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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Epidemics Examined and Explained: or, Living Germs Proved by Analogy to be a Source of Disease + +Author: John Grove + +Release Date: December 9, 2010 [EBook #34603] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EPIDEMICS EXAMINED *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage.<br /><br /> + +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h1>EPIDEMICS</h1> + +<h3>EXAMINED AND EXPLAINED:</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OR,</p> + +<h2>LIVING GERMS</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">PROVED BY ANALOGY TO BE</p> + +<h2>A SOURCE OF DISEASE.</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">BY</p> + +<h2>JOHN GROVE, M.R.C.S.L.</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">AUTHOR OF "SULPHUR AS A REMEDY IN EPIDEMIC CHOLERA."</p> + +<h3>LONDON:</h3> + +<h3>JAMES RIDGWAY, PICCADILLY.</h3> + +<h3>MDCCCL.</h3> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"The tendencies of the mind, the turn of thought of whole ages, have + frequently depended on prevailing diseases; for nothing exercises a more + potent influence over man, either in disposing him to calmness and + submission, or in kindling in him the wildest passions, than the + proximity of inevitable and universal danger."—<i>Hecker's + Epidemics of the Middle Ages.</i></p> + +</blockquote> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"The grand field of investigation lies immediately before us; we are + trampling every hour upon things which to the ignorant seem nothing but + dirt, but to the curious are precious as gold."—<i>Sewell on the + Cultivation of the Intellect.</i></p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>TO</h3> + +<h2>BENJAMIN GUY BABINGTON, F.R.S., M.D.,</h2> + +<h3>PHYSICIAN TO GUY'S HOSPITAL,</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">AND</p> + +<h3>PRESIDENT OF THE EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY,</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ETC. ETC.</p> + +<h3>THESE PAGES ARE, BY HIS KIND PERMISSION,</h3> + +<h2>Respectfully Dedicated,</h2> + +<h3>BY HIS OBLIGED AND FAITHFUL SERVANT,</h3> + +<h2>THE AUTHOR.</h2> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>{v}</span></p> + +<h3>PREFACE.</h3> + + <p>The following pages have been written with a view to render some aid + in establishing a sound and firm basis for future research, on that + absorbing topic, the Causes and Nature of Epidemic Diseases.</p> + + <p>The amount of information already published on Fevers, on the + Exanthemata, and on the Plague, is truly astonishing, and the more so + when it is considered, that at present no rational account or explanation + is given of the causes of these affections.</p> + + <p>It appears to me but reasonable to suppose that as every thing on this + earth has been created on a wise and unerring principle, Epidemic and + Infectious Diseases are only indicative of some serious errors in our + social arrangements and habits. The dangers and misery brought upon us by + disease, may, as shewn by Dr. Spurzheim and Mr. Combe, be warnings + against the infringement of the natural laws.</p> + + <p>Indeed, what is more rational than to suppose that the Seeds of + Disease are coeval with the fall of man. His first disobedience <!-- Page + vi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevi"></a>{vi}</span>brought + death:—that his subsequent errors should hasten its approaches is + not to be marvelled at. The undetected murderer, though he may escape the + punishment human justice would inflict upon him for his delinquency, + suffers a penalty in the tortures of conscience, infinitely more + horrifying than the most ignominious death. The law of nature is + triumphant.</p> + + <p>No less certain, though after a different manner, are the consequences + of minor forms of disobedience. It is so ordained, that certain diseases + shall arise, under peculiar conditions, which may have been brought about + by a train of causes, easily imagined, and difficult to be explained, but + all having their origin in the vices and errors of man in his moral and + social relations.</p> + + <p>If man neglects the cultivation of the ground; with rank vegetation, + the germs of fever will invisibly grow and multiply; if he harbours that + which is rotten and corrupt, he is himself consumed by those agents + destined to remove the rottenness and corruption; it is a part of the law + of nature that there should be active and energetic agents for this + purpose. The seeds of disease, like the seeds of plants, may be shewn to + have <!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagevii"></a>{vii}</span>their indigenous localities; like them + they may be spread and multiplied; like them they may lie dormant, and + after awhile spring as it were into active existence; like them, when the + soil and other conditions favour, they are ever ready to make their + appearance. And this is the law, the germs of all disease exist, and have + existed. Despise the dictates of nature, be careless of yourself and + those around you, neglect to use the means which a noble intelligence has + placed at your command, and above all, transgress the laws of God, then + will disease pursue and attend you, as the conscience of the murderer + pursues and attends him until he is finally cut off.</p> + + <p>His wants and necessities, his sufferings and privations, are the + basis of the intellectual progress of man. The wonders of Omnipotence are + revealed through the whirlwind, the storm, the pestilence, and the + famine.</p> + + <p>The constructive and perceptive faculties of man have been developed + by the necessity of protecting himself from injury by winds and rains; + his intellectual faculties have been cultivated, by the sufferings of + disease having led him to the study of <!-- Page viii --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii"></a>{viii}</span>organization and + life, to discover the cause,—and to chemistry, and other sciences + for the cure of his ailments.</p> + + <p>Famine and distress have aroused his emotions, and softened down his + asperities, so that what appears at first to be the infliction of a Curse + without Pity, is in reality a Judgment with Mercy.</p> + + <p>It occurred to me, that on the formation of the Epidemiological + Society, the first question for consideration should be, What is the + nature of those agents, which induce Epidemic Diseases? are they composed + of animate or inanimate matter? In other words, do the manifestations of + these diseases exhibit the operations of living or of chemical + forces.</p> + + <p>Having, in my study, dwelt on the subject with an earnest desire to + find the truth, I put the suggestion, with my ideas, before the public to + reject or receive them. If they be rejected, I can but think a full + discussion of the enquiry will lead to the most important results. If + they be received with favour, I doubt not others, with more ability, will + take up the strain and resolve the discords into harmony.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>J. G.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Wandsworth, September, 1850.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page ix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"></a>{ix}</span></p> + +<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents" title="Contents"> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Introduction</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> IS IT PROBABLE THAT EPIDEMIC, ENDEMIC, AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES,<br /> +DEPEND UPON VITAL GERMS FOR THEIR MANIFESTATIONS? </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page11">11</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> THE NUMBER AND VALUE OF FACTS TO SUPPORT +THE PROPOSITION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section I.</span>—On Reproduction </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page22">22</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section II.</span>—Historical Notice of Epidemic Diseases</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page34">34</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section III.</span>—The Dispersion of Plants and Diseases</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page64">64</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section IV.</span>—The Relation between Epidemic and Endemic +Diseases </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page96">96</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> THE REASONABLENESS OF THE APPLICATION OF +THE FACTS TO THE INFERENCE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section I.</span>—The Chemical Theory of Epidemics untenable</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page108">108</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section II.</span>—The Animalcular Theory of Epidemics untenable</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page128">128</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section III.</span>—Sketch of the Physiology and Pathology of +Plants and Animals </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page138">138</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> RESULTS IN PROOF OF THE TENABLENESS OF THE +PROPOSITION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section I.</span>—Observations on some of the Laws of Epidemic +Diseases </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section II.</span>—What is the nature of those Poisons which most +resemble the Morbid Poisons in their effects on the body?</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page166">166</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Section III.</span>—What results do we obtain from the effects of +remedial agents, in proof of the hypothesis? </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page176">176</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="sc">Conclusion</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page189">189</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p> + +<h3>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + + <p>It is one thing for a man to convince himself, but a very different + thing to be able to convince others.</p> + + <p>I am not now speaking of a conviction arising from the impression made + by a few startling facts, nor of one forced on the mind by early + prejudices, or by the dogmas of the schools, but of a conviction arising + from careful enquiry.</p> + + <p>In the course of that enquiry, the collector of facts, sees their + relations to the idea in his mind, in a multiplicity of ways, from their + remaining, each, as one succeeds the other, an appreciable time on the + sensorium, and undergoing a certain process of comparison and relation, + with all other facts and ideas which have been previously stored up. As + the materials for an edifice which have been shaped and prepared in + accordance with the completion of the design, so do the facts and ideas + which are accumulated <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page2"></a>{2}</span>in the mind, become shaped and prepared for + the elimination of a truth. The ultimate design of the architect can no + more be conceived by the examination of the framework of a window, or the + capital of a column, than the whole truth of a proposition by the + examination of separate facts; the whole must be conceived and all the + relations of all the parts thoroughly understood, before the architect + can be comprehended or the harmony of his design appreciated.</p> + + <p>The process of thought in the minds of the architect, and in the + framer of a proposition, is never exactly the same as in those who + contemplate and examine their completed works. Much may be done, however, + by both to aid others in comprehending them. The more accurately they + keep in view the course their minds have taken, the more readily will + their descriptions be understood.</p> + + <p>To simplify the elements of our knowledge is to give others a ready + access to our thoughts.</p> + + <p>To arrange the course of our ideas in harmony with the elements of our + knowledge should be the end of all writing, as it is the only means of + multiplying knowledge. <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page3"></a>{3}</span></p> + + <p>It is not the mere accumulation of facts which constitutes science, + any more than a collection of building materials constitutes a house, it + is the arrangement and adaptation of the means to the end by which the + house becomes built and science cultivated.</p> + + <p>These reflections have been suggested by the circumstance that for the + last 3000 years and upwards, Pestilences have at certain intervals done + their work of destruction, and opened the springs of misery to untold + millions, and yet I see not that we are much further advanced as to the + knowledge of the cause of these inflictions than the Jews in the time of + Moses. In the Levitical law, as I shall have occasion more particularly + to shew hereafter, were directions specially given in reference to the + plague of leprosy; what means should be adopted for the cure of the + disease, and for preventing its extension, and moreover pointing very + significantly to certain facts having connexion with the cause of the + affection. Since that time historians generally, and medical writers in + particular, have diligently recorded their observations and accumulated + facts, on the various desolating plagues which <!-- Page 4 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>{4}</span>have afflicted mankind. + Some of these men have grappled with the whole subject, and endeavoured + to shew the presumed relation of the supposed causes in all their + intricacies, but it is hardly necessary to say that all have signally + failed in their attempts to furnish us with any practical + information.</p> + + <p>Satisfied in my own mind that the whole subject is beyond the labour + of one man, and impressed with the belief that the basis of the enquiry + is in anything but a satisfactory state, I have applied myself entirely + to the study of the groundwork only, as the primary proceeding for a + solid superstructure.</p> + + <p>The days are past, when imaginary spirits, ethers, and astronomical + phenomena, were believed to have any essential influence over our + destinies in a physical point of view; we have therefore to deal with + <i>matter</i> in some form or other.</p> + + <p>The question, therefore, which I have proposed for enquiry, is, + whether the matter which causes epidemic and endemic diseases, exhibits + the properties of inorganic or organized matter.</p> + + <p>The properties and qualities of organized <!-- Page 5 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page5"></a>{5}</span>bodies, as well as those of + inorganic matter, need but be stated, and in some instances we may + picture to ourselves the object, without having seen it, and not be very + far from a true conception. But for this purpose a clear and definite + idea must be previously formed, and have taken possession of the mind, of + the great general divisions of objects in the material world.</p> + + <p>Having made these preliminary remarks, I have suggested a certain mode + of procedure in making enquiries of this kind, not perhaps in strict + accordance with logical systems, but on the principle of nature's + operations in our own minds, which appears to me, when reduced to a + systematic and simple form, to be sufficiently clear and strict for + synthetical application, and so concise as to be usefully and practicably + applied.</p> + + <p>In endeavouring to establish a theory for the explanation of + extraordinary phenomena, there are certain rules which should guide us in + the thorny and treacherous path of speculation. But these rules readily + flow from the train of thought, and if we examine our own minds during + their operations, we <!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page6"></a>{6}</span>shall find that the following is the course of + our instinctive reflections. It is a course we adopt as the test of + theories when formed, and is a guide in all cases for their + construction.</p> + + <p>We first commence with an idea, which exists in our minds in the form + of a proposition: then the following rules naturally suggest + themselves:—</p> + + <p>1. The probability of the value of our proposition from inference.</p> + + <p>2. The number and value of facts to support the proposition.</p> + + <p>3. The reasonableness of the application of the facts to the + inference.</p> + + <p>4. What amount of information in the form of results can be produced + in proof of the tenableness of the proposition.<a name="NtA1" + href="#Nt1"><sup>[1]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In illustration of the value of these rules the history of Dr. + Jenner's discovery affords an appropriate example. To use the words of + Dr. Gregory, "he appears very early in <!-- Page 7 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>{7}</span>life to have had his + attention fixed by a popular notion among the peasantry of + Gloucestershire, of the existence of an affection in the cow, supposed to + afford security against the Small Pox; but he was not successful in + convincing his professional brethren of the importance of the + <i>idea</i>."</p> + + <p>The popular notion of the peasantry originated the idea in Jenner's + mind, and it became fixed there as a proposition.</p> + + <p>1. He commenced his enquiry by observing that the hands of milkers on + the dairy farms were subject to an eruption, and he <i>inferred</i> that + the notion of the peasantry bore the stamp of probability, which + strengthened the idea in his mind and gave force to the proposition.</p> + + <p>2. His next step was to accumulate facts; he found on enquiry that the + persons engaged on these farms in milking, possessed an immunity from + Small Pox to an extent sufficient to strengthen the value of his + proposition.</p> + + <p>3. The reasonableness of the application of the facts to the inference + is clear from the coincidence that the eruption on the hands of the dairy + people bore a striking <!-- Page 8 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page8"></a>{8}</span>resemblance to the Small Pox, and as this + disease does not usually occur twice in the same individual, the + inference was most reasonable that this eruption protected the people + from Small Pox.</p> + + <p>4. We have but to take the almost universal adoption of vaccination, + and its acknowledged prophylactic powers against the propagation of Small + Pox to shew the application of our fourth rule.<a name="NtA2" + href="#Nt2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Between the conception of the idea and the accomplishment of Jenner's + designs, vaccination seems to have undergone an incubation of nearly + twenty years. During that period, with an energy and perseverance only to + be obtained by confidence, did this great man brood over and elaborate + his idea; and well might the 14th day of May, <!-- Page 9 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span>1796, be styled the birth + day of vaccination, for on that day was a child first inoculated from the + hands of a milker.</p> + + <p>In adopting the above method I have endeavoured to bear in mind M. + Quetelet's observations on the requirements necessary for medical + authorship; he says, "All reasonable men will, I think, agree on this + point, that we must inform ourselves by observation, collect + well-recorded facts, render them rigorously comparable, before seeking to + discuss them with a view of declaring their relations, and methodically + proceeding to the appreciation of causes."</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>{10}</span></p> + +<p><!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>{11}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">IS IT PROBABLE THAT EPIDEMIC, ENDEMIC, AND +INFECTIOUS DISEASES, DEPEND UPON VITAL +GERMS FOR THEIR MANIFESTATIONS?</p> + + <p>It is, I believe, almost universally considered that Epidemic, + Endemic, and Infectious diseases, originate from some imaginary poisons + of a specific nature, each disease having its own peculiar poison. That + this conception should have taken possession of the minds of men, is most + natural from the symptoms which characterize these diseases, but when we + come to enquire into the nature of these agents, or supposed poisons, we + are at once struck with the idea that they exhibit one peculiarity which + separates them in a marked manner, from those poisons with which we are + familiar; for the poisons of Small Pox, Measles, Scarlet Fever, Hooping + Cough, Fever, &c. possess the power of multiplication, or spontaneous + increase, a property which attaches only to the organic kingdom, and is + never known in the inorganic kingdom. The source of most of the poisons + is to be found among mineral or vegetable products. A mineral in + combination with an acid or oxygen may become a poison, and <!-- Page 12 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span>nitrogen in + various combinations with oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, or with carbon + alone, may become a poison; these combinations are, however, in most + instances the products of vegetable life, others again are obtained from + the animal kingdom, such as the poison of the serpent, &c. but in all + of these instances, there is not one in which the power of + self-multiplication is to be found.</p> + + <p>We are, therefore, constrained to admit that this feature, which + distinguishes poisons, is one well worthy attentive consideration. The + varieties of poisons may be classified into those which act topically as + escharotic poisons, those which act chemically on the blood, and those + whose effects are manifested in inducing a speedy annihilation of organic + or vital action, as in the case of hydrocyanic acid, which is supposed + specifically to affect the nervous centres from which originate the vital + manifestations. It is rather remarkable that the vital poisons (as I will + call them for distinction), seem to have their appropriate locality in + the blood, they do not primarily affect one organ more than another, all + the effects we witness resulting from them are to be traced progressively + from the blood to other parts of the body. When a person is inoculated + with small pox, a very minute portion (indeed it is impossible to say how + minute it may be) is sufficient, when absorbed, to excite a certain train + of symptoms, all due to absorption of the materies of the disease, and + the process by which <!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page13"></a>{13}</span>that materies arrives at maturity, is that + known in the vegetable world as the fructification; this process of + fructification is a process of development and increase.</p> + + <p>I here may repeat that among all the poisons known, constituted as + they are of various combinations of elementary matter, they are without + exception destitute of the power of development or increase. Now, it is + pretty accurately known what amount of these poisons is necessary to + produce their effects on the living body; we can say how many drops are + sufficient of hydrocyanic acid of Scheeles strength, to destroy a man + instantaneously. Again, how many grains of arsenious acid are sufficient + to induce such an inflammatory condition of the stomach and intestine as + will end in death, and how many grains of morphia, will bring about a + fatal coma,—but who shall say the amount of the vital poisons + necessary to produce their results? It far exceeds the limit of + conjecture, to what extent the dilution of miasmatic or contagious matter + may be carried, and the poison yet be capable of committing in a short + time the most frightful ravages.</p> + + <p>We may fairly then infer, that if a quantity of matter inappreciable + in amount be sufficient to exhibit the characters of growth and increase, + that it is endowed with the properties of vitality. That the poisons of + scarlet fever, of measles, and of small-pox have this power of growth and + increase, is as much a matter of universal belief as that "the sun <!-- + Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>{14}</span>will + rise and set to-morrow, and that all living beings will die."</p> + + <p>This power of individual increase, or reproduction, is the very summit + of vital manifestation; indeed Coleridge, in his Theory of Life, (in + which he says, "I define life as the <i>principle of individuation</i>, + or the power which unites a given <i>all</i> into a whole that is + presupposed by all its parts,") places reproduction in the first rank, + and expresses his hypothesis thus: "the constituent forces of life in the + human living body are, first, the power of length or reproduction; 2nd, + the power of surface, or irritability; 3rd, the power of depth, or + sensibility—life itself is neither of these separately, but the + copula of all three."</p> + + <p>Extensive research is not required to shew that many thinking men + believe in the existence of living organic beings, as the elements of + contagious and epidemic diseases; the idea indeed seems to flow + spontaneously in that direction. Whenever thought, and enduring + contemplation, have been concentrated on the subject, the result appears + to have been the same, a firm conviction in each individual mind that a + vital force must be in operation; or as Schlegel would define it, "a + living reproductive power, capable of and designed to develope and + propagate itself."—"Its Maker originally fixed and assigned to it + the end towards which all its efforts were ultimately to be + directed."</p> + + <p>Referring further to beings having the property of reproduction and + propagation, he says, (using <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page15"></a>{15}</span>the word nature here evidently as the vital + principle for want of a better term,) "Nature indeed is not free like + man, but still is not a piece of dead clockwork. <i>There is life in + it.</i>"—"Thus we know that even plants sleep, and that they too as + much as animals, though after a different sort, have a true impregnation + and propagation."</p> + + <p>When Schlegel wrote this, how little could he have imagined the + intricacy of this proceeding among the lower forms of vegetation. It has + been shewn by Suminski, and verified by many others, that the mode of + impregnation, and the period at which it occurs in the ferns, do not at + all correspond to the general notion on this subject. He has discovered + in the early development of the frond of ferns certain cells, which he + denominates antheridia, or sperm cells; these contain in their cavity a + number of subordinate cells, each containing a spermatazoon. At a certain + period of the progress of the frond, the parent cells become ruptured and + liberate the spermatoza, these move about in a mucilaginous fluid, which + bedews the inferior surface of the frond, and become the means of + impregnating the germ cells, or pistillidia, with which they readily come + in contact. Thus the process of impregnation in these plants occurs + during the germination, or what corresponds to the period of germination + in the seeds of exogenous and endogenous plants.</p> + + <p>I have referred to the discovery of Suminski in <!-- Page 16 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>{16}</span>this place to recal to + the mind the great and incomprehensible wonders of creation, for who + could conceive it possible or feasible that even for the impregnation of + an inferior vegetable, animal life should form an indispensable and + essential appurtenant of the process. Truly may we say with Coleridge, of + plants and insects, "so reciprocally inter-dependent and necessary are + they to each other, that we can almost as little think of vegetation + without insects, as of insects without vegetation."</p> + + <p>I will make but two more quotations on the supposed vital character of + the germs of disease. "That the air and atmosphere of our globe is in the + highest degree full of life, I may, I think, take here for granted, and + generally admitted. It is, however, of a mixed kind and quality, + combining the refreshing breath of spring with the parching simooms of + the desert, and where the healthy odours fluctuate in chaotic struggle + with the most deadly vapours. What else in general <i>is the wide-spread + and spreading pestilence</i>, but a living propagation of foulness, + corruption, and death? Are not many poisons, <i>especially animal + poisons, in a true sense, living forces</i>?"—Schlegel.<a + name="NtA3" href="#Nt3"><sup>[3]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It were useless to multiply quotations to shew <!-- Page 17 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>{17}</span>that the opinions here + entertained are matters of general belief among thinking men.<a + name="NtA4" href="#Nt4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> I will at once then conclude + with an observation of Dr. C. J. B. Williams: he puts the question, "Does + the matter of contagion consist of vegetable seeds? Are infectious + diseases the results of the operations and invasions of living parasites, + disturbing in sundry ways the structures and functions of the body, each + after its own kind, until the vital powers either fail or succeed in + expelling the invading tribes from the system?"</p> + + <p>And this expression, the seeds, is an universal expression, it is a + "Household Word" in connexion with disease. That it has obtained this + position in the popular vocabulary is alone a proof of the applicability + of the term to the thing intended to be <!-- Page 18 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>{18}</span>signified. Popular + notions, as we have seen in the case of Jenner's discovery, are not to be + unheeded. An instance occurs to me, it was a popular belief, that in acne + punctata, the matter of a sebaceous follicle, was itself, when pressed + out, a worm, the dark portion which results from the accumulation of dust + upon the matter at the mouth of the follicle was supposed to be the head + of the maggot, as it was called; subsequent observation, however, has + proved that though this matter is not a worm, it contains an animal + within its substance, the Acarus folliculorum.</p> + + <p>The popular notions found among savage tribes as to the efficacy of + certain remedies in the cure of disease have been the means of furnishing + us with some of our most valuable medicines, indeed it is almost + impossible to say whether originally man did not derive his remedies from + the herbs and trees by an instinctive faculty impelling him, as it does + the animals when in a state of liberty and with freedom of range, to seek + certain plants as they avoid others.</p> + + <p>It is well known that animals when indisposed will find out some spot + as if almost led to it by a visionary guide where the "healing plant" is + to be discovered. I am told that sheep have this faculty, and that they + will, when affected with the rot, feed upon some plant when they can + discover it, which eradicates the disease.</p> + + <p>Almost every one is familiar with the fact that cats and dogs will + crop herbage and eat it; I have <!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page19"></a>{19}</span>seen them frequently leave the house and + proceed to the grass in the most business-like manner, partake of some + quantity, and quietly return.</p> + + <p>A close observer of diseased animals might obtain some useful + information by noticing the plants cropped by them while in that + condition. The observations should be made in a variety of districts in + consequence of the uncertain distribution of some even of the most + commonly scattered plants; in one year they may be abundant, but in + another they may be almost entirely absent from the same spot.