berhampur had a military +cantonment, sometimes distinguished as Baupur, containing a wing of a +native regiment; but the troops have been transferred elsewhere. There +is some weaving of silk cloth, and export trade in sugar. The college, +originally founded by government, is now maintained by the raja of +Kallikota. Silk-weaving and sugar-manufacture are carried on. + + + + +BERI-BERI, a tropical disease of the greatest antiquity, and known to +the Chinese from an extremely remote period. It gradually dropped out of +sight of European practice, until an epidemic in Brazil in 1863, and the +opening up of Japan, where it prevailed extensively, and the +investigations into the disease in Borneo, brought it again into notice. +The researches of Scheube and Balz in Japan, and of Pekelharing and +Winkler in the Dutch Indies, led to its description as a form of +peripheral neuritis (see also NEUROPATHOLOGY). The geographical +distribution of beri-beri is between 45 deg. N. and 35 deg. S. It occurs +in Japan, Korea and on the Chinese coast south of Shanghai; in Manila, +Tongking, Cochin China, Burma, Singapore, Malacca, Java and the +neighbouring islands; also in Ceylon, Mauritius, Madagascar and the east +coast of Africa. In the Western hemisphere it is found in Cuba, Panama, +Venezuela and South America. It has been carried in ships to Australia +and to England. Sir P. Manson has "known it originate in the port of +London in the crews of ships which had been in harbour for several +months," and he suggests that when peripheral neuritis occurs in +epidemic form it is probably beri-beric. + +The cause is believed by many authorities to be an infective agent of a +parasitic nature, but attempts to identify it have not been entirely +successful. It is "not obviously communicable from person to person" +(Manson), but may be carried from place to place. It clings to +particular localities, buildings and ships, in which it has a great +tendency to occur; for instance, it is apt to break out again and again +on certain vessels trading to the East. It haunts low-lying districts +along the coast, and the banks of rivers. Moisture and high temperature +are required to develop its activity, which is further favoured by bad +ventilation, overcrowding and underfeeding. Another strongly supported +hypothesis is that it is caused by unwholesome diet. The experience of +the Japanese navy points strongly in this direction. Beri-beri was +constantly prevalent among the sailors until 1884, when the dietary was +changed. A striking and progressive diminution at once set in, and +continued until the disease wholly disappeared. Major Ronald Ross +suggested that beri-beri was really arsenical poisoning. A natural +surmise is that it is due to some fungoid growth affecting grain, such +as rice, maize or some other food stuff commonly used in the localities +where beri-beri is prevalent, and among sailors. The conditions under +which their food is kept on board certain ships might explain the +tendency of the disease to haunt particular vessels. Dr Charles Hose is +the principal advocate of this theory. Having had much experience of +beri-beri in Sarawak, he associates it with the eating of mouldy rice, a +germ in the fungus constituting the poison. But Dr Hose's views as to +rice have been strongly opposed by Dr Hamilton Wright and others. + +The most susceptible age is from 15 to 40. Children under 15 and persons +over 50 or 60 are rarely attacked. Men are more liable than women. Race +has no influence. Previous attacks powerfully predispose. + +The symptoms are mainly those of peripheral neuritis with special +implication of the phrenic and the pneumogastric nerves. There is +usually a premonitory stage, in which the patient is languid, easily +tired, depressed, and complains of numbness, stiffness and cramps in the +legs; the ankles are oedematous and the face is puffy. After this, +pronounced symptoms set in rapidly, the patient suddenly loses power in +the legs and is hardly able to walk or stand; this paresis is +accompanied by partial anaesthesia, and by burning or tingling +sensations in the feet, legs and arms; the finger-tips are numb, the +calf muscles tender. These symptoms increase, the oedema becomes +general, the paralysis more marked; breathlessness and palpitation come +on in paroxysms; the urine is greatly diminished. There is no fever, +unless it is of an incidental character, and no brain symptoms arise. +The patient may remain in this condition for several days or weeks, when +the symptoms begin to subside. On the disappearance of the oedema the +muscles of the leg are found to be atrophied. Recovery is very slow, but +appears to be certain when once begun. When death occurs it is usually +from syncope through over-distension of the heart. The mortality varies +greatly, from 2 to 50% of the cases. The disease is said to be extremely +fatal among the Malays. After death there is found to be serious +infiltration into all the tissues, and often haemorrhages into the +muscles and nerves, but the most important lesion is degeneration of the +peripheral nerves. The cerebrospinal centres are not affected, and the +degeneration of the nerve-fibres is more marked the farther they are +from the point of origin. The implication of the phrenic and +pneumogastric nerves, and of the cardiac plexus, accounts for the +breathlessness, palpitation and heart failure; that of the vaso-motor +system for the oedema and diminution of urine, and that of the spinal +nerves for the loss of power, the impairment and perversion of +sensation. According as these nerves are variously affected the symptoms +will be modified, some being more prominent in one case and some in +another. + + AUTHORITIES.--See Sir Patrick Manson, _Tropical Diseases_ (new ed., + 1907), for a critical discussion of the subject, see _The Times_ of + 28th October 1905; a full bibliography is given by Manson in Allbutt + and Rolleston's _System of Medicine_ (1907). + + + + +BERING (BEHRING), VITUS (1680-1741), Danish navigator, was born in 1680 +at Horsens. In 1703 he entered the Russian navy, and served in the +Swedish war. A series of explorations of the north coast of Asia, the +outcome of a far-reaching plan devised by Peter the Great, led up to +Bering's first voyage to Kamchatka. In 1725, under the auspices of the +Russian government, he went overland to Okhotsk, crossed to Kamchatka, +and built the ship "Gabriel." In her he pushed northward in 1728, until +he could no longer observe any extension of the land to the north, or +its appearance to the east. In the following year he made an abortive +search for land eastward, and in 1730 returned to St Petersburg. He was +subsequently commissioned to a further expedition, and in 1740 +established the settlement of Petropavlosk in Kamchatka; and built two +vessels, the "St Peter" and "St Paul," in which in 1741 he led an +expedition towards America. A storm separated the ships, but Bering +sighted the southern coast of Alaska, and a landing was made at Kayak +Island or in the vicinity. Bering was forced by adverse conditions to +return quickly, and discovered some of the Aleutian Islands on his way +back. He was afflicted with scurvy, and became too ill to command his +ships, which were at last driven to refuge on an uninhabited island in +the south-west of Bering Sea, where Bering himself and many of his +company died. This island bears his name. Bering died on the 19th of +December 1741. It was long before the value of his work was recognized; +but Captain Cook was able to prove his accuracy as an observer. + + See G.F. Muller, _Sammlung russischer Geschichten_, vol. iii. (St + Petersburg, 1758); P. Lauridsen, _Bering og de Russishe + Opdagelsesrejser_ (Copenhagen, 1885). + + + + +BERING ISLAND, SEA and STRAIT. These take their name from the explorer +Vitus Bering. The island (also called Avatcha), which was the scene of +his death, lies in the south-western part of the sea, off the coast of +Kamchatka, being one of the Commander or Komandor group, belonging to +Russia. It is 69 m. long and 28 m. in extreme breadth; the area is 615 +sq. m. The extreme elevation is about 300 ft. The smaller Copper Island +lies near. The islands are treeless, and the climate is severe, but +there is a population of about 650. Bering Sea is the northward +continuation of the Pacific Ocean, from which it is demarcated by the +long chain of the Aleutian Islands. It is bounded on the east by Alaska, +and on the west by the Siberian and Kamchatkan coast. Its area is +estimated at 870,000 sq. m. In the north and east it has numerous +islands (St Lawrence, St Matthew, Nunivak and the Pribiloff group) and +is shallow; in the south-west it reaches depths over 2000 fathoms. The +seal-fisheries are important (see BERING SEA ARBITRATION). The sea is +connected with the Arctic Ocean northward by Bering Strait, at the +narrowest part of which East Cape (Deshnev) in Asia approaches within +about 56 m. of Cape Prince of Wales on the American shore. North and +south of these points the coasts on both sides rapidly diverge. They are +steep and rocky, and considerably indented. The extreme depth of the +strait approaches 50 fathoms, and it contains two small islands known as +the Diomede Islands. These granite domes, lacking a harbour, lie about a +mile apart, and the boundary line between the possessions of Russia and +the United States passes between them. They are occupied by a small +tribe of about 80 Eskimo, who have from early times plied the trade of +middlemen between Asia and America. They call the western island +Nunarbook and the eastern Ignalook. Haze and fogs greatly prevail in the +strait, which is never free of ice. + +[Illustration: Map of Bering Sea.] + +The earliest names associated with the exploration of Bering Strait are +those of Russians seeking to extend their trading facilities. Isai +Ignatiev made a voyage eastward from the Kolyma river in 1646, and Simon +Dezhnev in 1648 followed his route and prolonged it, rounding the East +or Dezhnev Cape, and entering the strait. The post of Anadyrsk was +founded on the river Anadyr, and overland communications were gradually +opened up. A Russian named Popov first learnt a rumour of the existence +of islands east of Cape Dezhnev, and of the proximity of America, and +presently there followed the explorations of Vitus Bering. In 1731 the +navigator Michael Gvosdev was driven by storm from a point north of Cape +Dezhnev to within sight of the Alaskan coast, which he followed for two +days. Under Bering on his last voyage (1741) was Commander Chirikov of +the "St Paul," and after being separated from his leader during foggy +weather this officer reached the Alaskan coast and explored a +considerable stretch of it. Lieutenant Waxel and William Steller, a +naturalist, left at the head of Bering's party after his death, by their +researches laid the foundation of the important fur trade of these +waters. The Aleutian Islands gradually became known in the pursuit of +this trade, through Michael Novidiskov (1745) and his successors, and it +was not until Captain James Cook, working from the south, explored the +sea and strait in 1778 that the tide of discovery set farther northward. + + + + +BERING SEA ARBITRATION. The important fishery dispute between Great +Britain and the United States, which was closed by this arbitration, +arose in the following circumstances. + +In the year 1867 the United States government had purchased from Russia +all her territorial rights in Alaska and the adjacent islands. The +boundary between the two powers, as laid down by the treaty for +purchase, was a line drawn from the middle of Bering Strait south-west +to a point midway between the Aleutian and Komandorski Islands dividing +Bering Sea into two parts, of which the larger was on the American side +of this line. This portion included the Pribiloff Islands, which are the +principal breeding-grounds of the seals frequenting those seas. By +certain acts of congress, passed between 1868 and 1873, the killing of +seals was prohibited upon the islands of the Pribiloff group and in "the +waters adjacent thereto" except upon certain specified conditions. No +definition of the meaning of the words "adjacent waters" was given in +the act. In 1870 the exclusive rights of killing seals upon these +islands was leased by the United States to the Alaska Commercial +Company, upon conditions limiting the numbers to be taken annually, and +otherwise providing for their protection. As early as 1872 the +operations of foreign sealers attracted the attention of the United +States government, but any precautions then taken seem to have been +directed against the capture of seals on their way through the passages +between the Aleutian Islands, and no claim to jurisdiction beyond the +three-mile limit appears to have been put forward. On the 12th of March +1881, however, the acting secretary of the United States treasury, in +answer to a letter asking for an interpretation of the words "waters +adjacent thereto" in the acts of 1868 and 1873, stated that all the +waters east of the boundary line were considered to be within the waters +of Alaska territory. In March 1886 this letter was communicated to the +San Francisco customs by Mr Daniel Manning, secretary of the treasury, +for publication. In the same summer three British sealers, the +"Carolena," "Onward" and "Thornton," were captured by an American +revenue cutter 60 m. from land. They were condemned by the district +judge on the express ground that they had been sealing within the limits +of Alaska territory. Diplomatic representations followed, and an order +for release was issued, but in 1887 further captures were made and were +judicially supported upon the same grounds. The respective positions +taken up by the two governments in the controversy which ensued may be +thus indicated. The United States claimed as a matter of right an +exclusive jurisdiction over the sealing industry in Bering Sea; they +also contended that the protection of the fur seal was, upon grounds +both of morality and interest, an international duty, and should be +secured by international arrangement. The British government repudiated +the claim of right, but were willing to negotiate upon the question of +international regulation. Between 1887 and 1890 negotiations were +carried on between Russia, Great Britain and the United States with a +view to a joint convention. Unfortunately the parties were unable to +agree as to the principles upon which regulation should be based. The +negotiations were wrecked upon the question of pelagic sealing. The only +seal nurseries were upon the Pribiloff Islands, which belonged to the +United States, and the Komandorski group, which belonged to Russia. +Consequently to prohibit pelagic sealing would have been to exclude +Canada from the industry. The United States, nevertheless, insisted that +such prohibition was indispensable on the grounds--(1) that pelagic +sealing involved the destruction of breeding stock, because it was +practically impossible to distinguish between the male and female seal +when in the water; (2) that it was unnecessarily wasteful, inasmuch as a +large proportion of the seals so killed were lost. On the other hand, it +was contended by Great Britain that in all known cases the extermination +of seals had been the result of operations upon land, and had never been +caused by sealing exclusively pelagic. The negotiations came to nothing, +and the United States fell back upon their claim of right. In June 1890 +it was reported that certain American revenue cutters had been ordered +to proceed to Bering Sea. Sir Julian Pauncefote, the British ambassador +at Washington, having failed to obtain an assurance that British vessels +would not be interfered with, laid a formal protest before the United +States government. + +Thereupon followed a diplomatic controversy, in the course of which the +United States developed the contentions which were afterwards laid +before the tribunal of arbitration. The claim that Bering Sea was _mare +clausum_ was abandoned, but it was asserted that Russia had formerly +exercised therein rights of exclusive jurisdiction which had passed to +the United States, and they relied _inter alia_ upon the ukase of 1821, +by which foreign vessels had been forbidden to approach within 100 +Italian miles of the coasts of Russian America. It was pointed out by +Great Britain that this ukase had been the subject of protest both by +Great Britain and the United States, and that by treaties similar in +their terms, made between Russia and each of the protesting powers, +Russia had agreed that their subjects should not be troubled or molested +in navigating or fishing in any part of the Pacific Ocean. The American +answer was that the Pacific Ocean did not include Bering Sea. They also +claimed an interest in the fur seals, involving the right to protect +them outside the three-mile limit. In August 1890 Lord Salisbury +proposed that the question at issue should be submitted to arbitration. +This was ultimately assented to by the secretary of state, James +Gillespie Blaine, on the understanding that certain specific points, +which he indicated, should be laid before the arbitrators. On the 29th +of February 1892 a definitive treaty was signed at Washington. Each +power was to name two arbitrators, and the president of the French +Republic, the king of Italy, the king of Norway and Sweden were each to +name one. The points submitted were as follows:--(1) What exclusive +jurisdiction in the sea now known as Bering Sea, and what exclusive +rights in the seal fisheries therein, did Russia assert and exercise +prior to and up to the time of the cession of Alaska to the United +States? (2) How far were her claims of jurisdiction as to the seal +fisheries recognized and conceded by Great Britain? (3) Was the body of +water now known as Bering Sea included in the phrase "Pacific Ocean," as +used in the treaty of 1825 between Great Britain and Russia, and what +rights, if any, in Bering Sea were held exclusively exercised by Russia +after the said treaty? (4) Did not all the rights of Russia as to +jurisdiction and as to the seal fisheries in Bering Sea east of the +water boundary, in the treaty between the United States and Russia of +the 30th of March 1867, pass unimpaired to the United States under that +treaty? (5) Had the United States any and what right of protection over, +or property in, the fur seals frequenting the islands of Bering Sea when +such seals are found outside the three-mile limit? In the event of a +determination in favour of Great Britain the arbitrators were to +determine what concurrent regulations were necessary for the +preservation of the seals, and a joint commission was to be appointed by +the two powers to assist them in the investigation of the facts of seal +life. The question of damages was reserved for further discussion, but +either party was to be at liberty to submit any question of fact to the +arbitrators, and to ask for a finding thereon. The tribunal was to sit +at Paris. The treaty was approved by the Senate on the 29th of March +1892, and ratified by the president on the 22nd of April. + +The United States appointed as arbitrator Mr John M. Harlan, a justice +of the Supreme Court, and Mr John T. Morgan, a member of the Senate. The +British arbitrators were Lord Hannen and Sir John Thompson. The neutral +arbitrators were the baron de Courcel, the marquis Visconti Venosta, and +Mr Gregers Gram, appointed respectively by the president of the French +Republic, the king of Italy, and the king of Norway and Sweden. The +sittings of the tribunal began in February and ended in August 1893. The +main interest of the proceedings lies in the second of the two claims +put forward on behalf of the United States. This claim cannot easily be +stated in language of precision; it is indicated rather than formulated +in the last of the five points specially submitted by the treaty. But +its general character may be gathered from the arguments addressed to +the tribunal. It was suggested that the seals had some of the +characteristics of the domestic animals, and could therefore be the +subject of something in the nature of a right of property. They were so +far amenable to human control that it was possible to take their +increase without destroying the stock. Sealing upon land was legitimate +sealing; the United States being the owners of the land, the industry +was a trust vested in them for the benefit of mankind. On the other +hand, pelagic sealing, being a method of promiscuous slaughter, was +illegitimate; it was _contra bonos mores_ and analogous to piracy. +Consequently the United States claimed a right to restrain such +practices, both as proprietors of the seals and as proprietors and +trustees of the legitimate industry. It is obvious that such a right was +a novelty hitherto unrecognized by any system of law. Mr J.C. Carter, +therefore, as counsel for the United States, submitted a theory of +international jurisprudence which was equally novel. He argued that the +determination of the tribunal must be grounded upon "the principles of +right," that "by the rule or principle of right was meant a moral rule +dictated by the general standard of justice upon which civilized nations +are agreed, that this international standard of justice is but another +name for international law, that the particular recognized rules were +but cases of the application of a more general rule, and that where the +particular rules were silent the general rule applied." The practical +result of giving effect to this contention would be that an +international tribunal could make new law and apply it retrospectively. +Mr Carter's contention was successfully combated by Sir Charles Russell, +the leading counsel for Great Britain. + +The award, which was signed and published on the 15th of August 1893, +was in favour of Great Britain on all points. The question of damages, +which had been reserved, was ultimately settled by a mixed commission +appointed by the two powers in February 1896, the total amount awarded +to the British sealers being $473,151.26. (M. H. C.) + + + + +BERIOT, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE (1802-1870), Belgian violinist and composer. +Although not definitely a pupil of Viotti or Baillot he was much +influenced by both. He was very successful in his concert tours, and +held appointments at the courts of Belgium and France. From 1843 to 1852 +he was violin professor at the Brussels conservatoire. Then his eyesight +began to fail, and in 1858 he became blind. His compositions are still +often played, and are good, clean displays of technique. + + + + +BERJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Almeria; on the +south-eastern slope of the Sierra de Gador, 10 m. N.E. of Adra by road. +Pop. (1900) 13,224. Despite the lack of a railway Berja has a +considerable trade. Lead is obtained among the mountains, and the more +sheltered valleys produce grain, wine, oil, fruit and esparto grass. +These, with the paper, linen and cotton goods manufactured locally in +small quantities, are exported from Adra. + + + + +BERKA, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the grand-duchy of +Saxe-Weimar, on the Ilm and the Weimar-Kranichfeld railway, 8 m. S. of +Weimar. Pop. 2300. It has sulphur baths, which are largely frequented in +the summer. Berka was once celebrated for its Cistercian nunnery, +founded in 1251. Two m. down the Ilm is the curious castle of Burgfarth, +partly hewn out of the solid rock. + + + + +BERKELEY, the name of an ancient English family remarkable for its long +tenure of the feudal castle built by the water of Severn upon the lands +from which the family takes its name. It traces an undoubted descent +from Robert (d. 1170) son of Harding. Old pedigree-makers from the 14th +century onward have made of Harding a younger son of a king of Denmark +and a companion of the Conqueror, while modern historians assert his +identity with one Harding who, although an English thane, is recorded by +Domesday Book in 1086 as a great landowner in Somerset. This Harding the +thane was son of Elnod or Alnod, who is recognized as Eadnoth the +Staller, slain in beating off the sons of Harold when they attacked his +county. But if Harding the Berkeley ancestor be the Harding who, as the +queen's butler, witnesses King Edward's Waltham charter of 1062, his +dates seem strangely apart from those of Robert his son, dead a hundred +and eight years later. Of Robert fitz Harding we know that he was a +Bristol man whose wealth and importance were probably increased by the +trade of the port. A partisan of Henry, son of the empress, that prince +before his accession to the throne granted him, by his charter at +Bristol in the earlier half of 1153, the Gloucestershire manor of +Bitton, and a hundred librates of land in the manor of Berkeley, Henry +agreeing to strengthen the castle of Berkeley, which was evidently +already in Robert's hands. In his rhymed chronicle Robert of Gloucester +tells how-- + + "A bourgois at Bristowe--Robert Harding + Vor gret tresour and richesse--so wel was mid the king + That he gat him and is eirs--the noble baronie + That so riche is of Berkele--mid al the seignorie." + +Later in the same year the duke of Normandy granted to Robert fitz +Harding Berkeley manor and the appurtenant district called +"Berkelaihernesse," to hold in fee by the service of one knight or at a +rent of 100 s. Being at Berkeley, the duke confirmed to Robert a grant +of Bedminster made by Robert, earl of Gloucester, and in the first year +of his reign as king of England he confirmed his own earlier grant of +the Berkeley manor. About this time Robert, who had founded St +Augustine's Priory in Bristol, gave to the Black Canons there the five +churches in Berkeley and Berkeley Herness. In their priory church he was +buried in 1170, Berkeley descending to his son and heir Maurice. + +Berkeley had already given a surname to an earlier family sprung from +Roger, its Domesday tenant, whose descendants seem to have been ousted +by the partisan of the Angevin. But if there had been a feud between the +families it was ended by a double alliance, a covenant having been made +at Bristol about November 1153 in the presence of Henry, duke of +Normandy, whereby Maurice, son of Robert fitz Harding, was to marry the +daughter of Roger of Berkeley, Roger's own son Roger marrying the +daughter of Robert. In his certificate of 1166 Robert tells the king +that, although he owes the service of five knights for Berkeley, Roger +of Berkeley still holds certain lands of the honour for which he does no +service to Robert. This elder line of Berkeley survived for more than +two centuries on their lands of Dursley and Cubberley, but after his +father's death Maurice, son of Robert, is styled Maurice of Berkeley. +Robert of Berkeley, the eldest son of Maurice, paid in 1190 the vast sum +of L1000 for livery of his great inheritance, but, rising with the +rebellious barons against King John, his castle was taken into the +king's hands. Seizin, however, was granted in 1220 to Thomas his brother +and heir, but the estate was again forfeit in the next generation for a +new defection, although the wind of the royal displeasure was tempered +by the fact that Isabel de Creoun, wife of Maurice, lord of Berkeley, +was the king's near kinswoman. Thomas, son of Maurice, was allowed to +succeed his father in the lands, and, having a writ of summons to +parliament in 1295, he is reckoned the first hereditary baron of the +line. + +Even in the age of chivalry the lords of Berkeley were notable warriors. +Thomas, who as a lad had ridden on the barons' side at Evesham, followed +the king's wars for half a century of his long life, flying his banner +at Falkirk and at Bannockburn, in which fight he was taken by the Scots. +His seal of arms is among those attached to the famous letter of +remonstrance addressed by the barons of England to Pope Boniface VIII. +Maurice, his son, joined the confederation against the two Despensers, +and lay in prison at Wallingford until his death in 1326, the queen's +party gaining the upper hand too late to release him. But as the queen +passed by Berkeley on her way to seize Bristol, she gave back the +castle, which had been kept by the younger Despenser, to Thomas, the +prisoner's heir, who, with Sir John Mautravers, soon received in his +hold the deposed king brought thither secretly. The chroniclers agree +that Thomas of Berkeley had no part in the murder of the king, whom he +treated kindly. It was when Thomas was away from the castle that +Mautravers and Gournay made an end of their charge. Through the +providence of this Thomas the Berkeley estates were saved to the male +line of his house, a fine levied in the twenty-third year of Edward III. +so settling them. Thomas of Berkeley fought at Crecy and Calais, +bringing six knights and thirty-two squires to the siege in his train, +with thirty mounted archers and two hundred men on foot. His son and +heir-apparent, Maurice of Berkeley, was the hero of a misadventure +recorded by Froissart, who tells how a young English knight, displaying +his banner for the first time on the day of Poitiers, rode after a +flying Picard squire, by whom he was grievously wounded and held to +ransom. Froissart errs in describing this knight as Thomas lord of +Berkeley, for the covenant made in 1360 for the release of Maurice is +still among the Berkeley muniments, the ransom being stated at L1080. + +Being by his mother a nephew of Roger Mortimer, earl of March, the +paramour of Queen Isabel, Maurice Berkeley married Elizabeth, daughter +of Hugh Despenser, the younger of Edward II.'s favourites and the +intruder in Berkeley Castle. With his son and heir Thomas of Berkeley, +one of the commissioners of parliament for the deposing of Richard II. +and a warden of the Welsh marches who harried Owen of Glendower, the +direct male line of Robert fitz Harding failed, and but for the +settlement of the estates Berkeley would have passed from the family. On +this Thomas's death in 1417 Elizabeth, his daughter and heir, and her +husband, Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, the famous traveller, +statesman and jouster, seized Berkeley Castle. Earl and countess only +withdrew after James Berkeley, the nephew and heir male, had livery of +his lands by the purchased aid of Humphrey of Gloucester. But the +Beauchamps returned more than once to vain attacks on the stout walls of +Berkeley, and a quarrel of two generations ended with the pitched battle +of Nibley Green. Fought between the retainers of William, Lord Berkeley, +son of James, and those who followed Thomas Talbot, Viscount Lisle, +grandson of the illustrious Talbot and great-grandson of the countess of +Warwick, this was the last private battle on English ground between two +feudal lords. Young Lisle was shot under the beaver by an arrow, and the +feud ended with his death, all claims of his widow being settled with an +annuity of L100. Bitter as was the long quarrel, it kept the Berkeleys +from casting their interest into the Wars of the Roses, in which most of +their fellows of the ancient baronage sank and disappeared. + +The victorious Lord Berkeley, whose children died young, was on ill +terms with his next brother, and made havoc of the great Berkeley +estates by grants to the Crown and the royal house, for which he was +rewarded with certain empty titles. Edward IV. gave him a viscount's +patent in 1481, and Richard III. created him earl of Nottingham in 1483. +His complacence extending to the new dynasty, Henry VII. made him earl +marshal in 1485 and marquess of Berkeley in 1487. For this last patent +he, by a settlement following a recovery suffered, gave the king and his +heirs male Berkeley Castle and all that remained to him of his +ancestors' lands, enjoying for his two remaining years a bare life +interest. At his death in 1491 the king took possession, bringing his +queen with him on a visit to Berkeley. + +Here follows a curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley peerage. +When Thomas, Lord Berkeley, died in 1417, it might have been presumed +that his dignity would descend to his heir, the countess of Warwick. +Nevertheless, his nephew and heir male was summoned as a baron from +1421, apparently by reason of his tenure of the castle and its lands. +When the marquess of Berkeley was dead without surviving issue, the +castle having passed to the crown, Maurice, the brother and heir, had no +summons. Yet this Maurice's son, another Maurice, had a summons as a +baron, although not "with the room in the parliament chamber that the +lords of Berkeley had of old time." The old precedence was restored when +Thomas, brother and heir of this baron, was summoned. This Thomas, who +had a command at Flodden, held his ancestors' castle as constable for +the king. A final remainder under the marquess's settlement brought back +castle and lands on the failure in 1553 of the heirs male of the body of +Henry VII., and Henry, Lord Berkeley, had special livery of them in his +minority. Yet although seized of the castle he took a lower seat in the +parliament house than did his grandfather who was not so seized, being +given place after Abergavenny, Audley and Strange. + +By these things we may see that peerage law in old time rested upon the +pleasure of the sovereign and upon no ascertained and unvarying custom. +Of the power behind that pleasure this Henry, Lord Berkeley, had one +sharp reminder. He was, like most of his line, a keen sportsman, and, +returning to Berkeley to find that a royal visit had made great +slaughter among his deer, he showed his resentment by disparking +Berkeley Park. Thereat Queen Elizabeth sent him a warning in round Tudor +fashion. Let him beware, she wrote, for the earl of Leicester coveted +the castle by the Severn. + +At the Restoration, George, Lord Berkeley, who had been one of the +commissioners to invite Charles II.'s return from the Hague, petitioned +for a higher place in parliament, claiming a barony by right of tenure +before 1295, but his claim was silenced by his advancement on September +11, 1679, to be viscount of Dursley and earl of Berkeley. James, the 3rd +earl, an active sea captain who was all but lost in company with Sir +Cloudesley Shovel, became knight of the Garter and lord high admiral and +commander-in-chief in the Channel, he and his house being loyal +supporters of the Hanoverian dynasty. + +The last and most curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley honours +was opened by Frederick Augustus, the 5th earl of Berkeley (1745-1810). +This peer married at Lambeth, on the 16th of May 1796, one Mary Cole, +the daughter of a small tradesman at Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he had +already lived for several years, several children having been born to +them. In order to legitimatize the issue born before the marriage, the +earl in 1801 made declaration of an earlier marriage contracted +privately at Berkeley in 1785. On his death in 1811 the validity of this +alleged marriage was tested by the committee of privileges of the House +of Lords, and it was shown without doubt that the evidence for it, a +parish register entry, was a forgery. + +Under the will of his father, Colonel William Berkeley, the eldest +illegitimate son, had the castle and estates, and on the failure of his +claim to the earldom he demanded a writ of summons as a baron by reason +of his tenure of the castle. No judgment was given in the matter, the +king in council having declared in 1669 that baronies by tenure were +"not in being and so not fit to be revived." But Colonel Berkeley's +political influence afterwards procured him (1831) a peerage as Lord +Segrave of Berkeley, and ten years later an earldom with the title of +Fitzhardinge. He died without issue in 1857. His brother, Sir Maurice +Fitzhardinge Berkeley, who succeeded to Berkeley under the terms of the +5th earl's will, revived the claims, and was likewise given a new barony +(1861) as Lord Fitzhardinge, a title in which he was succeeded by two of +his sons, the 3rd baron (b. 1830) being in 1909 owner of the Berkeley +and Cranford estates. The earldom of Berkeley was never assumed by the +eldest legitimate son of the 5th earl, and was in 1909 enjoyed by Randal +Thomas Mowbray Berkeley, 8th earl, grandson of admiral Sir George +Cranfield Berkeley, second son of the 4th earl. In 1893 Mrs Milman (d. +1899), daughter and heir of Thomas Moreton Fitzhardinge Berkeley, 6th +earl _de jure_, was declared by letters patent under the great seal to +have succeeded to the ancient barony of Berkeley created by the writ of +1421; and she was succeeded by her daughter. + +Many branches have been thrown out by this family during its many +centuries of existence. Of these the most important descended from +Maurice of Berkeley, the baron who died in Wallingford hold in 1326. His +second son Maurice was ancestor of the Berkeleys of Stoke Giffard, whose +descendant, Norborne Berkeley, claimed the barony of Botetourt and had a +summons in 1764, dying without issue in 1770. Sir Maurice Berkeley of +Bruton, a cadet of Stoke Giffard, was forefather of the Viscounts +Fitzhardinge, the Lords Berkeley of Stratton (1658-1773) and the earls +of Falmouth, all extinct, the Berkeleys of Stratton bequeathing their +great London estate, including Berkeley Square and Stratton Street, to +the main line. Edward Berkeley of Pylle in Somerset, head of a cadet +line of the Bruton family, married Philippa Speke, whose mother was +Joan, daughter of Sir John Portman of Orchard Portman, baronet. His +grandson William, on succeeding to the Orchard Portman and Bryanston +estates, took the additional name of Portman, and from him come the +Viscounts Portman of Bryanston (1873). From James, Lord Berkeley, who +died in 1463, descended Rowland Berkeley, a clothier of Worcester, who +bought the estates of Spetchley. Rowland's second son, Sir Robert +Berkeley, the king's bench justice who supported the imposition of +ship-money, was ancestor of the Berkeleys of Spetchley, now the only +branch of the house among untitled squires. + + See John Smyth's _Lives of the Berkeleys_, compiled c. 1618, edited by + Sir John Maclean (1883-1885); J.H. Round's introduction to the + Somerset Domesday, V.C.H. series; G.E. C(okayne)'s _Complete Peerage_; + Jeayes's _Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters and Muniments at + Berkeley Castle_ (1892); _Dictionary of National Biography_; + _Transactions of Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society_, + 3 vols., viii., xlv., _et passim_; _The Red Book of the Exchequer_, + Chronicles of Roger of Wendover, Matthew Paris, Adam of Murimuth, + Robert of Gloucester, Henry of Huntingdon, &c. (Rolls Series); British + Museum Charters, &c. (O. Ba.) + + + + +BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685-1753), Irish bishop and philosopher, the eldest +son of William Berkeley (an officer of customs who had, it seems, come +to Ireland in the suite of Lord Berkeley of Stratton, lord lieutenant, +1670-1672, to whom he was related), was born on the 12th of March 1685, +in a cottage near Dysert Castle, Thomastown, Ireland. He passed from the +school at Kilkenny to Trinity College, Dublin (1700), where, owing to +the peculiar subtlety of his mind and his determination to accept no +doctrine on the evidence of authority or convention, he left the beaten +track of study and was regarded by some as a dunce, by others as a +genius. During his career at Dublin the works of Descartes and Newton +were superseding the older text-books, and the doctrines of Locke's +_Essay_ were eagerly discussed. Thus he "entered on an atmosphere which +was beginning to be charged with the elements of reaction against +traditional scholasticism in physics and in metaphysics" (A.C. Fraser). +He became a fellow in 1707. His interest in philosophy led him to take a +prominent share in the foundation of a society for discussing the new +doctrines, and is further shown by his _Common Place Book_, one of the +most valuable autobiographical records in existence, which throws much +light on the growth of his ideas, and enables us to understand the +significance of his early writings. We find here the consciousness of +creative thought focused in a new principle which is to revolutionize +speculative science. There is no sign of any intimate knowledge of +ancient or scholastic thought; to the doctrines of Spinoza, Leibnitz, +Malebranche, Norris, the attitude is one of indifference or lack of +appreciation, but the influence of Descartes and specially of Locke is +evident throughout. The new principle (nowhere in the _Common Place +Book_ explicitly stated) may be expressed in the proposition that no +existence is conceivable--and therefore possible--which is not either +conscious spirit or the ideas (i.e. objects) of which such spirit is +conscious. In the language of a later period this principle may be +expressed as the absolute synthesis of subject and object; no object +exists apart from Mind. Mind is, therefore, prior both in thought and in +existence, if for the moment we assume the popular distinction. Berkeley +thus diverted philosophy from its beaten track of discussion as to the +meaning of matter, substance, cause, and preferred to ask first whether +these have any significance apart from the conscious spirit. In the +pursuit of this inquiry he rashly invaded other departments of science, +and much of the _Common Place Book_ is occupied with a polemic, as +vigorous as it is ignorant, against the fundamental conceptions of the +infinitesimal calculus. + +In 1707 Berkeley published two short mathematical tracts; in 1709, in +his _New Theory of Vision_, he applied his new principle for the first +time, and in the following year stated it fully in the _Principles of +Human Knowledge_. In these works he attacked the existing theories of +externality which to the unphilosophical mind is proved by visual +evidence. He maintained that visual consciousness is merely a system of +arbitrary signs which symbolize for us certain actual or possible +tactual experience--in other words a purely conventional language. + +The contents of the visual and the tactual consciousness have no element +in common. The visible and visual signs are definitely connected with +tactual experiences, and the association between them, which has grown +up in our minds through custom or habit, rests upon, or is guaranteed +by, the constant conjunction of the two by the will of the Universal +Mind. But this synthesis is not brought forward prominently by Berkeley. +It was evident that a similar analysis might have been applied to +tactual consciousness which does not give externality in its deepest +significance any more than the visual; but with deliberate purpose +Berkeley at first drew out only one side of his argument. In the +_Principles of Human Knowledge_, externality in its ultimate sense as +independence of all mind is considered. Matter, as an abstract, +unperceived substance or cause, is shown to be impossible, an unreal +conception; true substance is affirmed to be conscious spirit, true +causality the free activity of such a spirit, while physical +substantiality and causality are held to be merely arbitrary, though +constant, relations among phenomena connected subjectively by suggestion +or association, objectively in the Universal Mind. In ultimate analysis, +then, nature is conscious experience, and forms the sign or symbol of a +divine, universal intelligence and will. + +In 1711 Berkeley delivered his _Discourse on Passive Obedience_, in +which he deduces moral rules from the intention of God to promote the +general happiness, thus working out a theological utilitarianism, which +may be compared with the later expositions of Austin and J.S. Mill. From +1707 he had been engaged as college tutor; in 1712 he paid a short visit +to England, and in April 1713 he was presented by Swift at court. His +abilities, his courtesy and his upright character made him a universal +favourite. While in London he published his _Dialogues_ (1713), a more +popular exposition of his new theory; for exquisite facility of style +these are among the finest philosophical writings in the English +language. In November he became chaplain to Lord Peterborough, whom he +accompanied on the continent, returning in August 1714. He travelled +again in 1715-1720 as tutor to the only son of Dr St George Ashe +(?1658-1718, bishop successively of Cloyne, Clogher and Derry). In 1721, +during the disturbed state of social relations consequent on the +bursting of the South Sea bubble he published an _Essay towards +preventing the Ruin of Great Britain_, which shows the intense interest +he took in practical affairs. In the same year he returned to Ireland as +chaplain to the duke of Grafton, and was made divinity lecturer and +university preacher. In 1722 he was appointed to the deanery of Dromore, +a post which seems to have entailed no duties, as we find him holding +the offices of Hebrew lecturer and senior proctor at the university. The +following year Miss Vanhomrigh, Swift's Vanessa, left him half her +property. It would appear that he had only met her once at dinner. In +1724 he was nominated to the rich deanery of Derry, but had hardly been +appointed before he was using every effort to resign it in order to +devote himself to his scheme of founding a college in the Bermudas, and +extending its benefits to the Americans. With infinite exertion he +succeeded in obtaining from government a promise of L20,000, and after +four years spent in preparation, sailed in September 1728, accompanied +by some friends and by his wife, daughter of Judge Forster, whom he had +married in the preceding month. Three years of quiet retirement and +study were spent in Rhode Island, but it gradually became apparent that +government would never hand over the promised grant, and Berkeley was +compelled to give up his cherished plan. Soon after his return he +published the fruits of his studies in _Alciphron, or the Minute +Philosopher_ (1733), a finely written work in the form of dialogue, +critically examining the various forms of free-thinking in the age, and +bringing forward in antithesis to them his own theory, which shows all +nature to be the language of God. In 1734 he was raised to the bishopric +of Cloyne. The same year, in his _Analyst_, he attacked the higher +mathematics as leading to freethinking; this involved him in a hot +controversy. The _Querist_, a practical work in the form of questions on +what would now be called social or economical philosophy, appeared in +three parts, 1735, 1736, 1737. In 1744 was published the _Siris_, partly +occasioned by the controversy as to the efficacy of tar-water in cases +of small-pox, but rising far above the circumstance from which it took +its rise, and revealing hidden depths in the Berkeleian metaphysics. In +1751 his eldest son died, and in 1752 he removed with his family to +Oxford for the sake of his son George, who was studying there. He died +suddenly in the midst of his family on the 14th of January 1753, and was +buried in Christ Church, Oxford. + + In the philosophies of Descartes and Locke a large share of attention + had been directed to the idea of matter, which was held to be the + abstract, unperceived background of real experience, and was supposed + to give rise to our ideas of external things through its action on the + sentient mind. Knowledge being limited to the ideas produced could + never extend to the unperceived matter, or substance, or cause which + produced them, and it became a problem for speculative science to + determine the grounds for the very belief in its existence. Philosophy + seemed about to end in scepticism or in materialism. Now Berkeley put + this whole problem in a new light by pointing out a preliminary + question. Before we deduce results from such abstract ideas as cause, + substance, matter, we must ask what in reality do these mean--what is + the actual content of consciousness which corresponds to these words? + Do not all these ideas, when held to represent something which exists + absolutely apart from all knowledge of it, involve a contradiction? In + putting this question, not less than in answering it, consists + Berkeley's originality as a philosopher. The essence of the answer is + that the universe is inconceivable apart from mind--that existence, as + such, denotes conscious spirits and the objects of consciousness. + Matter and external things, in so far as they are thought to have an + existence beyond the circle of consciousness, are impossible, + inconceivable. External things are things known to us in immediate + perception. To this conclusion Berkeley seems, in the first place, to + have been led by the train of reflection that naturally conducts to + subjective or egoistic idealism. It is impossible to overstep the + limits of self-consciousness; whatever words I use, whatever notions I + have, must refer to and find their meaning in facts of consciousness. + But this is by no means the whole or even the principal part of + Berkeley's philosophy; it is essentially a theory of causality, and + this is brought out gradually under the pressure of difficulties in + the first solution of the early problem. To merely subjective + idealism, sense percepts differ from ideas of imagination in degree, + not in kind; both belong to the individual mind. To Berkeley, however, + the difference is fundamental; sense ideas are not due to our own + activity; they must therefore be produced by some other will-by the + divine intelligence. Sense experience is thus the constant action upon + our minds of supreme active intellect, and is not the consequence of + dead inert matter. It might appear, therefore, that sensible things + had an objective existence in the mind of God; that an idea so soon as + it passes out of our consciousness passes into that of God. This is an + interpretation, frequently and not without some justice, put upon + Berkeley's own expression. But it is not a satisfactory account of his + theory. Berkeley is compelled to see that an immediate perception is + not a _thing_, and that what we consider permanent or substantial is + not a sensation but a group of qualities, which in ultimate analysis + means sensations either immediately felt or such as our experience has + taught us would be felt in conjunction with these. Our belief in the + reality of a thing may therefore be said to mean assurance that this + association in our minds between actual and possible sensations is + somehow guaranteed. Further, Berkeley's own theory would never permit + him to speak of possible sensations, meaning by that the ideas of + sensations called up to our minds by present experience. He could + never have held that these afforded any explanation of the permanent + existence of real objects. His theory is quite distinct from this, + which really amounts to nothing more than subjective idealism. + External things are produced by the will of the divine intelligence; + they are caused, and caused in a regular order; there exists in the + divine mind archetypes, of which sense experience may be said to be + the realization in our finite minds. Our belief in the permanence of + something which corresponds to the association in our minds of actual + and possible sensations means belief in the orderliness of nature; and + _that_ is merely assurance that the universe is pervaded and regulated + by mind. Physical science is occupied in endeavouring to decipher the + divine ideas which find realization in our limited experience, in + trying to interpret the divine language of which natural things are + the words and letters, and in striving to bring human conceptions into + harmony with the divine thoughts. Instead, therefore, of fate or + necessity, or matter, or the unknown, a living, active mind is looked + upon as the centre and spring of the universe, and this is the essence + of the Berkeleian metaphysics. + + The deeper aspects of Berkeley's new thought have been almost + universally neglected or misunderstood. Of his spiritual empiricism + one side only has been accepted by later thinkers, and looked upon as + the whole. The subjective mechanism of association which with Berkeley + is but part of the true explanation, and is dependent on the objective + realization in the divine mind, has been received as in itself a + satisfactory theory. _Suni Cogitationes_ has been regarded by thinkers + who profess themselves Berkeleians as the one proposition warranted by + consciousness; the empiricism of his philosophy has been eagerly + welcomed, while the spiritual intuition, without which the whole is to + Berkeley meaningless, has been cast aside. For this he is himself in + no small measure to blame. The deeper spiritual intuition, present + from the first, was only brought into clear relief in order to meet + difficulties in the earlier statements, and the extension of the + intuition itself beyond the limits of our own consciousness, which + completely removes his position from mere subjectivism, rests on + foundations uncritically assumed, and at first sight irreconcilable + with certain positions of his system. The necessity and universality + of the judgments of causality and substantiality are taken for + granted; and there is no investigation of the place held by these + notions in the mental constitution. The relation between the divine + mind and finite intelligence, at first thought as that of agent and + recipient, is complicated and obscure when the necessity for + explaining the permanence of real things comes forward. The divine + archetypes, according to which sensible experience is regulated and in + which it finds its real objectivity, are different in kind from mere + sense ideas, and the question then arises whether in these we have not + again the "things as they are," which Berkeley at first so + contemptuously dismissed. He leaves it undetermined whether or not our + knowledge of sense things, which is never entirely presentative, + involves some reference to this objective course of nature or thought + of the divine mind. And if so, what is the nature of the notions + necessarily implied in the simplest knowledge of a _thing_, as + distinct from mere sense feeling? That in knowing objects certain + thoughts are implied which are not presentations or their copies is at + times dimly seen by Berkeley himself; but he was content to propound a + question with regard to those notions, and to look upon them as merely + Locke's ideas of relation. Such ideas of relation are in truth the + stumbling-block in Locke's philosophy, and Berkeley's empiricism is + equally far from accounting for them. + + With all these defects, however, Berkeley's new conception marks a + distinct stage of progress in human thought. His true place in the + history of speculation may be seen from the simple observation that + the difficulties or obscurities in his scheme are really the points on + which later philosophy has turned. He once for all lifted the problem + of metaphysics to a higher level, and, in conjunction with his + successor, Hume, determined the form into which later metaphysical + questions have been thrown. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The standard edition of Berkeley's works is that of A. + Campbell Eraser in 4 vols. (i.-iii. _Works_; iv. _Life_, _Letters and + Dissertation_) published by the Clarendon Press (1871); this edition, + revised throughout and largely re-written, was re-published by the + same author (1901). Another complete edition edited by G. Sampson, + with a biographical sketch by A.J. Balfour, and a useful + bibliographical summary, appeared in 1897-1898. Prof. Fraser also + published an excellent volume of selections (5th ed., 1899), and a + short general account in a volume on Berkeley in the _Blackwood + Philos. Class._ For Berkeley's theory of vision see manuals of + psychology (e.g. G.F. Stout, Wm. James); for his ethical views H. + Sidgwick, _Hist, of Ethics_ (5th ed., 1902); A. Bain, _Mental and + Moral Science_ (1872). See also Sir L. Stephen, _English Thought in + the 18th Century_ (3rd ed., 1902); J.S. Mill's _Dissertations_, vols. + ii. and iv.; T. Huxley, _Critiques and Addresses_, pp. 320 seq.; G.S. + Fullerton, _System of Metaphysics_ (New York, 1904); John Watson, + _Outline of Philos._ (New York, 1898); J. McCosh, _Locke's Theory of + Knowledge_ (1884); T. Lorenz, _Ein Beitrag zur Lebensgeschichte G. + Berkeleys_ (1900) and _Weitere Beitrage z. Leb. G.B.'s_ (1901); + histories of modern philosophy generally. (R. Ad.; J. M. M.) + + + + +BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH (1803-1889), English botanist, was born on the +1st of April 1803, at Biggin Hall, Northamptonshire, and educated at +Rugby and Christ's College, Cambridge, of which he became an honorary +fellow. Taking holy orders, he became incumbent of Apethorpe in 1837, +and vicar of Sibbertoft, near Market Harborough, in 1868. He acquired an +enthusiastic love of cryptogamic botany in his early years, and soon was +recognized as the leading British authority on fungi and plant +pathology. He was especially famous as a systematist in mycology, some +6000 species of fungi being credited to him, but his _Introduction to +Cryptogamic Botany_, published in 1857, and his papers on "Vegetable +Pathology" in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ in 1854 and onwards, show that +he had a very broad grasp of the whole domain of physiology and +morphology as understood in those days. Moreover, it should be pointed +out that Berkeley began his work as a field naturalist and collector, +his earliest objects of study having been the mollusca and other +branches of zoology, as testified by his papers in the _Zoological +Journal_ and the _Magazine of Natural History_, between 1828 and 1836. +As a microscopist he was an assiduous and accurate worker, as is shown +by his numerous drawings of the smaller algae and fungi, and his +admirable dissections of mosses and hepaticae. His investigations on the +potato murrain, caused by _Phytophthora infestans_, on the grape mildew, +to which he gave the name _Oidium Tuckeri_, and on the pathogenic fungi +of wheat rust, hop mildew, and various diseases of cabbage, pears, +coffee, onions, tomatoes, &c., were important in results bearing on the +life-history of these pests, at a time when very little was known of +such matters, and must always be considered in any historical account of +the remarkable advances in the biology of these organisms which were +made between 1850 and 1880; and when it is remembered that this work was +done without any of the modern appliances or training of a properly +equipped laboratory, the real significance of Berkeley's pioneer work +becomes apparent. It is as the founder of British mycology, however, +that his name will live in the history of botany, and his most important +work is contained in the account of native British fungi in Sir W. +Hooker's _British Flora_ (1836), in his _Introduction to Cryptogamic +Botany_ (1857), and in his _Outlines of British Fungology_ (1860). His +magnificent herbarium at Kew, which contains over 9000 specimens, and is +enriched by numerous notes and sketches, forms one of the most important +type series in the world. Berkeley died at Sibbertoft on the 30th of +July 1889. He was a man of refined and courteous bearing, an +accomplished classical student, with the simple and modest habits that +befit a man of true learning. + + A list of his publications will be found in the _Catalogue of + Scientific Papers_ of the Royal Society, and sketches of his life in + _Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1890, 47, 9, by Sir Joseph Hooker, and _Annals of + Botany_, 1897, 11, by Sir W.T. Thiselton-Dyer. (H. M. W.) + + + + +BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1608-1677), British colonial governor in +America, was born in or near London, England, about 1608, the youngest +son of Sir Maurice Berkeley, an original member of the London Company of +1606, and brother of John, first Lord Berkeley of Stratton, one of the +proprietors of the Carolinas. He graduated at Oxford in 1629, and in +1632 was appointed one of the royal commissioners for Canada, in which +office he won the personal favour of Charles I., who appointed him a +gentleman of the privy chamber. During this period he tried his hand at +literary work, producing among other things a tragi-comedy entitled _The +Lost Lady_ (1638). In August 1641 he was appointed governor of Virginia, +but did not take up his duties until the following year. His first term +as governor, during which he seems to have been extremely popular with +the majority of the colonists, was notable principally for his religious +intolerance and his expulsion of the Puritans, who were in a great +minority. During the Civil War in England he remained loyal to the king, +and offered an asylum in Virginia to Charles II. and the loyalists. On +the arrival of a parliamentary fleet in 1652, however, he retired from +office and spent the following years quietly on his plantation. On the +death, in 1660, of Samuel Matthews, the last parliamentary governor, he +was chosen governor by the Virginia assembly, and was soon +recommissioned by Charles II. His natural arrogance and tyranny seems to +have increased with years, and the second period of his governorship was +a stormy one. Serious frontier warfare with the Indians was followed +(1676) by Bacon's Rebellion (see VIRGINIA), brought on by Berkeley's +misrule, and during its course all his worst traits became evident. His +cruelty and barbarity in punishing the rebels did not meet with the +approval of Charles II., who is said to have remarked that "the old fool +has put to death more people in that naked country than I did here for +the murder of my father." Berkeley was called to England in 1677 +ostensibly to report on the condition of affairs in the colony, and a +lieutenant-governor (Herbert Jeffreys) was put in his place. Berkeley +sailed in May, but died soon after his arrival, at Twickenham, and was +buried there on the 13th of July 1677. In addition to the play mentioned +he wrote _A Discourse and View of Virginia_ (London, 1663). + + + + +BERKELEY, a city of Alameda county, California, U.S.A., on the E. shore +of San Francisco Bay, named after Bishop Berkeley on account of his line +"Westward the course of empire takes its way." Pop. (1890) 5101; (1900) +13,214, of whom 3216 were foreign-born; (1910) 40,434. It is served by +the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe railway systems, both +transcontinental; and is connected by electric lines (and ferry) with +San Francisco, and by five electric lines with Oakland. Its attractive +situation and pleasant outlooks have made it a favourite residential +suburb of San Francisco, which lies at a distance of 7 m. across the +bay. Berkeley is the seat of the California state university (see +CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF), opened in 1873; the inter-related Berkeley +Bible Seminary (1896, Disciples of Christ); Pacific Theological Seminary +(established in 1866 at Oakland, in 1901 at Berkeley, Congregational); +Seminary of the Pacific Coast Baptist Theological Union, and Unitarian +Theological School--all associated with the University of California; +and the state institution for the deaf, dumb and blind. The site of +Berkeley was a farming region until its selection for the home of the +university. Berkeley was incorporated as a town in 1878. + + + + +BERKELEY, a market town of Gloucestershire, England, near the river +Severn, in that portion of its valley known as the Vale of Berkeley, on +a branch from the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 774. It is pleasantly +situated on a gentle eminence, in a rich pastoral vale to which it gives +name, celebrated for its dairies, producing the famous cheese known as +"double Gloucester." The town has a handsome church (Early English and +Decorated), a grammar school, and some trade in coal, timber, malt and +cheese. Berkeley was the birthplace of Dr Edward Jenner (1749), who is +buried in the church. Berkeley Castle, on an eminence south-east of the +town, is one of the noblest baronial castles existing in England, and +one of the few inhabited. The Berkeley Ship Canal connects Gloucester +with docks at Sharpness, avoiding the difficult navigation of the upper +part of the Severn estuary. + +The manor of Berkeley gives its name to the noble family of Berkeley +(q.v.). According to tradition, a nunnery to which the manor belonged +existed here before the Conquest, and Earl Godwin, by bringing about its +dissolution, obtained the manor. All that is certainly known, however, +is that in Domesday the manor is assigned to one Roger, who took his +surname from it. His descendants seem to have been ousted from their +possessions during the 12th century by Robert fitz Harding, an Angevin +partisan, who already held the castle when, in 1153, Henry, duke of +Normandy (who became King Henry II. in the following year), granted him +the manor. Under an agreement made in the same year, Maurice, son of +Robert fitz Harding, married a daughter of Roger of Berkeley. Their +descendants styled themselves of Berkeley, and in 1200 the town was +confirmed to Robert of Berkeley with toll, soc, sac, &c., and a market +on whatever day of the week he chose to hold it. This charter was +confirmed to Thomas, Lord Berkeley, in 1330, and in 1395-1396 Lord +Berkeley received a grant of another fair on the vigil and day of +Holyrood. The descendants of the Berkeley family still hold the manor +and town. Berkeley Castle was the scene of the death of Edward II. The +king was at first entrusted to the care of Lord Berkeley, who, being +considered too lenient, was obliged to give up his prisoner and castle +to Sir John Mautravers and Thomas Gournay. The town has no charter, but +is mentioned as a borough in 1284-1285. It was governed by a mayor and +twelve aldermen, but by 1864 their privileges had become merely nominal, +and the corporation was dissolved in 1885 under the Municipal +Corporations Act. Berkeley was formerly noted for the manufacture of +clothing, but the trade had decreased by the 16th century, for Leland, +writing about 1520, says "the town of Berkeley is no great thing.... It +hath very much occupied and yet somewhat doth clothing." + + See John Fisher, _History of Berkeley_ (1864). + + + + +BERKHAMPSTEAD (GREAT BERKHAMPSTEAD), a market town in the Watford +parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 28 m. N.W. from London +by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) +5140. It lies pleasantly in the narrow well-wooded valley of the +Bulbourne, and is close to the Grand Junction canal. The church of St +Peter, a large cruciform structure, exhibits all the Gothic styles, and +earlier fragments are traceable. There are several brasses of interest. +The poet William Cowper was born in the rectory in 1731. The large +grammar school is a foundation of 1541. Straw-plaiting and the +manufacture of small wooden wares are the principal industries, and +there are large chemical works. Of the castle earthworks and fragments +of walls remain. The name of the town is Great Berkhampstead (or +Berkhamsted), in distinction from Little Berkhampstead near Hatfield in +this county. + +Berkhampstead (Beorhhamstede, Berchehamstede) was undoubtedly of some +importance in Saxon times since there were fifty-two burgesses there at +the time of the Conquest. In 1156 Henry II. granted the men and +merchants of the town the same laws and customs as they had in the time +of Edward the Confessor, and that they should be quit of toll throughout +England, Normandy, Aquitaine and Anjou. Berkhampstead rose to importance +with its castle, which is said to have been built by Robert, count of +Mortain, and when the castle fell into ruin after 1496 the town also +began to decay. In 1618, however, the burgesses received an +incorporation charter; but after the civil wars the corporate body began +to fail through poverty, and in the 18th century had ceased to exist. +The burgesses returned two members to parliament in 1320 and again in +1338 and 1341, but were never represented again. Before the 13th century +the burgesses held a weekly market on Sunday and a yearly fair on St +James's day, but in 1218 Henry III. altered the market day to Monday. +Roofing tiles were manufactured in Berkhampstead as early as the 13th +century, and in Elizabeth's reign the making of malt was the chief +industry. + + + + +BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1587-1669), 2nd son of Thomas +Howard, 1st earl of Suffolk and of Catherine, daughter of Sir Henry +Knevet, Kt., widow of Richard Rich, was baptized on the 8th of October +1587. He succeeded to his mother's estate of Charlton in Wiltshire, was +created K.B. in 1605, became master of the horse to Prince Charles, and +was created Lord Howard of Charlton and Viscount Andover in 1622, K.G. +in 1625, and earl of Berkshire in 1626. In 1634 he was chosen high +steward of the university of Oxford. He was a commissioner for +negotiating the treaty of Ripon in 1640, and accompanied the king to +York in 1642. While attempting to execute the king's commission of array +in Oxfordshire in August he was taken prisoner by Hampden at Watlington +and imprisoned in the Tower, but after being censured by the Lords was +liberated in September. In 1643 he was made governor of the prince of +Wales, a post for which he was in no way fitted, and in which he showed +himself factious and obstructive. He accompanied the prince to Scilly +and to Jersey, but on the latter's departure for France went to Holland. +At the Restoration he was made a privy councillor and received rewards. +He died on the 16th of July 1669, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. +According to Clarendon "his affection for the crown was good; his +interest and reputation less than anything but his understanding." He +married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Exeter, by +whom he had nine sons and four daughters. Of these Charles succeeded him +as 2nd earl of Berkshire; Thomas succeeded the latter; and Philip was +ancestor of John, 15th earl of Suffolk and 8th earl of Berkshire, and so +of the later earls of Suffolk and Berkshire. + + + + +BERKSHIRE [abbreviated _Berks_, pronounced _Barkshire_], a southern +county of England, bounded N. by Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire, E. by +Surrey, S. by Hampshire, W. by Wiltshire, and N.W. for a short distance +by Gloucestershire. Its area is 721.9 sq. m. Its entire northern +boundary is formed by the river Thames, in the basin of which +practically the whole county is included. In the north-west a narrow and +broken line of hills, pierced in the west by the Cole stream, which here +forms the county boundary, extends past Faringdon and culminates in a +height over 500 ft. at Cumnor Hurst, which, with Wytham Hill, fills a +deep northward bend of the Thames, and overlooks the city of Oxford from +the west. The range separates the Thames valley from the Vale of White +Horse which is traversed by the small river Ock, and bounded on the +south by a line of hills known as the White Horse Hills or Berkshire +Downs, richly wooded along their base, and rising sharply to bare +rounded summits. In White Horse Hill on the western confines of the +county a height of 856 ft. is reached. The line of these hills is +continued north-eastward by the Chiltern Hills in Oxfordshire, but a +division between the two is made by the Thames in a narrow valley or gap +at Goring. Southward the Downs are scored with deep narrow valleys, the +chief of which are those of the Lambourn and the Pang. The last stream +runs eastward directly to the Thames; but the Lambourn and others join +the Kennet, which drains a beautiful sylvan valley to the Thames at +Reading. Another line of downs closely confines the vale of Kennet on +the south from Newbury upwards, and although the greater part of these +does not fall within the county, their highest point, Inkpen Beacon +(1011 ft.), does so. The Enborne stream, rising here, and flowing +parallel to the Kennet until turning north to join it, is for a +considerable distance the county boundary. Between Reading and Windsor +the Thames makes a northward bend, past Henley and Marlow, in the form +of three sides of a square. Within the bend slight hills border the +river, but south of these, and in the Loddon valley south of Reading, +the county is low and flat. In the south-east of the county, however, +there is a high sandy plateau, forming part of Bagshot Heath, over 400 +ft. in elevation, and extending into Surrey. Fir-woods are +characteristic of this district, and northward towards the Thames +extends the royal park of Windsor, which is magnificently timbered. The +proportion to the total area of the county which is under woods is, +however, by no means so great as in the adjacent counties of Surrey and +Hampshire. There is fine trout-fishing in the Kennet and some of its +feeders. + +_Geology._--The dominant feature of the county, the Chiltern and White +Horse Hills, owes its form to the Chalk, which spreads from Ashbury and +Hungerford on the west to Henley and Maidenhead on the east. In the +northern face of the escarpment we find the Lower Chalk with a hard bed, +the Totternhoe Stone; on the southern slope lies the Chalk-with-Flints. +At Kintbury it is quarried for the manufacture of whiting. At the foot +of the Chalk escarpment is the Upper Greensand with a narrow crop +towards the west which is broken up into patches eastwards. Looking +northward from the Chalk hills, the low-lying ground is occupied +successively by the Gault Clay, the Kimmeridge Clay, and finally by the +Oxford Clay, which extends beyond the Thames into Oxfordshire. This +low-lying tract is relieved by an elevated ridge of Corallian beds, +between the Kimmeridge Clay and the Gault. It extends from near +Faringdon past Abingdon to Cumnor and Wytham Hill. At Faringdon there +are some interesting gravels of Lower Greensand age, full of the fossil +remains of sponges. South of the Chalk, the county is occupied by Eocene +rocks, mottled clays, well exposed in the brickfields about Reading, and +hence called the Reading beds. At Finchampstead, Sunninghill and Ascot, +these deposits are overlaid by the more sandy beds of the Bagshot +series. Between the two last named formations is a broad outcrop of +London Clay. Numerous outliers of Eocene rest on the Chalk beyond the +main line of boundary. The Chalk of Inkpen Beacon is brought up to the +south side of the Tertiary rocks by a synclinal fold; similarly, an +anticline has brought up the small patch of Chalk in Windsor Park. +Clay-with-Flints lies in patches and holes on the chalk, and flint +gravels occur high up on either side of the Thames. Fairly thick beds of +peat are found in the alluvium of the Kennet at Newbury. + +_Industries._--About seven-ninths of the total area is under +cultivation; a large proportion of this being in permanent pasture, as +much attention is paid to dairy-farming. Butter and cheese are largely +produced, and the making of condensed milk is a branch of the industry. +Many sheep are pastured on the Downs, important sheep-markets being held +at the small town of East or Market Ilsley; and an excellent breed of +pigs is named after the county. The parts about Faringdon are specially +noted for them. Oats are the principal grain crop; although a +considerable acreage is under wheat. Turnips and swedes are largely +cultivated, and apples and cherries are grown. Besides the royal castle +of Windsor, fine county seats are especially numerous. + +The only manufacturing centre of first importance is Reading, which is +principally famous for its biscuit factories. The manufacture of +clothing and carpets is carried on at Abingdon; but a woollen industry +introduced into the county as early as the Tudor period is long extinct. +Engineering works and paper mills are established at various places; and +boat-building is carried on at Reading and other riverside stations. +There are extensive seed warehouses and testing grounds near Reading; +and the Kennet and Windsor ales are in high repute. Whiting is +manufactured from chalk at Kintbury on the Kennet. + +_Communications._--Communications are provided principally by the Great +Western railway, the main line of which crosses the county from east to +west by Maidenhead, Reading and Didcot. A branch line serves the Kennet +valley from Reading; and the northern line of the company leaves the +main line at Didcot, a branch from it serving Abingdon. The Basingstoke +branch runs south from Reading, and lines serve Wallingford from +Cholsey, and Faringdon from Uffington. Communication with the south of +England is maintained by a joint line of the South Western and South +Eastern & Chatham companies terminating at Reading, and there are +branches of the Great Western and South Western systems to Windsor. The +Lambourn valley light railway runs north-west to Lambourn from Newbury. +Wide water-communications are afforded by the Thames, and the Kennet is +in part canalized, to form the eastern portion of the Kennet and Avon +canal system, connecting with the Bristol Avon above Bath. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +462,208 acres; with a population in 1891 of 239,138, and in 1901 of +256,509. The area of the administrative county is 462,367 acres. The +county contains twenty hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Abingdon +(pop. 6480), Maidenhead (12,980), Newbury (11,061), Reading, the county +town and a county borough (72,217), Wallingford (2808), Windsor or New +Windsor (14,130), Wokingham (3551). Wantage (3766) is an urban district. +Among lesser towns may be mentioned Faringdon in the north-west (2900), +Hungerford on the Kennet (2906), and Lambourn in the valley of that name +(2071), the villages of Bray (2978), Cookham (3874) and Tilehurst +(2545), which, like others on the banks of the Thames, have grown into +residential towns; and Sandhurst (2386). The county is in the Oxford +circuit, and assizes are held at Reading. It has one court of quarter +sessions, and is divided into twelve petty sessional divisions. The +boroughs of Abingdon, Newbury, Maidenhead, Reading, Wallingford and +Windsor have separate commissions of the peace, and Abingdon, Newbury, +Reading and Windsor have separate courts of quarter sessions. There are +198 civil parishes. Berkshire forms an archdeaconry in the diocese of +Oxford; a small portion, however, falls within the diocese of Salisbury. +There are 202 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part +within the county. There are three parliamentary divisions, Northern or +Abingdon, Southern or Newbury, and Eastern or Wokingham, each returning +one member; while the parliamentary borough of Reading returns one +member, and parts of the borough of Oxford and Windsor are included in +the county. There are several important educational establishments in +the county. Radley College near Abingdon, Wellington College near +Sandhurst, and Bradfield College, at the village of that name, 8 m. west +of Reading, are among the more important modern public schools for boys. +Bradfield College was founded in 1850, and is well known for the +realistic performances of classical Greek plays presented by the +scholars in an open theatre designed for the purpose. Abingdon and +Reading schools rank among the lesser public schools. At Reading is a +university extension college, and in the south-east of the county is the +Sandhurst Royal Military College. + +_History._--During the Heptarchy Berkshire formed part of the kingdom of +Wessex, and interesting relics of Saxon occupation have been discovered +in various parts of the county. Of these the most remarkable are the +burial grounds at Long Wittenham and Frilford, and there is evidence +that the Lambourn valley was occupied in early Saxon times. The cinerary +urns found in Berkshire undoubtedly contain the ashes of the Anglians +who came south under Penda in the 7th century. The fortification called +Cherbury Castle, not far from Denchworth, is said to have been first +made up by Canute. + +At the time of the Norman invasion Berkshire formed part of the earldom +of Harold, and supported him stanchly at the battle of Hastings. This +loyalty was punished by very sweeping confiscations, and at the time of +the Domesday survey no estates of any importance were in the hands of +Englishmen. When Alfred divided the country into shires, this county +received the name of Berrocscir, as Asser says, "from the wood of +Berroc, where the box-tree grows most plentifully."[1] At the time of +the survey it comprised twenty-two hundreds; at the present day there +are only twenty, of which eleven retain their ancient names. Many +parishes have been transferred from one hundred to another, but the +actual boundary of the county is practically unchanged. Part of the +parishes of Shilton and Langford formed detached portions of the shire, +until included in Oxfordshire in the reign of William IV. Portions of +Combe and Shalbourne parishes have also been restored to Hampshire and +Wiltshire respectively, while the Wiltshire portion of Hungerford has +been transferred to Berkshire. The county was originally included in the +see of Winchester, but in A.D. 909 it was removed to the newly-formed +see of "Wiltshire," afterwards united with Sherborne. In 1075 the seat +of the bishopric was removed to Salisbury, and in 1836 by an order in +council Berkshire was transferred to the diocese of Oxford. The +archdeaconry is of very early origin and is co-extensive with the +county. Formerly it comprised four rural deaneries, but the number has +lately been increased to nine. Much of the early history of the county +is recorded in the _Chronicles_ of the abbey of Abingdon, which at the +time of the survey was second only to the crown in the extent and number +of its possessions. The abbot also exercised considerable judicial and +administrative powers, and his court was endowed with the privileges of +the hundred court and was freed from liability to interference by the +sheriff. Berkshire and Oxfordshire had a common sheriff until the reign +of Elizabeth, and the shire court was held at Grauntpont. The assizes +were formerly held at Reading, Abingdon and Newbury, but are now held +entirely at Reading. + +At the time of the Domesday survey the chief lay-proprietor was Henry de +Ferrers, ancestor of the earls of Derby, but it is remarkable that none +of the great Berkshire estates has remained with the same family long. +Thomas Fuller quaintly observes that "the lands of Berkshire are very +skittish and apt to cast their owners." The De la Poles succeeded to +large estates by a marriage with the heiress of Thomas Chaucer, son of +the poet, but the family became extinct in the male line, and the +estates were alienated. The same fate befell the estates of the Achards, +the Fitzwarrens and later the families of Norris and Befils. + +The natural advantages of this county have always encouraged +agricultural rather than commercial pursuits. The soil is especially +adapted for sheep-farming, and numerous documents testify to the +importance and prosperity of the wool-trade in the 12th century. At +first this trade was confined to the export of the raw material, but the +reign of Edward III. saw the introduction of the clothing industry, for +which the county afterwards became famous. This trade began to decline +in the 17th century, and in 1641 the Berkshire clothiers complained of +the deadness of their trade and the difficulty of getting ready money, +attributing the same to delay in the execution of justice. The malting +industry and the timber trade also flourished in the county until the +19th century. Agriculturally considered, the Vale of the White Horse is +especially productive, and Camden speaks of the great crops of barley +grown in the district. + +Owing to its proximity to London, Berkshire has from early times been +the scene of frequent military operations. The earliest recorded +historical fact relating to the county is the occupation of the district +between Wallingford and Ashbury by Offa in 758. In the 9th and 10th +centuries the county was greatly impoverished by the ravages of the +Danes, and in 871 the invaders were defeated by Aethelwulf at Englefield +and again at Reading. During the disorders of Stephen's reign +Wallingford was garrisoned for Matilda and was the scene of the final +treaty in 1153. Meetings took place between John and his barons in 1213 +at Wallingford and at Reading, and in 1216 Windsor was besieged by the +barons. At the opening of the civil war of the 17th century, the +sheriff, on behalf of the inhabitants of Berkshire, petitioned that the +county might be put in a posture of defence, and here the royalists had +some of their strongest garrisons. Reading endured a ten days' siege by +the parliamentary forces in 1643, and Wallingford did not surrender +until 1646. Newbury was the site of two battles in 1643 and 1644. + +In 1295, Berkshire returned two members to parliament for the county and +two for the borough of Reading. Later the boroughs of Newbury, +Wallingford, Windsor and Abingdon secured representation, and from 1557 +until the Reform Act of 1832 the county was represented by a total of +ten members. By this act Abingdon and Wallingford were each deprived of +a member, but the county returned three members instead of two. Since +the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 the county has returned three +members for three divisions, and Windsor and Reading return one member +each, the remaining boroughs having lost representation. + +_Antiquities._--The remains of two great Benedictine monasteries at +Abingdon and Reading are scanty. The ecclesiastical architecture of the +county is not remarkable, excepting a few individual churches. Thus for +Norman work the churches of Shellingford and Cholsey may be noted, +together with the very small chapel, of early date, at Upton near +Didcot. The church of Blewbury in the same locality is in the main +transitional Norman, and retains some of its original vaulting. Of Early +English churches there are several good examples, notably at Uffington, +with its unusual angular-headed windows, Buckland near Faringdon, and +Wantage. The tower of St Helen's, Abingdon, well illustrates this +period. The cruciform church of Shottesbrooke, with its central spire, +is a beautiful and almost unaltered Decorated building; and St George's +chapel in Windsor Castle is a superb specimen of Perpendicular work. +Apart from Windsor, Berkshire retains no remarkable medieval castles or +mansions. + + AUTHORITIES.