<a + name="NtA5" href="#Nt5"><sup>[5]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Were it only on the fact of reproduction, I would be contented to take + my stand that the force of life is the indwelling power of pestilential + matter. Reproduction is a law of nature, and the law of nature is the law + of God. And where do we find He prevaricates with us? The more we study + His laws the more harmony and perfection we find; what is seeming + confusion in the ignorance of to-day, is order in the knowledge of + to-morrow. If any one ignorant of the law which regulates the diffusion + of gases were <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page20"></a>{20}</span>told that a heavier gas would ascend + contrary to its specific gravity through the septum in a vessel + containing a lighter gas above the heavier, he would naturally doubt your + assertion, and say, "that is contrary to the law of gravity;" but explain + to him the principle by which this comes about, and the objects of the + law; the order and beauty of the design become manifest. But this is no + equivocation, it is evidence there, that subordinate laws exist and + nothing more. It has never been found that men have gathered "grapes of + thorns and figs of thistles," nor has it ever been discovered that + inanimate matter multiplies itself. The seed of disease "is within + itself," multiplying and propagating itself; whether it formed a part of + creation at the beginning or not, is rather a question to be solved by + divines than physicians. When we know, however, the latency of seeds and + even of entire plants, and that they may be dried and remain so for years + yet being brought again into conditions adapted to their active + existence, they, as it were, revive from their sleep, and renew again + their reproductive properties: can we wonder if, in the great scheme of + nature, existences new to mankind should make their appearance? When the + New Zealander saw the surface of his ground producing to him unknown + plants, and the skins of his children generating peculiar eruptions, and + each propagating its kind, would he look, think you, to the wood or the + stones, the air or the water,—for the solution of the <!-- Page 21 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>{21}</span>mystery? No, he + would naturally say these people brought the <i>seeds</i> with them. From + the property of reproduction possessed by these forms of matter, we infer + the value of the proposition.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page22"></a>{22}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE NUMBER AND VALUE OF FACTS TO SUPPORT +THE PROPOSITION.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION I.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">ON REPRODUCTION.</span></p> + + <p>It is inferred that the proposition, "<i>the matter which operates in + the production of Epidemic, Endemic, and Infectious Diseases, possesses + the property of vitality</i>," we proceed now to the enumeration of those + facts which further elucidate this subject.</p> + + <p>The facts must necessarily be such as illustrate the identity of + properties in the imaginary germs, that are known to exist in + demonstrable germs: we take therefore the law of reproduction to be to + life, what the law of attraction is to gravitation.<a name="NtA6" + href="#Nt6"><sup>[6]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>{23}</span></p> + + <p>But further; do those matters which engender disease furnish to our + minds the properties inseparable from life in the abstract? Though the + faculty of reproduction is essentially an evidence that the thing which + reproduces its kind must be a living body, yet it is only a property or + power of living beings and is not itself life, it therefore is necessary + to establish the fact that the <i>materies morbi</i> not only has the + power of reproduction, but also those properties which in the abstract + will prove as far as demonstration can go, that it has the essential + properties common to all living bodies.</p> + + <p>I must again quote from Coleridge, he says: "By life I every where + mean the true idea of life, or that most general form under which life + manifests itself to us, which includes all its other forms. This I have + stated to be the <i>tendency to individuation</i> and the degrees or + intensities of life, to consist in the progressive realization of this + tendency. The <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page24"></a>{24}</span>power which is acknowledged to exist + wherever the realization is found, must subsist wherever the tendency is + manifested. The power which comes forth and stirs abroad in the bird, + must be latent in the egg."</p> + + <p>The tendency to individuation cannot be more strongly marked than in + the simple experiment of vaccination: we insert a small particle of the + so-called vaccine lymph under the skin, and by this means we multiply to + an enormous extent, the power which, in the first instance, we had in the + form of minute corpuscles in a dry and apparently inert state; + nevertheless, though in this condition there must have existed the + tendency to individuation or multiplication of individual existence, and + the germs are here to their active existence, as seen in the development + of the vaccine vesicle, what the egg is to the bird,<a name="NtA7" + href="#Nt7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> as described above; we may, therefore, say + that the power which exhibits itself in the production of a vaccine + vesicle, must have been latent in the dried matter. It is the opinion of + Muller that the entire vital principle of the egg <!-- Page 25 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>{25}</span>resides in the germinal + disk alone, and since <i>the external influences which act on the + germs</i> of the most different organic beings are the same, we must + regard the simple germinal disk, consisting of granular amorphous matter, + as the potential whole of the future animal, endowed with the essential + and specific force or principle of the future being, and capable of + increasing the very small amount of this specific force and matter, which + it already possesses, by the assimilation of new matter.</p> + + <p>After speaking of inanimate objects, Dr. Carpenter says; "and what + compared with the permanence of these is the duration of any structure + subject to the conditions of <i>vitality</i>? <i>To be born</i>, to grow, + to arrive at maturity, to decline, to die, to decay, is the sum of the + history of every being that lives; from man, in the pomp of royalty, or + the pride of philosophy, to the gay and thoughtless insect that glitters + for a few hours in the sunbeam and is seen no more; from the stately oak, + the monarch of the forest through successive centuries, to the humble + fungus which shoots forth and withers in a day."</p> + + <p>To be born, signifies the faculty of reproduction existing or having + existed in an antecedent being to that one born, and also that itself + possesses equally a like power. To be born, is the first expression which + must be used in speaking of the faculties or properties of living beings + as independent existences, the annual formation of buds, trees, and + shrubs, is a multiplication of the species; the coral <!-- Page 26 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>{26}</span>and various + budding polypes increase by this process, indeed what is the seed of a + plant, or the egg of a bird, or the ovum of mammalia, but cast off buds; + in all, the new being was originally a portion of its parent, and if we + examine the ovary of the vegetable, the bird, or the mammal, can we find + any expression more fitting to designate the process than that of + budding. To be born then, is the evidence of an act of one living being, + and the commencement of a series of vital phenomena in another, but all + these are subsequent to reproduction, and constitute another chain of + vital acts, all tending to a similar result, the multiplication of the + species.<a name="NtA8" href="#Nt8"><sup>[8]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Now, whether we apply the philosophical language of Coleridge, or the + language of observation of Muller, in confirmation of the doctrine here + inculcated, we arrive at the same point.</p> + + <p>Do we not witness in the newly formed vaccine vesicle, an increase of + the specific force and principle? We certainly have acquired by the + process of vaccination a manifold multiplication of power, and is there + not also assimilation of new matter in <!-- Page 27 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>{27}</span>which this power resides? + And does not every particle of this new matter contain within itself the + same force and principle, as existed in that which generated it?</p> + + <p>"We revert again to potentiated length in the power of magnetism + (reproduction); to surface in the power of electricity, and to the + synthesis of both or potentiated depth in constructive, that is chemical + affinity."<a name="NtA9" href="#Nt9"><sup>[9]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Some may be at a loss to conceive, at first, how irritability may be + considered a property of all vegetable matter; that it does exist in some + vegetables is certain, but that it does exist in all living beings is + equally certain;<a name="NtA10" href="#Nt10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> the + term, however, which would appear more appropriate when that irritability + does not exhibit itself in an appreciable form, is <i>impressibility</i>. + Irritability, as commonly understood, is seen in its highest condition in + muscular tissue; but "the irritable power and an analogon of voluntary + motion first dawn on us in the vegetable world in the stamina and anthers + at the period of <!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page28"></a>{28}</span>impregnation."—"The insect world is + the exponent of irritability, as the vegetable is of reproduction."</p> + + <p>The property of irritability attains its acme in man, the most highly + organized of all beings; and its gradations pass downwards through the + whole scale of animate creation; not so reproduction, for this faculty + observes the very opposite direction, for in plants a single impregnation + is sufficient for the evolution of myriads of detached lives.</p> + + <p>Reproduction is a fact, it is an essential property of life, and is a + reality to us from observation; but irritability is not so tangible and + demonstrable a property. We nevertheless may assume its universality, + from the circumstance that we lose sight of it by imperceptible degrees; + the irritability of the sensitive plant is as much irritability as that + of the highly organized muscle; but because the faculty evades our + perception, "in tapering by degrees, becoming beautifully less," we have + no reason for pronouncing its total extinction at any one point of the + vegetable kingdom,<a name="NtA11" href="#Nt11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> any + more than we should have <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page29"></a>{29}</span>in saying that we see the end of the earth, + when describing the extent of our vision as we stand on the sea shore. + The extreme limit of our vision is the tangent of the circle in reference + to our visual organs; but how many tangential points there may be beyond, + it is impossible to say without knowing the dimensions of the circle.</p> + + <p>I think we are now in a condition to assume, as far as abstraction + will conduct us without proceeding to an extreme length, that the + <i>materies morbi</i>, or, as I will now call them for the sake of + clearer distinction, <i>semina morbi</i>, possess those properties which + in the abstract are common to all living beings.</p> + + <p>Another argument strikes me as capable of adding further strength to + the proposition. We need but be told that a small piece of iron was + placed in a certain position with regard to another piece of iron, and + that the smaller piece moved through a given space and became attached to + the larger, to infer that magnetic force was in operation. Supposing this + magnet then to be folded in paper, and that it <!-- Page 30 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>{30}</span>be promiscuously placed + near a compass, the deflection of the needle would indicate that some + object in the vicinity was the cause of the deflection; we may farther + try what positions the needle takes by varying the position of the + packet, and thus point out which is the north and which the south pole of + the screw of paper. If we may consider attraction then to be to + gravitation what reproduction is to life, we do not err in saying in the + one instance that there is a living being, and in the other there is a + magnet.</p> + + <p>The nebular theory, from which some astronomers made the foundation of + many speculations, came with so much interest to our minds that the + fascination could not be resisted. It was most delightful to revel in the + imagination that we possessed a key to the mode of formation of the + starry hosts, and when speculation had taken its extreme limits in the + "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation," and the nebulæ had served + as the ground work of a gigantic scheme, Lord Ross's monster telescope + swept the heavens of its cobwebs. We can imagine this great promoter of + science saying to us, Gentlemen, the clouds which have obscured you, are + composed of myriads of stars, and comprise systems as vast and as + luminous as our own, had you but power of vision to discern them. A new + light thus appeared to philosophers, and though no great practical + results may flow from the discovery, it is instructive from the fact that + the imperfectly aided or unaided vision, should not limit legitimate <!-- + Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page31"></a>{31}</span>inference. The nebulæ before Lord Ross's + discovery were to the astronomer what the materies of epidemic and + infectious disease are to medical men. In the absence however of a giant + microscope to reveal such great truths, we may yet dimly shadow them by + the light of our reason. It was predicted in 1849 that minute vegetable + germs, in all probability all of the same type, were the agents producing + epidemic and infectious disease. In 1850, Mr. Oke Spooner says,<a + name="NtA12" href="#Nt12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> "On examining the matter of + Small <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page32"></a>{32}</span>Pox and Cow Pox in every stage, he finds its + essential character to consist of a number of minute cells not exceeding + the 10,000th part of an inch in diameter: being about one-fourth smaller + than the globules of the blood, containing within their circumference + many still more minute nuclei, and presenting beyond their circumference + bud-like cells of the same size and character as those contained within + the circle."</p> + + <p>Should these observations made by Mr. Spooner turn out to be correct, + they will but fulfil my anticipations. Then again shall we see the same + application of imperfect vision to the limitation or temporary + obstruction of solid and determinate knowledge.</p> + + <p>We may reasonably expect that these bodies, discovered by Mr. Spooner, + should be the elementary matters of disease. Their existence was + predicted from the probability that living matter must be the agent; + moreover, that this matter when discovered <!-- Page 33 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page33"></a>{33}</span>would be cellular, most + probably resembling the yeast plant as described by Mr. Spooner.</p> + + <p>It was predicted that a planet would be discovered in a certain + position in the heavens, because the perturbations of a comet indicated + an attracting body in the path of the eccentric wanderer; the prediction + and the fulfilment were almost simultaneous.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>{34}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION II.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">HISTORICAL NOTICE OF EPIDEMIC DISEASES.</span></p> + + <p>The earliest notices we have of Pestilences are contained in Holy + Writ. The plagues which smote the Egyptians in the time of Moses are not + unworthy some comment here. Of those ten plagues, four out of the number + were due to the miraculous appearance of myriads of the lower animal + tribes, in three instances of insects,<a name="NtA13" + href="#Nt13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> viz. lice, flies, and locusts; in the + fourth, when Aaron stretched forth his hand with his rod over the + streams, over the rivers, and the ponds, frogs came up and covered the + land of Egypt. In these instances living beings are made the instruments + in God's hand for the punishment of the wicked. These plagues include the + second, third, fourth, and eighth. The first plague is mentioned as a + conversion of the waters into blood. Now if we may take this expression + as being literal, there is no reason to suppose that this blood differed + in any respect from ordinary sanguineous liquid; we therefore may assume, + as the blood is every where in Scripture spoken of as the <i>life</i>, + that this fluid was endowed with vital properties.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span></p> + + <p>The fifth plague is described as a murrain among beasts; and the + sixth, as exhibiting itself as "a boil breaking forth with blains, upon + man and upon beast."<a name="NtA14" href="#Nt14"><sup>[14]</sup></a> Now + these affections bear a resemblance to the diseases known to us at the + present day through authentic records. The Black Death of the 14th + century affords in its history but too awful a picture of the horrors of + such pestilences. In the tenth plague, the smiting of the first-born, we + are not told by what means it was brought about; but we have something + even here to lead us to conjecture. In the second visitation of the Black + Death, there were destroyed a great many children whom it had formerly + spared, and but few women. The seventh plague of hail is within our + conception; as is also that of darkness, the ninth plague.</p> + + <p>It is not a little remarkable that of the ten plagues, seven of them + depended upon agents intelligible to our comprehension; we can conceive + of <!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page36"></a>{36}</span>the invasion of a country by myriads of + loathsome insects and reptiles, and can imagine the wrath of an offended + Deity directing the force of a supernatural storm of hail upon a + disobedient people; and we can conjecture, though faintly, the + consternation of human nature on being subjected to a total darkness of + three days' duration, when we consider <i>that</i> darkness has been + described, as "a darkness that might be felt."</p> + + <p>From this abstract we discover that the three plagues whose causes we + cannot understand, or rather upon which no light has been thrown by + Scripture, bear analogies to those which we recognise, in the writings of + modern authors, as fearful pestilences.</p> + + <p>It is now our province to reflect on the causes supposed to be in + operation in the three instances, which become naturally separated from + the rest.</p> + + <p>We are told that a murrain appeared among the cattle, without any + preliminary step. When the blains broke out upon man and beast, Moses had + been previously directed by the Almighty to take handfuls of the ashes of + the furnace, and sprinkle them towards the heaven in the sight of + Pharaoh. "<i>And it shall become small dust in all the land of Egypt</i>, + and shall be a boil breaking forth with blains upon man and upon beast, + throughout all the land of Egypt."</p> + + <p>Another coincidence, in connexion with subsequent pestilences, arrests + the attention, on the subject of the mysterious appearance on these + occasions of <!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page37"></a>{37}</span>matter resembling dust being prevalent about + the houses, and on the clothes of the people. Clouds also, and showers of + dust-like particles, were not of infrequent occurrence. Indeed, in the + summer of 1849, during the progress of the Cholera, several phenomena of + a similar nature were observed and authenticated; I myself can bear + testimony to one instance of the kind. It was observed by many persons in + my neighbourhood after the passage of an ominous and lurid cloud, that as + they walked their clothes became covered with a singular dust-like matter + of very peculiar appearance. That this phenomenon was not destitute of + significance may be gathered from the fact, that on the night of that day + several severe cases of Cholera occurred, though our village had been + comparatively free for ten days.</p> + + <p>Hecker, in writing on the Black Death says, the German accounts + expressly speak of a "thick stinking mist which advanced from the east,<a + name="NtA15" href="#Nt15"><sup>[15]</sup></a> and <!-- Page 38 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>{38}</span>spread itself over Italy; + there could be no deception in so palpable a phenomenon." It is not + unworthy of mention, that in the East successive invasions of locusts + "which had never perhaps darkened the sun in thicker swarms," preceded + the great outbreak of this disease, for they left famine in their + train.</p> + + <p>From 1500 to 1503 in Germany and France, during the prevalence of the + sweating sickness, spots of different colours made their appearance, + "principally red, but also white, yellow, grey, and black, often in a + very short time, on the roofs of houses, on clothes, on the veils and + neckerchiefs of women, &c." Blood rain is also mentioned as having + occurred at this time, which consisted of the aggregation of minute + particles of red matter.</p> + + <p>In the seven plagues, miraculous operations of the Deity consisted in + the unusual manifestation of phenomena, but which in their effects are + recognizable as of clear and definite import. The miracles here + are,—in the <i>mode</i> of producing the swarms of frogs, locusts, + &c. but they are manifest and unmistakeable <i>causes</i> of plague + and famine; in the other three, on the contrary, we witness only the + effects, the causes are hidden from us; we may, therefore, as in current + events, legitimately investigate the subject, and what better course can + be adopted than that which classifies the traditionary past with all + subsequent history. Presuming such a method of research to be admitted, I + have assumed that as <!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page39"></a>{39}</span>the <i>causes</i> of the seven plagues have + been distinctly given, the others, though only mentioned in their + effects, were due to causes of a nature in some way to be compared with + their concomitants, that is to say, if a special intervention of the + Deity brought about a miraculous appearance of frogs, lice, &c. there + is but little reason to doubt that some other agent was miraculously + multiplied and concentrated to induce the murrain, engender the blain, + and smite the first-born: as if to lead us into this enquiry, on the + visitation of the blain in man and beast, the Bible History tells us that + Moses threw ashes of the furnace, which became a dust throughout all the + land of Egypt; we cannot imagine that this simply as ashes could have + caused the blain, we may conclude that by some special miracle, either + the ashes were converted into a specific form of matter capable of + inducing the effects recorded, or that an independent septic matter was + generated for the purpose. If the latter, the act of throwing the ashes + of the furnace into the air may have been intended to signify that the + extremely minute division of the particles when thus cast into space, + typified the inscrutable and hidden nature of the matter endowed with + such marvellous properties.<a name="NtA16" + href="#Nt16"><sup>[16]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>{40}</span></p> + + <p>Further on in the book of Leviticus are passages which I cannot + forbear transcribing, for they point out to us most indubitably a line of + enquiry in reference to diseases of a contagious nature.</p> + + <p>"The garment also that the plague of leprosy is in, whether it be a + woollen garment, or a linen garment, whether it be in the warp or woof, + of linen or of woollen, whether in a skin, or in any thing made of skin, + and if the plague be greenish or reddish in the garment ... it is a + plague of leprosy, and shall be shewed unto the Priest, and the Priest + shall look upon the plague and shut up it that hath the plague seven + days; and he shall look on the plague on the seventh day; if the plague + be spread in the garment, either in the warp, &c. ... the plague is a + fretting leprosy, it is unclean. He shall therefore burn that garment ... + wherein the plague is, for it is a fretting leprosy; it shall be burnt in + the fire. And if the Priest shall look, and behold, the plague be not + spread in the garment ... then the Priest shall command that they wash + the thing wherein the plague is, and he shall shut it up seven days more: + and the Priest shall look on the plague, after that it is washed: and + behold if the plague have <i>not</i> changed his colour, and the plague + be not spread, it is unclean; thou <!-- Page 41 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>{41}</span>shalt burn it in the + fire; it is fret inward; whether it be bare within or without. And if the + Priest look and behold the plague be somewhat dark after the washing of + it, then he shall rend it out of the garment ... and if it appear still + in the garment either in the warp or the woof ... it is a spreading + plague: thou shalt burn that wherein the plague is with fire. And the + garment ... which thou shalt wash, if the plague be departed from them, + then it shall be washed the second time and shall be clean."—Chap. + xiii. 47-58.</p> + + <p>Again in Deuteronomy. The curse for disobedience: "The Lord shall make + the pestilence cleave to thee until he have consumed thee from off the + land.—The Lord shall smite thee with a consumption, and with a + fever, and with an inflammation, and with an extreme burning, and with + the drought, and with blasting, and with <i>mildew</i>, and they shall + pursue thee until thou perish.—The Lord shall make the rain of thy + land <i>powder</i> and <i>dust</i>: from heaven shall it come down upon + thee until thou be destroyed."</p> + + <p>It may be said, and I doubt not will be said, all this is + unnecessarily dragging the sacred volume into an enquiry totally foreign + to its general tenor; on the contrary, however, I maintain by that Book + we are to learn the ways of God to man, and further, that no study can + impress mankind with so awful, so terrific an idea of his responsible + position, as that which leads him into the investigation of the causes + <!-- Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>{42}</span>by + which the Almighty, doubtless in His wisdom, has thought fit at various + epochs of this world's history, to place man face to face with + pestilence, famine and sudden death.</p> + + <p>There is no man would less willingly than myself introduce profanely + the revelations of Scripture. The observations here made are not, + therefore, intended for light or heedless controversy; if they have a + significance of any import, let them be alluded to in the same spirit + with which they have been quoted; if they convey nothing for approval to + the reader, let silence rest upon them. To those who would fain disregard + my request, let me recall to their minds the veneration which from + childhood I trust we have always felt on hearing or seeing those two + words—Holy Bible.</p> + + <p>It is yet to be determined, whether the greenish or reddish appearance + of the garment spoken of, as being contaminated with the plague of the + leprosy had any specific relation to the disease itself. The priest + orders that the garment shall be shut up seven days, and on the seventh + day, if the plague be increased, by which, of course, is meant if the + greenish or reddish colour have increased, and from which we may gather + that a power of spontaneous increase was possessed by the matter, such a + result indicated a fretting leprosy, and the garment was to be burnt. + Again, though there may have been no increase, but a persistence of the + coloured matter after shutting up and washing the garment, it is to <!-- + Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>{43}</span>be + burnt, for it is fret inward, signifying, that the germs of the affection + are still there, and may soon increase. Other rules follow in reference + to the plague of leprosy, and the mode of deciding whether an article be + unclean or clean is definitely laid down, but our purpose is served in + mentioning the above, to shew that in the time of Moses the spontaneous + increase of certain minute multiplying germs was supposed to have a close + connexion with disease. It is equally clear, that the priests were aware + by the order given them, that if the ordinary modes of purifying articles + of clothing failed in their effect, the safest and surest method of + destroying infectious matter was to resort to the practice of consuming + by fire all materials capable of propagating an infectious malady.</p> + + <p>The facts above noticed, accurately correspond to what we now know as + applicable to the matter of infectious and contagious maladies. It is a + rule, I believe universally adopted throughout the Poor-houses of this + country, to put the clothes of all persons about to become residents in + these establishments, into ovens, where they are submitted to a + temperature incompatible with the existence of either animal or vegetable + life. By this means all living matters are destroyed, but the fabrics and + inorganic matters retain their properties intact. This simple proceeding, + I am credibly informed, is an effectual preventive of contamination by + articles of clothing, a desideratum of no small importance, when it is + <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page44"></a>{44}</span>remembered that the diseases among the poor + owe much of their inveteracy to the accumulation of effete organic + matters about their persons and clothes.</p> + + <p>A few more observations are called for on the quotation from + Deuteronomy, in which allusion is made to living matter being an agent in + the production of disease. In the curse upon the children of Israel for + disobedience, we read that they are to be smitten with mildew. No further + information, however, is vouchsafed to us, nevertheless, we can conceive + the wretched condition of those on whom the curse might fall. Again, we + find in a continuation of this curse that the Almighty uses means such as + He adopted in the sixth plague of the Egyptians. The ashes of the furnace + became a small dust in all the land of Egypt, breaking forth with blains + upon man and beast. In the curse of the Israelites the words are: "The + Lord shall make the rain of thy land <i>powder and dust</i>: from Heaven + shall it come down upon thee until thou be destroyed."</p> + + <p>It might be conjectured that the absence of rain would be sufficient + to account for the extinction of the people on whom the curse was + pronounced, by the famine and drought necessarily attendant upon the loss + of moisture. But this does not appear to be the meaning of the passage, + for the powder and dust are mentioned as the agents of destruction; + besides, in the continuation of the curse, the locust is to destroy the + grain, the worm the grapes, and <!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page45"></a>{45}</span>the olive is to shed his fruit; we may thus + take for granted that drought and famine are not to be caused by the + showering of powder and dust, it must consequently be supposed that the + effects of the dust in the instance of the Egyptians are to be compared + and classified with those of the dust which smote the Israelites.</p> + + <p>As far then as Sacred History conducts us in the enquiry, concerning + the causes of pestilences, we gain encouragement in the belief that + living germs are the active agents, for in the case of the leprosy, we + have evidence of reproduction in connexion with infection, which, if our + line of argument be tenable, amounts to demonstration; then, in the other + instances of the plagues, by boils and blains, they distinctly bear + comparison with the accounts given by profane writers, of the visitations + of pestilences on the earth, subsequently to those mentioned in Scripture + history.</p> + + <p>This leads now to the consideration of recorded facts observed and + noted during the various Epidemics in the early and subsequent periods of + Man's History, as given by those on whom reliance may be fairly + placed.</p> + + <p>Setting aside the uncertain information contained in the writings of + the Chinese,<a name="NtA17" href="#Nt17"><sup>[17]</sup></a> a people + whose <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page46"></a>{46}</span>progress in the science and practice of + Medicine has nothing to commend it (even as it is at the present day) to + the notice either of the physician or the historian, unless it be to the + latter as a mark of peculiarity both in a social and political point of + view,—passing also over the Egyptians, the Arabians, and the + Greeks,—and even Hippocrates himself, we are driven to the Romans + for any authentic or precise notice of Epidemic Affections. It has been + attributed to Hippocrates that he predicted the appearance of the Plague + at Athens, <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47"></a>{47}</span>and that when it was introduced into Greece + he dispelled it, "by purifying the air with fires into which were thrown + sweet-scented herbs and flowers along with other perfumes."<a + name="NtA18" href="#Nt18"><sup>[18]</sup></a> But little advantage can be + derived from enquiries concerning the first appearance of any disease, + for the probability of discovering the primary cause is certainly a <!-- + Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span>hopeless + case, if attempted by means of the writings of ancient authors, when it + is recollected that with all the science and learning of the ancient + Egyptians, the use of optical instruments was not comprised among the + paraphernalia of their arts. The knowledge that was limited to the powers + of natural vision, where the foundation of knowledge is based upon facts + obtained through the aid of that penetrator of nature's secrets, the + microscope, offers no advantages to the student of the present day.</p> + + <p>To say that a disease commenced in the East and travelled westward, + and at length found a habitation and a name in every part of the globe, + is no more than to say that disease is coeval with the fall of man. The + cause is as much hidden in the region of its birth, as in that where it + sojourns for a time. The cause of the sweating sickness was as much a + mystery in England as in all the other nations of Europe, which were + visited by its devastating power. And these observations apply with as + much force to one disease as another; for even our indigenous ague, + originating in some places so limited that the shadow of a passing cloud + may mark the boundary of its dwelling place, as inscrutably evades our + vigilance, with all the appliances that art can bring to our assistance, + in endeavouring to evoke its extraordinary properties under the + cognizance of our senses.</p> + + <p>If we weigh the air which carries the poison, or analyze it by the + most delicate chemical tests, or <!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page49"></a>{49}</span>take the weight of the atmosphere which is + charged with it, or if we take the blood which carries the germs of the + disease to the tissues of the body, and submit them after the work of + destruction is accomplished, to the most rigid inspection, we can but + exclaim,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"These are Thy marvellous works!"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>and confess our total inability to fathom the unbounded.</p> + + <p>If then no practical advantage can accrue from investigating the + writings of the ancients on these subjects, beyond comparing their + historical statements with those of more recent date, our purpose will be + served by occasionally embodying any remarkable observations of the + former with those of the latter.</p> + + <p>In proceeding with this course it were better to confine our minds + chiefly to two diseases which appear from history to have been known from + the earliest periods, these are the Plague and the Small Pox, mentioning + other diseases only <i>en route</i>.</p> + + <p>Passing then, to the sixth century of the Christian era for the first + distinct and connected account of the Plague, it appears from a host of + testimony, that the history of this disease, as given by Procopius, well + merits our attention. Drs. Friend and Hamilton, in their Histories of + Medicine, and Gibbon, in his History of Rome, are equally warm in their + praise of Procopius: the latter says, he "emulated the skill and + diligence of Thucydides in the <!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page50"></a>{50}</span>description of the Plague at Athens." The + account given by Procopius of this disease, does not differ materially + from that given by subsequent eye-witnesses of similar pestilences. Its + point of origin is clearly marked, and its mode of dispersion in all + directions distinctly traced from "the neighbourhood of Pelusium, between + the Serbonian bog and the eastern channel of the Nile." It commenced in + the year 542. It raged in Constantinople in the following year, and it + was in this city that our historian gathered the materials which are + handed down to us. When, however, we anxiously look for any explanation + as to the cause of the malady, we are told that it must have been a + direct visitation from Heaven, in consequence of the eccentric characters + exhibited in its wide-spreading influence, in not yielding to the + scrutiny nor bending to the laws known to prevail, and to regulate the + course of other diseases: neither country nor clime, age nor sex, the + strong and healthy, nor the weakly and previously diseased, could be said + to be free from its indiscriminate destruction.</p> + + <p>But some phenomena preceding the outbreak of the pestilence are + observed as coincidences by all authors. Gibbon thus writes: "I shall + conclude this chapter with the comets, the earthquakes, and the plague + which astonished or afflicted the age of Justinian." From the accounts + given by this author, earthquakes for some years had been threatening and + destroying many portions of the globe, <!-- Page 51 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page51"></a>{51}</span>that in the ruins of + cities and in the chasms of the earth, great was the sacrifice of human + life. Constantinople, which suffered so severely from the plague is said + to have been shaken for forty days. These great disturbances of the globe + have been always looked upon as indicating other and important influences + of a secret or hidden nature; these impressions on the minds of the + people are traceable throughout the histories of all epidemics, and have + been sufficiently distinct among the people of our own time, preceding + and during the period of infliction.</p> + + <p>From this short notice of the Plague of 543, I pass to the ninth + century, when Rhazes, the Arabian physician, endeavoured to enlighten the + world on the subject of Small Pox.<a name="NtA19" + href="#Nt19"><sup>[19]</sup></a> In quoting his opinions, I am not to be + understood as subscribing to them, but merely endeavouring to point out + some peculiar and interesting observations.</p> + + <p>First, then, Rhazes attributes the disease to a condition of the + blood, which he thus describes, to shew how it happens that in infancy + and childhood the disease is most prevalent, and that old age is <!-- + Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>{52}</span>least + liable to the affection.<a name="NtA20" href="#Nt20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> + "The blood of infants and children may be compared to <i>must</i>, in + which the coction leading to perfect ripeness has not yet begun, nor the + movement towards fermentation taken place; the blood of young men may be + compared to must which has already fermented and made a hissing noise, + and has thrown out abundant vapours and its superfluous parts, like wine + which is now still and quiet, and arrived at its full strength, and as to + the blood of old men, it may be compared to wine which has now lost its + strength, and is beginning to grow vapid and sour."</p> + + <p>"Now the Small Pox arises when the blood putrifies and ferments, so + that the superfluous vapours are thrown out of it, and it is changed from + the blood of infants which is like must, into the blood of young men + which is like wine perfectly ripened: and the Small Pox itself may be + compared to the fermentation and the hissing noise which take place at + that time."</p> + + <p>But the cause of the disease is simply alluded to by this author, as + depending upon "occult dispositions in the air," and as he speaks here of + Measles with the Small Pox he goes on to say—"which necessarily + cause these diseases and predispose bodies to them." This notion of + Rhazes that there is some peculiar condition of the blood which favours a + process resembling fermentation is not without interest. The circumstance + that individuals are not <!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page53"></a>{53}</span>usually liable to a second attack of the + disease, no doubt directed the attention of this physician to compare the + process of fermentation with disease of such a nature, seeing that when + the whole of the saccharine matter was converted into spirit, the hissing + noise, as he calls it, or the disengagement of carbonic acid gas would + cease, and the capacity for fermentation be entirely gone. So that the + occult conditions of the air, their power of inducing a disease, and + multiplying the matter capable of engendering a similar affection, stood + in the mind of Rhazes as analogous if not identical phenomena.</p> + + <p>We pass now without further comment to the epidemics of the Middle + Ages; and here the work of the philosophical Hecker leaves us little else + to desire in the way of information, as far as it is obtainable from + published records. From the manner in which he has grouped the facts + which presented themselves to his mind in the course of a most laborious + research, he has saved the student of this subject much toil in acquiring + matter for reflection; he has here but to read and digest.</p> + + <p>I know not how to select from this invaluable work the most striking + passages, to strengthen and support my hypothesis, for not a page is + destitute of facts corroborative of the doctrine that vital germs are the + material agents of pestilential disorders. The opening paragraph to the + Black Death is a most cogent illustration of the assertion; it is, as it + were, the theme of the work. "That <!-- Page 54 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page54"></a>{54}</span>Omnipotence, which has + called the world with all <i>its living creatures into one animated + being</i>, especially reveals himself in the desolation of great + pestilences. The powers of creation come into violent collision; the + sultry dryness of the atmosphere; the subterranean thunders; the mist of + overflowing waters are the harbingers of destruction. Nature is not + satisfied with the ordinary alternations of life and death, and the + destroying angel waves over man and beast his flaming sword."</p> + + <p>I must here apologise for large transcripts from Hecker's work, for + neither could I command the amount of knowledge there displayed, nor use + such appropriate language as the learned translator has employed.</p> + + <p>It is not doubted that the Black Death was an Oriental plague, only of + more than usual severity, and wider spread influence of the infectious + nature of this disease, and the active properties of the matter producing + it. Hecker says, "articles of this kind—bedding and + clothes—removed from the access of air, not only retain the matter + of contagion for an indefinite period, <i>but also increase its activity, + and engender it like a living being</i>, frightful ill consequences + followed for many years after the first fury of the pestilence was + past."<a name="NtA21" href="#Nt21"><sup>[21]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"></a>{55}</span></p> + + <p>As extraordinary atmospheric and telluric phenomena preceded the + Plague in the time of Justinian, so do we find similar instances recorded + as the precursor of a similar visitation 700 years later. I am concerned + more with those circumstances which refer more especially to my subject, + <i>viz.</i> the development of organic matter, and the peculiar odours of + the atmosphere, the latter being evidence of some foreign and unusual + production in our respiratory media. "On the island of Cyprus, before the + earthquake, a pestiferous wind spread so poisonous an odour, that many + being overpowered by it, fell down suddenly and expired in dreadful + agonies. A thick stinking mist advanced from the east, and spread itself + over Italy."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page56"></a>{56}</span></p> + + <p>It is probable that the atmosphere contained foreign and sensibly + perceptible admixtures to a great extent, which, at least in the lower + regions, could not be decomposed or rendered ineffective by separation. + In 1348 an unexampled earthquake shook Greece, Italy, and the + neighbouring countries. During this earthquake the wine in the casks + became turbid, a proof that changes causing a decomposition of the + atmosphere had taken place. "The insect tribe was wonderfully called into + life, as if animated beings were destined to complete the destruction + which astral and telluric powers had began."</p> + + <p>"The corruption of the atmosphere came from the east, but the disease + itself came not upon the wings of the wind, but was only excited and + increased by the atmosphere where it had previously existed."</p> + + <p>"The most powerful of all the springs of the disease was contagion; + for in the most distant countries, which had scarcely yet heard the echo + of the first concussion, the people fell a sacrifice to organic poison, + the untimely offspring of vital energies thrown into violent + commotion."</p> + + <p>"After the cessation of the Black Plague, a greater fecundity in women + was every where remarkable, a grand phenomena, which from its occurrence + after every destructive pestilence, proves to conviction the prevalence + of a higher power in the direction of general organic life." <!-- Page 57 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page57"></a>{57}</span></p> + + <p>In the article Contagion, of the Essay, Sweating Sickness: "Most + fevers which are produced by general causes, propagate themselves for a + time spontaneously." "The exhalations of the affected become the germs of + a similar decomposition in those bodies which receive them, and produce + in these a like attack upon the internal organs, <i>and thus a merely + morbid phenomenon of life, shows that it possesses the fundamental + property of all life, that of propagating itself in an appropriate soil. + On this point there is no doubt, the phenomena which prove it have been + observed from time immemorial, in an endless variety of circumstances, + but always with a uniform manifestation of a fundamental law.</i>"</p> + + <p>Mead, in his Essay on the Plague, makes many observations of great + interest and worthy a physician of eminence; and where, in recent times, + shall we look for any more definite information concerning the causes of + pestilences? It is not a little singular that at the time this book was + published, it was read with such avidity that it went through seven + editions in one year.<a name="NtA22" href="#Nt22"><sup>[22]</sup></a> + From this circumstance we may gather that the public generally took a + lively and proper interest in a subject that was not only of domestic, + but national importance. Whether this interest was stimulated by the fact + that the work was written expressly by order of the <!-- Page 58 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page58"></a>{58}</span>government, it is now + impossible to say, at any rate much credit is due to the Lords of the + Regency for having placed so important a duty upon one so thoroughly and + in every way so duly qualified for the task as Dr. Mead. It had been well + if some of the advice given at that time, as means of protection against + the Plague, had been applied and put in force during the late visitation + of epidemic Cholera, for, however the minds of some may be convinced of + the non-contagiousness of Cholera, there are many who hold a different + opinion, and all will acknowledge, that if not strictly a contagious + affection, it is clearly proved to be capable of being carried from place + to place, or to use Dr. Copland's words, it is "a portable disease." But + this is not the place to discuss the subject of contagion, allusion will + be made to it hereafter. To return, Mead's expressions are singularly + illustrative of the vital power possessed by the germs of disease; he + says, "There are instances of the distemper's being stopt by the winter + cold, and yet the seeds of it not destroyed, but only kept unactive, + <i>till the warmth of the following spring has given them new life and + force</i>. His confession as to the hidden cause of the disease, is + worthy transcribing: "We are acquainted too little with the laws, by + which the small parts of matter act upon each other, to be able precisely + to determine the qualities requisite to change animal juices into such + acrimonious humours, or to explain <!-- Page 59 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>{59}</span>how all the + distinguishing symptoms attending the disease are produced."<a + name="NtA23" href="#Nt23"><sup>[23]</sup></a></p> + + <p>On the spread of the Plague is the following:—"The plague is a + <i>real poison</i>, which being bred in the southern parts of the world, + maintains itself there by circulating from infected persons to goods, + that when the constitution of the air happens to favour infection, it + rages with great violence." Contagious matter is lodged in goods of a + loose and soft texture, which being packed up, and carried into other + countries, let out, when opened, the imprisoned seeds of contagion, and + produce the disease whenever the air is disposed to give them force, + "otherwise they may be dispersed without any considerable ill effects." + Gibbon thus speaks of the above quoted work: "I have read with pleasure + Mead's short but elegant Treatise concerning Pestilential Disorders;" + many also might read it at the present day with infinite advantage. Mead + most satisfactorily combats the opinions of the French physicians who + maintained the non-contagiousness of the Plague. Experience proves beyond + doubt, that certain conditions of atmosphere, of <!-- Page 60 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>{60}</span>which we are ignorant, + favour the growth and increase of pestilences as they do of all + vegetation.</p> + + <p>Dr. Bancroft was of opinion that specific contagions are each and + severally creatures of Divine Wisdom, as distinctly and designedly + exerted for their production, as it was to create the several species of + animals and vegetables around us.</p> + + <p>The indigenous fever of Ireland, which has several times shewn itself + in an epidemic form, appears to have been as fatal, as the Plague in the + South of Europe. Its devastations have generally been associated or + preceded by famine and general distress. Dr. Harty, writing in 1820, says + that thrice within the last eighty years has the same fever appeared in + its epidemic character. In the year 1741 Ireland lost 80,000 of her + inhabitants from this cause. It is a maculated typhus, and considered to + be a special product of the Emerald Isle. It has been shewn that fever + began to exceed its ordinary rate in those places first where famine and + want of employment were most severely felt,<a name="NtA24" + href="#Nt24"><sup>[24]</sup></a> and that in such places and under such + circumstances, it was most prevalent and fatal. The physicians generally + believed it to have been spontaneously produced and not to have been + imported. In the last Famine Fever of Ireland, Liverpool and several + other places suffered severely from the <!-- Page 61 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>{61}</span>importation of their + Channel neighbours with the disease in some instances, and the infection + in others about their persons. Hitherto these have to all appearance been + the limits of the affection; we know not, however, how soon the time may + come when the invisible bonds which have thus chained the disease to + certain localities may be severed, and spreading itself like other + pestilences in an aggravated form, attack this country as a last and + crowning act of retributive justice. At present it has but cost us money + and regrets, but if the history of pestilences is to be heeded, there are + many tokens which seem to indicate that a few slight concurrent + circumstances only are wanting, to bring the full force of this disease + upon us; then will there be a sacrifice of life. Edinburgh and other + towns of Scotland have had some visitations already, ourselves but + slightly, but let our labouring population suffer to any large extent for + want of work, and we shall inevitably be the sufferers from that fever + which in consequence of general destitution is now always more or less + prevalent in Ireland.</p> + + <p>The Sweating Sickness prevailed in England alone at first, but at + length sought foreign victims. The Cholera is an exotic disease, as well + as the Plague, but they occasionally have visited our shores, and their + seeds remain among us. The Small Pox is now even not known in some parts + of the world, but when once it is established, who can predict the period + of its first appearance in an <!-- Page 62 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page62"></a>{62}</span>epidemic form. The history of the disease + informs us that in all the countries where it has been introduced, sooner + or later an epidemic has seized the inhabitants.</p> + + <p>A disease previously unknown in India appeared at Rangoon in the year + 1824, which obtained the name of Scarlatina Rheumatica. Four years + afterwards it attacked the Southern States of North America, and though + the disease was so impartial as scarcely to spare a single individual of + any town to which it extended its influence, it was not accompanied with + that mortality which has usually been the characteristic of wide spread + epidemics.</p> + + <p>There is one peculiar feature of all epidemics which may be here + mentioned as indicative of some definite, though at present unaccountable + cause, operating in the sudden suppression of the disease after a certain + period of duration. This distinctive character may almost be considered + as a law in reference to these affections; if we take three distinct + diseases, the Plague, the Irish Fever and the Cholera, we find the rule + apply to all. Of the latter disease we have so recently been witnesses, + that I need not quote authorities on this point concerning it. In Dr. + Patrick Russell's work on the Plague at Aleppo I find the following + remarkable passage. After alluding to the great increase of pestilential + effluvia that there must be towards the close of an epidemic, compared + with the amount at the onset of the disease, and expressing his <!-- Page + 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>{63}</span>astonishment + that so many escape infection, he says: "The fact, however unaccountable, + is unquestionably certain; the distemper seems to be extinguished by some + cause or causes equally unknown, as those which concurred to render it + more or less epidemical in its advance and at its height." He then + mentions that in Europe the sudden cessation may be partly attributable + to the measures adopted for preventing its extension; but "at Aleppo, + where the disease is left to run its natural course, and few or no means + of purification are employed, it pursues nearly the same progress in + different years; it declines and revives in certain seasons, and at + length, without the interference of human aid, ceases entirely."</p> + + <p>The expressions of Dr. Harty on this subject, in connexion with the + Irish Fever, would apply as well to all other epidemics: "It is a fact, + that though every diversity of management was resorted to for effecting + the suppression of the disease, yet, nevertheless, there was an almost + simultaneous and apparently spontaneous decline of the epidemic in the + various and most remote parts of Ireland. It is not an easy matter to + offer a satisfactory explanation of this circumstance, <i>some general + cause must</i> no doubt have influenced the subsidence of the disease, + yet that cause could not be atmospheric, inasmuch as the decline, though + it might be said to be simultaneous, was not sufficiently so to admit of + that explanation."</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>{64}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION III.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE DISPERSION OF PLANTS AND DISEASES.</span></p> + + <p>The dispersion of Diseases and the dispersion of Plants, exhibit + analogies which might be little expected, on a superficial view of the + enquiry.</p> + + <p>We are led to believe, that the earth as a whole, was not covered with + vegetation in a day, the geological history of this planet is one of + development, and though at first sight this expression of opinion may + appear to savour of doubt in the Mosaic record, a more extended + acquaintance with the subject, favours rather and confirms Scripture + history.</p> + + <p>As the peopling of the earth has been a gradual process with the + animal creation, so has it been also with the vegetable kingdom. We see + at the present day, that plants by various means of transit from place to + place, multiply themselves on new soils and in new climes, the same with + animals. By other means we observe, or can trace, the extinction from + various localities and countries, of members of both the animal and + vegetable kingdom.</p> + + <p>We learn that originally this planet had a temperature much higher + than at present, and that the variation of temperature between the + equator and the poles, which we now witness, did not obtain in the + earlier condition of the globe. We are given to understand, and not + without considerable proof, <!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page65"></a>{65}</span>if not demonstration, that the earth was a + vast bog, in which rank vegetation grew, and in which the ichthyosauri + and plesiosauri, must have floundered about as unwieldy and loathsome + bodies. We can readily conceive a condition of atmosphere at this time to + have been loaded with pestiferous vapours of an organized nature; it is + entirely in accordance with all we know, that it should have been so. + Allied forms of plants to those now in existence, are found in the form + of fossils, by which comparisons are made, but how the transition into + the present Flora took place, or at what period, it is impossible to say. + That these plants should have been entirely destroyed during the + revolutions of the earth by earthquakes, and their consequences; the + collection of waters into the vacuities formed, and their draining off + from other places by elevations of the land, is not to be dwelt on + without astonishment; then again the ultimate changes of temperature on + the surface of the earth, may have been another element in the history of + their extinction. But if we may be allowed to imagine that there were + organic germs floating in the vapours of the atmosphere, these would + hardly be subject to the same influences as those which depended solely + on their fixation to the soil for subsistence. The atmosphere, their + native element, being influenced by the commotions from below, would be + agitated; vortiginous currents would be established, hurricanes would + sweep over the stagnant pool and reeking morass, <!-- Page 66 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span>and the higher regions of + the air might have thus given protection to these subtle germs, while + almost a total extinction of the elegant ferns, the stately palm, and the + towering cane was in course of procedure. Then when the strife of the + earth and elements had subsided, these would descend with the gentle + breezes, and again find in various spots a local habitation—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Where blue mists, through the unmoving atmosphere,</p> + <p>Scatter the seeds of pestilence <i>and feed unnatural vegetation</i>."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the new era, when the earth took its present physiognomy, who shall + say whether much of the pestiferous matter may not have been enclosed and + condensed in the bowels of the earth, and when it is remembered, that + earthquakes and convulsions of nature,<a name="NtA25" + href="#Nt25"><sup>[25]</sup></a> have invariably preceded the outbreak of + <!-- Page 67 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>{67}</span>any + great pestilences, that stinking mists, coming from some unknown regions, + and unusual vegetations have made their appearance in concert at these + times, what I ask is more natural than to imagine, that they have been + let loose during the general convulsion? It may be asked, what is to be + said about that revolution of the earth, when the great Deluge spread + over the whole face of the globe? It can only be replied, that this is a + part of the scheme of cosmogony into which we are not called upon to + enter. There are yet strenuous supporters of the partial as well as total + submersion of this planet, but whether it be true that the vast torrents + which appear to have swept the surface uniformly in a southern direction, + were of a date coeval with the deluge, and constituted an essential + portion of the phenomena, of which one was, that "the fountains of the + great deep were broken up," or whether they were anterior to this + catastrophe, will not at all interfere with the conjecture of a very + early formation and propagation of the germs of pestilential diseases, + for the commotions of a deluge were less likely to interfere with the + vapours of the atmosphere, than extensive volcanic and electric + disturbances. Moreover, it is rather in favour of this theory, that the + <!-- Page 68 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page68"></a>{68}</span>regions where the temperature and + exhalations most nearly resemble those of the former condition of the + earth, are those in which pestilential disorders most frequently arise, + and where their virulence has always been most strongly marked.</p> + + <p>After the various commotions which left the globe, with its present + physiognomy of mountains, plains, valleys, rivers, lakes, and oceans; a + new Flora and Fauna appeared to adorn and animate the scene of man's + existence. Plants and animals were created apparently in adaptation to + the numerous climes, which the seasons in the various latitudes or the + elevations of the soil, were prepared to render fruitful and useful each + in its own sphere. Besides this, the plants of the same latitude, in some + instances, differ materially from each other; in this case it seems that + the soil has much to do with this peculiarity, for it is certain that the + soil and the contiguous atmosphere, have a close and intimate relation; + the drought of the desert depends upon the sand, as humid atmosphere is + connected with the morass. To illustrate the tendency which vegetation + shews in appropriating one locality more than another, I may quote the + following: "Some of the volcanic masses of the Æolian or Lipari Islands, + that have existed beyond the reach of history, are still without a blade + of verdure; while others in various parts, of little more than two + hundred years date, bear spontaneous vegetation, and the same is seen on + two lavas of Etna near each other, for the one <!-- Page 69 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page69"></a>{69}</span>of 1536 is still black + and arid, while that of 1636, is covered with oaks, fruit trees, and + vines."</p> + + <p>In comparing the diffusion of plants, and the diffusion of diseases, + the different modes by which this generally has been effected may be + considered under heads, that the comparison may be more readily + traced.</p> + + <p><i>First</i>, seeds are diffused by the atmosphere, either by the + prevalence of certain currents, which are produced by known laws, in + which case, no difficulty occurs in the explanations; or in a more + imperceptible manner, as by those more uncertain atmospheric currents of + a partial nature, which, though they seem to have laws governing them, + are not yet understood.</p> + + <p><i>Second</i>, seeds are transported by water across oceans, &c. + when they can be floated on any material by which they are preserved, as + by wrecks and masses of wood, which have been washed down the rivers.</p> + + <p><i>Third</i>, they are conveyed by man to all parts of the globe.</p> + + <p><i>Fourth</i>, a period of latency is observed to apply to them, that + is, they require certain essential conditions before germination occurs; + so that even in some localities, a plant may not have been known to exist + in a particular neighbourhood, but by a train of circumstances, it may + make its appearance, and again be a centre of development.</p> + + <p>1st. I shall not here wander into the speculation, <!-- Page 70 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page70"></a>{70}</span>whether plants + had originally one birth-place, as a centre from which they spread by + various agencies, as supposed by Linnæus, nor into any enquiry beyond + those facts, which may fairly come within our own comprehension, and + within our own means of demonstration.