--Chief of the older works are: Elias Ashmole. + _Antiquities of Berkshire_ (3 vols., 1719, 2nd ed., London, 1723; 3rd + ed., Reading, 1736); D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_, vol. i. + Other works are: Marshall, _Topographical and Statistical Details of + the County of Berkshire_ (London, 1830); Earl of Carnarvon, + _Archaeology of Berkshire_ (London, 1859); C. King, _History of + Berkshire_ (London, 1887); Lowsley, _Glossary of Berkshire Words_ + (London, 1888), and _Index to Wills in the Court of the Archdeacon of + Berkshire, 1508-1652_ (Oxford, 1893); _Victoria County History, + Berkshire_. See also _The Berks Archaeological Society's Quarterly + Journal_, and _Berkshire Notes and Queries_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The derivation from Bibroci, a British tribe in the time of + Caesar, which probably inhabited Surrey or Middlesex, seems + philologically impossible. + + + + +BERLAD, the capital of the department of Tutova, Rumania, on the river +Berlad, which waters the high plains of Eastern Moldavia. Pop. (1900) +24,484, about one-fourth of whom are Jews. At Berlad the railway from +Jassy diverges, one branch skirting the river Sereth, the other skirting +the Pruth; both reunite at Galatz. Among a maze of narrow and winding +streets Berlad possesses a few good modern buildings, including a fine +hospital, administered by the St Spiridion Foundation of Jassy. Berlad +has manufactures of soap and candles, and some trade in timber and +farm-produce, while the annual horse-fairs are visited by dealers from +all parts of the country. In the vicinity are traces of a Roman camp. + + + + +BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ or GOTTFRIED VON (1480-1562), German knight, was +born at the castle of Jagsthausen now in Wurttemberg. In 1497 he entered +the service of Frederick IV., margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, and in +1498 fought for the emperor Maximilian I. in Burgundy, Lorraine and +Brabant, and next year in Switzerland. About 1500 he raised a company of +freelances, and at their head took part in various private wars. In +1505, whilst assisting Albert IV., duke of Bavaria, at the siege of +Landshut, his right hand was shot away, and an iron one was substituted +which is still shown at Jagsthausen. In spite of this "Goetz with the +iron hand" continued his feuds, their motive being mainly booty and +ransom. In 1512 an attack near Forchheim on some merchants returning +from the great fair at Leipzig, caused him to be put under the ban of +the empire by Maximilian, and he was only released from this in 1514 +upon a promise to pay 14,000 gulden. In 1516 he made a raid into Hesse +and captured Philip IV., count of Waldeck, whom he compelled to pay a +ransom of 8400 gold gulden, and in 1518 was again placed under the ban. +He fought for Ulrich I., duke of Wurttemberg, when he was attacked by +the Swabian League in 1519, and after a spirited resistance was +compelled, through want of ammunition and provisions, to surrender the +town of Mockmuhl. In violation of the terms of the capitulation he was +held prisoner, and handed over to the citizens of Heilbronn, but owing +to the efforts of Sickingen and Georg von Frundsberg was released in +1522, upon paying 2000 gulden, and swearing not to take vengeance on the +League. When the Peasants' War broke out in 1525 Goetz was compelled by +the rebels of the Odenwald district to act as their leader. He accepted +the position, according to his own account, partly because he had no +choice, partly in the hope of curbing the excesses of the insurgents; +but, finding himself in this respect powerless, after a month of nominal +leadership, he took the first opportunity of escaping to his castle. For +his part in the rebellion he was called to account before the diet of +Speier, and on the 17th of October 1526 was acquitted by the imperial +chamber. In spite of this the Swabian League seized the opportunity of +paying off old scores against him. Lured to Augsburg, under promise of +safe conduct, to clear himself of the charges made against him on behalf +of the League, he was there treacherously seized on the 28th of November +1528, and kept a close prisoner for two years. In 1530 he was liberated +on repeating his oath of 1522, and undertaking not to leave the +neighbourhood of his castle of Hornberg on the Neckar. He appears to +have remained there quietly until 1540 when the emperor Charles V. +released him from his oath. In 1542 he fought against the Turks in +Hungary, and in 1544 accompanied Charles when he invaded France. He +returned to Hornberg, where he passed his time until his death on the +23rd of July 1562. He was twice married and left three daughters and +seven sons. The counts von Berlichingen-Rossach, of Helmstadt near +Heidelberg, one of the two surviving branches of the family, are his +descendants. The other branch, that of the Freiherrn von +Berlichingen-Jagsthausen, is descended from Goetz's brother Hans. "Goetz +von Berlichingen" is the title of Goethe's play, which, published in +1773, marked an epoch in the history of German drama (see GOETHE). + + See R. Pallmann, _Der historische Goetz von Berlichingen_ (Berlin, + 1894); F.W.G. Graf von Berlichingen-Rossach, _Geschichte des Ritters + Goetz von Berlichingen und seiner Familie_ (Leipzig, 1861). Goetz's + _Autobiography_, valuable as a record of his times, was first + published by Pistorius at Nuremberg (1731), and again at Halle (1886). + + + + +BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725-1799), an eminent rabbi of Breslau; he was the +author of acute notes on the Talmud which had their influence in +advancing the critical study of that work. + + + + +BERLIN, the largest city of the German empire, the capital of the +kingdom of Prussia. It is the principal residence of the German emperor +and king of Prussia, the seat of the imperial parliament (_Reichstag_) +and the Prussian diet (_Landtag_) and of the state offices of the +empire, except of the supreme court of justice (_Reichsgericht_), which +is fixed at Leipzig. It lies in a flat, sandy plain, 110 ft. above +sea-level, on both banks of the navigable Spree, which intersects it +from S.E. to N.W. The highest elevation in the immediate neighbourhood +is the Kreuzberg (200 ft.), a hill in the southern suburb of Schoneberg, +which commands a fine view of the city. The situation of Berlin, midway +between the Elbe and the Oder, with which rivers it is connected by a +web of waterways, at the crossing of the main roads from Silesia and +Poland to the North Sea ports and from Saxony, Bohemia and Thuringia to +the Baltic, made it in medieval days a place of considerable commercial +importance. In modern times the great network of railways, of which it +is the centre and which mainly follow the lines of the old roads, +further established its position. Almost equidistant from the remotest +frontiers of Prussia, from north to south, and from east to west, 180 m. +from Hamburg and 84 from Stettin, its situation, so far from being +prejudicial to its growth and prosperity, as was formerly often +asserted, has been, in fact, the principal determining factor in its +rapid rise to the position of the greatest industrial and commercial +city on the continent of Europe. In point of wealth and population it +ranks immediately after London and Paris. + +The boundaries of the city have not been essentially extended since +1860, and though large and important suburbs have crept up and +practically merged with it, its administrative area remains unchanged. +It occupies about 29 sq. m., and has a length from E. to W. of 6 and a +breadth from N. to S. of 5-1/2 m., contains nearly 1000 streets, has 87 +squares and open spaces, 73 bridges and a population (1905) of 2,033,900 +(including a garrison of about 22,000). If, however, the outer police +district, known as "Greater Berlin," embracing an area of about 10 m. +radius from the centre, be included, the population amounts to about +3-1/4 millions. + +Berlin is essentially a modern city, the quaint two-storied houses, +which formerly characterized it, having given place to palatial business +blocks, which somewhat dwarf the streets and squares, which once had an +air of stately spaciousness. The bustle of the modern commercial city +has superseded the austere dignity of the old Prussian capital. Thus the +stranger entering it for the first time will find little to remind him +of its past history. The oldest part of Berlin, the city and Alt-Kolln, +built along the arms of the Spree, is, together with that portion of the +town lying immediately west, the centre of business activity. The west +end and the south-west are the residential quarters, the north-west is +largely occupied by academic, scientific and military institutions, the +north is the seat of machinery works, the north-east of the woollen +manufactures, the east and south-east of the dyeing, furniture and metal +industries, while in the south are great barracks and railway works. + +In 1870 Berlin was practically bounded on the south by the Landwehr +Canal, but it has since extended far beyond, and the Tempelhofer Feld, +where military reviews are held, then practically in the country, is now +surrounded by a dense belt of houses. The Landwehr Canal, leaving the +Spree near the Schlesische Tor (gate), and rejoining it at +Charlottenburg, after a course of 6 m., adds not a little to the charm +of the southern and western districts, being flanked by fine boulevards +and crossed by many handsome bridges. The object of this canal was to +relieve the congestion of the water traffic in the heart of Berlin. It +was superseded, however, in its turn by a new broad and deep canal +opened in 1906, lying from 3 to 4 m. farther south. This, the Teltow +Canal, leaves the Spree above Berlin at Kopenick, and running south of +Rixdorf, Sudende and Gross-Lichterfelde, enters the Havel at Teltow. +This important engineering work was planned not only to afford a more +convenient waterway between the upper Spree and the Havel (and thus to +the Elbe), but was to remove from the city to its banks and vicinity +those factories of which the noxious gases and other poisonous +emanations were regarded as dangerous to the health of the community. A +dislocation of the manufacturing factors has therefore been in progress, +which with the creation of a "trans Tiberim" (as in ancient Rome) is, in +many respects, altering the character and aspect of the metropolis. + +The effect upon Berlin of the successful issue of the Franco-Prussian +War of 1870-71 was electrical. The old Prussian capital girded itself at +once to fulfil its new role. The concentration upon the city of a large +garrison flushed with victory, and eager to emulate the vanquished foe +in works of peace, and vie with them in luxury, was an incentive to +Berliners to put forth all their energy. Besides the military, a +tremendous immigration of civilian officials took place as the result of +the new conditions, and, as accommodation was not readily available, +rents rose to an enormous figure. Doubts were often expressed whether +the capital would be able to bear the burden of empire, so enormous was +the influx of new citizens. It is due to the magnificent services of the +municipal council that the city was enabled to assimilate the hosts of +newcomers, and it is to its indefatigable exertions that Berlin has in +point of organization become the model city of Europe. In no other has +public money been expended with such enlightened discretion, and in no +other has the municipal system kept pace with such rapid growth and +displayed greater resource in emergencies. In 1870 the sanitary +conditions of Berlin were the worst of any city of Europe. It needed a +Virchow to open the eyes of the municipality to the terrible waste of +life such a state of things entailed. But open sewers, public pumps, +cobble-paved roads, open market-places and overcrowded subterranean +dwellings are now abolished. The city is excellently drained, +well-paved, well-lighted and furnished with an abundant supply of +filtered water, while the cellar dwellings have given place to light and +airy tenements, and Berlin justly claims to rank among the cleanest and +healthiest capitals in Europe. The year 1878 marks a fresh +starting-point in the development of the city. In that year Berlin was +the meeting-place of the congress which bears its name. The recognition +of Germany as a leading factor in the world's counsels had been given, +and the people of Berlin could indulge in the task of embellishing the +capital in a manner befitting its position. From this time forward, +state, municipal and private enterprise have worked hand in hand to make +the capital cosmopolitan. The position it has at length attained is due +not alone to the enterprise of its citizens and the municipality. The +brilliancy of the court and the triumph of the sense of unity in the +German nation over the particularism of the smaller German states have +conduced more than all else to bring about this result. It has become +the chief pleasure town of Germany; and though the standard of morality, +owing to the enormous influx of people bent on amusement, has become +lower, yet there is so much healthy, strenuous activity in intellectual +life and commercial rivalry as to entitle it, despite many moral +deficiencies, to be regarded as the centre of life and learning in +Germany. Dr A. Shadwell (_Industrial Efficiency_, London, 1906) +describes it as representing "the most complete application of science, +order and method of public life," adding "it is a marvel of civic +administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that +there is." + +_Streets._--The social and official life of the capital centres round +Unter den Linden, which runs from the royal palace to the Brandenburger +Tor. This street, one of the finest and most spacious in Europe, nearly +a mile in length, its double avenue divided by a favourite promenade, +planted with lime trees, presents Berlin life in all its varying +aspects. Many historical events have taken place in this famous +boulevard, notably the entry of the troops in 1871, and the funeral +pageant of the emperor Willaim I. South of Unter den Linden lies the +Friedrichstadt, with its parallel lines of straight streets, including +the Behren-strasse--(the seat of finance)--the Wilhelm-strasse, with the +palace of the imperial chancellor, the British embassy, and many +government offices--the official quarter of the capital--and the busy +Leipziger-strasse, running from the Potsdamer-platz to the +Donhoff-platz. This great artery and Unter den Linden are crossed at +right angles by the Friedrich-strasse, 2 m. long, flanked by attractive +shops and restaurants, among them the beer palaces of the great +breweries. In the city proper, the Konig-strasse and the +Kaiser-Wilhelm-strasse, the latter a continuation of Unter den Linden, +are the chief streets; while in the fashionable south-west quarter +Viktoria-strasse, Bellevue-strasse, Potsdamer-strasse and +Kurfursten-strasse and the Kurfurstendamm are the most imposing. Among +the most important public squares are the Opern-platz, around or near +which stand the opera house, the royal library, the university and the +armoury; the Gendarmen-markt, with the royal theatre in its centre, the +Schloss-platz; the Lustgarten, between the north side of the royal +palace, the cathedral and the old and new museums; the Pariser-platz +with the French embassy, at the Brandenburg Gate; the Konigs-platz, with +the column of Victory, the Reichstagsgebaude and the Bismarck and Moltke +monuments; the Wilhelms-platz; the circular Belle-Alliance-platz, with a +column commemorating the battle of Waterloo; and, in the western +district, the spacious Lutzow-platz. + +_Bridges._--Of the numerous bridges, the most remarkable are the +Schloss-brucke, built after designs by Schinkel in 1822-1824, with eight +colossal figures of white marble, representing ideal stages in a +warrior's life, the work of Drake, Albert Wolff and other eminent +sculptors; the Kurfursten--or Lange-brucke, built 1692-1695, and +restored in 1895, with an equestrian statue of the great elector, and +the Kaiser-Wilhelm-brucke (1886-1889) connecting the Lustgarten with the +Kaiser-Wilhelm-strasse in the inner town. In the modern residential +quarter are the Potsdamer-Viktoria-brucke, which carries the traffic +from two converging streets into the outer Potsdamer-strasse, and the +Herkules-brucke connecting the Lutzow-platz with the Tiergarten. The +first three cross the Spree and the last two the Landwehr Canal. + +_Churches._--Berlin, until the last half of the 10th century, was in +respect of its churches probably the poorest of the capitals of +Christendom, and the number of worshippers on an average Sunday was then +less than 2% of the population. The city now contains over a hundred +places of worship, of which ten are Roman Catholic, and nine Jewish +synagogues. Of the older Evangelical churches but four date from medieval +days, and of them only the Marien-kirche, with a tomb of Field marshal +O.C. von Sparr (1605-1665), and the Nikolai-kirche are particularly +noteworthy. Of a later date, though of no great pretensions to +architectural merit, are the Petri-kirche with a lofty spire, the +Franzosische-kirche and the Neue-kirche with dome-capped towers, on the +Gendarmen-markt, and the round, Roman Catholic St Hedwigs--kirche behind +the Opera-house. The Garrison church in the centre of the city, which was +erected in 1722 and contained numerous historical trophies, was destroyed +by fire in 1908. Of modern erections the new cathedral (_Dom_), on the +Spree, which replaces the old building pulled down in 1853, stands first. +It is a clumsy, though somewhat imposing edifice of sandstone in Italian +Renaissance style, and has a dome rising, with the lantern, to a height +of 380 ft. The Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedachtnis-kirche (in the suburb +Charlottenburg) with a lofty spire, the Dankes-kirche (in commemoration +of the emperor William I.'s escape from the hand of the assassin, +Nobiling, in 1878) in Wedding, and the Kaiser-Friedrich-Gedachtnis-kirche +on a grassy knoll in the north of the Tiergarten are also worthy of +notice. In the Monbijou Park, on the north bank of the Spree, is the +pretty English church of St George. The main Jewish synagogue, a fine +building in oriental style, erected in 1866, stands in a commanding +position in the Oranienburger-strasse and is remarkable for its stained +glass. Berlin was a walled city until 1867-1868. Of the former nineteen +city gates only one remains, the Brandenburg Gate (1789-1793), an +imitation of the Propylaea at Athens. It is 201 ft. broad and nearly 65 +ft. high, and is supported by twelve Doric columns, each 44 ft. in +height, and surmounted by a car of victory (Auriga), which, taken by +Napoleon to Paris in 1807, was brought back by the Prussians in 1814. The +gate has been enlarged by two lateral colonnades, each supported by +sixteen columns. + +_Public Buildings._--In secular buildings Berlin is very rich. Entering +the city at the Potsdam Gate, traversing a few hundred yards of the +Leipziger-strasse, turning into Wilhelm-strasse, and following it to +Unter den Linden, then beginning at the Brandenburg Gate and proceeding +down Unter den Linden to its end, one passes, among other buildings, the +following, many of them of great architectural merit--the admiralty, the +ministry of commerce, the ministry of war, the ministry of public works, +the palace of Prince Frederick Leopold, the palace of the imperial +chancellor, the foreign office, the ministry of justice, the residences +of the ministers of the interior and of public worship, the French and +the Russian embassies, the arcade, the palace of the emperor William I., +the university, the royal library, the opera, the armoury, the palace of +the emperor Frederick III., the Schloss-brucke, the royal palace, the +old and new museums and the national gallery. At a short distance from +this line are the new town-hall, the mint, the imperial bank and the +royal theatre. Berlin differs from all other great capitals in this +respect that with the exception of the royal palace, which dates from +the 16th century, all its public buildings are modern. This palace, +standing in the very heart of the city, is a huge quadrangular building, +with four courts, and is surmounted by a dome 220 ft. high. It contains +more than 600 rooms and halls; among the latter the Weisse-saal used for +great court pageants, the halls of the chapters of the Black and the Red +Eagle orders, a picture gallery and a chapel. The first floor +overlooking the Schloss-platz is the Berlin residence of the emperor, +and that square is embellished by a huge fountain (Neptuns-brunnen) by +R. Begas. Facing the west portal is the monument to the emperor William +I., and before the north gate, opening upon the Lustgarten, are the +famous bronze groups, the "horse-tamers" by Clodt, the gift of the +emperor Nicholas I. of Russia. The establishment of the imperial +government in Berlin naturally brought with it the erection of a large +number of public buildings, and the great prosperity of the country, as +well as the enhanced national feeling, has enabled them to be built on a +scale of splendour befitting the capital of an empire. First in +importance is the Reichstagsgebaude (see ARCHITECTURE, plate ix. fig. +47), in which the federal council (_Bundesrat_) and the imperial +parliament (_Reichstag_) hold their sittings. A special feature is the +library, which is exceedingly rich in works on constitutional law. A new +house has also been built for the Prussian parliament (_Landtag_) in the +Albrecht-strasse. Other new official buildings are the patent office on +the site of the old ministry of the interior; the new ministry of posts +(with post museum) at the corner of the Mauer-strasse and +Leipziger-strasse; the central criminal court in Moabit; the courts of +first instance on the Alexander-platz; the ministry of police, and the +_Reichsversicherungsamt_, the centre for the great system of state +insurance. In addition to these, many buildings have been restored and +enlarged, chief among them being the armoury (_Zeughaus_), the war +office and the ministry of public works, while the royal mews +(_Marstall_) has been entirely rebuilt with an imposing facade. + +Among the public monuments comes first, in excellence, Ranch's +celebrated statue of Frederick the Great, which stands in Unter den +Linden opposite the palace of the emperor William I.; and in size the +monument to the emperor William I. (by R. Begas), erected opposite the +west portal of the royal palace. The space for the site was gained by +pulling down the old houses composing the Schlossfreiheit and damming +the Spree. The monument, which cost L200,000, is surmounted by an +equestrian statue of the emperor in a martial cloak, his right hand +resting on a field marshal's baton, reining in his charger, which is led +by a female genius of peace. The high pedestal on which these figures +stand is surrounded by an Ionic colonnade. The equestrian statue of the +great elector on the Lange-brucke has been already mentioned. In the +Lustgarten is a statue of Frederick William III., by Wolff; in the +Tiergarten, Drake's marble monument to the same ruler; and in the +mausoleum in the park in Charlottenburg he and his queen, Louisa, are +sculptured in marble by Rauch. Here also lie the emperor William I. and +the empress Augusta under marble effigies by Encke. A second group of +monuments on the Wilhelms-platz commemorates the generals of the Seven +Years' War; and a third in the neighbourhood of the opera-house the +generals who fought against Napoleon I. On the Kreuzberg a Gothic +monument in bronze was erected by Frederick William III. to commemorate +the victories of 1813-1815; and in the centre of the Konigs-platz stands +a lofty column in honour of the triumphs of 1864, 1866 and 1870-1871, +surmounted by a gilded figure of Victory. Literature, science and art +are represented in different parts of the city by statues and busts of +Rauch, Schinkel, Thaer, Beuth, Schadow, Winckelmann, Schiller, Hegel and +Jahn. On the Konigs-platz between the column of Victory and the +Reichstagsgebaude, and immediately facing the western facade of the +latter, is the bronze statue of Bismarck, unveiled in 1901, a figure 20 +ft. in height standing on a granite base. From the south side of the +Konigs-platz crossing the Tiergarten and intersecting the avenue from +the Brandenburg Gate to Charlottenburg runs the broad Sieges-allee +adorned by thirty-two groups of marble statuary representing famous +rulers of the house of Hohenzollern, the gift of the emperor William II. +to the city. The Tiergarten, the beautiful west-end park with its +thickets of dense undergrowth and winding lanes and lakes has lost +somewhat of its sylvan character owing to building encroachments on the +north side and the laying out of new rides and drives. It has, in +addition to those above enumerated, statues of Queen Louisa, Goethe and +Lessing. + +_Communications._--Berlin is the centre of the North German network of +railways. No fewer than twelve main lines concentrate upon it. Internal +communication is provided for by the Ringbahn, or outer circle, which +was opened in 1871, and by a well-devised system connects the termini of +the various main lines. The through traffic coming from east and west is +carried by the Stadtbahn, or city railway, which also connects with and +forms an integral part of the outer circle. This line runs through the +heart of the city, and was originally a private enterprise. Owing, +however, to the failure of the company, the work was taken in hand by +the state, and the line opened in 1878. It has four tracks--two for the +main-line through traffic, and two for local and suburban service, and +is carried at a height of about 20 ft. above the streets. Its length is +12 m., the total cost 3-3/4 millions sterling. The chief stations are +Zoologischer Garten, Friedrich-strasse, Alexander-platz and Schlesischer +Bahnhof. Lying apart from the system are the Lehrter Bahnhof for Hamburg +and Bremen, the Stettiner for Baltic ports, and the Gorlitzer, Anhalter +and Potsdamer termini for traffic to the south, of which the last two +are fine specimens of railway architecture. Internal communication is +also provided for by an excellent system of electric tram-lines, by an +overhead electric railway running from the Zoologischer Garten to the +Schlesische Tor with a branch to the Potsdam railway station, and by an +underground railway laid at a shallow depth under the Leipziger-strasse. +Most of the cabs (victorias and broughams) have fare-indicators. +Steamboats ply above and below the city. + +_Industry, Trade and Commerce._--It is in respect of its manufacture and +trade that Berlin has attained its present high pitch of economic +prosperity. More than 50% of its working population are engaged in +industry, which embraces almost all branches, of which new ones have +lately sprung into existence, whilst most of the older have taken a new +lease of life. The old wool industry, for example, has become much +extended, and now embraces products such as shawls, carpets, hosiery, +&c. Its silk manufactures, formerly so important, have, however, +gradually gone back. It is particularly in the working of iron, steel +and cloth, and in the by-products of these, that Berlin excels. The +manufacture of machinery and steam-engines shows an enormous +development. No fewer than 100 large firms, many of them of world-wide +reputation, are engaged in this branch alone. Among the chief articles +of manufacture and production are railway plant, sewing machines, +bicycles, steel pens, chronometers, electric and electric-telegraph +plant, bronze, chemicals, soap, lamps, linoleum, china, pianofortes, +furniture, gloves, buttons, artificial flowers and ladies' mantles, the +last of an annual value exceeding L5,000,000. It has extensive breweries +and vies in the amount of the output of this production with Munich. +Berlin is also the great centre and the chief market for speculation in +corn and other cereals which reach it by water from Poland, Austria and +South Russia, while in commerce in spirits it rivals Hamburg. It is also +a large publishing centre, and has become a serious rival to Leipzig in +this regard. + +The Borse, where 4000 persons daily do business, is the chief market in +Germany for stocks and shares, and its dealings are of great influence +upon the gold market of the world. Numerous banks of world-wide +reputation, doing an extensive international business, have their seats +in Berlin, chief among them, in addition to the Reichs-bank, being the +Berliner Kassen-Verein, the Diskonto-Gesellschaft, the Deutsche Bank, +and the Boden-Kredit Bank. + +_Learning and Art._--Berlin is becoming the centre of the intellectual +life of the nation. The Friedrich Wilhelm University, although young in +point of foundation, has long outstripped its great rival Leipzig in +numbers, and can point with pride to the fact that its teaching staff +has yielded to none in the number of illustrious names. It was founded +in 1810, when Prussia had lost her celebrated university of Halle, which +Napoleon had included in his newly created kingdom of Westphalia. It was +as a weapon of war, as well as a nursery of learning, that Frederick +William III. and the great men who are associated with its origin, +called it into existence. Wilhelm von Humboldt was at that time at the +head of the educational department of the kingdom, and men like Fichte +and Schleiermacher worked on the popular mind. Within the first ten +years of its existence it counted among its professors such names as +Neander, Savigny, Eichhorn, Bockh, Bekker, Hegel, Raumer, Niebuhr and +Buttmann. Later followed men like Hengstenberg, Homeyer, +Bethmann-Hollweg, Puchta, Stahl and Heffter; Schelling, Trendelenburg, +Bopp, the brothers Grimm, Zumpt, Carl Richter; later still, Twesten and +Dorner, Gneist and Hinschius; Langenbeck, Bardeleben, Virchow, Du-Bois +Reymond; von Ranke, Curtius, Lipsius, Hofmann the chemist, Kiepert the +geographer; Helmholtz, van't Hoff, Koch, E. Fischer, Waldeyer and von +Bergmann among scientists and surgeons; Mommsen, Treitschke and Sybel +among historians, Harnack among theologians, Brunner among jurists. +Taking ordinary, honorary, extraordinary professors and licensed +lecturers (_Privat-docenten_) together, its professorial strength +consisted, in 1904-1905, of 23 teachers in the faculty of theology, 32 +in that of law, 175 in that of medicine and 227 in that of +philosophy--altogether 457. The number of matriculated students during +the same period was 7154, as against 5488 in the preceding summer term. +The number of matriculated students is usually greater in winter than in +summer; the reason of the disproportion being that in the summer +university towns having pleasant surroundings, such as Bonn, Heidelberg, +Kiel and Jena, are more frequented. Berlin is essentially a Prussian +university--of students from non-German states, Russia sends most, then +the United States of America, while Great Britain is credited with +comparatively few. It is, however, in the ugly palace of Prince Henry +of Prussia, which was given for the purpose in the days of Prussian +poverty and distress, that the university is still housed, and although +some internal rearrangement has been effected, no substantial +alterations have been made to meet the ever-increasing demand for +lecture-room accommodation. The garden towards Unter den Linden is +adorned by a bronze statue of Helmholtz; the marble statues of Wilhelm +and Alexander von Humboldt, which were formerly placed on either side of +the gate, have been removed to the adjacent garden. Technical education +is provided in the magnificent buildings erected at a cost of L100,000 +in Charlottenburg, which are equipped with all the apparatus for the +teaching of science. Among other institutions of university rank and +affiliated to it are the school of mines, the agricultural college, the +veterinary college, the new seminary for oriental languages, and the +high school for music. The geodetic institute has been removed to +Potsdam. The university is, moreover, rich in institutions for the +promotion of medical and chemical science, for the most part housed in +buildings belonging to the governing body. There should also be +mentioned the Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1700. The name of +Leibnitz is associated with its foundation, and it was raised to the +rank of a royal academy by Frederick the Great in 1743. The Royal +Academy of Arts is under the immediate protection of the king, and is +governed by a director and senate. There is also an academy of vocal +music. + +_Schools._--Berlin possesses fifteen _Gymnasia_ (classical schools, for +the highest branches of the learned professions), of which four are +under the direct supervision of the provincial authorities and have the +prefix _koniglich_ (royal), while the remaining eleven are municipal and +under the control of the civic authorities. They are attended by about +7000 scholars, of whom a fourth are Jews. There are also eight +_Real-gymnasia_ (or "modern" schools), numerous _Real-schulen_ +(commercial schools), public high schools for girls, and commodious and +excellently organized elementary schools. + +_Museums._--The buildings of the royal museum are divided into the old +and new museums. The former is an imposing edifice situated on the +north-east side of the Lustgarten, facing the royal palace. It was built +in the reign of Frederick William III. from designs by Schinkel. Its +portico supported by eighteen colossal Ionic columns is reached by a +wide flight of steps. The back and side walls of the portico are covered +with frescoes, from designs by Schinkel, representing the world's +progress from chaos to organic and developed life. The sides of the +flight of steps support equestrian bronze groups of the Amazon by Kiss, +and the Lion-slayer by Albert Wolff. Under the portico are monuments of +the sculptors Rauch and Schadow, the architect Schinkel, and the art +critic Winckelmann. The interior consists of a souterrain, and of a +first floor, entered from the portico through bronze doors, after +designs by Stiller, weighing 7-1/2 tons, and executed at a cost of +L3600. This floor consists of a rotunda, and of halls and cabinets of +sculpture. The second floor, which formerly contained the national +gallery of paintings, is occupied by a collection of northern +antiquities and by the Schliemann treasures. + +The new museum, connected with the old museum by a covered corridor, is, +in its internal arrangements and decorations, one of the finest +structures in the capital. The lowest of its three floors contains the +Egyptian museum; on the first floor plaster casts of ancient, medieval +and modern sculpture are found, while the second contains a cabinet of +engravings. On the walls of the grand marble staircase, which rises to +the full height of the building, Kaulbach's cyclus of stereochromic +pictures is painted, representing the six great epochs of human +progress, from the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel and the +dispersion of the nations to the Reformation. + +The national gallery, a fine building surrounded by a Corinthian +colonnade and lying between the royal museums and the Spree, contains a +number of modern German paintings. Behind these buildings, again, is the +Pergamum museum, which houses a unique collection, the result of the +excavations at Pergamum. Still farther away, on a triangular plot of +land enclosed by the two arms of the Spree and the metropolitan railway, +stands the Kaiser Friedrich museum (1904). This edifice, in the Italian +baroque style, surmounted by a dome, possesses but little architectural +merit, and its position is so confined that great ingenuity had to be +employed in its internal arrangements to meet the demands of space, but +its collection of pictures is one of the finest in Europe. Hither were +removed, from the old and new museums, the national gallery of pictures, +the statuary of the Christian epoch and the numismatic collection. The +gallery of paintings, on the first floor, is distributed into the +separate schools of Germany, Italy, Flanders and Holland, while another +of the central rooms embraces those of Spain, France and England. The +collection, which in 1874 contained 1300 paintings, was then enriched by +the purchase by the Prussian government for L51,000 of the Suermondt +collection which, rich in pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools, +contained also a few by Spanish, Italian and French masters. The gallery +as a whole has been happily arranged, and there are few great painters +of whom it does not contain one or more examples. The Kunst-gewerbe +museum, at the corner of the Koniggratzer-strasse and Albrecht-strasse, +contains valuable specimens of applied art. + +_Theatres._--In nothing has the importance of Berlin become more +conspicuous than in theatrical affairs. In addition to the +old-established Opernhaus and Schauspielhaus, which are supported by the +state, numerous private playhouses have been erected, notably the +Lessing and the Deutsches theatres, and it is in these that the modern +works by Wildenbruch, Sudermann, and Hauptmann have been produced, and +it may be said that it is in Berlin that the modern school of German +drama has its home. In music Berlin is not able to vie with Leipzig, +Dresden or Munich, yet it is well represented by the Conservatorium, +with which the name of Joachim is connected, while the more modern +school is represented by Xaver Scharwenka. + +_Government, Administration and Politics._--On the 1st of April 1881 +Berlin was divided off from the province of Brandenburg and since forms +a separate administrative district. But the chief presidency +(_Oberprasidium_), the Consistory, the provincial school-board, and the +board of health of the province of Brandenburg remain tribunals of last +instance to which appeals lie from Berlin. The government is partly +semi-military (police) and partly municipal. The ministry of police (a +branch of the home office) consists of six departments: (1) general; (2) +trade; (3) building; (4) criminal; (5) passports; (6) markets. It +controls the fire brigade, has the general inspection over all +strangers, and is responsible for public order. The civil authority +(_Magistrat_) consists of a chief mayor (_Oberburgermeister_), a mayor +(_Burgermeister_), and a city council (_Stadtrat_). The +_Oberburgermeister_, who is _ex officio_ a member of the Prussian Upper +House, and the _Burgermeister_ are elected by the common council +(_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_) of 144 members, i.e. three delegates +chosen by manhood suffrage for each ward of the city; but the election +is subject to the veto of the king without reason given. The _Stadtrat_ +consists of 32 members, of whom 15 are paid officials (including 2 +syndics, 2 councillors for building, and 2 for education), while 17 +serve gratuitously. For general work the _Magistrat_ and the +_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_ coalesce, and committees are appointed for +various purposes out of the whole body, these being usually presided +over by members of the _Magistrat_. Their jurisdiction extends to +water-supply, the drainage, lighting and cleaning of the streets, the +care of the poor, hospitals and schools. Politically the city is divided +into six Reichstag and four Landtag constituencies, returning six and +nine members respectively, and it must be noted that in the case of the +Landtag the allocation of seats dated from 1860, so that the city, in +proportion to its population, was in 1908 much under-represented. It +should have had twenty-five members instead of nine. + +[Illustration: Map of Berlin and Environs.] + +_Population._--The stupendous growth of the population of Berlin during +the last century is best illustrated by the following figures. In 1816 +it contained 197,717 inhabitants; in 1849, 431,566; in 1871, 826,341; +in 1880, 1,122,330; 1890, 1,578,794, and in 1905, 2,033,900. The +birth-rate is about 30, and the death-rate 20 per 1000 inhabitants a +year. Illegitimate births amount to about 15% of the whole. According to +religion, about 84% are Protestants, 10% Roman Catholics and 5% Jews, +but owing to the great number of Jews who for social and other reasons +ostensibly embrace the Christian faith, these last figures do not +actually represent the number of Jews by descent living in the city. + +_Environs._--Marvellous as has been the transformation in the city +itself, no less surprising results have been effected since 1875 in the +surroundings of Berlin. On the east, north and west, the city is +surrounded at a distance of some 5 m. from its centre by a thick belt of +pine woods, the Jungfernheide, the Spandauer Forst, and the Grunewald, +the last named stretching away in a south-westerly direction as far as +Potsdam, and fringing the beautiful chain of Havel lakes. These forests +enjoyed until quite recent times an unenviable notoriety as the +camping-ground and lurking-place of footpads and other disorderly +characters. After the opening of the circular railway in 1871, private +enterprise set to work to develop these districts, and a "villa colony" +was built at the edge of the Grunewald between the station West-end and +the Spandauer Bock. From these beginnings, owing mainly to the expansion +of the important suburb of Charlottenburg, has resulted a complete +transformation of the eastern part of the Grunewald into a picturesque +and delightful villa suburb, which is connected by railway, +steam-tramway and a magnificent boulevard--the Kurfurstendamm--with the +city. Nowadays the little fishing villages on the shores of the lakes, +notably the Wannsee, cater for the recreation of the Berliners, while +palatial summer residences of wealthy merchants occupy the most +prominent sites. Suburban Berlin may be said to extend practically to +Potsdam. + +_Traffic._--The public streets have a total length of about 350 m., and +a large staff of workmen is regularly employed in maintaining and +cleaning the public roads and parks. The force is well controlled, and +the work of cleaning and removing snow after a heavy fall is thoroughly +and efficiently carried out. The less important thoroughfares are mostly +paved with the so-called Vienna paving, granite bricks of medium size, +while the principal streets, and especially those upon which the traffic +is heavy, have either asphalt or wood paving. + +_Water-Supply and Drainage._--The water-supply is mainly derived from +works on the Muggel and Tegeler lakes, the river water being carefully +filtered through sand. The drainage system is elaborate, and has stood +the test of time. The city is divided into twelve radial systems, each +with a pumping station, and the drainage is forced through five mains to +eighteen sewage farms, each of which is under careful sanitary +supervision, in respect both of the persons employed thereon, and the +products, mainly milk, passing thence to the city for human consumption. +Only in a few isolated cases has any contamination been traced to fever +or other zymotic germs. In this connexion it is worth noting that the +infectious diseases hospital has a separate system of drainage which is +carefully disinfected, and not allowed to be employed for the purposes +of manure. + +_Hospitals._--In no other city of the world is the hospital organization +so well appointed as in Berlin, or are the sick poor tended with greater +solicitude. State, municipal and private charity here again join hands +in the prompt relief of sickness and cases of urgency. The municipal +hospitals are six in number, the largest of which is the Virchow +hospital, situate in Moabit and opened in 1906. It is arranged on the +pavilion system, contains 2000 beds, and is one of the most splendidly +equipped hospitals in the world. The cost amounted to L900,000. Next +comes that of Friedrichshain, also built on the pavilion system, while +the state controls six (not including the prison infirmaries) of which +the world-renowned Charite in the Luisen-strasse is the principal. The +hospitals of the nursing sisters (Diakonissen Anstalten) number 8, while +there are 60 registered private hospitals under the superintendence of +responsible doctors and under the inspection of government. + +_Charities._--Berlin is also very richly endowed with charitable +institutions for the relief of pauperism and distress. In addition to +the municipal support of the poor-houses there are large funds derived +from bequests for the relief of the necessitous and deserving poor; +while night shelters and people's kitchens have been organized on an +extensive scale for the temporary relief of the indigent unemployed. For +the former several of the arches of the city railway have been utilized, +and correspond in internal arrangement to like shelters instituted by +the Salvation Army in London and various other cities. + +_Markets._--Open market-places in Berlin are things of the past, and +their place has been taken by airy and commodious market halls. Of +these, 14 in number, the central market, close to the Alexander-platz +station of the city railway with which it is connected by an admirable +service of lifts for the rapid unloading of goods, is the finest. It has +a ground area of about 17,000 sq. yds., and is fitted with more than +2000 stalls. The other markets are conveniently situated at various +accessible places within the city, and the careful police supervision to +which they are subjected, both in the matter of general cleanliness, and +in the careful examination of all articles of food exposed for sale, has +tended to the general health and comfort of the population. + +The central cattle market and slaughter-houses for the inspection and +supply of the fresh meat consumed in the metropolis occupy an extensive +area in the north-east of the city on the Ringbahn, upon which a station +has been erected for the accommodation of meat trains and passengers +attending the market. The inspection is rigorously carried out, and only +carcases which have been stamped as having been certified good are +permitted to be taken away for human consumption. + +_History._--The etymology of the word "Berlin" is doubtful. Some derive +it from Celtic roots--_ber_, small, short, and _lyn_, a lake; others +regard it as a Wend word, meaning a free, open place; others, again, +refer it to the word _werl_, a river island. Another authority derives +it from the German word _Bruhl_, a marshy district, and the Slavonic +termination _in_; thus Bruhl, by the regular transmutation Buhrl +(compare Ger. _bren_-nen and Eng. burn), Burhlin. More recent research, +however, seems to have established the derivation from _Wehr_, dam. + +Similar obscurity rests on the origin of the city. The hypotheses which +carried it back to the early years of the Christian era have been wholly +abandoned. Even the margrave Albert the Bear (d. 1170) is no longer +unquestionably regarded as its founder, and the tendency of opinion now +is to date its origin from the time of his great-grandsons, Otto III. +and John I. When first alluded to, what is now Berlin was spoken of as +two towns, Kolln and Berlin. The first authentic document concerning the +former is from the year 1237, concerning the latter from the year 1244, +and it is with these dates that the trustworthy history of the city +begins. In 1307 the first attempt was made to combine the councils of +Kolln and Berlin, but the experiment was abandoned four years later, and +the two towns continued their separate existence till 1432, when the +establishment of a common council for both led to disturbances of which +the outcome was that Frederick II. the Iron in 1442 abolished this +arrangement, seriously curtailed the privileges of both towns, and began +the building of a castle at Kolln. A feud between the elector and the +Berliners ended in the defeat of the latter, who in 1448 were forced to +accept the constitution of 1442. From this time Berlin became and +continued to be the residence of the Hohenzollerns, the elector John +Cicero (1486-1499) being the first to establish a permanent court inside +the walls. It was not, however, until the time of King Frederick William +I. that the sovereigns ceased to date their official acts from Kolln. In +1539, under the elector Joachim II., Berlin embraced the Lutheran +religion. Henceforth the history of Berlin was intimately bound up with +the house of Hohenzollern. The conversion of the elector John Sigismund +in 1613 to the Reformed (Calvinist) faith was hotly resented by the +Berliners and led to bloody riots in the city. The Thirty Years' War all +but ruined the city, the population of which sank from some 14,000 in +1600 to less than 8000 in 1650. It was restored and the foundations of +its modern splendour were laid by the Great Elector, by the time of +whose death (1688) the population had risen to some 20,000. During this +period several suburbs had begun to grow up, Friedrichswerder in 1667 +and the Dorotheenstadt, so named in 1676 after the electress Dorothea +its founder. In 1688 Frederick III. (afterwards King Frederick I.) began +the Friedrichstadt, completed by Frederick William I. Under Frederick +I., who did much to embellish the city as the royal _Residenzsiadt_, the +separate administrations of the quarters of Berlin, Kolln, +Friedrichstadt, Friedrichswerder and Dorotheenstadt were combined, and +the separate names were absorbed in that of Berlin. The fortifications +begun in 1658 were finally demolished under Frederick the Great in 1745, +and the Neue Friedrich-strasse, the Alexander-strasse and the +Wall-strasse were laid out on their site. + +Twice during the Seven Years' War Berlin was attacked by the enemy: in +1757 by the Austrians, who penetrated into the suburbs and levied a +heavy contribution, and in 1760 by the Russians, who bombarded the city, +penetrated into it, and only retired on payment of a ransom of 1,500,000 +thalers (L225,000). After the disastrous campaign of Jena, Berlin +suffered much during the French occupation (24th October 1806 to 1st +December 1808). In spite of these misfortunes, however, the progress of +the city was steady. In 1809 the present municipal government was +instituted. In 1810 the university was founded. After the alliance of +Prussia and Russia in 1812 Berlin was again occupied by the French, but +in March 1813 they were finally driven out. The period following the +close of the war saw great activity in building, especially in the +erection of many noble monuments and public buildings, e.g. those by the +architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The most notable event in the history +of Berlin during the 19th century, prior to the Franco-German War, was +the March revolution of 1848 (see GERMANY: _History_, and FREDERICK +WILLIAM IV., king of Prussia). The effect of the war of 1870-71 on the +growth of Berlin has been sufficiently indicated already. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the history of Berlin see the publications of the + "Verein fur die Geschichte Berlins"; the _Berlinische Chronik nebst + Urkundenbuch_, and the periodicals _Der Bar_ (1875, &c.) and + _Mitteilungen_ (1884, &c.). Of histories may be mentioned A. + Streckfuss, _500 Jahre Berliner Geschichte_ (new ed. by Fernbach, + 1900); _Berlin im 19ten Jahrhundert_ (4 vols., 1867-1869), and + _Statistisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Berlin_ (1904-1905); Fidiein, + _Historisch-diplomatische Beitrage zur Geschichte der Stadt Berlin_ (5 + vols., 1837-1842); Brockhaus, _Konversations-Lexikon_ (1904); Meyer, + _Konversations-Lexikon_ (1904); Baedeker, _Fuhrer durch Berlin_; + Woeri, _Fuhrer durch Berlin_; J. Pollard, _The Corporation of Berlin_ + (Edinburgh, 1893); A. Shaclwell, _Industrial Efficiency_ (London, + 1906); _Berliner Jahrbuch fur Handel und Industrie_ (1905); and O. + Schwebel, _Geschichte der Stadt Berlin_ (Berlin, 1888). (P. A. A.) + + +BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF. The events that led up to the assembling +of the congress of Berlin, the outcome of which was the treaty of the +13th of July 1878, are described elsewhere (see EUROPE: _History_; +TURKEY: _History_; RUSSO-TURKISH WAR). Here it must suffice to say that +the terms of the treaty of San Stefano (3rd March 1878), by which the +Russo-Turkish War had been brought to a conclusion, seemed to those of +the other powers who were most interested scarcely less fatal to the +Ottoman dominion than that Russian occupation of Constantinople which +Great Britain had risked a war to prevent. By this instrument Bulgaria +was to become a practically independent state, under the nominal +suzerainty of the sultan, bounded by the Danube, the Black Sea, the +Aegean and Albania, and cutting off the latter from the remnant of +Rumelia which, with Constantinople, was to be left to the Turks. At the +same time the other Christian principalities, Servia and Montenegro, +were largely increased in size and their independence definitively +recognized; and the proposals of the powers with regard to Bosnia and +Herzegovina, communicated to the Ottoman plenipotentiaries at the first +sitting of the conference of Constantinople (23rd December 1876), were +to be immediately executed. These provisions seemed to make Russia +permanently arbiter of the fate of the Balkan peninsula, the more so +since the vast war indemnity of 1,400,000,000 roubles exacted in the +treaty promised to cripple the resources of the Ottoman government for +years to come. + +The two powers whose interests were most immediately threatened by the +terms of the peace were Austria and Great Britain. The former +especially, refusing to be bribed by the Russian offer of Bosnia and +Herzegovina, saw herself cut off from all chance of expansion in the +Balkan peninsula and threatened with the establishment there of the +paramount power of Russia, a peril it had been her traditional policy to +avert. On the 5th of February, accordingly, Count Andrassy issued a +circular note, addressed to the signatory powers of the treaty of Paris +of 1856 and the London protocol of 1871, suggesting a congress for the +purpose of establishing "the agreement of Europe on the modifications +which it may become necessary to introduce into the above-mentioned +treaties" in view of the preliminaries of peace signed by Russia and +Turkey. This appeal to the sanctity of international engagements, +traditional in the diplomatic armoury of Austria, and strengthened by so +recent a precedent as that of 1871, met with an immediate response. On +the 1st of April Lord Salisbury had already addressed a circular note to +the British embassies refusing on behalf of the British government to +recognize any arrangements made in the peace preliminaries, calculated +to modify European treaties, "unless they were made the subject of a +formal agreement among the parties to the treaty of Paris," and quoting +the "essential principle of the law of nations" promulgated in the +London protocol. By Great Britain therefore the Austrian proposal was at +once accepted. Germany was very willing to fall in with the views of her +Austrian ally and share in a council in which, having no immediate +interests of her own, Bismarck could win new laurels in his role of +"honest broker." In these circumstances Russia could not but accept the +principle of a congress. She tried, however, to limit the scope of its +powers by suggesting the exclusion of certain clauses of the treaty from +its reference, and pointed out (circular of Prince Gorchakov, April 9th) +that Russia had not been the first nor the only Power to violate the +treaties in question. The answer of Lord Beaconsfield was to mobilize +the militia and bring Indian troops to the Mediterranean; and finally +Russia, finding that the diplomatic support which she had expected from +Bismarck failed her, consented to submit the whole treaty without +reserve to the congress. + +On the 3rd of June Count Munster, in the name of the German government, +issued the formal invitation to the congress. The congress met, under +the presidency of Prince Bismarck, at Berlin on the 13th of June. Great +Britain was represented by Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury and Lord +Odo Russell, ambassador at Berlin; Germany by Prince Bismarck, Baron +Ernst von Bulow and Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, +ambassador at Paris; Austria by Count Andrassy, Count Louis Karolyi and +Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle, ambassador at Rome; France by William +H. Waddington, the Comte de Saint-Vallier, ambassador at Berlin, and +Felix Hippolyte Desprez, director of political affairs in the department +for foreign affairs; Russia by the chancellor, Prince Gorchakov, Count +Peter Shuvalov, ambassador to the court of St James's, and Paul +d'Oubril, ambassador at Berlin; Turkey by Alexander Catheodory Pasha, +minister of public works, All Pasha, _mushir_ of the Ottoman armies, and +Sadullah Bey, ambassador at Berlin. The bases of the conferences had, of +course, been settled beforehand, and the final act of the congress was +signed by the plenipotentiaries mentioned above exactly a month after +the opening of the congress, on the 13th of July. + +The treaty of Berlin consists in all of sixty-four articles, of which it +will be sufficient to note those which have had a special bearing on +subsequent international developments. So far as they affect the +territorial boundaries fixed by the treaties of Paris and San Stefano it +will be sufficient to refer to the sketch map in the article EUROPE: +_History_. By Art. I. Bulgaria was "constituted an autonomous and +tributary principality under the suzerainty of H.I.M. the Sultan"; it +was to have "a Christian government and a national militia," Art. II. +fixed the boundaries of the new state and provided for their +delimitation by a European commission, which was "to take into +consideration the necessity for H.I.M. the Sultan to be able to defend +the Balkan frontiers of Eastern Rumelia." Arts. III. to XII. provide for +the election of a prince for Bulgaria, the machinery for settling the +new constitution, the adjustment of the relations of the new Bulgarian +government to the Ottoman empire and its subjects (including the +question of tribute, the amount of which was, according to Art. XII., to +be settled by agreement of the signatory powers "at the close of the +first year of the working of the new organization"). By Art. X. +Bulgaria, so far as it was concerned, was to take the place of the +Sublime Porte in the engagements which the latter had contracted, as +well towards Austria-Hungary as towards the Rustchuck-Varna Railway +Company, for working the railway of European Turkey in respect to the +completion and connexion, as well as the working of the railways +situated in its territory. + +By Art. XIII. a province was formed south of the Balkans which was to +take the name of "Eastern Rumelia," and was to remain "under the direct +military and political control of H.I.M. the Sultan, under conditions of +administrative autonomy." It was to have a Christian governor-general. +Arts. XIV. to XXIII. define the frontiers and organization of the new +province, questions arising out of the Russian occupation, and the +rights of the sultan. Of the latter it is to be noted that the sultan +retained the right of fortifying and occupying the Balkan passes (Art. +XV.) and all his rights and obligations over the railways (Art. XXI.). + +Art. XXV., which the events of 1908 afterwards brought into special +prominence, runs as follows: "The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina +shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. The government of +Austria-Hungary, not desiring to undertake the administration of the +sanjak of Novi-Bazar, ... the Ottoman administration will continue to +exercise its functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the +maintenance of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom +and security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the right of +keeping garrisons and having military and commercial roads in the whole +of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia." + +By Art. XXVI. the independence of Montenegro was definitively +recognized, and by Art. XVIII. she received certain accessions of +territory, including a strip of coast on the Adriatic, but under +conditions which tended to place her under the tutelage of +Austria-Hungary. Thus, by Art. XXIX. she was to have neither ships of +war nor a war flag, the port of Antivari and all Montenegrin waters were +to be closed to the war-ships of all nations; the fortifications between +the lake and the coast were to be razed; the administration of the +maritime and sanitary police at Antivari and along the Montenegrin +littoral was to be carried on by Austria-Hungary "by means of light +coast-guard boats"; Montenegro was to adopt the maritime code in force +in Dalmatia, while the Montenegrin merchant flag was to be under +Austro-Hungarian consular protection. Finally, Montenegro was to "come +to an understanding with Austria-Hungary on the right to construct and +keep up across the new Montenegrin territory a road and a railway." + +By Art. XXXIV. the independence of Servia was recognized, subject to +conditions (as to religious liberty, &c.) set forth in Art. XXXV. Art. +XXXVI. defined the new boundaries. + +By Art. XLIII. the independence of Rumania, already proclaimed by the +prince (May 22/June 3 1877), was recognized. Subsequent articles define +the conditions and the boundaries. + +Arts. LII. to LVII. deal with the question of the free navigation of the +Danube. All fortifications between the mouths and the Iron Gates were to +be razed, and no vessels of war, save those of light tonnage in the +service of the river police and the customs, were to navigate the river +below the Iron Gates (Art. LII.). The Danube commission, on which +Rumania was to be represented, was maintained in its functions (Art. +LIII.) and provision made for the further prolongation of its powers +(Art. LIV.). + +Art. LVIII. cedes to Russia the territories of Ardahan, Kars and Batoum, +in Asiatic Turkey. By Art. LIX. "H.M. the emperor of Russia declares +that it is his intention to constitute Batoum a free port, essentially +commercial." + +By Art. LXI. "the Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out, without further +delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in +the provinces inhabited by the Armenians, and to guarantee their +security against the Circassians and Kurds." It was to keep the powers +informed periodically of "the steps taken to this effect." + +Art. LXII. made provision for the securing religious liberty in the +Ottoman dominions. + +Finally, Art. LXIII. declares that "the treaty of Paris of 30th March +1856, as well as the treaty of London of 13th March 1871, are maintained +in all such of their provisions as are not abrogated or modified by the +preceding stipulations." + + For the full text of the treaty in the English translation see E. + Hertslet, _Map of Europe by Treaty_, vol. iv. p. 2759 (No. 530); for + the French original see _State Papers_, vol. lxix. p. 749. + (W. A. P.) + + + + +BERLIN, a city of Coos county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the +Androscoggin river, in the N. part of the state, about 98 m. N.W. of +Portland, Maine. Pop. (1890) 3729; (1900) 8886, of whom 4643 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,780. The area of the city in 1906 was +57.81 sq. m. Berlin is served by the Grand Trunk and Boston & Maine +railways. It is situated in the heart of the White Mountains and 16 m. +from the base of Mt. Washington. Berlin Falls, on the picturesque +Androscoggin river, furnishes an immense water-power, the development of +which for manufacturing purposes accounts for the rapid growth of the +city. The forests of northern New England and of the province of Quebec +supply the raw material for the extensive saw-mills and planing-mills, +the pulp- and paper-mills, and the sulphite fibre mills, said to be the +largest in existence. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at +$5,989,119, of which 78.5% was the value of the paper and wood pulp +manufactured. Berlin was first settled in 1821, was incorporated as a +township in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1897. + + + + +BERLIN, a city and port of entry, Ontario, Canada, and capital of +Waterloo county, 58 m. W. of Toronto, on the Grand Trunk railway. It is +the centre of a prosperous farming and manufacturing district, inhabited +chiefly by German immigrants and their descendants. An electric railway +connects it with the town of Waterloo (pop. 4100) 2 m. to the north, +which has important flour and woollen mills and distilleries. Berlin is +a flourishing manufacturing town, and contains a beet sugar refinery, +automobile, leather, furniture, shirt and collar, felt, glove, button +and rubber factories. Pop. (1881) 4054; (1901) 9747. + + + + +BERLIN, a four-wheeled carriage with a separate hooded seat behind, +detached from the body of the vehicle; so called from having been first +used in Berlin. It was designed about 1670, by a Piedmontese architect +in the service of the elector of Brandenburg. It was used as a +travelling carriage, and Swift refers to it in his advice to authors +"who scribble in a berlin." As an adjective, the word is used to +indicate a special kind of goods, originally made in Berlin, of which +the best known is Berlin wool. A Berlin warehouse is a shop for the sale +of wools and fancy goods (cf. Italian warehouse). The spelling "berlin" +is also used by Sir Walter Scott for the "birlinn," a large Gaelic +rowing-boat. + + + + +BERLIOZ, HECTOR (1803-1869), French musical composer, was born on the +11th of December 1803 at Cote-Saint-Andre, a small town near Grenoble, +in the department of Isere. His father, Louis Berlioz, was a physician +of repute, and by his desire Hector for some time devoted himself to the +study of medicine. At the same time he had music lessons, and, in +secret, perused numerous theoretical works on counterpoint and harmony, +with little profit it seems, till the hearing and subsequent careful +analysis of one of Haydn's quartets opened a new vista to his unguided +aspirations. A similar work written by Berlioz in imitation of Haydn's +masterpiece was favorably received by his friends. From Paris, where he +had been sent to complete his medical studies, he at last made known to +his father the unalterable decision of devoting himself entirely to art, +the answer to which confession was the withdrawal of all further +pecuniary assistance. In order to support life Berlioz had to accept the +humble engagement of a singer in the chorus of the Gymnase theatre. +Soon, however, he became reconciled to his father and entered the +Conservatoire, where he studied composition under Reicha and Lesueur. +His first important composition was an opera called _Les Francs-Juges_, +of which, however, only the overture remains extant. In 1825 he left the +Conservatoire, and began a course of self-education, founded chiefly on +the works of Beethoven, Gluck, Weber and other German masters. About +this period Berlioz saw for the first time the talented Irish actress +Henrietta Smithson, who was then charming Paris by her impersonations of +Ophelia, Juliet and other Shakespearean characters. The enthusiastic +young composer became deeply enamoured of her at first sight, and tried, +for a long time in vain, to gain the love or even the attention of his +idol. To an incident of this wild and persevering courtship Berlioz's +first symphonic work, _Episode de la vie d'un artiste_, owes its origin. +By the advice of his friends Berlioz once more entered the +Conservatoire, where, after several unsuccessful attempts, his cantata +_Sardanapalus_ gained him the first prize for foreign travel (1830), in +spite of the strong personal antagonism of one of the umpires. During a +stay in Italy Berlioz composed an overture to _King Lear_, and _Le +Retour a la vie_--a sort of symphony, with intervening poetical +declamation between the single movements, called by the composer a +melologue, and written in continuation of the _Episode de la vie d'un +artiste_, along with which work it was performed at the Paris +Conservatoire in 1832. Paganini on that occasion spoke to Berlioz the +memorable words: "Vous commencez par ou les autres ont fini." Miss +Smithson, who also was present on the occasion, consented to become the +wife of her ardent lover in 1833. The marriage was a tempestuous +mistake. In 1840 he separated from his wife, who died in 1854. Six +months later Berlioz married Mademoiselle Recio. His second wife did not +live very long, nor was there much that was edifying in this marriage. +Between the date of his first marriage and 1840 came out his dramatic +symphonies _Harold en Italie_, _Funebre et triomphale_, and _Romeo et +Juliette_; his opera _Benvenuto Cellini_ (1837); his _Requiem_, and +other works. In the course of time Berlioz won his due share of the +distinctions generally awarded to artistic merit, such as the ribbon of +the Legion of Honour and the membership of the Institute. But these +distinctions he owed, perhaps, less to a genuine admiration of his +compositions than to his successes abroad and his influential position +as the musical critic of the _Journal des Debats_ (a position which he +held from 1838 to 1864, and which he never used or abused to push his +own works). In 1842 Berlioz went for the first time to Germany, where he +was hailed with welcome by the leading musicians of the younger +generation, Robert Schumann foremost amongst them. The latter paved the +way for the French composer's success by a comprehensive analysis of the +_Episode_ in his musical journal, the _Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik_. In +1846 he produced his magnificent cantata _La Damnation de Faust_. +Berlioz gave successful concerts at Leipzig and other German cities, and +repeated his visit on various later occasions--in 1852 by invitation of +Liszt, to conduct his opera, _Benvenuto Cellini_ (hissed off the stage +in Paris), at Weimar; and in 1855 to produce his oratorio-trilogy, +_L'Enfance du Christ_, in the same city. This latter work had been +previously performed at Paris, where Berlioz mystified the critics by +pretending to have found the last chorus amongst the manuscript scores +of a composer of the 17th century, Pierre Ducre by name. In 1855 his _Te +Deum_ was written for the opening of the Paris exhibition. Berlioz also +made journeys to Vienna (1866) and St Petersburg (1867), where his works +were received with great enthusiasm. In 1861 he produced his work +_Beatrice et Benedict_, and in 1863 _Les Troyens_. He died in Paris on +the 8th of March 1869. + +It is not only as a composer that the life of Berlioz is full of +interest, although in this respect his achievement is singularly +significant for the comprehension of the modern spirit in music. But it +is as the symbol of French romanticism in the whole domain of aesthetic +perception that his pre-eminence has come to be recognized. His +_Memoires_ (begun in London in 1848 and finished in 1865) illustrate +this romantic spirit at its highest elevation as well as at its lowest +depths. Victor Hugo was a romantic, Musset was a romantic, but Berlioz +was romanticism itself. As a boy he is in despair over the despair of +Dido, and his breath is taken away at Virgil's "Quaesivit coelo lucem +ingemuitque reperta." At the age of twelve he is in love with "Estelle," +whom he meets fifty years afterwards. The scene is described by himself +(1865) with minute fidelity--a scene which Flaubert must have known by +heart when he wrote its parallel in the novel _L'Education +sentimentale_. The romance of this meeting between the man--old, +isolated, unspeakably sad, with the halo of public fame burning round +him--and the woman--old also, a mother, a widow, whose beauty he had +worshipped when she was eighteen--is striking. In a frame of chastened +melancholy and joy at the sight of Estelle, Berlioz goes to dine with +Patti and her family. Patti, on the threshold of her career, pets +Berlioz with such uncontrollable affection, that as the composer wrote a +description of his feelings he was overwhelmed at the bitterness of +fate. What would he not have given for Estelle to show him such +affection! Patti seemed to him like a marvellous bird with diamond wings +flitting round his head, resting on his shoulder, plucking his hair and +singing her most joyous songs to the accompaniment of beating wings. "I +was enchanted but not moved. The fact is that the young, beautiful, +dazzling, famous virtuoso who at the age of twenty-two has already seen +musical Europe and America at her feet, does not win the power of love +in me; and the aged woman, sad, obscure, ignorant of art, possesses my +soul as she did in the days gone by, as she will do until my last day." +If this episode touches the sublime, it may be urged with almost equal +truth that his description of the exhumation of his two wives and their +reburial in a single tomb touches the ridiculous. And yet the scene is +described with a perception of all the detail which would call for the +highest praise in a novelist. Perhaps some parallel between the splendid +and the ridiculous in this singular figure may be seen in the comparison +of Nadar's caricature with Charpentier's portrait of the composer. + +The profound admiration of Berlioz for Shakespeare, which rose at +moments to such a pitch of folly that he set Shakespeare in the place of +God and worshipped him, cannot be explained simply on the ground that +Henrietta Smithson was a great Shakespearean actress. Unquestionably the +great figures in English literature had a profound attraction for him, +and while the romantic spirit is obvious in his selections from Byron +and Scott, it can also be traced in the quality of his enthusiasm for +Shakespeare. It is in his music more than in his literary attitude, +however, that is disclosed something in addition to the pure romance of +Schumann--something that places him nearer in kind to Wagner, who +recognized in him a composer from whose works he might learn something +useful for the cultivation of his own ideals. As a youth the power of +Beethoven's symphonies made a deep impression on Berlioz, and what has +been described as the "poetical idea" in Beethoven's creations ran riot +in the young medical student's mind. He thus became one of the most +ardent and enlightened originators of what is now known as "programme +music." Technically he was a brilliant musical colourist, often +extravagant, but with the extravagant emotionalism of genius. He was a +master of the orchestra; indeed, his treatment of the orchestra and his +invention of unprecedented effects of _timbre_ give him a solitary +position in musical history; he had an extraordinary gift for the use of +the various instruments, and himself propounded a new ideal for the +force to be employed, on an enormous scale. + +His literary works include the _Traite d'instrumentation_ (1844); +_Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie_ (1845); _Les Soirees +d'orchestre_ (1853); _Les Grotesques de la musique_ (1859); _A travers +chant_ (1862); _Memoires_ (1870); _Lettres intimes_ (1882). For a full +list of his musical works, Grove's _Dictionary_ should be consulted. + + The new critical edition of the complete musical works (published by + Breitkopf and Hartel) is in ten series. I. Symphonies: _Fantastique_, + Op. 14; _Funebre et triomphale_, Op. 15, for military band and chorus; + _Harold en Italie_, Op. 16, with viola solo; _Romeo et Juliette_, with + chorus and soli. II. Overtures (ten, including the five belonging to + larger works). III. Smaller instrumental works, of which only the + Funeral March for _Hamlet_ is important. IV. Sacred music: the _Grande + Messe des morts_, Op. 5; the _Te Deum_, Op. 22; _L'Enfance du Christ_, + Op. 25, and four smaller pieces, V. Secular cantatas, including _Hunt + scenes de Faust_, Op. I; _Lelio, ou le retour a la vie_, Op. 146 + (sequel to _Symphonie fantastique_), and _La Damnation de Faust_, Op. + 24. VI. Songs and lyric choruses with orchestra, two vols. VII. Songs + and lyric choruses with pianoforte, 2 vols. including arrangements of + the orchestral songs. VIII. Operas: _Benvenuto Cellini_; _Les Troyens_ + (five acts in two parts, _La Prise de Troie_ and _Les Troyens a + Carthage_); Recitatives for the dialogue in Weber's _Freischutz_. IX. + Arrangements, including the well-known orchestral version of Weber's + _Invitation a la danse_. X. Fragments and new discoveries. + + Adolphe Julien's biography of Berlioz (1888) first gave a careful + account of the details of his life. See also the books by R. Pohl + (1884), P. Galibert (1890), E. Hippeau (1890), G. Noufflard (1885), L. + Mesnard (1888), Louise Pohl (1900), and D. Bernard (trans. by H.M. + Dunstan, 1882). An illuminating essay on Berlioz is in Filson Young's + _Mastersingers_ (1902). See also the essay in W.H. Hadow's _Studies in + Modern Music_ (1st series, 1908). Berlioz's _Traite d'instrumentation_ + has been translated into German and brought up to date by Richard + Strauss (Peters' edition [1906]). + + + + +BERM (probably a variant of "brim"), a narrow ledge of ground, generally +the level banks of a river. In parts of Egypt the whole area reached by +the Nile is included in the berm. Thus of the lands near Berber, Mr C. +Dupuis writes (in Sir William Garstin's _Report on the Upper Nile_, +1904), "In most places there is a well-defined alluvial berm of recent +formation and varying width, up to perhaps a couple of kilometres." In +military phraseology the berm is the space of ground between the base of +a rampart and the ditch. + + + + +BERMONDSEY, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded N. and E. by the Thames, S.E. by Deptford, S.W. by Camberwell, +and W. by Southwark. Pop. (1901) 130,760. It is a district of poor +streets, inhabited by a labouring population employed in leather and +other factories, and in the Surrey Commercial Docks and the wharves +bordering the river. The parish of Rotherhithe or Redriff has long been +associated with a seafaring population. A tunnel connecting it with the +opposite shore of the river was opened in June 1908. The neighbouring +Thames Tunnel was opened in 1843, but, as the tolls were insufficient to +maintain it, was sold to the East London Railway Company in 1865. The +Herold Institute, a branch of the Borough Polytechnic, Southwark, is +devoted to instruction in connexion with the leather trade. Southwark +Park in the centre of the borough is 63 acres in extent. Bermondsey is +in the parliamentary borough of Southwark, including the whole of +Rotherhithe and part of the Bermondsey division. The borough council +consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 54 councillors. Area 1499.6 acres. + +The name appears in Domesday, the suffix designating the former insular, +marshy character of the district; while the prefix is generally taken to +indicate the name of a Saxon overlord, Beormund. Bermondsey was in +favour with the Norman kings as a place of residence, and there was a +palace here, perhaps from pre-Norman times. A Cluniac monastery was +founded in 1082, and Bermondsey Cross became a favoured place of +pilgrimage. The foundation was erected into an abbey in 1399, and Abbey +Road recalls its site. Similarly, Spa Road points to the existence of a +popular spring and pleasure grounds, maintained for some years at the +close of the 18th century. Jacob Street marks Jacob's Island, the scene +of the death of Bill Sikes in Dickens's _Oliver Twist_. Tooley Street, +leading east from Southwark by London Bridge railway station, is well +known in connexion with the story of three tailors of Tooley Street, who +addressed a petition to parliament opening with the comprehensive +expression "We, the people of England." The name is a corruption of St +Olave, or Olaf, the Christian king of Norway, who in 994 attacked London +by way of the river, and broke down London Bridge. + + See E.T. Clarke, _Bermondsey, its Historic Memories_ (1901). + + + + +BERMUDAS, a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, forming a British +colony, in 32 deg. 15' N. and 64 deg. 50' W., about 580 m. E. by S. from +Cape Hatteras on the American coast. The group, consisting of small +islands and reefs (which mark the extreme northern range of the +coral-building polyps), is of oval form, measuring 22 m. from N.E. to +S.W., the area being 20 sq. m. The largest of the islands is Great +Bermuda, or the Main Island, 14 m. long and about a mile in average +width, enclosing on the east Harrington or Little Sound, and on the west +the Great Sound, which is thickly studded with islets, and protected on +the north by the islands of Watford, Boaz, Ireland and Somerset. The +remaining members of the group, St George, Paget, Smith, St David, +Cooper, Nonsuch, &c., lie N.E. of the Main Island, and form a semicircle +round Castle Harbour. The fringing