</p> + + <p>Many seeds are provided with means adapting them for floating in the + atmosphere, these are by pappi, or winglets and hairs, but it cannot be + doubted that the agency of atmospheric currents, is productive of + considerable effects in the dispersion of lighter seeds, such as those of + mosses, fungi, and lichens—lichens have been discovered in + Brittany, which are peculiar to Jamaica, and Monsieur De Candolle + concludes, that their seeds had been carried thence by the south-westerly + winds, which prevail during a great part of the year on this portion of + the French coast.</p> + + <p>But Humboldt's testimony on the subject of winds is most satisfactory, + for he says, "Small singing birds, and even butterflies, are found at + sea, at great distances from the coast (as I have several times had + opportunities of observing in the Pacific), being carried there by the + force of the wind, when storms come off the land." It is generally + believed, from abundance of proofs, that the trade winds, and other + continuous currents, are means by which plants are conveyed from one + country to another.<a name="NtA26" href="#Nt26"><sup>[26]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>{71}</span></p> + + <p>As to the partial currents, Humboldt further says, "The heated crust + of the earth occasions an ascending vertical current of air by which + light bodies are borne upwards. M. Boussingault, and Don Mariano De + Rivero, in ascending the summit of the Silla, one of the gneiss mountains + of Caraccas, saw in the middle of the day, about noon, whitish shining + bodies rise from the valley to the summit of the mountain, 5755 feet + high, and then sink down towards the neighbouring sea coast. These + movements continued uninterruptedly for the space of an hour. The whitish + shining bodies proved to be small agglomerations of straws, or blades of + grass, which were recognized by Professor Kunth, for a species of vilfa, + a genus, which together with agrostis, is very abundant in the provinces + of Caraccas and Cumana."</p> + + <p>On the plague of locusts we read, that "the Lord brought an east wind + upon the land, all that day and all that night, and when it was morning + the east wind brought the locusts."</p> + + <p>On the Black Death we read, "There were many locusts which had been + blown into the sea by a hurricane, and a dense and awful fog was seen in + the heavens, rising in the east, and descending upon Italy."</p> + + <p>Of the Plague of 542, Gibbon says, "The winds might diffuse that + subtle venom, but unless the atmosphere be previously disposed for its + reception, the plague would soon expire in the cold or <!-- Page 72 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>{72}</span>temperate + regions of the north. The disease alternately languished and revived, but + it was not till a calamitous period of fifty-two years, that mankind + recovered their health, or the air resumed its pure and salubrious + quality."</p> + + <p>In the history of the Sweating Sickness, of which there were five + distinct visitations, we find ample allusions to the atmosphere, and the + mode in which the disease was conveyed by this medium.</p> + + <p>I quote again from Hecker: "It seemed that <i>the banks of the + Severn</i> were the <i>focus of the malady</i>, and that from hence, a + true impestation of the atmosphere, was diffused in every direction. + Whithersoever the winds wafted the stinking mists, the inhabitants became + infested with the sweating sickness. <i>These poisonous clouds of mists + were observed moving from place to place</i>, with the disease in their + train, affecting one town after another, and morning and evening + spreading their nauseating insufferable stench. At greater distances, + these clouds being dispersed by the wind, became gradually attenuated yet + their dispersion set no bounds to the pestilence, and it was as if they + had imparted to the lower strata of the atmosphere, <i>a kind of ferment + which went on engendering itself even without the presence of the thick + misty vapour</i>, and being received into men's lungs, produced the + frightful disease everywhere."<a name="NtA27" + href="#Nt27"><sup>[27]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page73"></a>{73}</span></p> + + <p>Mr. K. B. Martin, harbour-master of Ramsgate, in a communication to + Lord Carlisle on the Cholera of last autumn, says, "At midnight of the + 31st August (1849), the Samson (steam-tug) proceeded to the Goodwin + Sands, where the crew were employed under the Trinity agent, assisting in + work carried on there by that corporation. While there, at 3 A.M. 1st + September, <i>a hot humid haze, with a bog-like smell</i>, passed over + them; and the greater number of the men there employed instantly felt a + nausea. They were in two parties. One man at work on the sand was obliged + to be carried to the boat; and before they reached the steam vessel at + anchor, the cramps and spasm had supervened upon the vomitings; but here + they found two of the party on board similarly affected. Here then is a + very marked case without any known predisposing local cause. Doubtless it + was atmospheric, and in the hot blast of pestilence which passed over + them."</p> + + <p>Many more instances might be quoted, to shew that the germs of + disease, as well as of plants, are borne on the wings of the wind from + place to place <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page74"></a>{74}</span>in one country, and from one country to + another, the distance being no obstacle, however great that may be.<a + name="NtA28" href="#Nt28"><sup>[28]</sup></a> "Dust and sands," says + Sharon Turner, "heavier than many seeds, are borne by the winds and + clouds for several hundred miles across the atmosphere, falling on the + earth and seas as they pass along." "The clouds not only bring us + occasionally meteoric stones, hail, and <i>epidemics</i>, but also + vegetable seeds."<a name="NtA29" href="#Nt29"><sup>[29]</sup></a></p> + + <p>2nd. The transportation of seeds of plants by water requires very + little notice; every one is familiar with the mode in which coral + islands, which gradually rise out of the sea, become covered with + vegetation. "If new lands are formed, the organic forces are ever ready + to cover the naked rock with life.—Lichens form the first covering + of the barren <!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page75"></a>{75}</span>rocks, where afterwards lofty forest trees + wave their airy summits. The successive growth of mosses, grasses, + herbaceous plants and shrubs or bushes, occupies the intervening period + of long but undetermined duration."</p> + + <p>The following may be cited as an instance of the transportation of + disease by water. "Cyprus lost almost all its inhabitants, and ships + without crews were often seen in the Mediterranean, or afterwards in the + North Sea, driving about, <i>and spreading the plague wherever they went + on shore</i>."<a name="NtA30" href="#Nt30"><sup>[30]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It requires no argument to enforce the conviction that cottons, + woollens, furs, skins, &c. will retain the matter of infection for + almost an indefinite period; instances of the kind have been already + given; it is therefore easy to understand that portions of wrecks and + ship's goods would be a frequent though unsuspected source of infection. + Dr. Halley mentions a case, in which a bale of cotton was put on shore at + Bermuda by stealth; it lay above a month without prejudice, where it was + hid, but when opened and distributed among the inhabitants, it produced + such a contagion that the living scarce sufficed to bury the dead. Dr. + Walker found seeds dropt accidentally into the sea in the West Indies + cast ashore on the Hebrides. He says, "the sea and rivers waft more seed + than sails." The waters of many rivers induce diarrhœa and + dysentery.<a name="NtA31" href="#Nt31"><sup>[31]</sup></a> Well water + also in many <!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page76"></a>{76}</span>places has a similar effect, especially if + any surface drainage happens to find its way into the well.</p> + + <p>3rd. The part performed by man himself in the communication of disease + to his fellow creatures, is perhaps the most fruitful source of the + extensive spread of epidemic and contagious diseases.</p> + + <p>In the time of Moses, restrictions were laid on those who had the + plague of the leprosy to avoid contagion; the dictum for one so affected + was, "he shall dwell alone; without the camp shall his habitation be."<a + name="NtA32" href="#Nt32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> All the ancient authors + believed in the <!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page77"></a>{77}</span>infectious nature of pestilential fevers, + and some other diseases; but, according. to Mr. Adams, they held that no + specific virus was the cause, and merely a contamination of the + surrounding air by effluvia from the sick. Thucydides, Hippocrates, + Procopius, Galen, Plutarch, all recognized the property of + communicability from one individual to another of the plague; and Hecker, + on the epidemics of the middle ages, abounds with instances in support of + contagion. As regards small-pox and measles, Rhazes observes particularly + the connection that exists between the condition of the air and the + severity or mildness of these diseases, remarking that small-pox seldom + happens to old men, except in pestilential, putrid, and malignant + constitutions of the air in which this disease is usually prevalent.</p> + + <p>The history of the introduction of Scarlet Fever, Hooping Cough, Lues, + and other diseases into the various countries of the globe, is + sufficiently convincing that men carry about with them the seeds of + disease; that while these attach themselves to the persons and clothing + of those who introduce them into new climes, and flourish independently + of cultivation, yet the exotics which they foster with so much care, + often disappoint their most sanguine expectations; and these "languishing + in our <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page78"></a>{78}</span>hothouses can give but a very faint idea of + the majestic vegetation of the tropical zone." Art in this procedure + fails to accomplish here, what nature but too sadly, under some + circumstances, effects most readily. The germs of some diseases though of + an exotic character, under congenial influences of various kinds, appear + to flourish with native vigour: is it not so, also, with some forms of + vegetation? The aloe, a native of Mexico, which lives, but does not + thrive well, or reproduce under ordinary circumstances in this country, + will occasionally send forth a most luxuriant blossom;<a name="NtA33" + href="#Nt33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> so rare is this, that some say it occurs + every 50 or 100 years, but no law seems to be established on this point, + any more than the statement that we may expect pestilential diseases at + certain intervals. But that there are intervals of <i>uncertain</i> + duration when the aloe will blossom, when the grapes will ripen, and a + general productiveness of exotics will occur, is as certain as that + seasons will occur when contagion will be rife, and a most unusual + multiplication of disease prevail. This is not an imaginary or + speculative notion,—all observers of seasons and diseases within + the last twenty years, may fully verify the statement.</p> + + <p>In 1846, a large vine, the black Hambro-grape, <!-- Page 79 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>{79}</span>ripened its fruit out of + doors, and was as fine as any green-house production; but during nine + years that the vine has been under my inspection, this was the only time + I have witnessed such a result.</p> + + <p>We are apt to attribute an abundant or scarce fruit season to + temperature alone, but this is an error—for we have before + remarked, that though certain lands may be in the same degree of + latitude, the plants which thrive well on one land, will not do so on the + other: in fine, that where reason and analogy would lead one to expect a + particular form of vegetation, a totally different Flora is presented to + the view. These facts are indeed suggestive of new and important + deductions. Is it yet explained why the town of Birmingham should be free + from Cholera? There is a large manufacturing population, a great number + of poor, the usual overcrowding of individuals in small chambers, a + considerable amount of destitution and depravity; irregular habits of + living, and unwholesome diet, and doubtless many parts of the town, which + on investigation would have yielded all the elements usually considered + necessary for the localization of the disease: but no—here was some + repelling cause, some opposing agent to the generation and propagation of + the pestilential seeds. There are no known laws by which inorganic matter + could be supposed to observe such a selection, or such an antagonism. + Electricity, magnetism, ozone, gases, exhibit no such elective properties + that here they will destroy, and <!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page80"></a>{80}</span>there they will spare; that they can almost + depopulate small villages, and scarcely find a victim in Birmingham and + Bath. But if we suppose a living, and multiplying matter as the cause of + disease, many local causes may conspire to arrest the development of the + germs, or perhaps, even utterly destroy them.</p> + + <p>4th. As to the time of latency, facts crowd upon us indefinitely, as + elements of comparison between vegetation generally, and disease in its + early stages and history. The seeds of plants are extraordinarily + tenacious of life. What a mysterious arrangement of the ultimate + particles of matter must there be, by which the vital force remains + apparently inactive for many years, and yet when the conditions arise + favourable to its manifestation, as it were by an extraordinary fiat, + life appears.</p> + + <p>Previous to the year 1715, no broom grew in the King's Park, at + Stirling; but in that year a camp was formed there, and the surface of + the ground consequently was broken in many places. Wherever it was + broken, broom sprang up. The plant was subsequently destroyed; but in + 1745 a similar growth appeared after the ground had been again broken for + a like purpose. Some time afterwards the park was ploughed up, and the + broom became generally spread over it. "In several places in the + neighbourhood of Edinburgh," says Professor Graham, "the breaking of the + surface produces an abundant crop of Fumaria parviflora, <!-- Page 81 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>{81}</span>although the + same plant had never before been observed in the neighbourhood. It is + impossible to say the lapse of time since these were buried, before they + were again excited to the performance of all their vital functions." Dr. + Graham also gives another proof of the vital force existing in seeds. "To + the westward of Stirling there is a large peat bog, a great part of which + has been flooded away by raising water from the River Teith, and + discharging it into the Forth,—the under soil of clay being then + cultivated. The clergyman of the parish standing by while the workmen + were forming a ditch in this clay, which had been covered with fourteen + feet of peat earth, saw some seeds in the clay which was thrown out of + the ditch; he took some of them up and sowed them: they germinated and + produced a crop of Chrysanthemum septum. What a period of years must have + elapsed while the seeds were getting their covering of clay, and while + this clay became buried under fourteen feet of peat earth!"<a + name="NtA34" href="#Nt34"><sup>[34]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>{82}</span></p> + + <p>What limit can there be to the dispersion of seeds when their vital + properties may remain so long unimpaired? The seeds of which we have been + speaking were, no doubt many of them, washed away with the waters of the + Teith, and carried by the stream into the Forth; and who shall then mark + their destination; for we have seen that by such means the most distant + lands are supplied with vegetation; for whence come the plants which + cover the Coral Islands, unless by the air and the water, and that both + contribute, has been incontestably proved. Dr. Lindley states that melon + seeds have been known to grow when forty-one years old; maize thirty + years, rye forty years, the sensitive plant sixty years, kidney-beans a + hundred years. But seeds in general have an indefinite period, + apparently, at which they can retain their power of germination; for many + of the seeds which had been kept in the herbarium of Tournefort for more + than a century, were found to have preserved their fertility.</p> + + <p>It has now to be shewn that the germs of disease also retain their + vital powers in a state of dormancy during a lengthened period.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>{83}</span></p> + + <p>Mead has very judiciously observed, "to breed a distemper, and to give + force to it when bred, are two different things." He further remarks, + that the seeds of the Plague may confine themselves to a house or two + during a hard frosty winter, and be preserved, and again put forth their + malignant quality as soon as the warmth of the spring gives them force. + It is certainly very remarkable that the Plague of London, which + commenced at the latter end of the year 1664, should "lie asleep," as + Mead says, from Christmas to the middle of February, and then break out + in the same parish.</p> + + <p>It has been also known that an infected bed laid by for seven years + had done infinite mischief on being again brought into use. Indeed, it is + quite uncertain for how long a period woollen, fur, linen, cotton, and + other articles may retain infectious matter in a dormant state. It has + been supposed by some that in closely packed bed and body clothes a + multiplication of the germs may and does take place, nor do I see any + reason why this should not be the case, for these articles contain within + their structure the effluvia of the animal body, and they may possibly + there find sufficient nutriment for their development. Nees von Esenbeck + believed that some of the minute Cryptogamia were re-produced in the air, + we are not therefore exceeding philosophical conjecture when we imagine a + basis and substratum, though an unusual one, for the germs of vegetation. + Exclusion from air and light, <!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page84"></a>{84}</span>however, as would be the case in packed-up + clothes, would <i>a priori</i> give a better colour to the conjecture, as + these are the usual conditions necessary for the growth of seeds.</p> + + <p>Small Pox and Cow Pox matter, which are now proved to be the same + virus, the former modified by having been through a process of growth and + maturation in the cow, are both remarkable for exhibiting their active + properties after having lain dormant for a considerable time. And each, + though so closely allied, retaining its specific properties.</p> + + <p>This peculiarity in the history of Small Pox virus suggests a + comparison with some phenomena of vegetation, <i>viz.</i> that of + grafting or budding. The lower Cryptogamia in their fructifications + resemble rather multiplication by buds than by seeds. M. Moyen's idea is + that every spore or little globule, independently of its neighbouring + one, lives, absorbs, assimilates, grows, and re-produces on its own + account; this is certainly the characteristic of the Torula and the + Uredo, and doubtless is so of many other of the Cryptogamia, the + Protococcus nivalis is another instance. Other modes of cultivation + produce also great varieties of results of an unexpected kind.</p> + + <p>Would any one, says Dr. Walker, imagine that cabbage, cauliflower, + savoy, kale, brocoli, and turnip-rooted cabbage, were the same species? + yet nothing is more certain than that they are only varieties produced by + the cultivation of the Brassica oleracea, <!-- Page 85 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>{85}</span>a plant which grows wild + on the sea-shores of Europe.</p> + + <p>These varieties in vegetables have now become permanent, and though it + is supposed that each is liable to return to its original condition, I am + not yet certain that such is the tendency. A deterioration is not + unlikely to ensue in the course of time, because the propagation by seeds + must necessarily very much approach the system of intermarriage, on which + Mr. Walker has so ably written and clearly shewn that as a result we may + invariably expect a deterioration of the species. Dr. Darwin has also + poetically described what his experience taught him.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"So grafted trees with shadowy summits rise,</p> + <p>Spread their fair blossoms and perfume the skies,</p> + <p><i>Till canker taints the vegetable blood</i>,</p> + <p>Mines round the bark and feeds upon the wood;</p> + <p>So years successive from perennial roots,</p> + <p>The wire or bulb with lessened vigour shoots,</p> + <p>Till curled leaves or barren flowers betray</p> + <p>A waning lineage verging to decay;</p> + <p>Or till amended by connubial powers,</p> + <p>Rise seedling progenies from sexual flowers."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The minute nature of the germs of disease preclude all possibility of + their being submitted, as far as we know at present, to the inspection of + the physiologist, but we may infer many facts from results. In the same + way, though with humbler <!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page86"></a>{86}</span>ideas, as Cuvier could build up an animal + from a single bone, can we by a combination of facts infer the existence + of living beings and conjecture their forms. "The re-production or + generation of living organized bodies is the great criterion or + characteristic which distinguishes animation from mechanism." We find the + virus of Small Pox, according to Mr. Ceely's experiments, developing + itself as a constitutional disease upon the cow, and becoming modified + into a form known as the Cow Pox; this resembles the process of + cultivation by which a species is converted into a variety, this variety + remains for a certain time persistent; the time is not yet known, but it + is known that by degrees, as stated above, a deterioration occurs, and + fertility becomes impaired, "a waning lineage verging to decay," and this + has been observed as a feature in the result of vaccination. I believe + Dr. Gregory was one of the first to notice this fact, and deemed it + necessary to obtain fresh lymph from the cow; this has been done, and it + is not improbable, if the analogy we have drawn be correct, that the + slowly spreading scepticism regarding vaccination may be arrested in its + progress. If we can explain the deterioration of cow pox virus on this + principle we have a hold at once upon the public, and can assure them + that the efficacy of the proceeding is as certain as in the time of + Jenner. The people, I contend, have a right to demand of us the reason + why vaccination is not so efficacious as formerly, and I <!-- Page 87 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>{87}</span>affirm as + unhesitatingly that we are bound to give the subject our most earnest + attention.<a name="NtA35" href="#Nt35"><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Now concerning the re-production of Cow Pox matter, and assuming it to + resemble that of the lower Cryptogamia, we can easily understand how + degeneration in a course of years should ensue, for we find that though + the Small Pox is a constitutional disease, that produced by vaccine lymph + is a local affection, so that it bears the relation that grafting does to + vegetation, and it is not improbable that such a modification takes place + in the germs by passing through or becoming generated in the blood of the + cow, that they entirely lose their original and characteristic form of + reproduction: the seeds of the disease were originally capable of + vegetating, if I may be allowed to use the term, by diffusion through the + atmosphere; they now, however, have lost that property, and require to be + grafted to exhibit any manifestation of vitality.</p> + + <p>How often will the seeds of a cultivated fruit grow? If you bud it + upon another plant, you obtain a being exactly like the parent, but this, + as we have seen, deteriorates in a course of years, we have also seen + that the virus deteriorates; but not to stretch this point to an unseemly + length, I cannot avoid expressing my conviction, that these are elements + of comparison, possessing an interest and a practical utility of no small + value.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>{88}</span></p> + + <p>I have before said, that the reproduction in the Cryptogamia, rather + resembles budding than seeding. If we observe the Torula, or take the + process of all formation, generally it will be found to accord more + exactly with the budding than the seeding process, and this peculiarity + is not confined to vegetation, it is also a marked feature in the + reproduction of infusoria, sponges, polypes, &c.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"New buds surround the microscopic plant."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The reproduction of plants and animals appears to be of two kinds, + solitary and sexual; the former occurs in the formation of the buds of + trees, and the bulbs of tulips.</p> + + <p>The microscopic productions of spontaneous vitality propagate by + solitary generation only.</p> + + <p>We have but reached the threshold of this vast and interesting + subject, the experiments which suggest themselves to the mind while + reflecting upon it, would alone occupy a whole life of leisure, and I can + but feel how forcibly Mr. Sewell's words apply to us: "The grand field of + investigation lies immediately before us, we are trampling every hour + upon things which to the ignorant seem nothing but dirt, but to the + curious are precious as gold."</p> + + <p>It is difficult, perhaps, to bring many instances, in which the germs + of disease have lain dormant for a lengthened period, because many may + take exception to them, from the fact, that sporadic cases of <!-- Page + 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>{89}</span>most epidemic + and infectious diseases, are rarely absent from any country in which + those diseases have become indigenous, and these cases may be said to be + the foci whence originates the epidemic constitution of the air; this, + however, would not invalidate the supposition, because one of two + inferences must be drawn, either that the germs of disease always exist + in a dormant state, requiring circumstances and conditions only for their + development, or that the germs are imported from some distant locality, + where the disease has occurred, and finding a nidus there, grow and + multiply.<a name="NtA36" href="#Nt36"><sup>[36]</sup></a> Whichever + notion we take, however, matters very little to the fact of the dormancy + of the germs, for in both, a certain period elapses between their + transmission and their propagation. It may fairly be presumed, that + sometimes one method may apply <!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page90"></a>{90}</span>and sometimes the other, perhaps both during + general epidemic conditions of the atmosphere.</p> + + <p>The Oidium vitis attacked the vines partially last year, and I believe + generally spared other forms of vegetation; but this year in my vicinity, + cucumbers, melons, and vegetable marrows, are all suffering more or less + under the disease.<a name="NtA37" href="#Nt37"><sup>[37]</sup></a> How + shall we say, whether are the seeds of last year the cause of the general + diffusion at the present time, or were there a sufficient number of old + and dormant seeds, universally diffused, and only waiting opportunities + for multiplying themselves? We are here on the horns of a dilemma; and + spontaneous generation, from which one naturally shrinks, can alone + extricate us, if we do not admit diffusion and dormancy. I think I may, + without undue assumption, affirm that a period of latency of indefinite + duration, applies as cogently to the germs of disease as to those of + plants.</p> + + <p>There is yet one other point in connection with this subject, and that + is the apparent extinction of some diseases, at any rate their + non-appearance in certain localities, which had been at one time + congenial to them, and in which they flourished. We have seen, in + illustrating the dormancy of seeds, that the broom must have been a + common plant at <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page91"></a>{91}</span>some considerable period back, in the King's + Park at Stirling, or on that site.</p> + + <p>Then again, the appearance of Fumaria parviflora in the vicinity of + Edinburgh, in several places where the ground is broken, is sufficiently + convincing that this plant must once have been a common form of + vegetation there; and as it had never before been observed in the + neighbourhood, there must have been a combination of peculiar + circumstances capable of rendering germination impossible, otherwise a + continued multiplication, as in other forms of vegetation, would have + followed of necessity.</p> + + <p>But besides these instances, how many are passing under our own eyes + of the disappearance of plants under the influence of cultivation, and + the generation of the noxious fumes arising from different and + innumerable manufactories. In the vicinity of large cities and + manufacturing towns, how rarely do we see healthy vegetation; shrubs and + animals drag on a sickly and almost unprolific existence, and their term + of natural life is much shortened.</p> + + <p>And if we compare diseases with this peculiar feature of vegetation, + how very close do we find the analogies. The Sweating Sickness which + appeared in the latter part of the fifteenth century, and at certain + intervals multiplied and extended itself at first only in this country, + but ultimately more or less over the continent of Europe, has <!-- Page + 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>{92}</span>never since + the year 1551 shewn any symptom of productiveness, indeed for all we know + the disease may be extinct; on the other hand, it is impossible to say + whether or not circumstances may arise, under which it may commence + again, to put forth its energies and again desolate the land.<a + name="NtA38" href="#Nt38"><sup>[38]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Since 1665, the Bubo-plague has not found a congenial soil in this + country, or if the seeds be here, which is more than probable, the + necessary conditions to excite them to activity do not exist.</p> + + <p>It cannot be imagined that with all the merchandize which comes into + this country from the Mediterranean, but that an abundance of the germs + of the disease are annually brought into our ports, and disseminated + throughout the land. The law by which we have seen that they possess a + power of vitality and reproduction, holds now as it did in former + times;—the properties of matter never alter, but the conditions + under which they exist may be so modified, as to influence their + properties, and the usual course of their operations. It is therefore to + <!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>{93}</span>an + alteration or modification of conditions that we are to look for the + exemption, during the last two centuries, from an invasion of the Plague. + To say what those conditions may be in their totality is difficult, + perhaps impossible. We may generalize on the subject, and imagine the + reason discovered, but all those causes which were said to have conspired + to favour the spread and contamination with Plague, were as distinctly + specified and attributed, as the cause of our late infliction with + Epidemic Cholera. Why then did we have the Cholera and not the Plague? To + what particular element was it—in the mode of living, of + destitution, of filth and want of drainage—can it be ascribed that + we suffer under one disease, and not under the other?</p> + + <p>We have made some few observations and comparisons on the mode of + dispersion of plants and diseases,—but there is yet one more point + which invites notice. Not only do seasons vary in their effects on + vegetation in a remarkable and unexplained manner, but there are many + localities to which some special form of vegetation attaches, and which + appear to have a power of exclusion of other forms; and as yet I have not + been able to trace the connexion, nor can I discover it in the writings + of botanists and travellers, who would be most likely to have sought an + explanation of so interesting and curious a fact. Dr. Prichard has on + this subject some very apposite illustrations. "Still further southward, + the austral temperated zone completely <!-- Page 94 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>{94}</span>changes the physiognomy + of vegetation, and the Isle of Norfolk has, in common with New Holland, + the Auracania found also in the harbour of Balade, and with New Zealand, + the Phormium tenax. It is however remarkable, that this vast island, + composed of two lands, separated by a channel, though so near New + Holland, and lying under the same latitude, differs from it so + completely, that they display no resemblance in their vegetation. Yet New + Zealand, so rich in genera peculiar to its soil, and little known, has + some Indian plants: such as Pepper, the Olea, and a reniform Fern, which + is said to exist in the Isle of Maurice."</p> + + <p>I must quote one more passage from Dr. Prichard's excellent work. "We + have one instance of an island at no great distance from a continent, + having a peculiar vegetation. Mr. R. Brown has remarked, that there is + not even a single indigenous species characterising the vegetation of St. + Helena, that has been found either on the banks of the Congo, or on any + other part of the Western coast of Africa. Does the diversity of marine + and atmospheric currents more completely separate this island from the + continent, than its situation would imply; or are the nature of soil and + other local circumstances, the cause of so marked a diversity? The last + supposition seems the most probable; because not only the species of + plants, but likewise the genera in St. Helena, are different from those + of the African coast." <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page95"></a>{95}</span></p> + + <p>We are not without instances of diseases, observing this peculiarity + which attaches to plants; but their specific characters have hardly been + sufficiently considered in reference to climate and situation, together + with diet and local influences, to afford us accurate data for + comparison. It has, however, been remarked, in every country where + Epidemics have prevailed, that some districts or tracts of country, + though supposed to possess all the qualities favourable to the + development of the diseases, have nevertheless been entirely or nearly + free from them. The following passage on the course of the Cholera gives + an example of this peculiarity. "Whenever the malady deviated, so to + speak, from its normal direction, and passed towards the west, it seemed + incapable of propagating itself; and <i>died away spontaneously, even in + places which appeared to be well fitted for its reception</i>.—The + rich fertile and densely peopled countries to the right of the Dneiper, + enjoyed an equal freedom from attack, which can only be explained by the + fact that they were situated <i>beyond the line of the disease</i>." With + this I close the subject of the diffusion of plants and diseases, though + it would require a volume of itself, to record all that has been noticed. + I have endeavoured to select such instances as shall mark distinctly the + features which point to comparison without overloading the enquiry.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page96"></a>{96}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION IV.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE RELATION BETWEEN EPIDEMIC AND ENDEMIC DISEASES.</span></p> + + <p>Epidemic diseases, which multiply their germs in any climate, and + under apparently the most varying conditions of temperature and + hygrometric and electrical states of atmosphere, offer many points of + contrast with Endemic affections, and many of relationship. The latter + are traceable to a certain extent, to geological and geographical + positions of the localities where they are observed to prevail, in + combination with atmospheric vicissitudes and peculiarities, as well as + to extent of cultivation of the soil: it has been remarked that the + sickly island (as it is called) of St. Lucia has certain salubrious + parts, but these are where sulphur abounds; this geological peculiarity + has been deemed sufficient to account for the absence of endemic + affections in these parts, and with much force of reason; for in the + neighbourhoods where sulphur or sulphurous acid, a compound of sulphur, + is an element prevalent in the soil or atmosphere, vegetation and the + ague disappear together.</p> + + <p>Now ague, and other endemic fevers, doubtless originate from some + allied, if not identical cause; for the localities in which they appear + have so many <!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page97"></a>{97}</span>features in common, that we are constrained + to acknowledge that endemic fevers have some relations and analogies, + though not yet unravelled.</p> + + <p>Geographical situation, together with certain vegetation, particularly + of grounds which grow rice, is one remarkable for the production of + endemic affections. But the soil which generates or gives force to the + contaminating matter, is not alone the part where human beings feel its + influence most severely. A low marshy ground, prolific of malaria, may be + comparatively free; while some neighbouring elevated land, to which + prevailing currents of air waft the volatile elements of disease, may be + desolated by their virulent and concentrated action. "Malaria may be + conveyed a considerable distance from its source, <i>and be condensed</i> + in the exhaled vapour, when attracted by hills or acclivities in the + vicinity, and when there are no high trees or woods to confine it, or to + intercept it in its passage."</p> + + <p>The inhabitants of the city of Abydos were at one time subject to + disease, arising from malaria, generated in some neighbouring marshes; by + draining these marshes, which suspended the growth of rank vegetation, + the city became healthy.</p> + + <p>Rome is in like manner even now subject to fevers, having a similar + origin. Sir James Clark says, "Among the more prevalent diseases of Rome, + malaria fevers are the most remarkable, and claim our first notice." He + considers the fevers to be of exactly the same nature as those of + Lincolnshire <!-- Page 98 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page98"></a>{98}</span>and Essex in this country, of Holland, and + certain districts over the greater part of the globe. To the climate, the + season, or the concentration of the cause of these fevers, he attributes + their varieties. It is the same disease, he says, whether from the swamps + of Walcheren, or the pestilential shores of Africa.</p> + + <p>From July to October the inhabitants of Rome are most subject to these + affections.</p> + + <p>Sir James Clark further says: "It may be stated as a general rule, + that houses in confined shaded situations, with damp courts or gardens, + or standing water close to them, are unhealthy in every climate and + season; but especially in a country subject to intermittent fevers, and + during summer and autumn. The exemption of the central parts of a large + town from these fevers, is explained by the dryness of the atmosphere, + and by the comparative equality of temperature which prevails there."</p> + + <p>In this respect there is a marked difference between an epidemic and + an endemic affection; for when an epidemic disease attacks a city or town + we do not discover that the central parts are more exempt than others; + indeed, it is rather the contrary; for the most crowded parts of towns + and cities are those, if not exactly in the centre, which would be + comprised in a space nearer to the centre than the circumference; and it + has been in those parts generally where the epidemic influences seem to + have exercised the most potent sway. One would more naturally suppose, + that a city surrounded by <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page99"></a>{99}</span>paludal miasm, and not itself being capable + of generating the poison, should be more affected at the circumference, + from the simple fact that the paludal germs, which rise in the air, are + suspended in the fogs and dews of the atmosphere. These, unless widely + dispersed by the winds, would remain within a comparatively confined + space; and those situations nearest to them would be most subject to + their influence. Besides, it has been shewn, that a small wood or hill, + or even a wall, has been sufficient to cut off or obstruct the paludal + miasm.</p> + + <p>Without enumerating all the known endemic diseases, two or three may + be alluded to for our present purpose; viz. that of shewing that endemic + and epidemic diseases have a similar origin.<a name="NtA39" + href="#Nt39"><sup>[39]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It is well known that under certain favouring conditions an endemic + may become a malignant and pestilential disease; that Yellow Fever, which + is always endemic in the west, Cholera in the east, and the Plague in the + south of Europe and north of Africa, every few years takes on an epidemic + form, and desolates considerable tracts of country.<a + href="#Nt39"><sup>[39]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The Pestilence which raged in the summer and autumn of 1804 in Spain, + commenced at Malaga, and remained for a considerable time confined to its + <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page100"></a>{100}</span>boundaries, in consequence of the measures + of precaution that were used, in preventing all communication between the + inhabitants of the infected city and those living in the surrounding + country. It was only in consequence of persons escaping through the + cordon, and passing into the interior of the country, that the disease + spread, and extended its ravages to distant places.</p> + + <p>It appears to be quite clear, that this disease may properly be + considered in the first instance of endemic origin; but the tendencies, + atmospheric and otherwise, were such as to favour its multiplication in + other districts than that in which it first came into active existence. + From this we may infer, that the seeds of the disease were dormant, and + only became roused into vital activity by fortuitous circumstances. Dr. + Rush states, that the endemic disorders of Pennsylvania were converted, + by clearing the soil, to bilious and malignant remittents, and to + destructive epidemics. Dr. Copland says, it has been observed, especially + in warm climates, and in hot seasons in temperate countries, that when + the air has been long undisturbed by high winds and thunder-storms, and + at the same time hot and moist, endemic diseases have assumed a very + severe and even epidemic character.</p> + + <p>Dr. Robertson also confirms this view. "Endemic diseases, in cases of + neglect and preposterous management, are found to become more malignant + even in the most temperate climates; and to <!-- Page 101 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>{101}</span>generate a matter in + their course, capable of producing a particular disease in any + circumstances. <i>Indeed the origin of every</i> contagious fever + unattended with eruptions, with the exception of Plague, must commence in + this way." Why Dr. Robertson should except eruptive Fevers and Plague I + cannot understand, for they must have had a commencement; and their many + points of similarity indicate, if not an identical, an analogous source + to other endemic fevers.</p> + + <p>It will doubtless be generally acknowledged that endemic and epidemic + diseases depend upon some unknown agents, having their source in + malarious districts, and being capable of assuming either a contagious or + non-contagious character, according to circumstances.</p> + + <p>If, therefore, we find that under any conditions an endemic affection + becomes capable of being propagated by contagion, the same law will hold + with regard to it as to the Plague; that the power of reproduction in + this matter is evidence of life, according to the doctrine laid down in + the earlier part of this work. But whether or not infection be admitted, + a matter generated in a malarious district, if confined in its effects to + that district alone, would not necessarily imply an inorganic nature of + the poison; for it is difficult to understand how inorganic poison, + prevailing generally over a certain tract of country, could select + particular individuals for its victims. If chloroform, chlorine, carbonic + acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, or even spores of poisonous fungi, (as <!-- + Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page102"></a>{102}</span>supposed by Mitchell, which, as he regards + their effects, would act in a similar manner to inorganic compounds) were + the agents, all persons would suffer more or less, and the majority be + similarly affected. We do not find that uniformity of symptoms, which + attend upon the exhibition of poisons in the ordinary acceptation of the + term, poisoning. This subject shall be more particularly considered, when + treating of the influence of organic germs on animals and plants.</p> + + <p>The history of the Eclair steamer is particularly interesting, as + shewing the extraordinary tenacity with which the germs of disease attach + themselves to vessels, which we may call floating houses.</p> + + <p>The crew of the Eclair contracted Yellow Fever on the coast of Africa, + and a number of them died. The remainder, sick and well, landed at Bona + Vista, one of the Cape de Verde Islands, and the vessel underwent a + process of washing, whitewashing, and fumigating. Nevertheless, on the + return of the ship's company, the disease broke out again with equal + intensity, and the vessel was ordered home. Sixty-five out of 146 + officers and men, who composed the crew, died of the disease before + reaching Portsmouth, and twenty-three were sick at the time of + arrival.</p> + + <p>Eight days after the Eclair left Bona Vista, a Portuguese soldier who + had mixed with her crew died in the fort which had been occupied by them. + Other soldiers then fell sick, and the fort was abandoned. The fever + still spread.</p> + + <p>From the 20th September, when the first soldier <!-- Page 103 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>{103}</span>was attacked, to the + first week in December, the fever continued to rage, and at that period + it had found its way into almost all the country villages. The fever was + believed to be the genuine black vomit fever; it proved contagious almost + without exception to the nurses of the sick.</p> + + <p>This is an abstract of Mr. Rendell's letter to Lord Aberdeen, Mr. + Rendell being British Consul at Bona Vista.</p> + + <p>Now at the time the fever broke out in the island the weather was + extraordinarily hot, and much rain had fallen, and the town itself was + badly drained and in a filthy state; can it be imagined then that the + seeds of a disease liable to assume a pestilential character should lie + dormant or be annihilated under circumstances the most favourable for + their development, especially when we know that endemic diseases may + assume a malignant character?</p> + + <p>This is just one of many cases which confirm our opinion in this + respect, that plants and diseases are not long in making their appearance + where the soil and atmosphere are congenial.</p> + + <p>The tenacity with which the disease attached itself to the Eclair is + sufficiently explained in the absence of due ventilation; in fact, that + in the first instance there was no ventilation at all in the hold of the + ship. This also the more readily affords a clue to the disaster through + all its stages, first in the contraction of the disease as an endemical + affection in the vessel; secondly, in the multiplication of the <!-- Page + 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"></a>{104}</span>germs in + the damp ill-ventilated hold, in a warm climate; and thirdly, the + persistence and entire localization of the disease to the vessel when it + arrived in the climate of the British shores; while, fourth and lastly, + in the unusually hot and damp island of Bona Vista, the seeds of the + disease were sown, and, as we might expect, multiplied indefinitely.</p> + + <p>The consecutive attacks of the crew of the Eclair shew that here a + noxious gas or a vaporized inorganic poison could not have been the cause + of the disease, for as I have before said, in this case the attacks + should have been simultaneous; we find, on the contrary, that as the + depressing effects of the melancholy condition of the crew was almost + hourly undermining the health of the stoutest of them they as surely + became the victims. The Kroomen, or natives on board the ship had not + suffered, shewing that they were inured to the miasm, or were destitute + of that condition of blood which would be favourable to a propagation of + the materies of the disease.</p> + + <p>The Eclair we learn had left Bona Vista eight days when the first + victim breathed his last; this would give perhaps three or four days for + the incubation of the disease in the patient, or supposing he had not + contracted the germs of the disease before the crew of the Eclair left + the fort, some local favouring conditions were the means of keeping the + germs in a fertilizing state, for it is clear from this spot the + infection spread as from a centre or focus. <!-- Page 105 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>{105}</span>Such instances as these + might be multiplied to extend the length of the enquiry, but, I think, to + little advantage. The chief facts to be gathered are that an endemic + affection became epidemic and pestilential, contrary to its usual mode, + for the Portuguese official physician, on being consulted by the Governor + of the Island as to the safety of landing the contaminated crew, said, + "No danger at all; I have often brought sick men on shore coming in + vessels from the African coast, and I never knew any ill effects to + arise." Putting the most reasonable construction on this emphatic and + straightforward language, we may presume that ordinary, remittent, and + yellow fever had been commonly imported into the island, for it is not to + be supposed but that both forms of disease must have existed among those + sick men who had "<i>often been landed</i>," under the sanction of the + Portuguese physician.</p> + + <p>To take another instance; intermittent fever or ague, is a disease + known among almost all nations of the world, but it usually occurs in the + endemic form only. It is universally supposed to depend entirely upon + marsh effluvia, and we are accustomed to consider it as attaching only to + low lying countries;<a name="NtA40" href="#Nt40"><sup>[40]</sup></a> but + this is not always the case, for disease in <!-- Page 106 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>{106}</span>this respect, like + vegetation, may be found in various latitudes, to accommodate itself at + varying altitudes, to the temperature and climatic relations, so as to + appear indigenous. But though our prejudices are in favour of a simple + miasmatic source of ague, as its sole cause, there are some who believe + in its infectious nature. M. Sigaud, in his work on the Climate and + Diseases of Brazil, speaks of Epidemics of <i>grave intermittent + Fever</i>, and Dr. Copland says, that the epidemic prevalence of ague is + a better established fact than its infection, and has been admitted by + most writers.<a name="NtA41" href="#Nt41"><sup>[41]</sup></a> We have, + therefore, but to go one step further to arrive at infection, after + having found that an endemic disease under peculiar circumstances, though + but rarely, becomes <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page107"></a>{107}</span>epidemic. The number of persons attacked + by ague in a malarious district, in proportion to the population, is not + so great as might be expected, considering that they are always subject + by night and day, more or less, to respire the air containing the germs + of intermittent fever; we might, therefore, deny the paludal source of + the affection, as reasonably as deny infection, if we found that + occasionally, persons, though subject to all the usual influences, yet + escaped all injurious consequences.</p> + + <p>There are grades and varieties of infectious diseases, from the most + inveterate to the most mild and doubtful; but that all, without + exception, which can in any way be traced to a specific generating and + organic cause, may assume an exalted infectious character, and that the + most inveterate, on the contrary, may more resemble the mild and + doubtfully infectious forms, is a conviction that must be forced on all + who pursue this enquiry with unbiassed interest.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 108 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>{108}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE REASONABLENESS OF THE APPLICATION +OF THE FACTS TO THE INFERENCE.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION I.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE CHEMICAL THEORY OF EPIDEMICS UNTENABLE.</span></p> + + <p>It has been inferred that the germs of disease possess the property of + vitality, and a number of facts have been adduced to support the + proposition that vitality is the indwelling force by which the matter + generating epidemic and endemic disease exercises its influence over man + and animals. The reasonableness of the application of these facts to the + end in view has now to be considered. Chemistry cannot account for + epidemics.</p> + + <p>Our first subject of reflection points to the chemical discoveries of + the last few years, and particularly to those of the great German chemist + Liebig. We find in the first paragraph of his Organic Chemistry applied + to Physiology and Pathology, the following words: "In the animal ovum, as + well as in the seed of the plant, we recognize a certain remarkable + force, <i>the source of growth</i> or increase in the mass, <i>and of + reproduction</i> or of supply of the matter consumed; a force in a state + of rest. By the action of external influences, by impregnation, by the + presence of air and moisture, the condition <!-- Page 109 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>{109}</span>of static equilibrium + is disturbed. This force is called the <i>vital force</i>, <i>vis + vitæ</i>, or vitality."</p> + + <p>The doctrine of Liebig, that the vital force manifests itself in two + conditions, or rather, that it is known to be in two different states, + that of static equilibrium as in the seed, and in a dynamic state, as in + that of growth and reproduction, is perfectly applicable to the germs of + disease; the static equilibrium is referrible to the matter of vaccine + lymph when dried and preserved for use, and the dynamic forces of the + matter are known to be in operation during its reproduction and growth in + the system of the vaccinated child.</p> + + <p>Then as to reproduction of matter by any chemical process, our author + can furnish us with no examples, for even in his explanation of the + causes of disease he is quite silent on this point, merely acknowledging + that diseased products must be either rendered "harmless, destroyed, or + expelled from the body." He further says, that "in all diseases where the + formation of contagious matter and of exanthemata is accompanied by + fever, two diseased conditions simultaneously exist, and two processes + are simultaneously completed," and that it is by means of the blood as a + carrier of oxygen that neutralization or equilibrium is established. + Liebig thus admits that an agent exists in the blood, capable of + deteriorating it at the expense of the oxygen, which he maintains is + contained in the red globules; he further acknowledges that two processes + of diseased <!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page110"></a>{110}</span>action are going on at the same time, and + though he does not explain them, I imagine him to mean that new + contagious matter is generated and eliminated from the blood, and that at + the same time, there is that condition of body which he would call simply + a diseased state, and characterizes it thus: "Disease occurs when the sum + of vital force which tends to neutralize all causes of disturbance, (in + other words, when the resistance offered by the vital force) is weaker + than the acting cause of the disturbance."</p> + + <p>If I rightly apprehend his notions, they perfectly harmonize with my + ideas, to a certain extent, on the subject. They accord, at any rate, + most completely with the theory attempted to be established, and fully + confirm the reasonableness of the application of the facts recorded to + the inference drawn from other sources. The difference only rests on the + question whether vitalized or non-vitalized matter is the <i>fons et + origo mali</i>.</p> + + <p>How is the production of new matter, resembling that originally + causing the disease, to be explained by any known hypothesis, except on + the assumption of living organized matter? Though Liebig and Mulder both + deny the fact, that the Torula cerevisiæ is the sole agent in the process + of fermentation: they both equally fail in shewing upon what it does + depend, and their difficulty rests entirely on their incapacity to + explain the uniform reproductive properties of the matter engaged in + this, as well as in all other allied operations. Liebig's statement <!-- + Page 111 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page111"></a>{111}</span>however on this matter requires + notice—he says, "that <i>putrifying</i> blood, white of egg, flesh + and cheese, produce the same effects in a solution of sugar, as yeast or + ferment. The explanation is simply this; that ferment or yeast is nothing + but vegetable fibrine, albumen or caseine, in a state of + decomposition."</p> + + <p>This state of decomposition, however, involves a much more complex + proceeding, than simply a reduction of matter into its elementary forms + of gases, earths, and minerals; for we nowhere find decomposition of this + kind going on without the development of some organized bodies, either + animal or vegetable: and since we have seen that the spores of the + cryptogami are always in existence in the atmosphere, and making their + appearance under favouring conditions, and especially when we find that + fermentation is invariably accompanied, and I may safely say, preceded by + the deposition in the fluid of the sporules of the Torula, we can hardly + believe that they are any other than the sole agents of the process. I + have now a considerable quantity of the Torula obtained from the urine of + a diabetic patient, in which they appeared, as it were, spontaneously. + After the urine had been allowed access to the air for a certain time, + and the whole of the saccharine matter was converted into new compounds, + reproduction of the Torula ceased;—and those which remained when + the process was completed, still continue as organic cells, deposited + <!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page112"></a>{112}</span>in the bottle in an inert state, but + ready, on the addition of fresh sugar, as has been proved, to resume an + active existence. These germs, it is now well known, may be dried into + powder, so as to be blown away like dust without any, or but little, + detriment to their vital energies; and there is now no doubt that they + exist in this condition in the air, as do the spores of mucor, + aspergillus, oidium, agaricus, and all other fungi.</p> + + <p>Mulder, however, does allow some properties to the yeast vesicle; he + says, "a variety of strange ideas have been entertained respecting the + nature of yeast; recent experiments have convinced me that it undoubtedly + is a cellular plant consisting of isolated cells. They resemble the + composition of cellulose in some respects, but differ from it in many." + "These vesicles, consisting of a substance resembling that of cells, do + not contribute in the least to the fermentation, but are exosmotically + penetrated during fermentation by the protein compound." These chemists + seem to have an instinctive horror of allowing any active properties to + the yeast vesicle, that is as far as the conversion of sugar into + carbonic acid and alcohol is concerned in the act of fermentation. Dr. + Carpenter, as if desiring to conciliate the chemical and physiological + disputants, considers that the truth is to be found in the mean of the + two extremes,—that is, that the process of fermentation is neither + entirely dependent on chemical laws, nor on those laws which preside <!-- + Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>{113}</span>over + the growth of reproductive matter, but is a process in which both perform + certain offices, each depending on the other to produce the combined + result; he thus approaches more nearly to the theory of Mulder, than that + of Liebig.</p> + + <p>But to revert to Mulder, he speaks of the Torula cells being + "exosmotically penetrated during the process of fermentation by the + protein compound." Now the Torula is acknowledged to be one of the + Fungals, and the chemical constituents of the Fungi approach very nearly + that of animal tissues. They contain a peculiar principle, residing in + and obtainable from them, termed Fungin, which is as highly azotised as + animal fibre. The protein compound alluded to, Mulder says, is not + gluten, because insoluble in boiling alcohol, and not albumen, because it + is very readily dissolved in acetic acid, and he regards it as a + superoxide of protein. This superoxide of protein can only have been + produced by a vital action in the cells of the Torula, and as the fungi + consume oxygen, and give out carbonic acid, we clearly have all the + elementary conditions for their growth in almost all decomposing animal + and vegetable matters. It is the nature of the fungi to live on organized + matter, but always when it has a tendency to decay; it is for this reason + they have been called "Scavengers." Again, we can understand why some + animalized or nitrogenous matter should be necessary for fermentation, + otherwise fungi could not grow, nitrogen being an essential constituent + of <!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page114"></a>{114}</span>their structure, and further fermentation + does not commence without the presence of oxygen, and like as in animals, + this gas supports their existence. The conversion of sugar into alcohol + is represented by the following formula:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Conversion of sugar into alcohol" title="Conversion of sugar into alcohol"> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="2"> <span class="sc">Result.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> Sugar.</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> Alcohol. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> Carbonic Acid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Hydrogen </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 3 </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Oxygen </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 3 </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 1 </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> Carbon </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 3 </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 2 </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> 1</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>If therefore the process were merely of a chemical nature, where is + the necessity for atmospheric oxygen to accomplish the end? it is quite + certain that fermentation cannot go on without its presence. Let us + compare the action of ferment or yeast in a dried state to the action of + albumen, which Liebig says is sufficient when decomposing to set up + fermentation. "The white of eggs when added to saccharine liquors + requires a period of three weeks, with a temperature of 96° F. before it + will excite fermentation."<a name="NtA42" + href="#Nt42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> But any saccharine liquor on exposure to + the air, though entirely destitute of albumen or gluten, will ferment, + and the Torula may be found in it. I have found the Torula in a great + variety of syrups which have spontaneously undergone fermentation. I have + also discovered that the development of the cells is delayed or + accelerated by the nature of the ingredient used in flavouring <!-- Page + 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>{115}</span>the + syrups, with other peculiarities which need not here be mentioned.</p> + + <p>But the conversion of starch into sugar by means of gluten requires + some notice, as by some persons it is associated in their minds with the + organic process of fermentation.