islands which encircle the islands, +especially on the north and west, leave a few deep passages wide enough +to admit the largest vessels. + +_Geology._--The Bermudas consist of aeolian limestones (cf. BAHAMAS) +which in some of the larger islands form irregular hills attaining a +height of some 200-250 ft. These limestones are composed chiefly of +comminuted shells drifted and deposited by the wind, and they are very +irregularly stratified, as is usually the case with wind-blown deposits. +Where fresh the rock is soft, but where it has been exposed to the +action of the sea it is covered by a hard crust and often loses all +trace of stratification. The surface is frequently irregularly +honeycombed. Even the reefs are not wholly formed of coral. They are +ridges of aeolian limestone plastered over by a thin layer of corals and +other calcareous organisms. The very remarkable "serpuline atolls" are +covered by a solid crust made of the convoluted tubes of serpulae and +_Vermetus_, together with barnacles, mussels, nullipores, corallines and +some true incrusting corals. They probably rest upon a foundation of +aeolian rock. The Bermudas were formerly much more extensive than at +present, and they may possibly stand upon the summit of a hidden +volcano. There are evidences of small oscillations of levels, but no +proofs of great elevation or depression. + +_Soil, Climate, &c._--The surface soil is a curious kind of red earth, +which is also found in ochre-like strata throughout the limestone. It is +generally mixed with vegetable matter and coral sand. There is a total +want of streams and wells of fresh water, and the inhabitants are +dependent on the rain, which they collect and preserve in tanks. The +climate is mild and healthy, although serious epidemics of yellow fever +and typhus have occurred. The maximum reading of the thermometer is +about 87 deg. F. and its minimum 49 deg., the mean annual temperature +being 70 deg. The islands attract a large number of visitors annually +from America. Vegetation is very rapid, and the soil is clad in a mantle +of almost perpetual green. The principal kind of tree is the so-called +"Bermudas cedar," really a species of juniper, which furnishes timber +for small vessels. The shores are fringed with the mangrove; the prickly +pear grows luxuriantly in the most barren districts; and wherever the +ground is left to itself the sage bush springs up profusely. The citron, +sour orange, lemon and lime grow wild; but the apple and peach do not +come to perfection. The loquat, an introduction from China, thrives +admirably. The mild climate assists the growth of esculent plants and +roots; and a considerable trade is carried on with New York, principally +in onions, early potatoes, tomatoes, and beetroot, together with lily +bulbs, cut flowers and some arrowroot. Medicinal plants, as the +castor-oil plant and aloe, come to perfection without culture; and +coffee, indigo, cotton and tobacco are also of spontaneous growth. Few +oxen or sheep are reared in the colony, meat, as well as bread and most +vegetables, being imported from America. The indigenous mammals are very +few, and the only reptiles are a small lizard and the green turtle. +Birds, however, especially aquatic species, are very numerous. Insects +are comparatively few, but ants swarm destructively in the heat of the +year. Fish are plentiful round the coasts, and the whale-fishery was +once an important industry, but the fisheries as a whole have not been +developed. + +_Towns, and Administration._--There are two towns in the Bermudas: St +George, on the island of that name, founded in 1794 and incorporated in +1797; and Hamilton, on the Main Island, founded in 1790 and incorporated +in 1793. St George was the capital till the senate and courts of justice +were removed by Sir James Cockburn to Hamilton, which being centrally +situated, is more convenient. Hamilton, which is situated on the inner +part of the Great Sound, had a population in 1901 of 2246, that of St +George being 985. In Ireland Island is situated the royal dockyard and +naval establishment. The harbour of St George's has space enough to +accommodate a vast fleet; yet, till deepened by blasting, the entrance +was so narrow as to render it almost useless. The Bermudas became an +important naval and coaling station in 1869, when a large iron dry dock +was towed across the Atlantic and placed in a secure position in St +George, while, owing to their important strategic position in +mid-Atlantic, the British government maintains a strong garrison. The +Bermudas are a British crown colony, with a governor resident at +Hamilton, who is assisted by an executive council of 6 members appointed +by the crown, a legislative council of 9 similarly appointed, and a +representative assembly of 36 members, of whom four are returned by each +of nine parishes. The currency of the colony, which had formerly twelve +shillings to the pound sterling, was assimilated to that of England in +1842. The English language is universal. The colony is ecclesiastically +attached to the bishopric of Newfoundland. In 1847 an educational board +was established, and there are numerous schools; attendance is +compulsory, but none of the schools is free. Government scholarships +enable youths to be educated for competition in the Rhodes scholarships +to Oxford University. The revenue of the islands shows a fairly regular +increase during the last years of the 19th century and the first of the +20th, as from L37,830 in 1895 to L63,457 in 1904; expenditure is +normally rather less than revenue. In the year last named imports were +valued at L589,979 and exports at L130,305, the annual averages since +1895 being about L426,300 and L112,500 respectively. The population +shows a steady increase, as from 13,948 in 1881 to 17,535 in 1901; 6383 +were whites and 11,152 coloured in the latter year. + +_History._--The discovery of the Bermudas resulted from the shipwreck of +Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard (whose name they now bear), when on a voyage +from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs, early in the 16th century. +Henry May, an Englishman, suffered the same fate in 1593; and lastly, +Sir George Somers shared the destiny of the two preceding navigators in +1609. Sir George, from whom the islands took the alternative name of +Somers, was the first who established a settlement upon them, but he +died before he had fully accomplished his design. In 1612 the Bermudas +were granted to an offshoot of the Virginia Company, which consisted of +120 persons, 60 of whom, under the command of Henry More, proceeded to +the islands. The first source of colonial wealth was the growing of +tobacco, but the curing industry ceased early in the 18th century. In +1726 Bishop George Berkeley chose the Bermudas as the seat of his +projected missionary establishment. The first newspaper, the _Bermuda +Gazette_, was published in 1784. + + See Godet, _Bermuda, its History, Geology, Climate, &c_. (London, + 1860); Lefroy, _Discovery and Settlement of the Bermudas_ (London, + 1877-1879); A. Heilprin, _Bermuda Islands_ (Philadelphia, 1889); + Stark, _Bermuda Guide_ (London, 1898); Cole, _Bermuda ... + Bibliography_ (Boston, 1907); and for geology see also A. Agassiz, + "Visit to the Bermudas in March 1894," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. + Harvard_, vol. xxvi. No. 2, 1895; A.E. Verrill, "Notes on the Geology + of the Bermudas," _Amer. Journ. Sci._ ser. 4, vol. ix. (1900), pp. + 313-340; "The Bermuda Islands; Their Scenery, &c.," _Trans. Conn. + Acad. Arts and Sci._ vol. xi. pt. 2 (1901-1902). + + + + +BERMUDEZ, a N.E. state of Venezuela, between the Caribbean Sea and the +Orinoco river, bounded E. by the gulf of Paria and the Delta-Amacuro +territory, and W. by the states of Guarico and Miranda. Pop. (est. 1905) +364,158. It was created in 1881 by the union of the states of Barcelona, +Cumana and Maturin, dissolved in 1901 into its three original states, +and reorganized in 1904 with a slight modification of territory. The +state includes the oldest settlements in Venezuela, and was once very +prosperous, producing cattle and exporting hides, but wars and political +disorders have partly destroyed its industries and impeded their +development. Its principal productions are coffee, sugar, and cacao, +and--less important--cotton, tobacco, cocoanuts, timber, indigo and +dyewoods. Its more important towns are the capital, Barcelona, Maturin +(pop. 14,473), capital of a district of the same name, and Cumana +(10,000), on the gulf of Cariaco, founded in 1520 and one of the oldest +towns of the continent. + + + + +BERN (Fr. _Berne_), after the Grisons, the largest of the Swiss cantons, +but by far the most populous, though politically Bern ranks after that +of Zurich. It extends right across Switzerland from beyond the Jura to +the snow-clad ranges that separate Bern from the Valais. Its total area +is 2641.9 sq. m., of which 2081 sq. m. are classed as "productive" +(including 591 sq. m. of forests, and 2.1 m. of vineyards), while of the +remainder 111.3 sq. m. are occupied by glaciers (the Valais and the +Grisons alone surpass it in this respect). It is mainly watered by the +river Aar (q.v.), with its affluents, the Kander (left), the Saane or +Sarine (left) and the Emme (right); the Aar forms the two lakes of +Brienz and Thun (q.v.). The great extent of this canton accounts for the +different character of the regions therein comprised. Three are usually +distinguished:--(1) The _Oberland_ or Highlands, which is that best +known to travellers, for it includes the snowy Alps of the Bernese +Oberland (culminating in the Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the +Jungfrau, 13,669 ft.), as well as the famous summer resorts of +Grindelwald, Murren, Lauterbrunnen, Interlaken, Meiringen, Kandersteg, +Adelboden, Thun and the fine pastoral valley of the Simme. (2) The +_Mittelland_ or Midlands, comprising the valley of the Aar below Thun, +and that of the Emme, thus taking in the outliers of the high Alps and +the open country on every side of the town of Bern. (3) The _Seeland_ +(Lakeland) and the Jura, extending from Bienne and its lake across the +Jura to Porrentruy in the plains and to the upper course of the Birs. +The Oberland and Mittelland form the "old" canton, the Jura having only +been acquired in 1815, and differing from the rest of the canton by +reason of its French-speaking and Romanist inhabitants. + +In 1900 the total population of the canton was 589,433, of whom 483,388 +were German-speaking, 97,789 French-speaking, and 7167 Italian-speaking; +while there were 506,699 Protestants, 80,489 Romanists (including the +Old Catholics), and 1543 Jews. The capital is Bern (q.v.), while the +other important towns are Bienne (q.v.), Burgdorf (q.v.), Delemont or +Delsberg (5053 inhabitants), Porrentruy or Pruntrut (6959 inhabitants), +Thun (q.v.), and Langenthal (4799 inhabitants). There is a university +(founded in 1834) in the town of Bern, as well as institutions for +higher education in the principal towns. The canton is divided into 30 +administrative districts, and contains 507 communes (the highest number +in Switzerland). From 1803 to 1814 the canton was one of the six +"Directorial" cantons of the Confederation. The existing cantonal +constitution dates from 1893, but in 1906 the direct popular election of +the executive of 9 members (hitherto named by the legislature) was +introduced. The legislature or _Grossrath_ is elected for four years +(like the executive), in the proportion of 1 member to every 2500 (or +fraction over 1250) of the resident population. The _obligatory +Referendum_ obtains in the case of all laws, and of decrees relating to +an expenditure of over half a million francs, while 12,000 citizens have +the right of _initiative_ in the case of legislative projects, and +15,000 may demand the revision of the cantonal constitution. The 2 +members sent by the canton to the federal _Standerath_ are elected by +the _Grossrath_, while the 29 members sent to the federal _Nationalrath_ +are chosen by a popular vote. In the Alpine portions of the canton the +breeding of cattle (those of the Simme valley are particularly famous) +is the chief industry; next come the elaborate arrangements for summer +travellers (the _Fremdenindustrie_). It is reckoned that there are 2430 +"Alps" or mountain pastures in the canton, of which 1474 are in the +Oberland, 627 in the Jura, and 280 in the Emme valley; they can maintain +95,478 cows and are of the estimated value of 46-1/2 million francs. The +cheese of the Emme valley is locally much esteemed. Other industries in +the Alpine region are wood-carving (at Brienz) and wine manufacture (on +the shores of the lakes of Bienne and of Thun). The Mittelland is the +agricultural portion of the canton. Watchmaking is the principal +industry of the Jura, Bienne and St Imier being the chief centres of +this industry. Iron mines are also worked in the Jura, while the +Heimberg potteries, near Thun, produce a locally famous ware, and there +are both quarries of building stone and tile factories. The canton is +well supplied with railway lines, the broad gauge lines being 228 m. in +length, and the narrow gauge lines 157-1/2 m.--in all 385-1/2 m. Among +these are many funicular cog-wheel lines, climbing up to considerable +heights, so up to Murren (5368 ft.), over the Wengern Alp (6772 ft.), up +to the Schynige Platte (6463 ft.), and many others still in the state of +projects. All these are in the Oberland where, too, is the so-called +Jungfrau railway, which in 1906 attained a point (the Eismeer station) +in the south wall of the Eiger (13,042 ft.) that was 10,371 ft. in +height, the loftiest railway station in Switzerland. + +The canton of Bern is composed of the various districts which the town +of Bern acquired by conquest or by purchase in the course of time. The +more important, with dates of acquisition, are the following:--Laupen +(1324), Hasli and Meiringen (1334), Thun and Burgdorf (1384), Unterseen +and the Upper Simme valley (1386), Frutigen, &c. (1400), Lower Simme +valley (1439-1449), Interlaken, with Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen and +Brienz (1528, on the suppression of the Austin Canons of Interlaken), +Saanen or Gessenay (1555), Koniz (1729), and the Bernese Jura with +Bienne (1815, from the bishopric of Basel). But certain regions +previously won were lost in 1798--Aargau (1415), Aigle and Grandson +(1475), Vaud (1536), and the Pays d'En-Haut or Chateau d'Oex (1555). +From 1798 to 1802 the Oberland formed a separate canton (capital, Thun) +of the Helvetic Republic. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BERN (Fr. _Berne_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same name, +and, by a Federal law of 1848, the political capital of the Swiss +confederation. It is most picturesquely situated on a high bluff or +peninsula, round the base of which flows the river Aar, thus completely +cutting off the old town, save to the west. Five lofty bridges have been +thrown over the Aar, the two most modern being the Kirchfeld and +Kornhaus bridges which have greatly contributed to create new +residential quarters near the old town. Within the town the arcades (or +_Lauben_) on either side of the main street, and the numerous +elaborately ornamented fountains attract the eye, as well as the two +remaining towers that formerly stood on the old walls but are now in the +centre of the town; the _Zeilglockenthurm_ (famous for its singular +16th-century clock, with its mechanical contrivances, set in motion when +the hour strikes) and the _Kaficthurm_. The principal medieval building +in Bern is the (now Protestant) Munster, begun in 1421 though not +completed till 1573. The tower, rising conspicuously above the town, has +recently been well restored, but the church was never a cathedral church +(as is often stated), for there has never yet been a bishop of Bern. The +federal Houses of Parliament (_Bundeshaus_) were much enlarged in +1888-1892, the older portions dating from 1852-1857, and also contain +the offices of the federal executive and administration. The town-hall +dates from 1406, while some of the houses belonging to the old gilds +contain much of interest. The town library (with which that of the +university was incorporated in 1905) contains a vast store of MSS. and +rare printed books, but should be carefully distinguished from the +national Swiss library, which, with the building for the federal +archives, is built in the new Kirchfeld quarter. There are a number of +museums; the historical (archaeological and medieval), the natural +history (in which the skin of Barry, the famous St Bernard dog, is +preserved), the art (mainly modern Swiss pictures), and the Alpine (in +which are collections of all kinds relating to the Swiss Alps). Bern +possesses a university (founded in 1834) and two admirably organized +hospitals. The old fortifications (_Schanzen_) have been converted into +promenades, which command wonderful views of the snowy Alps of the +Bernese Oberland. Just across the Nydeck bridge is the famous bear pit +in which live bears are kept, as they are supposed to have given the +name to the town; certainly a bear is shown on the earliest known town +seal (1224), while live bears have been maintained at the charges of the +town since 1513. There is comparatively little industrial activity in +the town, the importance of which is mainly political, though of late +years it has been selected as the seat of various international +associations (postal, telegraph, railway, copyright, &c.). The climate +is severe, as the town is much exposed to cold winds blowing from the +snowy Alps. In point of population it is exceeded in Switzerland by +Zurich, Basel and Geneva, though the number of inhabitants has risen +from 27,558 in 1850 and 43,197 in 1880 to 64,227 in 1900. In 1900, +59,698 inhabitants were German-speaking; while 57,144 were Protestants, +6087 Romanists (including Old Catholics) and 655 Jews. The height of the +town above the sea-level is 1788 ft. + +The ancient castle of Nydeck, at the eastern end of the peninsula, +guarded the passage over the Aar, and it was probably its existence that +induced Berchtold V., duke of Zaringen, to found Bern in 1191 as a +military post on the frontier between the Alamannians (German-speaking) +and the Burgundians (French-speaking). Thrice the walls which protected +the town were moved westwards, about 1250, in 1346 and in 1622, though +even at the last-named date the town only stretched a little way to the +west of (or beyond) the present railway station. After the extinction of +the Zaringen dynasty (1218) Bern became a free imperial city, but it had +to fight hard for its independence, which was finally secured by the +victories of Dornbuhl (1298) over Fribourg and the Habsburgs, and of +Laupen (1339) over the neighbouring Burgundian nobles. In the second +battle Bern received help from the three forest cantons with which it +had become allied in 1323, while in 1353 it entered the Swiss +confederation as its eighth member. It soon took the lead in the +confederation, though always aiming at enlarging its own borders, even +at great risks (see the article on the canton). In 1528 Bern accepted +the religious reformation, and henceforth became one of its chief +champions in Switzerland. In the 17th century the number of families by +which high offices of state could be held was diminished, so that in +1605 there were 152 thus qualified, but in 1691 only 104, while towards +the end of the 18th century there were only 69 such families. Meanwhile +the rule of the town was extending over more and more territory, so that +finally it governed 52 bailiwicks (acquired between 1324 and 1729), the +Bernese patricians being thus extremely powerful and forming an +oligarchy that administered affairs like a benevolent and well-ordered +despotism. In 1723 Major Davel, at Lausanne, and in 1749 Henzi, in Bern +itself, tried to break down this monopoly, but in each case paid the +penalty of failure on the scaffold. The whole system was swept away by +the French in 1798, and though partially revived in 1815, came to an end +in 1831, since which time Bern has been in the van of political +progress. From 1815 to 1848 it shared with Zurich and Lucerne the +supreme rule (which shifted from one to the other every two years) in +the Swiss confederation, while in 1848 a federal law made Bern the sole +political capital, where the federal government is permanently fixed and +where the ministers of foreign powers reside. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Die Alp- und Weidewirthschaft im Kant. Bern_ (Bern, + 1903); _Archiv d. hist. Vereins d. Kant. Bern_, from 1848, and + _Blatter fur bernische Geschichte_, from 1905; _Bernische Biographien_ + (Bern, 1898-1906); E. Friedli, _Barndutsch als Spiegel bernischen + Volkstums_. vol. i. (_Lutzelfluh_, Bern, 1905), and vol. ii. + (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908); _Festschrift zur 7ten Sakularfeier d. + Grundung Berns_, 1191 (Bern, 1891); _Fontes Rerum Bernensium_ (to + 1378), (9 vols., Bern, 1883-1908); K. Geiser, _Geschichte d. + bernischen Verfassung_, 1191-1471 (Bern, 1888); B. Haller, _Bern in + seinen Rathsmanualen_, 1465-1565 (3 vols., Bern, 1900-1902); E.F. and + W.F. von Mulinen, _Beitrage zur Heimathskunde d. Kantons Bern, + deulschen Theils_ (3 vols., Bern, 1879-1894); W.F. von Mulinen, _Berns + Geschichte_, 1191-1891 (Bern, 1891); E. von Rodt, _Bernische + Stadtgeschichte_ (Bern, 1888), and 6 finely illustrated vols. on Bern + in the 13th to 19th centuries (Bern, 1898-1907); L.S. von Tscharner, + _Rechtsgeschichte des Obersimmenthales bis zum Jahre 1798_ (Bern, + 1908); E. von Wattenwyl, _Geschichte d. Stadt u. Landschaft Bern_ (to + 1400), (2 vols.); Schaffhausen and Bern (1867-1872); F.E. Welti, _Die + Rechtsquellen d. Kant. Bern_, vol. i. (Aarau, 1902); Gertrud Zuricher, + _Kinderspiel u. Kinderlied im Kant. Bern_ (Zurich, 1902). + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BERNARD, SAINT (1090-1153), abbot of Clairvaux one of the most +illustrious preachers and monks of the middle ages, was born at +Fontaines, near Dijon, in France. His father, a knight named Tecelin, +perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a daughter of the noble house +of Mon-Bar, and a woman distinguished for her piety, died while Bernard +was yet a boy. The lad was constitutionally unfitted for the career of +arms, and his own disposition, as well as his mother's early influence, +directed him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed +by his relations, who sent him to study at Chalons in order to qualify +for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard's resolution to become a +monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at last definitely decided to +join the community which Robert of Molesmes had founded at Citeaux in +1198, he carried with him his brothers and many of his relations and +friends. The little community of reformed Benedictines, which was to +produce so profound an influence on Western monachism (see CISTERCIANS +and MONASTICISM) and had seemed on the point of extinction for lack of +novices, gained a sudden new life through this accession of some thirty +young men of the best families of the neighbourhood. Others followed +their example; and the community grew so rapidly that it was soon able +to send off offshoots. One of these daughter monasteries, Clairvaux, was +founded in 1115, in a wild valley branching from that of the Aube, on +land given by Count Hugh of Troyes, and of this Bernard was appointed +abbot. + +By the new constitution of the Cistercians Clairvaux became the chief +monastery of the five branches into which the order was divided under +the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux. Though nominally subject +to Citeaux, however, Clairvaux soon became the most important Cistercian +house, owing to the fame and influence of Bernard.[1] His saintly +character, his self-mortification--of so severe a character that his +friend, William of Champeaux, bishop of Chalons, thought it right to +remonstrate with him--and above all, his marvellous power as a preacher, +soon made him famous, and drew crowds of pilgrims to Clairvaux. His +miracles were noised abroad, and sick folk were brought from near and +far to be healed by his touch. Before long the abbot, who had intended +to devote his life to the work of his monastery, was drawn into the +affairs of the great world. When in 1124 Pope Honorius II. mounted the +chair of St Peter, Bernard was already reckoned among the greatest of +French churchmen; he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical +discussions, and papal legates sought his counsel. Thus in 1128 he was +invited by Cardinal Matthew of Albano to the synod of Troyes, where he +was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the new order of +Knights Templars, the rules of which he is said to have drawn up; and in +the following year, at the synod of Chalons-sur-Marne, he ended the +crisis arising out of certain charges brought against Henry, bishop of +Verdun, by persuading the bishop to resign. The European importance of +Bernard, however, began with the death of Pope Honorius II. (1130) and +the disputed election that followed. In the synod convoked by Louis the +Fat at Etampes in April 1130 Bernard successfully asserted the claims of +Innocent II. against those of Anacletus II., and from this moment became +the most influential supporter of his cause. He threw himself into the +contest with characteristic ardour. While Rome itself was held by +Anacletus, France, England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent, +who, though banished from Rome, was--in Bernard's phrase--"accepted by +the world." The pope travelled from place to place, with the powerful +abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble +still, so far as its buildings were concerned; and he went with Bernard +to parley with the emperor Lothair III. at Liege. + +In 1133, the year of the emperor's first expedition to Rome, Bernard was +in Italy persuading the Genoese to make peace with the men of Pisa, +since the pope had need of both. He accompanied Innocent to Rome, +successfully resisting the proposal to reopen negotiations with +Anacletus, who held the castle of Sant' Angelo and, with the support of +Roger of Sicily, was too strong to be subdued by force. Lothair, though +crowned by Innocent in St Peter's, could do nothing to establish him in +the Holy See so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the +house of Hohenstaufen. Again Bernard came to the rescue; in the spring +of 1135 he was at Bamberg successfully persuading Frederick of +Hohenstaufen to submit to the emperor. In June he was back in Italy, +taking a leading part in the council of Pisa, by which Anacletus was +excommunicated. In northern Italy the effect of his personality and of +his preaching was immense; Milan itself, of all the Lombard cities most +jealous of the imperial claims, surrendered to his eloquence, submitted +to Lothair and to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will +into the vacant see of St Ambrose. In 1137, the year of Lothair's last +journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at Monte Cassino, +setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at Salerno, trying in +vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against Anacletus, in Rome +itself, agitating with success against the antipope. Anacletus died on +the 25th of January 1138; on the 13th of March the cardinal Gregory was +elected his successor, assuming the name of Victor. Bernard's crowning +triumph in the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the +result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was healed, +and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the peace of his +monastery. + +Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135-1136) been transformed +outwardly--in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred the +rough simplicity of the original buildings--into a more suitable seat +for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome itself. How great this +influence was is shown by the outcome of Bernard's contest with Abelard +(q.v.). In intellectual and dialectical power the abbot was no match for +the great schoolman; yet at Sens in 1141 Abelard feared to face him, and +when he appealed to Rome Bernard's word was enough to secure his +condemnation. + +One result of Bernard's fame was the marvellous growth of the Cistercian +order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than ninety-three monasteries in +connexion with Clairvaux were either founded or affiliated from other +rules, three being established in England and one in Ireland. In 1145 a +Cistercian monk, once a member of the community of Clairvaux--another +Bernard, abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as Eugenius +III. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a triumph for +Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to press at Rome applied +to him, as though he himself had mounted the chair of St Peter (_Ep_. +239). + +Having healed the schism within the church, Bernard was next called upon +to attack the enemy without. Languedoc especially had become a hotbed of +heresy, and at this time the preaching of Henry of Lausanne (q.v.) was +drawing thousands from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the +invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard travelled in the south, +and by his preaching did something to stem the flood of heresy for a +while. Far more important, however, was his activity in the following +year, when, in obedience to the pope's command, he preached a crusade. +The effect of his eloquence was extraordinary. At the great meeting at +Vezelay, on the 21st of March, as the result of his sermon, King Louis +VII. of France and his queen, Eleanor of Guienne, took the cross, +together with a host of all classes, so numerous that the stock of +crosses was soon exhausted; Bernard next travelled through northern +France, Flanders and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the wildest +enthusiasm; and at Spires on Christmas day he succeeded in persuading +Conrad, king of the Romans, to join the crusade. + +The lamentable outcome of the movement (see CRUSADES) was a hard blow to +Bernard, who found it difficult to understand this manifestation of the +hidden counsels of God, but ascribed it to the sins of the crusaders +(_Ep_. 288; _de Consid_. ii. 1). The news of the disasters to the +crusading host first reached Bernard at Clairvaux, where Pope Eugenius, +driven from Rome by the revolution associated with the name of Arnold of +Brescia, was his guest. Bernard had in March and April 1148 accompanied +the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack on certain +propositions of the scholastic theologian Gilbert de la Porree (q.v.). +From whatever cause--whether the growing jealousy of the cardinals, or +the loss of prestige owing to the rumoured failure of the crusade, the +success of which he had so confidently predicted--Bernard's influence, +hitherto so ruinous to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion +failed of its full effect. On the news of the full extent of the +disaster that had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to +retrieve it by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of +Suger, abbot of St Denis, now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard +attended the meeting of Chartres convened for this purpose, where he +himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the choice being +confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this task, for which he was +physically and constitutionally unfit, by the intervention of the +Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to undertake it. + +Bernard was now ageing, broken by his austerities and by ceaseless work, +and saddened by the loss of several of his early friends. But his +intellectual energy remained undimmed. He continued to take an active +interest in ecclesiastical affairs, and his last work, the _De +Consideratione_, shows no sign of failing power. He died on the 20th of +August 1153. + +The greatness of St Bernard lay not in the qualities of his intellect, +but of his character. Intellectually he was the child of his age, +inferior to those subtle minds whom the world, fired by his contagious +zeal, conspired to crush. Morally he was their superior; and in this +moral superiority lay the secret of his power. The age recognized in him +the embodiment of its ideal: that of medieval monasticism at its highest +development. The world had no meaning for him save as a place of +banishment and trial, in which men are but "strangers and pilgrims" +(Serm. i., Epiph. n. 1; Serm. vii., Lent. n. 1); the way of grace, back +to the lost inheritance, had been marked out once for all, and the +function of theology was but to maintain the landmarks inherited from +the past. With the subtleties of the schools he had no sympathy, and the +dialectics of the schoolmen quavered into silence before his terrible +invective. Yet, within the limits of his mental horizon, Bernard's +vision was clear enough. His very life proves with what merciless logic +he followed out the principles of the Christian faith as he conceived +it; and it is impossible to say that he conceived it amiss. For all his +overmastering zeal he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. +Even when he was preaching the crusade he interfered at Mainz to stop +the persecution of the Jews, stirred up by the monk Radulf. As for +heretics, "the little foxes that spoil the vines," these "should be +taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument," though, if any +heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered "that he should be +driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty, rather than that +he should be allowed to spoil the vines" (Serm. lxiv.). He was evidently +troubled by the mob violence which made the heretics "martyrs to their +unbelief." He approved the zeal of the people, but could not advise the +imitation of their action, "because faith is to be produced by +persuasion, not imposed by force"; adding, however, in the true spirit +of his age and of his church, "it would without doubt be better that +they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be allowed to +draw away many other persons into their error." Finally, oblivious of +the precedent of the Pharisees, he ascribes the steadfastness of these +"dogs" in facing death to the power of the devil (Serm. lxvi. on +Canticles ii. 15). + +This is Bernard at his worst. At his best--and, fortunately, this is +what is mainly characteristic of the man and his writings--he displays a +nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness in his dealings with +others, and a genuine humility, with no touch of servility, that make +him one of the most complete exponents of the Christian life. His +broadly Christian character is, indeed, witnessed to by the enduring +quality of his influence. The author of the _Imitatio_ drew inspiration +from his writings; the reformers saw in him a medieval champion of their +favourite doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace; his works, down +to the present day, have been reprinted in countless editions. This is +perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own inspiration +was the Bible. He was saturated in its language and in its spirit; and +though he read it, as might be expected, uncritically, and interpreted +its plain meanings allegorically--as the fashion of the day was--it +saved him from the grosser aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He +accepted the teaching of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady +and the saints, and on feast-days and festivals these receive their due +meed in his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at +other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed completely in his +mind by his idea of the grace of God and the moral splendour of Christ; +"from Him do the Saints derive the odour of sanctity; from Him also do +they shine as lights" (_Ep._ 464). + +The cause of Bernard's extraordinary popular success as a preacher can +only imperfectly be judged by the sermons that survive. These were all +delivered in Latin, evidently to congregations more or less on his own +intellectual level. Like his letters, they are full of quotations from +and reference to the Bible, and they have all the qualities likely to +appeal to men of culture at all times. "Bernard," wrote Erasmus in his +_Art of Preaching_, "is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than +by art; he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and move +the affections." The same is true of the letters and to an even more +striking degree. They are written on a large variety of subjects, great +and small, to people of the most diverse stations and types; and they +help us to understand the adaptable nature of the man, which enabled him +to appeal as successfully to the unlearned as to the learned. + +Bernard's works fall into three categories:--(1) _Letters_, of which +over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest and value for +the history of the period. (2) _Treatises_: (a) dogmatic and polemical, +_De gratia el libero arbitrio_, written about 1127, and following +closely the lines laid down by St Augustine; _De baptismo aliisque +quaestionibus ad mag. Hugonem de S. Victore; Contra quaedam capitala +errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II._ (in justification of the action of +the synod of Sens); (b) ascetic and mystical, _De gradibus humilitatis +et superbiae_, his first work, written perhaps about 1121; _De diligendo +Deo_ (about 1126); _De conversione ad clericos_, an address to +candidates for the priesthood; _De Consideratione_, Bernard's last work, +written about 1148 at the pope's request for the edification and +guidance of Eugenius III.; (c) about monasticism, _Apologia ad +Guilelmum_, written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; _De +laude novae militiae ad milites templi_ (c. 1132-1136); _De precepto et +dispensatione_, an answer to various questions on monastic conduct and +discipline addressed to him by the monks of St Peter at Chartres (some +time before 1143); (d) on ecclesiastical government, _De moribus et +officio episcoporum_, written about 1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the +_De Consideratione_ mentioned above; (e) a biography, _De vita et rebus +gestis S. Malachiae, Hiberniae episcopi_, written at the request of the +Irish abbot Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is +of importance for the ecclesiastical history of Ireland in the 12th +century; (f) sermons--divided into _Sermones de tempore; de sanctis; de +diversis_; and eighty-six sermons, _in Cantica Canticorum_, an +allegorical and mystical exposition of the Song of Solomon; (g) hymns. +Many hymns ascribed to Bernard survive, e.g. _Jesu dulcis memoria, Jesus +rex admirabilis. Jesu decus angelicum, Salve caput cruentatum_. Of these +the three first are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been +translated and are used in Protestant churches. + +St Bernard's works were first published in anything like a complete +edition at Paris in 1508, under the title _Seraphica melliflui devotique +doctoris S. Bernardi scripta_, edited by Andre Bocard; the first really +critical and complete edition is that of Dom J. Mabillon _Sancti +Bernardi opp. &c._ (Paris, 1667, improved and enlarged in 1690, and +again, by Massuet and Texier, in 1719), reprinted by J.P. Migne, +_Patrolog. lat._ (Paris, 1859). There is an English translation of +Mabillon's edition, including, however, only the letters and the sermons +on the Song of Songs, with the biographical and other prefaces, by +Samuel J. Eales (4 vols., London, 1889-1895). See further Leopold +Janauschek, _Bibliographia Bernardina_ (Vienna, 1891), which includes +2761 entries, including 120 works wrongly ascribed to Bernard. + + AUTHORITIES.--The principal source for the life of St Bernard is the + _Vita Prima_, compiled, in six books, by various contemporary writers: + book i. by William, abbot of St Thierry near Reims; book ii. by + Ernald, or Arnald, abbot of Bonnevalle; books iii., iv. and v. by + Geoffrey (Gaufrid), monk of Clairvaux and Bernard's secretary; book + vi., on Bernard's miracles, by Geoffrey and Philip, another monk of + Clairvaux, &c. A MS. is preserved, _int. al._, in the library of + Lambeth Palace (S xiv. No. 163). The _Vita_ was first published in + _Bernardi op. omn._ by Mabillon (Paris, 1690), ii. pp. 1061 ff.; it + was included in Migne, _Patrolog. lat._ clxxxv. pp. 225-416, which + also contains the abridgments or amplifications, by later hands, of + the _Vita Prima_, known as the _Vita Secunda_, _Tertia_ and _Quarta_. + For a critical study of these sources see G. Huffer, _Der heilige + Bernhard von Clairvaux_ (2 vols., Munster, 1886), and E. Vacandard, + _Vie de Saint Bernard_ (2 vols., Paris, 1895). + + Among the numerous modern works on St Bernard may be mentioned, + besides the above, J.C. Morison, _The Life and Times of St Bernard_ + (London, 1863); G. Chevallier, _Histoire de Saint Bernard_ (2 vols., + Lille, 1888); S.J. Eales, _St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux_ (London, + 1890, "Fathers for English Readers" series); ib. _Life and Works of St + Bernard_ (London, 1889); R.S. Storrs, _Bernard of Clairvaux: the + Times, the Man and His Work_ (New York, 1893); Comte d'Haussonville, + _Saint Bernard_ (Paris, 1906). See also the article by Vacandart in A. + Vacant's _Dictionnaire de theologie_ (with full bibliography), and + that by S.M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), + vol. ii. (bibliography). Further works, monographs, &c., are given s. + "Vita S. Bernardi" in Potthast. _Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi_ + (Berlin, 1896). (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Cistercians of this branch of the order were commonly known + as Bernardines. + + + + +BERNARD OF CHARTRES (1080?-1167), surnamed SYLVESTRIS, scholastic +philosopher, described by John of Salisbury as _perfectissimus inter +Platonicos nostri saeculi_. He and his brother Theodore were among the +chief members of the school of Chartres (France), founded in the early +part of the 11th century by Fulbert, the great disciple of Gerbert. This +school flourished at a time when medieval thought was directed to the +ancient philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and had perversely come to +regard Aristotle as merely the founder of abstract logic and formal +intellectualism, as opposed to Plato whose doctrine of Ideas seemed to +tend in a naturalistic direction. Thus Bernard is a Platonist and yet +the representative of a "return to Nature" which curiously anticipates +the humanism of the early Renaissance. John of Salisbury (_Metalogicus_, +iv. 35) attributes to him two treatises, of which one contrasts the +eternity of ideas with the finite nature of things, and the other is an +attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. The only extant fragments of +Bernard's writings are from a treatise _Megacosmus and Microcosmus_ +(edited by C.S. Barach at Innsbruck, 1876). The source of Bernard's +inspiration was Plato's _Timaeus_. He maintained that ideas are really +existent and are laid up for ever in the mind of God. He further +attempted to build up a symbolism of numbers with the view of +elaborating the doctrine of the Trinity, and explaining the meaning of +unity, plurality and likeness. + + See SCHOLASTICISM; also V. Cousin, _Oeuvres inedites_ of Abelard + (Paris, 1836); Haureau, _Philosophie scolastique_, i. 396 foll. + + + + +BERNARD, CHARLES DE, whose full name was PIERRE MARIE CHARLES DE BERNARD +DU GRAIL DE LA VILLETTE (1804-1850), French writer, was born at Besancon +on the 25th of February 1804. After studying for the law, and then +taking to journalism, he was encouraged by Balzac (whose _Peau de +chagrin_ he had reviewed) to settle in Paris and devote himself to +authorship; and the result was a series of volumes of fiction, +remarkable for their picture of provincial society and the Parisian +_bourgeoisie_. The best of these are _Le Noeud gordien_ (1838), +containing among other short stories _Une Aventure de magistrat_, from +which Sardou drew his comedy of the _Pommes du voisin; Gerfaut_ (1838), +considered his masterpiece; _Les Ailes d'Icare_ (1840), _La Peau du +lion_ (1841) and _Le Gentilhomme campagnard_ (1847). + + His _Oeuvres completes_ (12 vols.), which appeared after his death on + the 6th of March 1850, include also his poetry and two comedies + written in collaboration with "Leonce" (C.H.L. Laurencot, 1805-1862). + A flattering appreciation by Armand de Pontmartin is prefixed to _Un + Beau-pere_ in this collection. In W.M. Thackeray's _Paris Sketch-book_ + ("On some fashionable French novels") there is an admirable criticism + of Bernard. See also an essay by Henry James in _French Poets and + Novelists_ (1884). + + + + +BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878), French physiologist, was born on the 12th +of July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien near Villefranche. He +received his early education in the Jesuit school of that town, and then +proceeded to the college at Lyons, which, however, he soon left to +become assistant in a druggist's shop. His leisure hours were devoted to +the composition of a vaudeville comedy, _La Rose du Rhone_, and the +success it achieved moved him to attempt a prose drama in five acts, +_Arthur de Bretagne_. At the age of twenty-one he went to Paris, armed +with this play and an introduction to Saint-Marc Girardin, but the +critic dissuaded him from adopting literature as a profession, and urged +him rather to take up the study of medicine. This advice he followed, +and in due course became interne at the Hotel Dieu. In this way he was +brought into contact with the great physiologist, F. Magendie, who was +physician to the hospital, and whose official _preparateur_ at the +College de France he became in 1841. Six years afterwards he was +appointed his deputy-professor at the college, and in 1855 he succeeded +him as full professor. Some time previously he had been chosen the first +occupant of the newly-instituted chair of physiology at the Sorbonne. +There no laboratory was provided for his use, but Louis Napoleon, after +an interview with him in 1864, supplied the deficiency, at the same time +building a laboratory at the natural history museum in the Jardin des +Plantes, and establishing a professorship, which Bernard left the +Sorbonne to accept in 1868--the year in which he was admitted a member +of the Institute. He died in Paris on the 10th of February 1878 and was +accorded a public funeral--an honour which had never before been +bestowed by France on a man of science. + +Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of the +pancreas gland, the juice of which he proved to be of great significance +in the process of digestion; this achievement won him the prize for +experimental physiology from the Academy of Sciences. A second +investigation--perhaps his most famous--was on the glycogenic function +of the liver; in the course of this he was led to the conclusion, which +throws light on the causation of diabetes, that the liver, in addition +to secreting bile, is the seat of an "internal secretion," by which it +prepares sugar at the expense of the elements of the blood passing +through it. A third research resulted in the discovery of the vaso-motor +system. While engaged, about 1851, in examining the effects produced in +the temperature of various parts of the body by section of the nerve or +nerves belonging to them, he noticed that division of the cervical +sympathetic gave rise to more active circulation and more forcible +pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of the head, and a few months +afterwards he observed that electrical excitation of the upper portion +of the divided nerve had the contrary effect. In this way he established +the existence of vaso-motor nerves--both vaso-dilatator and +vaso-constrictor. The study of the physiological action of poisons was +also a favourite one with him, his attention being devoted in particular +to curare and carbon monoxide gas. The earliest announcements of his +results, the most striking of which were obtained in the ten years from +about 1850 to 1860, were generally made in the recognized scientific +publications; but the full exposition of his views, and even the +statement of some of the original facts, can only be found in his +published lectures. The various series of these _Lecons_ fill seventeen +octavo volumes. He also published _Introduction a la medecine +experimentale_ (1865), and _Physiologie generale_ (1872). + + An English _Life of Bernard_, by Sir Michael Foster, was published in + London in 1899. + + + + +BERNARD, JACQUES (1658-1718), French theologian and publicist, was born +at Nions in Dauphine on the 1st of September 1658. Having studied at +Geneva, he returned to France in 1679, and was chosen minister of +Venterol in Dauphine, whence he afterwards removed to the church of +Vinsobres. As he continued to preach the reformed doctrines in +opposition to the royal ordinance, he was obliged to leave the country +and retired to Holland, where he was well received and appointed one of +the pensionary ministers of Gouda. In July 1686 he commenced his +_Histoire abregee de l'Europe_, which he continued monthly till +December 1688. In 1692 he began his _Lettres historiques_, containing +an account of the most important transactions in Europe; he carried on +this work till the end of 1698, after which it was continued by others. +When Le Clerc discontinued his _Bibliotheque universelle_ in 1691. +Bernard wrote the greater part of the twentieth volume and the five +following volumes. In 1698 he collected and published _Actes et +negotiations de la paix de Ryswic_, in four volumes 12mo. In 1699 he +began a continuation of Bayle's _Nouvelles de la republique des +lettres_, which continued till December 1710. In 1705 he was unanimously +elected one of the ministers of the Walloon church at Leiden; and about +the same time he succeeded M. de Valder in the chair of philosophy and +mathematics at Leiden. In 1716 he published a supplement to Moreri's +dictionary, in two volumes folio. The same year he resumed his +_Nouvelles de la republique des lettres_, and continued it till his +death, on the 27th of April 1718. Besides the works above mentioned, he +was the author of two practical treatises, one on late repentance +(1712), the other on the excellence of religion (1714). + + + + +BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1820-1882), English international lawyer, the third +son of Charles Bernard of Jamaica, the descendant of a Huguenot family, +was born at Tibberton Court, Gloucestershire, on the 28th of January +1820. He was educated at Sherborne school, and Trinity College, Oxford. +Graduating B.A. in 1842, he took his B.C.L., was elected Vinerian +scholar and fellow, and having read in chambers with Roundell Palmer +(afterwards Lord Selborne), was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in +1846. He was specially interested in legal history and in church +questions, and was one of the founders of the _Guardian_. In 1852 he was +elected to the new professorship of international law and diplomacy at +Oxford, attached to All Souls' College, of which he afterwards was made +a fellow. But besides his duties at Oxford he undertook a good deal of +non-collegiate work; he was a member of several royal commissions; in +1871 he went as one of the high commissioners to the United States, and +signed the treaty of Washington, and in 1872 he assisted Sir Roundell +Palmer before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva. In 1874 he resigned +his professorship at Oxford, but as member of the university of Oxford +commission of 1876 he was mainly responsible for bringing about the +compromise ultimately adopted between the university and the colleges. +Bernard's reputation as an international lawyer was widespread, and he +was an original member of the Institut de Droit International (1873). +His published works include _An Historical Account of the Neutrality of +Great Britain during the American Civil War_ (London, 1870), and many +lectures on international law and diplomacy. + + + + +BERNARD, SIMON (1779-1839), French general of engineers, was born at +Dole, educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and entered the army in the +corps of engineers. He rose rapidly, and served (1805-1812) as +aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He was wounded in the retreat after Leipzig, +and distinguished himself the same year (1813) in the gallant defence of +Torgau against the allies. After the emperor's fall he emigrated to the +United States, where, being made a brigadier-general of engineers, he +executed a number of extensive military works for the government, +notably at Fortress Monroe, Va., and around New York, and did a large +amount of the civil engineering connected with the Chesapeake and Ohio +Canal and the Delaware Breakwater. He returned to France after the +revolution of 1830, was made a lieu tenant-general by Louis Philippe, +and in 1836 served as minister of war. + + + + +BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART. (1750-1818), English social reformer, was +born at Lincoln on the 27th of April 1750, the younger son of Sir +Francis Bernard, 1st bart. (1711-1779), who as governor of Massachusetts +Bay (1760-1770) played a responsible part in directing the British +policy which led to the revolt of the American colonies. On the death of +his elder brother in 1810, Bernard succeeded to the baronetcy conferred +on his father in 1769. His early education was obtained in America, +partly at Harvard, in which college his father took a great interest. He +then acted as confidential secretary to his father during the troubles +which led (1769) to the governor's recall, and accompanied Sir Francis +to England, where he was called to the bar, and practised as a +conveyancer. He married a rich wife, and acquired a considerable +fortune, and then devoted most of his time to social work for the +benefit of the poor. He was treasurer of the Foundling Hospital, in the +concerns of which he took an important part. He helped to establish in +1796 the "Society for Bettering the Condition and Increasing the +Comforts of the Poor," in 1800 a school for indigent blind, and in 1801 +a fever institution. He was active in promoting vaccination, improving +the conditions of child labour, advocating rural allotments, and +agitating against the salt duties. He took great interest in education, +and with Count Rumford he was an originator of the Royal Institution in +London. He died without issue on the 1st of July 1818. + + + + +BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST (1380-1444), Franciscan friar and preacher, was +born of a noble family in 1380. His parents died in his childhood, and +on the completion of his education he spent some years in the service of +the sick in the hospitals, and thus caught the plague, of which he +nearly died. In 1402 he entered the Franciscan order in the strict +branch called Observant, of which he became one of the chief promoters +(see FRANCISCANS). Shortly after his profession the work of preaching +was laid upon him, and for more than thirty years he preached with +wonderful effect all over Italy, and played a great part in the +religious revival of the beginning of the 15th century. In 1437 he +became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the Franciscans. He +refused three bishoprics. He died in 1444 at Aquila in the Abruzzi, and +was canonized in 1450. + + The first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons, + was printed at Lyons in 1501; later ones in 1636, 1650 and 1745. His + Life will be found in the Bollandists and in _Lives of the Saints_ on + the 20th of May: a good modern biography has been written by Paul + Thureau-Dangin (1896), and translated into English by Gertrude von + Hugel (1906). (E. C. B.) + + + + +BERNAUER, AGNES (d. 1435), daughter of an Augsburg baker, was secretly +married about 1432 to Albert (1401-1460), son of Ernest, duke of +Bavaria-Munich. Ignorant of the fact that this union was a lawful one, +Ernest urged his son to marry, and reproached him with his connexion +with Agnes. Albert then declared she was his lawful wife; and +subsequently, during his absence, she was seized by order of Duke Ernest +and condemned to death for witchcraft. On the 12th of October 1435 she +was drowned in the Danube near Straubing, in which town her remains were +afterwards buried by Albert. This story lived long in the memory of the +people, and its chief interest lies in its literary associations. It has +afforded material for several dramas, and Adolf Bottger, Friedrich +Hebbel and Otto Ludwig have each written one entitled _Agnes Bernauer_. + + + + +BERNAY, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Eure, on the left bank of the Charentonne, 31 m. +W.N.W. of Evreux, on the Western railway between that town and Lisieux. +Pop. (1906) 5973. It is beautifully situated in the midst of green +wooded hills, and still justifies Madame de Stael's description of it as +"a basket of flowers." Of great antiquity, it possesses numerous quaint +wooden houses and ancient ecclesiastical buildings of considerable +interest. The abbey church is now used as a market, and the abbey, which +was founded by Judith of Brittany early in the 11th century, and +underwent a restoration in the 17th century, serves for municipal and +legal purposes. The church of Ste Croix, which has a remarkable marble +figure of the infant Jesus, dates from the 14th and 15th centuries, that +of Notre-Dame de la Couture, which preserves some good stained glass, +from the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, Bernay has a sub-prefecture, a +communal college, tribunals of commerce and of first instance, and a +board of trade-arbitrators. Among the industrial establishments of the +place are manufactories of cotton and woollen goods, bleacheries and +dye-works. Large numbers of Norman horses are sold in Lent, at the fair +known as the _Foire fleurie_, and there is also a trade in grain. Bernay +grew up round the Benedictine abbey mentioned above, and early in the +13th century was the seat of a viscount. The town, formerly fortified +was besieged by Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France, in 1378; it +was taken several times by the English during the first half of the 15th +century, and by Admiral de Coligny in 1563. The fortress was razed in +1589. + + + + +BERNAYS, JAKOB (1824-1881), German philologist and philosophical writer, +was born at Hamburg of Jewish parents on the 11th of September 1824. His +father, Isaac Bernays (1792-1849), a man of wide culture, was the first +orthodox German rabbi to preach in the vernacular. Jakob studied from +1844 to 1848 at the university of Bonn, the philological school of +which, under Welcker and Ritschl (whose favourite pupil Bernays became), +was the best in Germany. In 1853 he accepted the chair of classical +philology at the newly founded Jewish theological college (the Frankel +seminary) at Breslau, where he formed a close friendship with Mommsen. +In 1866, when Ritschl left Bonn for Leipzig, Bernays returned to his old +university as extraordinary professor and chief librarian. He remained +at Bonn until his death on the 28th of May 1881. His chief works, which +deal mainly with the Greek philosophers, are:--_Die Lebensbeschreibung +des J.J. Scaliger_ (1855); _Uber das Phokylidische Gedicht_ (1856); _Die +Chronik des Sulpicius Severus_ (1861); _Die Dialoge des Aristoteles im +Verhaltniss zu seinen ubrigen Werken_ (1863); _Theophrastos' Schrift +uber Frommigkeit_ (1866); _Die Heraklitischen Briefe_ (1869); _Lucian +und die Cyniker_ (1879); _Zwei Abhandlungen uber die Aristolelische +Theorie des Dramas_ (1880). The last of these was a republication of his +_Grundzuge der verlorenen Abhandlungen des Aristoteles uber die Wirkung +der Tragodie_ (1857), which aroused considerable controversy. + + See notices in _Biographisches Jahrbuch fur Alterthumskunde_ (1881), + and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xlvi. (1902); art. in _Jewish + Encyclopaedia_; also Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ iii. 176 (1908). + +His brother, MICHAEL BERNAYS (1834-1897), was born in Hamburg on the +27th of November 1834. He studied first law and then literature at Bonn +and Heidelberg, and obtained a considerable reputation by his lectures +on Shakespeare at Leipzig and an explanatory text to Beethoven's music +to _Egmont_. Having refused an invitation to take part in the editorship +of the _Preussiche Jahrbucher_, in the same year (1866) he published his +celebrated _Zur Kritik und Geschichte des Goetheschen-Textes._ He +confirmed his reputation by his lectures at the university of Leipzig, +and in 1873 accepted the post of extraordinary professor of German +literature at Munich specially created for him by Louis II. of Bavaria. +In 1874 he became an ordinary professor, a position which he only +resigned in 1889 when he settled at Carlsruhe. He died at Carlsruhe on +the 25th of February 1897. At an early age he had embraced Christianity, +whereas his brother Jakob remained a Jew. Among his other publications +were: _Briefe Goethes an F.A. Wolf_ (1868); _Zur Enstehungsgeschichte +des Schlegelschen Shakespeare_ (1872); an introduction to Hirzel's +collection entitled _Der junge Goethe_ (1875); and he edited a revised +edition of Voss's translation of the _Odyssey_. From his literary +remains were published _Schriften zur Kritik und Litteraturgeschichte_ +(1895-1899). + + + + +BERNBURG, a town in the duchy of Anhalt, Germany, on the Saale, 29 m. N. +by W. from Halle by rail, formerly the capital of the new incorporated +duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg. Pop. (1900) 34,427; (1905) 34,929. It consists +of four parts, the Altstadt or old town, the Bergstadt or hill town, the +Neustadt or new town, and the suburb of Waldau--the Bergstadt on the +right and the other three on the left of the river Saale, which is +crossed by a massive stone bridge. It is a well-built city, the +principal public buildings being the government house, the church of St +Mary, the gymnasium and the house of correction. The castle, formerly +the ducal residence, is in the Bergstadt, defended by moats, and +surrounded by beautiful gardens. Bernburg is the seat of considerable +industry, manufacturing machinery and boilers, sugar, pottery and +chemicals, and has lead and zinc smelting. Market-gardening is also +extensively carried on, and there is a large river traffic in grain and +agricultural produce. + +Bernburg is of great antiquity. The Bergstadt was fortified by Otto III. +in the 10th century, and the new town was founded in the 13th. For a +long period the different parts were under separate municipalities, the +new town uniting with the old in 1560, and the Bergstadt with both in +1824. Prince Frederick removed the ducal residence to Ballenstedt in +1765. + + + + +BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER, 2ND BARON (1469-1533), English translator, was +born probably at Tharfield, Hertfordshire, about 1469. His father was +killed at Barnet in 1471, and he inherited his title in 1474 from his +grandfather, John Bourchier, who was a descendant of Edward III. It is +supposed that he was educated at Oxford, perhaps at Balliol. His +political life began early, for in 1484 he was implicated in a premature +attempt to place Henry, duke of Richmond (afterwards Henry VII.), on the +throne, and fled in consequence to Brittany. In 1497 he helped to put +down an insurrection in Cornwall and Devonshire, raised by Michael +Joseph, a blacksmith, and from this time was in high favour at court. He +accompanied Henry VIII. to Calais in 1513, and was a captain of pioneers +at the siege of Therouanne. In the next year he was again sent to France +as chamberlain to the king's sister Mary on her marriage with Louis +XII., but he soon returned to England. He had been given the reversion +of the office of lord chancellor, and in 1516 he received the actual +appointment. In 1518 he was sent to Madrid to negotiate an alliance with +Charles of Spain. He sent letters to Henry chronicling the bull-fights +and other doings of the Spanish court, and to Wolsey complaining of the +expense to which he was put in his position as ambassador. In the next +year he returned to England, and with his wife Catherine Howard, +daughter of the duke of Norfolk, was present in 1520 at the Field of the +Cloth of Gold. But his affairs were greatly embarrassed. He was harassed +by lawsuits about his Hertfordshire property and owed the king sums he +was unable to repay. Perhaps in the hope of repairing his fortune, he +accepted the office of deputy of Calais, where he spent the rest of his +life in comparative leisure, though still harassed by his debts, and +died on the 16th of March 1533. + +His translation of _Syr Johan Froyssart of the Cronycles of England, +France, Spayne, Portyngale, Scotland, Bretayne, Flaunders: and other +places adjoynynge_, was undertaken at the request of Henry VIII., and +was printed by Richard Pynson in two volumes dated 1523 and 1525. It was +the most considerable historical work that had yet appeared in English, +and exercised great influence on 16th-century chroniclers. Berners tells +us in his prefaces of his own love of histories of all kinds, and in the +introduction to his story of Arthur of Little Britain he excuses its +"fayned mater" and "many unpossybylytees" on the ground that other well +reputed histories are equally incredible. He goes on to excuse his +deficiencies by saying that he knew himself to be unskilled in the +"facundyous arte of retoryke," and that he was but a "lerner of the +language of Frensshe." The want of rhetoric is not to be deplored. The +style of his translation is clear and simple, and he rarely introduces +French words or idioms. Two romances from the French followed: _The Boke +of Duke Huon of Burdeux_ (printed 1534? by Wynkyn de Worde), and _The +Hystory of the Moost noble and valyaunt knight Arthur of lytell +brytayne_. His other two translations, _The Castell of Love_ (printed +1540), from the _Carcel de Amor_ of Diego de San Pedro, and _The Golden +Boke of Marcus Aurelius_ (completed six days before his death, printed +1534), from a French version of Antonio Guevara's book, are in a +different manner. _The Golden Boke_ gives Berners a claim to be a +pioneer of Euphuism, although Lyly was probably acquainted with Guevara +not through his version, but through Sir Thomas North's _Dial of +Princes_. Berners is also credited with a book on the duties of the +inhabitants of Calais, which Mr Sidney Lee thinks may be identical with +the ordinance for watch and ward of Calais preserved in the Cotton MSS. +and with a lost comedy, _Ite in vineam meam_, which used to be acted at +Calais after vespers. + + A biographical account of Berners is to be found in Mr Sidney Lee's + introduction to _Huon of Bourdeaux_ (Early English Text Society + 1882-1883). Among the many editions of his translation of Froissart + may be mentioned that in the "Tudor Translations" (1901), with an + introductory critical note by Professor W.P. Ker. + + + + +BERNERS, BARNES or BERNES, JULIANA (b. 1388?), English writer on hawking +and hunting, is said to have been prioress of Sopwell nunnery near St +Albans, and daughter of Sir James Berners, who was beheaded in 1388. She +was probably brought up at court, and when she adopted the religious +life, she still retained her love of hawking, hunting and fishing, and +her passion for field sports. The only documentary evidence regarding +her, however, is the statement at the end of her treatise on hunting in +the _Boke of St Albans_, "Explicit Dam Julyans Barnes in her boke of +huntyng" (edition of 1486), and the name is changed by Wynkyn de Worde +to "dame Julyans Bernes." There is no such person to be found in the +pedigree of the Berners family, and there is a gap in the records of the +priory of Sopwell between 1430 and 1480. Juliana Berners is the supposed +author of the work generally known as the _Boke of St Albans_. The first +and rarest edition was printed in 1486 by an unknown schoolmaster at St +Albans. It has no title-page. Wynkyn de Worde's edition (fol. 1496), +also without a title-page, begins:--"This present boke shewyth the +manere of hawkynge and huntynge: and also of diuysynge of Cote armours. +It shewyth also a good matere belongynge to horses: wyth other +comendable treatyses. And ferdermore of the blasynge of armys: as +hereafter it maye appere." This edition was adorned by three woodcuts, +and included a "Treatyse of fysshynge wyth an Angle," not contained in +the St Albans edition. J. Haslewood, who published a facsimile of that +of Wynkyn de Worde (London, 1811, folio), with a biographical and +bibliographical notice, examined with the greatest care the author's +claims to figure as the earliest woman author in the English language. +He assigned to her little else in the _Boke_ except part of the treatise +on hawking and the section on hunting. It is expressly stated at the end +of the "Blasynge of Armys" that the section was "translatyd and +compylyt," and it is likely that the other treatises are translations, +probably from the French. An older form of the treatise on fishing was +edited in 1883 by Mr T. Satchell from a MS. in possession of Mr A. +Denison. This treatise probably dates from about 1450, and formed the +foundation of that section in the book of 1496. Only three perfect +copies of the first edition are known to exist. A facsimile, entitled +_The Book of St Albans_, with an introduction by William Blades, +appeared in 1881. During the 16th century the work was very popular, and +was many times reprinted. It was edited by Gervase Markham in 1595 as +_The Gentleman's Academie_. + + + + +BERNHARD OF SAXE-WEIMAR, DUKE (1604-1639), a celebrated general in the +Thirty Years' War, was the eleventh son of John, duke of Saxe-Weimar. He +received an unusually good education, and studied at Jena, but soon went +to the court of the Saxon elector to engage in knightly exercises. At +the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War he took the field on the +Protestant side, and served under Mansfeld at Wiesloch (1622), under the +margrave of Baden at Wimpfen (1622), and with his brother William at +Stadtlohn (1623). Undismayed by these defeats, he took part in the +campaigns of the king of Denmark; and when Christian withdrew from the +struggle Bernhard went to Holland and was present at the famous siege of +Hertogenbosch (Bois-le-Duc) in 1629. When Gustavus Adolphus landed in +Germany Bernhard quickly joined him, and for a short time he was colonel +of the Swedish life guards. After the battle of Breitenfeld he +accompanied Gustavus in his march to the Rhine and, between this event +and the battle of the Alte Veste, Bernhard commanded numerous +expeditions in almost every district from the Moselle to Tirol. At the +Alte Veste he displayed the greatest courage, and at Lutzen, when +Gustavus was killed, Bernhard immediately assumed the command, killed a +colonel who refused to lead his men to the charge, and finally by his +furious energy won the victory at sundown. At first as a subordinate to +his brother William, who as a Swedish lieutenant-general succeeded to +the command, but later as an independent commander, Bernhard continued +to push his forays over southern Germany; and with the Swedish General +Horn he made in 1633 a successful invasion into Bavaria, which was +defended by the imperialist general Arldinger. In this year he acquired +the duchy of Wurzburg, installing one of his brothers as _Stadthalter_, +and returning to the wars. A stern Protestant, he exacted heavy +contributions from the Catholic cities which he took, and his repeated +victories caused him to be regarded by German Protestants as the saviour +of their religion. But in 1634 Bernhard suffered the great defeat of +Nordlingen, in which the flower of the Swedish army perished. In 1635 he +entered the service of France, which had now intervened in the war. He +was now at the same time general-in-chief of the forces maintained by +the Heilbronn union of Protestant princes, and a general officer in the +pay of France. This double position was very difficult; in the following +campaigns, ably and resolutely conducted as they were, Bernhard +sometimes pursued a purely French policy, whilst at other times he used +the French mercenaries to forward the cause of the princes. From a +military point of view his most notable achievements were on the common +ground of the upper Rhine, in the Breisgau. In his great campaign of +1638 he won the battles of Rheinfelden, Wittenweiher and Thann, and +captured successively Rheinfelden, Fieiburg and Breisach, the last +reputed one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. Bernhard had in the +first instance received definite assurances from France that he should +be given Alsace and Hagenau, Wurzburg having been lost in the _debacle_ +of 1634; he now hoped to make Breisach the capital of his new duchy. But +his health was now broken. He died on the 8/18th of July 1639 at the +beginning of the campaign, and the governor of Breisach was bribed to +transfer the fortress to France. The duke was buried at Breisach, his +remains being subsequently removed to Weimar. + + See J.A.C. Hellfeld, _Geschichte Bernhards des Grossen, Herzogs v. + Saxe-Weimar_ (Jena, 1747); B. Rose, _Herzog Bernhard d. Grosse von + Saxe-Weimar_ (Weimar, 1828-1829); Droysen, _Bernhard v. Weimar_ + (Leipzig, 1885). + + + + +BERNHARDT, SARAH (ROSINE BERNARD) (1845- ), French actress, was born +in Paris on the 22nd of October 1845, of mixed French and Dutch +parentage, and of Jewish descent. She was, however, baptized at the age +of twelve and brought up in a convent. At thirteen she entered the +Conservatoire, where she gained the second prize for tragedy in 1861 and +for comedy in 1862. Her _debut_ was made at the Comedie Francaise on the +11th of August 1862, in a minor part in Racine's _Iphigenie en Aulide_, +without any marked success, nor did she do much better in burlesque at +the Porte St-Martin and Gymnase. In 1867 she became a member of the +company at the Odeon, where she made her first definite successes as +Cordelia in a French translation of _King Lear_, as the queen in Victor +Hugo's _Ruy Blas_, and, above all, as Zanetto in Francois Coppee's _Le +Passant_ (1869). When peace was restored after the Franco-German War she +left the Odeon for the Comedie Francaise, thereby incurring a +considerable monetary forfeit. From that time she steadily increased her +reputation, two of the most definite steps in her progress being her +performances of Phedre in Racine's play (1874) and of Dona Sol in Victor +Hugo's _Hernani_ (1877). In 1879 she had a famous season at the Gaiety +in London. By this time her position as the greatest actress of her day +was securely established. Her amazing power of emotional acting, the +extraordinary realism and pathos of her death-scenes, the magnetism of +her personality, and the beauty of her _"voix d'or,"_ made the public +tolerant of her occasional caprices. She had developed some skill as a +sculptor, and exhibited at the Salon at various times between 1876 +(honourable mention) and 1881. She also exhibited a painting there in +1880. In 1878 she published a prose sketch, _Dans les nuages; les +impressions d'une chaise_. Her comedy _L'Aveu_ was produced in 1888 at +the Odeon without much success. Her relations with the other +_societaires_ of the Comedie Francaise having become somewhat strained, +a crisis arrived in 1880, when, enraged by an unfavourable criticism of +her acting, she threw up her position on the day following the first +performance of Emile Augier's _L'Aventuriere_. This obliged her to pay a +forfeit of L4000 for breach of contract. Immediately after the rupture +she gave a series of performances in London, relying chiefly upon Scribe +and Legouve's _Adrienne Lecouvreur_ and Meilhac and Halevy's _Frou +Frou_. These were followed by tours in Denmark, America and Russia, +during 1880 and 1881, with _La Dame aux camelias_ as the principal +attraction. In 1882 she married Jacques Damala, a Greek, in London, but +separated from him at the end of the following year. After a fresh +triumph in Paris with Sardou's _Fedora_ at the Vaudeville she became +proprietress of the Porte St-Martin. Jean Richepin's _Nana Sahib_ +(1883), Sardou's _Theodora_ (1884) and _La Tosca_ (1887), Jules +Barbier's _Jeanne d'Arc_ (1890) and Sardou and Moreau's _Cleopatre_ +(1890) were among her most conspicuous successes here, where she +remained till she became proprietress of the Renaissance theatre in +1893. During those ten years she made several extended tours, including +visits to America in 1886-1887 and 1888-1889. Between 1891 and 1893 she +again visited America (North and South), Australia, and the chief +European capitals. In November 1893 she opened the Renaissance with _Les +Rois_ by Jules Lemaitre, which was followed by _Sylvestre_ and Morand's +_Izeyl_ (1894), Sardou's _Gismonda_ (1894) and Edmond Rostand's _La +Princesse lointaine_ (1895). In 1895 she also appeared with conspicuous +success as Magda in a French translation of Sudermann's _Heimat_. For +the next few years she visited London almost annually, and America in +1896. In that year she made a success with an adaptation of Alfred de +Musset's _Lorenzaccio_. In Easter week of 1897 she played in a religious +drama, _La Samaritaine_, by Rostand. In December 1896 an elaborate fete +was organized in Paris in her honour; and the value of this public +recognition of her position at the head of her profession was enhanced +by cordial greetings from all parts of the world. By this time she had +played one hundred and twelve parts, thirty-eight of which she had +created. Early in 1899 she removed from the Renaissance to the Theatre +des Nations, a larger house, which she opened with a revival of _La +Tosca_. In the same year she made the bold experiment of a French +production of _Hamlet_, in which she played the title part. She repeated +the impersonation in London not long afterwards, where she also appeared +(1901) as the fate-ridden son of Napoleon I., in Rostand's _L'Aiglon_, +which had been produced in Paris the year before. Of the successful +productions of her later years perhaps none was more remarkable than her +impersonation of La Tisbe in Victor Hugo's romantic drama _Angelo_ +(1905). + + See Jules Huret, _Sarah Bernhardt_ (1889); and her own volume of + autobiography (1907). + + + + +BERNHARDY, GOTTFRIED (1800-1875), German philologist and literary +historian, was born on the 20th of March 1800, at Landsberg on the +Wartia, in Brandenburg. He was the son of Jewish parents in reduced +circumstances. Two well-to-do uncles provided the means for his +education, and in 1811 he entered the Joachimsthal gymnasium at Berlin. +In 1817 he went to Berlin University to study philology, where he had +the advantage of hearing F.A. Wolf (then advanced in years), August +Bockh and P. Buttmann. In 1822 he took the degree of doctor of +philosophy at Berlin, and in 1825 became extraordinary professor. In +1829 he succeeded C. Reisig as ordinary professor and director of the +philological seminary at Halle, and in 1844 was appointed chief +librarian of the university. He died suddenly on the 14th of May 1875. +The most important of Bernhardy's works were his histories (or sketches) +of Greek and Roman literature; _Grundriss der romischen Litteratur_ (5th +ed., 1872); _Grundriss der griechischcn Litteratur_ (pt. i., +Introduction and General View, 1836; pt. ii, Greek Poetry, 1845; pt. +iii., Greek Prose Literature, was never published). A fifth edition of +pts. i. and ii., by R. Volkmann, began in 1892. Other works by Bernhardy +are: _Eratosthenica_ (1822); _Wissenschaftliche Syntax der griechischen +Sprache_ (1829, suppts. 1854, 1862); _Grundlinien zur Encyclopadie der +Philologie_ (1832); the monumental edition of the Lexicon of Suidas +(1834-1853); and an edition of F.A. Wolf's _Kleine Schriften_ (1869). + + See Volkmann, _G. Bernhardy_ (1887). + + + + +BERNI, FRANCESCO (1497-1536), Italian poet, was born about 1497 at +Lamporecchio, in Bibbiena, a district lying along the Upper Arno. His +family was of good descent, but excessively poor. At an early age he was +sent to Florence, where he remained till his 19th year. He then set out +for Rome, trusting to obtain some assistance from his uncle, the +Cardinal Bibbiena. The cardinal, however, did nothing for him, and he +was obliged to accept a situation as clerk or secretary to Ghiberti, +datary to Clement VII. The duties of his office, for which Berni was in +every way unfit, were exceedingly irksome to the poet, who, however, +made himself celebrated at Rome as the most witty and inventive of a +certain club of literary men, who devoted themselves to light and +sparkling effusions. So strong was the admiration for Berni's verses, +that mocking or burlesque poems have since been called _poesie +bernesca_. About the year 1530 he was relieved from his servitude by +obtaining a canonry in the cathedral of Florence. In that city he died +in 1536, according to tradition poisoned by Duke Alessandro de' Medici, +for having refused to poison the duke's cousin, Ippolito de' Medici; but +considerable obscurity rests over this story. Berni stands at the head +of Italian comic or burlesque poets. For lightness, sparkling wit, +variety of form and fluent diction, his verses are unsurpassed. Perhaps, +however, he owes his greatest fame to the recasting (_Rifacimento_) of +Boiardo's _Orlando Innamorato_. The enormous success of Ariosto's +_Orlando Furioso_ had directed fresh attention to the older poem, from +which it took its characters, and of which it is the continuation. But +Boiardo's work, though good in plan, could never have achieved wide +popularity on account of the extreme ruggedness of its style. Berni +undertook the revision of the whole poem, avowedly altering no +sentiment, removing or adding no incident, but simply giving to each +line and stanza due gracefulness and polish. His task he completed with +marvellous success; scarcely a line remains as it was, and the general +opinion has pronounced decisively in favour of the revision over the +original. To each canto he prefixed a few stanzas of reflective verse in +the manner of Ariosto, and in one of these introductions he gives us the +only certain information we have concerning his own life. Berni appears +to have been favourably disposed towards the Reformation principles at +that time introduced into Italy, and this may explain the bitterness of +some remarks of his upon the church. The first edition of the +_Rifacimento_ was printed posthumously in 1541, and it has been supposed +that a few passages either did not receive the author's final revision, +or have been retouched by another hand. + + A partial translation of Berni's _Orlando_ was published by W.S. Rose + (1823). + + + + +BERNICIA, the northern of the two English kingdoms which were eventually +united in the kingdom of Northumbria. Its territory is said to have +stretched from the Tyne northwards, ultimately reaching the Forth, while +its western frontier was gradually extended at the expense of the Welsh. +The chief royal residence was Bamburgh, and near it was the island of +Lindisfarne, afterwards the see of a bishop. The first king of whom we +have any record is Ida, who is said to have obtained the throne about +547. Aethelfrith, king of Bernicia, united Deira to his own kingdom, +probably about 605, and the union continued under his successor Edwin, +son of Ella or Aelle, king of Deira. Bernicia was again separate from +Deira under Eanfrith, son of Aethelfrith (633-634), after which date the +kings of Bernicia were supreme in Northumbria, though for a short time +under Oswio Deira had a king of its own. + + See Bede, _Hist. Eccles._ ii. 14, iii. 1, 14; Nennius, S 63; Simeon of + Durham, i. 339. (F. G. M. B.) + + + + +BERNICIAN SERIES, in geology, a term proposed by S.P. Woodward in 1856 +(_Manual of Mollusca_, p. 409) for the lower portion of the +Carboniferous System, below the Millstone Grit. The name was suggested +by that of the ancient province of Bernicia on the Anglo-Scottish +borderland. It is practically equivalent to the "Dinantien" of A. de +Lapparent and Munier-Chalmas (1893). In 1875 G. Tate's "Calcareous and +Carbonaceous" groups of the Carboniferous Limestone series of +Northumberland were united by Professor Lebour into a single series, to +which he applied the name "Bernician"; but later he speaks of the whole +of the Carboniferous rocks of Northumberland and its borders as of the +"Bernician type," which is the most satisfactory way in which the term +may now be used (_Report of the Brit. Sub-committee on Classification +and Nomenclature_, 2nd ed., Cambridge, 1888). "Demetian" was the +corresponding designation proposed by Woodward for the Upper +Carboniferous rocks. + + + + +BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO (1598-1680), Italian artist, was born at +Naples. He was more celebrated as an architect and a sculptor than as a +painter. At a very early age his great skill in modelling introduced him +to court favour at Rome, and he was specially patronized by Maffeo +Barberini, afterwards Pope Urban VIII., whose palace he designed. None +of his sculptured groups at all come up to the promised excellence of +his first effort, the Apollo and Daphne, nor are any of his paintings of +particular merit. His busts were in so much request that Charles I. of +England, being unable to have a personal interview with Bernini, sent +him three portraits by Vandyck, from which the artist was enabled to +complete his model. His architectural designs, including the great +colonnade of St Peter's, brought him perhaps his greatest celebrity. +Louis XIV., when he contemplated the restoration of the Louvre, sent for +Bernini, but did not adopt his designs. The artist's progress through +France was a triumphal procession, and he was most liberally rewarded by +the great monarch. He left a fortune of over L100,000. + + + + +BERNIS, FRANCOIS JOACHIM DE PIERRE DE (1715-1794), French cardinal and +statesman, was born at St Marcel-d'Ardeche on the 22nd of May 1715. He +was of a noble but impoverished family, and, being a younger son, was +intended for the church. He was educated at the Louis-le-Grand college +and the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, but did not take orders till +1755. He became known as one of the most expert epigrammatists in the +gay society of Louis XV.'s court, and by his verses won the friendship +of Madame de Pompadour, the royal mistress, who obtained for him an +apartment, furnished at her expense, in the Tuileries, and a yearly +pension of 1500 livres (about L60). In 1751 he was appointed to the +French embassy at Venice, where he acted, to the satisfaction of both +parties, as mediator between the republic and Pope Benedict XIV. During +his stay in Venice he received subdeacon's orders, and on his return to +France in 1755 was made a papal councillor of state. He took an +important part in the delicate negotiations between France and Austria +which preceded the Seven Years' War. He regarded the alliance purely as +a temporary expedient, and did not propose to employ the whole forces of +France in a general war. But he was overruled by his colleagues. He +became secretary for foreign affairs on the 27th of June 1757, but owing +to his attempts to counteract the spendthrift policy of the marquise de +Pompadour and her creatures, he fell into disgrace and was in December +1758 banished to Soissons by Louis XV., where he remained in retirement +for six years. In the previous November he had been created cardinal by +Clement XIII. On the death of the royal mistress in 1764, Bernis was +recalled and once more offered the seals of office, but declined them, +and was appointed archbishop of Albi. His occupancy of the see was not +of long duration. In 1769 he went to Rome to assist at the conclave +which resulted in the election of Clement XIV., and the talent which he +displayed on that occasion procured him the appointment of ambassador in +Rome, where he spent the remainder of his life. He was partly +instrumental in bringing about the suppression of the Jesuits, and acted +with greater moderation than is generally allowed. He lost his influence +under Pius VI., who was friendly to the Jesuits, and the French +Revolution, to which he was hostile, reduced him almost to penury; the +court of Spain, however, mindful of the support he had given to their +ambassador in obtaining the condemnation of the Jesuits, came to his +relief with a handsome pension. He died at Rome on the 3rd of November +1794, and was buried in the church of S. Luigi de' Francesi. In 1803 his +remains were transferred to the cathedral at Nimes. His poems, the +longest of which is _La Religion vengee_ (Parma, 1794), have no merit; +they were collected and published after his death (Paris, 1797, &c.); +his _Memoires et lettres 1715-58_ (2 vols., Paris, 1878) are still +interesting to the historian. + + See Frederic Masson's prefaces to the _Memoires et lettres_, and _Le + Cardinal de Bernis depuis son ministere;_ (Paris, 1884); E. et J. de + Goncourt, _Mme de Pompadour_ (Paris, 1888), and Sainte-Beuve, + _Causeries du lundi_, t. viii. + + + + +BERNKASTEL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the +Mosel, in a deep and romantic valley, connected by a branch to Wengerohr +with the main Trier-Coblenz railway. Pop. 2300. It has some unimportant +manufactures; the chief industry is in wine, of which Berncastler Doctor +enjoys great repute. Above the town lie the ruins of the castle +Landshut. Bernkastel originally belonged to the chapter of Trier, and +received its name from one of the provosts of the cathedral, Adalbero of +Luxemburg (hence _Adalberonis castellum_). + + + + +BERNOULLI, or BERNOUILLI, the name of an illustrious family in the +annals of science, who came originally from Antwerp. Driven from their +country during the oppressive government of Spain for their attachment +to the Reformed religion, the Bernoullis sought first an asylum at +Frankfort (1583), and afterwards at Basel, where they ultimately +obtained the highest distinctions. In the course of a century eight of +its members successfully cultivated various branches of mathematics, and +contributed powerfully to the advance of science. The most celebrated +were Jacques (James), Jean (John) and Daniel, the first, second and +fourth as dealt with below; but, for the sake of perspicuity they may be +considered as nearly as possible in the order of family succession. A +complete summary of the great developments of mathematical learning, +which the members of this family effected, lies outside the scope of +this notice. More detailed accounts are to be found in the various +mathematical articles. + +I. JACQUES BERNOULLI (1654-1705), mathematician, was born at Basel on +the 27th of December 1654. He was educated at the public school of +Basel, and also received private instruction from the learned Hoffmann, +then professor of Greek. At the conclusion of his philosophical studies +at the university, some geometrical figures, which fell in his way, +excited in him a passion for mathematical pursuits, and in spite of the +opposition of his father, who wished him to be a clergyman, he applied +himself in secret to his favourite science. In 1676 he visited Geneva on +his way to France, and subsequently travelled to England and Holland. +While at Geneva he taught a blind girl several branches of science, and +also how to write; and this led him to publish _A Method of Teaching +Mathematics to the Blind_. At Bordeaux his _Universal Tables on +Dialling_ were constructed; and in London he was admitted to the +meetings of Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and other learned and scientific +men. On his final return to Basel in 1682, he devoted himself to +physical and mathematical investigations, and opened a public seminary +for experimental physics. In the same year he published his essay on +comets, _Conamen Novi Systematis Cometarum_, which was occasioned by the +appearance of the comet of 1680. This essay, and his next publication, +entitled _De Gravitate Aetheris_, were deeply tinged with the philosophy +of Rene Descartes, but they contain truths not unworthy of the +philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton's _Principia_. + +Jacques Bernoulli cannot be strictly called an independent discoverer; +but, from his extensive and successful application of the calculus and +other mathematical methods, he is deserving of a place by the side of +Newton and Leibnitz. As an additional claim to remembrance, he was the +first to solve Leibnitz's problem of the isochronous curve (_Acta +Eruditorum_, 1690). He proposed the problem of the catenary (q.v.) or +curve formed by a chain suspended by its two extremities, accepted +Leibnitz's construction of the curve and solved more complicated +problems relating to it. He determined the "elastic curve," which is +formed by an elastic plate or rod fixed at one end and bent by a weight +applied to the other, and which he showed to be the same as the +curvature of an impervious sail filled with a liquid (_lintearia_). In +his investigations respecting cycloidal lines and various spiral curves, +his attention was directed to the loxodromic and logarithmic spirals, in +the last of which he took particular interest from its remarkable +property of reproducing itself under a variety of conditions. + +In 1696 he proposed the famous problem of isoperimetrical figures, and +offered a reward for its solution. This problem engaged the attention of +British as well as continental mathematicians; and its proposal gave +rise to a painful quarrel with his brother Jean. Jean offered a solution +of the problem; his brother pronounced it to be wrong. Jean then amended +his solution, and again offered it, and claimed the reward. Jacques +still declared it to be no solution, and soon after published his own. +In 1701 he published also the demonstration of his solution, which was +accepted by the marquis de l'Hopital and Leibnitz. Jean, however, held +his peace for several years, and then dishonestly published, after the +death of Jacques, another incorrect solution; and not until 1718 did he +admit that he had been in error. Even then he set forth as his own his +brother's solution purposely disguised. + +In 1687 the mathematical chair of the university of Basel was conferred +upon Jacques. He was once made rector of his university, and had other +distinctions bestowed on him. He and his brother Jean were the first two +foreign associates of the Academy of Sciences of Paris; and, at the +request of Leibnitz, they were both received as members of the academy +of Berlin. In 1684 he had been offered a professorship at Heidelberg; +but his marriage with a lady of his native city led him to decline the +invitation. Intense application brought on infirmities and a slow fever, +of which he died on the 16th of August 1705. Like another Archimedes, he +requested that the logarithmic spiral should be engraven on his +tombstone, with these words, _Eadem mutata resurgo_. + + Jacques Bernoulli wrote elegant verses in Latin, German and French; + but although these were held in high estimation in his own time, it is + on his mathematical works that his fame now rests. These are:--_Jacobi + Bernoulli Basiliensis Opera_ (Genevae, 1744), 2 tom. 4to; _Ars + Conjectandi, opus posthumum: accedunt tractatus de Seriebus Infinitis, + et epistola (Gallice scripta) de Ludo Pilae Reticularis_ (Basiliae, + 1713), 1 tom. 4to. + +II. JEAN BERNOULLI (1667-1748), brother of the preceding, was born at +Basel on the 27th of July 1667. After finishing his literary studies he +was sent to Neuchatel to learn commerce and acquire the French language. +But at the end of a year he renounced the pursuits of commerce, returned +to the university of Basel, and was admitted to the degree of bachelor +in philosophy, and a year later, at the age of 18, to that of master of +arts. In his studies he was aided by his elder brother Jacques. +Chemistry, as well as mathematics, seems to have been the object of his +early attention; and in the year 1690 he published a dissertation on +effervescence and fermentation. The same year he went to Geneva, where +he gave instruction in the differential calculus to Nicolas Fatio de +Duillier, and afterwards proceeded to Paris, where he enjoyed the +society of N. Malebranche, J.D. Cassini, Philip de Lahire and Pierre +Varignon. With the marquis de l'Hopital he spent four months studying +higher geometry and the resources of the new calculus. His independent +discoveries in mathematics are numerous and important. Among these were +the exponential calculus, and the curve called by him the _linea +brachistochrona_, or line of swiftest descent, which he was the first to +determine, pointing out at the same time the relation which this curve +bears to the path described by a ray of light passing through strata of +variable density. On his return to his native city he studied medicine, +and in 1694 took the degree of M.D. Although he had declined a +professorship in Germany, he now accepted an invitation to the chair of +mathematics at Groningen (_Commercium Philosophicum_, epist. xi. and +xii.). There, in addition to the learned lectures by which he +endeavoured to revive mathematical science in the university, he gave a +public course of experimental physics. During a residence of ten years +in Groningen, his controversies were almost as numerous as his +discoveries. His dissertation on the "barometric light," first observed +by Jean Picard, and discussed by Jean Bernoulli under the name of +mercurial phosphorus, or mercury shining in vacuo (_Diss. physica de +mercurio lucente in vacuo_), procured him the notice of royalty, and +engaged him in controversy. Through the influence of Leibnitz he +received from the king of Prussia a gold medal for his supposed +discoveries; but Nicolaus Hartsoeker and some of the French academicians +disputed the fact. The family quarrel about the problem of +isoperimetrical figures above mentioned began about this time. In his +dispute with his brother, in his controversies with the English and +Scottish mathematicians, and in his harsh and jealous bearing to his son +Daniel, he showed a mean, unfair and violent temper. He had declined, +during his residence at Groningen, an invitation to Utrecht, but +accepted in 1705 the mathematical chair in the university of his native +city, vacant by the death of his brother Jacques; and here he remained +till his death. His inaugural discourse was on the "new analysis," which +he so successfully applied in investigating various problems both in +pure and applied mathematics. + +He was several times a successful competitor for the prizes given by the +Academy of Sciences of Paris; the subjects of his essays being:--the +laws of motion (_Discours sur les lois de la communication du +mouvement_, 1727), the elliptical orbits of the planets, and the +inclinations of the planetary orbits (_Essai d'une nouvelle physique +celeste_, 1735). In the last case his son Daniel divided the prize with +him. Some years after his return to Basel he published an essay, +entitled _Nouvelle Theorie de la manoeuvre des vaisseaux_. It is, +however, his works in pure mathematics that are the permanent monuments +of his fame. Jean le Rond d'Alembert acknowledges with gratitude, that +"whatever he knew of mathematics he owed to the works of Jean +Bernoulli." He was a member of almost every learned society in Europe, +and one of the first mathematicians of a mathematical age. He was as +keen in his resentments as he was ardent in his friendships; fondly +attached to his family, he yet disliked a deserving son; he gave full +praise to Leibnitz and Leonhard Euler, yet was blind to the excellence +of Sir Isaac Newton. Such was the vigour of his constitution that he +continued to pursue his usual mathematical studies till the age of +eighty. He was then attacked by a complaint at first apparently +trifling; but his strength daily and rapidly declined till the 1st of +January 1748, when he died peacefully in his sleep. + + His writings were collected under his own eye by Gabriel Cramer, + professor of mathematics at Geneva, and published under the title of + _Johannis Bernoulli Operi Omnia_ (Lausan. et Genev.), 4 tom. 4to; his + interesting correspondence with Leibnitz appeared under the title of + _Gul. Leibnitii et Johannis Bernoulli Commercium Philosophicum et + Mathematicum_ (Lausan. et Genev. 1745), 2 tom. 4to. + +III. NICOLAS BERNOULLI (1695-1726), the eldest of the three sons of Jean +Bernoulli, was born on the 27th of January 1695. At the age of eight he +could speak German, Dutch, French and Latin. When his father returned to +Basel he went to the university of that city, where, at the age of +sixteen, he took the degree of doctor in philosophy, and four years +later the highest degree in law. Meanwhile the study of mathematics was +not neglected, as appears not only from his giving instruction in +geometry to his younger brother Daniel, but from his writings on the +differential, integral, and exponential calculus, and from his father +considering him, at the age of twenty-one, worthy of receiving the torch +of science from his own hands. ("Lampada nunc tradam filio meo natu +maximo, juveni xxi. annorum, ingenio mathematico aliisque dotibus satis +instructo," _Com. Phil._ ep. 223.) With his father's permission he +visited Italy and France, and during his travels formed friendship with +Pierre Varignon and Count Riccati. The invitation of a Venetian nobleman +induced him again to visit Italy, where he resided two years, till his +return to be a candidate for the chair of jurisprudence at Basel. He was +unsuccessful, but was soon afterwards appointed to a similar office in +the university of Bern. Here he resided three years, his happiness only +marred by regret on account of his separation from his brother Daniel. +Both were appointed at the same time professors of mathematics in the +academy of St Petersburg; but this office Nicolas enjoyed for little +more then eight months. He died on the 26th of July 1726 of a lingering +fever. Sensible of the loss which the nation had sustained by his death, +the empress Catherine ordered him a funeral at the public expense. + + Some of his papers are published in his father's works, and others in + the _Acta Eruditorum_ and the _Comment. Acad. Petropol._ + +IV. DANIEL BERNOULLI (1700-1782), the second son of Jean Bernoulli, was +born on the 29th of January 1700, at Groningen. He studied medicine and +became a physician, but his attention was early directed also to +geometrical studies. The severity of his father's manner was +ill-calculated to encourage the first efforts of one so sensitive; but +fortunately, at the age of eleven, he became the pupil of his brother +Nicolas. He afterwards studied in Italy under Francesco Domenico +Michelotti and Giambattista Morgagni. After his return, though only +twenty-four years of age, he was invited to become president of an +academy then projected at Genoa; but, declining this honour, he was, in +the following year, appointed professor of mathematics at St Petersburg. +In consequence of the state of his health, however, he returned to Basel +in 1733, where he was appointed professor of anatomy and botany, and +afterwards of experimental and speculative philosophy. In the labours of +this office he spent the remaining years of his life. He had previously +published some medical and botanical dissertations, besides his +_Exercitationes quaedam Mathematicae_, containing a solution of the +differential equation proposed by Riccati and now known by his name. In +1738 appeared his _Hydrodynamica_, in which the equilibrium, the +pressure, the reaction and varied velocities of fluids are considered +both theoretically and practically. One of these problems, illustrated +by experiment, deals with an ingenious mode of propelling vessels by the +reaction of water ejected from the stern. Some of his experiments on +this subject were performed before Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis and +Alexis Claude Clairaut, whom the fame of the Bernoullis had attracted to +Basel. With a success equalled only by Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli +gained or shared no less than ten prizes of the Academy of Sciences of +Paris. The first, for a memoir on the construction of a clepsydra for +measuring time exactly at sea, he gained at the age of twenty-four; the +second, for one on the physical cause of the inclination of the +planetary orbits, he divided with his father; and the third, for a +communication on the tides, he shared with Euler, Colin Maclaurin and +another competitor. The problem of vibrating cords, which had been some +time before resolved by Brook Taylor (1685-1731) and d'Alembert, became +the subject of a long discussion conducted in a generous spirit between +Bernoulli and his friend Euler. In one of his early investigations he +gave an ingenious though indirect demonstration of the problem of the +parallelogram of forces. His labours in the decline of life were chiefly +directed to the doctrine of probabilities in reference to practical +purposes, and in particular to economical subjects, as, for example, to +inoculation, and to the duration of married life in the two sexes, as +well as to the relative proportion of male and female births. He +retained his usual vigour of understanding till near the age of eighty, +when his nephew Jacques relieved him of his public duties. He was +afflicted with asthma, and his retirement was relieved only by the +society of a few chosen friends. He died on the 17th of March 1782 at +Basel. Excluded by his professional character from the councils of the +republic, he nevertheless received all the deference and honour due to a +first magistrate. He was wont to mention the following as the two +incidents in his life which had afforded him the greatest +pleasure,--that a stranger, whom he had met as a travelling companion in +his youth, made to his declaration "I am Daniel Bernoulli" the +incredulous and mocking reply, "And I am Isaac Newton"; and that, while +entertaining Konig and other guests, he solved without rising from table +a problem which that mathematician had submitted as difficult and +lengthy. Like his father, he was a member of almost every learned +society of Europe, and he succeeded him as foreign associate of the +Academy of Paris. + + Several of his investigations are contained in the earlier volumes of + the _Comment. Acad. Petropol._; and his separately published works + are:--_Dissertatio Inaugur. Phys. Med. de Respiratione_ (Basil. 1721), + 4to; _Positiones Anatomico-Botanicae_ (Basil. 1721), 4to; + _Exercitationes quaedam Mathematicae_ (Venetiis, 1724), 4to; + _Hydrodynamica_ (Argentorati, 1738), 4to. + +V. JEAN BERNOULLI (1710-1790), the youngest of the three sons of Jean +Bernoulli, was born at Basel on the 18th of May 1710. He studied law and +mathematics, and, after travelling in France, was for five years +professor of eloquence in the university of his native city. On the +death of his father he succeeded him as professor of mathematics. He was +thrice a successful competitor for the prizes of the Academy of Sciences +of Paris. His prize subjects were, the capstan, the propagation of +light, and the magnet. He enjoyed the friendship of P.L.M. de +Maupertuis, who died under his roof while on his way to Berlin. He +himself died in 1790. His two sons, Jean and Jacques, are the last noted +mathematicians of the family. + +VI. NICOLAS BERNOULLI (1687-1759), cousin of the three preceding, and +son of Nicolas Bernoulli, one of the senators of Basel, was born in that +city on the 10th of October 1687. He visited England, where he was +kindly received by Sir Isaac Newton and Edmund Halley (_Com. Phil._ ep. +199), held for a time the mathematical chair at Padua, and was +successively professor of logic and of law at Basel, where he died on +the 29th of November 1759. He was editor of the _Ars Conjectandi_ of his +uncle Jacques. His own works are contained in the _Acta Eruditorum_, the +_Giornale de' letterati d' Italia_, and the _Commercium Philosophicum_. + +VII. JEAN BERNOULLI (1744-1807), grandson of the first Jean Bernoulli, +and son of the second of that name, was born at Basel on the 4th of +November 1744. He studied at Basel and at Neuchatel, and when thirteen +years of age took the degree of doctor in philosophy. At nineteen he was +appointed astronomer royal of Berlin. Some years after, he visited +Germany, France and England, and subsequently Italy, Russia and Poland. +On his return to Berlin he was appointed director of the mathematical +department of the academy. Here he died on the 13th of July 1807. His +writings consist of travels and astronomical, geographical and +mathematical works. In 1774 he published a French translation of +Leonhard Euler's _Elements of Algebra_. He contributed several papers to +the Academy of Berlin. + +VIII. JACQUES BERNOULLI (1759-1789), younger brother of the preceding, +and the second of this name, was born at Basel on the 17th of October +1759. Having finished his literary studies, he was, according to custom, +sent to Neuchatel to learn French. On his return he graduated in law. +This study, however, did not check his hereditary taste for geometry. +The early lessons which he had received from his father were continued +by his uncle Daniel, and such was his progress that at the age of +twenty-one he was called to undertake the duties of the chair of +experimental physics, which his uncle's advanced years rendered him +unable to discharge. He afterwards accepted the situation of secretary +to count de Brenner, which afforded him an opportunity of seeing Germany +and Italy. In Italy he formed a friendship with Lorgna, professor of +mathematics at Verona, and one of the founders of the _Societa Italiana_ +for the encouragement of the sciences. He was also made corresponding +member of the royal society of Turin; and, while residing at Venice, he +was, through the friendly representation of Nicolaus von Fuss, admitted +into the academy of St Petersburg. In 1788 he was named one of its +mathematical professors. + +He was tragically drowned while bathing in the Neva in July 1789, a few +months after his marriage with a daughter of Albert Euler, son of +Leonhard Euler. + + Several of his papers are contained in the first six volumes of _Nova + Acta Acad. Scien. Imper. Petropol._, in the _Acta Helvetica_, in the + _Memoirs of the Academies of Berlin and Turin_, and in his brother + John's publications. He also published separately some juridical and + physical theses, and a German translation of _Memoires du philosophe + de Merian_. See generally M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_; J.C. + Poggendorff, _Biographisch-literarisches Handworterbuch_ (1863-1904). + + + + +BERNSTEIN, AARON (1812-1884), Jewish scientist, author and reformer. In +the middle of the 19th century Bernstein took an active share in the +movement for synagogue reform in Germany. He was the author of two +delightful Ghetto stories, _Vogele der Maggid_ and _Mendel Gibbor_, +being one of the originators of this _genre_ of modern fiction. He was +also a publicist, and his _History of Revolution and Reaction in +Germany_ (3 vols., 1883-1884) was a collection of important political +essays. + + + + +BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER, COUNT VON (1735-1797), Danish statesman, was +born at Hanover on the 28th of August 1735. His career was determined by +his uncle, Johann Hartwig Ernst Bernstorff, who early discerned the +talents of his nephew and induced him to study in the German and Swiss +universities and travel for some years in Italy, France, England and +Holland, to prepare himself for a statesman's career. During these +_Wanderjahre_ he made the acquaintance of the poets Gellert and Jacobi, +the learned Jean-Jacques Barthelemy, the duc de Choiseul, and Gottfried +Achenwall, the statistician. At his uncle's desire he rejected the +Hanoverian for the Danish service, and in 1759 took his seat in the +German chancery at Copenhagen. In 1767, at the same time as his uncle, +he was created a count, and in 1769 was made a privy-councillor. He is +described at this period as intellectual, upright and absolutely +trustworthy, but obstinate and self-opinionated to the highest degree, +arguing with antiquaries about coins, with equerries about horses, and +with foreigners about their own countries, always certain that he was +right and they wrong, whatever the discussion might be. He shared the +disgrace of his uncle when Struensee came into power, but re-entered the +Danish service after Struensee's fall at the end of 1772, working at +first in the financial and economical departments, and taking an +especial interest in agriculture. The improvements he introduced in the +tenures of his peasantry anticipated in some respects the agricultural +reforms of the next generation. + +In April 1773 Bernstorff was transferred to the position for which he +was especially fitted, the ministry of foreign affairs, with which he +combined the presidency of the German chancery (for Schleswig-Holstein). +His predecessor, Adolf Siegfried Osten, had been dismissed because he +was not _persona grata_ at St Petersburg, and Bernstorff's first +official act was to conclude the negotiations which had long been +pending with the grand-duke Paul as duke of Holstein-Gottorp. The result +was the exchange-treaty of the 1st of June (May 21 O.S.) 1773, +confirming the previous treaty of 1767 (see BERNSTORFF, J.H.E.). This +was followed by the treaty of alliance between Denmark and Russia of the +12th of August 1773, which was partly a mutually defensive league, and +partly an engagement between the two states to upset the new +constitution recently established in Sweden by Gustavus III., when the +right moment for doing so should arrive. For this mischievous and +immoral alliance, which bound Denmark to the wheels of the Russian +empress's chariot and sought to interfere in the internal affairs of a +neighbouring state, Bernstorff was scarcely responsible, for the +preliminaries had been definitely settled in his uncle's time and he +merely concluded them. But there can be no doubt that he regarded this +anti-Swedish policy as the correct one for Denmark, especially with a +monarch like Gustavus III. on the Swedish throne. It is also pretty +certain that the anti-Swedish alliance was Russia's price for +compounding the Gottorp difficulty. + +Starting from the hypothesis that Sweden was "Denmark-Norway's most +active and irreconcilable enemy," Bernstorff logically included France, +the secular ally of Sweden, among the hostile powers with whom an +alliance was to be avoided, and drew near to Great Britain as the +natural foe of France, especially during the American War of +Independence, and this too despite the irritation occasioned in +Denmark-Norway by Great Britain's masterful interpretation of the +expression "contraband." Bernstorff's sympathy with England grew +stronger still when in 1779 Spain joined her enemies; and he was much +inclined, the same winter, to join a triple alliance between Great +Britain, Russia and Denmark-Norway, proposed by England for the purpose +of compelling the Bourbon powers to accept reasonable terms of peace. +But he was overruled by the crown prince Frederick, who thought such a +policy too hazardous, when Russia declined to have anything to do with +it. Instead of this the Russian chancellor Nikita Panin proposed an +armed league to embrace all the neutral powers, for the purpose of +protecting neutral shipping in time of war. This league was very similar +to one proposed by Bernstorff himself in September 1778 for enforcing +the principle "a free ship makes the cargo free"; but as now presented +by Russia, he rightly regarded it as directed exclusively against +England. He acceded to it indeed (9th of July 1780) because he could not +help doing so; but he had previously, by a separate treaty with England, +on the 4th of July, come to an understanding with that power as to the +meaning of the expression "contraband of war." This independence caused +great wrath at St Petersburg, where Bernstorff was accused of +disloyalty, and ultimately sacrificed to the resentment of the Russian +government (13th of November 1780), the more readily as he already +disagreed on many important points of domestic administration with the +prime minister Hoegh Guldberg. He retired to his Mecklenburg estates, +but on the fall of Guldberg four years later, was recalled to office +(April 1784). The ensuing thirteen years were perhaps the best days of +the old Danish absolutism. The government, under the direction of such +enlightened ministers as Bernstorff, Reventlow and others, held the mean +between Struensee's extravagant cosmopolitanism and Guldberg's stiff +conservatism. In such noble projects of reform as the emancipation of +the serfs (see REVENTLOW) Bernstorff took a leading part, and so closely +did he associate himself with everything Danish, so popular did he +become in the Danish capital, that a Swedish diplomatist expressed the +opinion that henceforth Bernstorff could not be removed without danger. +Liberal-minded as he was, he held that "the will of the nation should be +a law to the king," and he boldly upheld the freedom of the press as the +surest of safety-valves. + +Meanwhile foreign complications were again endangering the position of +Denmark-Norway. As Bernstorff had predicted, Panin's neutrality project +had resulted in a breach between Great Britain and Russia. Then came +Gustavus III.'s sudden war with Russia in 1788. Bernstorff was bound by +treaty to assist Russia in such a contingency, but he took care that the +assistance so rendered should be as trifling as possible, to avoid +offending Great Britain and Prussia. Still more menacing became the +political situation on the outbreak of the French Revolution. +Ill-disposed as Bernstorff was towards the Jacobins, he now condemned on +principle any interference in the domestic affairs of France, and he was +persuaded that Denmark's safest policy was to keep clear of every +anti-French coalition. From this unassailable standpoint he never +swerved, despite the promises and even the menaces both of the eastern +and the western powers. He was rewarded with complete success and the +respect of all the diplomatists in Europe. His neutrality treaty with +Sweden (17th of March 1794), for protecting their merchantmen by +combined squadrons, was also extremely beneficial to the Scandinavian +powers, both commercially and politically. Taught by the lesson of +Poland, he had, in fact, long since abandoned his former policy of +weakening Sweden. Bernstorff's great faculties appeared, indeed, to +mature and increase with age, and his death, on the 21st of June 1797, +was regarded in Denmark as a national calamity. + +Count Bernstorff was twice married, his wives being the two sisters of +the writers Counts Christian and Friedrich Leopold zu Stolberg. He left +seven sons and three daughters. Of his sons the best known is Christian +Gunther, count von Bernstorff. Another, Count Joachim, was attached to +his brother's fortunes so long as he remained in the Danish service, was +associated with him in representing Denmark at the congress of Vienna, +and in 1815 was appointed ambassador at that court. + + See Rasmus Nyerup, _Bernstorffs Eftermaele_ (Kjobenhavn, 1799); Peter + Edward Holm, _Danmark-Norges udenrigske Historie_ (Copenhagen, 1875); + _Danmarks Riges Historie V._ (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Christian Ulrich + Detlev von Eggers, _Denkwurdigskeiten aus dem Leben des Grafen A.P. + Bernstorff_ (Copenhagen, 1800); Aage Frus, _A.P. Bernstorff og O. + Hoegh-Guldberg_ (Copenhagen, 1899); and _Bernstorfferne og Danmark_ + (Copenhagen, 1903). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GUNTHER, COUNT VON (1769-1835), Danish and +Prussian statesman and diplomatist, son of Count Andreas Peter von +Bernstorff, was born at Copenhagen on the 3rd of April 1769. Educated +for the diplomatic service under his father's direction, he began his +career in 1787, as attache to the representative of Denmark at the +opening of the Swedish diet. In 1789 he went as secretary of legation to +Berlin, where his maternal uncle, Count Leopold Friedrich zu Stolberg, +was Danish ambassador. His uncle's influence, as well as his own social +qualities, obtained him rapid promotion; he was soon charge d'affaires, +and in 1791 minister plenipotentiary. In 1794 he exchanged this post for +the important one of ambassador at Stockholm, where he remained until +May 1797, when he was summoned to Copenhagen to act as substitute for +his father during his illness. On the death of the latter (21st June), +he succeeded him as secretary of state for foreign affairs and privy +councillor. In 1800 he became head of the ministry. He remained +responsible for the foreign policy of Denmark until May 1810, a fateful +period which saw the battle of Copenhagen (2nd of April 1801), the +bombardment of Copenhagen and capture of the Danish fleet in 1807. After +his retirement he remained without office until his appointment in 1811 +as Danish ambassador at Vienna. He remained here, in spite of the fact +that for a while Denmark was nominally at war with Austria, until, in +January 1814, on the accession of Denmark to the coalition against +Napoleon, he publicly resumed his functions as ambassador. He +accompanied the emperor Francis to Paris, and was present at the +signature of the first peace of Paris. With his brother Joachim, he +represented Denmark at the congress of Vienna and, as a member for the +commission for the regulation of the affairs of Germany, was responsible +for some of that confusion of Danish and German interests which was to +bear bitter fruit later in the Schleswig-Holstein question (q.v.). He +again accompanied the allied sovereigns to Paris in 1815, returning to +Copenhagen the same year. In 1817 he was appointed Danish ambassador at +Berlin, his brother Joachim going at the same time to Vienna. In the +following year Prince Hardenberg made him the formal proposition that he +should transfer his services to Prussia, which, with the consent of his +sovereign, he did. + +It was, therefore, as a Prussian diplomat that Bernstorff attended the +congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1818), at the close of which he +returned to Berlin as minister of state and head of the department for +foreign affairs. Bernstorff's management of Prussian policy during the +many years that he remained in office has been variously judged. He was +by training and temperament opposed to the Revolution, and he was +initiated into his new duties as a Prussian minister by the reactionary +Ancillon. He is accused of having subordinated the particular interests +of Prussia to the European policy of Metternich and the "Holy Alliance." +Whether any other policy would in the long run have served Prussia +better is a matter for speculation. It is true that Bernstorff supported +the Carlsbad decrees, and the Vienna Final Act; he was also the faithful +henchman of Metternich at the congresses of Laibach, Troppau and Verona. +On the other hand, he took a considerable share in laying the +foundations of the customs union (_Zollverein_), which was destined to +be the foundation of the Prussian hegemony in Germany. In his support of +Russia's action against Turkey in 1828 also he showed that he was no +blind follower of Metternich's views. In the crisis of 1830 his +moderation in face of the warlike clamour of the military party at +Berlin did much to prevent the troubles in Belgium and Poland from +ending in a universal European conflagration. + +From 1824 onward Bernstorff had been a constant sufferer from hereditary +gout, intensified and complicated by the results of overwork. In the +spring of 1832 the state of his health compelled him to resign the +ministry of foreign affairs to Ancillon, who had already acted as his +deputy for a year. He died on the 18th of March 1835. + + See J. Caro in _Allgem. Deutsch. Biog._ s.v.; also H. von Treitschke, + _Deutsche Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1874-1894). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST, COUNT VON (1712-1772), Danish +statesman, who came of a very ancient Mecklenburg family, was the son of +Joachim Engelke, Freiherr von Bernstorff, chamberlain to the elector of +Hanover, and was born on the 13th of May 1712. His maternal grandfather, +Andreas Gottlieb Bernstorff (1640-1726), had been one of the ablest +ministers of George I., and under his guidance Johann was very carefully +educated, acquiring amongst other things that intimate knowledge of the +leading European languages, especially French, which ever afterwards +distinguished him. He was introduced into the Danish service by his +relations, the brothers Plessen, who were ministers of state under +Christian VI. In 1732 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the court +of Dresden; and from 1738 he represented Holstein at the diet of +Regensburg, from 1744 to 1750 he represented Denmark at Paris, whence he +returned in 1754 to Denmark as minister of foreign affairs. Supported by +the powerful favourite A.G. Moltke, and highly respected by Frederick +V., he occupied for twenty-one years the highest position in the +government, and in the council of state his opinion was decisive. But +his chief concern was with foreign affairs. Ever since the conclusion of +the Great Northern War, Danish statesmen had been occupied in harvesting +its fruits, namely, the Gottorp portions of Schleswig definitely annexed +to Denmark in 1721 by the treaty of Nystad, and endeavouring to bring +about a definitive general understanding with the house of Gottorp as to +their remaining possessions in Holstein. With the head of the Swedish +branch of the Gottorps, the crown prince Adolphus Frederick, things had +been arranged by the exchange of 1750; but an attempt to make a similar +arrangement with the chief of the elder Gottorp line, the cesarevitch +Peter Feodorovich, had failed. In intimate connexion with the Gottorp +affair stood the question of the political equilibrium of the north. +Ever since Russia had become the dominant Baltic power, as well as the +state to which the Gottorpers looked primarily for help, the necessity +for a better understanding between the two Scandinavian kingdoms had +clearly been recognized by the best statesmen of both, especially in +Denmark from Christian VI.'s time; but unfortunately this sound and +sensible policy was seriously impeded by the survival of the old +national hatred on both sides of the Sound, still further complicated by +Gottorp's hatred of Denmark. Moreover, it was a diplomatic axiom in +Denmark, founded on experience, that an absolute monarchy in Sweden was +incomparably more dangerous to her neighbour than a limited monarchy, +and after the collapse of Swedish absolutism with Charles XII., the +upholding of the comparatively feeble, and ultimately anarchical, +parliamentary government of Sweden became a question of principle with +Danish statesmen throughout the 18th century. A friendly alliance with a +relatively weak Sweden was the cardinal point of Bernstorff's policy. +But his plans were traversed again and again by unforeseen +complications, the failure of the most promising presumptions, the +perpetual shifting of apparently stable alliances; and again and again +he had to modify his means to attain his ends. Amidst all these +perplexities Bernstorff approved himself a consummate statesman. It +seemed almost as if his wits were sharpened into a keener edge by his +very difficulties; but since he condemned on principle every war which +was not strictly defensive, and it had fallen to his lot to guide a +comparatively small power, he always preferred the way of negotiation, +even sometimes where the diplomatic tangle would perhaps best have been +severed boldly by the sword. The first difficult problem he had to face +was the Seven Years' War. He was determined to preserve the neutrality +of Denmark at any cost, and this he succeeded in doing, despite the +existence of a subsidy-treaty with the king of Prussia, and the +suspicions of England and Sweden. It was through his initiative, too, +that the convention of Kloster-Seven was signed (10th of September +1757), and on the 4th of May 1758 he concluded a still more promising +treaty with France, whereby, in consideration of Denmark's holding an +army-corps of 24,000 men in Holstein till the end of the war, to secure +Hamburg, Lubeck and the Gottorp part of Holstein from invasion, France, +and ultimately Austria also, engaged to bring about an exchange between +the king of Denmark and the cesarevitch, as regards Holstein. But the +course of the war made this compact inoperative. Austria hastened to +repudiate her guarantee to Denmark in order not to offend the new +emperor of Russia, Peter III., and one of Peter's first acts on +ascending the throne was to declare war against Denmark. The coolness +and firmness of Bernstorff saved the situation. He protested that the +king of Denmark was bound to defend Schleswig "so long as there was a +sword in Denmark and a drop of blood in the veins of the Danish people." +He rejected the insulting ultimatum of the Russian emperor. He placed +the best French general of the day at the head of the well-equipped +Danish army. But just as the Russian and Danish armies had come within +striking distance, the tidings reached Copenhagen that Peter III. had +been overthrown by his consort. Bernstorff was one of the first to +recognize the impotence of the French monarchy after the Seven Years' +War, and in 1763 he considered it expedient to exchange the French for +the Russian alliance, which was cemented by the treaty of the 28th of +April (March 11) 1765. This compact engaged Denmark to join with Russia +in upholding the existing Swedish constitution, in return for which +Catherine II. undertook to adjust the Gottorp difficulty by the cession +of the Gottorp portion of Holstein in exchange for the counties of +Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. For his part in this treaty Bernstorff was +created count. On the accession of Christian VII., in 1766, Bernstorff's +position became very precarious, and he was exposed to all manner of +attacks, being accused, without a shadow of truth, of exploiting +Denmark, and of unduly promoting foreigners. It is remarkable, however, +that though Bernstorff ruled Denmark for twenty years he never learnt +Danish. His last political achievement was to draw still closer to +Russia by the treaty of the 13th of December 1769, the most important +paragraph of which stipulated that any change in the Swedish +constitution should be regarded by Denmark and Russia as a _casus belli_ +against Sweden, and that in the event of such a war Denmark should +retain all the territory conquered from Sweden. This treaty proved to be +a great mistake on Denmark's part, but circumstances seemed at the time +to warrant it. Nine months later, on the 13th of September 1770, +Bernstorff was dismissed as the result of Struensee's intrigues, and, +rejecting the brilliant offers of Catherine II. if he would enter the +Russian service, retired to his German estates, where he died on the +18th of February 1772. Bernstorff was not only one of the ablest but one +of the noblest and most conscientious statesmen of his day. The motto he +chose on receiving the order of the Daneborg was "Integritas et rectum +custodiunt me," and throughout a long life he was never false to it. + + See Poul Vedel, _Den aeldre Grev Bernstorffs ministerium_ (Copenhagen, + 1882); _Correspondance ministerielle du Comte J.H.E. Bernstorff_, ed. + Vedel (Copenhagen, 1882); Aage Friis, _Bernslorfferne og Danmark_ + (Copenhagen, 1899). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BEROSSUS, a priest of Bel at Babylon, who translated into Greek the +standard Babylonian work on astrology and astronomy, and compiled (in +three books) the history of his country from native documents, which he +published in Greek in the reign of Antiochus II. (250 B.C.). His works +have perished, but extracts from the history have been preserved by +Josephus and Eusebius, the latter of whom probably derived them not +directly from Berossus, but through the medium of Alexander Polyhistor +and Apollodorus. The extracts containing the Babylonian cosmology, the +list of the antediluvian kings of Babylonia, and the Chaldaean story of +the Deluge, have been shown by the decipherment of the cuneiform texts +to have faithfully reproduced the native legends; we may, therefore, +conclude that the rest of the History was equally trustworthy. On the +other hand, a list of post-diluvian dynasties, which is quoted by +Eusebius and Georgius Syncellus as having been given by Berossus, +cannot, in its present form, be reconciled with the monumental facts, +though a substratum of historical truth is discoverable in it. As it +stands, it is as follows:-- + + 1. 86 Chaldaean kings 34,080 or 33,091 years + 2. 8 Median " 224 " + 3. 11 other kings " no number. + 4. 49 Chaldaean " 458 " + 5. 9 Arabian " 245 " + 6. 45 Assyrian " 526 " + +After these, according to Eusebius, came the reign of Pul. By means of +an ingenious chronological combination, the several items of which, +however, are very questionable, J.A. Brandis assigned 258 years to the +3rd dynasty; other summations have been proposed with equally little +assurance of certainty. If Eusebius can be trusted, the 6th dynasty +ended in 729 B.C., the year in which Pul or Tiglath-pileser III. was +crowned king of Babylonia. But all attempts to harmonize the scheme of +dynasties thus ascribed to Berossus with the list given us in the +so-called dynastic Tablets discovered by Dr Pinches have been failures. +The numbers, whether of kings or of years, cannot have been handed down +to us correctly by the Greek writers. All that seems certain is that +Berossus arranged his history so that it should fill the astronomical +period of 36,000 years, beginning with the first man and ending with the +conquest of Babylon by Alexander the Great. + + See J.P. Cory, _Ancient Fragments_ (1826, ed. by E.R. Hodges, 1876); + Fr. Lenormant, _Essai de commentaire des fragments cosmogoniques de + Berose_ (1872); A. von Gutschmid in the _Rheinisches Museum_ (1853); + George Smith in _T.S.B.A._ iii., 1874, pp. 361-379; Th.G. Pinches in + _P.S.B.A._, 1880-1881. (A. H. S.) + + + + +BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT (1852-1899), English non-conformist divine, was +born on the 14th of December 1852 at Bradshawgate, Leigh, Lancashire. At +the age of seventeen he entered Airedale College, Bradford, to train for +the Congregational ministry, and in 1875 became pastor of St George's +Road Congregational church, Bolton. He became widely known as a man of +administrative ability, a vigorous platform speaker and an eloquent +preacher. In July 1883 he undertook the pastorate of the church at Queen +Street, Wolverhampton, with the supervision of nine dependent churches +in the neighbourhood. Here again he exercised a wide influence, due in +part to his evangelical conviction, eloquence, broad views and powers of +organization, but also to the magnetic force of his personality. In 1887 +he went to America in fulfilment of a promise to Henry Ward Beecher of +Brooklyn, and received a unanimous invitation to succeed Beecher in what +was then the best-known pulpit in the United States. Berry, however, +felt that his work lay in England and declined the invitation. In 1892 +he took part in a conference at Grindelwald on the question of Christian +Reunion, and subsequently, with Hugh Price Hughes and Alexander +Mackennal of Bowdon, conducted a campaign throughout England, +introducing the ideas and principles of Free Church federation. He was +the first president of the Free Church congress. He played an effective +part in expressing the popular desire for peace between England and +America in reply to President Cleveland's message on the Venezuelan +boundary dispute, and was invited to Washington to preach in connexion +with the endeavour to establish an international arbitration treaty. In +1896 he was elected chairman of the Congregational Union of England and +Wales. In 1898 his health began to fail, and he died suddenly on the +31st of January 1899. His published works consist chiefly of addresses, +and two volumes of sermons, _Vision and Duty_, and _Mischievous +Goodness_. (D. Mn.) + + + + +BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1778-1820), younger son of Charles X. +of France, was born at Versailles. At the Revolution he left France with +his father, then comte d'Artois, and served in the army of Conde; from +1792 to 1797. He afterwards joined the Russian army, and in 1801 took up +his residence in England, where he remained for thirteen years. During +that time he married an Englishwoman, Anna Brown, by whom he had two +daughters, afterwards the baronne de Charette and the comtesse de +Lucinge-Faucigny. The marriage was cancelled for political reasons in +1814, when the duke set out for France. His frank, open manners gained +him some favour with his countrymen, and Louis XVIII. named him +commander-in-chief of the army at Paris on the return of Napoleon from +Elba. He was, however, unable to retain the loyalty of his troops, and +retired to Ghent during the Hundred Days. In 1816 he married the +princess Caroline Ferdinande Louise (1798-1870), eldest daughter of King +Francis I. of Naples. On the 13th of February 1820 he was mortally +wounded, when leaving the opera-house at Paris with his wife, by a +saddler named Louis Pierre Louvel. Seven months after his death the +duchess gave birth to a son, who received the title of duke of Bordeaux, +but who is known in history as the comte de Chambord. A daughter, +afterwards duchess of Parma, was born in 1819. + +The duchess of Berry was compelled to follow Charles X. to Holyrood +after July 1830, but it was with the resolution of returning speedily +and making an attempt to secure the throne for her son. From England she +went to Italy, and in April 1832 she landed near Marseilles, but, +receiving no support, was compelled to make her way towards the loyal +districts of Vendee and Brittany. Her followers, however, were defeated, +and, after remaining concealed for five months in a house in Nantes, she +was betrayed to the government and imprisoned in the castle of Blaye. +Here she gave birth to a daughter, the fruit of a secret marriage +contracted with an Italian nobleman, Count Ettore Lucchesi-Palli +(1805-1864). The announcement of this marriage at once deprived the +duchess of the sympathies of her supporters. She was no longer an object +of fear to the French government, who released her in June 1833. She set +sail for Sicily, and, joining her husband, lived in retirement from that +time till her death, at Brunnensee in Switzerland, in April 1870. + + + + +BERRY, JOHN, DUKE OF (1340-1416), third son of John II., king of France +and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born on the 30th of November 1340 at +Vincennes. He was created count of Poitiers in 1356, and was made the +king's lieutenant in southern France, though the real power rested +chiefly with John of Armagnac, whose daughter Jeanne he married in 1360. +The loss of his southern possessions by the treaty of Bretigny was +compensated by the fiefs of Auvergne and Berry, with the rank of peer of +France. The duke went to England in 1360 as a hostage for the fulfilment +of the treaty of Bretigny, returning to France in 1367 on the pretext of +collecting his ransom. He took no leading part in the war against the +English, his energies being largely occupied with the satisfaction of +his artistic and luxurious tastes. For this reason perhaps his brother +Charles V. assigned him no share in the government during the minority +of Charles VI. He received, however, the province of Languedoc. The +peasant revolt of the _Tuchins_ and _Coquins_, as the insurgents were +called, was suppressed with great harshness, and the duke exacted from +the states of Languedoc assembled at Lyons a fine of L15,000. He fought +at Rosebeke in 1382 against the Flemings and helped to suppress the +Parisian revolts. By a series of delays he caused the failure of the +naval expedition prepared at Sluys against England in 1386, and a second +accusation of military negligence led to disgrace of the royal princes +and the temporary triumph of the _marmousels_, as the advisers of the +late king were nicknamed. Charles VI. visited Languedoc in 1389-1390, +and enquired into his uncle's government. The duke was deprived of the +government of Languedoc, and his agent, Betizac, was burnt. When in 1401 +he was restored, he delegated his authority in the province, where he +was still hated, to Bernard d'Armagnac. In 1396 he negotiated a truce +with Richard II. of England, and his marriage with the princess Isabella +of France. He tried to mediate between his brother Philip the Bold of +Burgundy and his nephew Louis, duke of Orleans, and later between John +"sans Peur" of Burgundy and Orleans. He broke with John after the murder +of Orleans, though he tried to prevent civil war, and only finally +joined the Armagnac party in 1410. In 1413 he resumed his role of +mediator, and was for a short time tutor to the dauphin. He died in +Paris on the 15th of June 1416, leaving vast treasures of jewelry, +objects of art, and especially of illuminated MSS., many of which have +been preserved. He decorated the Sainte Chapelle at Bourges; he built +the Hotel de Nesle in Paris, and palaces at Poitiers, Bourges, +Mehun-sur-Yevre and elsewhere. + + See also L. Raynal, _Histoire du Berry_ (Bourges, 1845); "Jean, duc de + Berry," in S Luce, _La France pendant la guerre de Cent Ans_ (1890), + vol. i.; Toulgoet-Treanna, in _Mem. de la Soc. des antiquaires du + centre_, vol. xvii. (1890). His beautiful illuminated _Livre d'heures_ + was reproduced (Paris, fol. 1904) by P. Durrieu. + + + + +BERRY, or BERRI, a former province of France, absorbed in 1790 in the +departments of Cher, corresponding roughly with Haut-Berry, and Indre, +representing Bas-Berry. George Sand, the most famous of "berrichon" +writers, has described the quiet scenery and rural life of the province +in the rustic novels of her later life. Berry is the _civitas_ or +_pagus_ Bituricensis of Gregory of Tours. The Bituriges were said by +Livy (v. 34) to have been the dominating tribe in Gaul in the 7th +century, one of their kings, Ambigat, having ruled over all Gaul. In +Caesar's time they were dependent on the Aedui. The tribes inhabiting +the districts of Berry and Bourbonnais were distinguished as Bituriges +Cubi. The numerous menhirs and dolmens to be found in the district, to +which local superstitions still cling, are probably monuments of still +earlier inhabitants. In 52 B.C. the Bituriges, at the order of +Vercingetorix, set fire to their towns, but spared Bourges (Avaricum) +their capital, which was taken and sacked by the Romans. The province +was amalgamated under Augustus with Aquitaine, and Bourges became the +capital of Aquitania Prima. In 475 Berry came into the possession of the +west Goths, from whom it was taken (c. 507) by Clovis. The first count +of Berry, Chunibert (d. 763), was created by Waifer, duke of Aquitaine, +from whom the county was wrested by Pippin the Short, who made it his +residence and left it to his son Carloman, on whose death it fell to his +brother Charlemagne. The countship of Berry was suppressed (926) by +Rudolph, king of the Franks (fl. 923-936). Berry was for some time a +group of lordships dependent directly on the crown, but the chief +authority eventually passed to the viscounts of Bourges, who, while +owning the royal suzerainty, preserved a certain independence until +1101, when the viscount Odo Arpin de Dun sold his fief to the crown. +Berry was part of the dowry of Eleanor, wife of Louis VII., and on her +divorce and remarriage with Henry II. of England it passed to the +English king. Its possession remained, however, a matter of dispute +until 1200, when Berry reverted by treaty with John of England to Philip +Augustus, and the various fiefs of Berry were given as a dowry to John's +niece, Blanche of Castile, on her marriage with Philip's son Louis +(afterwards Louis VIII.). Philip Augustus established an effective +control over the administration of the province by the appointment of a +royal _bailli_. Berry suffered during the Hundred Years' War, and more +severely during the wars of religion in the 16th century. It had been +made a duchy in 1360, and its first duke, John [Jean] (1340-1416), son +of the French king John II., encouraged the arts and beautified the +province with money wrung from his government of Languedoc. +Thenceforward it was held as an apanage of the French crown, usually by +a member of the royal family closely related to the king. Charles of +France (1447-1472), brother of Louis XI, was duke of Berry, but was +deprived of this province, as subsequently of the duchies of Normandy +and Guienne, for intrigues against his brother. The duchy was also +governed by Jeanne de Valois (d. 1505), the repudiated wife of Louis +XII.[1]; by Marguerite d'Angouleme, afterwards queen of Navarre; by +Marguerite de Valois, afterwards duchess of Savoy; and by Louise of +Lorraine, widow of Henry III., after whose death (1601) the province was +finally reabsorbed in the royal domain. The title of duke of Berry, +divested of territorial significance, was held by princes of the royal +house. Charles (1686-1714), duke of Berry, grandson of Louis XIV., and +third son of the dauphin Louis (d. 1711), married Marie Louise Elisabeth +(1686-1714), eldest daughter of the duke of Orleans, whose intrigues +made her notorious. The last to bear the title of duke of Berry was the +ill-fated Charles Ferdinand, grandson and heir of Charles X. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] See R. le Maulde, _Jeanne de France, duchesse d'Orleans et de + Berry_ (Paris, 1883). + + + + +BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE (1790-1868), French advocate and parliamentary +orator, was the son of an eminent advocate and counsellor to the +_parlement_. He was educated at the College de Juilly, on leaving which +he adopted the profession of the law; he was admitted advocate in 1811, +and in the same year he married. In the great conflict of the period +between Napoleon I. and the Bourbons, Berryer, like his father, was an +ardent Legitimist; and in the spring of 1815, at the opening of the +campaign of the Hundred Days, he followed Louis XVIII. to Ghent as a +volunteer. After the second restoration he distinguished himself as a +courageous advocate of moderation in the treatment of the military +adherents of the emperor. He assisted his father and Dupin in the +unsuccessful defence of Marshal Ney before the chamber of peers; and he +undertook alone the defence of General Cambronne and General Debelle, +procuring the acquittal of the former and the pardon of the latter. By +this time he had a very large business as advocate, and was engaged on +behalf of journalists in many press prosecutions. He stood forward with +a noble resolution to maintain the freedom of the press, and severely +censured the rigorous measures of the police department. In 1830, not +long before the fall of Charles X., Berryer was elected a member of the +chamber of deputies. He appeared there as the champion of the king and +encouraged him in his reactionary policy. After the revolution of July, +when the Legitimists withdrew in a body, Berryer alone retained his seat +as deputy. He resisted, but unsuccessfully, the abolition of the +hereditary peerage. He advocated trial by jury in press prosecutions, +the extension of municipal franchises and other liberal measures. In May +1832 he hastened from Paris to see the duchess of Berry on her landing +in the south of France for the purpose of organizing an insurrection in +favour of her son, the duke of Bordeaux, since known as the Comte de +Chambord. Berryer attempted to turn her from her purpose; and failing in +this he set out for Switzerland. He was, however, arrested, imprisoned +and brought to trial as one of the insurgents. He was immediately +acquitted. In the following year he pleaded for the liberation of the +duchess, made a memorable speech in defence of Chateaubriand, who was +prosecuted for his violent attacks on the government of Louis Philippe, +and undertook the defence of several Legitimist journalists. Among the +more noteworthy events of his subsequent career were his defence of +Louis Napoleon after the ridiculous affair of Boulogne, in 1840, and a +visit to England in December 1843, for the purpose of formally +acknowledging the pretender, the duke of Bordeaux, then living in +London, as Henry V. and lawful king of France. Berryer was an active +member of the National Assembly convoked after the revolution of +February 1848, again visited the pretender, then at Wiesbaden, and still +fought in the old cause. This long parliamentary career was closed by a +courageous protest against the _coup d'etat_ of December 2, 1851. After +a lapse of twelve years, however, he appeared once more in his forsaken +field as a deputy to the Corps Legislatif. Berryer was elected member of +the French Academy in 1854. A visit paid by this famous orator to Lord +Brougham in 1865 was made the occasion of a banquet given in his honour +by the benchers of the Temple and of Lincoln's Inn. In November 1868 he +was removed by his own desire from Paris to his country seat at +Augerville, and there he died on the 29th of the same month. + + + + +BERSERKER (from the "sark" or shirt of the "bear," or other animal-skins +worn by them), in Scandinavian mythology, the name of the twelve sons of +the hero Berserk, grandson of the eight-handed Starkadder and Alfhilde. +Berserk was famed for the reckless fury with which he fought, always +going into battle without armour. By the daughter of King Swafurlam, +whom he had killed, he had the twelve sons who were his equals in +bravery. In Old Norse the term _berserker_ thus became synonymous with +reckless courage, and was later applied to the bodyguards of several of +the Scandinavian heroes. + + + + +BERT, PAUL (1833-1886), French physiologist and politician, was born at +Auxerre (Yonne) on the 17th of October 1833. He entered the Ecole +Polytechnique at Paris with the intention of becoming an engineer; then +changing his mind, he studied law; and finally, under the influence of +the zoologist, L.P. Gratiolet (1815-1865), he took up physiology, +becoming one of Claude Bernard's most brilliant pupils. After graduating +at Paris as doctor of medicine in 1863, and doctor of science in 1866, +he was appointed professor of physiology successively at Bordeaux (1866) +and the Sorbonne (1869). After the revolution of 1870 he began to take +part in politics as a supporter of Gambetta. In 1874 he was elected to +the Assembly, where he sat on the extreme left, and in 1876 to the +chamber of deputies. He was one of the most determined enemies of +clericalism, and an ardent advocate of "liberating national education +from religious sects, while rendering it accessible to every citizen." +In 1881 he was minister of education and worship in Gambetta's +short-lived cabinet, and in the same year he created a great sensation +by a lecture on modern Catholicism, delivered in a Paris theatre, in +which he poured ridicule on the fables and follies of the chief +religious tracts and handbooks that circulated especially in the south +of France. Early in 1886 he was appointed resident-general in Annam and +Tonkin, and died of dysentery at Hanoi on the 11th of November of that +year. But he was more distinguished as a man of science than as a +politician or administrator. His classical work, _La Pression +barometrique_ (1878), embodies researches that gained him the biennial +prize of 20,000 francs from the Academy of Sciences in 1875, and is a +comprehensive investigation on the physiological effects of +air-pressure, both above and below the normal. His earliest researches, +which provided him with material for his two doctoral theses, were +devoted to animal grafting and the vitality of animal tissues, and they +were followed by studies on the physiological action of various poisons, +on anaesthetics, on respiration and asphyxia, on the causes of the +change of colour in the chameleon, &c. He was also interested in +vegetable physiology, and in particular investigated the movements of +the sensitive plant, and the influence of light of different colours on +the life of vegetation. After about 1880 he produced several elementary +text-books of scientific instruction, and also various publications on +educational and allied subjects. + + + + +BERTANI, AGOSTINO (1812-1886), Italian revolutionist, was born at Milan +on the 19th of October 1812. He took part in the insurrection of 1848, +though opposed to the fusion of Lombardy with Piedmont. During the Roman +republic of 1849, he, as medical officer, organized the ambulance +service, and, after the fall of Rome, withdrew to Genoa, where he worked +with Sir James Hudson for the liberation of the political prisoners of +Naples, but held aloof from the Mazzinian conspiracies. In 1859 he +founded a revolutionary journal at Genoa, but, shortly afterwards, +joined as surgeon the Garibaldian corps in the war of 1859. After +Villafranca he became the organizer-in-chief of the expeditions to +Sicily, remaining at Genoa after Garibaldi's departure for Marsala, and +organizing four separate volunteer corps, two of which were intended for +Sicily and two for the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged all to +sail for Sicily. Upon the arrival of Garibaldi at Naples, Bertani was +appointed secretary-general of the dictator, in which capacity he +reorganized the police, abolished the secret service fund, founded +twelve infant asylums, suppressed the duties upon Sicilian products, +prepared for the suppression of the religious orders, and planned the +sanitary reconstruction of the city. Entering parliament in 1861, he +opposed the Garibaldian expedition, which ended at Aspromonte, but +nevertheless tended Garibaldi's wound with affectionate devotion. In +1866 he organized the medical service for the 40,000 Garibaldians, and +in 1867 fought at Mentana. His parliamentary career, though marked by +zeal, was less brilliant than his revolutionary activity. Up to 1870 he +remained an agitator, but, after the liberation of Rome, seceded from +the historic left, and became leader of the extreme left, a position +held until his death on the 30th of April 1886. His chief work as deputy +was an inquiry into the sanitary conditions of the peasantry, and the +preparation of the sanitary code adopted by the Crispi administration. + (H. W. S.) + + + + +BERTAT (Arab. _Jebalain_), negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes, +mainly agriculturists. They occupy the valleys of the Yabus and Tumat, +tributaries of the Blue Nile. They are shortish and very black, with +projecting jaws, broad noses and thick lips. By both sexes the hair is +worn short or the head shaved; on cheeks and temple are tribal marks in +the form of scars. The huts of the Bertat are circular, the floor raised +on short poles. Their weapons are the spear, throwing-club, sword and +dagger, and also the _kulbeda_ or throwing-knife. Blocks of salt are the +favourite form of currency. Gold washing is practised. Nature worship +still struggles against the spread of Mahommedanism. The Bertat, +estimated to number some 80,000, c. 1880, were nearly exterminated +during the period of Dervish ascendancy (1884-1898) in the eastern +Sudan. Settled among them are Arab communities governed by their own +sheiks, while the _meks_ or rulers of the Bertat speak Arabic, and show +traces of foreign blood. (See FAZOGLI.) + + See Koeltlitz, "The Bertat," _Journal of the Anthropological + Institute_, xxxiii. 