<a name="NtA43" + href="#Nt43"><sup>[43]</sup></a> Mulder ascribes the latter in the first + instance to the action of heat, evidently believing that the + pseudo-catalytic operation of gluten upon starch is the type of all such + actions, and regarding them all as simply chemical, but we here + distinguish a wide difference; in the latter instance the gluten is + decomposed, and rendered unfit for a repetition of the chemical + phenomenon, and if it is desired to renew the action fresh gluten must be + obtained, and a certain temperature kept up, otherwise the experiment + fails. How different is fermentation: in the ordinary temperature of the + atmosphere the yeast vesicle will multiply, no incremental or unnatural + addition of heat is requisite, and it is one of the commonest and most + natural instances of vegeto-chemistry: the grape cannot shed its juice, + nor the sugar cane its sap without admitting these germs, which, under + certain <!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page116"></a>{116}</span>conditions multiply themselves and convert + the saccharine elements into new compounds. The method by which the + conversion of starch into sugar is accomplished is thus described by Dr. + Ure. He says that if starch one part be boiled with twelve parts of water + and left to itself, water merely being stirred in it as it evaporates, at + the end of a month or two in summer weather it is changed into sugar and + gum, bearing certain proportions to the amount of starch used. But "if we + boil two parts of potato starch into a paste, with twenty parts of water, + mix this paste with one part of the gluten of wheat flour, and set the + mixture for eight hours in a temperature of from 122° to 167° F. the + mixture soon loses its pasty character, and becomes by degrees limpid, + transparent, and sweet, passing at the same time first into gum and then + into sugar."—"The residue has lost the faculty of acting upon fresh + portions of starch."</p> + + <p>Four points of contrast present themselves for notice as elements of + comparison with true fermentation. 1st. The starch solution has to be + boiled, so that heat, by which it is to be supposed that the starch + globule is ruptured, seems to be an essential portion of the chemical + change, and even this may in fact alone be sufficient in such a case to + produce some elementary change in the starch, and may prepare it for the + subsequent catalytic action of some related organic, though not vital + material.<a name="NtA44" href="#Nt44"><sup>[44]</sup></a> <!-- Page 117 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>{117}</span>2nd. Not only + a summer heat is necessary, but a period of one or two months time must + elapse before the starch with the water simply becomes converted into + sugar, and if artificial heat is to be used to hasten the operation, a + temperature from 122° to 167° F. must be resorted to in order to obtain + the desired result. 3rd. When even this is accomplished there is no + reproduction of the fermenting matter, and artificial and chemical means + must again be applied to repeat the experiment. 4th. The conversion of + starch into sugar can be accomplished without the presence of gluten at + all, by the aid only of temperature and time. It seems to me, therefore, + to be entirely unnecessary to occupy more space in the elaboration of a + proof of the doctrine that the germs of the Torula are the sole agents in + the conversion of saccharine fluids into alcohol and carbonic acid. By + another chemical process starch can be converted into sugar, but I am not + aware that hitherto any method has been discovered by which sugar can be + converted into alcohol except by the process of fermentation proper.</p> + + <p>I have been thus particular in commenting on this subject, as it + bears, in an especial manner, on the question under consideration.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page118"></a>{118}</span></p> + + <p>The physiologist cannot afford to lose this process from the category + of chemico-vital, or biochemical manifestations.<a name="NtA45" + href="#Nt45"><sup>[45]</sup></a> The philosophy of the age has a tendency + to make every thing chemical; it is true that the Divinity is as much + seen in the laws which govern the elementary particles of matter, as in + those laws which preside over the transmutation and sustentation of those + elementary and inorganic particles, when compounded in the tissues which + are engaged in the formation of living beings. The laws by which acids + and alkalies neutralize each other, and the affinities single, double and + elective, which the particles of matter exhibit, together with the + influences of light, heat, and electricity upon almost every condition of + matter, are as truly wonderful as the creative power. Man may, in many + instances, imitate the processes of nature, he can render iron magnetic, + and form alkaloids, but the <!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page119"></a>{119}</span>laws which govern the particles of matter + are still the secret of the whole proceedings. We do but interpret the + language of nature in discovery, the book is ever open before us, and + every atom of the world is a word and a theme, capable of occupying the + short span of sublunary existence allotted to man. We have read of + "sermons in stones," but a book has been written on a "pebble."<a + name="NtA46" href="#Nt46"><sup>[46]</sup></a></p> + + <p>To return, as we every where in nature find a gradual transition in + the forms, arrangements and properties of matter, so we may expect to + find a link between the inorganic and vital chemistry of nature. The + fungi, by which we contend this transition appears to be accomplished, + are also a link in chemical composition, between the animal and vegetable + kingdom, and not only in that, but in their subsisting upon matter which + has been organized, they are deoxidizers and reducers, as the vegetable + kingdom in its highest function is a compounder. To their functions and + offices in the great scheme of creation, we may fairly apply ourselves + with a sure and certain result of the most interesting discovery. Is it + no hint that wherever decaying organic matter is found, there do we find + fungi? is it no hint that they are found in all parts of the world? that + even in snow the germs of fungi will grow and multiply to such an extent, + according to Capt. Ross, that the protococcus was seen <!-- Page 120 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page120"></a>{120}</span>by him, + clothing the sides of the mountains at Baffin's Bay, rising, according to + his report, to the height of several <i>hundred feet</i>, and extending + to the distance of <i>eight miles</i>?</p> + + <p>Even stones contain in their interior, or interspaces of their + structure, the germs of fungi. A species of Tufa is found in the vicinity + of Naples of a porous texture, which, when moistened and shaded, produces + vast mushrooms, four or five inches high, and eight or ten inches + broad.<a name="NtA47" href="#Nt47"><sup>[47]</sup></a> This author + further says: "In the Maremma, where the volcanic tufa is the basis of + the soil the surface is intermixed with the animal remains of departed + empires, and the ordure of cattle, is covered with grasses of old + pasturages, and is wet with heavy dews. Everything, therefore, conspires + there to a fungiferous end."</p> + + <p>They are found growing in and upon both vegetables and animals. Nees + von Esenbeck imagined, that minute forms multiplied themselves in the + atmosphere; and really, when we consider the amount of effluvia composed + of the atoms cast off from the bodies of living or decaying organic + matters, which are incessantly passing into the atmosphere, the + conjecture is not an unreasonable one. The minuteness of those, which we + know are always found growing on decomposing bodies, does not preclude + the possibility, nay, further favours <!-- Page 121 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>{121}</span>the probability, that + others infinitely more minute,<a name="NtA48" + href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a> may be destined to remove the more + subtle and vaporous particles which escape into the air.</p> + + <p>We can, therefore, I think, conclude, that the lower tribes of + vegetation, may consistently be regarded as capable of existing in almost + any condition, and almost under any circumstances, they may be made to + grow in plants by inoculation, as shewn by De Candolle, and Dr. Hassall. + If the stem of wheat also is inoculated with vibriones, they will make + their appearance in the grain.<a name="NtA49" + href="#Nt49"><sup>[49]</sup></a> If the seed contain them and have not + lost its germinating properties, these worms will be found again in the + grain. If the grain containing them be dried for years, and moistened + again with water, these animalcules, according to Bauer and Steinbach, + will present all the phenomena of life. This experiment I have witnessed, + and can confirm the statement. These animalcules in the diseased grain, + have under the microscope the appearance of an immense <!-- Page 122 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>{122}</span>number of eels + crowded together in a small space, and presenting a movement more, + perhaps, vermicular than any other, and it is continued for a + considerable time. Now if these animalcules, or their ova, can be proved + to pass with the sap to the seed, there can be no difficulty in + comprehending how germs, considerably more minute and of a vegetable + nature, should be found subject to the same peculiar mode of obtaining an + entrance into animals and vegetables for sustenance. "It is usually + imagined," says Dr. Carpenter, "that the germs liberated by one plant are + taken up by the roots of others, and being carried along the current of + the sap, are deposited and developed, where vegetation is most + active."</p> + + <p>The chemical theory of disease would be better sustained by a + comparison of "the artificial formation of alkaloids," and the phenomena + of transformation of blood into the tissues of animals, and their + degeneration into effete matters, and of sap into the tissues of plants + and their degenerations.</p> + + <p>Professor Kopp of Strasburg, says, "In a chemical point of view, the + alkaloids are remarkable for their composition, for their special + properties, both physical and chemical, and for the interesting reactions + to which many of them give rise, when exposed to the influence of + different reagents. Considered medically, the organic bases are + distinguished by their energetic properties. They <!-- Page 123 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>{123}</span>constitute at the same + time, the most violent and sudden poisons, and the most valuable and + heroic remedies."</p> + + <p>Upon this very intricate and interesting part of chemical philosophy, + it is rather dangerous to enter without a thorough and practical + knowledge of the subject. This, however, falls to the lot of few men. We, + who are engaged in the study of disease, and of the best methods of cure, + are obliged to take the investigations of the analytical chemist, and + examine them for ourselves in the intervals of leisure allowed us during + the active exercise of our calling. Though with less advantages for the + study of these transcendental relations of organic and inorganic matter, + we are not, nevertheless, precluded from forming our opinions on their + practical bearings to the phenomena and treatment of disease.</p> + + <p>That there is a matter of a poisonous nature concerned in the + production of endemic and epidemic affections, cannot be doubted by any + one; I believe indeed, that the chemical theorists admit this, at all + events Liebig does, for he says, "The morbid poison changes in the blood + are fermentative, just such as occur in beer making." If we start, then, + with the consideration that poisons, in a chemical point of view, are the + objects of our research; the obvious course to take is to enquire what is + the source of poisons generally, and what their effects on the animal + economy? The mineral poisons are entirely excluded from the enquiry by + their <!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page124"></a>{124}</span>inaptitude for diffusion, and their + uniform effects upon all persons, differing only in degree in their + operation. The same objections apply to gaseous poisons, except that to + them the property of diffusion would be admitted.<a name="NtA50" + href="#Nt50"><sup>[50]</sup></a> We come then to the alkaloids, which + constitute, as Kopp says, the most violent and sudden poisons. For the + production of alkaloids by artificial means, organic products of some + kind are required. Artificial heat, powerful chemical agents or length of + time, are, as far as information at present extends, the indispensable + requirements to induce these peculiar changes in matter. The only + instance I can find, in which elementary matters can by artificial means + be combined, so as to resemble the products of nature, is that of the + conversion of carbon and nitrogen into cyanogen. But the process by which + this is accomplished, leads rather to doubt whether it be really and + simply by a combination of <i>elementary</i> carbon and nitrogen. I + extract the following from the Annual Report of the Progress of + Chemistry, for 1848. "H. Delbruck has performed some experiments on the + important subject of the formation of cyanogen. He confirms the + statements of Desfosses and Fownes, inasmuch as a <i>weak but + distinct</i> formation of cyanogen was observed on igniting <!-- Page 125 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page125"></a>{125}</span><i>sugar-charcoal</i><a name="NtA51" + href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a> with carbonate of potassa in an + atmosphere of nitrogen." The use of sugar-charcoal, may be perhaps an + explanation of the weak formation of cyanogen, for in these numerous and + successive chemical changes of matter, it is impossible to say how many + sources of error may arise. The constant contradictions of each other, + and the opposite statements made by chemists, of equal eminence, leave us + in a wilderness of doubt, from which we are not likely to be freed, until + definite laws shall be discovered to act as a guide in the comprehension + of the higher branches of Chemical Philosophy.</p> + + <p>But supposing that the generation of alkaloids could take place in the + body, or some analogous poisonous matter, we have yet to imagine a whole + host of peculiar and essential conditions to effect this change, besides + an atmospheric agent or agents to set in motion those compositions and + decompositions, capable of bringing out these new products from the + elements of blood. We are aware that in the blood, carbon and nitrogen + are sufficiently abundant as well as saline compounds, to generate + cyanides, and, with hydrogen also there in plenty, hydrocyanates, and + thus from them many other poisonous products, but how is all this to be + effected? And even if effected, it is yet a question if such compounds + can in any way simulate the attacks of epidemic disease. We have <!-- + Page 126 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page126"></a>{126}</span>already shewn that the amount of most + poisons necessary to destroy an individual, can be pretty clearly + estimated, and their <i>modus operandi</i> is tolerably well understood. + Again, the most essential part, in which all chemical theory fails, is an + explanation of the reproduction of contagious matter.</p> + + <p>The catalytic process, by which decompositions are said to be + effected, and in which Liebig includes the various fermentations, is one + of those chemical relations of matter to matter, considered by some as + the probable cause of infection. Mr. Simon, in a late lecture, has said, + "I consider the phenomena of infective diseases, to be essentially + chemical, and I look to chemistry to enlighten the darkness of their + pathology. Qualitative modifications, affecting the molecules of matter + as to their modes of action and reaction, are such as form the subject of + chemical science; and those humoral changes which arise as the result of + infection clearly fall within the terms of its definitions." Further on + he adds: "The phenomena of infected diseases appears then, in many + respects, to be sui generis. Certainly they are chemical. <i>Probably</i> + they belong to that <i>class</i> of chemical actions called + <i>catalytic</i>."<a name="NtA52" href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>{127}</span></p> + + <p>It is not improbable that something resembling a catalytic action may + take place in the blood in those diseases of endemic and epidemic origin, + but that it can be by a chemical process alone is contrary to all + experience of catalytic operations, for except in the instance of + fermentation proper, there is no multiplication of the fermentative + matter. The action of the matter of contagion seems to stand on the + confines between electro-chemical and bio-chemical manifestations, and so + long as no chemical explanation can be given for the multiplication of + the matter of infection, the most rational course to adopt is to assume + that life under some unknown form is, as we every where find it, the sole + reproductive agent.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>{128}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION II.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE ANIMALCULAR THEORY OF EPIDEMICS UNTENABLE.</span></p> + + <p>The animalcular theory of disease, after remaining almost unnoticed + for nearly two centuries, has been again revived under the auspices of + Dr. Holland in this country, and Henle of Berlin. And though not entirely + buried in obscurity, this theory had completely failed to modify the + practice of physicians in the treatment of those diseases which were + supposed to owe their existence to these invisible atoms of created + being. The resuscitated notions and all their amplifications, to which + the advance of science has contributed so much, are threatened with a + like fate, an absence of all practical results.</p> + + <p>Though I would not attempt to deny the possibility, nay, even the + probability, that insect life may yet be discovered as the cause of some + diseases,<a name="NtA53" href="#Nt53"><sup>[53]</sup></a> still <!-- Page + 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>{129}</span>there are + many and cogent reasons against both, and which are at variance with + facts and observations. Where insect life has been found associated with + disease, it more especially appears as a consequence than as a cause.</p> + + <p>Disease, in its most enlarged sense, is a conversion of one form of + matter into another; it is a transformation of healthy blood and tissue + into new and abnormal products. Where insects in all their variety of + forms are discovered, their voracious propensities are their chief + characteristics, they are the consumers of matter after its partial + disintegration, if animal matter be their food, unless they be + carnivorous and predacious, or if herbivorous they usually feed upon the + tender shoots of plants. Thus far we are certain of the manner in which + insects destroy living matter; it is a process the unassisted eye may + every where witness, and which experience has amply attested. To take, + however, the animalcular world as it presents itself to us under the + microscope, and as the intermediate step between the manifest and the + hidden for a fairer and more direct method of reaching the truth, what do + we observe to be the ruling law of infusory instinct? They live to feed; + the term polygastrica sufficiently implies their natural tendency to + consume. The simplest form of animalcular life, seen in the genera of + monads, still preserves the animal character by possessing a stomach or + stomachs in which the food is received, to be digested for the + nourishment of the <!-- Page 130 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page130"></a>{130}</span>system; and even some of these minute + objects which vary in size from one <i>two-thousandth</i>, to one + <i>three-thousandth</i> of a line in diameter, are said to be carnivorous + and predacious. Upon this fact alone, I would place the improbability of + insects being the cause of epidemic disease. Each insect doubtless has + its own peculiar food, and whether it be a vegetable or animal feeder, it + consumes the matter already organized for conversion into its own tissue, + and the only change which could be affected by them in the blood, would + necessarily be that of appropriation of some one of the constituents as + an element of food; when that food is digested, (taking digestion + generally as an identical process,) the excrementitious matter is + composed of secretions and disorganized matter, mixed together as an + <i>effete</i> product, and destined then for reorganization by the + vegetable kingdom. Now all animals, whether they be large or small, live + on organized matter,—they convert that matter into an inorganic + form, and I cannot help imagining that if epidemic diseases and fevers + depended upon animalcular growth and development in the blood or tissues + of the body, the excretions or secretions from them would have yielded + some information to the searching enquiries of the chemist, supposing + that these excretions and secretions were capable of reaching to a + sufficient amount in quantity, to bring about those fatal effects of + poisoning, we witness in Cholera and other epidemic affections. Insects, + I <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page131"></a>{131}</span>believe are poisonous only by their + secretions, and though they are known to multiply with exceeding + rapidity, I can hardly imagine that by their development, however rapid, + they could produce such a change in the human body, as to bring about the + speedy dissolution, and generally gangrenous appearance, that has + invariably been observed in those suddenly dying under the influence of + epidemic poisons. The vibriones, whose destructive effects on wheat are + so well known, are a genus of animalcules, which at first would seem to + favour the animalcular theory in a remarkable manner; for on examining + them, they do not appear to possess any other structure than a gelatinous + absorbing mass, in this respect resembling a vegetable.</p> + + <p>But Ehrenberg's scrutiny corrected the error of De Blanville, and + shewed, that they were far from being agastria, or stomachless animals. + The Rev. William Kirby says, "Ehrenberg has studied the vibriones in + almost every climate, and has discovered, by keeping them in coloured + waters, that they are not the simple animals that Lamarck and others + supposed, and that almost all have a mouth and digestive organs, and that + numbers of them have many stomachs." All the discoveries indeed which + have been made on the minuter forms of animal life, have tended to + confirm the doctrine that the stomach is the exponent organ of an animal; + that is, in all animals there exists, in a variety of modified + conditions, a receptacle for food. Some of the <!-- Page 132 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>{132}</span>animalcules, however, + are still supposed to exist by absorption, as the vinegar eel, <i>vibrio + anguilla</i>,<a name="NtA54" href="#Nt54"><sup>[54]</sup></a> but when we + find that the law is, generally speaking, that the receptacles of food + become multiplied in number in these minute beings, and the vibriones + which were supposed to be stomachless, have been proved to emulate their + associates in the number of these organs; it would be more reasonable to + conclude that our imperfect vision is the barrier to their detection, + rather than to suppose that they do not exist. Besides, when we are told + on undoubted authority that some of the animals of this class, have as + many as <i>forty or fifty</i> stomachs; the least we can do, is to allow + that all of them possess, at least one digestive organ, though we may not + be able to detect it.<a name="NtA55" href="#Nt55"><sup>[55]</sup></a></p> + + <p>So far then for the consideration of animalcular structure: let us now + more particularly enquire into their destructive habits, and their + functions, inasmuch <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page133"></a>{133}</span>as they may be supposed capable of + engendering epidemic diseases and fever. The truly carnivorous + animalcules, or those truly herbivorous in their instincts, we may + presume to be beyond the limits of our enquiry. We have rather to do with + those which take an intermediate position, namely, those which feed upon + matter undergoing decomposition, or upon fluids containing organic + matters in solution, or suspension. If we take Entozoa generally, they + may be considered as most conveniently to be placed in this intermediate + class; and here we find still the digestive apparatus, and more than + this,—for upon the modifications of the organs appropriated to + digestion is their classification founded. "Rudolphi divided the Entozoa + into Sterelmintha, or those in which the nutrient tubes without anal + outlet are simply excavated in the general parenchyma, and into the + Cœlelmintha, in which an intestinal canal with proper parietes + floats in a distinct abdominal cavity, and has a separate outlet for the + excrements."<a name="NtA56" href="#Nt56"><sup>[56]</sup></a></p> + + <p>How do these animals obtain their sustenance, and what changes can + they produce upon the vital fluid of the body? Analogy is here our only + guide. If the trichina spiralis is examined, it is found to be enclosed + in a cyst containing fluid; and this is, <!-- Page 134 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span>doubtless, the source + of its nutriment, and contains in solution the elements for its + nutrition; but in this instance there is no selection, and there can be + no locomotion to an extent sufficient to imply searching for food, as the + animalcule in its natural state, when taken from the human muscle, is + found coiled upon itself, making about two and a half turns. The fluid of + the cyst is thus in all likelihood prepared by endosmosis, for the + immediate and appropriate nutrition of the parasite. The cyst is thus the + part which performs the diseased process, the containing animalcule is + merely the consumer of what is prepared for it by the cyst. And this + would seem to be the rule with all parasites, of the encysted kind.</p> + + <p>We have alluded to the vibriones which are found in the fluids of + living bodies, and the trichina which is found in the solid muscle; we + have now to refer to those which infest the cavities. It was, I believe, + Ehrenberg, who shewed that the tartar which accumulates on the teeth is + composed of the debris of minute animalcules; in fact, that it consists + of calcareous matter, having once formed a portion of the structure of + their bodies, the ubiquity of these creatures is therefore as much and + clearly established as the lower forms of vegetation. The intestinal + worms, of which perhaps the Tænia is the most curious and important to be + noticed, are from the locality in which they are found, chiefly injurious + by the irritation they set up, and by appropriating <!-- Page 135 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span>to themselves + the nutrient juices elaborated in the process of animal digestion, thus + depriving the individuals they infest of that which was destined for + their own nourishment. In this, as in all associated instances, the + character by which these parasitic animals are marked is their consuming + propensity. There is, however, one more observation to make upon + parasitic growths; but the question is yet unsettled in what kingdom of + nature is the acephalocyst, or hydatid, to be placed. Mr. Owen says, "As + the best observers agree in stating, that the acephalocyst is impassive + under the application of stimuli of any kind, and manifests no + contractile power, either partial or general, save such as results from + elasticity, in short, neither feels nor moves, it cannot, as the animal + kingdom is at present characterized, be referred to that division of + organic nature."</p> + + <p>We thus arrive at the simple cell, and the multiplication of living + beings by cell buds; it is the point at which the confines of the animal + kingdom are reached, and at which we are driven to speculation. The + hydatid lives like a plant, by imbibition; and procreates, like a plant, + by budding, either endogenously or exogenously, as regards the original + or parent cell.<a name="NtA57" href="#Nt57"><sup>[57]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 136 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>{136}</span></p> + + <p>This condition of being, suggested the notion of Protozoa, or first + animals, in the same way that the purely cellular plants, that is, each + individual, consisting of a single cell, gave the idea of <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'Prolophyta'." + >Protophyta</span>, or first plants. Mr. Kirby thus expresses himself on + this subject: "The first plants, and the first animals, are scarcely more + than animated molecules, and appear analogues of each other; and those + above them in each kingdom represent jointed fibrils."</p> + + <p>Admitting, then, that animals as well as plants exist in the form of + simple cells, and that their multiplication proceeds apparently upon the + same principle in each, it is nevertheless abundantly manifest, that the + cellular form of perfect individuals is infinitely more numerous in the + vegetable than in the animal kingdom.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span></p> + + <p>From the mosses downwards to the fungi, the whole structure of the + plants consists of an aggregation of cells, more or less in number and + complicate arrangement, until, through a variety of gradations, we reach + the single cell as a perfect individual.</p> + + <p>It is rather remarkable, that the lower forms of vegetables and + animals seem to derive their nutriment from matter of a similar kind; and + though the office of plants is as a rule, to convert inorganic into + organized matter, it appears that some of the fungi may live as animals + do on organic matter when in a state of solution. This, however, is + uncertain; for we do not know what are the first signs of decomposition + in organized bodies, and for aught we can tell, it may be perpetually + going on; so far as the disengagement of carbon from the system is + concerned, this is certain; but whether the nitrogenous compounds also + are subject to a resolution into their elements in the living body, is + another question, and not so easy of solution. The partially decomposed + elements of animal structures are, however, particularly adapted for the + nutrition of the lower forms of vegetation; it is, indeed, from the + decaying organic matters that the fungi derive, it may be said, their + entire food.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>{138}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION III.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">SKETCH OF THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS.</span></p> + + <p>Animals and plants depend for their existence upon a nutritive fluid, + which permeates their structure; it is the element from which all their + secretions are formed, and their organs are nourished.</p> + + <p>The food of animals is composed of previously organized matters, and + is conveyed into a reservoir called a stomach, where it undergoes a + process of solution, previously to entering the circulation. At this + period, the animal and the plant again present points of resemblance, the + lymphatics or absorbent vessels take up the products of digestion, and + convey them to the blood-vessels, where mingling with the current of the + blood, they are conveyed to the lungs, there to undergo a process of + oxygenation before they become fitted for the renovation of the tissues + of the body. Such is the nature of the food of man, that it contains all + the elements necessary and adapted for transformation into bone, muscle, + brain, and parenchyma, as well as the other tissues of the body; besides + other elementary matters, which, though they form a very insignificant + portion of <!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page139"></a>{139}</span>animal textures, from their constant + presence in the vital fluid, evidently perform some important offices in + the general economy of life; they are partly, perhaps, occupied in + forming constituents of secretions.