51; _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count + Gleichen (London, 1905). + + + + +BERTAUT, JEAN (1552-1611), French poet, was born at Caen in 1552. He +figures with Desportes in the disdainful couplet of Boileau on +Ronsard:-- + + "Ce poete orgueilleux, trebuche de si haut, + Rendit plus retenus Desportes et Bertaut." + +He wrote light verse to celebrate the incidents of court life in the +manner of Desportes, but his verse is more fantastic and fuller of +conceits than his master's. He early entered the church, and had a share +in the conversion of Henry IV., a circumstance which assured his career. +He was successively councillor of the parlement of Grenoble, secretary +to the king, almoner to Marie de' Medici, abbot of Aulnay and finally, +in 1606, bishop of Sees. After his elevation to the bishopric he ceased +to produce the light verse in which he excelled, though his scruples did +not prevent him from preparing a new edition of his _Recueil de quelques +vers amoureux_ (1602) in 1606. The serious poems in which he celebrated +the public events of his later years are dull and lifeless. Bertaut died +at Sees on the 8th of June 1611. His works were edited by M.Ad. +Chenevieres in 1891. + + + + +BERTH, originally a nautical term, probably connected with the verb "to +bear," first found in literature at the end of the 16th century, with +the alternative spelling "birth." Its primary meaning is "sea-room," +whether on the high seas or at anchor. Hence the phrase "to give a wide +berth to," meaning "to keep at a safe distance from," both in its +literal and its metaphorical use. From meaning sea-room for a ship at +anchor, "berth" comes to mean also the position of a ship at her +moorings ("to berth a ship"). The word further means any place on a ship +allotted for a special purpose, where the men mess or sleep, or an +office or appointment on board, whence the word has passed into +colloquial use with the meaning of a situation or employment. From the +Icelandic _byrdi_, a board, is also derived the ship-building term +"berth," meaning to board, put up bulk-heads, &c. + + + + +BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN PIERRE EUGENE (1827-1907), French chemist and +politician, was born at Paris on the 29th of October 1827, being the son +of a doctor. After distinguishing himself at school in history and +philosophy, he turned to the study of science. In 1851 he became a +member of the staff of the College de France as assistant to A.J. +Balard, his former master, and about the same time he began his +life-long friendship with Ernest Renan. In 1854 he made his reputation +by his doctoral thesis, _Sur les combinaisons de la glycerine avec les +acides_, which described a series of beautiful researches in +continuation and amplification of M.E. Chevreul's classical work. In +1859 he was appointed professor of organic chemistry at the Ecole +Superieure de Pharmacie, and in 1865 he accepted the new chair of +organic chemistry, which was specially created for his benefit at the +College de France. He became a member of the Academy of Medicine in +1863, and ten years afterwards entered the Academy of Sciences, of which +he became perpetual secretary in 1889 in succession to Louis Pasteur. He +was appointed inspector general of higher education in 1876, and after +his election as life senator in 1881 he continued to take an active +interest in educational questions, especially as affected by compulsory +military service. In the Goblet ministry of 1886-1887 he was minister of +public instruction, and in the Bourgeois cabinet of 1895-1896 he held +the portfolio for foreign affairs. His scientific jubilee was celebrated +in Paris in 1901. He died suddenly, immediately after the death of his +wife, on the 18th of March 1907, at Paris, and with her was buried in +the Pantheon. + +The fundamental conception that underlay all Berthelot's chemical work +was that all chemical phenomena depend on the action of physical forces +which can be determined and measured. When he began his active career it +was generally believed that, although some instances of the synthetical +production of organic substances had been observed, on the whole organic +chemistry must remain an analytical science and could not become a +constructive one, because the formation of the substances with which it +deals required the intervention of vital activity in some shape. To this +attitude he offered uncompromising opposition, and by the synthetical +production of numerous hydrocarbons, natural fats, sugars and other +bodies he proved that organic compounds can be formed by ordinary +methods of chemical manipulation and obey the same laws as inorganic +substances, thus exhibiting the "creative character in virtue of which +chemistry actually realizes the abstract conceptions of its theories and +classifications--a prerogative so far possessed neither by the natural +nor by the historical sciences." His investigations on the synthesis of +organic compounds were published in numerous papers and books, including +_Chimie organique fondee sur la synthese_ (1860) and _Les Carbures +d'hydrogene_ (1901). Again he held that chemical phenomena are not +governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are explicable +in terms of the general laws of mechanics that are in operation +throughout the universe; and this view he developed, with the aid of +thousands of experiments, in his _Mecanique chimique_ (1878) and his +_Thermochimie_ (1897). This branch of study naturally conducted him to +the investigation of explosives, and on the theoretical side led to the +results published in his work _Sur la force de la poudre et des matieres +explosives_ (1872), while on the practical side it enabled him to render +important services to his country as president of the scientific defence +committee during the siege of Paris in 1870-71 and subsequently as chief +of the French explosives committee. In the later years of his life he +turned to the study of the earlier phases of the science which he did so +much to advance, and students of chemical history are greatly indebted +to him for his book on _Les Origines de l'alchimie_ (1885) and his +_Introduction a l'etude de la chimie des anciens et du moyen age_ +(1889), as well as for publishing translations of various old Greek, +Syriac and Arabic treatises on alchemy and chemistry (_Collection des +anciens alchimistes grecs_, 1887-1888, and _La Chimie au moyen age_, +1893). He was also the author of _Science et philosophie_ (1886), which +contains a well-known letter to Renan on "La Science ideale et la +science positive," of _La Revolution chimique, Lavoisier_ (1890), of +_Science et morale_ (1897), and of numerous articles in _La Grande +Encyclopedie_, which he helped to establish. + + + + +BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE, prince of Neuchatel (1753-1815), marshal of +France and chief of the staff under Napoleon I., was born at Versailles +on the 20th of February 1753. As a boy he was instructed in the military +art by his father, an officer of the _Corps de genie_, and at the age of +seventeen he entered the army, serving successively in the staff, the +engineers and the prince de Lambesq's dragoons. In 1780 he went to North +America with Rochambeau, and on his return, having attained the rank of +colonel, he was employed in various staff posts and in a military +mission to Prussia. During the Revolution, as chief of staff of the +Versailles national guard, he protected the aunts of Louis XVI. from +popular violence, and aided their escape (1791). In the war of 1792 he +was at once made chief of staff to Marshal Luckner, and he bore a +distinguished part in the Argonne campaign of Dumouriez and Kellermann. +He served with great credit in the Vendean War of 1793-95, and was in +the next year made a general of division and chief of staff +(_Major-General_) to the army of Italy, which Bonaparte had recently +been appointed to command. His power of work, accuracy and quick +comprehension, combined with his long and varied experience and his +complete mastery of detail, made him the ideal chief of staff to a great +soldier; and in this capacity he was Napoleon's most valued assistant +for the rest of his career. He accompanied Napoleon throughout the +brilliant campaign of 1796, and was left in charge of the army after the +peace of Campo Formio. In this post he organized the Roman republic +(1798), after which he joined his chief in Egypt, serving there until +Napoleon's return. He assisted in the _coup d'etat_ of 18th Brumaire, +afterwards becoming minister of war for a time. In the campaign of +Marengo he was the nominal head of the Army of Reserve, but the first +consul accompanied the army and Berthier acted in reality, as always, as +chief of staff to Napoleon. At the close of the campaign he was employed +in civil and diplomatic business. When Napoleon became emperor, Berthier +was at once made a marshal of the empire. He took part in the campaigns +of Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland, and was created duke of Valengin in +1806, sovereign prince of Neuchatel in the same year and vice-constable +of the empire in 1807. In 1808 he served in the Peninsula, and in 1809 +in the Austrian War, after which he was given the title of prince of +Wagram. Berthier married a niece of the king of Bavaria. He was with +Napoleon in Russia in 1812, Germany in 1813, and France in 1814, +fulfilling, till the fall of the empire, the functions of +"major-general" of the _Grande Armee_. He abandoned Napoleon to make his +peace with Louis XVIII. in 1814, and accompanied the king in his solemn +entry into Paris. During Napoleon's captivity in Elba, Berthier, whom he +informed of his projects, was much perplexed as to his future course, +and, being unwilling to commit himself, fell under the suspicion both of +his old leader and of Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return he withdrew to +Bamberg, where he died on the 1st of June 1815. The manner of his death +is uncertain; according to some accounts he was assassinated by members +of a secret society, others say that, maddened by the sight of Russian +troops marching to invade France, he threw himself from his window and +was killed. Berthier was not a great commander. When he was in temporary +command in 1809 the French army in Bavaria underwent a series of +reverses. Whatever merit as a general he may have possessed was +completely overshadowed by the genius of his master. But his title to +fame is that he understood and carried out that master's directions to +the minutest detail. + + + + +BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748-1822), French chemist, was born at +Talloire, near Annecy in Savoy, on the 9th of December 1748. He studied +first at Chambery and afterwards at Turin, where he graduated in +medicine. Settling in Paris in 1772, he became the private physician of +Philip, duke of Orleans, and by his chemical work soon gained so high a +reputation that in 1780 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. In +1785 he declared himself an adherent of the Lavoisierian school, though +he did not accept Lavoisier's view of oxygen as the only and universal +acidifying principle, and he took part in the reform in chemical +nomenclature carried out by Lavoisier and his associates in 1787. Among +the substances of which he investigated the composition were ammonia, +sulphuretted hydrogen and prussic acid, and his experiments on chlorine, +which he regarded, not as an element, but as oxygenated muriatic +(oxymuriatic) acid, led him to propose it as a bleaching agent in 1785. +He also prepared potassium chlorate and attempted to use it in the +manufacture of gunpowder as a substitute for saltpetre. When, at the +beginning of the French Revolution, the deficiency in the supply of +saltpetre became a serious matter, he was placed at the head of the +commission entrusted with the development of its production in French +territory, and another commission on which he served had for its object +the improvement of the methods of iron manufacture. He was also a member +in 1794 of the committee on agriculture and the arts, and technical +science was further indebted to him for a systematic exposition of the +principles of dyeing--_Elemens de l'art de la teinture_, 1791, of which +he published a second edition in 1809, in association with his son, A.B. +Berthollet (1783-1811). After 1794 he was teacher of chemistry in the +polytechnic and normal schools of Paris, and in 1795 he took an active +part in remodelling the Academy as the Institut National. In the +following year he and Gaspard Monge were chosen chiefs of a commission +charged with the task of selecting in Italy the choicest specimens of +ancient and modern art for the national galleries of Paris; and in 1798 +he was one of the band of scientific men who accompanied Napoleon to +Egypt, there forming themselves into the Institute of Egypt on the plan +of the Institut National. On the fall of the Directory he was made a +senator and grand officer of the Legion of Honour; under the empire he +became a count; and after the restoration of the Bourbons he took his +seat as a peer. In the later years of his life he had at Arcueil, where +he died on the 6th of November 1822, a well-equipped laboratory, which +became a centre frequented by some of the most distinguished scientific +men of the time, their proceedings being published in three volumes, +between 1807 and 1817, as the _Memoires de la societe d'Arcueil_. +Berthollet's most remarkable contribution to chemistry was his _Essai de +statique chimique_ (1803), the first systematic attempt to grapple with +the problems of chemical physics. His doctrines did not meet with +general approval among his contemporaries, partly perhaps because he +pushed them too far, as for instance in holding that two elements might +combine in constantly varying proportions, a view which gave rise to a +long dispute with L.J. Proust; but his speculations, in particular his +insistence on the influence of the relative masses of the acting +substances in chemical reactions, have exercised a dominating influence +on the modern developments of the theory of chemical affinity, of which, +far more than T.O. Bergman, whom he controverted, he must be regarded as +the founder. + + + + +BERTHON, EDWARD LYON (1813-1899), English inventor, was born in London, +on the 20th of February 1813, the son of an army contractor and +descendant of an old Huguenot family. He studied for the medical +profession in Liverpool and at Dublin, but after his marriage in 1834 he +gave up his intention of becoming a doctor, and travelled for about six +years on the continent. Keenly interested from boyhood in mechanical +science, he made experiments in the application of the screw propeller +for boats. But his model, with a two-bladed propeller, was only +ridiculed when it was placed before the British admiralty. Berthon +therefore did not complete the patent and the idea was left for Francis +Smith to bring out more successfully in 1838. In 1841 he entered +Magdalene College, Cambridge, in order to study for the Church. There he +produced what is usually known as "Berthon's log," in which the suction +produced by the water streaming past the end of a pipe projected below a +ship is registered on a mercury column above. In 1845 he was ordained, +and after holding a curacy at Lymington was given a living at Fareham. +Here he was able to carry on experiments with his log, which was tested +on the Southampton to Jersey steamboats; but the British admiralty gave +him no encouragement, and it remained uncompleted. He next designed some +instruments to indicate the trim and rolling of boats at sea; but the +idea for which he is chiefly remembered was that of the "Berthon Folding +Boat" in 1849. This invention was again adversely reported on by the +admiralty. Berthon resigned his living at Fareham, and subsequently +accepted the living of Romsey. In 1873, encouraged by Samuel Plimsoll, +he again applied himself to perfecting his collapsible boat. Success was +at last achieved, and in less than a year he had received orders from +the admiralty for boats to the amount of L15,000. Some were taken by Sir +George Nares to the Arctic, others were sent to General Gordon at +Khartum, and others again were taken to the Zambezi by F.C. Selous. +Berthon died on the 27th of October 1899. + + + + +BERTHOUD, FERDINAND (1727-1807), Swiss chronometer-maker, was born at +Plancemont, Neuchatel, in 1727, and settling in Paris in 1745 gained a +great reputation for the excellence and accuracy of his chronometers. He +was a member of the Institute and a fellow of the Royal Society of +London, and among other works wrote _Essais sur l'horlogerie_ (1763). He +died in 1807 at Montmorency, Seine et Oise. He was succeeded in business +by his nephew, Louis Berthoud (1759-1813). + + + + +BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE (1821-1883), French statistician, was born in +Paris on the 1st of April 1821. Entering the medical profession, he +practised as a doctor for a number of years. After the revolution of +1870, he was appointed inspector-general of benevolent institutions. He +was one of the founders of the school of anthropology of Paris, and was +appointed a professor there in 1876. His _Demographie figuree de la +France_ (1874) is an able statistical study of the population of France. +He died at Neuilly on the 28th of February 1883. + +His son ALPHONSE BERTILLON, the anthropometrist, was born in Paris in +1853. He published in 1883 a work _Ethnographie moderne des races +sauvages_, but his chief claim to distinction lies in the system +invented by him for the identification of criminals, which is described +by him in his _Photographie judiciaire_, Paris, 1890 (see +ANTHROPOMETRY). He was officially appointed in 1894 to report on the +handwriting of the _bordereau_ in the Dreyfus case, and was a witness +for the prosecution before the cour de cassation on the 18th of January +1899. + + + + +BERTIN, a family of distinction in the history of French journalism. The +most important member of the family, generally regarded as the father of +modern French journalism, LOUIS FRANCOIS BERTIN (1766-1841), known as +Bertin _aine_, was born in Paris on the 14th of December 1766. He began +his journalistic career by writing for the _Journal Francais_ and other +papers during the French Revolution. After the 18th Brumaire he founded +the paper, with which the name of his family has chiefly been connected, +the _Journal des Debats_. He was suspected of royalist tendencies by the +consulate and was exiled in 1801. He returned to Paris in 1804 and +resumed the management of the paper, the title of which had been changed +by order of Napoleon to that of _Journal de l'Empire_. Bertin had to +submit to a rigorous censorship, and in 1811 the conduct, together with +the profits, was taken over entirely by the government. In 1814 he +regained possession and restored the old title and continued his support +of the royalist cause--during the Hundred Days; he directed the +_Moniteur de Gand_--till 1823, when the _Journal des Debats_ became the +recognized organ of the constitutional opposition. Bertin's support was, +however, given to the July monarchy after 1830. He died on the 13th of +September 1841. LOUIS FRANCOIS BERTIN DE VAUX (1771-1842), the younger +brother of Bertin _aine_, took a leading part in the conduct of the +_Journal des Debats_, to the success of which his powers of writing +greatly contributed. He entered the chamber of deputies in 1815, was +made councillor of state in 1827, and a peer of France in 1830. The two +sons of Bertin _aine_, EDOUARD FRANCOIS (1797-1871) and LOUIS MARIE +FRANCOIS (1801-1854), were directors in succession of the _Journal des +Debats_. Edouard Bertin was also a painter of some distinction. + + + + +BERTINORO, OBADIAH, Jewish commentator of the Mishnah, died in Jerusalem +about 1500. Bertinoro much improved the status of the Jews in the Holy +Land; before his migration thither the Jews of Palestine were in a +miserable condition of poverty and persecution. His commentary on the +Mishnah is the most useful of all helps to the understanding of that +work. It is printed in most Hebrew editions of the Mishnah. Surenhusius, +in his Latin edition of the last-named code (Amsterdam 1698-1703), +translated Bertinoro's commentary. + + + + +BERTINORO, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province of +Forli, 8 m. S.E. direct of Forli and 5-1/2 m. N. of the station of +Forlimpopoli, and 800 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 3753; +commune, 7786. The town commands a fine view to the north over the plain +of Emilia and the lower course of the Po, itself lying on the foothills +of the Apennines. It appears to have been first fortified by Frederick +Barbarossa, and its castle stood frequent sieges in the middle ages. +Polenta, 2-1/2 m. to the south of it, was the birthplace of Francesca da +Rimini. The castle is almost entirely ruined, but the church of S. +Donato, of the Lombard period, with Byzantine capitals, is interesting; +Giosue Carducci has written a fine ode on the subject (_La Chiesa di +Polenta_, Bologna, 1897). + + See C. Ricci, "Della Chiesa e castello di Polenta" in _Atti e Memorie + della Deputazione di Storia patria per le prooniae di Romagna_, ser. + iii. vol. ix. (Bologna, 1891), 1 seq. (T. As.) + + + + +BERTOLD (1442-1504), elector and archbishop of Mainz, son of George, +count of Henneberg, entered the ecclesiastical profession, and after +passing through its lower stages, was made archbishop of Mainz in 1484. +He appears to have been a firm supporter of law and order, an enemy of +clerical abuses and a careful administrator of his diocese. Immediately +after his election as archbishop he began to take a leading part in the +business of the Empire, and in 1486 was very active in securing the +election of Maximilian as Roman king. His chief work, however, was done +as an advocate of administrative reform in Germany. During the reign of +the emperor Frederick III. he had brought this question before the diet, +and after Frederick's death, when he had become imperial chancellor, he +was the leader of the party which pressed the necessity for reform upon +Maximilian at the diet of Worms in 1495. His proposals came to nothing, +but he continued the struggle at a series of diets, and urged the +Germans to emulate the courage and union of the Swiss cantons. He gained +a temporary victory when the diet of Augsburg in 1500 established a +council of regency (_Reichsregiment_), and in 1502 persuaded the +electors to form a union to uphold the reforms of 1495 and 1500. The +elector died on the 21st of December 1504. Bertold was a man of great +ability and resourcefulness, and as a statesman who strove for an +ordered and united Germany was far in advance of his age. + + See J. Weiss, _Berthold von Henneberg, Erzbischof von Mainz_ + (Freiburg, 1889). + + + + +BERTOLD VON REGENSBURG (c. 1220-1272), the greatest German preacher of +the later middle ages, was a native of Regensburg, and entered the +Franciscan monastery there. From about 1250 onwards his fame as a +preacher spread over all the German-speaking parts of the continent of +Europe. He wandered from village to village and town to town, preaching +to enormous audiences, always in the open air; the earnestness and +straightforward eloquence with which he insisted that true repentance +came from the heart, that pious pilgrimages and the absolution of the +Church were mere outward symbols, appealed to all classes. He died in +Regensburg on the 13th of December 1272. His German sermons, of which +seventy-one have been preserved, are among the most powerful in the +language, and form the chief monuments of Middle High German prose. His +style is clear, direct and remarkably free from cumbrous Latin +constructions; he employed, whenever he could, the pithy and homely +sayings of the peasants, and is not reluctant to point his moral with a +rough humour. As a thinker, he shows little sympathy with that strain of +medieval mysticism which is to be observed in all the poetry of his +contemporaries. + + The best edition of Bertold's German sermons is that by F. Pfeiffer + and J. Strobl (2 vols., 1862-1880; reprinted, 1906); there is also a + modern German version by F. Gobel (4th ed., 1906). The Latin sermons + were edited by G. Jakob (1880). See C.W. Stromberger, _Bertold von + Regensburg, der grosste Volksredner des deutschen Mittelalters_ + (1877), K. Unkel, _Bertold von Regensburg_ (1882), and E. Bernhardt, + _Bruder Bertold von Regensburg_ (1905); A.E. Schonbach, _Studien zur + Geschichte der altdeutschen Predigt_ (_Publications of the Vienna + Academy_, 1906). + + + + +BERTRAM, CHARLES (1723-1765), English literary impostor, was born in +London, the son of a silk dyer. In 1747, being then teacher of English +at the school for Danish naval cadets at Copenhagen, he wrote to Dr +William Stukeley, the English antiquarian, that he had discovered a +manuscript written by a monk named Richard of Westminster, which +corrected and supplemented the _Itinerary_ of Antoninus in Britain. He +subsequently sent to Stukeley a copy of various parts of the work and a +facsimile of a few lines of the manuscript. These were so cleverly +executed that they quite deceived the English palaeographers of the +period. Stukeley, finding that a chronicler of the fourteenth century, +Richard of Cirencester, had also been an inmate of Westminster Abbey, +identified him with Bertram's Richard of Westminster, and, in 1756, read +an analysis of the "discovery" before the Society of Antiquaries, which +was published with a copy of Richard's map. In 1757 Bertram published at +Copenhagen a volume entitled _Britannicarum Gentium Historiae Antiquae +Scriptores Tres_. This contained the works of Gildas and Nennius and the +full text of Bertram's forgery, and though Bertram's map did not +correspond with that of Richard, Stukeley discarded the latter and +adopted Bertram's concoction in his _Itinerarium Curiosum_ published in +1776. Although Thomas Reynolds in his _Iter Britanniarum_ (1799), an +edition of the British portion of Antoninus' _Itinerary_, was distinctly +sceptical as to the value of Bertram's manuscript, its authenticity was +generally accepted until the middle of the 19th century. No original of +the manuscript could then be found at Copenhagen, and B.B. Woodward, +librarian of Windsor Castle, proved conclusively, by a series of +articles in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1866 and 1867, that the +supposed facsimile of calligraphy produced by Bertram was a blend of the +style of various periods, while the greater portion of the idiomatic +Latin in the book was a mere translation of 18th century English +phraseology. Nevertheless, as late as 1872, a translation of Bertram's +forgery was included in Bohn's Antiquarian Library as one of the _Six +English Chronicles_, and there is no doubt that the work had a wide and +misleading influence upon many antiquarian writers. Bertram died in +1765. + + + + +BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN, COMTE (1773-1844), French general, was born at +Chateauroux. At the outbreak of the Revolution, he had just finished his +studies, and he entered the army as a volunteer. During the expedition +to Egypt, Napoleon named him colonel (1798), then brigadier-general, and +after Austerlitz his aide-de-camp. His life was henceforth closely bound +up with that of Napoleon, who had the fullest confidence in him, +honouring him in 1813 with the title of grand marshal of the court. It +was Bertrand who in 1809 directed the building of the bridges by which +the French army crossed the Danube at Wagram. In 1813, after the battle +of Leipzig, it was due to his initiative that the French army was not +totally destroyed. He accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814, returned +with him in 1815, held a command in the Waterloo campaign, and then, +after the defeat, accompanied Napoleon to St Helena. He did not return +to France until after Napoleon's death, and then Louis XVIII. allowed +him to retain his rank, and he was elected deputy in 1830. In 1840 he +was chosen to go to bring Napoleon's remains to France. He died at +Chateauroux on the 31st of January 1844. His touching fidelity has made +his name very popular in France. + + + + +BERTRICH, a village and watering place of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine +province, in a narrow valley running down to the Mosel near Cochem. Its +waters are efficacious in cases of gout, rheumatism and biliary +affections. Pop. 500. + + + + +BERULLE, PIERRE DE (1575-1629), French cardinal and statesman, was born +at Serilly, near Troyes, on the 4th of February 1575. He was educated by +the Jesuits and at the university of Paris. Soon after his ordination in +1599, he assisted Cardinal Duperron in his controversy with the +Protestant Philippe de Mornay, and made numerous converts. He founded +the Congregation of the French Oratory in 1611 and introduced the +Carmelite nuns into France, notwithstanding the opposition of the friars +of that order, who were jealous of his ascendancy. Berulle also played +an important part as a statesman. He obtained the necessary +dispensations from Rome for Henrietta Maria's marriage to Charles I., +and acted as her chaplain during the first year of her stay in England. +In 1626, as French ambassador to Spain, he concluded the treaty of +Monzon. After the reconciliation of Louis XIII. with his mother, Marie +de' Medici, through his agency, he was appointed a councillor of state, +but had to resign this office, owing to his Austrian policy, which was +opposed by Richelieu. Berulle encouraged Descartes' philosophical +studies, and it was through him that the Samaritan Pentateuch, recently +brought over from Constantinople, was inserted in Lejay's _Polyglot +Bible_. His treatise, _Des Grandeurs de Jesus_, was a favourite book +with the Jansenists. He died on the 2nd of October 1629. His works, +edited by P. Bourgoing (2 vols., 1644) were reprinted, by Migne in 1857. + + See _M. de Berulle et les Carmelites; Le Pere de Berulle et l'oratoire + de Jesus; Le Cardinal de Berulle et Richelieu_ (3 vols., 1872-1876), + by the Abbe M. Houssaye; and H. Sidney Lear's _Priestly Life in France + in the Seventeenth Century_ (London, 1873). + + + + +BERVIE, or INVERBERVIE, a royal and police burgh of Kincardineshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1207. It is situated at the mouth of Bervie Water +and is the terminus of the North British railway's branch line from +Montrose, which lies 14 m. S.W. The leading industries include +manufactures of woollens, flax and chemicals, and there is also a brisk +trade in live-stock. Bervie unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and +Montrose in returning one member (for the "Montrose burghs") to +parliament. David II., driven by stress of weather, landed here with his +queen Joanna in 1341, and, out of gratitude for the hospitality of the +townsfolk, granted them a charter, which James VI. confirmed. Hallgreen +Castle, a stronghold of the 14th century, is maintained in repair. About +one m. south is the fishing village of Gourdon (pop. 1197), where +boat-building is carried on. There is a small but steady export business +from the harbour, which has a pier and breakwater. St Ternan's, the +Romanesque parish church of Arbuthnott, 2-1/2 m. north-west, stands on +the banks of the Bervie. In the chapel dedicated to St Mary, which was +afterwards added to it, is the burial-place of the Arbuthnotts, who took +their title from the estate in 1644. John Arbuthnot, Queen Anne's +physician and the friend of Swift and Pope, was a native of the parish. +Kinneff, 2 m. north, on the coast, is of interest as the place where the +Scottish regalia were concealed during the siege of Dunottar Castle. + + + + +BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES, DUKE OF (1670-1734), marshal of France, was the +natural son of James, duke of York, afterwards James II. of England, by +Arabella Churchill (1648-1730), sister of the great duke of Marlborough. +He was born at Moulins (Bourbonnais) on the 21st of August 1670. He +received his education in France at the hands of the Jesuits, and at the +age of fifteen, his father having succeeded to the throne, he was sent to +learn the business of a soldier under the famous general of the empire, +Charles of Lorraine. He served his first campaign in Hungary, and was +present at the siege of Buda. He then returned to England, was made a +colonel of the 8th Foot, and in 1687 created duke of Berwick, earl of +Teignmouth and Baron Bosworth. He then went out afresh to Hungary and was +present at the battle of Mohacz. On his return to England he was made +K.G., colonel of the 3rd troop of horse guards (Royal Horse Guards Blue) +and governor of Portsmouth, but soon afterwards the revolution forced him +to flee to France. He served under James II. in the campaign in Ireland, +and was present at the battle of the Boyne. For a short time he was left +in Ireland as commander-in-chief, but his youth and inexperience unfitted +him for the post, and he was a mere puppet in stronger hands. He then +took service in the French army, fought under Marshal Luxembourg in +Flanders, and took part in the battles of Steinkirk and Neerwinden, at +the latter of which he was taken prisoner. He was, however, immediately +exchanged for the duke of Ormond, and afterwards he served under +Villeroi. In 1695 he married the widow of Patrick Sarsfield, who died in +1698. His second marriage, with Anne Bulkeley, took place in 1700. As a +lieutenant-general he served in the campaign of 1702, after which he +became naturalized as a French subject in order to be eligible for the +marshalate. In 1704, he first took command of the French army in Spain. +So highly was he now esteemed for his courage, abilities and integrity, +that all parties were anxious to have him on their side (_Eloge_, by +Montesquieu). His tenure of the command was, however, very short, and +after one campaign he was replaced by the Marshal de Tesse. In 1705 he +commanded against the Camisards in Languedoc, and when on this expedition +he is said to have carried out his orders with remorseless rigour. His +successful expedition against Nice in 1706 caused him to be made marshal +of France, and in the same year he returned to Spain as +commander-in-chief of the Franco-Spanish armies. On the 25th of April +1707, the duke won the great and decisive victory of Almanza, where an +Englishman at the head of a French army defeated Ruvigny, earl of Galway, +a Frenchman at the head of an English army. The victory established +Philip V. on the throne of Spain. Berwick was made a peer of France by +Louis XIV., and duke of Liria and of Xereca and lieutenant of Aragon by +Philip. Thenceforward Berwick was recognized as one of the greatest +generals of his time, and successively commanded in nearly all the +theatres of war. From 1709 to 1712 he defended the south-east frontier of +France in a series of campaigns which, unmarked by any decisive battle, +were yet models of the art of war as practised at the time. The last +great event of the War of the Spanish Succession was the storming of +Barcelona by Berwick, after a long siege, on the 11th of September 1714. +Three years later he was appointed military governor of the province of +Guienne, in which post he became intimate with Montesquieu. In 1718 he +found himself under the necessity of once more entering Spain with an +army; and this time he had to fight against Philip V., the king who owed +chiefly to Berwick's courage and skill the safety of his throne. One of +the marshal's sons, known as the duke of Liria, was settled in Spain, and +was counselled by his father not to shrink from doing his duty and +fighting for his sovereign. Many years of peace followed this campaign, +and Marshal Berwick was not again called to serve in the field till 1733. +He advised and conducted the siege of Philipsburg, and while the siege +was going on was killed by a cannon-shot on the 12th of June 1734. Cool, +self-possessed and cautious as a general, Marshal Berwick was at the same +time not wanting in audacity and swiftness of action. He was a true +general of the 18th century, not less in his care for the lives of his +men than in his punctiliousness and rigidity in matters of discipline. + + The _Memoires_ of Marshal Berwick, revised, annotated and continued by + the Abbe Hooke, were published by the marshal's grandson in 1778. + Montesquieu made many contributions to this. + + + + +BERWICKSHIRE, a county of Scotland, forming its south-eastern extremity, +bounded N. by Haddingtonshire and the North Sea; E. by the North Sea; +S.E. by the county of the borough and town of Berwick; S. by the Tweed +and Roxburghshire, and W. by Mid-Lothian. Its area is 292,577 acres or +457 sq. m., and it has a coast-line of 21 m. The county is naturally +divided into three districts: Lauderdale, or the valley of the Leader, +in the W.; Lammermuir, the upland district occupied by the hills of that +name in the N.; and the Merse (the March or Borderland, giving a title +to the earls of Wemyss), the largest district, occupying the S.E. The +Lammermuirs are a range of round-backed hills, whose average height is +about 1000 ft., while the highest summit, Says Law, reaches 1749 ft. +From these hills the Merse stretches to the S. and E., and is a +comparatively level tract of country. The coast is lofty, rocky and +precipitous, broken by ravines and not accessible, except at Eyemouth +Harbour, for small vessels, and at Coldingham and Burnmouth for fishing +boats. St Abb's Head, a promontory with a lighthouse upon it, rises to +310 ft. The Eye is the only river of any size which falls directly into +the sea. The others--the Leader, the Eden, the Leet and the Whiteadder +with its tributaries, the Blackadder and the Dye--all flow into the +Tweed. Of these the largest and most important is the Whiteadder, which +has its source in the parish of Whittingehame on the East Lothian side +of the Lammermuirs, and, following a sinuous course of 35 m., joins the +Tweed within the bounds or liberties of Berwick. There are small lochs +at Coldingham, Legerwood, Spottiswoode, the Hirsel, near Coldstream, +Hule Moss on Greenlaw Moor, and tiny sheets of water near Duns and +Mersington. + +_Geology._--The north portion of the county embraces that part of the +Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland which stretches from the +Lammermuir Hills east to St Abb's Head. The strata consist mainly of +grits, greywackes, flags and shales, repeated by innumerable folds, +trending north-east and south-west, which are laid bare in the great +cliff section between Fast Castle and St Abb's Head. This section of the +tableland includes sediments, chiefly of Tarannon age, which form a belt +10 m. across from the crest of the Lammermuir Hills to a point near +Westruther and Longformacus. In the Earnscleuch Burn north-east of +Lauder representatives of Llandovery, Caradoc and Llandeilo rocks, +together with the Arenig cherts, appear along an anticlinal fold in the +midst of the younger strata. Again in the extreme north-west of the +county near Channelkirk and to the north of the Tarannon belt +radiolarian cherts and black shales with graptolites of Upper Llandeilo +and Caradoc age are met with. The Lower Old Red Sandstone rocks, which +rest unconformably on the folded and denuded Silurian strata, appear at +Eyemouth and Reston Junction, and at St Abb's Head are associated with +contemporaneous volcanic rocks which are evidently on the same horizon +as the interbedded lavas of Lower Old Red age in the Cheviots. The +intrusive igneous materials of this period are represented by the +granitic mass of Cockburn Law and the porphyrites of the Dirrington +Laws. The Upper Old Red Sandstone, consisting of conglomerates and +sandstones, rest unconformably alike on the Silurian platform as at +Siccar Point and on the lower division of that system. The age of these +beds has been determined by the occurrence of remains of _Holoptychius +nobilissimus_ in the sandstones at Earlston and in the Whiteadder north +of Duns. On the Black Hill of Earlston these strata are traversed by a +sheet of trachyte resembling the type of rock capping the Eildon Hills +(see ROXBURGHSHIRE: _Geology_). Overlying the strata just described +there is a succession of volcanic rocks extending from Greenlaw +southwards by Stichil and Kelso to Carham, which, at several localities, +are followed by a band of cornstone resembling that near the top of the +Upper Old Red Sandstone in the midland valley of Scotland. Next in order +comes a great development of the Cementstone group of the Carboniferous +system which spreads over nearly the whole of the low ground of the +Merse and attains a great thickness. At Marshall Meadows north of +Berwick-on-Tweed, thin bands of marine limestone occur, which probably +represent some of the calcareous beds above the Fell sandstones south of +Spittal. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--Owing to the maritime position, the winter +is seldom severe in the lowland districts, but spring is a trying season +on account of the east winds, which often last into summer. The mean +annual rainfall is 30-1/2 in. and the average temperature for the year +is 47 deg. F., for January 37 deg. F., and for July 58.5 deg. F. The +climate is excellent as regards both the health of the inhabitants and +the growth of vegetation. The soils vary, sometimes even on the same +farm. Along the rivers is a deep rich loam, resting on gravel or clay, +chiefly the former. The less valuable clay soil of the Merse has been +much improved by drainage. The more sandy and gravelly soils are +suitable for turnips, of which great quantities are grown. Oats and +barley are the principal grain crops, but wheat also is raised. The +flocks of sheep are heavy, and cattle are pastured in considerable +numbers. Large holdings predominate--indeed, the average size is the +highest in Scotland--and scientific farming is the rule. The labourers, +who are physically well developed, are as a whole frugal, industrious +and intelligent, but somewhat migratory in their habits. This feature in +their character, which they may have by inheritance as Borderers, has +admirably fitted them for colonial life, to which the scarcity of +industrial occupation has largely driven the surplus population. + +_Other Industries._--Next to agriculture the fisheries are the most +important industry. The Tweed salmon fisheries are famous, and the +lesser rivers of the Merse are held in high esteem by anglers. Eyemouth, +Burnmouth, Coldingham and Cove are engaged in the sea fisheries. Cod, +haddock, herring, ling, lobsters and crabs are principally taken. The +season for herring is from May to the middle of September and for white +fish from October to the end of May. Coal, copper ore and ironstone +exist in too small quantities to work, and the limestone is so far from +a coal district as to be of little economic value. Earlston sends out +ginghams and woollen cloths. At Cumledge on the Whiteadder, blankets and +plaids are manufactured, and paper is made at Chirnside. The other +manufactures are all connected with agriculture, such as distilleries, +breweries, tanneries, &c. The trade is also mainly agricultural. Fairs +are held at Duns, Lauder, Coldstream and Greenlaw; but the sales of +cattle and sheep mostly take place at the auction marts at Reston, Duns +and Earlston. There are grain markets at Duns and Earlston. Berwick, +from which the county derives its name, is still its chief market. There +is, however, no legal or fiscal connexion between the county and the +borough. + +The North British railway monopolizes the communications of the county. +The system serves the coast districts from Berwick to Cockburnspath, and +there is a branch from Reston to St Boswells. + +_Population and Government._--The population of Berwickshire was 32,290 +in 1891 and 30,824 in 1901, in which year the number of persons speaking +Gaelic and English was 74, and one person spoke Gaelic only. The only +considerable towns are Eyemouth (pop. in 1901, 2436) and Duns (2206). +The county returns one member to parliament. Lauder is the only royal +burgh, and Duns the county town, a status, however, which was held by +Greenlaw from 1696 to 1853, after which date it was shared by both towns +until conferred on Duns alone. Berwickshire forms a sheriffdom with +Roxburgh and Selkirk shires, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute +at Duns, who sits also at Greenlaw, Coldstream, Ayton and Lauder. In +addition to board and voluntary schools throughout the county, there is +a high school, which is also a technical school, at Duns, and Coldstream +and Lauder public schools have secondary departments. Duns school is +subsidized by the county council, which pays the expenses of students +attending it from a distance. + +_History._--Traces of Roman occupation and of ancient British settlement +exist in various parts of the Merse. Edin's or Etin's Hall, on Cockburn +Law, 4 m. north of Duns, is still called the Pech's or Pict's House, and +is one of the very few brochs found in the Lowlands. After the Romans +withdrew (409) the country formed part of the Saxon kingdom of +Northumbria, and the inhabitants were converted to Christianity through +the missionary efforts of Modan in the 6th, and Oswald, Aidan and +Cuthbert (traditionally believed to have been born in the vale of the +Leader) in the 7th centuries. The Northmen invaded the seaboard, but the +rugged coast proved an effectual barrier. The Danes, however, landed in +886, and destroyed the nunnery at Coldingham, founded about 650 by Ebba, +daughter of Aethelfrith, king of Northumbria, after whom the adjoining +promontory of St Abb's Head was named. After the battle of Carham (1018) +the district, which then constituted part of the division of Lothian, +was annexed to Scotland. Birgham (pron. Birjam), 3-1/2 m. west of +Coldstream, was the scene of the conference in 1188 between William the +Lion and the bishop of Durham, which discussed the attempt of the +English church to assert supremacy over the Scottish. Here also met in +1289 a convention of the Scots estates to consider the projected +marriage of Prince Edward of England to the Maid of Norway; and here was +signed in 1290 the treaty of Birgham, assuring the independence of +Scotland. During the long period of international strife the shire was +repeatedly overrun by armies of the English and Scots kings, who were +constantly fighting for the ancient frontier town of Berwick. It was +finally ceded to England in 1482, and the people afterwards gradually +settled down to peaceful pursuits. The ford at the confluence of the +Leet and Tweed near Coldstream gave access to south-eastern Scotland. +Edward I. crossed it with his army in 1296, encamping at Hutton the day +before the siege of Berwick, and it was similarly employed as late as +1640, when the marquess of Montrose led the Covenanters on their march +to Newcastle, although James VI. had already caused a bridge to be +constructed from Berwick to Tweedmouth. There are several places of +historic interest in the county. Upon the site of the nunnery at +Coldingham King Edgar in 1098 founded a Benedictine priory, which was +one of the oldest monastic institutions in Scotland and grew so wealthy +that James III. annexed its revenues to defray his extravagance, a step +that precipitated the revolt of the nobles (1488). The priory was +seriously damaged in the earl of Hertford's inroad in 1545, and Cromwell +blew up part of the church in 1650. The chancel (without aisles) was +repaired and used as the parish church. The remains contain some fine +architectural features, such as, on the outside, the Romanesque arcades +surmounted by lancet windows at the east end, and, in the interior, the +Early Pointed triforium. On the coast, about 4 m. north-west of +Coldingham, are the ruins of Fast Castle--the "Wolf's Crag" of Scott's +_Bride of Lammermoor_--situated on a precipitous headland. From Sir +Patrick Hume it passed to Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, who is alleged +to have been one of the Gowrie conspirators, and to have intended to +imprison James VI. within its walls (1600). Four miles west is the Pease +or Peaths bridge, built by Thomas Telford in 1786 across the deep pass +which was of old one of the strongest natural defences of Scotland. The +bridge is 123 ft. high, 300 ft. long and 16 ft. wide. Near it are the +ruins of Cockburnspath Tower, once a strong fortress and supposed to be +the "Ravens wood" of the _Bride of Lammermoor_. In the south-west of the +shire besides Dryburgh Abbey (q.v.) there are, at Earlston, the remains +of the castle that was traditionally the residence of Thomas the Rhymer. +Hume Castle, the ancient seat of the Home family, a picturesque ruin +about 3 m. south of Greenlaw, is so conspicuously situated as to be +visible from nearly every part of the county. Coldstream and Lamberton, +being close to the Border, were both resorted to (like Gretna Green in +the west) by eloping couples for clandestine marriage. In Lamberton +church was signed in 1502 the contract for the marriage of James IV. and +Margaret Tudor, which led, a century later, to the union of the crowns +of Scotland and England. + + See W.S. Crockett, _Minstrelsy of the Merse_, (Paisley, 1893); _In + Praise of Tweed_ (Selkirk, 1889); _The Scott Country_ (London, 1902); + J. Robson, _The Churches and Churchyards of Berwickshire_ (Kelso, + 1893); F.H. Groome, _A Short Border History_ (Kelso, 1887); J. Tait, + _Two Centuries of Border Church Life_ (Kelso, 1889); Margaret + Warrender, _Marchmont and the Humes of Polwarth_ (Edinburgh, 1894); + W.K. Hunter, _History of the Priory of Coldingham_ (Edinburgh, 1858). + + + + +BERWICK-UPON-TWEED, a market town, seaport, municipal borough and county +in itself, of England, at the mouth of the Tweed on the north bank, 339 +m. N. by W. from London. Pop. (1901) 13,437. For parliamentary purposes +it is in the Berwick-upon-Tweed division of Northumberland. It is the +junction on the East Coast route from London to Scotland between the +North Eastern and North British railways, a branch of the company first +named running up the Tweed valley by Coldstream and Kelso. The town lies +in a bare district on the slope and flat summit of an abrupt elevation, +higher ground rising to the north and south across the river. It has the +rare feature of a complete series of ramparts surrounding it. Those to +the north and east are formed of earth faced with stone, with bastions +at intervals and a ditch now dry. They are of Elizabethan date, but +there are also lines of much earlier date, the fortifications of Edward +I. Much of these last has been destroyed, and threatened encroachment +upon the remaining relics so far aroused public feeling that in 1905 it +was decided that the Board of Works should take over these ruins, +including the Bell Tower, from the town council, and enclose them as +national relics. The Bell Tower, from which alarms were given when +border raiders were observed, is in fair preservation. There are slight +remains of the castle, which fell into disrepair after the union of the +crowns of England and Scotland. There are no traces of the churches, +monasteries or other principal buildings of the ancient town. The church +of Holy Trinity is a plain building without steeple, of the time of +Cromwell. Of modern places of worship, the most noteworthy is Wallace +Green United Presbyterian church (1859). The chief public building is +the town hall (1760), a stately classic building surmounted by a lofty +spire. Educational institutions include an Elizabethan grammar school +and a blue-coat school; and there is a local museum. Two bridges connect +the town with the south side of the Tweed. The older, which is very +substantial, was finished in 1634, having taken twenty-four years in +building. It has fifteen arches, and is 924 ft. long, but only 17 ft. +wide. A unique provision for its upkeep out of Imperial funds dates from +the reign of Charles II. The other, the Royal Border Bridge, situated a +quarter of a mile up the river, is a magnificent railway viaduct, 126 +ft. high, with twenty-eight arches, which extends from the railway +station, a castellated building on part of the site of the old castle, +to a considerable distance beyond the river. This bridge was designed by +Robert Stephenson and opened by Queen Victoria in 1850. + +The reach of the river from the old bridge to the mouth forms the +harbour. The entrance to the harbour is protected by a stone pier, which +stretches half a mile south-east from the north bank of the river mouth. +The depth of water at the bar is 17 ft. at ordinary tides, 22 ft. at +spring tides, but the channel is narrow, a large rocky portion of the +harbour on the north side being dry at low water. There is a wet dock of +3-1/2 acres. Principal exports are grain, coal and fish; imports are +bones and bone-ash, manure stuffs, linseed, salt, timber and iron. The +herring and other sea fisheries are of some value, and the salmon +fishery, in the hands of a company, has long been famous. A fair is held +annually at the end of May. There are iron-works and boat-building +yards. + +The custom of specially mentioning Berwick-upon-Tweed after Wales, +though abandoned in acts of parliament, is retained in certain +proclamations. The title of "county in itself" also helps to recall its +ancient history. The liberties of the borough, commonly called Berwick +Bounds, include the towns of Spittal, at the mouth, and Tweedmouth +immediately above it, on the south bank of the river. The first is a +watering-place (pop. 2074), with pleasant sands and a chalybeate spa; +the second (pop. 3086) has iron foundries, engineering works and +fish-curing establishments. Berwick-upon-Tweed is governed by a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 6396 acres. + + Very little is known of the history of Berwick before the Conquest. It + was not until the Tweed became the boundary between England and + Scotland in the 12th century that Berwick as the chief town on that + boundary became really important. Until the beginning of the 14th + century Berwick was one of the four royal boroughs of Scotland, and + although it possesses no charter granted before that time, an + inquisition taken in Edward III.'s reign shows that it was governed by + a mayor and bailiffs in the reign of Alexander III., who granted the + town to the said mayor and the commonalty for an annual rent. After + Edward I. had conquered Berwick in 1302 he gave the burgesses another + charter, no longer existing but quoted in several confirmations, by + which the town was made a free borough with a gild merchant. The + burgesses were given the right to elect annually their mayor, who with + the commonalty should elect four bailiffs. They were also to have + freedom from toll, pontage, &c., two markets every week on Monday and + Friday, and a fair lasting from the feast of Holyrood to that of the + Nativity of St John the Baptist. Five years later, in 1307, the mayor + and burgesses received another charter, granting them their town with + all things that belonged to it in the time of Alexander III., for a + fee-farm rent of 500 marks, which was granted back to them in 1313 to + help towards enclosing their town with a wall. While the war with + Scotland dragged on through the early years of the reign of Edward + II., the fortification of Berwick was a matter of importance, and in + 1317 the mayor and bailiffs undertook to defend it for the yearly sum + of 6000 marks; but in the following year, "owing to their default," + the Scots entered and occupied it in spite of a truce between the two + kingdoms. After Edward III. had recovered Berwick the inhabitants + petitioned for the recovery of their prison called the Beffroi or + Bell-tower, the symbol of their independence, which their predecessors + had built before the time of Alexander III., and which had been + granted to William de Keythorpe when Edward I. took the town. Edward + III. in 1326 and 1356 confirmed the charter of Edward I., and in 1357, + evidently to encourage the growth of the borough, granted that all who + were willing to reside there and desirous of becoming burgesses should + be admitted as such on payment of a fine. These early charters were + confirmed by most of the succeeding kings, until James I. granted the + incorporation charter in 1604; but on his accession to the English + throne, Berwick of course lost its importance as a frontier town. + Berwick was at first represented in the court of the four boroughs and + in 1326 in Robert Bruce's parliament. After being taken by the English + it remained unrepresented until it was re-taken by the Scots, when it + sent two members to the parliament at Edinburgh from 1476 to 1479. In + 1482 the burgesses were allowed to send two members to the English + parliament, and were represented there until 1885, when the town was + included in the Berwick-upon-Tweed division of the county of + Northumberland. No manufactures are mentioned as having been carried + on in Berwick, but its trade, chiefly in the produce of the + surrounding country, was important in the 12th century. It has been + noted for salmon fishery in the Tweed from very early times. There was + a bridge over the Tweed at Berwick in the time of Alexander and John, + kings of Scotland, but it was broken down in the time of the latter + and not rebuilt until the end of the 14th century. + + See _Victoria County History, Northumberland_; John Fuller, _History + of Berwick-upon-Tweed_, &c. (1799); John Scott, _Berwick-upon-Tweed: + History of the Town and Guild_ (1888). + + + + +BERYL, a mineral containing beryllium and aluminium in the form of a +silicate; its formula is Be3Al2Si6O18. The species includes the emerald +(q.v.), the aquamarine (q.v.) and other transparent varieties known as +"precious beryl," with certain coarse varieties unfit for use as +gem-stones. The name comes from the Gr. [Greek: baeryllos], a word of +uncertain etymology applied to the beryl and probably several other +gems. It is notable that the relation of the emerald to the beryl, +though proved only by chemical analysis, was conjectured at least as far +back as the time of Pliny. + +Beryl crystallizes in the hexagonal system, usually taking the form of +long six-sided prisms, striated vertically and terminated with the basal +plane, sometimes associated with various pyramidal faces (see fig.). It +cleaves rather imperfectly parallel to the base. The colour of beryl may +be blue, green, yellow, brown or rarely pink; while in some cases the +mineral is colourless. The specific gravity is about 2.7, and the +hardness 7.5 to 8, so that for a gem-stone beryl is comparatively soft. +Whilst the gem-varieties are transparent, the coarse beryl may be +opaque. The transparent crystals are pleochroic--a character well marked +in emerald. + +[Illustration: Crystal of beryl.] + +Beryl was much prized as a gem-stone by the ancients, and Greek +intaglios of very fine workmanship are extant. The Roman jewellers, +taking advantage of the columnar form of the natural crystal, worked it +into long cylinders for ear-pendants. It was a favourite stone with the +artists of the Renaissance, but in modern times has lost popularity, +except in the form of emerald, which remains one of the most valued +gem-stones. It is notable that English lapidaries of the 18th century +often included the sard under the term beryl--a practice which has led +to some confusion in the nomenclature of engraved gems. + +Beryl occurs as an accessory constituent of many granitic rocks, +especially in veins of pegmatite, whilst it is found also in gneiss and +in mica-schist. Rolled pebbles of beryl occur, with topaz, in Brazil, +especially in the province of Minas Geraes. Crystals are found in drusy +cavities in granite in the Urals, notably near Mursinka; in the Altai +Mountains, which have yielded very long prismatic crystals; and in the +mining district of Nerchinsk in Siberia, principally in the Adun-Chalon +range, where beryl occurs in veins of topaz-rock piercing granite. Among +European localities may be mentioned Elba, good crystals being +occasionally found in the tourmaline-granite of San Piero. In Ireland +excellent crystals of beryl occur in druses of the granite of the Mourne +Mountains in Co. Down, and others less fine are found in the highlands +of Donegal, whilst the mineral is also known from the Leinster granite. +It occurs likewise in the granite of the Grampians in Scotland, and is +not unknown in Cornwall, specimens having been found, with topaz, +apatite, &c., in joints of the granite of St Michael's Mount. + +Many localities in the United States yield beryl, sometimes sufficiently +fine to be cut as a gem. It is found, for example, at Hiddenite and +elsewhere in Alexander county, N.C.; at Haddam and Monroe, Conn.; at +Stoneham and at Albany, in Oxford county, Maine; at Royalston, Mass.; +and at Mt. Antero, Colorado, where it occurs with phenacite. Beryl of +beautiful pink colour occurs in San Diego county, California. Coarse +beryl, much rifted, is found in crystals of very large size at Grafton +and Acworth, N.H.; a crystal from Grafton weighing more than 2-1/2 tons. +A colourless beryl from Goshen, Mass., has been called Goshenite; whilst +crystals of coarse yellow beryl from Rubislaw quarry in Aberdeenshire, +Scotland, have been termed Davidsonite. + +Beryl suffers alteration by weathering, and may thus pass into kaolin +and mica. (F. W. R.*) + + + + +BERYLLIUM, or GLUCINUM (symbol Be, atomic weight 9.1), one of the +metallic chemical elements, included in the same sub-group of the +periodic classification as magnesium. It was prepared in the form of its +oxide in 1798 by L.N. Vauquelin (_Ann. de chimie_, 1798, xxvi. p. 155) +from the mineral beryl, and though somewhat rare, is found in many +minerals. It was first obtained, in an impure condition, in 1828 by +A.A.B. Bussy (1794-1882) and F. Wohler by the reduction of the chloride +with potassium, and in 1855 H.J. Debray prepared it, in a compact state, +by reducing the volatilized chloride with melted sodium, in an +atmosphere of hydrogen. L.F. Nilson and O. Pettersson (_Wied. Ann._ +1878, iv. p. 554) have also prepared the metal by heating beryllium +potassium fluoride with sodium; P.M. Lebeau (_Comptes rendus_, +1895-1898, vols. 120-127) has obtained it in lustrous hexagonal crystals +by electrolysing the double fluoride of beryllium and sodium or +potassium with an excess of beryllium fluoride. It is a malleable +metal, of specific gravity 1.64 (Nilson and Pettersson) and a specific +heat of 0.4079. Its melting-point is below that of silver. In a fine +state of division it takes fire on heating in air, but is permanent at +ordinary temperatures in oxygen or air; it is readily attacked by +hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, but scarcely acted on by nitric acid. +It is also soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, with evolution +of hydrogen a behaviour similar to that shown by aluminium. It combines +readily with fluorine, chlorine and bromine, and also with sulphur, +selenium, phosphorus, &c. + +Considerable discussion has taken place at different times as to the +position which beryllium should occupy in the periodic classification of +the elements, and as to whether its atomic weight should be 9.1 or +13.65, but the weight of evidence undoubtedly favours its position in +Group II., with an atomic weight 9.1 (O=16) (see Nilson and Pettersson, +_Berichte_, 1880, 13, p. 1451; 1884, 17, p. 987; B. Brauner, _Berichte_, +1881, 14, p. 53; T. Carnelley, _Journ. of Chem. Soc._, 1879, xxxv. p. +563; 1880, xxxvii., p. 125, and W.N. Hartley, _Journ. of Chem. Soc._, +1883, xliii. p. 316). The specific heat of beryllium has been calculated +by L. Meyer (_Berichte_, 1880, 13, p. 1780) from the data of L.F. Nilson +and O. Pettersson, and appears to increase rapidly with increasing +temperature, the values obtained being 0.3973 at 20.2 deg. C., 0.4481 at +73.2 deg. C. and 0.5819 at 256.8 deg. C. + + Beryllium compounds are almost wholly prepared from beryl. The mineral + is fused with potassium carbonate, and, on cooling, the product is + treated with sulphuric acid, the excess of which is removed by + evaporation; water is then added and the silica is filtered off. On + concentration of the solution, the major portion of the aluminium + present separates as alum, and the mother liquor remaining contains + beryllium and iron sulphates together with a little alum. This is now + treated for some days with a hot concentrated solution of ammonium + carbonate, which precipitates the iron and aluminium but keeps the + beryllium in solution. The iron and aluminium precipitates are + filtered off, and the filtrate boiled, when a basic beryllium + hydroxide containing a little ferric oxide is precipitated. To remove + the iron, the precipitate is again dissolved in ammonium carbonate and + steam is blown through the liquid, when beryllium oxide is + precipitated. This process is repeated several times, and the final + precipitate is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and precipitated by + ammonia, washed and dried. It has also been obtained by J. Gibson + (_Journ. of Chem. Soc._, 1893, lxiii. p. 909) from beryl by conversion + of the beryllium into its fluoride. + + Beryllium oxide, beryllia or glucina, BeO, is a very hard white powder + which can be melted and distilled in the electric furnace, when it + condenses in the form of minute hexagonal crystals. After ignition it + dissolves with difficulty in acids. The hydroxide Be(OH)2 separates as + a white bulky precipitate on adding a solution of an alkaline + hydroxide to a soluble beryllium salt; and like those of aluminium and + zinc, this hydroxide is soluble in excess of the alkaline hydroxide, + but is reprecipitated on prolonged boiling. Beryllium chloride BeCl2, + like aluminium chloride, may be prepared by heating a mixture of the + oxide and sugar charcoal in a current of dry chlorine. It is + deliquescent, and readily soluble in water, from which it separates on + concentration in crystals of composition BeCl2.4H2O. Its vapour + density has been determined by Nilson and Pettersson, and corresponds + to the molecular formula BeCl2. The sulphate is obtained by dissolving + the oxide in sulphuric acid; if the solution be not acid, it separates + in pyramidal crystals of composition BeSO4.4H2O, while from an acid + solution of this salt, crystals of composition BeSO4.7H2O are + obtained. Double sulphates of beryllium and the alkali metals are + known, e.g. BeSO4.K2SO4.3H2O as are also many basic sulphates. The + nitrate Be(NO3)2.3H2O is prepared by adding barium nitrate to + beryllium sulphate solution; it crystallizes with difficulty and is + very deliquescent. It readily yields basic salts. + + The carbide BeC2 is formed when beryllia and sugar charcoal are heated + together in the electric furnace. Like aluminium carbide it is slowly + decomposed by water with the production of methane. Several basic + carbonates are known, being formed by the addition of beryllium salts + to solutions of the alkaline carbonates; the normal carbonate is + prepared by passing a current of carbon dioxide through water + containing the basic carbonate in suspension, the solution being + filtered and concentrated over sulphuric acid in an atmosphere of + carbon dioxide. The crystals so obtained are very unstable and + decompose rapidly with evolution of carbon dioxide. + + Beryllium salts are easily soluble and mostly have a sweetish taste + (hence the name Glucinum (q.v.), from [Greek: glukus], sweet); they + are readily precipitated by alkaline sulphides with formation of the + white hydroxide, and may be distinguished from salts of all other + metals by the solubility of the oxide in ammonium carbonate. Beryllium + is estimated quantitatively by precipitation with ammonia, and + ignition to oxide. Its atomic weight has been determined by L.F. + Nilson and O. Pettersson (_Berichte_, 1880, 13, p. 1451) by analysis + of the sulphate, from which they found the value 9.08, and by G. Kruss + and H. Moraht (_Berichte_, 1890, 23, p. 2556) from the conversion of + the sulphate BeSO4.4H2O into the oxide, from which they obtained the + value 9.05. C.L. Parsons (_Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc._, 1904, xxvi. p. + 721) obtained the values 9.113 from analyses of beryllium + acetonyl-acetate and beryllium basic acetate. + + For a bibliography see C.L. Parsons, _The Chemistry and Literature of + Beryllium_ (1909). + + + + +BERYLLONITE, a mineral phosphate of beryllium and sodium, NaBePO4, found +as highly complex orthorhombic crystals and as broken fragments in the +disintegrated material of a granitic vein at Stoneham, Maine, where it +is associated with felspar, smoky quartz, beryl and columbite. It was +discovered by Prof. E.S. Dana in 1888, and named beryllonite because it +contains beryllium in large amount. The crystals vary from colourless to +white or pale yellowish, and are transparent with a vitreous lustre; +there is a perfect cleavage in one direction. Hardness 5-1/2-6; specific +gravity 2.845. A few crystals have been cut and faceted, but, as the +refractive index is no higher than that of quartz, they do not make very +brilliant gem-stones. + + + + +BERZELIUS, JONS JAKOB (1779-1848), Swedish chemist, was born at +Vafversunda Sorgard, near Linkoping, Sweden, on the 20th (or 29th) of +August 1779. After attending the gymnasium school at Linkoping he went +to Upsala University, where he studied chemistry and medicine, and +graduated as M.D. in 1802. Appointed assistant professor of botany and +pharmacy at Stockholm in the same year, he became full professor in +1807, and from 1815 to 1832 was professor of chemistry in the Caroline +medico-chirurgical institution of that city. The Stockholm Academy of +Sciences elected him a member in 1808, and in 1818 he became its +perpetual secretary. The same year he was ennobled by Charles XIV., who +in 1835 further made him a baron. His death occurred at Stockholm on the +7th of August 1848. During the first few years of his scientific career +Berzelius was mainly engaged on questions of physiological chemistry, +but about 1807 he began to devote himself to what he made the chief +object of his life--the elucidation of the composition of chemical +compounds through study of the law of multiple proportions and the +atomic theory. Perceiving the exact determination of atomic and +molecular weights to be of fundamental importance, he spent ten years in +ascertaining that constant for some two thousand simple and compound +bodies, and the results he published in 1818 attained a remarkable +standard of accuracy, which was still further improved in a second table +that appeared in 1826. He used oxygen--in his view the pivot round which +the whole of chemistry revolves--as the basis of reference for the +atomic weights of other substances, and the data on which he chiefly +relied were the proportions of oxygen in oxygen compounds, the doctrines +of isomorphism, and Gay Lussac's law of volumes. When Volta's discovery +of the electric cell became known, Berzelius, with W. Hisinger +(1766-1852), began experiments on the electrolysis of salt solutions, +ammonia, sulphuric acid, &c., and later this work led him to his +electrochemical theory, a full exposition of which he gave in his memoir +on the _Theory of Chemical Proportions and the Chemical Action of +Electricity_ (1814). This theory was founded on the supposition that the +atoms of the elements are electrically polarized, the positive charge +predominating in some and the negative in others, and from it followed +his dualistic hypothesis, according to which compounds are made up of +two electrically different components. At first this hypothesis was +confined to inorganic chemistry, but subsequently he extended it to +organic compounds, which he saw might similarly be regarded as +containing a group or groups of atoms--a compound radicle--in place of +simple elements. Although his conception of the nature of compound +radicles did not long retain general favour--indeed he himself changed +it more than once--he is entitled to rank as one of the chief founders +of the radicle theory. Another service of the utmost importance which he +rendered to the study of chemistry was in continuing and extending the +efforts of Lavoisier and his associates to establish a convenient system +of chemical nomenclature. By using the initial letters of the Latin +(occasionally Greek) names of the elements as symbols for them, and +adding a small numeral subscript, to show the number of atoms of each +present in a compound, he introduced the present system of chemical +formulation (see CHEMISTRY). Mention should also be made of the numerous +improvements he effected in analytical methods and the technique of the +blowpipe (_Uber die Anwendung des Lothrohrs_, 1820), of his +classification of minerals on a chemical basis, and of many individual +researches such as those on tellurium, selenium, silicon, thorium, +titanium, zirconium and molybdenum, most of which he isolated for the +first time. Apart from his original memoirs, of which he published over +250, mostly in Swedish in the _Transactions_ of the Stockholm Academy, +his remarkable literary activity is attested by his _Lehrbuch der +Chemie_, which went through five editions (first 1803-1818, fifth +1843-1848) and by his _Jahresbericht_ or annual report on the progress +of physics and chemistry, prepared at the instance of the Stockholm +Academy, of which he published 27 vols. (1821-1848). + + + + +BES, or BESAS (Egyp. _Bes_ or _Besa_), the Egyptian god of recreation, +represented as a dwarf with large head, goggle eyes, protruding tongue, +shaggy beard, a bushy tail seen between his bow legs hanging down behind +(sometimes clearly as part of a skin girdle) and usually a large crown +of feathers on his head. A Bes-like mask was found by Petrie amongst +remains of the twelfth dynasty, but the earliest occurrence of the god +is in the temple of the queen Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri (c. 1500 +B.C.), where he is figured along with the hippopotamus goddess as +present at the queen's birth. His figure is that of a grotesque +mountebank, intended to inspire joy or drive away pain and sorrow, his +hideousness being perhaps supposed actually to scare away the evil +spirits. In his joyous aspect Bes plays the harp or flute, dances, &c. +He is figured on mirrors, ointment vases and other articles of the +toilet. Amulets and ornaments in the form of the figure or mask of Bes +are common after the New Kingdom; he is often associated with children +and with childbirth and is figured in the "birth-houses" devoted to the +cult of the child-god. Perhaps the earliest known instance of his +prominent appearance of large size in the sculptures of the temples is +under Tahraka, at Jebel Barkal, Nubia, at the beginning of the 7th +century B.C. As the protector of children and others he is the enemy of +noxious beasts, such as lions, crocodiles, serpents and scorpions. Large +wooden figures of Bes are generally found to contain the remains of a +human foetus. In the first centuries of our era an oracle of Besas was +consulted at Abydos, where A.H. Sayce has found graffiti concerning him, +and prescriptions exist for consulting Besas in dreams. It has been held +that Bes was of non-Egyptian origin, African, as Wiedemann, or Arabian +or even Babylonian, as W. Max Muller contends; he is sometimes entitled +"coming from the Divine Land" (i.e. the East or Arabia), or "Lord of +Puoni" (Punt), i.e. the African coast of the Red Sea; his effigy occurs +also on Greek coins of Arabia. It is remarkable also that, contrary to +the usual rule, he is commonly represented in Egyptian sculptures and +paintings full faced instead of in profile. But the connexion of the god +with Puoni may have grown out of the fact that dwarf dancers were +especially brought to Egypt from Ethiopia and Puoni. + + See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie, s.v._; A. Wiedemann, + _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_ (London, 1897), p. 159; E.A.W. + Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_, ii. p. 284 (London); W. Max Muller, + _Asien u. Europa_ (Leipzig, 1893), p. 310. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +BESANCON, a city of eastern France, capital of the department of Doubs, +76 m. E. of Dijon by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 41,760; +commune, 56,168. It is situated on the left bank of the river Doubs, 820 +ft. above sea-level at the foot of the western Jura, and is enclosed by +hills in every direction. The Doubs almost surrounds the city proper +forming a peninsula, the neck of which is occupied by a height crowned +by the citadel; on the right bank lie populous industrial suburbs. The +river is bordered by fine quays, and in places by the shady promenades +which are a feature of Besancon. On the right bank there is a fine +bathing establishment in the Mouillere quarter, supplied by the saline +springs of Miserey. The cathedral of St Jean, the chief of the numerous +churches of the town, was founded in the 4th century but has often +undergone reconstruction and restoration; it resembles the Rhenish +churches of Germany in the possession of apses at each of its +extremities. Several styles are represented in its architecture which +for the most part is the work of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries; the +eastern apse and the tower date from the reign of Louis XV. In the +interior there are a "Madonna and Child" of Fra Bartolommeo and a number +of other paintings and works of art. The archiepiscopal palace adjoining +the cathedral is a building of the 18th century. The church of Ste. +Madeleine belongs to the 18th and 19th centuries. The Palais de +Granvelle, in the heart of the town, was built from 1534 to 1540 by +Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella, chancellor of Charles V., and is the most +interesting of the secular buildings. It is built round a square +interior court surrounded by arcades, and is occupied by learned +societies. The hotel de ville dates from the 16th century, to which +period many of the old mansions of Besancon also belong. The law-court, +rebuilt in recent times, preserves a Renaissance facade and a fine +audience-hall of the 18th century. Some relics of old military +architecture survive, among them a cylindrical tower of the 15th century +near the Porte Notre-Dame, the southern gate of the city, and the Porte +Rivotte, a gate of the 16th century, flanked by two round towers. The +Roman remains at Besancon are of great archaeological value. Close to +the cathedral there is a triumphal arch decorated with bas-reliefs known +as the Porte Noire, which is generally considered to have been built in +commemoration of the victories of Marcus Aurelius over the Germans in +167. It is in poor preservation and was partly rebuilt in 1820. Remains +of a Roman theatre, of an amphitheatre, of an aqueduct which entered the +town by the Porte Taillee, a gate cut in the rock below the citadel, and +an arch of a former Roman bridge, forming part of the modern bridge, are +also to be seen. Besancon has statues of Victor Hugo and of the Marquis +de Jouffroy d'Abbans (b. 1751), inventor of steam-navigation. + +Besancon is important as the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal +and a court of assizes, as centre of an _academie_ (educational +division), as seat of a prefect and as headquarters of the VIIth army +corps. It also has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a +chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, an exchange and a +branch of the Bank of France. Its educational establishments include the +university with its faculties of science and letters and a preparatory +school of medicine and pharmacy, an artillery school, the lycee Victor +Hugo for boys, a lycee for girls, an ecclesiastical seminary, training +colleges for teachers, and schools of watch-making, art, music and +dairy-work. The library contains over 130,000 volumes, and the city has +good collections of pictures, antiquities and natural history. The chief +industry of Besancon is watch- and clock-making, introduced from the +district of Neuchatel at the end of the 18th century. It employs about +12,000 workpeople, and produces about three-fourths of the watches sold +in France. Subsidiary industries, such as enamelling, are also +important. The metallurgical works of the _Societe de la Franche-Comte_ +are established in the city and there are saw-mills, printing-works, +paper-factories, distilleries, and manufactories of boots and shoes, +machinery, hosiery, leather, elastic fabric, confectionery and +artificial silk. There is trade in agricultural produce, wine, metals, +&c. The canal from the Rhone to the Rhine passes under the citadel by +way of a tunnel, and the port of Besancon has considerable trade in +coal, sand, &c. + +As a fortress Besancon forms one of a group which includes Dijon, +Langres and Belfort; these are designed to secure Franche Comte and to +cover a field army operating on the left flank of a German army of +invasion. The citadel occupies the neck of the peninsula upon which the +town stands; along the river bank in a semicircle is the town +_enceinte_, and the suburb of Battant on the right bank of the Doubs is +also "regularly" fortified as a bridge-head. These works, and Forts +Chaudanne and Bregille overlooking the Doubs at the bend, were +constructed prior to 1870. The newer works enclose an area more suited +to the needs of modern warfare: the chain of detached forts along the +ridges of the left bank has a total length of 7-1/2 m., and the centre +of this chain is supported by numerous forts and batteries lying between +it and the citadel. On the other bank Fort Chaudanne is now the +innermost of several forts facing towards the south-west, and the +foremost of these works connects the fortifications of the left bank +with another chain of detached forts on the right bank. The latter +completely encloses a large area of ground in a semicircle of which +Besancon itself is the centre, and the whole of the newer works taken +together form an irregular ellipse of which the major axis, lying +north-east by south-west, is formed by the Doubs. + +Besancon is a place of great antiquity. Under the name of Vesontio it +was, in the time of Julius Caesar, the chief town of the Sequani, and in +58 B.C. was occupied by that general. It was a rich and prosperous place +under the Roman emperors, and Marcus Aurelius promoted it to the rank of +a _colonia_ as _Colonia Victrix Sequanorum_. During the succeeding +centuries it was several times destroyed and rebuilt. The archbishopric +dates from the close of the 2nd century, and the archbishops gradually +acquired considerable temporal power. As the capital of the free county +of Burgundy, or Franche-Comte, it was united with the German kingdom +when Frederick I. married Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III., count of +Upper Burgundy. In 1184 Frederick made it a free imperial city, and +about the same time the archbishop obtained the dignity of a prince of +the Empire. It afterwards became detached from the German kingdom, and +during the 14th century came into the possession of the dukes of +Burgundy, from whom it passed to the emperor Maximilian I., and his +grandson Charles V. Cardinal Granvella, who was a native of the city, +became archbishop in 1584, and founded a university which existed until +the French Revolution. After the abdication of Charles V. it came into +the possession of Spain, although it remained formally a portion of the +Empire until its cession at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the +17th century it was attacked several times by the French, to whom it was +definitely ceded by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. It was then +fortified by the engineer Vauban. Until 1789 it was the seat of a +_parlement_. In 1814 it was invested and bombarded by the Austrians, and +was an important position during the Franco-German War of 1870-71. + + See A. Castan, _Besancon et ses environs_ (Besancon, 1887); A. + Guenard, _Besancon, description historique_ (Besancon, 1860). + + + + +BESANT, SIR WALTER (1836-1901), English author, was born at Portsmouth, +on the 14th of August 1836, third son of William Besant of that town. He +was educated at King's College, London, and Christ's College, Cambridge, +of which he was a scholar. He graduated in 1859 as 18th wrangler, and +from 1861 to 1867 was senior professor of the Royal College, Mauritius. +From 1868 to 1885 he acted as secretary to the Palestine Exploration +Fund. In 1884 he was mainly instrumental in establishing the Society of +Authors, a trade-union of writers designed for the protection of +literary property, which has rendered great assistance to inexperienced +authors by explaining the principles of literary profit. Of this society +he was chairman from its foundation in 1884 till 1892. He married Mary, +daughter of Mr Eustace Foster-Barham of Bridgwater, and was knighted in +1895. He died at Hampstead, on the 9th of June 1901. Sir Walter Besant +practised many branches of literary art with success, but he is most +widely known for his long succession of novels, many of which have +enjoyed remarkable popularity. His first stories were written in +collaboration with James Rice (q.v.). Two at least of these, _The Golden +Butterfly_ (1876) and _Ready-Money Mortiboy_ (1872), are among the most +vigorous and most characteristic of his works. Though not without +exaggeration and eccentricity, attributable to the influence of Dickens, +they are full of rich humour, shrewd observation and sound common-sense, +and contain characters which have taken their place in the long gallery +of British fiction. After Rice's death, Sir Walter Besant wrote alone, +and in _All Sorts and Conditions of Men_ (1882) produced a stirring +story of East End life in London, which set on foot the movement that +culminated in the establishment of the People's Palace in the Mile End +Road. Though not himself a pioneer in the effort made by Canon Barnett +and others to alleviate the social evils of the East End by the personal +contact of educated men and women of a superior social class, his books +rendered immense service to the movement by popularizing it. His +sympathy with the poor was shown in another attempt to stir public +opinion, this time against the evils of the sweating system, in _The +Children of Gibeon_ (1886). + +Other popular novels by him were _Dorothy Forster_ (1884), _Armorel of +Lyonesse_ (1890), and _Beyond the Dreams of Avarice_ (1895). He also +wrote critical and biographical works, including _The French Humorists_ +(1873), _Rabelais_ (1879), and lives of Coligny, Whittington, Captain +Cook and Richard Jefferies. Besant undertook a series of important +historical and archaeological volumes, dealing with the associations and +development of the various districts of London--of which the most +important was _A Survey of London_, unfortunately left unfinished, which +was intended to do for modern London what Stow did for the Elizabethan +city. Other books on _London_ (1892), _Westminster_ (1895) and _South +London_ (1899) showed that his mind was full of his subject. No man of +his time evinced a keener interest in the professional side of literary +work, and the improved conditions of the literary career in England were +largely due to his energetic and capable exposition of the commercial +value of authorship and to the unselfish efforts which Sir Walter +constantly made on behalf of his fellow-workers in the field of letters. + + See also _Autobiography of Sir Walter Besant_ (1902), with a prefatory + note by S.S. Sprigge; the preface to the library edition (1887) of + _Ready-Money Mortiboy_ contains a history of the literary partnership + of Besant and Rice. + + + + +BESENVAL DE BRONSTATT, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON DE (1722-1794), French +soldier, was born at Soleure. He was the son of Jean Victor Besenval, +colonel of the regiment of Swiss guards in the pay of France, who was +charged in 1707 by Louis XIV. with a mission to Sweden, to reconcile +Charles XII. with the tsar Peter the Great, and to unite them in +alliance with France against England. Pierre Victor served at first as +aide-de-camp to Marshal Broglie during the campaign of 1748 in Bohemia, +then as aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans during the Seven Years' War. +He then became commander of the Swiss Guards. When the Revolution began +Besenval remained firmly attached to the court, and he was given command +of the troops which the king had concentrated on Paris in July 1789--a +movement which led to the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July. +Besenval showed incompetence in the crisis, and attempted to flee. He +was arrested, tried by the tribunal of the Chatelet, but acquitted. He +then fell into obscurity and died in Paris in 1794. Besenval de +Bronstatt is principally known as the author of _Memoires_, which were +published in 1805-1807 by the vicomte T.A. de Segur, in which are +reported many scandalous tales, true or false, of the court of Louis +XVI. and Marie Antoinette. The authenticity of these memoirs is not +absolutely established. + + + + +BESKOW, BERNHARD VON, BARON (1796-1868), Swedish dramatist and +historian, son of a Stockholm merchant, was born on the 19th of April +1796. His vocation for literature was assisted by his tutor, the poet +Johan Magnus Stjernstolpe (1777-1831), whose works he edited. He entered +the civil service in 1814, was ennobled in 1826 and received the title +of baron in 1843. He held high appointments at court, and was, from 1834 +onwards, perpetual secretary of the Swedish academy, using his great +influence with tact and generosity. His poetry is over-decorated, and +his plays are grandiose historical poems in dramatic form. Among them +are "Erik XIV." (2 parts, 1826); and four pieces collected (1836-1838) +as _Dramatiska Studier_, the most famous of which is the tragedy of +"Thorkel Knutsson." His works include many academical memoirs, volumes +of poems, philosophy and a valuable historical study, _Om Gustav den +Tredje sasom konung och menniska_ (5 vols. 1860-1869, "Gustavus III. as +king and man"), printed in the transactions of the Swedish Academy +(vols. 32, 34, 37, 42, 44). He died on the 17th of October 1868. + + See also a notice by C. D. af Wirsen in his _Lefnadsteckningar_ + (Stockholm, 1901). + + + + +BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT (1849- ), French painter, was born in Paris and +studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, winning the _Prix de Rome_ in 1874. +Until about 1880 he followed the academic tradition, but then broke away +completely, and devoted himself to the study of colour and light as +conceived by the impressionists. The realism of this group never +appealed to his bold imagination, but he applied their technical method +to ideological and decorative works on a large scale, such as his +frescoes at the Sorbonne, the Ecole de Pharmacie, the Salle des Sciences +at the hotel de ville, the mairie of the first arrondissement, and the +chapel of Berck hospital, for which he painted twelve "Stations of the +Cross" in an entirely modern spirit. A great virtuoso, he achieved +brilliant successes alike in water-colour, pastel, oil and etching, both +in portraiture, in landscape and in decoration. A good example of his +daring unconventionality is his portrait of Madame Rejane; and his close +analysis of light can be studied in his picture "Femme qui se chauffe" +at the Luxembourg in Paris. + + + + +BESOM (Old Eng. _besema_, a rod), originally a bundle of rods or twigs, +used for sweeping, &c.; a stiff broom. + + + + +BESSARABIA, a government of south-west Russia, separated on the W. and +S. from Moldavia and Walachia by the Pruth, and on the E. and N. from +the Russian governments of Podolia and Kherson by the Dniester; on the +S.E. it is washed by the Black Sea. Area, 17,614 sq. m. The northern +districts are invaded by offshoots of the Carpathians, which reach +altitudes of 800 to 1150 ft., and are cut up by numerous ravines and +river valleys. Here, however, agriculture is the prevailing occupation, +the soil being the fertile black earth. The crops principally raised are +wheat and maize, though here, as well as in other parts of the +government, barley, flax, tobacco, water-melons, gourds, fruit, wine, +saffron and madder are grown. The middle of the government is also hilly +(850-1000 ft.), and is heavily timbered, chiefly with beech, oak and +mountain-ash, and, though to a smaller extent, with birch. The districts +south of the old Roman earthworks which link the Dniester with the Pruth +along the line of the Botna, just south of Bender, consist of level +pasture-land known as the Budjak steppes. Here stock-breeding is the +predominant calling, the people owning large numbers of sheep, cattle +and horses, also goats, pigs and buffaloes. Lagoons fringe the lower +course of the Pruth and the coast of the Black Sea, and marshy ground +exists beside the Reuth and other tributaries of the Dniester. The +climate is rather subject to extremes, the mean temperature for the +year, at Kishinev, being 50 deg. Fahr., of January 27 deg., and of July +72 deg. The rainfall amounts to over 25 in. annually. Salt, saltpetre +and marble are the principal mineral products. Manufacturing industry is +only just beginning, wine-making (17,000,000 gallons annually), +cloth-mills, iron-works, soap-works and tanneries being the principal +branches. Both the Dniester and the Pruth are important waterways +commercially, the former being navigable up to Mogilev and the latter to +Leovo (46 deg. 30' N. lat.). Down the Dniester come timber and wooden +wares from Galicia, and grain and wool from Bessarabia itself. Three +branches of the railway from Odessa to Poland penetrate the government +and proceed towards the Carpathians. The population numbered 988,431 in +1860 and 1,938,326 in 1897, of whom only 302,852 were urban, while +942,179 were women. In 1906 it was estimated at 2,262,400. It consists +of various races, nearly one-half (920,919 in 1897) being Moldavians, +the others Little Russians, Jews (37% in the towns and 12% in the rural +districts), Bulgarians (103,225), Germans (60,206), with some Gypsies +(Zigani), Greeks, Armenians, Tatars and Albanians. The Germans, who form +some thirty prosperous colonies in the Budjak steppes west from +Akkerman, have been settled there since about 1814. The government is +divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which are Akkerman +(pop. 32,470 in 1900), Bender (33,741 in 1900), Byeltsi (18,526 in +1897), Izmail (33,607 in 1900), Khotin (18,126), Kishinev (125,787 in +1900), Orgeyev (13,356), and Soroki (25,523 in 1900). The capital is +Kishinev. Kagul, on the Pruth, and Reni on the Danube (the place to +which Alexander of Bulgaria was carried when kidnapped by the Russians +in 1886), are small, but lively, river-ports. + +The original inhabitants