</p> + + <p>Plants do not require a stomach,—the humus or soil to which they + are fixed is the laboratory, where the nutritive matter is prepared in a + state fit for absorption by the spongioles of their roots, and these + correspond to the lymphatics of animals; after being taken up by the + spongioles, this new fluid mingles with the sap, and passes to the leaves + or breathing apparatus of plants, where carbonic acid gas combines with + the crude vital liquid, and converts it into a condition fit for all the + offices to be performed by the plant: viz. the growth of tissues, and the + elaboration of secretions.</p> + + <p>The tissues, however, of plants, though more simple in their nature, + present a much more varied character than those of animals, when the + different species are compared.</p> + + <p>The bones of animals which give them their form, are invariably + constituted of phosphate and carbonate of lime, deposited in a matrix of + gluten; muscle, nerve, brain, tendons, and ligaments, have nearly, if not + completely, an identical composition throughout the whole range of the + animal kingdom: their secretions, however, vary much more considerably, + as also do the secretions of vegetables. But vegetable tissue may + contain, as in the stems of <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page140"></a>{140}</span>grasses, a considerable amount of silex, + and some notable quantity of sulphur, and so essential to their existence + is the former element, that they cannot live without its presence in the + soil, and also with it an alkali, to render it soluble. A large amount of + soda, is an invariable attendant upon the structure of marine plants, as + potash is of those growing on the land.</p> + + <p>Thus, whether we regard the health of animals, or vegetables, we + discover, that besides the matters which are absolutely indispensable for + the nutriment of the tissues which undergo rapid transformation, those of + a more permanent and durable nature require in an almost insensible + degree, a restitution of elements; and though not apparently absolutely + necessary to preserve vitality in the being, yet have so marked an + influence over it, as to indicate an extensive bearing of each <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'indivdual'.">individual</span> + part, on the whole associated entity.</p> + + <p>The elementary tissues of both kingdoms have been traced, in whatever + form they may be found, to a cellular origin. The minutest vegetable + germ, is a cell containing a granular matter within it, and even man + himself, in his embryonic state, may be represented as an insignificant + point in the realms of space; and might be placed side by side with the + smallest particle of living matter, without suffering by the + comparison.</p> + + <p>The laws by which the development of these elementary cells is + regulated, so that each advances <!-- Page 141 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span>to its limit, and + fulfils its destination, is one of those inscrutable and overwhelming + mysteries of nature, which leads the admirer of creation on and on into + the abyss of the future, and fills his soul with aspirations for that + time, when the veil of ignorance shall be withdrawn. But this is not my + subject.</p> + + <p>The organization of the two animated kingdoms, is then regulated by + definite laws, and all matter, whether acting upon them as agents of + nutrition or destruction, are equally under their dominion; to + investigate and to endeavour to fathom some of these laws, is the aim I + have in view.</p> + + <p>The sap is to the plant, what the blood is to the animal,—the + elements of nutrition and secretion are contained in it, and whatever + interferes with its normal constitution by subtracting from, or adding to + it, deteriorates its qualities, and retards or accelerates the functions + of the individual. Excess or deficiency of the natural elements may also + be a source of disturbance; if carbonic acid be too abundantly liberated + in the soil, as Dr. Lindley expresses it, "plants become gorged;" and if, + on the other hand, the elimination be too slow, they become starved. It + has been also shewn, that plants though they give out oxygen from their + leaves, do not throw it off as animals do carbonic acid from their lungs; + but that this arises as a result of digestion, and the fixation of carbon + in the system, and that they really respire oxygen as <!-- Page 142 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>{142}</span>animals do, + and give off carbonic acid, both by day and night.</p> + + <p>That light is the stimulant of the digestive functions, and that, + therefore, during the day, the amount of oxygen thrown off, far exceeds + the amount of carbonic acid liberated during the same period.</p> + + <p>The great and important distinction between animals and plants is, + that the former possess a nervous system, by which they are subject to a + very extended series of psychological relations; it is in these chiefly, + if not entirely, that we are to look for the distinctive and well-marked + differences of diseased action. In animals there are special media of + communication between the sources of dynamic power, and the parts upon + which the force is exercised: and again, a return communication exists, + which conveys impressions to the source of power, and to use a simple + comparison, a system of telegraphing is in incessant and watchful + operation. This force is influenced and modified in its action, when + exercised in the regulation of nutrition, growth, and reproduction of + tissues, by the passions and emotions of the mind. All the secretions and + functions of the body are more or less susceptible of being accelerated, + retarded or modified by the psychical relations of mind and matter. + Though we are apt to imagine that in man alone, these phenomena obtain + much importance—there can be but little doubt, that wherever a <!-- + Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page143"></a>{143}</span>nervous system exists, whether in the form + of aggregated or diffused ganglia, the interdependence of force and + organization, each upon the other, bears a certain and definite + physiological comparison; the more aggregated the ganglia, the more + close, intimate, and extensive the psychical connexions, and the + gradations pass downwards, until they appear to be lost on the confines + of the vegetable kingdom.</p> + + <p>The diseases of plants and animals deserve a more careful comparison + than, I think, has hitherto been bestowed upon them.<a name="NtA58" + href="#Nt58"><sup>[58]</sup></a> If the study of physiology, or an + enquiry into the laws which regulate the functions of living beings in a + state of health, has been materially aided by the intimate knowledge of + vegetable physiology, which, from the simple structure of plants, so + favours the experiments of the student, there is every reason to suppose + that vegetable pathology may also lead us to an equally important and + useful result.</p> + + <p>It is quite certain, that if a healthy seed, or leaf-bud, be placed in + such a situation, that, according to the laws known, it will in all + likelihood germinate, if all the elements for its sustenance exist in the + soil, and the temperature and hygrometric <!-- Page 144 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>{144}</span>condition of the + atmosphere are adapted to it, a healthy plant will be the result. Light, + heat, moisture, and soil are therefore to be considered as the agents + required to exist in a certain balance, or proportion, in reference to + the health or power of vitality of the plant. Within a certain amount of + variation, health may persist in virtue of the power of selection, which + appertains to the spongioles of the root in absorbing nutriment; and also + as regards light, from the tendency which most plants have to accommodate + themselves to any deficiency of this element, by presenting their leafy + expansion in that direction where the most of its influence may be + obtained. But beyond a certain limit an unhealthy condition sets in. If + the soil contain not the inorganic elements, which are absolutely + indispensable for the tissues of the plant, or even if they be there and + not in a state to be absorbed, a dwindling and degeneration ensue; if + light be deficient in quantity, pallor, feebleness, and elongation of + tissue follow, with more fluidity and general softness of texture. These + conditions of plants have their analogues in the ill-fed and + ill-nourished children in some of our manufacturing districts; they are + stunted and diseased. Transport a healthy country lad, with the bloom of + health on his cheek, from his native hills and valleys, or woods and + fields, to the stool behind a desk for eight hours a day, in a narrow + street in any city, where the rays of the sun rarely penetrate, it will + not be long before <!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page145"></a>{145}</span>the skin of the animal and the cuticle of + the plant may be submitted for comparison, when both will testify to the + importance of the solar rays, as an indispensable agent in supporting the + normal processes of organic life. So far common observation is competent + to a solution of the facts; but beyond this we come to the enquiry, what + resemblances are there in the early conditions of plants and animals. + Each originates from nucleated cells, endowed by the All-seeing Power + with a blind impulse of progressive development; the most simple cell of + a vegetable multiplies itself by a generation of new cells within it, + when the parent dies, and liberates the offspring. Here progression is + simply multiplication; it is, as it were, progression in length only. The + original cell, however, of animals, which is styled the germinal vesicle, + extends or becomes developed into dissimilar parts; and whatever may be + the variety, all alike proceed from the original germ cell, and the + <i>tout ensemble</i> of parts constitutes the one and indivisible whole; + in this instance there is addition besides multiplication, tissues and + organs are added in all variety, until the maximum of organic development + is attained in the wonderful being, man.</p> + + <p>Yet how many points of resemblance are there between the vegetable + cell and the fully developed human being, in a physiological and + pathological point of view. There must be nourishment to sustain both; + both require a certain amount of light <!-- Page 146 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page146"></a>{146}</span>and heat for their + growth and increase, and are dependent upon various unknown causes for + active and healthy existence; and when a certain time has expired, all + alike return to a condition, in which the particles composing them are + subject only to the dominion of the laws which preside over inorganic + matter.</p> + + <p>But during the existence of plants and animals, we discover other + features of comparison; plants, as well as animals, are liable to + disease; they are subject to functional and organic affections. The + former, among plants, are usually traceable to atmospheric vicissitudes + or irregularities, changes of situation, &c.; and in man to + irregularities of diet, and mental and bodily excesses, as well as to + atmospheric vicissitudes.<a name="NtA59" + href="#Nt59"><sup>[59]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The organic diseases of plants and animals depend upon a repetition, + or continuance, of functional derangement. As a consequence of this, the + nutrition and reproduction of tissues lose their normal and definite + character, wherefrom an indefinite and abnormal result is obtained. There + is a limit to abnormal productions, and they are apparently <!-- Page 147 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>{147}</span>subject to + laws, though not yet understood. In animals, they may be either excessive + development of natural tissue in natural localities, as obesity and fatty + tumours; they may be natural products in unnatural situations, as fatty + degenerations of muscular tissue; or altogether new and unnatural + products, as tubercle and cancer.</p> + + <p>In plants, from their greater simplicity of structure, organic + affections are perhaps entirely limited to the two first forms of animal + organic disease; viz. to undue development of tissue in natural + situations, and to the formation of natural tissue in parts of a plant + where they are not usually found in a state of nature. The variety of + excrescences seen on the stems, branches, and twigs of plants, may be + given as instances of the former; and the conversion of stamina into + petals, as in double flowers, as an instance of the latter.</p> + + <p>We derive our sustenance from vegetables, and they from us; they + produce for us the soothing opiate and the deadly strychnia; we for them + the animating ammonia, and the distortions and sterility of excessive + culture; we engender in them, by the latter, debility, disease, and + death; and in our turn we become their prey. All this indeed is but a + cycle of events, that requires no learned mind to fathom, and to + comprehend; it is a matter of every day occurrence, and, though perhaps + not entirely unheeded, is not dwelt upon in the fulness of its bearings + and importance. <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148"></a>{148}</span></p> + + <p>Let us now consider the diseases of plants, as a study progressive to + those of man; and as their physiology has so extensively served us, we + may possibly also find in their pathology much material for instruction; + not that it will be attempted to shew that the same diseases affect both + kingdoms, but that diseases, though dissimilar in effects, may have + similar sources.</p> + + <p>Unfortunately, there are not many men in this country, who need go + further than their own gardens to find abundance of disease among their + fruit trees and vegetables. The vine, the apple and the potato, common to + most gardens, will furnish specimens.</p> + + <p>It is an error of a serious kind to suppose, that the parasites which + infest plants are not essentially the cause, or, perhaps, more properly + speaking, the elements of disease. I confine myself here to disease of + parasitic origin, as that is the subject of which I am chiefly + treating.</p> + + <p>That parasitic growths are the elements of disease in some instances, + is now beyond dispute. The experiments of Mr. Hassall, detailed in Part + II. of the Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London, are most + conclusive; and they are of that simple nature, that any one may convince + himself of their accuracy, by a repetition of them from the directions + there laid down.</p> + + <p>He says, the decay is communicable at will "to any fruits of the apple + and peach kind, no matter <!-- Page 149 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page149"></a>{149}</span>how strong their vital energies may be, by + the simple act of inoculation of the sound fruit with a portion of + decayed matter, containing filaments of the fungi. We may use with + success the sporules of such fungi; but in this case the decomposition + does not set in so quickly; in the one case, the smaller filaments of the + fungi have advanced several stages in their growth; while in the other, + the sporules have yet to pass through the several stages of their + development."</p> + + <p>Mr. Hassan, however, seems to speak doubtfully as to the mode in which + the disease becomes naturally introduced;<a name="NtA60" + href="#Nt60"><sup>[60]</sup></a> how the spores enter the fruit, "is not + very clear—though probably, it is by insinuating themselves between + the cells of which the cuticle is composed, or perhaps by means of the + stomata, where they are present. I may here state that the experiments + were made on fruit, while living, and attached to the tree."</p> + + <p>But why should there be a doubt as to the parts by which the sporules + of minute fungi enter the plant, when it is clear, that not only can they + enter <!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page150"></a>{150}</span>by the spongioles, but by the stomata of + the leaves, and mingle with the sap. It is true, that they make their + appearance and grow upon the leaves and the fruit; but these are the + situations most adapted for their fructification. I have seen the spores + of the fungi which attack the cucumber and vegetable-marrow, in the cells + of the hairs, and even their filamentous prolongations; these appropriate + the fluids conveyed to the cells of the hair, rupture them, and at length + fructify.</p> + + <p>On referring to Dr. Lindley's Medical and Economic Botany, I find that + many fungi are the active elements of disease, and in a manner which + renders it highly improbable that they are so in any other way, than by + obtaining an entrance to the sap of the plants. Of the microscopic fungus + which destroys wheat, the Uredo caries of De Candolle, we find the + habitat to be within the ovary of the corn, and that 4,000,000 may be + contained in a grain of wheat,—now this and another fungus, the + Lanosa nivalis, are said to destroy whole crops of corn: we cannot + imagine that such an extensive affection, can have any other source than + by means of the spores through the sap, seeing that bruising of the + surface, or rupture of the cuticle of the apple, a comparatively soft + fruit is necessary to produce the disease artificially in them; besides, + a grain of corn containing vibriones, when grown and having fruited, the + new fruit also contains them—now here, as this is I believe almost + invariably the <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page151"></a>{151}</span>case, either they or their ova must be + carried with the sap to the new germs.</p> + + <p>It is rather a remarkable fact, that these entophytes appropriate the + nutriment destined for the plant in which they grow, they are + consequently the means in many instances of its entire destruction, + though only partially so in others.</p> + + <p>There are many Fungi which have this tendency. The Puccinia gramienis, + "preys upon the juices of plants, and prevents the grain from swelling." + The Æcidium urticæ, common on nettles, deprives the plant on which it + grows, of the organizable matter, intended for its own nutrition. The + Erysiphe communis, overruns and destroys peas. The Botrytis infestans, + "attacks the leaves and stems of potatoes." The Oidium abortifaciens, + attacks the ovaries of grasses—and the Oidium Tuckeri, "a + formidable parasite, destroys the functions of the skin, of the parts it + attacks." The latter has been most injurious to the vines, during the + last two years. I have known instances in which the vines have been cut + down, and every means taken to rid the houses of the disease; but this + year, it has made its appearance, with all its former virulence, in the + new shoots.</p> + + <p>This, however, is sufficient to shew that plants are liable to + disease, depending upon parasitic growths, which affect their vital + powers, and deprive them of their natural nutritive fluids.</p> + + <p>But somewhat similar diseases belong also to <!-- Page 152 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page152"></a>{152}</span>warm climates; in a + letter from Cuba, dated Dec. 1843,—Mr. Bastian writes, "<i>a + plague</i> has appeared among the orange trees—a mildew attacking + the leaves and the blossoms, which finally dry up. It most frequently + kills the trees. None of the orange family are exempt; lemons, limes, and + their varieties, with the shaddock and forbidden fruit, have all + suffered." This disease has continued without intermission, till the + present year,—when the same gentleman writes, Feb. 20th, 1850: "The + evil exists, although in a diminished degree, so much so, as to have + allowed the trees to produce me 30,000 oranges again. In old times, the + same plantations produced me 100,000."</p> + + <p>The West India sugar-canes are also liable to a disease, which the + Rev. Mr. Griffiths, in his Natural History of the Island of Barbadoes, + speaks of, in the following manner: "This, among diseases peculiar to + canes, as among those which happen to men, too justly claims the horrible + precedence." This disease is called the Yellow Blast. It is difficult to + distinguish the Blast in its infancy, from the effect of dry weather.</p> + + <p>There are often seen on such sickly canes, many small protuberant + knobs, of a soft downy substance. It is likewise observable, that such + blades will be full of brownish decaying spots. The disease is very + destructive to the canes. It is observed, that the Blast usually appears + successively in the same fields, and often in the very same spot of land. + <!-- Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page153"></a>{153}</span></p> + + <p>This Blast is often found far from "infected places," and the + infection always spreads faster to the leeward, or with the wind.</p> + + <p>"<i>It is remarkable if canes</i> have been once infected with the + Blast, although they afterwards to all appearance, seem to recover; yet + the juice of such canes will neither afford so much sugar, nor so good of + its kind, as if obtained from canes which were never infected."</p> + + <p>I may here allude to the circumstance, that in the island of Cuba, the + destructive mildew is commonly called, <i>la pesta</i>.</p> + + <p>It were needless to multiply instances of other endemic and epidemic + diseases of vegetables; they are well known by practical observers to be + very numerous, and I believe, in most instances, depending upon fungoid + growths. The destruction of vegetables by insects, is of a very different + nature to that produced by the fungi; it would be as unreasonable to + consider the consumption of corn and herbage by locusts, as a disease of + vegetation, as the massacre and devouring of human beings by cannibals, a + disease of the human body.</p> + + <p>It is true that insects are exceedingly destructive to plants, but as + far as I am able to obtain information, they appear to be so chiefly by + their voracious propensities; they consume the structure of the plant in + its entity, and do not primarily interfere with its vitality. The + instance of the vibriones, before-mentioned, seems at first to be an + exception <!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page154"></a>{154}</span>to the rule, but this is rather apparent, + than real; and it may be made to apply more as a confirmation, than an + obstacle to the vegetable theory: for if we may fairly compare the + diseases of animals with those of plants, the existence of entozoa in the + latter, would be considered an essential point to be substantiated.</p> + + <p>Having now considered the question as to the infeasibility of + supposing that chemical fermentation is the basis upon which a theory of + diseases can be sustained, and having shewn that life is inseparable from + infection, and miasmatic generation;—having explained the phenomena + of the dispersion of diseases by comparison with the dispersion of + plants, and finally, having demonstrated that the physiology and + pathology of plants bear so close a relation to each other, and that + their epidemic affections depend upon minute organic germs, I submit to + the judgment of my readers, whether there is not much reasonableness in + the application of the facts to the inference—that living germs are + the cause of epidemic disease in man and animals.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 155 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page155"></a>{155}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">RESULTS IN PROOF OF THE TENABLENESS OF THE +PROPOSITION.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION I.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">OBSERVATIONS ON SOME OF THE LAWS OF EPIDEMIC DISEASES.</span></p> + + <p>The results obtained by comparing certain facts connected with + Epidemic Affections of animals, with analogous affections in plants, + afford, from the few instances I shall here notice, a very strong + presumption, that analogous causes operate in the production of these + affections. I have already quoted from Hecker, to shew that previously + to, and during the Epidemics of the Middle Ages, the minuter forms of + animal and vegetable life appeared to be called into existence, much more + abundantly than usual; that famines prevailed in consequence of failure + of cereal crops, no doubt depending then, as now, upon the various forms + of fungiferous growth. I cannot refrain quoting here, a passage or two + from our old friend Virgil; for he confirms not only the fact of peculiar + showers in <!-- Page 156 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page156"></a>{156}</span>connexion with diseases, but he also + refers to the rust of corn, thus:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>150. "Mox et frumentis labor additus; ut mala culmos</p> + <p>Esset rubigo ...</p> + <p>... Intereunt segetes."</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Georg. 1.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Then:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>311. "Quid tempestates autumni et sidera dicam?</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p> . . . . . . </p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>322. "Sæpe etiam<a name="NtA61" href="#Nt61"><sup>[61]</sup></a> immensum cœlo venit agmen aquarum</p> + <p>Et fœdam glomerant tempestatem imbribus atris</p> + <p>Collectæ ex alto nubes."</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Georg. 1.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The occurrence of black showers in this country has been observed + during the present year, and I understand that in the fenny countries of + the East, the corn has suffered much from the Uredo. I am not mentioning + the circumstances as cause and effect, but merely to call attention to + the fact, that unusual phenomena of this kind have been generally + associated with disease of the animal and vegetable tribes.</p> + + <p>The same causes also predispose plants as well as animals, to epidemic + attacks of disease. The repeated observations in the public journals on + the subject of ventilation, drainage, and over-crowding, render all + notice from me needless, to shew that these, though they do not produce + the diseases <!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page157"></a>{157}</span>treated of, yet that under the influence + of bad air, bad drainage, and over-crowding, epidemics are fostered and + spread.</p> + + <p>Lastly, says the Count Philippo Ré, "I would remark that if <i>bad + cultivation, and especially bad drainage, does not produce bunt or smut, + it is certain that those fields, the worst treated in these respects, + suffer the most from these diseases</i>."</p> + + <p>It has been remarked by many observers, that a greater fecundity has + attended upon Pestilences, and this has been proved by comparison, that + the births in proportion have far exceeded the ordinary limit.<a + name="NtA62" href="#Nt62"><sup>[62]</sup></a> In juxtaposition with this + observation, I will place the following, not as a proof, but as a remark + made quite independently of the subject of which I am treating. "From the + first the diseased ears are larger than the healthy ones, and are sooner + matured. What appears singular, but which I have not, perhaps, + sufficiently verified, is <i>that the seeds are more abundant than in a + sound ear</i>."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 158 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page158"></a>{158}</span></p> + + <p>Now these are facts which require amplification, and if these two + alone should be shewn upon an extensive field of observation, to apply + not only to corn, but to other members of the vegetable kingdom, as I + doubt not will be the case, though I am not fully prepared to prove it, + it would be difficult to dissociate the fertility of the two living + kingdoms from the operations of one and the same, or an analogous + law.</p> + + <p>The epidemic diseases of plants are both infectious and contagious, at + times they are observed to be endemic only, and then depending + particularly upon some local causes. This is a law of diseases which + applies equally to those of men and animals. In connexion with this law + is another, which, as far as I am aware, has not hitherto been noticed in + connexion with plants. The potato disease, which excited so much interest + and created so much anxiety for the poorer classes of society, led the + Government of this country to employ the most learned men to investigate + the subject, in the hope of propounding some reasons which should explain + the cause of the calamity, and thereby deduce a method of eradicating the + evil, or, in other words, discover a cure for the disease. Many were the + opinions as to the cause of the distemper, which it were useless here to + recount, but a method was suggested, to which most people, I believe, + looked forward with great anticipations, and this was to obtain native + seed, and to sow it on virgin soil. Was the end accomplished? No. <!-- + Page 159 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page159"></a>{159}</span>For + though the seed was sown, and the plants grew, the disease still appeared + among the newly imported individuals, to as great an extent, as among the + native or domesticated plants.</p> + + <p>As a parallel to this, it may be stated, that, as regards either + endemic or epidemic disease, those persons newly arrived, either in a + district or country where these prevail, are even more liable to them + than the residents.<a name="NtA63" href="#Nt63"><sup>[63]</sup></a> + Again, I have learned, that where the potato disease has been so bad as + to render the crop almost valueless, the best plan to be adopted is, to + allow the plants to remain in the earth, and thus leave such as retain + their germinating powers to come up spontaneously the following year. I + certainly saw one large field treated in this way, yield a crop almost + without disease.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page160"></a>{160}</span></p> + + <p>The seasoning, in this instance, seems to bear a comparison with the + seasoning of animals and man, under a variety of diseases, which for a + time renders them insusceptible of another attack. It therefore does not + appear so improbable, that these affections may be regarded, as Unger, + the German botanist supposed, the Exanthemata, or Eruptive Fevers of + vegetables.</p> + + <p>Another feature seems to associate the Epidemics of plants and + animals, in a manner suggestive of analogous causes operating in both + instances.</p> + + <p>The lungs of animals and the leaves of vegetables, are their + respiratory organs, by means of which, the blood in the one case and the + sap in the other, derive gas from the air, and impart gas to it, each + taking what is thrown off by the other.</p> + + <p>Now the epidemics among vegetables, have a remarkable tendency to + exhibit their effects primarily on the leaves, and particularly on those + parts which are appropriated to the function of respiration. It is from + the stomates that many of the fungi commence to germinate, and their + fructification may be seen sprouting from the opening composed of a + chink, surrounded by a peculiar arrangement of cells, which constitute + the breathing apparatus of their victim.</p> + + <p>In the earlier epidemics, of which we read, one of the most remarkable + circumstances, was the extraordinary influence the poisonous matter + appeared to <!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page161"></a>{161}</span>exercise over the lungs,<a name="NtA64" + href="#Nt64"><sup>[64]</sup></a> and they again, were the means of + propagating the disease, and spreading the contagious particles through + the atmosphere, for we read: "Thus did the plague rage in Avignon for six + or eight weeks, and the pestilential breath of the sick, who expectorated + blood, caused a terrible contagion far and near, for even the vicinity of + those who had fallen ill of plague was certain death; so that parents + abandoned their infected children, and all the ties of kindred were + dissolved."<a name="NtA65" href="#Nt65"><sup>[65]</sup></a> "The like was + seen in Egypt. Here also inflammation of the lungs was predominant." + "Here too the <i>breath</i> of the sick spread a deadly contagion."</p> + + <p>It is more than probable that all infectious matter obtains an + entrance to the system through the lungs. Inspiring the air containing + the pestilential semina is, indeed, the only plausible explanation of + infection; for though the skin is indubitably an absorbing <!