were Cimmerians, and after them came Scythians. +During the early centuries of the Christian era Bessarabia, being the +key to one of the approaches towards the Byzantine empire, was invaded +by many successive races. In the 2nd century it was occupied by the +Getae, a Thracian tribe, whom the Roman emperor Trajan conquered in 106; +he then incorporated the region in the province of Dacia. In the +following century the Goths poured into this quarter of the empire, and +in the 5th century it was overrun one after the other by the Huns, the +Avars and the Bulgarians. Then followed in the 7th century the Bessi, a +Thracian tribe, who gave their name to the region, and in the 9th the +Ugrians, that is to say the ancestors of the present Magyars of Hungary, +the country being then known as Atel-kuzu. The Ugrians were forced +farther west by the Turkish tribe of the Petchenegs in the 10th century, +and these were succeeded in the 11th century by the Kumans (Comani) or +Polovtsians, a kindred Turkish stock or federation. In the 13th century +Bessarabia was overrun by the irresistible Mongols under the leadership +of Batu, grandson of Jenghiz Khan. In this century also the Genoese +founded trading factories on the banks of the Dniester. In 1367 +Bessarabia was subdued and annexed by the ruling prince of Moldavia. +During the 16th century it was in the possession alternately of the +Turks and the Nogais or Crimean Tatars. From early in the 18th century +it was a bone of contention between the Ottoman Turks and the Russians, +the latter capturing it five times between 1711 and 1812. In the latter +year it was definitely annexed to Russia, and in 1829 its frontier was +pushed southwards so as to include the delta of the Danube. After the +Crimean War, however, Russia ceded to Moldavia not only this later +addition, but also certain districts in the south of the existing +government, amounting altogether to an area of 4250 sq. m. and a +population of 180,000. By the treaty of Berlin (1878) Russia recovered +of this 3580 sq. m., with a population of 127,000. + + See Nakko, _History of Bessarabia_, in Russian (1873). + (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.) + + + + +BESSARION, JOHANNES, or BASILIUS (c. 1395-1472), titular patriarch of +Constantinople, and one of the illustrious Greek scholars who +contributed to the great revival of letters in the 15th century, was +born at Trebizond, the year of his birth being variously given as 1389, +1395 or 1403. He was educated at Constantinople, and in 1423 went to the +Peloponnese to hear Gemistus Pletho expound the philosophy of Plato. On +entering the order of St Basil, he adopted the name of an old Egyptian +anchorite Bessarion, whose story he has related. In 1437 he was made +archbishop of Nicaea by John VII. Palacologus, whom he accompanied to +Italy in order to bring about a union between the Greek and Latin +churches with the object of obtaining help from the West against the +Turks. The Greeks had bitterly resented his attachment to the party +which saw no difficulty in a reconciliation of the two churches. At the +councils held in Ferrara and Florence Bessarion supported the Roman +church, and gained the favour of Pope Eugenius IV., who invested him +with the rank of cardinal. From that time he resided permanently in +Italy, doing much, by his patronage of learned men, by his collection of +books and manuscripts, and by his own writings, to spread abroad the new +learning. He held in succession the archbishopric of Siponto and the +bishoprics of Sabina and Frascati. In 1463 he received the title of +Latin patriarch of Constantinople; and it was only on account of his +Greek birth that he was not elevated to the papal chair. For five years +(1450-1455) he was legate at Bologna, and he was engaged on embassies to +many foreign princes, among others to Louis XI. of France in 1471. +Vexation at an insult offered him by Louis is said to have hastened his +death, which took place on the 19th of November 1472, at Ravenna. +Bessarion was one of the most learned scholars of his time. Besides his +translations of Aristotle's _Metaphysics_ and Xenophon's _Memorabilia_, +his most important work is a treatise directed against George of +Trebizond, a violent Aristotelian, entitled _In Calumniatorem Platonis_. +Bessarion, though a Platonist, is not so thoroughgoing in his admiration +as Gemistus Pletho, and rather strives after a reconciliation of the two +philosophies. His work, by opening up the relations of Platonism to the +main questions of religion, contributed greatly to the extension of +speculative thought in the department of theology. His library, which +contained a very extensive collection of Greek MSS., was presented by +him to the senate of Venice, and formed the nucleus of the famous +library of St Mark. + + See A.M. Bandini, _De Vita et Rebus Gestis Bessarionis_ (1777); H. + Vast, _Le Cardinal Bessarion_ (1878); E. Legrand, _Bibliographie + Hellenique_ (1885); G. Voigt, _Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen + Altertums_, ii. (1893); on Bessarion at the councils of Ferrara and + Florence, A. Sadov, _Bessarion de Nicee_ (1883); on his philosophy, + monograph by A. Kandelos (in Greek: Athens, 1888); most of his works + are in Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, clxi. + + + + +BESSBOROUGH, EARLS OF. The Ponsonby family, who have contributed many +conspicuous men to Irish and English public life, trace their descent to +Sir John Ponsonby (d. 1678), of Cumberland, a Commonwealth soldier who +obtained land grants in Ireland. His son William (1657-1724) was created +Baron Bessborough (1721) and Viscount Duncannon (1723), and the latter's +son Brabazon was raised to the earldom of Bessborough in 1739. He was +the father not only of the 2nd earl (1704-1793), but of John Ponsonby +(q.v.), speaker of the Irish House of Commons. The 2nd earl was a +well-known Whig politician, who held various offices of state; and his +son the 3rd earl (1758-1844) was father of the 4th earl (1781-1847), +first commissioner of works in 1831-1834, lord privy seal from 1835 to +1839 and lord-lieutenant of Ireland in 1846. He was succeeded by his +three sons, the 5th earl (d. 1880), 6th earl (1815-1895), a famous +cricketer and chairman of the Bessborough commission (1881) to inquire +into the Irish land system, and 7th earl (d. 1906), and the last named +by his son the 8th earl. + + + + +BESSEGES, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Gard, on +the Ceze, 20 m. north of Alais by rail. Pop. (1906) 7662. The town is +important for its coal-mines, blast-furnaces and iron-works. + + + + +BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1846), German astronomer, was born at +Minden on the 22nd of July 1784. Placed at the age of fifteen in a +counting-house at Bremen, he was impelled by his desire to obtain a +situation as supercargo on a foreign voyage to study navigation, +mathematics and finally astronomy. In 1804 he calculated the orbit of +Halley's comet from observations made in 1607 by Thomas Harriot, and +communicated his results to H.W.M. Olbers, who procured their +publication (_Monatliche Correspondenz_, x. 425), and recommended the +young aspirant in 1805 for the post of assistant in J.H. Schroter's +observatory at Lilienthal. A masterly investigation of the comet of 1807 +(Konigsberg, 1810) enhanced his reputation, and the king of Prussia +summoned him, in 1810, to superintend the erection of a new observatory +at Konigsberg, of which he acted as director from its completion in 1813 +until his death. In this capacity he inaugurated the modern era of +practical astronomy. For the purpose of improving knowledge of +star-places he reduced James Bradley's Greenwich observations, and +derived from them an invaluable catalogue of 3222 stars, published in +the volume rightly named _Fundamenta Astronomiae_ (1818). In _Tabulae +Regiomontanae_ (1830), he definitively established the uniform system of +reduction still in use. During the years 1821-1833, he observed all +stars to the ninth magnitude in zones extending from -15 deg. to +45 +deg. dec., and thus raised the number of those accurately determined to +about 50,000. He corrected the length of the seconds' pendulum in 1826, +in a discussion re-published by H. Bruns in 1889; measured an arc of the +meridian in East Prussia in 1831-1832; and deduced for the earth in 1841 +an ellipticity of 1/299. His ascertainment in 1838 (_Astr. Nach._, Nos. +365-366) of a parallax of 0".31 for 61 Cygni was the first authentic +result of the kind published. He announced in 1844 the binary character +of Sirius and Procyon from their disturbed proper motions; and was +preparing to attack the problem solved later by the discovery of +Neptune, when fatal illness intervened. He died at Konigsberg on the +17th of March 1846. Modern astronomy of precision is essentially +Bessel's creation. Apart from the large scope of his activity, he +introduced such important novelties as the effective use of the +heliometer, the correction for personal equation (in 1823), and the +systematic investigation of instrumental errors. He issued 21 volumes of +_Astronomische Beobachtungen auf der Sternwarte zu Konigsberg_ +(1815-1844), and a list of his writings drawn up by A.L. Busch appeared +in vol. 24 of the same series. Especial attention should be directed to +his _Astronomische Untersuchungen_ (2 vols. 1841-1842), _Populare +Vorlesungen_ (1848), edited by H.C. Schumacher, and to the important +collection entitled _Abhandlungen_ (4 vols. 1875-1882), issued by R. +Engelmann at Leipzig. His minor treatises numbered over 350. In pure +mathematics he enlarged the resources of analysis by the invention of +Bessel's Functions. He made some preliminary use of these expressions in +1817, in a paper on Kepler's Problem (_Transactions Berlin Academy_, +1816-1817, p. 49), and fully developed them seven years later, for the +purposes of a research into planetary perturbations (_Ibid._ 1824, pp. +1-52). + + See also H. Durege, _Bessels Leben und Wirken_ (Zurich, 1861); J.F. + Encke, _Gedachtnissrede auf Bessel_ (Berlin, 1846); C.T. Anger, + _Erinnerung an Bessels Leben und Wirken_ (Danzig, 1845); + _Astronomische Nachrichten_, xxiv. 49, 331 (1846); _Monthly Notices + Roy. Astr. Society_, vii. 199 (1847); _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_, ii. 558-567. + + + + +BESSEL FUNCTION, a certain mathematical relation between two variables. +The _Bessel function of order m_ satisfies the differential equation + + d^2u 1 du / m^2 \ + -------- + ----- ------ + ( 1 - ------- ) u = 0, + d[rho]^2 [rho] d[rho] \ [rho]^2 / + +and may be expressed as the series + + [rho]^m / [rho]^2 [rho]^4 \ + ------- ( 1 - -------- + ----------------- ... ); + 2^m.m! \ 2.2m + 2 2.4.2m + 2.2m + 4 / + +the function of _zero order_ is deduced by making m=0, and is equivalent +to the series + + [rho]^2 [rho]^4 + 1 - ------- + -------, &c. + 2^2 2^2.4^2 + +O. Schlomilch defines these functions as the coefficients of the power +of t in the expansion of exp 1/2[rho](t - t^(-1)). The symbol generally +adopted to represent these functions is J_m([rho]) where m denotes the +order of the function. These functions are named after Friedrich Wilhelm +Bessel, who in 1817 introduced them in an investigation on Kepler's +Problem. He discussed their properties and constructed tables for their +evaluation. Although Bessel was the first to systematically treat of +these functions, it is to be noted that in 1732 Daniel Bernoulli +obtained the function of zero order as a solution to the problem of the +oscillations of a chain suspended at one end. This problem has been more +fully discussed by Sir A.G. Greenhill. In 1764 Leonhard Euler employed +the functions of both zero and integral orders in an analysis into the +vibrations of a stretched membrane; an investigation which has been +considerably developed by Lord Rayleigh, who has also shown (1878) that +Bessel's functions are particular cases of Laplace's functions. There is +hardly a branch of mathematical physics which is independent of these +functions. Of the many applications we may notice:--Joseph Fourier's +(1824) investigation of the motion of heat in a solid cylinder, a +problem which, with the related one of the flow of electricity, has been +developed by W.E. Weber, G.F. Riemann and S.D. Poisson; the flow of +electromagnetic waves along wires (Sir J.J. Thomson, H. Hertz, O. +Heaviside); the diffraction of light (E. Lommel, Lord Rayleigh, Georg +Wilhelm Struve); the theory of elasticity (A.E. Love, H. Lamb, C. Chree, +Lord Rayleigh); and to hydrodynamics (Lord Kelvin, Sir G. Stokes). + +The remarkable connexion between Bessel's functions and spherical +harmonics was established in 1868 by F.G. Mehler, who proved that a +simple relation existed between the function of zero order and the zonal +harmonic of order n. Heinrich Eduard Heine has shown that the functions +of higher orders may be considered as limiting values of the associated +functions; this relation was discussed independently, in 1878, by Lord +Rayleigh. + +For the mathematical investigation see SPHERICAL HARMONICS and for +tables see TABLE, MATHEMATICAL. + + See A. Gray and G.B. Matthews, _Treatise on Bessel's Functions_ + (1895); _Encyclopadie der math. Wissenschaften_; F.W. Bessel, + _Untersuchung des Teils der planetarischen Storungen_ (1824). + + + + +BESSEMER, SIR HENRY (1813-1898), English engineer, was born on the 19th +of January 1813, at Charlton, in Hertfordshire. Throughout his life he +was a prolific inventor, but his name is chiefly known in connexion with +the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel, by which it has been +rendered famous throughout the civilized world. Though this process is +now largely supplemented, and even displaced, by various rivals, at the +time it was brought out it was of enormous industrial importance, since +it effected a great cheapening in the price of steel, and led to that +material being widely substituted for others which were inferior in +almost every respect but that of cost. Bessemer's attention was drawn to +the problem of steel manufacture in the course of an attempt to improve +the construction of guns. Coming to the conclusion that if any advance +was to be made in artillery better metal must be available, he +established a small iron-works in St Pancras, and began a series of +experiments. These he carried on for two years before he evolved the +essential idea of his process, which is the decarbonization of cast iron +by forcing a blast of air through the mass of metal when in the molten +condition. The first public announcement of the process was made at the +Cheltenham meeting of the British Association in 1856, and immediately +attracted considerable notice. Many metallurgists were sceptical on +theoretical grounds about his results, and only became convinced when +they saw that his process was really able to convert melted cast iron +into malleable iron in a perfectly fluid state. But though five firms +applied without delay for licences to work under his patents, success +did not at once attend his efforts; indeed, after several ironmasters +had put the process to practical trial and failed to get good results, +it was in danger of being thrust aside and entirely forgotten. Its +author, however, instead of being discouraged by this lack of success, +continued his experiments, and in two years was able to turn out a +product, the quality of which was not inferior to that yielded by the +older methods. But when he now tried to induce makers to take up his +improved system, he met with general rebuffs, and finally was driven to +undertake the exploitation of the process himself. To this end he +erected steelworks in Sheffield, on ground purchased with the help of +friends, and began to manufacture steel. At first the output was +insignificant, but gradually the magnitude of the operations was +enlarged until the competition became effective, and steel traders +generally became aware that the firm of Henry Bessemer & Co. was +underselling them to the extent of L20 a ton. This argument to the +pocket quickly had its effect, and licences were applied for in such +numbers that, in royalties for the use of his process, Bessemer received +a sum in all considerably exceeding a million sterling. + +Of course, patents of such obvious value did not escape criticism, and +invalidity was freely urged against them on various grounds. But +Bessemer was fortunate enough to maintain them intact without +litigation, though he found it advisable to buy up the rights of one +patentee, while in another case he was freed from anxiety by the patent +being allowed to lapse in 1859 through non-payment of fees. At the +outset he had found great difficulty in making steel by his process--in +his first licences to the trade iron alone was mentioned. Experiments he +made with South Wales iron were failures because the product was devoid +of malleability; Mr Goransson, a Swedish ironmaster, using the purer +charcoal pig iron of that country, was the first to make good steel by +the process, and even he was successful only after many attempts. His +results prompted Bessemer to try the purer iron obtained from Cumberland +haematite, but even with this he did not meet with much success, until +Robert Mushet showed that the addition of a certain quantity of +spiegeleisen had the effect of removing the difficulties. Whether or not +Mushet's patents could have been sustained, the value of his procedure +was shown by its general adoption in conjunction with the Bessemer +method of conversion. At the same time it is only fair to say that +whatever may have been the conveniences of Mushet's plan, it was not +absolutely essential; this Bessemer proved in 1865, by exhibiting a +series of samples of steel made by his own process alone. The pecuniary +rewards of Bessemer's great invention came to him with comparative +quickness; but it was not till 1879 that the Royal Society admitted him +as a fellow and the government honoured him with a knighthood. Bessemer +died at Denmark Hill, London, on the 15th of March 1898. + +Among Bessemer's numerous other inventions, not one of which attained a +tithe of the success or importance of the steel process, were movable +dies for embossed stamps, a gold paint, sugar machinery, and a ship +which was to save her passengers from the miseries of _mal de mer_. This +last had her saloon mounted in such a way as to be free to swing +relatively to the boat herself, and the idea was that this saloon should +always be maintained steady and level, no matter how rough the sea. For +this purpose hydraulic mechanism of Bessemer's design was arranged under +the control of an attendant, whose duty it was to keep watch on a +spirit-level, and counteract by proper manipulation of the apparatus any +deviation from the horizontal that might manifest itself on the floor of +the saloon owing to the rolling of the vessel. A boat, called the +"Bessemer," was built on this plan in 1875 and put on the cross-Channel +service to Calais, but the mechanism of the swinging saloon was not +found effective in practice and was ultimately removed. + + An _Autobiography_ was published in 1905. + + + + +BESSEMER, a town of Jefferson county, Alabama, U.S.A., about 12 m. S.W. +of Birmingham, a little N. of the centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 4544; +(1900) 6538, including 3695 negroes; (1910) 10,864. The town is served +by the Alabama Great Southern (Queen & Crescent route), the Louisville & +Nashville, the Kansas City, Memphis & Birmingham (St Louis & San +Francisco system), the Birmingham Southern, and the Atlanta, Birmingham +& Atlantic railways. Bessemer is situated in the midst of the iron ore +and limestone district of Alabama, in the south part of Jones' Valley +(about 3 m. wide.); to the east is the Red Ore mountain range, rich in +red haematite; to the north-west are the Warrior coalfields; to the +south-west, south and south-east are immense fossiliferous iron ore +seams and the Cahaba coalfields; in the immediate vicinity of the city +are limestone quarries, and about 18 m. north-east are the limestone +kilns of Gate City. Mining, iron smelting and the manufacture of iron +and coke are the chief industries of Bessemer; truck farming is also an +important industry. In 1900 Bessemer was the eighth city of the state in +population, second in amount of capital invested in manufacturing, and +fourth in the value of its manufactured product for the year. Bessemer +was laid out in 1887, and was incorporated in 1889. + + + + +BESSIERES, JEAN BAPTISTE, duke of Istria (1768-1813), French marshal, +was born near Cahors in 1768. He served for a short time in the +"Constitutional Guard" of Louis XVI. and as a non-commissioned officer +took part in the war against Spain. In the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees +and in the Army of the Moselle he repeatedly distinguished himself for +valour, and in 1796, as captain, he served in Bonaparte's Italian +campaign. At Roveredo his conduct brought him to his chief's notice, and +after Rivoli he was sent to France to deliver the captured colours to +the Directory. Hastening back to the front, he accompanied Napoleon in +the invasion of Styria in command of the "Guides," who formed the +nucleus of the later Consular and Imperial Guard. As _chef de brigade_ +he next served in the Egyptian expedition, and won further distinction +at Acre and Aboukir. Returning to Europe with Napoleon, he was present +at Marengo (1800) as second-in-command of the Consular Guard, and led a +brilliant and successful cavalry charge at the close of the day, though +its effect on the battle was not as decisive as Napoleon pretended. +Promoted general of division in 1802 and marshal of France in 1804, he +made the most famous campaigns of the Grande Armee as colonel-general +of the Guard Cavalry (1805, 1806, 1807). In 1805 he had received the +Grand Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and in 1800 was created duke of +Istria. With the outbreak of the Peninsular War, Marshal Bessieres had +his first opportunity of an independent command, and his crushing +victory over the Spaniards at Medina del Rio Seco (1808) justified +Napoleon's choice. When disaster in other parts of the theatre of war +called Napoleon himself to the Peninsula, Bessieres continued to give +the emperor the very greatest assistance in his campaign. In 1809 he was +again with the _Grande Armee_ in the Danube valley. At Essling his +repeated and desperate charges checked the Austrians in the full tide of +their success. At Wagram he had a horse killed under him. Replacing +Bernadotte in the command of the Army of the North, a little later in +the same year, the newly-created duke of Istria successfully opposed the +British Walcheren expedition, and in 1811 he was back again, in a still +more important command, in Spain. As Massena's second-in-command he was +present at the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro, but Napoleon never detached +him for very long, and in 1812 he commanded the Guard Cavalry at +Borodino and in the retreat from Moscow. Wherever engaged he won further +distinction, and at the beginning of the 1813 campaign he was appointed +to the command of the whole of Napoleon's cavalry. Three days after the +opening of the campaign, while reconnoitring the defile of +Poserna-Rippach, Bessieres was killed by a musket-ball. Napoleon, who +deeply felt the loss of one of his truest friends and ablest commanders, +protected his children, and his eldest son was made a member of the +Chamber of Peers by Louis XVIII. As a commander, especially of cavalry, +Bessieres left a reputation excelled by very few of Napoleon's marshals, +and his dauntless courage and cool judgment made him a safe leader in +independent command. He was personally beloved to an extraordinary +extent amongst his soldiers, and (unlike most of the French generals of +the time) amongst his opponents. It is said that masses were performed +for his soul by the priests of insurgent Spain, and the king of Saxony +raised a monument to his memory. + +His younger brother, BERTRAND, BARON BESSIERES (1773-1855), was a +distinguished divisional leader under Napoleon. After serving with a +good record in Italy, in Egypt and at Hohenlinden, he had a command in +the _Grande Armee_, and in 1808 was sent to Spain. He commanded a +division in Catalonia and played a notable part at the action of Molins +de Rey near Barcelona. Disagreements with his superior, General Duhesme, +led to his resignation, but he subsequently served with Napoleon in all +the later campaigns of the empire. Placed on the retired list by the +Bourbons, his last public act was his defence of the unfortunate Ney. +The rest of his long life was spent in retirement. + + + + +BESSUS, satrap of Bactria and Sogdiana under Darius III. In the battle +of Gaugamela (1st of October 331) he commanded the troops of his +satrapy. When Alexander pursued the Persian king on his flight to the +East (summer 330), Bessus with some of the other conspirators deposed +Darius and shortly afterwards killed him. He then tried to organize a +national resistance against the Macedonian conqueror in the eastern +provinces, proclaimed himself king and adopted the name Artaxerxes. But +he was taken prisoner by treachery in the summer of 329. Alexander sent +him to Ecbatana, where he was condemned to death. Before his execution +his nose and ears were cut off, according to the Persian custom; we +learn from the Behistun inscription that Darius I. punished the usurpers +in the same way. + + + + +BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS (1826-1897), English organist, the son of a +solicitor, was born at Carlisle on the 13th of August 1826. Having +decided upon a musical career, he received his first instruction from +the cathedral organist. He applied himself especially to Bach's music, +and became a player of great skill. His successive appointments were to +Pembroke chapel, Liverpool, 1840; to a church for the blind, 1847, and +the Liverpool Philharmonic Society, 1848. For a short time (1854-1855) +he was in London at the Panopticon in Leicester Square, the church of St +Martin-in-the-Fields, and Lincoln's Inn chapel. In 1855 he returned to +Liverpool as organist of St George's Hall, where his performances +rapidly became famous throughout England. Ill-health compelled him at +last to retire in 1894. He was engaged as solo organist at all the +Handel festivals at the Crystal Palace, and also as organist at the +Albert Hall, where he inaugurated the great organ in 1871. He had been +in the receipt of a civil list pension of L100 a year since 1880, and in +1890 went to Australia to give organ recitals in the town hall of +Sydney. Best died at Liverpool on the 10th of May 1897. + +His command over all the resources of his own instrument was masterly; +his series of Saturday recitals at St George's Hall, carried on for many +years, included the whole field of organ music, and of music that could +be arranged for the organ, ancient and modern; and his performances of +Bach's organ works were particularly fine. His own compositions for the +organ, chiefly comprised in the publication entitled _Organ Pieces for +Church Use_, have a strong and marked individuality. Best, unlike many +soloists, was an all-round musician, and fully acquainted with every +branch of the art. His bust, by Conrad Dressler, has been placed on the +platform in front of the Liverpool organ, as a memorial of his long +series of performances there. + + + + +BESTIA, the name of a family in ancient Rome, of which the following +were the most distinguished. + +1. LUCIUS CALPURNIUS BESTIA, Roman tribune of the people in 121 B.C., +consul in 111. Having been appointed to the command of the operations +against Jugurtha, he at first carried on the campaign energetically, but +soon, having been heavily bribed, concluded a disgraceful peace. On his +return to Rome he was brought to trial for his conduct and condemned, in +spite of the efforts of Marcus Scaurus who, though formerly his legate +and equally guilty, was one of the judges. He is probably identical with +the Bestia who encouraged the Italians in their revolt, and went into +exile (90) to avoid punishment under the law of Q. Varius, whereby those +who had secretly or openly aided the Italian allies against Rome were to +be brought to trial (Appian, _Bell. Civ._ i. 37; Val. Max. viii. 6. 4). +Both Cicero and Sallust express a high opinion of Bestia's abilities, +but his love of money demoralized him. He is mentioned in a Carthaginian +inscription as one of a board of three, perhaps an agricultural +commission. + + See Sallust, _Jugurtha_; Cicero, _Brutus_, xxxiv. 128; for the general + history, A.H.J. Greenidge, _Hist. of Rome_, vol. i. (1904), pp. 346 + foll. + +2. LUCIUS CALPURNIUS BESTIA, one of the Catilinarian conspirators, +possibly a grandson of the above. He was tribune elect in 63, and it had +been arranged that, after entering upon his office, he should publicly +accuse Cicero of responsibility for the impending war. This was to be +the signal for the outbreak of revolution. The conspiracy, however, was +put down and Bestia had to content himself with delivering a violent +attack upon the consul on the expiration of his office. This Bestia is +probably not the Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, aedile, and a candidate for +the praetorship in 57. He was accused of bribery during his candidature, +and, in spite of Cicero's defence, was condemned. In 43 he attached +himself to the party of Antony, apparently in the hope of obtaining the +consulship. + + Sallust, _Catiline_, xvii. 43; Appian, _Bell. Civ._ ii. 3; Cicero, _Ad + Q. Fr._ ii. 3, 6. + + + + +BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH, COUNT (1693-1768), grand chancellor +of Russia, the second son of Count Peter Bestuzhev, the early favourite +of the empress Anne, was born at Moscow on the 1st of June 1693. +Educated abroad, with his elder brother Mikhail, at Copenhagen and +Berlin, he especially distinguished himself in languages and the applied +sciences. Peter the Great, in 1712, attached him to Prince Kurakin at +the Utrecht Congress that he might learn diplomacy, and for the same +reason permitted him in 1713 to enter the service of the elector of +Hanover. George I. took him to London in 1714, and sent him to St +Petersburg as his accredited minister with a notification of his +accession. Bestuzhev then returned to England, where he remained four +years. It was the necessary apprenticeship to his brilliant diplomatic +career. His passion for intrigue is curiously illustrated by his letter +to the tsarevich Alexius at Vienna, assuring his "future sovereign" of +his devotion, and representing his sojourn in England as a deliberate +seclusion of a zealous but powerless well-wisher. This extraordinary +indiscretion might well have cost him his life, but the tsarevich +fortunately destroyed the letter.[1] On his return to Russia he served +for two years without any salary as chief gentleman of the Bedchamber at +the court of Anne of Courland, and in 1721 succeeded Vasily Dolgoruki as +Russian minister at Copenhagen. Copenhagen was then a whirlpool of +diplomatic intrigue, for George I. was endeavouring to arm the northern +powers against Peter the Great, and this it was Bestuzhev's mission to +counteract. On the occasion of the peace of Nystad, which terminated the +21 years war between Russia and Sweden, Bestuzhev designed and struck a +commemorative medal with a panegyrical Latin inscription, which so +delighted Peter (then at Derbent) that he sent a letter of thanks +written with his own hand and his portrait set in brilliants. It was at +this time too that the many-sided Alexius invented his famous "drops," +or _tinctura toniconervina Bestuscheffi_, the recipe of which was stolen +by the French brigadier Lamotte, who made his fortune by introducing it +at the French court, where it was known as _Elixir d'Or_. + +The sudden death of Peter the Great seriously injured Bestuzhev's +prospects. For more than ten years he remained at Copenhagen, looking +vainly towards Russia as a sort of promised land from which he was +excluded by enemies or rivals. He rendered some important services, +however, to the empress Anne, for which he was decorated and made a +privy councillor. He also won the favour of Biren, and on the tragic +fall of Artemy Voluinsky in 1739 was summoned home to take his place in +the council. He assisted Biren to obtain the regency in the last days of +the empress Anne, but when his patron fell three weeks later, his own +position became extremely precarious. His chance came when the empress +Elizabeth, immediately after her accession, summoned him back to court, +and appointed him vice-chancellor. For the next twenty years, during a +period of exceptional difficulty, he practically controlled the foreign +policy of Russia. Bestuzhev rightly recognized that, at this time, +France was the natural enemy of Russia. The interests of the two states +in Turkey, Poland and Sweden were diametrically opposed, and Russia +could never hope to be safe from the intrigues of France in these three +borderlands. All the enemies of France were thus necessarily the friends +of Russia, and her friends Russia's enemies. Consequently Great Britain, +and still more Austria, were Russia's natural allies, while the +aggressive and energetic king of Prussia was a danger to be guarded +against. It was, therefore, the policy of Bestuzhev to bring about a +quadruple alliance between Russia, Austria, Great Britain and Saxony, to +counterpoise the Franco-Prussian league. But he was on dangerous ground. +The empress herself was averse from an alliance with Great Britain and +Austria, whose representatives had striven to prevent her accession; and +many of her personal friends, in the pay of France and Prussia, took +part in innumerable conspiracies to overthrow Bestuzhev. Nevertheless, +step by step, Bestuzhev, aided by his elder brother Mikhail, carried out +his policy. On the 11th of December 1742, a defensive alliance was +concluded between Great Britain and Russia. Bestuzhev had previously +rejected with scorn the proposals of the French government to mediate +between Russia and Sweden on the basis of a territorial surrender on the +part of the former; and he conducted the war so vigorously that by the +end of 1742 Sweden lay at the mercy of the empress. At the peace +congress of Abo (January-August 1743) he insisted that the whole of +Finland should be ceded to Russia, by way of completing the testament of +Peter the Great. But the French party contrived to get better terms for +Sweden, by artfully appealing to the empress's fondness for the house of +Holstein. The Swedes, at the desire of Elizabeth, accepted Adolphus +Frederick, duke of Holstein, as their future king, and, in return, +received back Finland, with the exception of a small strip of land up to +the river Kymmene. Nor could Bestuzhev prevent the signing of a +Russo-Prussian defensive alliance (March 1743); but he deprived it of +all political significance by excluding from it the proposed guarantee +of Frederick's Silesian conquests. Moreover, through Bestuzhev's +efforts, the credit of the Prussian king (whom he rightly regarded as +more dangerous than France) at the Russian court fell steadily, and the +vice-chancellor prepared the way for an alliance with Austria by +acceding to the treaty of Breslau (1st of November 1743). A bogus +conspiracy, however, got up by the Holstein faction, aided by France and +Prussia, who persuaded Elizabeth that the Austrian ambassador was +intriguing to replace Ivan VI. on the throne, alienated the empress from +Austria for a time; and Bestuzhev's ruin was regarded as certain when, +in 1743, the French agent, the marquis de La Chetardie, arrived to +reinforce his other enemies. But he found a friend in need in M.L. +Vorontsov, the empress's confidant, who shared his political views. +Still his position was most delicate, especially when the betrothal +between the grand-duke Peter and Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst (afterwards +Catharine II.) was carried through against his will, and Elizabeth of +Holstein, the mother of the bride, arrived in the Prussian interests to +spy upon him. Frederick II., conscious of the instability of his French +ally, was now eager to contract an offensive alliance with Russia; and +the first step to its realization was the overthrow of Bestuzhev, "upon +whom," he wrote to his minister Axel von Mardefeld, "the fate of Prussia +and my own house depends." But Bestuzhev succeeded, at last, in +convincing the empress that Chetardie was an impudent intriguer, and on +the 6th of June 1744, that diplomatist was ordered to quit Russia within +twenty-four hours. Five weeks later Bestuzhev was made grand chancellor +(July 15th). Before the end of the year Elizabeth of Holstein was also +expelled from Russia, and Bestuzhev was supreme. + +The attention of European diplomacy at this time was concentrated upon +the king of Prussia, whose insatiable acquisitiveness disturbed all his +neighbours. Bestuzhev's offer, communicated to the British government at +the end of 1745, to attack Prussia if Great Britain would guarantee +subsidies to the amount of some L6,000,000, was rejected as useless now +that Austria and Prussia were coming to terms. Then he turned to +Austria, and on the 22nd of May 1746, an offensive and defensive +alliance was concluded between the two powers manifestly directed +against Prussia. In 1747, alliances were also concluded with Denmark and +the Porte. At the same time Bestuzhev resisted any rapprochement with +France, and severely rebuked the court of Saxony for its intrigues with +that of Versailles. About this time he was hampered by the persistent +opposition of the vice-chancellor Mikhail Vorontsov, formerly his +friend, now his jealous rival, who was secretly supported by Frederick +the Great. In 1748, however, he got rid of him by proving to the empress +that Vorontsov was in the pay of Prussia. The hour of Bestuzhev's +triumph coincided with the peace congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, which +altered the whole situation of European politics and introduced fresh +combinations, the breaking away of Prussia from France and a +rapprochement between England and Prussia, with the inevitable corollary +of an alliance between France and the enemies of Prussia. Bestuzhev's +violent political prejudices at first prevented him from properly +recognizing this change. Passion had always been too large an ingredient +in his diplomacy. His Anglomania also misled him. His enemies, headed by +his elder brother Mikhail and the vice-chancellor Vorontsov, powerless +while his diplomacy was faultless, quickly took advantage of his +mistakes. When, on the 16th of January 1756, the Anglo-Prussian, and on +the 2nd of May the Franco-Austrian alliances were concluded, Vorontsov +advocated the accession of Russia to the latter league, whereas +Bestuzhev insisted on a subsidy treaty with Great Britain. But his +influence was now on the wane. The totally unexpected Anglo-Prussian +alliance had justified the arguments of his enemies that England was +impossible, while his hatred of France prevented him from adopting the +only alternative of an alliance with her. To prevent underground +intrigues, Bestuzhev now proposed the erection of a council of +ministers, to settle all important affairs, and at its first session +(14th-30th of March) an alliance with Austria, France and Poland against +Frederick II. was proposed, though Bestuzhev opposed any composition +with France. He endeavoured to support his failing credit by a secret +alliance with the grand-duchess Catherine, whom he proposed to raise to +the throne instead of her Holstein husband, Peter, from whom Bestuzhev +expected nothing good either for himself or for Russia. The negotiations +were conducted through the Pole Stanislaus Poniatowski. The accession of +Russia to the anti-Prussian coalition (1756) was made over his head, and +the cowardice and incapacity of Bestuzhev's friend, the Russian +commander-in-chief, Stephen Apraksin, after the battle of +Gross-Jagersdorf (1757), was made the pretext for overthrowing the +chancellor. His unwillingness to agree to the coalition was magnified +into a determination to defeat it, though it is quite obvious that he +could only gain by the humiliation of Frederick, and nothing was ever +proved against him. Nevertheless he was deprived of the chancellorship +and banished to his estate at Goretovo (April 1759), where he remained +till the accession of Catharine II., who recalled him to court and +created him a field marshal. But he took no leading part in affairs and +died on the 21st of April 1768, the last of his race. + + See _The Sbornik of the Russian Historical Society_, vols. 1, 3, 5, 7, + 12, 22, 26, 66, 79, 80, 81, 85-86, 91-92, 96, 99, 100, 103 (St + Petersburg, 1870, &c.); _Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des + Grossen_, vols. 1-21 (Berlin, 1879-1904.); R. Nisbet Bain, _The + Daughter of Peter the Great_ (London, 1899). (R. N. B.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] A copy of the letter was taken by way of precaution, beforehand, + by the Austrian ministers, and this copy is still in the Vienna + archives. + + + + +BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, MIKHAIL PETROVICH, COUNT (1688-1760), Russian +diplomatist, elder brother of the foregoing, was educated at Berlin, and +was sent by Peter the Great to represent Russia at Copenhagen in 1705. +In 1720 he was appointed resident at London at a time when the English +court was greatly inflamed against Peter, who was regarded as a +dangerous rival in the Baltic; and Bestuzhev was summarily dismissed for +protesting against the lately-formed Anglo-Swedish alliance. On the +conclusion of the peace of Nystad in 1721 he was sent as ambassador to +the court of Stockholm. His first official act was the signing of a +defensive alliance between Russia and Sweden for twelve years, in 1724. +He was successively transferred to Warsaw (1726) and to Berlin (1730), +but returned to Stockholm in 1732. How far Bestuzhev was concerned in +the murder (June 28th, 1739) of the Swedish diplomatic agent Sinclair in +Silesia on his journey home from Constantinople, it is difficult to say. +It is certain that Bestuzhev sent information to his court of Sinclair's +mission, which was supposed to be hostile to Russia, and even supplied +the portrait of the envoy for recognition. The Swedish authorities are +unanimous in describing Bestuzhev as the arch-plotter in this miserable +affair; yet, while the active agents were banished to Siberia, Bestuzhev +was not even censured. The Sinclair murder led ultimately to the +Swedish-Russian War of 1741, when Bestuzhev was transferred first to +Hamburg and subsequently to Hanover, where he endeavoured to conclude an +alliance between Great Britain and Russia. On his return to Russia in +1743, he was made grand marshal, and married Anna, the widow of Paul +Yaguzhinsky, Peter the Great's famous pupil. A few months later his wife +was implicated in a bogus conspiracy got up by the French ambassador, +the marquis de La Chetardie, to ruin the Bestuzhevs (see +BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS), and after a public whipping, had her tongue +cut out and was banished to Siberia. Thither Bestuzhev had not the +manhood to follow her, but went abroad, and subsequently resumed his +diplomatic career. His last and most brilliant mission was to +Versailles, shortly after the conclusion of the coalition against +Frederick the Great, where he cut a great figure. He died at Paris on +the 26th of February 1760. + + See Robert Nisbet Bain, _The Daughter of Peter the Great_ (London, + 1899); Mikhail Sergyievich, _History of Russia_ (Rus.), vols. + xv.-xxii. (2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1897). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BET and BETTING (probably from O. Fr. _abeter_, to instigate, Eng. +"abet," i.e. with money). To "bet" is to stake money or something +valuable on some future contingency. Betting in some form or other has +been in vogue from the earliest days, commencing in the East with royal +and noble gamblers, and gradually extending itself westwards and +throughout all classes. In all countries where the English tongue is +spoken betting is now largely indulged in; and in the United Kingdom it +spread to such an extent amongst all grades of society, during the 19th +century, that the interference of the legislature was necessary (see +GAMING AND WAGERING). Bets can, of course, be made on any subject, and +are a common method of backing one's opinion or skill, whether at games +of cards or in any other connexion; but the commonest form of betting is +associated with the turf. In the early days of horse-racing persons who +wished to bet often failed to gratify their inclination because of the +difficulty of finding any one ready to wager. To obviate this difficulty +the professional bookmaker arose. It was perceived that if a man laid +money against a number of horses, conducting his business on discreet +principles, he would in all probability receive enough to pay the bettor +who was successful and to leave a surplus for himself; for the +"bookmaker," as the professional betting man came to be called, had +enormous advantages in his favour. He was presumably shrewd and wary, +whereas many of those with whom he dealt were precisely the opposite, +and benefit arose to him from the mistakes and miscalculations of owners +and trainers of horses, and from the innumerable accidents which occur +to prevent anticipated success; moreover, if he carried out the theory +of his calling he would so arrange his book, by what is called "betting +to figures," that the money he received would be more than he could +possibly be called upon to pay. In practice, of course, this often does +not happen, because "backers" will sometimes support two or three horses +in a race only, and the success of one may result in loss to the +bookmaker; but in the long run it has been almost invariably found that +the bookmaker grows rich and that the backer of horses loses money. It +is the bookmaker who regulates the odds, and this he does, sometimes by +anticipating, sometimes by noting, the desire of backers to support +certain animals. Such things as stable secrets can scarcely be said to +exist at the present time; the bookmaker is usually as well able as any +one else to estimate the chances of the various horses engaged in races. +Notwithstanding that the reports of a trial gallop are of comparatively +little value to any except the few persons who know what weights the +animals carried when tried, the bookmaker is extraordinarily keen, and +frequently successful, in his search for information; and on this the +odds depend. + +Betting in connexion with horse-racing is of two kinds: "post," when +wagering does not begin until the numbers of the runners are hoisted on +the board; and "ante-post," when wagering opens weeks or months before +the event; though of this latter there is far less than was formerly the +case, doubtless for the reason that before the introduction of so many +new and valuable stakes attention was generally concentrated on a +comparatively small number of races. Bets on the Derby, the Oaks and the +St Leger were formerly common nearly a year before the running of the +races, and a few handicaps, such as the Chester Cup, used to occupy +attention months beforehand; the weights, of course, being published at +a much longer interval prior to the contest than is at present the rule. +As regards ante-post betting, bookmakers have their own ideas as to the +relative prospects of the horses entered. A person who wishes to back a +horse asks the price, and accepts or declines, as the case may be. If +the bet is laid it will probably be quoted in the newspapers, and other +persons who propose to wager on the race are so likely to follow suit +that it is shrewdly suspected that in not a few cases bets are quoted +which never have been laid, in order to induce the backers to speculate. +According to the public demand for a horse the price shortens. If there +is little or no demand the odds increase, the market being almost +entirely regulated by the money; so that if a great many people bet on a +certain animal the odds become shorter and shorter, till in many cases +instead of laying odds against a horse, the bookmaker comes to take +odds, that is, to agree to pay a smaller sum than he would receive from +the backer if the animal lost. Post betting is conducted on very much +the same principles. When the numbers are hoisted bookmakers proclaim +their readiness to lay or take certain odds, which vary according to the +demand for the different animals. Backers are influenced by many +considerations: by gossip, by the opinions of writers on racing, and in +many cases, unfortunately, by the advice of "tipsters," who by +advertisements and circulars profess their ability to indicate winners, +a pretence which is obviously absurd, as if these men possessed the +knowledge they claim, they would assuredly keep it to themselves and +utilize it for their own private purposes. + +The specious promises of such men do infinite mischief, as they so often +appeal with success to the folly and gullibility of the ignorant, and in +recent years the extent to which betting has grown has resulted in +attempts to check it by organized means. A society for the purpose was +formed in England called the Anti-Gambling League. A bookmaker named +Dunn was summoned in 1897 for betting in Tattersall's enclosure, which +it was contended contravened the Betting House Act of 1853. This act had +been aimed against what were known as "list houses," establishments then +kept by bookmakers for betting purposes, and associated with many +disgraceful scandals. In the preamble to his bill Lord Cockburn began by +remarking that "Whereas a new form of betting has of late sprung up," +and the Anti-Gambling League sought to argue that this included a form +of betting which had not sprung up of late but had on the contrary been +carried on without interference for many generations. The divisional +court of the queen's bench (_Hawke v. Dunn_, 13 T.L.R. 281) held that +such betting was an infringement of the act, and that the enclosure was +a "place" within the meaning of the act, and had been used by the +respondent for the purpose of betting with persons resorting thereto, +and that he was liable to be Convicted. The case was remitted to the +justices, who convicted the defendant. A somewhat similar case was +decided on the same day (_M'Inany v. Hildreth_, 1897, 13 T.L.R. 285), in +which it was held that a professional bookmaker who went to a place +known as the "pit heap" at Jarrow, to which the public had access at all +times, and made bets with persons assembled there, was properly +convicted, and that the "pit heap" itself and the place where he stood +were "places" within the meaning of the act. It was afterwards held by +the court of appeal (_Powell v. Kempton Park Racecourse Co., Ltd._, +1897, 2 Q.B. 242), in an action brought to restrain a racecourse company +from opening or keeping an enclosure on a racecourse by allowing it to +be used by bookmakers, that the words "other place" must be construed as +meaning a defined place, that the user of such a place implied some +exclusive right in the user against others, and that the racecourse +owners had not been guilty of permitting the enclosure to be used in the +manner prohibited by the act of 1853. The decision in _Hawke v. Dunn_ +was disapproved of; and the House of Lords afterwards affirmed the +decision of the court of appeal. + +The Street Betting Act 1906 enacted that any person frequenting or +loitering in streets or public places for the purpose of bookmaking, or +betting, or wagering, should be liable on summary conviction, in the +case of a first offence, to a fine not exceeding ten pounds, in the case +of a second offence, to a fine not exceeding twenty pounds, and in the +case of a third or subsequent offence, or in any case where he is proved +to have committed the offence of having a betting transaction with a +person under the age of sixteen years, to a fine, on conviction on +indictment, not exceeding fifty pounds or to imprisonment with or +without hard labour for a term not exceeding six months. On summary +conviction the fine is a sum not exceeding thirty pounds or imprisonment +with or without hard labour for a term not exceeding three months. A +wide definition is given to the words "street" and "public place," and +racecourses are expressly exempted from the operation of the act. + +On all French racecourses (since 1866), as on others nearly everywhere +else on the continent, and likewise in the British colonies, a system of +betting known as the _Pari-Mutuel_ or Totalizator, is carried on. Rows +of offices are established behind or near the stands, on each of which +lists are exhibited containing the numbers of the horses that are to run +in the coming race. At some of these the minimum wager is five francs, +at others ten, twenty, fifty, one hundred, five hundred and in some +cases a thousand. The person who proposes to bet goes to the clerk at +one of these offices, mentions the number, as indicated on the card, of +the horse he wishes to back, and states whether he desires to bet on it +to win or for a place only. He receives a voucher for his money. After +the race the whole amount collected at the various offices is put +together and divided after a percentage has been deducted for the +administration and for the poor. As soon as this has been done, the +money is divided and the prices to be paid to winners are exhibited on +boards. These prices are calculated on a unit of ten francs. Thus, for +instance, if the winner is notified as bringing in twenty-five francs, +the meaning is that the backer receives his original stake of ten and +fifteen in addition, the money being paid immediately by another clerk +attached to the office at which the bet was made. The great French +municipalities derive considerable revenue in relief of rates from the +_Paris Mutuels_. In Japan this system was made illegal in 1908. + + + + +BETAINE (OXYNEURINE, LYCINE), C5H13NO3, a substance discovered in the +sugar beet (_Beta vulgaris_) in 1869 by C. Scheibler (_Ber._, 1869, 2, +p. 292). It is also found in cotton seed, in the vetch and in wheat +sprouts (E. Schulz and S. Frankfurt, _Ber._, 1893, 26, p. 2151). It may +be synthetically prepared by oxidizing choline with chromic acid (O. +Liebreich, _Ber._, 1869, 2, 13), (CH3)3N(OH).CH2.CH2OH --> C5H13NO3 + +H2O; by heating trimethylamine with monochloracetic acid (Liebreich), +(CH3)3N + CH2Cl.COOH = (CH3)3N(Cl).CH2.COOH (betaine hydrochloride); and +by heating amino-acetic acid (glycocoll) with methyl iodide in the +presence of an alkali (P. Griess, _Ber._, 1875, 8, p. 1406). It +crystallizes from alcohol in large deliquescent crystals; and is readily +soluble in water, but insoluble in ether. It is a weak base. As is shown +by the various syntheses of the base, it is the methyl hydroxide of +dimethyl glycocoll. This free base readily loses water on heating and +gives an internal anhydride of constitution + + /CH2\ + (CH3)3N CO, + \ O / + +which is the type of the so-called "betaines." These organic betaines +are internal anhydrides of carboxylic acids, which contain an ammonium +hydroxide group in the [alpha]-position. A. Hantzsch (_Ber._, 1886, 19, +p. 31) prepared the betaines of nicotinic, picolinic and collidine +carboxylic acids from the potassium salts of the acids, by treatment +with methyl iodide, followed by moist silver oxide. The reaction may be +shown as follows:-- + + /\ /\ /\ + / \ CO2K / \ CO2CH3 / \ __CO + | | | | | | | + | | --> | | --> | | | + | | | | | | | + \\ / \\ / \\ / | + \\/ \\/ \\/ | + N H3C-N-I H3C-N----O + +The methyl betaine of nicotinic acid is identical with the alkaloid +_trigonelline_, which was discovered in 1885 by E. Jahns in the seeds of +_Trigonella faenum-graecum_ (_Ber._, 1885, 18, p. 2518). It has also +been obtained from nicotine by A. Pictet by oxidizing the methyl +hydroxide of nicotine with potassium permanganate (_Ber._, 1897, 30, p. +2117). + + Substances closely related to betaine are choline, neurine and + muscarine. Choline (bilineurine, sincaline), (Gr. [Greek: cholae], + bile), C5H15NO2 or HO.CH2.CH2.N(CH3)3.OH, first isolated by A. + Strecker in 1862 (_Ann._ 123, p. 353; 148, p. 76), is found in the + bile, in brain substance, and in yolk of egg in the form of lecithin, + a complex ester of glycerin with phosphoric acid and the fatty acids. + It is also found in combination with sinapic acid in sinapin, the + glucoside obtained from white mustard, and can be obtained from this + glucoside by hydrolysis with baryta water, + + C16H23NO5 + 2H2O = C5H15NO2 + C11H12O5. + Sinapin. Choline. Sinapic acid. + + It can be synthetically prepared by the action of trimethylamine on an + aqueous solution of ethylene oxide (A. Wurtz, _Ann. Suppl._, 1868, 6, + p. 201). It forms deliquescent crystals of strongly alkaline reaction, + and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. It is not poisonous. By + continued boiling of its aqueous solution, it is resolved into glycol + and trimethylamine. + + Neurine, trimethyl vinyl ammonium hydroxide (Gr. [Greek: neuron], + nerve), CH2 : CH.N(CH3)3.OH, is a product of the putrefaction of + albumen. It may be prepared by the action of moist silver oxide on + ethylene dibromide and trimethylamine, + + CH2Br.CH2Br --> CH2Br.CH2N(CH3)3Br --> CH2 : CH.N(CH3)3.OH. + + It is a crystalline solid, very soluble in water, and is strongly + basic and very poisonous. Muscarine, C5H15NO3, is an exceedingly + poisonous substance found in many fungi. It may be obtained + synthetically by oxidizing choline with dilute nitric acid (O. + Schmiedeberg, _Jahresb._, 1876, p. 804). The exact constitution has + not yet been definitely determined. + + + + +BETEL NUT. The name betel is applied to two different plants, which in +the East are very closely associated in the purposes to which they are +applied. The betel nut is the fruit of the Areca or betel palm, _Areca +Catechu_, and the betel leaf is the produce of the betel vine or pan, +_Chavica Betel_, a plant allied to that which yields black pepper. The +Areca palm is a native of the Malay Peninsula and Islands and is +extensively cultivated over a wide area in the East, including southern +India, Ceylon, Siam, the Malay Archipelago and the Philippine Islands. +It is a graceful tree with a straight, slender, unbranched stem reaching +40 or 50 ft. in height and about 1-1/2 ft. in circumference, and bearing +a crown of 6-9 very large spreading pinnate fronds. The fruit is about +the size of a small hen's egg, and within its fibrous rind is the seed +or so-called nut, the albumen of which is very hard and has a prettily +mettled grey and brown appearance. The chief purpose for which betel +nuts are cultivated and collected is for use as a masticatory,--their +use in this form being so widespread among Oriental nations that it is +estimated that one-tenth of the whole human family indulge in betel +chewing. For this use the fruits are annually gathered between the +months of August and November, before they are quite ripe, and deprived +of their husks. They are prepared by boiling in water, cutting up into +slices, and drying in the sun, by which treatment the slices assume a +dark brown or black colour. When chewed a small piece is wrapped up in a +leaf of the betel vine or pan, with a pellet of shell lime or chunam; +and in some cases a little cardamom, turmeric or other aromatic is +added. The mastication causes a copious flow of saliva of a brick-red +colour, which dyes the mouth, lips and gums. The habit blackens the +teeth, but it is asserted by those addicted to it that it strengthens +the gums, sweetens the breath and stimulates the digestive organs. Among +the Orientals betel is offered on ceremonial visits in the same manner +as wine is produced on similar occasions by Europeans. Betel nuts are +further used as a source of catechu, which is procured by boiling the +nuts in water. The water of the first boiling becomes red and thick, and +when this is inspissated after the removal of the nuts it forms a +catechu of high astringency and dark colour called in Bombay "Kossa." +The nuts are again boiled, and the inspissated juice of the second +decoction yields a weaker catechu of a brown or reddish colour. Betel +nuts have been used by turners for ornamental purposes, and for coat +buttons on account of the beauty of their structure. At one time they +were supposed to be useful as a vermifuge. The nuts of other species of +_Areca_ are used by the poorer classes in the East as substitutes for +the genuine betel nut. + + The alkaloid arecaidine, C7H11NO2, occurs in areca or betel nuts, + together with three other alkaloids: arecoline, C8H13NO2, guvacine, + C6H9NO2, and arecaine, C7H11NO2. Arecaidine forms white crystals + easily soluble in water, and difficultly soluble in alcohol. + Chemically it is methyl-tetrahydro-nicotinic acid. Dehydration results + in the formation of a "betaine," which is a tetrahydro-trigonelline + (see BETAINE). Arecoline is an oil, and the physiological action of + the betel nut is alone due to this substance. Chemically it is the + methyl ester of arecaidine. Guvacine, named from "guvaca," an Indian + designation of the betel palm, forms white crystals. It is a secondary + base, but its constitution is uncertain. Arecaine is + n-methyl-guvacine. + + + + +BETHANY (mod. _el-'Azariyeh_), a village nearly 2 m. E.S.E. from +Jerusalem, on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives, 2208 ft. above +the sea. It is interesting as the residence of Lazarus and his sisters, +and a favourite retreat of Jesus (see especially John xi., which +describes the miracle of the resurrection of Lazarus at this place). +From the 4th century down to the time of the Mahommedan invasion several +ecclesiastical buildings were erected on the spot, but of these no +distinct traces remain. El-'Azariyeh is a poor village of about thirty +families, with few marks of antiquity; there is no reason to believe +that the houses of Mary and Martha and of Simon the Leper, or the +sepulchre of Lazarus, still shown by the monks, have any claim to the +names they bear. Another Bethany (with the alternative reading +Bethabara) is mentioned in John i. 28, as "beyond Jordan"; it has not +been identified. + + + + +BETHEL (Heb. "House of God"), originally called _Luz_, an ancient city +of Palestine, on the N.W. border of the tribe of Benjamin, 11 m. N. of +Jerusalem and nearly 2900 ft. above sea-level. From very early times it +was a holy place, a circumstance probably due primarily to a very +extraordinary group of boulders and rock-outcrops north of the town. +Abraham recognized its sanctity (Gen. xii. 8); Jacob, in ignorance, +slept in the sacred enclosure and was granted a vision ("Jacob's +ladder," Gen. xxviii). For a while the ark seems to have been deposited +here (Judg. xx. 27), and it was a place for consulting the oracle (Judg. +xx. 18). At the secession of the northern kingdom under Jeroboam, Bethel +became a royal residence and a national shrine (1 Kings xii. 29-31, Amos +vii. 13), for which its position at the junction of main roads from N. +to S. and E. to W. well fitted it. It was taken from Jeroboam by Abijah, +king of Judah (2 Chr. xiii. 19). It seems to have continued to flourish +down into the Christian era; remains of its ecclesiastical buildings +still exist. The present village, which bears the name of Beitin, +occupies about three or four acres, and has a population of 2000. + + + + +BETHENCOURT, JEAN DE (c. 1360-1422), French explorer, belonged to a +noble family of Normandy, and held important offices at the court of +Charles VI., king of France. His spirit was fired by hearing of the +deeds of explorers and adventurers, and having formed a plan to conquer +the Canary Islands he raised some money by pledging his Norman estates, +and sailed from La Rochelle on the 1st of May 1402 with two ships, +commanded by himself and Gadifer de la Salle. He was delayed by a mutiny +off the coast of Spain, but reached the island of Lanzarote in July. +Unable to carry out his project of conquest, he left his men at the +Canaries and went to seek help at the court of Castile. He obtained men +and provisions from Henry III. king of Castile, through the good offices +of his uncle, Robert de Braquemont, who had considerable influence with +Henry; he also received the title of king, and did homage to Henry for +his future conquests. Returning to the Canaries in 1404 he found that +Gadifer de la Salle had conquered Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, and +explored other islands. La Salle, unwilling to accept a position of +inferiority, left the Canaries and appealed unsuccessfully for redress +at the court of Castile. Bethencourt was unable to complete his work of +conquest and exploration. In 1405 he visited Normandy, and returned with +fresh colonists who occupied Hierro. In December 1406 he left the +islands to the government of his nephew, Maciot de Bethencourt, +reserving for himself the royal title and a share in any profits +obtained. He returned to Normandy, where he appears to have spent the +remainder of his days. He died in 1422, and was buried in the church of +Grainville-la-Teinturiere. Bethencourt wrote a very untrustworthy +account of his "conquest of the Canary Islands," _Le Canarien, livre de +la conquete et conversion ses Canaries_. This has been published with +introduction and notes by G. Gravier (Rouen, 1874), and an English +translation was edited by R.H. Major for the Hakluyt Society (London, +1872). + + See also CANARY ISLANDS, for the controversy as to the relations + between Bethencourt and La Salle. + + + + +BETHESDA (i.e. "House of Mercy," John v. 2), better perhaps BETHZATHA or +BETHSAIDA, a pool or public bath in Jerusalem, where miraculous cures +were believed to be performed. The following identifications have been +suggested: _Birket Isra'il_, near St Stephen's gate; a large cistern, +near St Anne's church; the "Twin Pools," north of the Haram (the ancient +Temple area); the _Hammam esh-Shifa'_ or pool of healing, west of the +Haram; the Virgin's fountain, south of the Haram; and the "Pool of +Siloam." Which, if any, of these identifications is correct, it is +impossible to say. + + + + +BETHESDA, an urban district of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 5 m. from +Bangor, by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) +5281. It lies near the lower end of the fine Nant Ffrancon (valley of +the Ogwen stream). The scriptural name is due, as often in Wales, to the +village or hamlet taking its title from the Nonconformist church. Here +are extensive slate quarries belonging to Lord Penrhyn. A narrow-gauge +railway connects these with Port Penrhyn, at the mouth of the stream +Cegid (hemlock, "_cicuta_"), which admits the entry of vessels of 300 +tons to the quay at low water. + + + + +BETH-HORON ("the place of the hollow way"), the name of two neighbouring +villages, upper and lower Beth-horon, on the ascent from the coast plain +of Palestine to the high tableland of Benjamin, which was until the 16th +century the high road from Jerusalem to the sea. The two towns thus +played a conspicuous part in Israelitish military history (see Josh. x. +10; 1 Sam. xiii. 18; 1 Kings ix. 17; 1 Macc. iii. 13-24, vii. 39 ff., +ix. 50). Josephus (_Bell. Jud._ ii. 19) tells of the rout of a Roman +army under Cestius Gallus in A.D. 66. The Talmud states that many rabbis +were born in the place. It is now represented by Beit 'Ur-el-foka and +Beit 'Ur-et-tahta. + + + + +BETHLEHEM (Heb. "House of Bread," or, according to a more questionable +etymology, "of [the god] Lakhmu"), a small town in Palestine, situated +on a limestone ridge (2550 ft. above sea-level), 5 m. S. of Jerusalem. +The neighbourhood produces wheat, barley, olives and vines in abundance. +It was occupied in very early times, though the references in Judges +xvii., xix., and Ruth[1] are of doubtful date. It was the early home of +David and of Joab (2 Sam. ii. 32). It was fortified by Rehoboam, and in +the neighbouring inn of Chimham the murderers of Gedaliah took refuge +(Jer. xli. 17). Micah (v. 2) and other writers speak of it as +Bethlehem-Ephrathah; perhaps Ephrathah was the name of the district. +Almost complete obscurity, however, was gathering round it when it +became (according to Matt. ii. and Luke ii.) the birthplace of Jesus. +The traditional scene of the Nativity, a grotto on the eastern part of +the ridge, is alleged to have been desecrated during the reign of +Hadrian by a temple of Adonis. In 330 it was enclosed by a basilica +built by the orders of the emperor Constantine. This basilica (S. Maria +a Praesepio), which is still standing, was restored and added to by +Justinian, and was later surrounded by the three convents successively +erected by the Greek, Latin and Armenian Churches (see de Vogue, _Les +Eglises de la Terre Sainte_). Captured by the Crusaders in the 11th +century, Bethlehem was made an episcopal see; but the bishopric soon +sank to a titular dignity. Beside the grotto of the Nativity other +traditional sites are shown within the church, such as the Altar of the +Magi, the Tomb of Eusebius, the cave wherein Jerome made his translation +of the Bible, &c. + +There are several monasteries and convents, and British, French and +German schools. The village is well built and comparatively clean. The +population (8000) has contained few Moslems since the Moslem quarter was +destroyed by Ibrahim Pasha, in revenge for the murder of one of his +favourites, after the insurrection of 1834. The carving of crucifixes +and other sacred mementoes gives employment to a large proportion of the +population. In 1850 a dispute arose between France and Russia, in the +name of the Latin and Greek Churches respectively, concerning the +possession of the key of the chief door of the basilica, and concerning +the right to place a silver star, with the arms of France, in the grotto +of the Nativity. The Porte, after much futile temporizing, yielded to +France. The disappointment thus inflicted on Russia was a determining +cause of the outbreak of the Crimean War (see Kinglake, _Invasion of the +Crimea_, chap. iii.). [There is a tiny village of the same name in +Zebulun, 7 m. N.W. of Nazareth (Josh. xv. 19).] + + See bibliography under PALESTINE. For the modern town see Palmer, "Das + jetzige Bethlehem," in the _Zeitschrift_ of the Deutsche + Palastina-Verein, xvii. p. 89. (R. A. S. M.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The country of Moab is clearly visible from around Bethlehem. + + + + +BETHLEHEM, a borough of Northampton and Lehigh counties, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Lehigh river, opposite South Bethlehem and +55 m. N. by W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 6762; (1900) 7293 (350 +foreign-born); (1910) 12,837. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, +the Lehigh & New England, the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & +Reading railways, and is connected by two long bridges with South +Bethlehem. The borough lies on a ridge of ground commanding delightful +landscape scenery extending north up the course of the river to the Blue +Mountains 20 m. away. In Church Street and its vicinity still stand +several specimens of the 17th-century style of architecture of eastern +Germany. The same sect that erected these buildings, the Moravians, or +United Brethren, maintain here the Moravian College and Theological +Seminary, and a well-known school for girls (the Moravian Seminary), +founded as a church boarding school in 1749 and reorganized in 1785, for +girls of all denominations. During the War of Independence, from +December 1776 to April 1777, and from September 1777 to April 1778, the +old Colonial Hall in this seminary (built 1748) was used as a general +hospital of the continental army. From its roof the famous Moravian +trombones were long played on festal or funeral occasions, and later +summoned the people to musical festivals. The Moravians have given +Bethlehem a national reputation as a musical centre. Only a few years +after the city was founded, Benjamin Franklin was strongly impressed +with the fine music in its church, and towards the close of the 19th +century a choir under the direction of the organist, J. Frederick Wolle, +became widely known by rendering for the first time in America Bach's +_St John Passion_ (in 1888), followed after short intervals by the _St +Matthew Passion_, the _Christmas Oratorio_, the _Mass in B Minor_, and +finally by an annual Bach festival continuing for three days, which was +discontinued after Wolle's removal to the university of California in +1905. Bethlehem has often been called the American Bayreuth. Among the +borough's industrial establishments, the manufactories of iron and steel +are the most important, but it also manufactures brass, zinc, and silk +and knit goods. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. +Bethlehem was founded by the Moravians, led by Count Nikolaus Ludwig +Zinzendorf, shortly before Christmas in 1741, and the season of the year +suggested its name; for the first century of its existence it was almost +exclusively a settlement of that sect, and it is still their American +headquarters. Bethlehem was incorporated as a borough in 1845. In 1904 +the borough of West Bethlehem (pop. in 1900, 3465) was consolidated with +Bethlehem. + + See J.M. Levering, _A History of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania_ (Bethlehem, + 1903). + + + + +BETHLEHEMITES, a name borne at different times by three orders in the +Roman Catholic Church. (1) A community of friars at Cambridge, in 1257, +whose habit was distinguished from that of the ordinary Dominicans by a +five-rayed red star (in reference to Matt. ii. 9 f). (2) An order of +knighthood similar to the Knights of St John, established by Pius II. in +1459 to resist the inroads of the Turks. (3) The Bethlehemite Order of +Guatemala, a nursing community founded in 1650 by Pedro Betancourt (d. +1667), extended by the brothers Rodrigo and Antonio of the Cross, and +raised to an order by Innocent XI. in 1687. They wore a dress like that +of the Capuchins, and Clement XI. in 1707 gave them the privileges of +the mendicant orders. They spread throughout Central America and Mexico +and as far south as Lima, and with the order of sisters, founded in 1668 +by Anna Maria del Galdo, were conspicuous for their devotion during +times of plague and other contagious diseases. This order became extinct +about 1850. The name Bethlehemites has also sometimes been given to the +Hussites of Bohemia because their leader preached in the Bethlehem +church at Prague. + + + + +BETHLEN, GABRIEL (GABOR) (1580-1629), prince of Transylvania, the most +famous representative of the Iktari branch of a very ancient Hungarian +family, was born at Illye, and educated at Szarhegy, at the castle of +his uncle Andras Lazar. Thence he was sent to the court of Prince +Zsigmond Bathory, whom he accompanied on his famous Wallachian campaign +in 1600. Subsequently he assisted Stephen Bocskay to mount the throne of +Transylvania (1605), and remained his chief counsellor. Bethlen also +supported Bocskay's successor Gabriel Bathory (1608-1613), but the +prince became jealous of Bethlen's superior abilities, and he was +obliged to take refuge with the Turks. In 1613 he led a large army +against his persecutor, on whose murder by two of his officers that year +Bethlen was placed on the throne by the Porte, in opposition to the +wishes of the emperor, who preferred a prince who would incline more +towards Vienna than towards Constantinople. On the 13th of October 1613, +the diet of Klausenburg confirmed the choice of the sultan. In 1615 +Gabor was also officially recognized by the emperor Matthias. Bethlen no +sooner felt firmly seated on his throne than he seized the opportunity +presented to him by the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War to take up +arms in defence of the liberties and the constitution of the +extra-Transylvanian Hungarian provinces, with the view of more +effectually assuring his own position. While Ferdinand was occupied with +the Bohemian rebels, Bethlen led his armies into Hungary (1619), and +soon won over the whole of the northern counties, even securing +Pressburg and the Holy Crown. Nevertheless he was not averse to a peace, +nor to a preliminary suspension of hostilities, and negotiations were +opened at Pressburg, Kassa and Beszterczebanya successively, but came to +nothing because Bethlen insisted on including the Bohemians in the +peace, whereupon (20th of August 1620) the estates of North Hungary +elected him king. Bethlen accepted the title but refused to be crowned, +and war was resumed, till the defeat of the Czechs at the battle of the +White Hill gave a new turn to affairs. In Bohemia, Ferdinand II. took a +fearful revenge upon the vanquished; and Bethlen, regarding a +continuation of the war as unprofitable, concluded the peace of +Nikolsburg (31st of December 1621), renouncing the royal title on +condition that Ferdinand confirmed the peace of Vienna (which had +granted full liberty of worship to the Protestants) and engaged to +summon a general diet within six months. For himself Bethlen secured the +title of prince of the Empire, the seven counties of the Upper Theiss, +and the fortresses of Tokaj, Munkacs and Ecsed. Subsequently Bethlen +twice (1623 and 1626) took up arms against Ferdinand as the ally of the +anti-Habsburg Protestant powers. The first war was concluded by the +peace of Vienna, the second by the peace of Pressburg, both confirmatory +of the peace of Nikolsburg. After the second of these insurrections, +Bethlen attempted a rapprochement with the court of Vienna on the basis +of an alliance against the Turks and his own marriage with one of the +Austrian archduchesses; but Ferdinand had no confidence in him and +rejected his overtures. Bethlen was obliged to renounce his anti-Turkish +projects, which he had hitherto cherished as the great aim and object of +his life, and continue in the old beaten paths. Accordingly, on his +return from Vienna he wedded Catherine, the daughter of the elector of +Brandenburg, and still more closely allied himself with the Protestant +powers, especially with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who, he hoped, +would assist him to obtain the Polish crown. He died before he could +accomplish any of his great designs (15th of November 1629), having +previously secured the election of his wife Catherine as princess. His +first wife, Susannah Karolyi, died in 1622. + +Gabriel Bethlen was certainly one of the most striking and original +personages of his century. A zealous Calvinist, whose boast it was that +he had read the Bible twenty-five times, he was nevertheless no +persecutor, and even helped the Jesuit Kaldy to translate and print his +version of the Scriptures. He was in communication all his life with the +leading contemporary statesmen, so that his correspondence is one of the +most interesting and important of historical documents. He also composed +hymns. + + The best editions of his correspondence are those by Sandor Szilagyi, + both published at Buda (1866 and 1879). The best life of him is that + by the Bohemian historian Anton Gindely, _Acta et documenta historiam + Gabrielis Bethleni illustrantia_ (Budapest, 1890). This work has been + largely utilized by Ignae-Acsady in his excellent _Gabriel Bethlen and + his Court_ (Hung., Budapest, 1890). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BETHNAL GREEN, an eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, +bounded N. by Hackney, E. by Poplar, S. by Stepney and W. by Shoreditch. +Pop. (1901) 129,680. It is a district of poor houses, forming part of +the area commonly known as the "East End." The working population is +employed in the making of match-boxes, boot-making, cabinet-making and +other industries; but was formerly largely devoted to silk-weaving, +which spread over the district from its centre in Spitalfields (see +STEPNEY). This industry is still maintained. The Bethnal Green museum +was opened in 1872. It contains exhibits of food and animal products, +formerly at South Kensington, entomological collections, &c.; and +various loan exhibitions are held from time to time. The Museum also +housed the Wallace collection until the opening of Hertford House, and +the pictures now in the National Portrait Gallery. It stands in public +gardens; there are several other small open spaces; and some 70 out of +the 217 acres of Victoria Park are within the borough. Close by the park +there stood, until the 19th century, a house believed to have belonged +to the notorious Bishop Bonner, the persecutor of Protestants in the +reign of Mary; his name is still attached to a street here. Among +institutions are the missionary settlement of the Oxford House, founded +in 1884, with its women's branch, St Margaret's House; the North-Eastern +hospital for children, the Craft school und the Leather Trade school. +The parliamentary borough of Bethnal Green has two divisions, each +returning one member. The borough council consists of a mayor, 5 +aldermen and 30 councillors. Area, 759.3 acres. + + + + +BETHUNE (FAMILY). The _seigneurs_ of Bethune, _avoues_ (_advocati_) of +the great abbey of Saint-Vaast at Arras from the 11th century, were the +ancestors of a great French house whence sprang the dukes of Sully, +Charost, Orval, and Ancenis; the marquises of Rosny, Courville and +Chabris; the counts of Selles and the princes of Boisbelle and +Henrichemont. Conon de Bethune (q.v.), the crusader and poet, was an +early forebear. The most illustrious member of the Bethune family was +Maximilien, baron of Rosny, and afterwards duke of Sully (q.v.), +minister of Henry IV. His brother Philip, count of Selles and of +Charost, was ambassador to Scotland, Rome, Savoy and Germany, and died +in 1649. Hippolyte de Bethune, count of Selles and marquis of Chabris, +who died in 1665, bequeathed to the king a magnificent collection of +historical documents and works of art. The Charost branch of the family +gave France a number of generals during the 17th and 18th centuries. + +The last duke of Charost, Armand Joseph de Bethune (1738-1800), French +economist and philanthropist, served in the army during the Seven Years' +War, after which he retired to his estates in Berry, where, and also in +Brittany and Picardy, he sought to ameliorate the lot of his peasants by +abolishing feudal dues, and introducing reforms in agriculture. During +the Terror he was arrested, but was liberated after the 9th Thermidor. +He was mayor of the 10th arrondissement of Paris under the Consulate, +and died at Paris on the 20th of October 1800, of small-pox, contracted +during a visit to a workshop for the blind which he had founded. He +published essays on the way to destroy mendicancy and to improve the +condition of the labourers, and also on the establishment of a fund for +rural relief and the organization of rural education. His life throws +light on some phases of the _ancien regime_ which are often overlooked +by historians. Louis XV. said of Charost, "Look at this man, his +appearance is insignificant, but he has put new life into three of my +provinces." His only son, Armand Louis de Bethune, marquis de Charost, +was beheaded on the 28th of April 1794. + + + + +BETHUNE, CONON or QUESNES, DE (c. 1150-1224), French _trouvere_ of +Arras, was born about the middle of the 12th century. He came about 1180 +to the court of France, where he met Marie de France, countess of +Champagne. To this princess his love poems are dedicated, and much of +his time was passed at her court where the _trouveres_ were held in high +honour. At the French court he met with some criticisms from Queen Alix, +the widow of Louis VII., on the roughness of his verse and on his Picard +dialect. To these criticisms, interesting as proof of the already +preponderant influence of the dialect of the Ile de France, the poet +replied by some verses in the satirical vein that best suited his +temperament. Some of his best songs were inspired by anger at the delays +before the crusade of 1188-1192. His plain-speaking made him many +enemies, and when he returned with the rest after the fruitless capture +of Acre, these were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity for +retaliation. Conon took part with Baldwin of Flanders in the crusade +which resulted in 1204 in the capture of Constantinople, and he is said +to have been the first to plant the crusaders' standard on the walls of +the city. He held high office in the new empire and died about 1224. His +verses, of which the crusading song _Ah! amors com dure departie_ is +well known, are marked by a vigour and martial spirit which distinguish +them from the work of other _trouveres_. + + The completest edition of his works is in the _Trouveres belges_ of + Aug. Scheler (1876). + + + + +BETHUNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 m. N.N.W. of Arras, on the Northern +railway between that town and St Omer. Pop. (1906) 12,601. Bethune is +situated on a low hill at the confluence of the Lawe with the canal from +Aire to Bauvin. Once strongly fortified, it is now surrounded by wide +boulevards, and new quarters have grown up on its outskirts. The old +town is composed of winding streets and _culs-de-sac_ bordered by old +houses in the Flemish style. In the central square stands one of the +finest belfries of northern France, a square structure surmounted by a +wooden campanile, dating from the 14th century. St Vaast, the principal +church of Bethune, belongs to the 16th century. The town is the seat of +a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber of +commerce and a communal college among its public institutions. Bethune +lies in the midst of the richest coal mines in France. Its industries +include the distillation of oil, tanning, salt-refining, brewing, and +the manufacture of earthenware and casks. Trade is carried on in flax, +cloth, cereals, oil-seeds, &c. + +The town, which dates from the 11th century, was governed by its own +lords till 1248, after which date it passed through the ownership of the +counts of Flanders, the dukes of Burgundy, and the sovereigns of Austria +and Spain. Ceded to France by the peace of Nijmwegen (1678), it was +taken by the allied forces in 1710, and restored to France by the treaty +of Utrecht. + + + + +BETROTHAL (A.S. _treowth_, "truth"), the giving "one's truth," or +pledging one's faith to marry. Although left optional by the church and +not necessary in law, betrothal was anciently a formal ceremony which in +most cases preceded the actual marriage service, usually by a period of +some weeks, but the marriage might for various reasons be delayed for +years. The canon law distinguished two types of betrothal:--(1) +_Sponsalia de praesenti_, (2) _Sponsalia de futuro_. The first was a +true though irregular marriage, and was abolished by the council of +Trent as leading to clandestine unions and therefore being inimical to +morality. The second, or betrothal properly so called, was a promise to +marry at a future date, which promise without further ceremony became a +valid marriage upon consummation. The church never precisely determined +the form of the ceremony, but demanded for its validity that it should +have been entered into freely and at a legal age, i.e. after the seventh +birthday. The church further declared that females between the ages of +seven and twelve, and males between seven and fourteen, could be +betrothed, but not married, and that all such betrothals were to be +public. The ill-defined laws as to betrothals tended to encourage +abuses; and the people, especially in the rural districts, inclined to +hold betrothal sufficient justification for cohabitation. Such +pre-contract is known to have existed in the case of Shakespeare (q.v.). +Francis Douce (_Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Antient Manners_, +1807) says that betrothal consisted of the "interchange of rings--the +kiss--the joining of hands, to which is to be added the testimony of +witnesses." In France the presence of a priest seems to have been +considered essential, and though this was not so elsewhere it was +customary for the couple to get their parish priest to witness their +promise. In England solemn betrothal was almost universally practised. +Among the peasantry the place of rings was taken by a coin which was +broken between the pair, each taking a part. But almost any gift +sufficed. A case in 1582 is recorded where the lover gave the girl a +pair of gloves, two oranges, two handkerchiefs and a red silk girdle. +Sometimes the bride-elect received a bent or crooked sixpence. At the +conclusion of the ceremony, which by no means always took place in a +church, it seems to have been usual for the couple to pledge each other +in a cup of wine, as do the Jews and Russians to-day. This drinking +together was ever the universal custom of parties in ratification of a +bargain. Joseph Strutt (1749-1802) states that by the civil law gifts +given at betrothal could be recovered by the parties, if the marriage +did not take place. But only conditionally, for if the man "had had a +kiss for his money, he should lose one half of that which he gave. Yet +with the woman it is otherwise, for, kissing or not kissing, whatever +she gave, she may ask and have it again. However, this extends only to +gloves, rings, bracelets and such-like small wares." Though the church +abstained from prescribing the form of the ceremony, it jealously +watched over the fulfilment of such contracts and punished their +violation. Betrothal, validly contracted, could be dissolved either by +mutual consent, or by the supervening of some radical physical or social +change in the parties, or by the omission to fulfil one of the +conditions of the contract. But here the church stepped in, and +endeavoured to override such law as existed in the matter by decreeing +that whoever, after betrothal, refused to marry _in facie ecclesiae_, +was liable to excommunication till relieved by public penance. In +England the law was settled by an act of 1753, which enacted that an +aggrieved party could obtain redress only by an action at common law for +breach of promise of marriage (see MARRIAGE). + +Formal betrothal is no longer customary in England, but on the European +continent it retains much of its former importance. There it is either +solemn (publicly in church) or private (simply before witnesses). Such +betrothals are legal contracts. They are only valid between persons of +legal age, both of whom consent; and they are rendered void by fraud, +intimidation and duress. In Germany if the parties are under age the +consent of the parents is needed; but if this be unreasonably withheld +the couple may appeal to a magistrate, who can sanction the betrothal. +If the parents disagree, the father's wish prevails. Public betrothal +carries with it an obligation to marry, and in case of refusal an action +"lies" for the injured party. In Germany the betrothal is generally +celebrated before the relatives, and the couple are called bride and +bridegroom from that day _until_ marriage. In Russia, where it was once +as binding as marriage, it is now a mere formal part of the marriage +ceremony. + +Among the ancient Jews betrothal was formal and as binding as marriage. +After the ceremony, which consisted of the handing of a ring or some +object of value to the bride and formal words of contract, and the +mutual pledging of the couple in consecrated wine, a period of twelve +months elapsed before the marriage was completed by the formal +home-taking; unless the bride was a widow or the groom a widower, when +this interval was reduced to thirty days. Latterly the ceremony of +betrothal has become a part of the marriage ceremony, and the engagement +has become the informal affair it is in England. + + For betrothal customs in China, the East and elsewhere, consult L.J. + Miln, _Wooings and Weddings in Many Climes_ (London, 1900), and H.N. + Hutchinson, _Marriage Customs in Many Lands_ (London, 1897). On early + English law as to betrothals see Sir F. Pollock and Maitland, _History + of English Law before the time of Edward I._ (2nd ed., 1898). See also + J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps, _Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare_ + (London, 1848, 1883). + + + + +BETTERMENT (i.e. "making better," as opposed to "worsement"), a general +term, used particularly in connexion with the increased value given to +real property by causes for which a tenant or the public, but not the +owner, is responsible; it is thus of the nature of "unearned increment." +When, for instance, some public improvement results in raising the value +of a piece of private land, and the owner is thereby "bettered" through +no merit of his own, he gains by the betterment, and many economists and +politicians have sought to arrange, by taxation or otherwise, that the +increased value shall come into the pocket of the public rather than +into his. A betterment tax would be so assessed as to divert from the +owner of the property the profit thus accruing "unearned" to him. (See +also COMPENSATION.) The whole problem is one of the incidence of +taxation and the question of land values, and various applications of +the principle of betterment have been tried in America and in England, +raising considerable controversy from time to time. + + See A.A. Baumann, _Betterment, Worsement and Recoupment_ (1894). + + + + +BETTERTON, THOMAS (c. 1635-1710), English actor, son of an under-cook to +King Charles I., was born in London. He was apprenticed to John Holden +Sir William Davenant's publisher, and possibly later to a bookseller +named Rhodes, who had been wardrobe-keeper to the theatre in +Blackfriars. The latter obtained in 1659 a licence to set up a company +of players at the Cockpit in Drury Lane; and on the reopening of this +theatre in 1660, Betterton made his first appearance on the stage. His +talents at once brought him into prominence, and he was given leading +parts. On the opening of the new theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields in +1661, Sir William Davenant, the patentee, engaged Betterton and all +Rhodes's company to play in his _Siege of Rhodes_. Betterton, besides +being a public favourite, was held in high esteem by Charles II., who +sent him to Paris to examine stage improvements there. According to +Cibber it was after his return that shifting scenes instead of tapestry +were first used in an English theatre. In 1692, in an unfortunate +speculation, Betterton and his friend Sir Francis Watson were ruined; +but Betterton's affection for Sir Francis was so strong that he adopted +the latter's daughter and educated her for the stage. In 1693, with the +aid of friends, he erected the New Playhouse in the tennis court in +Lincoln's Inn Fields. It was opened in 1695 with Congreve's _Love for +Love_. But in a few years the profits fell off; and Betterton, labouring +under the infirmities of age and gout, determined to quit the stage. At +his benefit performance, when the profits are said to have been over +L500, he played Valentine in _Love for Love_. In 1710 he made his last +appearance as Melantius in _The Maid's Tragedy_; he died on the 28th of +April, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. + +In appearance he was athletic, slightly above middle height, with a +tendency to stoutness; his voice was strong rather than melodious, but +in recitation it was used with the greatest dexterity. Pepys, Pope, +Steele and Cibber all bestow lavish praise on his acting. His repertory +included a large number of Shakespearian roles, and although many of +these were presented in the tasteless versions of Davenant, Dryden, +Shadwell and Nahum Tate, yet they could not hide the great histrionic +gifts which Betterton possessed, nor does his reputation rest on these +performances alone. The blamelessness of his life was conspicuous in an +age and a profession notorious for dissolute habits. Betterton was +author of several adaptations which were popular in their day. In 1662 +he had married Mary Saunderson (d. 1712), an admirable actress, whose +Ophelia shared the honours with his Hamlet. + + See Howe, _Thomas Betterton_ (1891); _The Life and Times of Thomas + Betterton_ (1886). + + + + +BETTIA, a town of British India, in the Champaran district of Bengal; +situated on a former branch of the Harha river, with a station on the +Tirhoot section of the Bengal & North-Western railway. Bettia is the +residence of one of the leading noblemen of northern Behar, who enjoys a +rent-roll of L66,000. In 1901, owing to a disputed succession, the +estate was under the management of the court of wards. It comprises land +in no fewer than ten districts, much of which is let on permanent leases +to indigo-planters. Besides the palace of the maharaja, the town +contains a middle English school and a female dispensary, entirely +supported out of the estate. There is a Roman Catholic mission, with +about 1000 converts, which was founded by an Italian priest in 1746. + + + + +BETTINELLI, SAVERIO (1718-1808), Italian Jesuit and man of letters, was +born at Mantua on the 18th of July 1718. After studying under the +Jesuits in his native city and at Bologna he entered the society in +1736. He taught the belles-lettres from 1739 to 1744 at Brescia, where +Cardinal Quirini, Count Mazzuchelli, Count Duranti and other scholars, +formed an illustrious academy. He next went to Bologna, to pursue the +study of divinity, and there he enjoyed the society of many learned and +literary men. At the age of thirty he went to Venice, where he became +professor of rhetoric, and was on friendly terms with the most +illustrious persons of that city and state. The superintendence of the +college of nobles at Parma was entrusted to him in 1751; and he had +principal charge of the studies of poetry and history, and the +entertainments of the theatre. He remained there eight years, visiting, +at intervals, other cities of Italy, either on the affairs of his order, +for pleasure or for health. In 1755 he traversed part of Germany, +proceeded as far as Strassburg and Nancy, and returned by way of Germany +into Italy, taking with him two young sons or nephews of the prince of +Hohenlohe, who had requested him to take charge of their education. He +made, the year following, another journey into France along with the +eldest of his pupils; and during this excursion he wrote his famous +_Lettere dieci di Virgilio agli Arcadi_, which were published at Venice +with his _sciolti_ verses, and those of Frugoni and Algarotti. The +opinions maintained in these letters against the two great Italian poets +and particularly against Dante, created him many enemies, and embroiled +him with Algarotti. In 1758 he went into Lorraine, to the court of King +Stanislaus, who sent him on a matter of business to visit Voltaire. +Voltaire presented him with a copy of his works, with a flattering +inscription in allusion to Bettinelli's _Letters of Virgil_. From Geneva +he returned to Parma, where he arrived in 1759. He afterwards lived for +some years at Verona and Modena, and he had just been appointed +professor of rhetoric there, when, in 1773, the order of Jesuits was +abolished in Italy. Bettinelli then returned into his own country, and +resumed his literary labours with new ardour. The siege of Mantua by the +French compelled him to leave the city, and he retired to Verona, where +he formed an intimate friendship with the chevalier Hippolito +Pindemonti. In 1797 he returned to Mantua. Though nearly eighty years +old, he resumed his labours and his customary manner of life. He +undertook in 1799 a complete edition of his works, which was published +at Venice in 24 vols. 12mo. Arrived at the age of ninety years, he still +retained his gaiety and vivacity of mind, and died on the 13th of +September 1808. The works of Bettinelli are now of little value. The +only one still deserving remembrance, perhaps, is the _Risorgimento +negli studj, nelle Arti e ne' Costumi dopo il Mille_ (1775-1786), a +sketch of the progress of literature, science, the fine arts, industry, +&c., in Italy. + + + + +BETTWS Y COED, an urban district of Carnarvonshire, North Wales, 4 m. +from Llanrwst and 16 m. from Llandudno, on a branch of the London & +North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1070. The name means "warm place of +the wood," according to Llyn's definition of _bettws_. The other +derivation of the word from _Abbatis_ (_domus_) agrees with its vicinity +to Yspytty[1] Ifan (Ieuan), _Hospitium Ioannis_, near Pentre'r Foelas. +The words "y coed" are added to distinguish this Bettws from several +others in Wales, especially that near Llandeilo Fawr, Carmarthenshire, +not far from the Bettws hills. Bettws y coed is a favourite village for +artists and tourists. It is a centre for excursions towards Capel Curig +and Snowdon, or towards Blaenau Festiniog, via Roman Bridge. There is +excellent fishing for salmon and trout, and in summer coaches leave +their daily loads of tourists here. The best-known streams and +waterfalls are Llugwy, Lledr, with Rhaiadr y wenol (Swallow falls), +Conwy and Machno falls. In the neighbourhood are Dolwyddelan castle and +the hill of Moel Siabod. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Other places named "Yspytty" are Y. Cynfyn and Y. Ystwyth. For + the name Yspytty, cf. Bale's _King John_, 2125: "So many masendeens + (_maisons Dieu_), hospytals and _spyttle_ howses." + + + + +BETTY, WILLIAM HENRY WEST (1791-1874), English actor, known as "the +young Roscius," was born on the 13th of September 1791 at Shrewsbury. He +first appeared on the stage at Belfast before he was twelve years old, +as Osman in Aaron Hill's _Zara_, an English version of Voltaire's +_Zaire_. His success was immediate, and he shortly afterwards appeared +in Dublin, where it is said that in three hours of study he committed +the part of Hamlet to memory. His precocious talents aroused great +enthusiasm in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and he was favourably compared with +some of the greatest tragedians. In 1804 he first appeared at Covent +Garden, when the troops had to be called out to preserve order, so great +was the crush to obtain admittance. At Drury Lane the house was +similarly packed, and he played for the then unprecedented salary of +over 75 guineas a night. He was a great success socially, George III. +himself presenting him to the queen, and Pitt upon one occasion +adjourning the House of Commons that members might be in time for his +performance. But this enthusiasm gradually subsided, and in 1808 he made +his final appearance as a boy actor, and entered Christ's College, +Cambridge. He re-appeared four years later, but the public would have +none of him, and he retired to the enjoyment of the large fortune which +he had amassed as a prodigy. He died on the 24th of August 1874. His son +Henry Betty (1819-1897) was also an actor. + + + + +BETUL, a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda division of +the Central Provinces. In 1901 the population of the town was 4739. The +administrative headquarters of the district have been transferred to the +town of Badnur (q.v.), 3 m. north. + +The district of BETUL has an area of 3826 sq. m. In 1901 the population +was 285,363, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade, due to the results +of famine. The mean elevation above the sea is about 2000 ft. The +country is essentially a highland tract, divided naturally into three +distinct portions, differing in their superficial aspects, the character +of their soil and their geological formation. The northern part of the +district forms an irregular plain of the sandstone formation. It is a +well-wooded tract, in many places stretching out in charming glades like +an English park, but it has a very sparse population and little +cultivated land. In the extreme north a line of hills rises abruptly out +of the great plain of the Nerbudda valley. The central tract alone +possesses a rich soil, well watered by the Machna and Sampna rivers, +almost entirely cultivated and studded with villages. To the south lies +a rolling plateau of basaltic formation (with the sacred town of Multai, +and the springs of the river Tapti at its highest point), extending over +the whole of the southern face of the district, and finally merging into +the wild and broken line of the Ghats, which lead down to the plains. +This tract consists of a succession of stony ridges of trap rock, +enclosing valleys or basins of fertile soil, to which cultivation is for +the most part confined, except where the shallow soil on the tops of the +hills has been turned to account. The principal crops are wheat, millet, +other food-grains, pulse, oil-seeds, and a little sugar-cane and cotton. +A large part of the area is covered with forests, which yield teak and +other timber. The only manufacture is cotton cloth. A railway is +projected from Itarsi through the district to Berar. Good roads are few; +and none of the rivers is navigable. This district suffered very +severely from the famine of 1896-1897, in 1897 the death-rate being as +high as 73 per 1000. It suffered again in 1900, when in May the number +of persons relieved rose to one-third of the total population. + +Little is known of the early history of the district except that it must +have been the centre of the first of the four ancient Gond kingdoms of +Kherla, Deogarh, Mandla and Chanda. According to Ferishta, the Persian +historian, these kingdoms engrossed in 1398 all the hills of Gondwana +and adjacent countries, and were of great wealth and power. About the +year 1418 Sultan Husain Shah of Malwa invaded Kherla, and reduced it to +a dependency. Nine years later the raja rebelled, but although with the +help of the Bahmani kings of the Deccan he managed for a time to assert +his independence, he was finally subdued and deprived of his +territories. In 1467 Kherla was seized by the Bahmani king, but was +afterwards restored to Malwa. A century later the kingdom of Malwa +became incorporated into the dominions of the emperor of Delhi. In 1703 +a Mussulman convert of the Gond tribe held the country, and in 1743 +Raghoji Bhonsla, the Mahratta ruler of Berar, annexed it to his +dominions. The Mahrattas in the year 1818 ceded this district to the +East India Company as payment for a contingent, and by the treaty of +1826 it was formally incorporated with the British possessions. +Detachments of British troops were stationed at Multai, Betul and +Shahpur to cut off the retreat of Apa Sahib, the Mahratta general, and a +military force was quartered at Betul until June 1862. The ruined city +of Kherla formed the seat of government under the Gonds and preceding +rulers, and hence the district was, until the time of its annexation to +the British dominions, known as the "Kherla Sarkar." The town of Multai +contains an artificial tank, from the centre of which the Tapti is said +to take its rise: hence the reputed sanctity of the spot, and the +accumulation of temples in its honour. + +The climate of Betul is fairly healthy. Its height above the plains and +the neighbourhood of extensive forests moderate the heat, and render the +temperature pleasant throughout the greater part of the year. During the +cold season the thermometer at night falls below the freezing point; +little or no hot wind is felt before the end of April, and even then it +ceases after sunset. The nights in the hot season are comparatively cool +and pleasant. During the monsoon the climate is very damp, and at times +even cold and raw, thick clouds and mist enveloping the sky for many +days together. The average annual rainfall is 40 in. In the denser +jungles malaria prevails for months after the cessation of the rains, +but the Gonds do not appear to suffer much from its effects. Travellers +and strangers who venture into these jungles run the risk of fever of a +severe type at almost all seasons of the year. + + + + +BETWA, a river of India, which rises in the native state of Bhopal in +Malwa, and after a course of 360 m., for the most part in a +north-easterly direction, falls into the Jumna at Hamirpur. A weir is +thrown across the Betwa about 15 m. from Jhansi town, whence a canal 168 +m. long takes off, irrigating 106,000 acres of the Jalaun district; +similar works have been carried out elsewhere on the river. + + + + +BEUDANT, FRANCOIS SULPICE (1787-1850), French mineralogist and +geologist, was born at Paris on the 5th of September 1787. He was +educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and Ecole Normale, and in 1811 was +appointed professor of mathematics at the lycee of Avignon. Thence he +was called, in 1813, to the lycee of Marseilles to fill the post of +professor of physics. In the following year the royal mineralogical +cabinet was committed to his charge to be conveyed into England, and +from that time his attention was directed principally towards geology +and cognate sciences. In 1817 he published a paper on the phenomena of +crystallization, treating especially of the variety of forms assumed by +the same mineral substance. In 1818 he undertook, at the expense of the +French government, a geological journey through Hungary, and the results +of his researches, _Voyage mineralogique et geologique en Hongrie_, 3 +vols. 4to, with atlas, published in 1822, established for him a European +reputation. In 1820 he was appointed to the professorship of mineralogy +in the Paris faculty of sciences, and afterwards became +inspector-general of the university. He subsequently published treatises +on physics and on mineralogy and geology, and died on the 10th of +December 1850. + + + + +BEUGNOT, JACQUES CLAUDE, COUNT (1761-1835), French politician, was born +at Bar-sur-Aube. A magistrate under the old regime, he was elected +deputy to the Legislative Assembly (1791), then to the Convention. He +was involved in the proscription of the Girondists and imprisoned until +the 9th Thermidor. He next entered into relations with the family of +Bonaparte, and in 1799, after the 18th Brumaire, again entered politics, +becoming successively prefect of the lower Seine, councillor of state, +and finance minister to Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia. In 1808 +Beugnot, who had meanwhile been appointed administrator of the duchy of +Berg-Cleves, received the cross of officer of the Legion of Honour with +the title of count. He returned to France in 1813, after the battle of +Leipzig, and was made prefect of the department of Nord. In 1814 he was +a member of the provisional government as minister of the interior; and +by Louis XVIII. he was named director-general of police and afterwards +minister of marine. He followed Louis to Ghent during the Hundred Days, +and became one of his confidants. He contributed to draw up Louis's +charter, and in his memoirs boasted of having furnished the text of the +proclamation addressed by the king to the French people before his +return to France; but it is known now that it was another text that was +adopted. Lacking the support of the ultra-royalists, he was given the +title of minister of state without portfolio, which was equivalent to a +retirement. Elected deputy, he attached himself to the moderate party, +and defended the liberty of the press. In 1831 Louis Philippe made him a +peer of France and director-general of manufactures and commerce. He +died on the 24th of June 1835. + +His son, AUGUSTE ARTHUR BEUGNOT (1797-1865), was an historian and +scholar, who published an _Essai sur les institutions de Saint Louis_ +(1821), _Histoire de la destruction du paganisme en occident_ (2 vols., +1885), and edited the _Olim_ of the parlement of Paris, the _Assizes of +Jerusalem_, and the _Coutumes de Beauvoisis_ of Philippe de Beaumanoir. +He was a member of the chamber of peers under Louis Philippe, and +opposed Villemain's plan for freedom of education. After 1848 he +maintained the same role, acting as reporter of the _loi Falloux_. He +retired from public life after the _coup d'etat_ of Napoleon III., and +died on the 15th of March 1865. + + The _Memoires_ of J.C. Beugnot were published by his grandson, Count + Albert Beugnot (2nd ed., Paris, 1868); see H. Wallon, _Eloges + academiques_ (1882); and E. Dejean, _Un Prefet du Consulat: J.C. + Beugnot_ (Paris, 1907). + + + + +BEULE, CHARLES ERNEST (1826-1874), French archaeologist and politician, +was born at Saumur on the 29th of June 1826. He was educated at the +Ecole Normale, and after having held the professorship of rhetoric at +Moulins for a year, was sent to Athens in 1851 as one of the professors +in the Ecole Francaise there. He had the good fortune to discover the +propylaea of the Acropolis, and his work, _L'Acropole d'Athenes_ (2nd +ed., 1863), was published by order of the minister of public +instruction. On his return to France, promotion and distinctions +followed rapidly upon his first successes. He was made doctor of +letters, chevalier of the Legion of Honour, professor of archaeology at +the Bibliotheque Imperiale, member of the Academie des Inscriptions et +Belles-Lettres and perpetual secretary of the Academie des Beaux-Arts. +He took great interest in political affairs, with which the last few +years of his life were entirely occupied. Elected a member of the +National Assembly in 1871, he zealously supported the Orleanist party. +In May-November 1873 he was minister of the interior in the Broglie +ministry. He died by his own hand on the 4th of April 1874. His other +important works are: _Etudes sur le Peloponnese_ (2nd ed., 1875); _Les +Monnaies d'Athenes_ (1858); _L'Architecture au siecle de Pisistrate_ +(1860); _Fouilles a Carthage_ (1861). Beule was also the author of +high-class popular works on artistic and historical subjects: _Histoire +de l'art grec avant Pericles_ (2nd ed., 1870); _Le Proces des Cesars_ +(1867-1870, in four parts; _Auguste, sa famille et ses amis; Tibere et +l'heritage d'Auguste; Le Sang de Germanicus; Titus et sa dynastie_). + + See Ideville, _Monsieur Beule, Souvenirs personnels_ (1874). + + + + +BEURNONVILLE, PIERRE DE RUEL, MARQUIS DE (1752-1821), French general. +After service in the colonies, he married a wealthy Creole, and +returning to France purchased the post of lieutenant of the Swiss guard +of the count of Provence. During the Revolution he was named +lieutenant-general, and took an active part in the battles of Valmy and +Jemmapes. Minister of war in February 1793, he denounced his old +commander, C.F. Dumouriez, to the Convention, and was one of the four +deputies sent to watch him. Given over by him to the Austrians on the +3rd of April 1793, Beurnonville was not exchanged until November 1795. +He entered the service again, commanded the armies of the +Sambre-et-Meuse and of the North, and was appointed inspector of +infantry of the army of England in 1798. In 1800 he was sent as +ambassador to Berlin, in 1802 to Madrid. Napoleon made him a senator and +count of the empire. In 1814 he was a member of the provisional +government organized after the abdication of Napoleon, and was created a +peer of France. During the Hundred Days he followed Louis XVIII. to +Ghent, and after the second restoration was made marquis and marshal of +France. + + See A. Chaquet, _Les Guerres de la Revolution_ (Paris, 1886). + + + + +BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON (1809-1886), Austrian statesman, was +descended from a noble family which had originally sprung from the Mark +of Brandenburg, and of which one branch had been for over 300 years +settled in Saxony. He was born on the 13th of January 1809 in Dresden, +where his father held office at the Saxon court. After studying at +Leipzig and Gottingen he entered the Saxon public service; in 1836 he +was made secretary of legation at Berlin, and afterwards held +appointments at Paris, Munich and London. In March 1848 he was summoned +to Dresden to take the office of foreign minister, but in consequence of +the outbreak of the revolution was not appointed. In May he was +appointed Saxon envoy at Berlin, and in February 1849 was again summoned +to Dresden, and this time appointed minister of foreign affairs, an +office which he continued to hold till 1866. In addition to this he held +the ministry of education and public worship from 1849 to 1853; that of +internal affairs in 1853, and in the same year was appointed +minister-president. From the time that he entered the ministry he was, +however, the leading member of it, and he was chiefly responsible for +the events of 1849. By his advice the king refused to accept the +constitution proclaimed by the Frankfort parliament, a policy which led +to the outbreak of revolution in Dresden, which was suppressed after +four days' fighting by Prussian troops, for whose assistance Beust had +asked. On Beust fell also the chief responsibility for governing the +country after order was restored, and he was the author of the so-called +_coup d'etat_ of June 1850 by which the new constitution was overthrown. +The vigour he showed in repressing all resistance to the government, +especially that of the university, and in reorganizing the police, made +him one of the most unpopular men among the Liberals, and his name +became synonymous with the worst form of reaction, but it is not clear +that the attacks on him were justified. After this he was chiefly +occupied with foreign affairs, and he soon became one of the most +conspicuous figures in German politics. He was the leader of that party +which hoped to maintain the independence of the smaller states, and was +the opponent of all attempts on the part of Prussia to attract them into +a separate union; in 1849-1850 he had been obliged to join the "three +kings' union" of Prussia, Hanover and Saxony, but he was careful to keep +open a loophole for withdrawal, of which he speedily availed himself. In +the crisis of 1851 Saxony was on the side of Austria, and he supported +the restoration of the diet of the confederation. In 1854 he took part +in the Bamberg conferences, in which the smaller German states claimed +the right to direct their own policy independent of that of Austria or +of Prussia, and he was the leading supporter of the idea of the _Trias_, +i.e. that the smaller states should form a closer union among themselves +against the preponderance of the great monarchies. In 1863 he came +forward as a warm supporter of the claims of the prince of Augustenburg +to Schleswig-Holstein (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION); he was the +leader of the party in the German diet which refused to recognize the +settlement of the Danish question effected in 1852 by the treaty of +London, and in 1864 he was appointed representative of the diet at the +congress of London. He was thus thrown into opposition to the policy of +Bismarck, and he was exposed to violent attacks in the Prussian press as +a "particularist," i.e. a supporter of the independence of the smaller +states. The expulsion of the Saxon troops from Rendsburg nearly led to a +conflict with Prussia. Beust was accused of having brought about the war +of 1866, but the responsibility for this must rest with Bismarck. On the +outbreak of war Beust accompanied the king to Prague, and thence to +Vienna, where they were received by the emperor with the news of +Koniggratz. Beust undertook a mission to Paris to procure the help of +Napoleon. When the terms of peace were discussed he resigned, for +Bismarck refused to negotiate with him. + +After the victory of Prussia there was no place for Beust in Germany, +and his public career seemed to be closed, but he quite unexpectedly +received an invitation from the emperor of Austria to become his foreign +minister. It was a bold decision, for Beust was not only a stranger to +Austria, but also a Protestant; but the choice of the emperor justified +itself. Beust threw himself into his new position with great energy; it +was owing to him that the negotiations with Hungary were brought to a +successful issue. When difficulties came he went himself to Budapest, +and acted directly with the Hungarian leaders. In 1867 he also held the +position of Austrian minister-president, and he carried through the +measures by which parliamentary government was restored. He also carried +on the negotiations with the pope concerning the repeal of the +concordat, and in this matter also did much by a liberal policy to +relieve Austria from the pressure of institutions which had checked the +development of the country. In 1868, after giving up his post as +minister-president, he was appointed chancellor of the empire, and +received the title of count. His conduct of foreign affairs, especially +in the matter of the Balkan States and Crete, successfully maintained +the position of the empire. In 1869 he accompanied the emperor on his +expedition to the East. He was still to some extent influenced by the +anti-Prussian feeling he had brought from Saxony. He maintained a close +understanding with France, and there can be little doubt that he would +have welcomed an opportunity in his new position of another struggle +with his old rival Bismarck. In 1867, however, he helped to bring the +affair of Luxemburg to a peaceful termination. In 1870 he did not +disguise his sympathy for France, and the failure of all attempts to +bring about an intervention of the powers, joined to the action of +Russia in denouncing the treaty of Paris, was the occasion of his +celebrated saying that he was nowhere able to find Europe. After the war +was over he completely accepted the new organization of Germany. + +As early as December 1870 he had opened a correspondence with Bismarck +with a view to establishing a good understanding with Germany. Bismarck +accepted his advances with alacrity, and the new _entente_, which Beust +announced to the Austro-Hungarian delegations in July 1871, was sealed +in August by a friendly meeting of the two old rivals and enemies at +Gastein. + +In 1871 Beust interfered at the last moment, together with Andrassy, to +prevent the emperor accepting the federalist plans of Hohenwart. He was +successful, but at the same time he was dismissed from office. The +precise cause for this is not known, and no reason was given him. At his +own request he was appointed Austrian ambassador at London; in 1878 he +was transferred to Paris; in 1882 he retired from public life. He died +at his villa at Altenberg, near Vienna, on the 24th of October 1886, +leaving two sons, both of whom entered the Austrian diplomatic service. +His wife, a Bavarian lady, survived him only a few weeks. His elder +brother Friedrich Konstantin (1806-1891), who was at the head of the +Saxon department for mines, was the author of several works on mining +and geology, a subject in which other members of the family had +distinguished themselves. + +Beust was in many ways a diplomatist of the old school. He had great +social gifts and personal graces; he was proud of his proficiency in the +lighter arts of composing waltzes and _vers de societe_. His chief fault +was vanity, but it was an amiable weakness. It was more vanity than +rancour which made him glad to appear even in later years as the great +opponent of Bismarck; and if he cared too much for popularity, and was +very sensitive to neglect, the saying attributed to Bismarck, that if +his vanity were taken away there would be nothing left, is very unjust. +He was apt to look more to the form than the substance, and attached too +much importance to the verbal victory of a well-written despatch; but +when the opportunity was given him he showed higher qualities. In the +crisis of 1849 he displayed considerable courage, and never lost his +judgment even in personal danger. If he was defeated in his German +policy, it must be remembered that Bismarck held all the good cards, and +in 1866 Saxony was the only one of the smaller states which entered on +the war with an army properly equipped and ready at the moment. That he +was no mere reactionary the whole course of his government in Saxony, +and still more in Austria, shows. His Austrian policy has been much +criticized, on the ground that in establishing the system of dualism he +gave too much to Hungary, and did not really understand Austrian +affairs; and the Austro-Hungarian crisis during the early years of the +present century has given point to this view. Yet it remains the fact +that in a crisis of extraordinary difficulty he carried to a successful +conclusion a policy which, even if it was not the best imaginable, was +probably the best attainable in the circumstances. + + Beust was the author of reminiscences: _Aus drei + Viertel-Jahrhunderten_ (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1887; English trans. + edited by Baron H. de Worms); and he also wrote a shorter work, + _Erinnerungen zu Erinnerungen_ (Leipzig, 1881), in answer to attacks + made on him by his former colleague, Herr v. Frieseri, in his + reminiscences. See also Ebeling, _F.F. Graf v. Beust_ (Leipzig, 1876), + a full and careful account of his political career, especially up to + 1866; _Diplomatic Sketches: No. 1, Count Beust_, by Outsider (Baron + Carl v. Malortie); Flathe, _Geschichte van Sachsen_, vol. iii. (Gotha, + 1877); Friesen, _Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben_ (Dresden, 1880). + (J. W. He.) + + + + +BEUTHEN, or NIEDERBEUTHEN, a town of Germany, in the north of Prussian +Silesia, on the Oder, the capital of the mediatized principality of +Carolath-Beuthen. Pop. (1900) 3164. The chief industries of the place +are straw-plaiting, boat-building, and the manufacture of pottery; and a +considerable traffic is carried on by means of the river. + + + + +BEUTHEN, or OBERBEUTHEN, a town of Germany, in the extreme south-east of +Prussian Silesia, on the railway between Breslau and Cracow, 121 m. S.E. +of the former. Pop. (1905) 60,078. It is the centre of the mining +district of Upper Silesia, and its population is mainly engaged in such +operations and in iron and zinc smelting. Beuthen is an old town, and +was formerly the capital of the Bohemian duchy of Beuthen, which in 1620 +was ultimately granted, as a free lordship of the Empire, to Lazarus, +Baron Henckel von Donnersmarck, by the emperor Ferdinand II., and parts +of which, now mediatized, are held by two branches of the counts Henckel +von Donnersmarck. + + + + +BEVEL (from an O. Fr. word, cf. mod. _biveau_, a joiner's instrument), +the inclination of one surface of a solid body to another; also, any +angle other than a right angle, and particularly, in joinery, the angle +to which a piece of timber has to be cut. The mechanic's instrument +known as a bevel consists of a rule with two arms so jointed as to be +adjustable to any angle. In heraldry, a bevel is an angular break in a +line. Bevelment, as a term of crystallography, means the replacement of +an edge of a crystal by two planes equally inclined to the adjacent +planes. As an architectural term "bevel" is a sloped or canted edge +given to a sill or horizontal course of stone, but is more frequently +applied to the canted edges worked round the projecting bands of masonry +which for decorative purposes are employed on the quoins of walls or +windows and in some cases, with vertical joints, cover the whole wall. +When the outer face of the stone band is left rough so that it forms +what is known as rusticated masonry, the description would be bevelled +and rusticated. The term is sometimes applied to the splaying of the +edges of a window on the outside, but the wide expansion made inside in +order to admit more light is known as a splay. + + + + +BEVERLEY, WILLIAM ROXBY (1814?-1889), English artist and scene-painter, +was born at Richmond, Surrey, about 1814, the son of William Roxby, an +actor-manager who had assumed the name of Beverley. His four brothers +and his sister all entered the theatrical profession, and Beverley soon +became both actor and scene-painter. In 1831 his father and his brothers +took over the old Durham circuit, and he joined them to play heavy +comedy for several seasons, besides painting scenery. His work was first +seen in 1831 in London, for the pantomime _Baron Munchausen_ at the +Victoria theatre, which was being managed by his brother Henry. He was +appointed scenic director for the Covent Garden operas in 1853. In 1854 +he entered the service of the Drury Lane theatre under the management of +E.T. Smith, and for thirty years continued to produce wonderful scenes +for the pantomimes, besides working for Covent Garden and a number of +other theatres. In 1851 he executed part of a great diorama of Jerusalem +and the Holy Land, and produced dioramic views of the ascent of Mont +Blanc, exhibited at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, and in 1884 a +panorama of the Lakes of Killarney. He was a frequent exhibitor of sea +pictures at the Royal Academy from 1865 to 1880. In 1884 failing +eyesight put an end to his painting. He died in comparative poverty at +Hampstead on the 17th of May 1889. He was the last of the old school of +one surface painters, and famed for the wonderful atmospheric effects he +was able to produce. Although he was skilled in all the mechanical +devices of the stage, and painted in 1881 scenery for _Michael Strogoff_ +at the Adelphi, in which for the first time in England the still life of +the stage was placed in harmony with the background, he was strongly +opposed to the new school of scene-builders. + + + + +BEVERLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the Holderness +parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. +N.N.W. of Hull by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) +13,183. It lies in a level country east of the line of slight elevations +known as the Wolds, near the river Hull, and has communication by canal +with Hull. The church of St John the Evangelist, commonly called +Beverley Minster, is a magnificent building, exceeding in size and +splendour some of the English cathedrals. A monastery was founded here +by John of Beverley (c. 640-721), a native of the East Riding, who was +bishop successively of Hexham and of York, and was canonized in 1037. A +college of secular canons followed in the 10th century, the provostship +of which subsequently became an office of high dignity, and was held by +Thomas Becket, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. Of the existing +building, the easternmost bay of the nave, the transepts with east and +west aisles, the choir with aisles and short transepts, and the Lady +chapel, are Early English, a superb example of the finest development of +that style. The remainder of the nave is Decorated, excepting the +westernmost bay which is Perpendicular, as is the ornate west front with +its graceful flanking towers. The north porch is also a beautiful +example of this style. The most noteworthy details within the church are +the exquisite Early English staircase which led to the chapter house (no +longer remaining), and the Percy tomb, a remarkable example of Decorated +work, commemorating Eleanor, wife of Henry Percy (d. 1328). The church +of St Mary is a cruciform building with central tower, almost entirely +of Decorated and Perpendicular work. Though overshadowed by the presence +of the minster, it is yet a very fine example of its styles, its most +noteworthy features being the tower and the west front. Beverley was +walled, and one gate of the 15th century remains; there are also some +picturesque old houses. The industries are tanning, iron-founding, +brewing and the manufacture of chemicals; and there is a large +agricultural trade. Beverley is the seat of a suffragan bishop in the +diocese of York. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and +18 councillors, and has an area of 2404 acres, including a large extent +of common pasture land. + + Beverley (Beverlac) is said to be on the site of a British settlement. + Evidently a church had existed there before 704, since in that year it + was restored by St John of Beverley, who also founded a monastery + there and was himself buried in the church. In the devastation of the + north of England which followed the Conquest, Beverley is said to have + escaped by a miracle attributed to St John; the Norman leader, while + about to enter and pillage the church, fell from his horse dead, and + the king, thinking this a sign that the town was under the protection + of heaven, exempted it from pillage. From the time of St John of + Beverley until the dissolution of the monasteries, the manor and town + of Beverley belonged to the archbishopric of York, and is said to have + been held under a charter of liberties supposed to have been granted + by King Aethelstan in 925. This charter, besides other privileges, is + said to have granted sanctuary in Beverley, and the "leuga" over which + this privilege extended was afterwards shown to include the whole + town. Confirmations of Aethelstan's charter were granted by Edward the + Confessor and other succeeding kings. In the reign of Henry I., + Thurstan, archbishop of York, gave the burgesses their first charter, + which is one of the earliest granted to any town in England. In it he + granted them the same privileges as the citizens of York, among these + being a gild merchant and freedom from toll throughout the whole of + Yorkshire, with right to take it at all the markets and fairs in their + town except at the three principal fairs, the toll of which belonged + to the archbishop. In 1200 King John granted the town a new charter, + for which the burgesses had to pay 500 marks. Other charters generally + confirming the first were granted to the town by most of the early + kings. The incorporation charter granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1573 + was confirmed by Charles I. in 1629 and Charles II. in 1663, and + renewed by James II. on his accession. Parliamentary representation by + two members began in the reign of Edward I., but lapsed, until the + corporation charter of 1573, from which date it continued until the + Reform Act of 1867. In 1554-1555 Queen Mary granted the three fairs on + the feasts of St John the Confessor, the Translation of St John and + the Nativity of St John the Baptist, together with the weekly markets + on Wednesday and Saturday, which had been held by the archbishops of + York by traditional grant of Edward the Confessor to the burgesses of + the town. Cloth-weaving was one of the chief industries of Beverley; + it is mentioned and appears to have been important as early as 1315. + + See _Victoria County History--Yorkshire_; G. Poulson, _Beverlac; + Antiquities and History of Beverley and of the Provostry, &c., of St + John's_ (2 vols., 1829); G. Oliver, D.D., _History and Antiquities of + Beverley, &c_. (1829). + + + + +BEVERLY, a seaboard city of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., +situated on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay, opposite Salem. It is 18 +m. from Boston on the Boston & Maine railway. Pop. (1890) 10,821; (1900) +13,884, of whom 2814 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 18,650. The land +area of the city is about 15 sq. m. The surface is the typical glacial +topography, with a few low, rocky hills, less than 100 ft. in height. +There are beautiful drives through well-wooded districts, studded with +handsome summer houses. In the city are a public library, the Beverly +hospital, the New England industrial school for deaf mutes (organized, +1876; incorporated, 1870), and the Beverly historical society (1891), +which owns a large colonial house, in which there is a valuable +historical collection. The city has an excellent public school system. +There are a number of manufacturing establishments; in 1905 the total +factory product of the city was valued at $4,101,168, boots and shoes +accounting for more than one-half of the total. Leather and shoe +machinery also are important manufactures; and the main plant of the +United Shoe Machinery Corporation is located here. Market gardening is a +considerable industry, and large quantities of vegetables are raised +under glass for the Boston markets. Fishing is an industry no longer of +much importance. Beverly is connected by a regular line of oil-steamers +with Port Arthur, Texas, and is the main distributing point for the +Texas oil fields. The first settlement within the limits of Beverly was +made by Roger Conant in 1626. The town was a part of Salem until 1668, +when it was incorporated as a separate township; in 1894 it was +chartered as a city. In 1788 there was established here the first cotton +mill to be successfully operated in the United States. The manufacture +of Britannia ware was begun in 1812. George Cabot lived for many years +in Beverly, which he represented in the provincial congress (1779); +Nathan Dane (1752-1835) was also a resident; and it was the birthplace +of Wilson Flagg (1805-1884), the author of _Studies in the Field and +Forest_ (1857), _The Woods and By-Ways of New England_ (1872), _The +Birds and Seasons of New England_ (1875), and _A Year with the Birds_ +(1881). It was also the birthplace and early home of Lucy Larcom +(1826-1893), and the scene of much of her _Story of a New England +Girlhood_ (Boston, 1889). + + + + +BEVIS OF HAMPTON, the name of an English metrical romance. Bevis is the +son of Guy, count of Hampton (Southampton) and his young wife, a +daughter of the king of Scotland. The countess asks a former suitor, +Doon or Devoun, emperor of Almaine (Germany), to send an army to murder +Guy in the forest. The plot is successful, and she marries Doon. When +threatened with future vengeance by her ten-year-old son, she determines +to make away with him also, but he is saved from death by a faithful +tutor, is sold to heathen pirates, and reaches the court of King Hermin, +whose realm is variously placed in Egypt and Armenia (Armorica). The +exploits of Bevis, his love for the king's daughter Josiane, his mission +to King Bradmond of Damascus with a sealed letter demanding his own +death, his imprisonment, his final vengeance on his stepfather are +related in detail. After succeeding to his inheritance he is, however, +driven into exile and separated from Josiane, to whom he is reunited +only after each of them has contracted, in form only, a second union. +The story also relates the hero's death and the fortunes of his two +sons. + +The oldest extant version appears to be _Boeve de Haumtone_, an +Anglo-Norman text which dates from the first half of the 13th century. +The English metrical romance, _Sir Beues of Hamtoun_, is founded on some +French original varying slightly from those which have been preserved. +The oldest MS. dates from the beginning of the 14th century. The French +_chanson de geste_, _Beuve d'Hanstone_, was followed by numerous prose +versions. The printed editions of the story were most numerous in Italy, +where _Bovo d'Antona_ was the subject of more than one poem, and the +tale was interpolated in the _Reali di Francia_, the Italian compilation +of Carolingian legend. Although the English version that we possess is +based on a French original, it seems probable that the legend took shape +on English soil in the 10th century, and that it originated with the +Danish invaders. Doon may be identified with the emperor Otto the Great, +who was the contemporary of the English king Edgar of the story. R. +Zenker (_Boeve-Amlethus_, Berlin and Leipzig, 1904) establishes a close +parallel between Bevis and the Hamlet legend as related by Saxo +Grammaticus in the _Historia Danica_. Among the more obvious +coincidences which point to a common source are the vengeance taken on a +stepfather for a father's death, the letter bearing his own +death-warrant which is entrusted to the hero, and his double +marriage.[1] The motive of the feigned madness is, however, lacking in +Bevis. The princess who is Josiane's rival is less ferocious than the +Hermuthruda of the Hamlet legend, but she threatens Bevis with death if +he refuses her. Both seem to be modelled on the type of Thyrdo of the +Beowulf legend. A fanciful etymology connecting Bevis (Boeve) with Beowa +(Beowulf), on the ground that both were dragon slayers, is inadmissible. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_The Romance of Sir Beues of Hamtoun_, edited from six + MSS. and the edition (without date) of Richard Pynson, by E. Kolbing + (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1885-1886-1894); A. Stimming, "Der + anglonormannische Boeve de Haumtone," in H. Suchier's _Bibl. Norm_. + vol. vii. (Halle, 1899); the Welsh version, with a translation, is + given by R. Williams, _Selections of the Hengwrt MSS_. (vol. ii., + London, 1892); the old Norse version by G. Cederschiold, _Fornsogur + Sudhrlanda_ (Lund, 1884); A. Wesselofsky, "Zum russischen Bovo + d'Antona" (in _Archiv fur slav. Phil_. vol. viii., 1885); for the + early printed editions of the romance in English, French and Italian + see G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire_, _s.vv._ Bevis, Beufues and Buovo. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On double marriage in early romance see G. Paris, "La Legende du + mari aux deux femmes," in _La Poesie du moyen age_ (2nd series, + Paris, 1895); and A. Nutt, "The Lai of Eliduc," &c, in _Folk-Lore_, + vol. iii. (1892). + + + + +BEWDLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the Bewdley +parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England; 137 m. N.W. by W. +from London and 17-1/4 N. by W. from Worcester by rail. Pop. (1901) +2866. The Worcester-Shrewsbury line of the Great Western is here joined +by lines east from Birmingham and west from Tenbury. Bewdley is +pleasantly situated on the sloping right bank of the Severn, on the +eastern border of the forest of Wyre. A bridge by Telford (1797) crosses +the river. A free grammar school, founded in 1591, was re-founded by +James I. in 1606, and possesses a large library bequeathed in 1812. The +town manufactures combs and horn goods, brass and iron wares, leather, +malt, bricks and ropes. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and +12 councillors. Area, 2105 acres. + + Bewdley (i.e. Beaulieu) is probably referred to in the Domesday survey + as "another Ribbesford," and was held by the king. The manor, then + called _Bellus Locus_ or Beaulieu on account of its beautiful + situation, was afterwards granted to the Mortimers, in whose family it + continued until it was merged in the crown on the accession of Edward + IV. It is from this time that Bewdley dates its importance. Through + its situation on the Severn it was connected with the sea, and in 1250 + a bridge, the only one between it and Worcester, was built across the + river and added greatly to the commerce of the town. From Edward IV. + Bewdley received its charter in 1472, and there appears to be no + evidence that it was a borough before this time. Other charters were + granted in 1605, 1685 and 1708. By James I.'s charter the burgesses + sent one member to parliament, and continued to do so until 1885. A + fair and a market on Wednesday were granted by Edward III. in 1373 to + his grand-daughter Philippa, wife of Edmund Mortimer, and confirmed to + Richard, duke of York, by Henry VI. Edward IV. also granted the + burgesses a market on Saturdays, and three fairs, which were confirmed + to them by Henry VII. Coal-mines were worked in Bewdley as early as + 1669, and the town was formerly noted for making caps. + + + + +BEWICK, THOMAS (1753-1828), English wood-engraver, was born at +Cherryburn, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, in August 1753. His father rented a +small colliery at Mickleybank, and sent his son to school at Mickley. He +proved a poor scholar, but showed, at a very early age, a remarkable +talent for drawing. He had no tuition in the art, and no models save +natural objects. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to Mr Beilby, +an engraver in Newcastle. In his office Bewick engraved on wood for Dr +Hutton a series of diagrams illustrating a treatise on mensuration. He +seems thereafter to have devoted himself entirely to engraving on wood, +and in 1775 he received a premium from the Society for the Encouragement +of Arts and Manufactures for a woodcut of the "Huntsman and the Old +Hound." In 1784 appeared his _Select Fables_, the engravings in which, +though far surpassed by his later productions, were incomparably +superior to anything that had yet been done in that line. The +_Quadrupeds_ appeared in 1790, and his great achievement, that with +which his name is inseparably associated, the _British Birds_, was +published from 1797-1804. Bewick, from his intimate knowledge of the +habits of animals acquired during his constant excursions into the +country, was thoroughly qualified to do justice to his great task. Of +his other productions the engravings for Goldsmith's _Traveller_ and +_Deserted Village_, for Parnell's _Hermit_, for Somerville's _Chase_, +and for the collection of _Fables of Aesop and Others_, may be specially +mentioned. Bewick was for many years in partnership with his former +master, and in later life had numerous pupils, several of whom gained +distinction as engravers. He died on the 8th of November 1828. + + His autobiography, _Memoirs of Thomas Bewick, by Himself_, appeared in + 1862. + + + + +BEXHILL, a municipal borough and watering-place in the Rye parliamentary +division of Sussex, England, 62 m. S.E. by S. from London, on the +London, Brighton & South Coast, and the South-Eastern & Chatham +railways. Pop. (1891) 5206; (1901) 12,213. The ancient village, with the +Norman and Early English church of St Peter, lies inland on the slope of +the low hills fringing the coast, but the watering-place on the shore +has developed very rapidly since about 1884, owing to the exertions of +Earl De la Warr, who owns most of the property. It has a marine parade, +pier, golf links, and the usual appointments of a seaside resort, while +the climate is bracing and the neighbouring country pleasant. Bexhill +was incorporated in 1902, the corporation consisting of a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8013 acres. + + + + +BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART, BARON (1766-1851), English politician, was +the fifth son of Henry Vansittart (d. 1770), governor of Bengal, and was +born in London on the 29th of April 1766. Educated at Christ Church, +Oxford, he took his degree in 1787, and was called to the bar at +Lincoln's Inn in 1791. He began his public career by writing pamphlets +in defence of the administration of William Pitt, especially on its +financial side, and in May 1796 became member of parliament for +Hastings, retaining his seat until July 1802, when he was returned for +Old Sarum. In February 1801 he was sent on a diplomatic errand to +Copenhagen, and shortly after his return was appointed joint secretary +to the treasury, a position which he retained until the resignation of +Addington's ministry in April 1804. Owing to the influence of his +friend, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, he became secretary for Ireland +under Pitt in January 1805, resigning his office in the following +September. With Addington, now Viscount Sidmouth, he joined the +government of Fox and Grenville as secretary to the treasury in February +1806, leaving office with Sidmouth just before the fall of the ministry +in March 1807. During these and the next few years Vansittart's +reputation as a financier was gradually rising. In 1809 he proposed and +carried without opposition in the House of Commons thirty-eight +resolutions on financial questions, and only his loyalty to Sidmouth +prevented him from joining the cabinet of Spencer Perceval as chancellor +of the exchequer in October 1809. He opposed an early resumption of cash +payments in 1811, and became chancellor of the exchequer when the earl +of Liverpool succeeded Perceval in May 1812. Having forsaken Old Sarum, +he had represented Helston from November 1806 to June 1812; and after +being member for East Grinstead for a few weeks, was returned for +Harwich in October 1812. + +When Vansittart became chancellor of the exchequer the country was +burdened with heavy taxation and an enormous debt. Nevertheless, the +continuance of the war compelled him to increase the custom duties and +other taxes, and in 1813 he introduced a complicated scheme for dealing +with the sinking fund. In 1816, after the conclusion of peace, a large +decrease in taxation was generally desired, and there was a loud outcry +when the chancellor proposed only to reduce, not to abolish, the +property or income tax. The abolition of this tax, however, was carried +in parliament, and Vansittart was also obliged to remit the extra tax on +malt, meeting a large deficiency principally by borrowing. He devoted +considerable attention to effecting real or supposed economies with +regard to the national debt. He carried an elaborate scheme for handing +over the payment of naval and military pensions to contractors, who +would be paid a fixed annual sum for forty-five years; but no one was +found willing to undertake this contract, although a modified plan on +the same lines was afterwards adopted. Vansittart became very unpopular +in the country, and he resigned his office in December 1822. His system +of finance was severely criticized by Huskisson, Tierney, Brougham, Hume +and Ricardo. On his resignation Liverpool offered Vansittart the post of +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Accepting this offer in February +1823, he was created Baron Bexley in March, and granted a pension of +L3000 a year. He resigned in January 1828. In the House of Lords Bexley +took very little part in public business, although he introduced the +Spitalfields weavers bill in 1823, and voted for the removal of Roman +Catholic disabilities in 1824. He took a good deal of interest in the +British and Foreign Bible Mission, the Church Missionary Society and +kindred bodies, and assisted to found King's College, London. He died at +Foot's Cray, Kent, on the 8th of February 1851. His wife, whom he +married in July 1806, was Isabella (d. 1810), daughter of William Eden, +1st Baron Auckland, and as he had no issue the title became extinct on +his death. There are nine volumes of Vansittart's papers in the British +Museum. + + See Spencer Walpole, _History of England_ (London, 1890); S.C. Buxton, + _Finance and Politics_ (London, 1888). + + + + +BEXLEY, an urban district in the Dartford parliamentary division of +Kent, England, 12 m. S.E. by E. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham +railway. Pop. (1901) 12,918. Bexley, which is mentioned in Domesday +Book, has had a church since the 9th century. The present church of St +Mary is Early English and later. With the rental of the manor of Bexley, +William Camden, the antiquary, founded the ancient history professorship +at Oxford. Hall Place, which contains a fine Jacobean staircase and +oak-panelled hall, is said to occupy the site of the dwelling-place of +the Black Prince. The course of Watling Street may be traced over Bexley +Heath, where, too, there exist deep pits, widening into vaults below, +and probably of British origin. + + + + +BEY (a modern Turk, word, the older form being _beg_, cf. Pers. _baig_), +the administrator of a district, now generally an honorific title +throughout the Turkish empire; the granting of this in Egypt is made by +the sultan of Turkey through the khedive. In Tunis "bey" has become the +hereditary title of the reigning sovereigns (see TUNISIA). + + + + +BEYBAZAR, the chief town of a _kaza_ of the Angora vilayet in Asiatic +Turkey, situated on an affluent of the Sakaria (anc. _Sangarius_), about +52 m. W. of Angora. It corresponds to the anc. _Lagania_, renamed +_Anastasiopolis_ under the emperor Anastasius (491-518), a bishopric by +the 5th century. Its well-built wooden houses cover the slopes of three +hills at the mouth of a gorge filled with fruit gardens and vineyards. +The chief products are rice, cotton and fruits. From Beybazar come the +fine pears sold in Constantinople as "Angora pears"; its musk-melons are +equally esteemed; its grapes are used only for a sweetmeat called +_jevizli-sujuk_ ("nutty fruit sausage"). There are few remains of +antiquity apart from numerous rock-cut chambers lining the banks of the +stream. Pop. about 4000 to 5000. + + + + +BEYLE, MARIE HENRI (1783-1842), better known by his _nom de plume_ of +STENDHAL, French author, was born at Grenoble on the 23rd of January +1783. With his father, who was an _avocat_ in the parlement of Grenoble, +he was never on good terms, but his intractable disposition sufficiently +explains his unhappy childhood and youth. Until he was twelve years old +he was educated by a priest, who succeeded in inspiring him with a +lasting hatred of clericalism. He was then sent to the newly established +Ecole Centrale at Grenoble, and in 1799 to Paris with a letter of +introduction to the Daru family, with which the Beyles were connected. +Pierre Daru offered him a place in the ministry for war, and with the +brothers Daru he followed Napoleon to Italy. Most of his time in Italy +was spent at Milan, a city for which he conceived a lasting attachment. +Much of his _Chartreuse de Parme_ seems to be autobiographical of this +part of his life. + +He was a spectator of the battle of Marengo, and afterwards enlisted in +a dragoon regiment. With rapid promotion he became adjutant to General +Michaud; but after the peace of Amiens in 1802 he returned to study in +Paris. There he met an actress, Melanie Guilbert, whom he followed to +Marseilles. His father cut off his supplies on hearing of this escapade, +and Beyle was reduced to serving as clerk to a grocer. Melanie Guilbert, +however, soon abandoned him to marry a Russian, and Beyle returned to +Paris. Through the influence of Daru he obtained a place in the +commissariat, which he filled with some distinction from 1806 to 1814. +Charged with raising a levy in Brunswick of five million francs, he +extracted seven; and during the retreat from Moscow he discharged his +duties with efficiency. On the fall of Napoleon he refused to accept a +place under the new regime, and retired to Milan, where he met Silvio +Pellico, Manzoni, Lord Byron and other men of note. At Milan he +contracted a _liaison_ with a certain Angelina P., whom he had admired +fruitlessly during his earlier residence in that city. In 1814 he +published, under the pseudonym of Alexandre Cesar Bombet, his _Lettres +ecrites de Vienne en Aulriche sur le celebre compositeur, Joseph Haydn, +suivies d'une vie de Mozart, et de considerations sur Metastase et +l'etat present de la musique en Italie_. His letters on Haydn were +borrowed from the _Haydini_ (1812) of Joseph Carpani, and the section on +Mozart had no greater claim to originality. The book was reprinted +(1817) as _Vies de Haydn, Mozart et Metastase_. His _Histoire de la +peinture en Italic_ (2 vols., 1817) was originally dedicated to +Napoleon. + +His friendship with some Italian patriots brought him in 1821 under the +notice of the Austrian authorities, and he was exiled from Milan. In +Paris he felt himself a stranger, as he had never recognized French +contemporary art in literature, music or painting. He frequented, +however, many literary salons in Paris, and found some friends in the +"_ideologues_" who gathered round Destutt de Tracy. He was the most +closely allied with Prosper Merimee, a _dilettante_ and an ironist like +himself. He published at this time his _Essai sur l'amour_ (1822), of +which only seventeen copies were sold in eleven years, though it +afterwards became famous, _Racine et Shakespeare_ (1823-1825), _Vie de +Rossini_ (1824), _D'un nouveau complot centre les industriels_ (1825), +_Promenades dans Rome_ (1829), and his first novel, _Armance, ou +quelques scenes de Paris en 1827_ (1827). After the Revolution of 1830 +he was appointed consul at Trieste, but the Austrian government refused +to accept him, and he was sent to Civita Vecchia instead. _Le Rouge et +le noir, chronique du XIX^e siecle_ (2 vols., 1830) appeared in Paris +after his departure, but attracted small notice. He had published in +1838 _Memoires d'un touriste_, and in 1839 _La Chartreuse de Parme_ (2 +vols.), which was the last of his publications, and the first to secure +any popular success, though his earlier writings had been regarded as +significant by a limited public. It was enthusiastically reviewed by +Balzac in his _Revue Parisienne_ (1840). Beyle remained at Civita +Vecchia, discharging his duties as consul perfunctorily and with +frequent intervals of absence until his death, which took place in Paris +on the 23rd of March 1842. He wrote his own epitaph,[1] describing +himself as a Milanese. + +His posthumous works include a fragmentary _Vie de Napoleon_ (1875); +_Melanges d'art et de litterature_ (1867); _Chroniques italiennes_ +(1885), including "_L'Abbesse de Castro_," "_Les Cenci_," "_Vittoria +Accoramboni_," "_Vanina Vanini_," "_La Duchesse de Palliano_," some of +which has appeared separately; _Romans et nouvelles_ and _Nouvelles +inedites_ (1855); _Correspondance_ (2 vols., 1855); Lamiel (ed. C. +Stryienski, 1889); his _Journal 1801-1814_ (ed. Stryienski and F. de +Nion, 1888), of which the section dealing with the Russian and German +campaigns is unfortunately lost; _Vie de Henri Brulard_ (1890), a +disguised autobiography, chiefly the history of his numerous love +affairs; _Lettres intimes_ (1892); _Lucien Leuwen_ (ed. J. de Mitty, +1894); _Souvenirs d'egotisme_ (ed. C. Stryienski, 1892), autobiography +and unpublished letters. + +Stendhal's reputation practically rests on the two novels _Le Rouge et +le noir_ and _La Chartreuse de Parme_. In the former of these he +borrowed his plot from events which had actually happened some years +previously. Julien Sorel in the novel is tutor in a noble family and +seduces his pupil's mother. He eventually kills her to avenge a letter +accusing him to the family of his betrothed, Mlle de la Mole. Julien is +a picture of Beyle as he imagined himself to be. The _Chartreuse de +Parme_ has less unity of purpose than _Le Rouge et le noir_. For its +setting the author drew largely on his own experiences. Fabrice's +experiences at Waterloo are his own in the Italian campaign, and the +countess Pietranera is his Milanese Angelina. But of the two novels it +is more picturesque and has been more popular. Stendhal's real vogue +dates from the early sixties, but his importance is essentially +literary. In spite of his egotism and the limitations of his ideas, his +acute analysis of the motives of his personages has appealed to +successive generations of writers, and a great part of the development +of the French novel must be traced to him. Brunetiere has pointed out +(_Manual of French Lit._, Eng. trans., 1898) that Stendhal supplied the +Romanticists with the notion of the interchange of the methods and +effects of poetry, painting and music, and that in his worship of +Napoleon he agreed with their glorification of individual energy. +Stendhal, however, thoroughly disliked the Romanticists, though +Sainte-Beuve acknowledged (_Causeries du lundi_, vol. ix.) that his +books gave ideas. Taine (_Essais de critique et d'histoire_, 1857) found +in him a great psychologist; Zola (_Romanciers naturalistes_, 1881) +actually claimed him as the father of the naturalist school; and Paul +Bourget (_Essais de psychologie contemporaine_, 1883) cited _Le Rouge et +le noir_ as one of the classic novels of analysis. + + The 1846 edition of _La Chartreuse de Parme_ contains a prefatory + notice by R. Colomb, and a reprint of Balzac's article. In addition to + the authorities already mentioned see the essay on Beyle (1850) by + Prosper Merimee; A.A. Paton, _Henry Beyle, a Critical and Biographical + Study_ (1874); Adolphe Paupe, _Histoire des oeuvres de Stendhal_ + (1903); A. Chuquet, _Stendhal-Beyle_ (1902); a review by R. Doumic + (_Revue des deux mondes_, February 1902), deprecating the excessive + attention paid to Beyle's writings; and Edouard Rod, _Stendhal_ (1892) + in the "Grands ecrivains francais" series. See also _Correspondance de + Stendhal, 1800-1842_, with preface by M. Barres (Paris, 1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Qui giace Arrigo Beyle Milanese; visse, scrisse, amo. + + + + +BEYRICH, HEINRICH ERNST VON (1815-1896), German geologist, was born at +Berlin on the 31st of August 1815, and educated at the university in +that city, and afterwards at Bonn, where he studied under Goldfuss and +Noggerath. He obtained his degree of Ph.D. in 1837 at Berlin, and was +subsequently employed in the mineralogical museum of the university, +becoming director of the palaeontological collection in 1857, and +director of the museum in 1875. He was one of the founders of the German +Geological Society in 1848. He early recognized the value of +palaeontology in stratigraphical work; and he made important researches +in the Rhenish mountains, in the Harz and Alpine districts. In later +years he gave special attention to the Tertiary strata, including the +Brown Coal of North Germany. In 1854 he proposed the term Oligocene for +certain Tertiary strata intermediate between the Eocene and Miocene; and +the term is now generally adopted. In 1865 he was appointed professor of +geology and palaeontology in the Berlin University, where he was +eminently successful as a teacher; and when the Prussian Geological +Survey was instituted in 1873 he was appointed co-director with Wilhelm +Hauchecorne (1828-1900). He published _Beitragezur Kenntniss der +Versteinerungen des rheinischen Ubergangs-gebirges_ (1837); _Uber einige +bohmische Trilobiten_ (1845); _Die Conchylien des norddeutschen +Tertiargebirges_ (1853-1857). He died on the 9th of July 1896. + + + + +BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD (1823-1900), German Protestant divine, was born at +Frankfort-on-Main on the 5th of September 1823. He studied theology at +Bonn and Berlin (1840-1844), and in 1856 was appointed court-preacher at +Karlsruhe. In 1860, he moved to Halle as professor ordinarius of +practical theology. A theologian of the mediating school, he became +leader of the _Mittelpartei_, and with Albrecht Wolters founded as its +organ the _Deutschevangelische Blatter_. As a representative of this +party, he took a prominent part in the general synods of 1875 and 1879. +His championship of the rights of the laity and his belief in the +autonomy of the church led him to advocate the separation of church and +state. He died at Halle on the 25th of November 1900. Among his numerous +works are _Die Christologie des Neuen Testaments_ (1866), _Der +Altkatholicismus_ (three editions, 1882-1883), _Leben Jesu_ (2 vols., +1885; 3rd ed., 1893), _Neutestamentliche Theologie_ (2 vols., 1891-1892; +2nd ed., 1896), _Christenlehre auf Grund des kleinen luth. Katechismus_ +(1900), and an autobiography _Aus meinem Leben_ (2 parts, 1896-1898). + + See P. Schaff, _Living Divines_ (1887); Lichtenberger, _Hist. Germ. + Theol._ (1889); Calwer-Zeller, _Kirchenlexikon_. + + + + +BEZA (DE BESZE), THEODORE (1519-1605), French theologian, son of +_bailli_ Pierre de Besze, was born at Vezelai, Burgundy, on the 24th of +June 1519. Of good descent, his parents were known for generous piety. +He owed his education to an uncle, Nicolas de Besze, counsellor of the +Paris parlement, who placed him (1529) under Melchior Wolmar at Orleans, +and later at Bourges. Wolmar, who had taught Greek to Calvin, grounded +Beza in Scripture from a Protestant standpoint; after his return to +Germany (1534) Beza studied law at Orleans (May 1535 to August 1539), +beginning practice in Paris (1539) as law licentiate. To this period +belong his exercises in Latin verse, in the loose taste of the day, +foolishly published by him as _Juvenilia_ in 1548. Though not in orders, +he held two benefices. A severe illness wrought a change; he married his +mistress, Claude Desnoz, and joined the church of Calvin at Geneva +(October 1548). In November 1549 he was appointed Greek professor at +Lausanne, where he acted as Calvin's adjutant in various publications, +including his defence of the burning of Servetus, _De Haereticis a +civili magistratu puniendis_ (1554). In 1558 he became professor in the +Geneva academy, where his career was brilliant. His conspicuous ability +was shown in the abortive Colloquy of Poissy (1561). On Calvin's death +(1564) he became his biographer and administrative successor. As a +historian, Beza, by his chronological inexactitude, has been the source +of serious mistakes; as an administrator, he softened the rigour of +Calvin. His editions and Latin versions of the New Testament had a +marked influence on the English versions of Geneva (1557 and 1560) and +London (1611). The famous codex D. was presented by him (1581) to +Cambridge University, with a characteristically dubious account of the +history of the manuscript. His works are very numerous, but of little +moment, except those already mentioned. He resigned his offices in 1600, +and died on the 13th of October 1605. He had taken a second wife (1588), +Catherine del Piano, a widow, but left no issue. He was not the author +of the _Histoire ecclesiastique_ (1580), sometimes ascribed to him; +nor, probably, of the vulgar skit published under the name of Benedict +Panavantius (1551). + + See Laingaeus, _De Vita et Moribus_ (1585, calumnious); Antoine la + Faye, _De Vita et Obitu_ (1606, eulogistic); Schlosser, _Leben_ + (1806); Baum, _Th. Beza_, portrait (1843-1851); Heppe, _Leben_ (1861). + (A. Go.*) + + + + +BEZANT or BYZANT (from Byzantium, the modern Constantinople), originally +a Byzantine gold coin which had a wide circulation throughout Europe up +to about 1250. Its average value was about nine shillings. Bezants were +also issued in Flanders and Spain. Silver bezants, in value from one to +two shillings, were in circulation in England in the 13th and 14th +centuries. In Wycliffe's translation of the Bible he uses the word for a +"talent" (e.g. in Luke xv. 8). In heraldry, bezants are represented by +gold circles on the shield, and were introduced by the crusaders. + + + + +BEZANTEE, in architecture, a name given to an ornamented moulding much +used in the Norman period, resembling the coins (bezants) struck in +Byzantium. + + + + +BEZBORODKO, ALEKSANDER ANDREEVICH, PRINCE (1747-1799), grand chancellor +of Russia, was born at Gluchova on the 14th of March 1747, and educated +at home and in the clerical academy at Kiev. He entered the public +service as a clerk in the office of Count P.A. Rumyantsev, then +governor-general of Little Russia, whom he accompanied to the Turkish +War in 1768. He was present at the engagements of Larga and Kaluga, and +at the storming of Silistria. On the conclusion of the peace of +Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) the field marshal recommended him to Catharine +II., and she appointed him in 1775 her petition-secretary. He thus had +the opportunity of impressing the empress with his brilliant gifts, the +most remarkable of which were exquisite manners, a marvellous memory and +a clear and pregnant style. At the same time he set to work to acquire +the principal European languages, especially French, of which he became +a master. It was at this time that he wrote his historical sketches of +the Tatar wars and of Little Russia. + +His activity was prodigious, and Catharine called him her factotum. In +1780 he accompanied her on her journey through White Russia, meeting the +emperor Joseph, who urged him to study diplomacy. On his return from a +delicate mission to Copenhagen, he presented to the empress "a memorial +on political affairs" which comprised the first plan of a partition of +Turkey between Russia and Austria. This document was transmitted almost +word for word to Vienna as the Russian proposals. He followed this up by +_Epitomised Historical Information concerning Moldavia_. For these two +state papers he was rewarded with the posts of "plenipotentiary for all +negotiations" in the foreign office and postmaster-general. From this +time he was inseparably associated with Catharine in all important +diplomatic affairs, though officially he was the subordinate of the +vice-chancellor, Count Alexander Osterman. He wrote all the most +important despatches to the Russian ministers abroad, concluded and +subscribed all treaties, and performed all the functions of a secretary +of state. He identified himself entirely with Catharine's political +ideas, even with that of re-establishing the Greek empire under her +grandson Constantine. The empress, as usual, richly rewarded her _comes_ +with pensions and principalities. In 1786 he was promoted to the senate, +and it was through him that the empress communicated her will to that +august state-decoration. In 1787 he accompanied Catharine on her +triumphal progress through South Russia in the capacity of minister of +foreign affairs. At Kaniev he conducted the negotiations with the Polish +king, Stanislaus II., and at Novuiya Kaidaniya he was in the empress's +carriage when she received Joseph II. + +The second Turkish War (1787-92) and the war with Gustavus III. +(1788-90) heaped fresh burdens on his already heavily laden shoulders, +and he suffered from the intrigues of his numerous jealous rivals, +including the empress's latest favourite, A.M. Mamonov. All his efforts +were directed towards the conclusion of the two oppressive wars by an +honourable peace. The pause of Verela with Gustavus III. (14th of August +1790) was on the terms dictated by him. On the sudden death of Potemkin +he was despatched to Jassy to prevent the peace congress there from +breaking up, and succeeded, in the face of all but insuperable +difficulties, in concluding a treaty exceedingly advantageous to Russia +(9th of January 1792). For this service he received the thanks of the +empress, the ribbon of St Andrew and 50,000 roubles. On his return from +Jassy, however, he found his confidential post of secretary of petitions +occupied by the empress's last favourite, P.A. Zubov. He complained of +this "diminution of his dignity" to the empress in a private memorial in +the course of 1793. The empress reassured him by fresh honours and +distinctions on the occasion of the solemn celebration of the peace of +Jassy (2nd of September 1793), when she publicly presented him with a +golden olive-branch encrusted with brilliants. Subsequently Catharine +reconciled him with Zubov, and he resumed the conduct of foreign +affairs. He contributed more than any other man to bring about the +downfall and the third partition of Poland, for which he was +magnificently recompensed. But diplomacy by no means exhausted +Bezborodko's capacity for work. He had a large share in the internal +administration also. He reformed the post-office, improved the banking +system of Russia, regulated the finances, constructed roads, and united +the Uniate and Orthodox churches. + +On the death of Catharine, the emperor Paul entrusted Bezborodko with +the examination of the late empress's private papers, and shortly +afterwards made him a prince of the Russian empire, with a +correspondingly splendid apanage. On the retirement of Osterman he +received the highest dignity in the Russian empire--that of imperial +chancellor. Bezborodko was the only Russian minister who retained the +favour of Paul to the last. During the last two years of his life the +control of Russia's diplomacy was entirely in his hands. His programme +at this period was peace with all the European powers, revolutionary +France included. But the emperor's growing aversion from this pacific +policy induced the astute old minister to attempt to "seek safety in +moral and physical repose." Paul, however, refused to accept his +resignation and would have sent him abroad for the benefit of his +health, had not a sudden stroke of paralysis prevented Bezborodko from +taking advantage of his master's kindness. He died at St Petersburg on +the 6th of April 1799. In private life Bezborodko was a typical +Catharinian, corrupt, licentious, conscienceless and self-seeking. But +he was infinitely generous and affectionate, and spent his enormous +fortune liberally. His banquets were magnificent, his collections of +pictures and statues unique in Europe. He was the best friend of his +innumerable poor relatives, and the Maecenas of all the struggling +authors of his day. Sycophantic he might have been, but he was neither +ungrateful nor vindictive. His patriotism is as indisputable as his +genius. + + See _Sbornik_ (Collections) of the _Imperial Russian Historical + Society_ (Fr. and Russ.), vols. 60-100 (St Petersburg, 1870-1904); + Nikolai Ivanovich Grigorovich, _The Chancellor A.A. Bezborodko in + Connexion with the Events of His Time_ (Rus., St Petersburg, + 1879-1881). (R. N. B.) + + + + +BEZEL (from an O. Fr. word, cf. Mod. Fr. _biseau_, _basile_, possibly +connected with Lat. _bis_, twice), a sloping edge, as of a cutting tool, +also known as basil. In jewelry, the term is used for the oblique sides +or faces of a gem; the rim which secures the crystal of a watch in +position or a jewel in its setting, and particularly the enlarged part +of a ring on which the device is engraved (see RING). + + + + +BEZIERS, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Herault, 47 m. S.W. of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906) +46,262. Beziers is situated in a wine-growing district on a hill on the +left bank of the river Orb, which is joined at this point by the Canal +du Midi. The Allees Paul Riquet, named after the creator of the canal, +occupy the centre of Beziers and divide the old town with its maze of +narrow and irregular streets from the new quarter to the east. They form +a long and shady promenade, terminating at one end in the Place de la +Republique and the theatre, the front of which is decorated with +bas-reliefs by David d'Angers, and at the other in a beautiful park, +the Plateau des Poetes. The most interesting portion of the town is the +extreme west where the old ramparts overlook the Orb. Above them towers +St Nazaire, the finest of the churches of Beziers; it dates from the +12th to the 14th centuries and is a good specimen of the ecclesiastical +fortification common in southern France. Its chief artistic features are +the rose window in the western facade, and the stained glass and curious +iron grilles of the choir-windows, which belong to the 14th century. +Adjoining the south transept there are Gothic cloisters of the 14th +century. The Orb is crossed by four bridges, the railway bridge, an +ancient bridge of the 13th or 14th century, a modern bridge and the fine +aqueduct by which the Canal du Midi is carried over the river. About +half a mile to the south-west of the town are the locks of Fonserannes, +in which in 330 yds. the water of the canal descends 80 ft. to reach the +level of the Orb. There are remains of a Roman arena which have been +built into the houses of the rue St Jacques. Beziers is seat of a +sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, +communal colleges and several learned societies. It is an agricultural +market and carries on an active trade in wine, brandy, fruit, leather +and sulphur. Its industries are chiefly connected with the wine trade +(cask and cork making, &c.) and there are important distilleries. It +also has iron-works and tanneries. + +The Romans established a colony at Beziers, and it was the headquarters +of the seventh legion, under the title of _Baeterrae Septimanorum_. The +present name occurs in the form _Besara_ as early as Festus Avienus +(later 4th century). The town was completely destroyed in 1209 by the +forces of Simon de Montfort in the crusade against the Albigenses, on +which occasion 20,000 persons were massacred. The walls were rebuilt in +1289; but the town again suffered severely in the civil and religious +wars of the 16th century, and all its fortifications were destroyed in +1632. + + + + +BEZIQUE (probably from Span. _besico_, little kiss, in allusion to the +meeting of the queen and knave, an important feature in the game), a +game at cards played with two similar packs from which the twos, threes, +fours, fives and sixes have been rejected, shuffled together and used as +one. It is modelled on a group of card games which possess many features +in common; the oldest of these is _mariage_, then follow _brusquembille, +l'homme de brou, briscan_ or _brisque_, and _cinq-cents_. Bezique (also +called _besi_ and _besigue_) is, in fact, _brisque_ played with a double +pack, and with certain modifications rendered necessary by the +introduction of additional cards. The cards rank as follows:--Ace, ten, +king, queen, knave, nine, eight, seven. + +The usual game is for two players. The players cut for deal, and the +higher bezique card deals. The objects of the play are: (1) to promote +in the hand various combinations of cards, which, when declared, entitle +the holder to certain scores; (2) to win aces and tens, known as +"brisques"; (3) to win the so-called last trick. The dealer deals eight +cards to each, first three, then two, and again three. The top card of +those remaining (called the "stock") is turned up for trumps. As +sometimes played, the first marriage, or the first sequence, decides the +trump suit; there is then no score for the seven of trumps (see below). +The stock is placed face downwards between the players and slightly +spread. The non-dealer leads any card, and the dealer plays to it, but +need not follow suit, nor win the trick. If he wins the trick by playing +a higher card of the same suit led, or a trump, the lead falls to him. +In case of ties the leader wins. Whoever wins the trick leads to the +next; but before playing again each player takes a card from the stock +and adds it to his hand, the winner of the trick taking the top card. +This alternate playing and drawing a card continues until the stock +(including the trump card or card exchanged for it, which is taken up +last) is exhausted. The tricks remain face upwards on the table, but +must not be searched during the play of the hand. + +The scores are shown as follows:-- + +_Table of Bezique Scores._ + + _Seven of trumps_, turned up, dealer marks 10 + _Seven of trumps_, declared (see below) or exchanged, player + marks 10 + _Marriage_ (king and queen of any suit) declared 20 + _Royal marriage_ (king and queen of trumps) declared 40 + _Bezique_ (queen of spades and knave of diamonds) declared 40 + _Double bezique_ (all the four bezique cards) declared 500 + _Four aces_ (any four, whether duplicates or not) declared 100 + _Four kings_ (any four) declared 80 + _Four queens_ (any four) declared 60 + _Four knaves_ (any four) declared 40 + _Sequence_ (ace, ten, king, queen, knave of trumps) declared 250 + _Aces and tens_, in tricks, the winner for each one marks 10 + _Last trick_ of all (as sometimes _played_, the last + trick before the stock is exhausted) the winner marks 10 + +A "declaration" can only be made by the winner of a trick immediately +after he has won it, and before he draws from the stock. It is effected +by placing the declared cards (one of which at least must not have been +declared before) face upwards on the table, where they are left, unless +they are played, as they may be. A player is not bound to declare. A +card led or played cannot be declared. More than one declaration may be +made at a time, provided no card of one combination forms part of +another that is declared with it. Thus four knaves and a marriage may be +declared at the same time; but a player cannot declare king and queen of +spades and knave of diamonds together to score marriage and bezique. He +must first declare one combination, say bezique; and when he wins +another trick he can score marriage by declaring the king. A declaration +cannot be made of cards that have already all been declared. Thus, if +four knaves (one being a bezique knave) and four queens (one being a +bezique queen) have been declared, the knave and queen already declared +cannot be declared again as bezique. To score all the combinations with +these cards, after the knaves are declared and another trick won, +bezique must next be made, after which, on winning another trick, the +three queens can be added and four queens scored. Lastly, a card once +declared can only be used again in declaring in combinations of a +different class. For example: the bezique queen can be declared in +bezique, marriage and four queens; but having once been declared in +single bezique, she cannot form part of another single bezique. Two +declarations may, in a sense, be made to a trick, but only one can be +scored at the time. Thus with four kings declared, including the king of +spades, bezique can be declared and scored, but the spade marriage +cannot be scored till the holder wins another trick. The correct formula +is "Forty, and 20 to score." The seven of trumps may be either declared +or exchanged for the turn-up after winning a trick, and before drawing. +When exchanged, the turn-up is taken into the player's hand, and the +seven put in its place. The second seven can, of course, be declared. A +seven when declared is not left on the table, but is simply shown. + +The winner of the last trick can declare anything hitherto undeclared in +his hand. After this all declarations cease. The winner of the last +trick takes the last card of the stock, and the loser the turn-up card +(or seven exchanged for it). All cards on the table, that have been +declared and not played, are taken up by their owners. The last eight +tricks are then played, but the second player must follow suit if able, +and must win the trick if able. Finally, each player counts his tricks +for the aces and tens they may contain, unless (as is often done) they +are scored at the time. If a player revokes in the last eight tricks, or +does not win the card led, if able, the last eight tricks belong to his +adversary. The deal then passes on alternately until the game (1000) is +won. If the loser does not make 500, his opponent counts a double game, +or double points, according as they have agreed. The score is best kept +by means of a special bezique-marker. + + _Three- and Four-Handed Bezique._--When three play, three packs are + used together. All play against each other. The player on the left of + the dealer is first dealt to and has the first lead. The rotation of + dealing goes to the left. If double bezique has been scored, and one + pair has been played, a second double bezique may be made with the + third pair and the pair on the table. Triple bezique scores 1500. All + the cards of the triple bezique must be on the table at the same time + and unplayed to a trick. All may be declared together, or a double + bezique may be added to a single one, or a third bezique may be added + to a double bezique already declared. The game is 2000 up. Sometimes + the three players cut, the one who cuts the highest card plays against + the other two in consultation, and continues to do so till the allies + win a game, when the two cut as before to see who shall be the single + player. Only two packs are then used. + + When four play four packs are used. The players may then score + independently or may play as partners. A second double bezique or + triple bezique may be scored as before; to form them the beziques may + be declared from the hand of either partner. A player may declare when + he or his partner takes a trick. In playing the last eight tricks, the + winner of the last trick and the adversary to his left play their + cards against each other, and then the other two similarly play + theirs. Four people may also play in pairs by consultation, only two + packs being then required. + + _Polish Bezique_ (also called "Open Bezique" and "Fildniski") differs + from ordinary bezique in the following particulars. The game is not + less than 2000 up. Whenever a scoring card is played, the winner of + the trick places it face upwards in front of him (the same with both + cards if two scoring cards are played to a trick), forming rows of + aces, kings, queens, knaves and trump tens (called _open_ cards). + Cards of the same denomination are placed overlapping one another + lengthwise from the player towards his adversary to economise space. + When a scoring card is placed among the open cards, all the sevens, + eights, nines, and plain suit tens in the tricks are turned down and + put on one side. Open cards cannot be played a second time, and can + only be used in declaring. Whether so used or not they remain face + upwards on the table until the end of the hand, including the last + eight tricks. A player can declare after winning a trick and before + drawing again, when the trick won contains a card or cards, which + added to his open cards complete any combination that scores. Every + declaration must include a card played to the trick last won. Aces and + tens must be scored as soon as won, and not at the end of the hand. + The seven of trumps can be exchanged by the winner of the trick + containing it; and if the turn-up card is one that can be used in + declaring, it becomes an open card when exchanged. The seven of trumps + when not exchanged is scored for by the player winning the trick + containing it. + + Compound declarations are allowed, i.e. cards added to the open cards + can at once be used, without waiting to win another trick, in as many + combinations of different classes as they will form with the winner's + open cards. For example: A has three open kings, and he wins a trick + containing a king. Before drawing again he places the fourth king with + the other three, and scores 80 for kings. This is a simple + declaration. But suppose the card led was the queen of trumps, and A + wins it with the king, and he has the following open cards--three + kings, three queens, and ace, ten, knave of trumps. He at once + declares royal marriage (40); four kings (80); four queens (60); and + sequence (250); and scores in all, 430. Again: ace of spades is turned + up, and ace of hearts is led. The second player has two open aces, and + wins the ace of hearts with the seven of trumps and exchanges. He + scores for the exchange, 10; for the ace of hearts, 10; for the ace of + spades, 10; and adds the aces to his open cards, and scores 100 for + aces; in all, 130. If a declaration or part of a compound declaration + is omitted, and the winner of the trick draws again, he cannot amend + his score. + + The ordinary rule holds that a second declaration cannot be made of a + card already declared in the same class. Thus: a queen once married, + cannot be married again; a fifth king added to four already declared + does not entitle to another score for kings. The fundamental point to + be borne in mind is, that no declaration can be effected by means of + cards held in the hand. Thus: A having three open queens and a queen + in hand cannot add it to his open cards. He must win another trick + containing a queen, when he can declare queens. Declarations continue + during the play of the last eight tricks just the same as during the + play of the other cards. + + _Rubicon Bezique._--Four packs are used. Nine cards are dealt by three + to each player. The rules of Polish bezique hold good in regard to + dealing, leading, playing to lead, drawing and declaring; but a player + who receives a hand containing no picture-card (king, queen, or knave) + scores 50 for _carte blanche_, which he shows. If he does not draw a + picture-card, he can again score for _carte blanche_. The trump suit + is decided by the first sequence or marriage declared. As four packs + are used, triple and quadruple bezique may be made. Triple bezique + counts 1500, quadruple 4500. Tricks are left face upwards till a + _brisque_ (ace or ten) is played, when the winner takes all the played + cards and puts them in a heap; their only value is the value of the + _brisques_, which are only counted when the scores are very close; + then they are used to decide the game. They may be counted during the + play, provided there are not more than twelve cards in the stock. + Declarations can only be made after winning a trick and before + drawing. In addition to the ordinary bezique declarations, sequence, + counting 150, can be made in plain suits. Declared cards, except + _carte blanche_, remain on the table. If the holder of _carte blanche_ + hold four aces and wins the first trick, he can declare his aces. With + the exceptions already made, the scores for declarations are the same + as at ordinary bezique. Declaration is not compulsory. Cards led or + played cannot be declared. There are three classes of declarations, + their order being (1) marriage and sequence, (2) bezique, (3) fours. A + card once declared can be used for a second declaration, but only in + an equal or superior class. If a card of a declared combination be + played to a trick, another card of the same rank may be used to form a + second similar combination; e.g. if aces be declared and one of them + be played by the playing of a fifth ace, aces can be declared again. + If a player has a chance of a double declaration he can declare both, + but can only score one at the time. As in other variations of bezique + he announces, say, "forty, and twenty to score." He should repeat, + "Twenty to score," after every trick, until he can legally score it, + but if he plays a card of the combination he cannot score the points. + To the last nine tricks, after the stock is exhausted, the second + player must follow suit and win the trick by trumping or over-playing, + if he can. The winner of the odd trick scores 50. The game consists of + one deal. In reckoning the score all fractions of 100 are neglected; + the winner scores 500 for game in addition to the difference between + his own points and his opponent's. The loser is "rubiconed" if he does + not score 1000 points, in which case the winner adds the loser's + points to his own, takes 300 for _brisques_ and 1000 for game, but the + loser may claim his _brisques_ to save a rubicon, though they are not + reckoned among his points. If a rubiconed player has scored less than + 100 the opponent counts the score as 100. + + + + +BEZWADA, a town of British India, in the Kistna district of Madras, on +the left bank of the river Kistna, at the head of its delta. Pop. (1901) +24,224. Here are the headquarters of the Kistna canal system, which +irrigates more than 500,000 acres, and also provides navigation +throughout the delta. The anicut or dam at Bezwada, begun in 1852, +consists of a mass of rubble, fronted with masonry, 1240 yds. long. Here +also is the central junction of the East Coast railway from Madras to +Calcutta, 267 m. from Madras, where one branch line comes down from the +Warangal coalfield in the Nizam's Dominions, and another from Bellary on +the Southern Mahratta line. Ancient cuttings on the hills west of +Bezwada have been held by some to mark the site of a Buddhist monastery; +by others they are considered to have been quarries. At Undavalle to the +south are some noted cave-shrines. + + + + +BHAGALPUR, a city of British India, in the Behar province of Bengal, +which gives its name to a district and to a division; situated on the +right bank of the Ganges, 265 m. from Calcutta. It is a station on the +East Indian railway. Pop. (1901) 75,760, showing an increase of 9% in +the decade. The chief educational institution is the Tejnarayan Jubilee +college (1887), supported almost entirely by fees. Adjacent to the town +are the two Augustus Cleveland monuments, one erected by government, and +the other by the Hindus, to the memory of the civilian, who, as +collector of Bhagalpur at the end of the 18th century, "by conciliation, +confidence and benevolence, attempted and accomplished the entire +subjection of the lawless and savage inhabitants of the Jungleterry of +Rajmahal." + +The DISTRICT OF BHAGALPUR stretches across both banks of the Ganges. It +has an area of 4226 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 2,088,953, showing +an increase of 3% in the decade. Bhagalpur is a long and narrow +district, divided into two unequal parts by the river Ganges. In the +southern portion of the district the scenery in parts of the hill-ranges +and the highlands which connect them is very beautiful. The hills are of +primary formation, with fine masses of contorted gneiss. The ground is +broken up into picturesque gorges and deep ravines, and the whole is +covered with fine forest trees and a rich undergrowth. Within this +portion also lie the lowlands of Bhagalpur, fertile, well planted, well +watered, and highly cultivated. The country north of the Ganges is +level, but beautifully diversified with trees and verdure. Three fine +rivers flow through the district-the Ganges, Kusi and Ghagri. The Ganges +runs a course of 60 m. through Bhagalpur, is navigable all the year +round, and has an average width of 3 m. The Kusi rises in the Himalayas +and falls into the Ganges near Colgong within Bhagalpur. It is a fine +stream, navigable up to the foot of the hills, and receives the Ghagri 8 +m. above its debouchure. + +In the early days of British administration the hill people, the Nats +and Santals, gave much trouble. They were the original inhabitants of +the country whom the Aryan conquerors had driven back into the barren +hills and unhealthy forests. This they avenged from generation to +generation by plundering and ravaging the plains. The efforts to subdue +or restrain these marauders proved fruitless, till Augustus Cleveland +won them by mild measures, and successfully made over the protection of +the district to the very hill people who a few years before had been +its scourge. Rice, wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, various kinds of +millet, pulses, oil-seeds, tobacco, cotton, indigo, opium, flax and hemp +and sugar-cane, are the principal agricultural products of Bhagalpur +district. The jungles afford good pasturage in the hot weather, and +abound in lac, silk cocoons, catechu, resin and the _mahua_ fruit, which +is both used as fruit and for the manufacture of spirits. Lead ores +(chiefly argentiferous galena) and building stone are found, and iron +ore is distributed over the hilly country. Attempts made to work the +galena in 1878-79 and 1900 were abandoned, and the iron ore is little +worked. Gold is washed from the river sand in small particles. + +The climate of Bhagalpur partakes of the character both of the deltaic +districts of Bengal and of the districts of Behar, between which it is +situated. The hot season sets in about the end of March, and continues +till the beginning of June, the temperature at this time rising as high +as 110 deg. Fahr. The rains usually begin at the end of June and last +till the middle of September; average annual rainfall, 55 in. The cold +season commences at the beginning of November and lasts till March. +During December and January the temperature falls as low as 41 deg. +Fahr. The average annual temperature is 78 deg. Bhagalpur formed a part +of the ancient Sanskrit kingdom of Anga. In later times it was included +in the powerful Hindu kingdom of Magadha or Behar, and in the 7th +century A.D. it was an independent state, with the city of Champa for +its capital. It afterwards formed a part of the Mahommedan kingdom of +Gaur, and was subsequently subjugated by Akbar, who declared it to be a +part of the Delhi empire. Bhagalpur passed to the East India Company by +the grant of the emperor Shah Alam in 1765. + +There are indigo factories, and other industries include the weaving of +tussur silk and the making of coarse glass. A large trade is carried on +by rail and river with Lower Bengal. The tract south of the Ganges is +traversed by the loop-line of the East Indian railway, and there is also +a railway across the northern tract. + +The DIVISION OF BHAGALPUR stretches across the Ganges from the Nepal +frontier to the hills of Chota Nagpur. It comprises the five districts +of Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Darjeeling, and the Santal Parganas. The +total area is 19,776 sq. m.; and in 1901 the population was 8,091,405. + + + + +BHAMO, a town and district of Burma. The town was in ancient times the +capital of the Shan state of Manmaw, later the seat of a Burmese +governor. It is now the headquarters of a district in the Mandalay +division of Upper Burma (Chinese frontier). It is situated about 300 m. +up the river from Mandalay. It is the highest station on the Irrawaddy +held by British troops, and the nearest point on the river to the +Chinese frontier. In 1901 it contained 10,734 inhabitants, of whom a +considerable number were Chinamen, natives of India and Shan-Chinese. It +stretches for a distance of nearly 4 m. along the Irrawaddy bank in a +series of small villages, transformed into quarters of the town, but the +town proper is confined mainly to the one high ridge of land running at +right angles to the river. The surface of the ground is much cut up by +ravines which fill and dry up according to the rise and fall of the +river. When the Irrawaddy is at its height the lower portion of the town +is flooded, and the country all round is a sheet of water, but usually +for no very long time. Here or hereabouts has long been the terminus of +a great deal of the land commerce from China. For years after its +annexation by Great Britain in 1885 the trade routes were unsafe owing +to attacks from Kachins. These have now ceased, and the roads, which +were mere bridle-tracks, have been greatly improved. The two chief are +the so-called Santa and Ponlaing route, through Manyun (Manwaing) and +Nantien to Momein, and the southern or Sawadi route by way of Namhkam. +Cart roads are now being constructed on both routes, and that south of +the Taiping river could easily be continued through Manyun to Momein if +the Chinese should be induced to co-operate. There is a fairly large +military garrison in Bhamo distributed between two forts to the north +and east of the town. There are in general stationed here a native +regiment, two sections of a battery and the wing of a European regiment. +Besides the barracks there are a circuit house, dak bungalow, +courthouse, and post and telegraph offices. There is a branch railway +from Myitkyina to Katha, whence there is daily communication by river to +Bhamo. + +The DISTRICT OF BHAMO lies wholly in the basin of the Irrawaddy, which, +as well as its tributaries, runs through the heart of it. On the east of +the river is the Shan plateau, running almost due north and south. West +of the Irrawaddy there is a regular series of ranges, enclosing the +basins of the Kaukkwe, Mosit, Indaw and other streams, down which much +timber is floated. Beyond the Kaukkwe there is a ridge of hills, which +starts at Leka, near Mogaung, and diverges to the south, the eastern +ridge dividing the Kaukkwe from the Mosit, and the western forming the +eastern watershed of the Nam Yin and running south into Katha. It is an +offshoot from the latter of these ridges that forms the third defile of +the Irrawaddy between Bhamo and Sinbo. The district covers an area of +4146 sq. m., and the population in 1901 was 79,515. It is mainly +composed of Shan-Burmese and Kachins. The Shan-Burmese inhabit the +valleys and alluvial plains on each side of the river. The Kachins, who +probably came from the sub-regions of the Himalayas, occupy the hills +throughout the district. There are also settlements of Shans, +Shan-Chinese, Chinese and Assamese. There are extensive fisheries in the +Shwegu and Mo-hnyin circles, and in the Indaw, a chain of lakes just +behind the Mosit, opposite Shwegu. The district abounds in rich teak +forests, and there are reserves representing 60,000 acres of teak +plantation. The whole of the country along the banks of the Irrawaddy, +the Mole, Taiping and Kaukkwe, is generally in a water-logged condition +during the rains. The climate in the district is therefore decidedly +malarious, especially at the beginning and end of the rains. From +November to March there is very bracing cold weather. The highest +temperatures range a few degrees over 100 deg. F. up to 106 deg., and +the lowest a few degrees under 40 deg. The average maximum for the year +is about 87 deg., the average minimum about 62 deg. The rainfall +averages 72 in. a year. (J. G. Sc.) + + + + +BHANDARA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur division +of the Central Provinces. The town (pop. in 1901, 14,023) is situated on +the left bank of the river Wainganga, 7 m. from a station on the +Bengal-Nagpur railway. It has considerable manufactures of cotton cloth +and brass-ware, and a first-grade middle school, with a library. + +The DISTRICT OF BHANDARA has an area of 3965 sq. m. In 1901 the +population was 663,062, showing a decrease of 11% since 1891 compared +with an increase of 8% in the preceding decade. The district is bounded +on the N., N.E. and E. by lofty hills, inhabited by Gonds and other +aboriginal tribes, while the W. and N.W. are comparatively open. Small +branches of the Satpura range make their way into the interior of the +district. The Ambagarh or Sendurjhari hills, which skirt the south of +the Chandpur pargana, have an average height of between 300 and 400 ft. +above the level of the plain. The other elevated tracts are the Balahi +hills, the Kanheri hills and the Nawegaon hills. The Wainganga is the +principal river in the district, and the only stream that does not dry +up in the hot weather,--its affluents within the district being the +Bawanthari, Bagh, Kanhan and Chulban. There are 3648 small lakes and +tanks in Bhandara district, whence it is called the "lake region of +Nagpur"; they afford ample means of irrigation. More than one-third of +the district lies under jungle, which yields gum, medicinal fruit and +nuts, edible fruits, lac, honey and the blossoms of the _mahua_ tree +(_Bassia latifolia_), which are eaten by the poorer classes, and used +for the manufacture of a kind of spirit. Tigers, panthers, deer, wild +hogs and other wild animals abound in the forests, and during the rainy +season many deaths occur from snake-bites. Iron is the chief mineral +product. Gold is also found in the bed of the Sone river. Laterite, +shale and sandstone occur all over the district. Native cloth, brass +wares, pot-stone wares, cartwheels, straw and reed baskets, and a small +quantity of silk, form the only manufactures. The principal crops are +rice, wheat, millet, other food-grains, pulse, linseed, and a little +sugar-cane. The district is traversed by the main road from Nagpur to +the east, and also by the Bengal-Nagpur railway. It suffered in the +famine of 1896-1897, and yet more severely in 1900. + +Bhandara district contains 25 semi-independent chiefships. These little +states are exempted from the revenue system, and only pay a light +tribute. Their territory, however, is included within the returns of +area and population above given. The climate of Bhandara is +unhealthy,--the prevailing diseases being fever, small-pox and cholera. +Nothing is known of the early history of the district. Tradition says +that at a remote period a tribe of men, called the Gaulis or Gaulars, +overran and conquered it. At the end of the 17th century it belonged to +the Gond raja of Deogarh. In 1743 it was conquered by the Mahrattas, who +governed it till 1853, when it lapsed to the British government, the +raja of Nagpur having died without an heir. + + + + +BHANG, an East Indian name for the hemp plant, _Cannabis sativa_ (see +HEMP), but applied specially to the leaves dried and prepared for use as +a narcotic drug. In India the products of the plant for use as a +narcotic and intoxicant are recognized under the three names and forms +of Bhang, Gunja or Ganja, and Churrus or Charas. Bhang consists of the +larger leaves and capsules of the plant on which an efflorescence of +resinous matter has occurred. The leaves are in broken and partly +agglutinated pieces, having a dark-green colour and a heavy but not +unpleasant smell. Bhang is used in India for smoking, with or without +tobacco; it is prepared in the form of a cake or manjan, and it is made +into an intoxicating beverage by infusing in cold water and straining. +Gunja is the flowering or fruit-bearing tops of the female plants. It is +gathered in stalks of several inches in length, the tops of which form a +matted mass, from the agglutination of flowers, seeds and leaflets by +the abundant resinous exudation which coats them. Churrus is the crude +resinous substance separated from the plant. The use of preparations of +hemp among the Mussulman and Hindu population of India is very general; +and the habit also obtains among the population of central Asia, the +Arabs and Egyptians, extending even to the negroes of the valley of the +Zambezi and the Hottentots of South Africa. The habit appears to date +from very remote times, for Herodotus says of the Scythians, that they +creep inside huts and throw hemp seeds on hot stones. + + + + +BHARAHAT, or BARHUT, a village in the small state of Nagod in India, +lying about 24 deg. 15' N. by 80 deg. 45' E., about 120 m. S.W. of +Allahabad. General A. Cunningham discovered there in 1873 the remains of +a _stupa_ (i.e. a burial mound over the ashes of some distinguished +person) which were excavated, in 1874, by his assistant, J.D. Beglar. +The results showed that it must have been one of the most imposing and +handsome in India; and it is especially important now from the large +number of inscriptions found upon it. The ancient name of the place has +not been yet traced, but it must have been a considerable city and its +site lay on the high road between the ancient capitals of Ujjeni and +Kosambi. The _stupa_ was circular, 70 ft. in diameter and 42 ft. high. +It was surrounded by a stone railing 100 ft. in diameter, so that +between railing and _stupa_ there was an open circle round which +visitors could walk; and the whole stood towards the east side of a +paved quadrangle about 300 ft. by 320 ft., surrounded by a stone wall. +On the top of the _stupa_ was an ornament shaped like the letter T, and +as the base of the _stupa_ was above the quadrangle, the total height of +the monument was between 50 and 60 ft. But its main interest, to us, +lies in the railing. This consisted of eighty square pillars, 7 ft. 1 +in. in height, connected by cross-bars about 1 ft. broad. Both pillars +and cross-bars were elaborately carved in bas-relief, and most of them +bore inscriptions giving either the name of the donor, or the subject of +the bas-relief, or both. There were four entrances through the railing, +facing the cardinal points, and each one protected by the railing coming +out at right angles, and then turning back across it in the shape of the +letter L. This gave the whole ground plan of the monument, and no doubt +designedly so, the shape of a gigantic _swastika_ (i.e. a symbol of good +fortune). By the forms of the letters of the inscriptions, and by the +architectural details, the age of the monument has been approximately +fixed in the 3rd century B.C. The bas-reliefs give us invaluable +evidence of the literature, and also of the clothing, buildings and +other details of the social conditions of the peoples of Buddhist India +at that period. The subjects are taken from the Buddhist sacred books, +more especially from the accounts given in them of the life of the +Buddha in his last or in his previous births. Unfortunately, only about +half the pillars, and about one-third of the cross-bars have been +recovered. When the _stupa_ was discovered the villagers had already +carried off the greater part of the monument to build their cottages +with the stones and bricks of it. The process has gone on till now +nothing is left except what General Cunningham found and rescued and +carried off to Calcutta. Even the mere money value of the lost pieces +must be immense, and among them is the central relic box, which would +have told us in whose honour the monument was put up. + + See A. Cunningham, _The Stupa of Bharhut_ (London, 1879); T.W. Rhys + Davids, _Buddhist India_ (London, 1903). (T. W. R. D.) + + + + +BHARAL, the Tatar name for the "blue sheep" _Ovis_ (Pseudois) _nahura_, +of Ladak and Tibet. The general colour is blue-grey with black "points" +and white markings and belly; and the horns of the rams are olive-brown +and nearly smooth, with a characteristic backward curvature. In the +absence of face-glands, as well as in certain other features, the bharal +serves to connect more typical sheep (q.v.) with goats. + + + + +BHARATPUR, or BHURTPORE, a native state of India, in the Rajputana +agency. Its area covers 1982 sq. m. The country is generally level, +about 700 ft. above the sea. Small detached hills, rising to 200 ft. in +height, occur, especially in the northern part. These hills contain good +building stone for ornamental architecture, and in some of them iron ore +is abundant. The Banganga is the only river which flows through the +state. It takes its rise at Manoharpur in the territory of Jaipur, and +flowing eastward passes through the heart of the Bharatpur state, and +joins the Jamna below Agra. + +Bharatpur rose into importance under Suraj Mall, who bore a conspicuous +part in the destruction of the Delhi empire. Having built the forts of +Dig and Kumbher in 1730, he received in 1756 the title of raja, and +subsequently joined the great Mahratta army with 30,000 troops. But the +misconduct of the Mahratta leader induced him to abandon the +confederacy, just in time to escape the murderous defeat at Panipat. +Suraj Mall raised the Jat power to its highest point; and Colonel Dow, +in 1770, estimated the raja's revenue (perhaps extravagantly) at +L2,000,000 and his military force at 60,000 or 70,000 men. In 1803 the +East India Company concluded a treaty, offensive and defensive, with +Bharatpur. In 1804, however, the raja assisted the Mahrattas against the +British. The English under Lord Lake captured the fort of Dig and +besieged Bharatpur, but were compelled to raise the siege after four +attempts at storming. A treaty, concluded on the 17th of April 1805, +guaranteed the raja's territory; but he became bound to pay L200,000 as +indemnity to the East India Company. A dispute as to the right of the +succession again led to a war in 1825, and Lord Combermere captured +Bharatpur with a besieging force of 20,000 men, after a desperate +resistance, on the 18th of January 1826. The fortifications were +dismantled, the hostile chief being deported to Benares, and an infant +son of the former raja installed under a treaty favourable to the +company. In 1853 the Bharatpur ruler died, leaving a minor heir. The +state came under British management, and the administration was +improved, the revenue increased, a system of irrigation developed, new +tanks and wells constructed and an excellent system of roads and public +buildings organized. Owing to the hot winds blowing from Rajputana, the +climate of Bharatpur is extremely sultry till the setting in of the +periodical rains. + +In 1901 the population was 626,665, a decrease of 2%. The estimated +revenue is L180,000. The maharaja Ram Singh, who succeeded his father in +1893, was deprived of power of government in 1895 on the ground of +intemperate conduct; and in 1900 was finally deposed for the murder of +one of his personal attendants. He was succeeded by his infant son +Kishen Singh. During his minority the administration was undertaken by a +native minister, together with a state council, under the general +superintendence of the political agent. Imperial service cavalry are +maintained. The state is traversed for about 40 m. by the Rajputana +railway. + +The CITY OF BHARATPUR is 34 m. W. of Agra by rail. The population in +1901 was 43,601, showing a decrease of over 23,000 in the decade. The +immense mud ramparts still stand. It has a handsome palace, a new +hospital and a high school. There are special manufactures of _chauris_, +or flappers, with handles of sandalwood, ivory or silver, and tails also +made of strips of ivory or sandalwood as fine as horse-hair. + + + + +BHATGAON, a town of Nepal, 8 m. from Khatmandu. It is a celebrated place +of Hindu superstition, the favourite residence of the Brahmans of Nepal, +and contains more families of that order than either Khatmandu or Patan. +It has a population of about 30,000, and its palace and buildings +generally are of a more striking appearance than in other Nepalese +towns. The town is said to possess many Sanskrit libraries. + + + + +BHATTIANA, a tract of country in the Punjab province of India, covering +the Ghaggar valley from Fatehabad in the district of Hissar to Bhatnair +in Bikanir. It derives its name from the Bhattis, a wild Rajput clan, +who held the country lying between Hariana, Bikanir and Bahawalpur. It +skirts the borders of the great sandy desert, and only contains a small +and scattered population. This tract was ravaged by Timur in his +invasion of India; and in 1795 paid a nominal allegiance to George +Thomas, the adventurer of Hariana. After the victories of Lord Lake in +1803 it passed with the rest of the Delhi territory under British rule, +but was not settled until 1810. A district of Bhattiana was formed in +1837, but in 1858 it was merged in the Sirsa district, which was divided +up in 1884. The Bhattis number some 350,000, and are a fine tall race, +making capital soldiers. + + + + +BHAU DAJI (RAMKRISHNA VITHAL) (1822-1874), Hindu physician of Bombay, +Sanskrit scholar and antiquary, was born in 1822 at the village of +Manjare, in the native state of Sawantwari, of humble parents dealing in +clay dolls. Dr Bhau's career is a striking instance of great results +arising from small accidents. An Englishman noticing his cleverness at +chess induced his father to give the boy an English education. +Accordingly Bhau was brought to Bombay and was educated at the +Elphinstone Institution. He relieved his father of the cost of his +education by winning many prizes and scholarships, and on his father's +death two years later he cheerfully undertook the burden of supporting +his mother and a brother (Narayen), who also in after-life became a +distinguished physician and surgeon. About this time he gained a prize +for an essay on infanticide, and was appointed a teacher in the +Elphinstone Institution. He began to devote his time to the study of +Indian antiquities, deciphering inscriptions and ascertaining the dates +and history of ancient Sanskrit authors. He then studied at the Grant +Medical College, and was one of the first batch who graduated there in +1850. In 1851 he set up as a medical practitioner in Bombay, where his +success was so great that he soon made a fortune. He studied the +Sanskrit literature of medicine, and also tested the value of drugs to +which the ancient Hindus ascribed marvellous powers, among other +pathological subjects of historical interest investigating that of +leprosy. Being an ardent promoter of education, he was appointed a +member of the board of education, and was one of the original fellows of +the university of Bombay. As the first native president of the students' +literary and scientific society, and the champion of the cause of female +education, a girls' school was founded in his name, for which an +endowment was provided by his friends and admirers. In the political +progress of India he took a great and active interest, and the Bombay +Association and the Bombay branch of the East Indian Association owe +their existence to his ability and exertions. He was twice chosen +sheriff of Bombay, in 1869 and 1871. Various scientific societies in +England, France, Germany and America conferred on him their membership. +He contributed numerous papers to the journal of the Bombay branch of +the Royal Asiatic Society. He found time to make a large collection of +rare ancient Sanskrit manuscripts at great cost and trouble. He died in +May 1874. His brother, Dr Narayen Daji (who helped him to set up the +charitable dispensary in Bombay), did not long survive him. Dr Bhau was +a man of the most simple and amiable character and manners; his kindness +and sympathy towards the poor and distressed were unbounded, and +endeared his memory among the Hindus of Bombay. (N. B. W.) + + + + +BHAUNAGAR, or BHAVNAGAR, a native state of India in the Kathiawar +agency, Bombay. Its area covers 2860 sq. m. In 1901 the population was +412,664, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade; the estimated revenue +is L255,800, and the tribute L10,300. The chief, whose title is thakor +sahib, is head of the famous clan of the Gohel Rajputs of Kathiawar. The +enlightened system of administration formed during the rule of the +thakor sahib maharaja Sir Takhtsinghji Jaswatsinghji, G.C.S.I., was +continued with admirable results under the personal supervision of his +son, the maharaja Bhausinghji, K.C.S.I. (b. 1875), and forms a model for +other native states. The Gohel Rajputs are said to have settled in the +district about 1260. Bhaunagar suffered terribly from the famine of +1899-1900. About 60 m. of the Bhaunagar-Gondal railway run through the +state, with its terminus at the town of Bhaunagar, which is the +principal port. The town of Bhaunagar is situated on the west coast of +the gulf of Cambay. The population in 1901 was 56,442. It is the chief +port in Kathiawar, though only admitting vessels of small burden. It was +founded in 1723 by the thakor sahib Bhausinghji, after whom it is named, +in place of his former capital, Sihor, which was considered too exposed +to the Mahratta power. + + + + +BHEESTY (from the Persian _bihisti_, paradise), the Hindustani name for +a water carrier, the native who supplies water from a pigskin or +goat-skin bag. + + + + +BHERA, a town of British India, in the Shahpur district of the Punjab, +situated on the river Jhelum. Pop. (1901) 18,680. It is the terminus of +a branch of the North-Western railway. It is an important centre of +trade, with manufactures of cotton goods, metal-work, carving, &c. Bhera +was founded about 1540 on its present site, but it took the place of a +city on the opposite bank of the river, of far greater antiquity, which +was destroyed at this period. + + + + +BHILS, or BHEELS ("bowmen," from Dravidian _bil_, a bow), a Dravidian +people of central India, probably aborigines of Marwar. They live +scattered over a great part of India. They are found as far north as the +Aravalli Hills, in Sind and Rajputana, as well as Khandesh and +Ahmedabad. They are mentioned in Sanskrit works, and it is thought that +Ptolemy (vii. I. 66) refers to them as [Greek: Phullitai] ("leaf +wearers"), though this word might equally apply to the Gonds. Expelled +by the Aryans from the richer lowlands, they are found to-day in +greatest numbers on the hills of central India. In many Rajput states +the princes on succession have their foreheads marked with blood from +the thumb or toe of a Bhil. The Rajputs declare this a mark of Bhil +allegiance, but it is more probably a relic of days when the Bhils were +a power in India. The Bhils eagerly keep the practice alive, and the +right of giving the blood is hereditary in certain families. The popular +legend of the Bhil origin assigns them a semi-divine birth, Mahadeva +(Siva) having wedded an earth maiden who bore him children, the ugliest +of whom killed his father's bull and was banished to the mountains. The +Bhils of to-day claim to be his descendants. Under the Moguls the Bhils +were submissive, but they rebelled against the Mahrattas, who, being +unable to subdue them, treated them with the utmost cruelty. The race +became outlaws, and they have lived their present wild life ever since. +Their nomad habits and skill with their bows helped them to maintain +successfully the fight with their oppressors. An unsuccessful attempt +was made in 1818 by the British to conquer them. Milder measures were +then tried, and the Bhil Agency was formed in 1825. The Bhil corps was +then organized with a view to utilizing the excellent fighting +qualities of the tribesmen. This corps has done good service in +gradually reducing their more lawless countrymen to habits of order, and +many Bhils are now settled in regular industries. + +The pure Bhil is to-day much what he has always been, a savage forest +dweller. The Bhils are a stunted race, but well built, active and +strong, of a black colour, with high cheek-bones, wide nostrils, broad +noses and coarse features. Like all Dravidians the hair is long and +wavy. The lowland Bhils are not now easily distinguished from the +low-caste Hindus. Surgeon-major T.H. Hendley writes:--"The Bhil is an +excellent woodman, knows the shortest cuts over the hills; can walk the +roughest paths and climb the steepest crags without slipping or feeling +distressed. Though robbers, and timorous owing to ages of ill-treatment, +the men are brave when trusted, and very faithful. History proves them +always to have been faithful to their nominal Rajput sovereigns, +especially in their adversity. The Bhil is a merry soul, loving a jest." +The hill Bhils wear nothing but a loin-cloth, their women a coarse robe; +lowland Bhils wear turban, coat and waist-cloth. The Bhils have oaths +none of them will break. The most sacred is that sworn by a dog, the +Bhil praying that the curse of a dog may fall on him if he breaks his +word. Their chief divinity is Hanuman, the monkey-god. Offerings are +made to the much-feared goddess of small-pox. Stone worship is found +among them, and some lowland Bhils are Moslems, while many have adopted +Hinduism. + +The Bhils of pure blood number upwards of a million, and there are some +200,000 Bhils of mixed descent. + + See Gustav Oppert, _The Original Inhabitants of India_ (1893); T.H. + Hendley, "Account of Marwar Bhils," in _Bengal Asiatic Journal_, vol. + 44; W.I. Sinclair in _Indian Antiquary_, vol. iv. pp. 336-338; Col. W. + Kincaid, "On the Bheel Tribes of the Vindhyan Range," _Jour. Anthrop. + Institute_, vol. ix. + + + + +BHIMA (Sanskrit, "The Terrible"), in Hindu mythology, a hero, one of the +Pandava princes who figure in the _Mahabharata_. He was distinguished by +his huge body, strength and voracity. + + + + +BHIWANI, a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the Punjab, +38 m. S.E. of Hissar town by rail. Pop. (1901) 35,917. It is an +important centre of trade with Rajputana, and has factories for ginning +and pressing cotton, and metal manufactures. Its rise dates from 1817, +when it was made a free market. + + + + +BHOPAL, a native state of India, in the central India agency. Its area +is 6902 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 665,961, showing a +decrease of 30% in the decade. This seems to be in part due to a +difference in numeration, but the state suffered heavily from famine in +1896-1897 and 1899-1900. Bhopal is the principal Mussulman state in +central India, ranking next to Hyderabad among the Mahommedan states of +India. The surface of the country is uneven, being traversed by the +Vindhya ranges, a peak of which near Raysen is upwards of 2500 ft. above +sea-level. The general inclination of the country is towards the north, +in which direction most of the streams of the state flow, while others, +passing through the Vindhya ranges, flow to the Nerbudda. + +Bhopal state was founded in 1723 by Dost Mahommed Khan, an Afghan +adventurer. In 1778, when General Thomas Goddard made his bold march +across India, the state of Bhopal was the only Indian power that showed +itself friendly; and in 1809 when another British expedition under +General Close appeared in the same parts, the nawab of Bhopal petitioned +earnestly but in vain to be received under British protection. But in +1817, at the outbreak of the Pindari War, a treaty of dependence was +concluded between the chief and the British government. Since then +Bhopal has been steadily loyal to the British government, and during the +Mutiny it rendered good services. The throne has descended in the female +line since 1844, when Sikandar Begum became ruler. Succeeding begums +have taken a great interest in the work of governing the state, which +they carried on with marked success. The sultan Jahan Begum, succeeded +on the death of her mother, Shah Jahan Begum, in June 1901, being the +only female ruler in India. + +The estimated revenue of the state is L250,000, and the state pays a +subsidy of L13,000 for the Bhopal battalion. Besides the Bhopal +battalion, a regiment of imperial service cavalry is maintained, under +the name of the Victoria Lancers. There is a branch railway from Itarsi +to Bhopal city, continued to Jhansi. The British currency has been +introduced, and in 1897-1898, Rs. 71,00,000 of Bhopali coins were +converted. The residence of the political agent and the headquarters of +the Bhopal battalion are at Sehore, 20 m. west of Bhopal city. The city +of Bhopal, a railway station, had a population in 1901 of 76,561. The +palace, with its rock fortress, is called Fatehgarh. An excellent +water-supply has been provided from two large artificial lakes. There +are two hospitals. There is an export trade in opium. + +BHOPAL AGENCY, an administrative section of central India, takes its +name from the state of Bhopal, which is included in it. The Bhopal +agency is administered by the agent to the governor-general in central +India. Its area is 11,653 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was +1,157,697. It was created in 1818. In 1900 this district suffered +severely from famine owing to the complete failure of the monsoon, and +the cultivated area decreased by 50 or 60%; but, on the whole, trade has +improved of late years owing to the new railways, which have stimulated +commerce and created fresh centres of industry. + + + + +BHOPAWAR, an agency in central India. It consists of the Dhar and +Barwani states, three minor states, Ali Rajpur, Jhabua and Jobat, and a +number of districts and estates. Its total area is 7684 sq. m., and its +population on this area in 1901 was 547,546. But in 1901 and 1904 +certain districts were transferred from this agency to the Indore +residency, created in 1899, and the area of Bhopawar was thus reduced by +3283 sq. m. The chief towns are Dhar (pop. 17,792), Barwani (6277) and +Kukshi (5402). + + + + +BHOR, a native state of India, in the Poona political agency, Bombay, +forming one of the Satara Jagirs; situated among the higher peaks of the +Western Ghats. Its area covers 925 sq. m. The population in 1901 was +137,268, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade; the estimated gross +revenue is L21,437; the tribute, L310. The chief, whose title is _pant +sachiv_, is a Brahman by caste. The town of BHOR is 25 m. south of +Poona. In 1901 the population was 4178. The Bhor Ghat, on the northern +border of the state, has always been the main pass over the Western +Ghats, or means of communication between the sea-coast and the Deccan. +Since 1861 it has been traversed by the main line of the Great Indian +Peninsula railway. + + + + +BHUJ, a town of India, the capital of the native state of Kach, in the +Gujarat division of Bombay, situated at the base of a fortified hill. +Pop. (1901) 26,362. It contains some interesting examples of +architecture of the middle of the 16th century and later; it was a place +sacred to the snake-god Bhujanga. + + + + +BHUTAN, an independent kingdom in the Eastern Himalayas, lying between +the Brahmaputra and the southern face of the mountains. It is under +various commercial and other arrangements with the government of India, +from whom it receives an annual subsidy of L3333. It is bounded on the +N. by Tibet; on the E. by a tract inhabited by various uncivilized +independent mountain tribes; on the S. by the British province of Assam, +and the district of Jalpaiguri; and on the W. by the independent native +state of Sikkim. The whole of Bhutan presents a succession of lofty and +rugged mountains abounding in picturesque and sublime scenery. This +alpine region sends out numerous rivers in a southerly direction, which, +forcing their passage through narrow defiles, and precipitated in +cataracts over the precipices, eventually pour themselves into the +Brahmaputra. Of the rivers traversing Bhutan, the most considerable is +the Manas, flowing in its progress to the Brahmaputra under the walls of +Tasgaon, below which it is unfordable. At the foot of Tasgaon Hill it is +crossed by a suspension bridge. The other principal rivers are the +Machu, Tchinchu, Torsha, Manchi and Dharla. Information respecting the +country accumulates but slowly. In 1863 Captain Godwin Austen +accompanied Sir Ashley Eden's mission to the court of the Deb raja, and +made a survey of the route to Punakha. There has also been a certain +amount of geographical sketching combined with trigonometrical +observations; and there are the route surveys of native explorers. In +1887-1888 two native Indian explorers "R. N." and "P. A." traversed a +part of Western Bhutan, but were forced to retire owing to the disturbed +state of the districts. They re-entered the country on the east from +Dewangiri. Here they explored the Kuru, or Lhobrak Chu, which proves to +be the largest river in Bhutan. It drains the tract between the Yamdok +Tso and Tigu Lakes, and is fed by the glaciers of the Kulha Kangri and +other great ranges. The Lhobrak was finally identified with the Manas +river, a geographical discovery of some importance. A previously unknown +tribe, the Chingmis, were discovered in Eastern Bhutan, who are socially +on a higher level than the Bhutias, and differ from them chiefly in the +matter of wearing pigtails. Some excellent survey work was done in +Bhutan by a native surveyor during the progress of the Tibetan +Expedition in 1904. The Monla Kachung pass (17,500 ft.), by which "R. +N." crossed into Tibet, is nearly on the meridian of Gualpara, and is +one of the most important passes between Bhutan and Tibet. East of +Bhutan, amongst the semi-independent hill states which sometimes own +allegiance to Tibet and sometimes assert complete freedom from all +authority, the geographical puzzle of the course of the Tsanpo, the +great river of Tibet, has been solved by the researches of Captain +Harman, and the explorations of the native surveyor "K. P." The Tsanpo +has been definitely ascertained to be the same river as the Brahmaputra. +The tracts inhabited by the aboriginal tribes entitled Lo Nakpo, Lo +Karpo and Lo Tawa ("Lo" signifies "barbarous" in Tibetan), are described +as a pleasant country; the lands on either side of the Tsanpo being well +cultivated and planted with mangoes, plantains and oranges. + +Nothing is known certainly about the area and population of Bhutan, the +former being estimated at 16,800 sq. m. At the head of the Bhutan +government there are nominally two supreme authorities, the Dharm raja, +the spiritual head, and the Deb raja, the temporal ruler. Recently +official correspondence has been written in the name of the Dharm raja, +but it is not known whether this change really signifies anything. To +aid these rajas in administering the country, there is a council of +permanent ministers, called the Lenehen. Practically, however, there is +no government at all. Subordinate officers and rapacious governors of +forts wield all the power of the state, and tyranny, oppression and +anarchy reign over the whole country. The Dharm raja succeeds as an +incarnation of the deity. On the death of a Dharm raja a year or two +elapses, and the new incarnation then reappears in the shape of a child +who generally happens to be born in the family of a principal officer. +The child establishes his identity by recognizing the cooking utensils, +&c., of the late Dharm raja; he is then trained in a monastery, and on +attaining his majority is recognized as raja, though he exercises no +more real authority in his majority than he did in his infancy. The Deb +raja is in theory elected by the council. In practice he is merely the +nominee of whichever of the two governors of East and West Bhutan +happens for the time to be the more powerful. The people are +industrious, and devote themselves to agriculture, but from the +geological structure of the country, and from the insecurity of +property, regular husbandry is limited to comparatively few spots. The +people are oppressed and poor. "Nothing that a Bhutia possesses is his +own," wrote the British envoy in 1864; "he is at all times liable to +lose it if it attracts the cupidity of any one more powerful than +himself. The lower classes, whether villagers or public servants, are +little better than the slaves of higher officials. In regard to them no +rights of property are observed, and they have at once to surrender +anything that is demanded of them. There never was, I fancy, a country +in which the doctrine of 'might is right' formed more completely the +whole and sole law and custom of the land than it does in Bhutan. No +official receives a salary; he has certain districts made over to him, +and he may get what he can out of them; a certain portion of his gains +he is compelled to send to the durbar, and the more he extorts and the +more he sends to his superior, the longer his tenure of office is likely +to be." + +Physically the Bhutias are a fine race, although dirty in their habits +and persons. Their food consists of meat, chiefly pork, turnips, rice, +barley-meal and tea made from the brick-tea of China. Their favourite +drink is _chong_, distilled from rice or barley and millet, and _Marwa_, +beer made from fermented millet. A loose woollen coat reaching to the +knees, and bound round the waist by a thick fold of cotton cloth, forms +the dress of the men; the women's dress is a long cloak with loose +sleeves. The houses of the Bhutias are of three and four storeys; all +the floors are neatly boarded with deal; and on two sides of the house +is a verandah ornamented with carved work generally painted. The Bhutias +are neat joiners, and their doors, windows and panelling are perfect in +their way. No iron-work is used; the doors open on ingenious wooden +hinges. The appearance of the houses is precisely that of Swiss chalets, +picturesque and comfortable--the only drawback being a want of chimneys, +which the Bhutias do not know how to construct. The people nominally +profess the Buddhist religion, but in reality their religious exercises +are confined to the propitiation of evil spirits, and the mechanical +recital of a few sacred sentences. Around the cottages in the mountains +the land is cleared for cultivation, and produces thriving crops of +barley, wheat, buckwheat, millet, mustard, chillies, &c. Turnips of +excellent quality are extensively grown; they are free from fibre and +remarkably sweet. The wheat and barley have a full round grain, and the +climate is well adapted to the production of both European and Asiatic +vegetables. Potatoes have been introduced. The Bhutias lay out their +fields in a series of terraces cut out of the sides of the hills; each +terrace is riveted and supported by stone embankments, sometimes 20 ft. +high. Every field is carefully fenced with pine branches, or protected +by a stone wall. A complete system of irrigation permeates the whole +cultivated part of a village, the water being often brought from a long +distance by stone aqueducts. Bhutias do not care to extend their +cultivation, as an increased revenue is exacted in proportion to the +land cultivated, but devote their whole energies to make the land yield +twice what it is estimated to produce. The forests of Bhutan abound in +many varieties of stately trees. Among them are the beech, ash, birch, +maple, cypress and yew. Firs and pines cover the mountain heights; and +below these, but still at an elevation of eight or nine thousand feet, +is a zone of vegetation, consisting principally of oaks and +rhododendrons. The cinnamon tree is also found. Some of the roots and +branches were examined by Captain Samuel Turner during his journey to +Tibet; but the plant being neither in blossom nor bearing fruit, it was +impossible to decide whether it was the true cinnamon or an inferior +kind of cassia. The leaf, however, corresponded with the description +given of the true cinnamon by Linnaeus. The lower ranges of the hills +abound in animal life. Elephants are so numerous as to be dangerous to +travellers; but tigers are not common, except near the river Tista, and +in the dense reed jungle and forests of the Dwars. Leopards abound in +the Hah valley; deer everywhere, some of them of a very large species. +The musk deer is found in the snows, and the barking deer on every hill +side. Wild hogs are met with even at great elevations. Large squirrels +are common. Bears and rhinoceros are also found. Pheasants, jungle +fowls, pigeons and other small game abound. The Bhutias are no +sportsmen. They have a superstitious objection to firing a gun, thinking +that it offends the deities of the woods and valleys, and brings down +rain. A species of horse, which seems indigenous to Bhutan, and is used +as a domestic animal, is called _tangan_, from Tangastan, the general +appellation of that assemblage of mountains which constitutes the +territory of Bhutan. It is peculiar to this tract, not being found in +any of the neighbouring countries of Assam, Nepal, Tibet or Bengal, and +unites in an eminent degree the two qualities of strength and beauty. +The _tangan_ horse usually stands about thirteen hands high, is +short-bodied, clean-limbed, deep in the chest and extremely active, his +colour usually inclining to piebald. In so barren and rude a country the +manufacturing industry of its people is, as might be expected, in a low +stage, the few articles produced being all destined for home +consumption. These consist of coarse blankets and cotton cloths made by +the villagers inhabiting the southern tract. Leather, from the hide of +the buffalo, imperfectly tanned, furnishes the soles of snow boots. +Circular bowls are neatly turned from various woods. A small quantity of +paper is made from a plant described as the _Daphne papyrifera_. Swords, +iron spears and arrow-heads, and a few copper caldrons, fabricated from +the metal obtained in the country, complete the list of manufactures. + +Trade connections are rather with Tibet than with India. In 1901-1902 +the value of the import and export trade with British India amounted +only to L57,000. The military resources of the country are on an +insignificant scale. Beyond the guards for the defence of the various +castles, there is nothing like a standing army. The total military force +was estimated by the British envoy in 1864 at 6000. The climate of +Bhutan varies according to the difference of elevation. At the time when +the inhabitants of Punakha (the winter residence of the rajas) are +afraid of exposing themselves to the blazing sun, those of Ghasa +experience all the rigour of winter, and are chilled by perpetual snows. +Yet these places are within sight of each other. The rains descend in +floods upon the heights; but in the vicinity of Tasisudon, the capital, +they are moderate; there are frequent showers, but nothing that can be +compared to the tropical rains of Bengal. Owing to the great elevation +and steepness of the mountains, dreadful storms arise among the hollows, +often attended with fatal results. + +_History._--Bhutan formerly belonged to a tribe called by the Bhutias +Tephu, generally believed to have been the people of Kuch Behar. About +A.D. 1670 some Tibetan soldiers subjugated the Tephus, took possession +of the country and settled down in it. The relations of the British with +Bhutan commenced in 1772, when the Bhutias invaded the principality of +Kuch Behar, a dependency of Bengal. The Kuch Behar Raja applied for aid, +and a force under Captain James was despatched to his assistance; the +invaders were expelled and pursued into their own territories. Upon the +intercession of Teshu Lama, then regent of Tibet, a treaty of peace was +concluded in 1774 between the East India Company and the ruler of +Bhutan. In 1783 Captain S. Turner was deputed to Bhutan, with a view of +promoting commercial intercourse, but his mission proved unsuccessful. +From this period little intercourse took place with Bhutan, until the +occupation of Assam by the British in 1826. It was then discovered that +the Bhutias had usurped several tracts of low land lying at the foot of +the mountains, called the Dwars or passes, and for these they agreed to +pay a small tribute. They failed to pay, however, and availed themselves +of the command of the passes to commit depredations within the British +territory. Captain R.B. Pemberton was accordingly deputed to Bhutan to +adjust the points of difference. But his negotiations yielded no +definite result; and every other means of obtaining redress and security +proving unsuccessful, the Assam Dwars were wrested from the Bhutias, and +the British government consented to pay to Bhutan a sum of L1000 per +annum as compensation for the resumption of their tenure, during the +good behaviour of the Bhutias. Continued outrages and aggressions were, +however, committed by the Bhutias on British subjects in the Dwars. +Nothwithstanding repeated remonstrances and threats, scarcely a year +passed without the occurrence of several raids in British territory +headed by Bhutia officials, in which they plundered the inhabitants, +massacred them, or carried them away as slaves. In 1863 Sir Ashley Eden +was sent as an envoy to Bhutan to demand reparation for these outrages. +He did not succeed in his mission; he was subjected to the grossest +insults; and under compulsion signed a treaty giving over the disputed +territory to Bhutan, and making other concessions which the Bhutan +government demanded. On Sir A. Eden's return the viceroy at once +disavowed his treaty, sternly stopped the former allowance for the Assam +Dwars, and demanded the immediate restoration of all British subjects +kidnapped during the last five years. The Bhutias not complying with +this demand, the governor-general issued a proclamation, dated the 12th +of November 1864, by which the eleven Western or Bengal Dwars were +forthwith incorporated with the queen's Indian dominions. No resistance +was at first offered to the annexation; but, suddenly, in January 1865, +the Bhutias surprised the English garrison at Dewangiri, and the post +was abandoned with the loss of two mountain guns. This disaster was soon +retrieved by General Sir Henry Tombs, and the Bhutias were compelled to +sue for peace, which was concluded on the 11th of November 1865. The +Bhutan government formally ceded all the eighteen Dwars of Bengal and +Assam, with the rest of the territory taken from them, and agreed to +liberate all kidnapped British subjects. As the revenues of Bhutan +mainly depended on these Dwars, the British government, in return for +these concessions, undertook to pay the Deb and Dharm rajas annually, +subject to the condition of their continued good behaviour, an allowance +beginning at L2500 and rising gradually to the present figure. Since +that time the annexed territories have settled down into peaceful and +prosperous British districts. The recent relations between the Indian +government and Bhutan have been satisfactory; and during the troubles +with Tibet in 1904 the attitude of the Bhutias was perfectly correct and +friendly. + + See _Report on Explorations in Sikkim, Bhutan and Tibet_ (Deva Dun, + 1889); Tanner, "Our present Knowledge of the Himalayas," _R.G.S. + Proceedings_, vol. xiii. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO (1662-1729), Italian astronomer and antiquary, was +born of a noble family at Verona on the 13th of December 1662. In 1684 +he went to Rome, and became librarian to Cardinal Ottoboni, who, as Pope +Alexander VIII. (1689), raised him to the offices of papal chamberlain +and canon of Santa Maria Maggiore. Clement XI. sent him on a mission to +Paris in 1712, and employed him to form a museum of Christian +antiquities. He died at Rome on the 2nd of March 1729. A paper by him on +G.D. Cassini's new method of parallaxes was inserted in the _Acta +Eruditorum_ of Leipzig in 1685. He published separately:--_Istoria +Universale_ (Roma, 1697), only one volume of which appeared; _De +Calendario et Cyclo Caesaris_ (1703); _Hesperi et Phosphori nova +Phaenomena_ (1729), in which he asserted Venus to rotate in 24-1/3 days; +and (posthumously) _Astronomicae et Geographicae Observaliones Selectae_ +(1737) and _Opuscula Varia_ (1754). + + See Fontenelle's "Eloge" (_Memoires de l'Acad. de l'Histoire_, p. 102, + Paris, 1729); Mazzoleni, _Vita di Francesco Bianchini_ (Verona, 1735); + Tipaldo, _Biografia degli Italiani Illustri_, vii. 288 (Venezia, + 1840); Mazzuchelli, _Scrittori d' Italia_; Maffei, _Verona + Illustrata_, p. 254, &c. + + + + +BIARRITZ, a watering-place of south-western France, in the department of +Basses-Pyrenees, on the sea-coast about 5 m. W.S.W. of Bayonne. Pop. +(1906) 13,629. From a mere fishing village, with a few hundred +inhabitants in the beginning of the 19th century, Biarritz rose rapidly +into a place of importance under the patronage of the emperor Napoleon +III. and the empress Eugenie, with whom it was a favourite resort. The +town is situated on a promontory jutting north-west into the Bay of +Biscay and on the coast which extends on each side of it. The beach to +the north-east is known as the Grande Plage, that to the south-west as +the Cote des Basques. The Grande Plage is more than half a mile long and +stretches to the Cap St Martin, on which stands a lighthouse. It is +divided into two parts by a small headland once the site of the villa of +the empress Eugenie, between which and the main promontory are the two +casinos, the principal baths and many luxurious villas and fine hotels. +Towards the north-east the promontory of Biarritz ends in a projection +known as the Atalaye, crowned by the ruins of a castle and surrounded by +rocky islets. Some of these are united to the mainland and to each other +by jetties which curve round so as to form the Port de Refuge, a haven +available only in fair weather. South-west of the Atalaye lies the +Port-Vieux, a sheltered cove now used only as a bathing-place. The Port +des Pecheurs, the principal of the three harbours, is on the south-east +side of the Atalaye and is that most used by the fishermen of the town. +Apart from unimportant manufactures of pottery, chocolate, &c., fishing +is the only industry; Biarritz depends for its prosperity on the +visitors who are attracted by its mild climate and the bathing. The +season is almost continuous; in the winter the English, in the summer +Russians, Spaniards and French fill the hotels of the town. Among its +attractions is a golf club, established in 1888, with a course of 18 +holes. + + + + +BIAS of Priene in Ionia, one of the so-called Seven Sages of Greece, son +of Teutamus, flourished about 570 B.C. He was famous for his patriotism, +the nobility of his character and his eloquence. A number of gnomes or +aphorisms are attributed to him, which may be found collected in F.W.A. +Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_ (1860). He is said to have +written a poem on the best means of making Ionia prosperous. His advice +to its inhabitants, at the time of the Persian invasion, to migrate to +Sardinia and there found a single pan-Ionic city (Herodotus i. 170), has +generally been regarded as historical. One much-quoted saying of his may +be mentioned. When his native town was besieged by the enemy, the +inhabitants resolved to escape with their most valuable belongings. One +of them seeing Bias without anything, advised him to follow the example +of the rest. "I am doing so," said lie, "for I carry all my belongings +with me" (_omnia mea mecum porto_). He was honoured with a splendid +funeral, and a sanctuary called Teutamium was dedicated to him. + + See Bohren, _De Septem Sapientibus_ (1860). + + + + +BIAS (from the Fr. _biais_, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. +_bifax_, two-faced, is wrong), something oblique or slanting. The term +is used especially of a piece of cloth cut obliquely across the texture, +or of a seam of two such pieces brought together; and in the game of +bowls (q.v.) it is applied alike to the one-sided construction of the +bowl, flattened on one side and protruding on the other, and to the +slanting line the bowl takes when thrown. The figurative sense of the +word, prejudice or undue leaning to one side of a subject, is derived +from this bowling term. + + + + +BIBACULUS, MARCUS FURIUS, Roman poet, flourished during the last century +of the republic. According to Jerome, he was born at Cremona in 103 +B.C., and probably lived to a great age. He wrote satirical poems after +the manner of Catullus, whose bitterness he rivalled, according to +Quintilian (_Instit._ x. i. 196), in his iambics. He even attacked +Augustus (and perhaps Caesar), who treated the matter with indifference. +He was also author of prose _Lucubrationes_ and perhaps of an epic poem +on Caesar's Gallic wars (_Pragmatia Belli Gallici_). Otto Ribbeck +attributes to him one of the shorter poems usually assigned to Virgil. +It is doubtful whether he is the person ridiculed by Horace (_Satires_, +ii 5. 40) and whether he is identical with the _turgidus Alpinus_ +(_Satires_, i. 10. 36), the author of an Aethiopis dealing with the life +and death of Memnon and of a poem on the Rhine. Some critics, on the +ground that Horace would not have ventured to attack so dangerous an +adversary, assume the existence of a poet whose real name was Furius (or +Cornelius) Alpinus. Bibaculus was ridiculed for his high-flown and +exaggerated style and manner of expression. + + See Weichert, "De M. Furio Bibaculo," in his _Poetarum Latinorum + Reliquiae_ (1830); fragments in L. Muller's edition of _Catullus_ in + the Teubner Series (1870). + + + + +BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON (1644-1704), German violinist and +composer, was for some time musical conductor at Salzburg, and was +ennobled by the emperor Leopold in 1681. He is regarded as the earliest +important German composer for the violin, his works including sonatas +and church music. + + + + +BIBERACH, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, on the Riss, +a small affluent of the Danube, 22 m. S.S.W. from Ulm. Pop. (1900) 8390. +It is still surrounded by medieval walls and towers, and is strikingly +picturesque. Its principal church dates from the 12th century, and it +possesses a hospital with rich endowments. Its main industries are +cloth, bell-casting, toys and zinc wares, and its fruit markets are +famous. + +Biberach appears as a village in the 8th century, and in 1312 it became +a free imperial city. During the Thirty Years' War it underwent various +vicissitudes, and was for a while held by the Swedes. In 1707 it was +captured and put to ransom by the French, who afterwards, in 1796 and +1800, defeated the Austrians in the neighbourhood. In 1803 the city was +deprived of its imperial freedom and assigned to Baden, and in 1806 was +transferred to Wurttemberg. Biberach is the birthplace of the sculptor +Johann Lorenz Natter (1705-1763) and the painter Bernhard Neher +(1806-1886); Christoph Martin Wieland, born in 1733 at the neighbouring +village of Oberholzheim, spent several years in the town. + + + + +BIBIRINE, or BEBEERINE, C19H21NO3, an alkaloid obtained from the bark +and fruit of the greenheart (q.v.) tree, _Nectandra rodiaei_, called +_bibiru_ or _sipiri_ in Guiana, where the tree grows. The substance was +discovered about the year 1835 by Hugh Rodie, a surgeon in Demerara, who +used it as a febrifuge in substitution for quinine. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 3, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 34612.txt or 34612.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/6/1/34612/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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