-- Page 162 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page162"></a>{162}</span>surface, and + capable of taking up and conveying to the blood any noxious matter + applied to it, yet it is far more probable that the lungs would effect + this process with greater rapidity. Then the stomach, the only other + absorbing surface to which extraneous matter can be applied, is not + likely to be the part where the elements of disease would obtain an + entrance to the system, for many facts prove, that infectious matter may + be swallowed without any injurious consequences, unless in a very + concentrated state. Instances are not easily found of diseased matter + having been swallowed, except where diseased vegetables have formed under + some combination of circumstances, a portion of diet.<a name="NtA66" + href="#Nt66"><sup>[66]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Many facts are on record which prove the powerful effect of diseased + grain when made into bread, and taken for any length time as a principal + article of food. The history of Ergot of Rye is too fresh in the memory + of most people to require more than an allusion here. The stomach had no + power over the secale, its poisonous properties were retained, after + having been submitted to the digestive process, as was evidenced by the + abortions and gangrenes it occasioned.</p> + + <p>But diseased wheat is also capable of inducing <!-- Page 163 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page163"></a>{163}</span>gangrene, and it is + more than probable, that many diseases might be traced to the use of + infected grain of various kinds. An interesting account of a family who + lived at Wattisham, near Stowmarket, in Suffolk, and all of whom suffered + more or less from living on bread made of smutty wheat, may be found in + the Philosophical Transactions. The mother of this family and five of the + children, consisting of three girls and two boys, all suffered from + gangrene of the extremities; the father lost the nails from his hands, + and had ulceration of two of his fingers.<a name="NtA67" + href="#Nt67"><sup>[67]</sup></a> Dr. Woollaston wrote thus in a letter on + this case: "The corn with which they made their bread was certainly very + bad: it was wheat that had been cut in a rainy season, and had lain on + the ground till many of the grains were black and totally decayed, but + many other poor families in the same village made use of the same corn + without receiving any injury from it. One man lost the use of his arm for + some time, and still imagines himself that he was afflicted with the same + disorder as Downing's family." It is not unlikely this was the case, for + numbness and loss of power was one of the well marked characters of the + disease.</p> + + <p>What other afflictions may be due to diseased vegetation and + adulterated articles of food, and what loss of life may accrue from cheap + and adulterated <!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page164"></a>{164}</span>drugs and chemicals is hardly yet dreamt + of.<a name="NtA68" href="#Nt68"><sup>[68]</sup></a> The systematic + practice of adulteration of almost every article of diet which comes to + table has become a serious question for the legislature to consider. Take + only the article of milk, upon which the young children of large towns + and cities, make their chief meals, with the addition of bread. How much + milk comes into London from the country, how much is obtained from stall + and grain-fed cows in the metropolis, and how much is said to be + consumed, would be an interesting calculation. It is pretty well known + that a mixture is sold by which a retailer of milk may increase his + supply by one-third or one-half. It was discovered in Paris that the + brains of animals, when prepared in a particular manner, formed, when + mixed with a certain proportion of milk and water, a very fine and + deceptive cream; in that city this system was carried on to a + considerable extent. I could not help alluding to these facts while + speaking of diseased grain, for who shall say to what extent a miller in + a large way of business, may be able to "work in," as it is called, a + considerable amount of smutty corn in the manufacture of flour? Now, as + diseased grain is known <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page165"></a>{165}</span>to induce abortion, it is impossible to + tell how small a portion may in some cases produce the effect; we may + therefore say with Thomas of Malmesbury, "There is no action of man in + this life which is not the beginning of so long a chain of consequences, + as that no human providence is high enough to give us a prospect to the + end."<a name="NtA69" href="#Nt69"><sup>[69]</sup></a></p> + + <p>To return,—associated with these observations are other facts of + considerable weight. Before and during pestilences, abortions are more + frequent than in ordinary times; infectious and contagious diseases + induce abortion; besides this, and independently of disease, conditions + of the atmosphere have been known to exist when abortion has been an + epidemic affection; of this Dr. Copland says, "to certain states of the + atmosphere only can be attributed those frequent abortions sometimes + observed which have even assumed an epidemic form, and of which + Hippocrates, Fischer, Tessier, Desormeaux, and others have made mention." + With this reference I will close the subject of comparison between the + affections of the breathing apparatus in animals and plants, merely + alluding to the probability that under some conditions of atmosphere, + independently of heat, &c. vegetables without any other assignable + cause will become abortive.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page166"></a>{166}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION II.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THOSE POISONS WHICH MOST RESEMBLE THE MORBID POISONS IN THEIR EFFECTS ON THE BODY?</span></p> + + <p>In the early part of this book, I considered the nature of poisons + generally, and had occasion to remark upon the characters which separated + poisons into two distinct classes. 1st, Those which have the power of + self multiplication; and 2nd, Those destitute of this property.</p> + + <p>Of the first we have seen that the poisons of epidemic diseases + multiply both in and out of the body.</p> + + <p>The poisons of infectious diseases, not usually epidemic, do the same. + Those of endemic affections, such as ague and some fevers, usually become + multiplied out of the body only, but under some circumstances, and + peculiar atmospheric conditions, they may be also multiplied within the + body. The amount of these poisons necessary to produce their specific + effects, may be inappreciable. Of the second class, there are two kinds, + those derived from the organic kingdom and those derived from the + inorganic kingdom. Of these, the amount necessary to produce their + specific effects is appreciable and pretty well known.</p> + + <p>But among those poisons, consisting of organic <!-- Page 167 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page167"></a>{167}</span>products, there is one + which seems to hold an intermediate place. This is derived from one of + the Fungals, and as it takes this remarkable position as a link of + connexion between the two classes of poisons, I may be excused quoting a + passage of some length upon this agent, from Dr. Lindley's Vegetable + Kingdom. "One of the most poisonous of our fungi, is the Amanita + muscaria, so called from its power of killing flies, when steeped in + milk. Even this is eaten in Kamchatka, with no other than intoxicating + effects, according to the following account by Langsdorf, as translated + by Greville. This variety of Amanita muscaria, is used by the inhabitants + of the north-eastern parts of Asia in the same manner as wine, brandy, + arrack, opium, &c. is by other nations."—"The most singular + effect of the amanita is the influence it possesses over the urine. It is + said, that from time immemorial, the inhabitants have known that the + fungus imparts an intoxicating quality to that secretion, which + <i>continues for a considerable time after taking it</i>. For instance, a + man moderately intoxicated to-day, will by the next morning have slept + himself sober, but (as is the custom) by taking a teacup of his urine, he + will be <i>more powerfully intoxicated</i> than he was the preceding day. + It is, therefore, not uncommon for confirmed drunkards to preserve their + urine, as a precious liquor against a scarcity of the fungus. The + intoxicating property of the urine <i>is capable of</i> <!-- Page 168 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page168"></a>{168}</span><i>being + propagated</i>; for every one who partakes of it has his urine similarly + affected. Thus with a very few amanitæ, a party of drunkards may keep up + their debauch for a week."</p> + + <p>This property of the amanita, at once places it in a separate category + from all other organic poisons, it has yet to be shewn upon what this + intoxicating fungus depends for its activity. Whether some secretion is + formed in the tissue of the plant, or whether some new arrangement of the + particles of matter or modification of the sporules, is brought about by + entering the system, it is impossible to say. Langsdorf states that the + small deep-coloured specimens of amanita, and thickly covered with warts, + are said to be more powerful than those of a larger size and paler + colour. As the effect is not produced until from one to two hours after + swallowing the bolus, and as a pleasant intoxication may be obtained by + this agent for a whole day, and from one dose only, there is a defined + line between this and the ordinary narcotics and stimulants in common + use. That the digestive powers of the stomach have no influence over the + intoxicating properties of the plant, is manifested in the fact, that the + active principle passes into the urine, not only not deteriorated but + apparently increased, for, as we have seen, a teacup of the urine from a + man, intoxicated by taking the amanita into his stomach, will cause him + to be more powerfully intoxicated than by the <!-- Page 169 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page169"></a>{169}</span>original dose. We have, + therefore, but two conjectures left for consideration, either the + original intoxicating principle is excreted from the system in a + condensed form, in which case its indestructibility by digestion, makes + it approach the ordinary organic poisons, or there must be an increase of + the toxic agent, in which case we must suppose a reproductive process + having taken place in the system. "There is," says Dr. Mitchell, "in the + wild regions of our western country, a disease called the <i>milk + sickness</i>, the <i>trembles</i>, the <i>tires</i>, the <i>slows</i>, + the <i>stiff-joints</i>, the <i>puking fever</i>, <i>&c.</i>" The + animals affected with this disease, "stray irregularly, apparently + without motive;" they lose their power of attention, and finally tremble, + stagger, and die. "When other animals—men, dogs, cats, poultry, + crows, buzzards, and hogs, drink the milk or eat the flesh of a diseased + cow, they suffer in a somewhat similar manner." This disease is + attributed by Dr. Mitchell to the animals having grazed on pasture + contaminated with mildew, and the resemblance to the effects of the + amanita, together with the persistence of the specific principle within + the fluids and tissues of the body, render it more than probable that to + some fungoid growth, is due the peculiar toxic effects here noticed. + Further: "The animals made sick by the beef of the first one, have been + in their turn the cause of a like affection in others; so that three or + four have thus fallen victims successively." De Graaf states, that butter + <!-- Page 170 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page170"></a>{170}</span>made from the milk of diseased cows, + though heated until it caught fire, did not lose its deleterious + properties. The urine of diseased animals, collected and reduced by + evaporation, produced the characteristic symptoms. All these facts point + to some peculiarity in the properties of matter not yet investigated or + at least not explained. If we may assume that reproduction is here an + element of the persistence and apparent multiplication of active matter, + I know only of one instance to compare with it. A gentleman about to + deliver a lecture on the properties of arsenic, and its history + generally, made two solutions of a given quantity of arsenious acid, in + the following manner. He took a certain amount of distilled water, and + the same of filtered Thames water, and made his solutions of arsenic by + separate boilings, he then as soon as possible placed the liquids in + identical bottles, carefully prepared for their reception. In the one + which contained the arsenic boiled in river water, the hygrocrocis is now + growing, while that boiled in distilled water remains perfectly limpid + and free from any vegetable production. There can scarcely be a doubt, + that the filtration of river water was not sufficiently purifying to + remove the minute spores of some lower forms of vegetation, which not + only live in arsenic but have resisted the temperature employed in + boiling an arsenical solution to saturation.</p> + + <p>As to the first class, or truly reproductive and <!-- Page 171 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page171"></a>{171}</span>morbid + poisons, the most heterogenous ideas have from all time existed. I have + introduced the notice of the above poisons, viz. the Amanita, and that + which engenders the milk sickness, to compare the results of the morbid + poisons on the human body with them, and also to associate them with the + effects of diseased grain. From the Amanita and that other fungoid matter + which is said to produce the milk sickness, there appears to be a purely + toxic action on the system, but in the instance of diseased grain, a + blood disease, ending in gangrene, or a specific and peculiar action of + the generative organs is the consequence, and where the latter occurs, + the poison usually expends itself on these parts, either by inducing + abortion, or augmenting the catamenial secretion.</p> + + <p>Now, the morbid poisons, if studied only in their results, shew that + there is a combination of these two actions. There is usually, in the + first place, a toxic or poisonous action, and secondly, a deteriorating + or decomposing action on the blood, by which there is a tendency to low + or asthenic inflammation and gangrene. It matters not what form of fever + we take as an illustration, whether intermittent, pestilential, or + exanthematous, either will serve the purpose of shewing how completely + the effects of vegetable organic poisons resemble those which for the + sake of distinction (I suppose) have been denominated Morbid Poisons.</p> + + <p>Take an attack from the paludal poison. It is <!-- Page 172 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page172"></a>{172}</span>usually ushered in with + head-ache, weariness, pains in the limbs, and thirst, with other + symptoms; all these are indicative of a poisonous agent in the blood: + then come the full phenomena of the disease at a longer or shorter + interval, and tending ultimately to destroy some organ of the body. The + mind suffers during the course of the attack, and delirium occasionally + happens. In severe cases of this disease, which were more frequent + formerly than now, coma, delirium, and frenzy were observed at the + commencement of the attack, and a tendency to rapid disorganization of + one or several of the viscera.</p> + + <p>If we take the effects of poison of Erysipelas, of Scarlet Fever, or + Plague, in each we find at the onset more or less general derangement of + the system, usually with cerebral disturbance and disordered action of + all the dynamic forces of the body, which clearly indicate the action of + a poison; then, unless some favourable symptoms arise, the blood exhibits + a steady advance towards disorganization, and sphacelation of one or more + tissues or parts of the body ensues. In Erysipelas the force of the + diseased action is expended on the skin, and subcutaneous cellular + tissue; in Scarlet Fever the fauces ulcerate, and slough and the parotids + suppurate; in the Plague there is a general tendency to putrefaction, and + the formation of glandular abscesses with sphacelas. Without going any + further into this matter, for my present intention is merely to draw <!-- + Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page173"></a>{173}</span>notice to certain facts, let me now ask, + whether or not, do the poisons of the Ergot, the Uredo, and the Amanita, + exhibit more analogy in their action on the nervous system, the blood and + the tissues, than any other poisonous agents with which we are + acquainted? If the whole range of the lower fungi could be examined in + reference to their operation on the blood, as decomposers of organic + compounds,—if experiments could be made, by which the properties of + fungoid matter could be detected, I would venture to say the whole of the + phenomena of these diseases could be readily comprehended and their + intricacies unravelled.</p> + + <p>We know that the fungi are poisonous, that at times and seasons, and + under variations of climate, they vary in their effects, and perhaps lose + altogether these properties. We know that the fungi produce gangrene of + the tissues, and disorganization of the blood; we know that their spores + pervade the atmosphere, and are ready, under favouring conditions, to + increase and multiply; we know that they are ubiquitous, and that those + conditions most favourable to their development, are exactly such as are + proved to foster and engender disease, and above all, they have been + proved to be the elements of some diseases in man, in animals, and in + plants. Can as much be said of any other known agents, animate or + inanimate, comprised in our category?</p> + + <p>It has been said, we do not see after death,—the <!-- Page 174 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page174"></a>{174}</span>interlacing + mycilium, or the sprouting pileus; therefore the fungi are not the agents + of disease—it has been said that carbonic acid and alcohol are not + found as products of diseased action—consequently disease is not a + fermentative process. "In all cases," says Liebig, "where the strictest + investigation has failed to demonstrate the presence of organic beings in + the contagion of a miasm, or contagious disease, the hypothesis that such + beings have cooperated, or do cooperate in the morbid process, must be + rejected as totally void of foundation and support." Much as I admire the + genius of this great man, it is difficult to refrain from remarking, that + I doubt if any of his great discoveries would have been made, if, in the + first instance, hypotheses had not formed the basis of all his + researches. It has been said, "that casual conjunctions in chemistry, + gave us most of our valuable discoveries:" and it is from casual + conjunctions that hypotheses are usually formed, the working out proves + either their fallacy or their truth, but to say that an hypothesis has no + foundation, until demonstrated to be true, is rather knocking down + argument. And who, let me ask, has been more prolific of hypotheses than + our continental neighbour? Yet he, according to his mode of reasoning, + would sweep away all such words from the vocabularies of philosophers. + What foundation has the chemical hypothesis of disease, when it fails to + explain the most important element <!-- Page 175 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page175"></a>{175}</span>of contagious and + infectious diseases: viz. the reproductive property of their germs?</p> + + <p>It is perhaps necessary to say something in explanation of the sudden + deaths arising from morbid poisons. They may occur from two causes. One + being the result of a concentrated amount of poison germs being inhaled + into the lungs, and acting as an ordinary toxic agent; and the other, + which I put only hypothetically, the consequence of the rapid evolution + of gas in the vessels arising from a sudden decomposition of blood, as it + passes through the lungs. The only authority I have for this supposition, + is the fact that the blood after death, from pestilential affections, is + found to be far advanced towards decomposition; that in Paris last year, + two patients were bled while suffering from Cholera, and with the small + quantity of blood which flowed, bubbles of air also escaped:<a + name="NtA70" href="#Nt70"><sup>[70]</sup></a> and besides this, it was + demonstrated by Mr. Herapath, that ammonia was given off from Cholera + patients, both by the lungs and skin. These facts, though they are not + conclusive, nevertheless render it probable that such an explanation is + not entirely out of reason—especially too, when we know how fatal + are the effects of uncombined air, when it enters the vessels near to the + heart.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 176 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page176"></a>{176}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECTION III.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">WHAT RESULTS DO WE OBTAIN FROM THE EFFECTS OF REMEDIAL AGENTS, IN PROOF OF THE HYPOTHESIS?</span></p> + + <p>I have here used the word hypothesis, because, having so far advanced + in the enquiry, I trust sufficient has been said to render the term + applicable.</p> + + <p>Under the term remedial agents, I shall include all those causes, + whether natural or artificial, which tend to neutralize or destroy the + germs of infection, or miasmatic poison, whether this be effected out of + or within the body.</p> + + <p>First, then, let us consider the results of drainage and cultivation + in removing the causes of endemic disease. One well authenticated case is + as good as a thousand. I will take one, which, from its source, will be + received as unexceptionable; and from its association with a very learned + and amusing book, will be accepted as an agreeable reminder of the many + pleasant hours spent in the perusal of the poet Southey's "Doctor."</p> + + <p>"Doncaster is built upon a peninsula, or ridge of land, about a mile + across, having a gentle slope from east to west, and bounded on the west + by the river; this ridge is composed of three strata; to wit, of the + alluvial soil deposited by the river in former <!-- Page 177 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page177"></a>{177}</span>ages, and of limestone + on the north and west; and of sandstone to the south and east. To the + south of this neck of land, lies a tract called Potteric Carr, which is + much below the level of the river, and was a morass, or range of fens + when our Doctor first took up his abode in Doncaster. This tract extends + about four miles in length, and nearly three in breadth, and the security + which it afforded against an attack on that side, while the river + protected the peninsula by its semicircular bend on the other, was + evidently one reason why the Romans fixed upon the site of Doncaster for + a station. In Brockett's Glossary of North Country words, Carr is + interpreted to mean 'flat marshy land,' 'a pool or lake;' but the + etymology of the word is yet to be discovered.</p> + + <p>"These fens were drained and enclosed pursuant to an Act of + Parliament, which was obtained for that purpose in the year 1766. Three + principal drains were then cut, fourteen feet wide, and about four miles + long, into which the water was conducted from every part of the Carr + southward, to the little river Torne, at Rossington Bridge, whence it + flows into the Trent. Before these drainings, the ground was liable to + frequent inundations; and about the centre there was a decoy for wild + ducks; there is still a deep water there of considerable extent, in which + very large pike and eels are found. The soil, which was so boggy at first + that horses were lost in attempting to drink at the drains, has been + brought <!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page178"></a>{178}</span>into good cultivation, (as all such ground + may be) to the great improvement of the district; for till this + improvement was effected, <i>intermittent fevers and sore throats were + prevalent there, and they have ceased from the time the land was + drained</i>. The most unhealthy season now, is the spring, when cold + winds, from the north and north-east, usually prevail during some six + weeks; at other times Doncaster is considered to be a healthy place. It + has been observed that when endemic(?) diseases arrive there, they + uniformly come from the south; and that the state of the weather may be + foretold from a knowledge of what it has been at a given time in London, + making an allowance of about three days, for the chance of winds. Here, + as in all places which lie upon a great and frequented road, the + transmission of disease has been greatly facilitated by the increase of + travelling."</p> + + <p>I feel certain of being excused for transcribing this long passage + from Southey. It would have been impossible to convey its whole meaning + without giving it entire. The continuation of the chapter is no less + instructive and applicable to our subject, though more particularly so to + an extension of the enquiry. The sore throats and intermittents, from + which Doncaster has been freed, by the drainage of Potteric Carr, informs + us at once that decomposing matter is the material by which the poison of + fever is vivified and sustained, the wet and boggy state of the soil is + just the condition, when no drainage exists, to bring into activity the + germs of <!-- Page 179 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page179"></a>{179}</span>disease, which otherwise would lie latent. + So satisfied and acquainted are we with the elements necessary for the + production of fever, that we might as certainly bring about an endemic + intermittent by forming an artificial bog, as we could be sure of growing + mushrooms by making a bed in the manner laid down by gardeners for this + purpose. Dr. Lindley also says, "the <i>Polyporus fomentarius</i> has + been artificially produced in Germany, but merely by placing wood in a + favourable situation, and keeping it well moistened. Five or six crops + were obtained in the year."</p> + + <p>Let warmth, moisture, darkness, and decaying matter be given, and + inanimate disintegrated particles will soon be converted into definite + forms and combinations instinct with life. It is by the unseen forms of + living beings, that the atmosphere is preserved from becoming charged + with deadly gases; they take the first rank in the great scheme of + animated beings, the plant first, and then the animal. "Let the earth + bring forth grass." "Let there be lights in the firmament." "Let the + waters bring forth the moving creature, and fowl that may fly," and "Let + the earth bring forth the cattle, the creeping thing, and the beast." + This is the order of creation, of living things, and the earth was + prepared by vegetation for the animal world. The work of conversion is + accomplished by vegetation; and this is consumed for the construction of + higher organizations.</p> + + <p>The laws which govern and control the universe, <!-- Page 180 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page180"></a>{180}</span>are as definite and as + wonderful among invisible atoms, as those which regulate the enormous + masses floating in space; and the time will come when the advancing + intellect of man will measure and weigh the morbid poisons, as he + measures and weighs the stars. Why should the laws of Epidemics be less + understood, than the laws which govern the course of comets? The + aspirations of man have led him to penetrate the heavens, which charm and + inspire him; he studies rather the more violent disturbing elements of + nature, the thunder-cloud and the fire of heaven, than the silent + pestilence which steals over the earth. I cannot conceive it possible + that the Intellects, which are occupied in procuring means for the + Majesty of this empire to issue her mandates with the velocity of a + spirit to the nethermost parts of the earth, should be incapable of + solving so deeply interesting a mystery as the causes and nature of + pestilential diseases. It would seem that man prefers to issue a mandate + of destruction many thousand miles distant, than to disarm the pestilence + at his door. It is barely a century since Galvani observed the twitchings + in the muscles of a frog's leg, and the battery, still named after him, + has already become an agent of instantaneous communication between places + many miles distant. But how many centuries have passed away, each one + succeeding the other, with its millions of victims to epidemics? And + where are the remedies for the evils? Drainage and cleanliness, with all + their advantages, were better understood and more fully carried out by + the ancient <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page181"></a>{181}</span>Romans than by ourselves; there are + monuments, though crumbling to decay, to tell us of the vast enterprise + of these people and of the value they set upon a healthy and vigorous + constitution, and how well they understood the means of warding of + disease.</p> + + <p>Cultivation and drainage are now fully understood to be the basis by + which a healthy condition of air is to be obtained, next to that, + cleanliness and ventilation; if either be neglected a sickly, mouldy, and + unwholesome contamination of atmosphere ensues; the odour of a bog is + proverbially mouldy, and so is that of an ill-ventilated house or cellar; + dryness, or the fresh pleasant scent of clean water, are the antagonists + of these; the aromatic odours of vegetation are opponents of + putrefaction, and consequently of the development of the lower forms of + life. All empyreumatic matters prevent mouldiness and decomposition; and + odours arrest and prevent the growth of mouldiness. The oil of birch, + with which the Russia leather is impregnated, and which gives it so + pleasant an odour, effectually prevents mouldiness, and consequently + decay.</p> + + <p>Lindley says, "It is a most remarkable circumstance, and one which + <i>deserves particular enquiry</i>, that the growth of the <i>minute + fungi</i>, which constitute what is called mouldiness, is <i>effectually + prevented</i> by any kind of perfume."<a name="NtA71" + href="#Nt71"><sup>[71]</sup></a> Cedar has <!-- Page 182 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page182"></a>{182}</span>been used, from time + immemorial, for a like purpose; and I doubt not the recommendation of + Virgil, before quoted, in reference to the burning of cedar, was founded + on some practical utility of this kind, though its <i>modus operandi</i> + was unknown to him. Allied to these is a curious circumstance, and worthy + attention. I copy the following from an old work on Pestilences. "It is + remarkable that when the Plague raged in London, Bucklersbury, which + stood in the very heart of the city, was free from that distemper; the + reason given for it is, that it was chiefly inhabited by druggists and + apothecaries, the scent of whose drugs kept away the infection, which + were so unnatural to the pestilential insects, that they were killed or + driven away by the strong smell of some sorts of them." "The smell of + <i>rue</i>, and the smoke of tobacco, were prescribed as remedies against + the infection; but especially tar and pitch barrels, which it was + imagined preserved Limehouse, and some of the dock-yards from + infection."<a name="NtA72" href="#Nt72"><sup>[72]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Pitch and tar dealers are everywhere spoken of as being remarkably + exempt from infectious diseases.</p> + + <p>Cold infusion of tar was used in our colonies as a prophylactic + against the Small Pox. Bishop <!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page183"></a>{183}</span>Berkeley was induced to try it when this + disease raged in his neighbourhood. The trial fully answered + expectation—for all those who took tar-water, either escaped the + disease, or had it very slightly.</p> + + <p>Tan yards and places in the immediate vicinity, are said to be free + from pestilences. The tanners of Bermondsey are said to have escaped the + Plague of London, and one person only died in Gutter Lane, where was a + tan yard. The tanners of Rome are also stated to have been free from + Plague. Dr. M‘Lean refers to the exemption of tanners at Cairo. + <i>Tannin is prejudicial to most vegetables</i>,—but Dr. Lindley + says it is not always so to fungi. "A species of Rhizomorpha is often + developed in tan pits." I should imagine that neither plants nor insects + would be found very abundantly, where tannin prevails; yet we find that + the gall-nut is formed for the protection of an insect from injury by + weather, and as a temporary means of sustenance.</p> + + <p>The custom of fumigating with odoriferous substances, does not + therefore appear upon this view of the matter to be destitute of + importance; indeed, the universal practice stamps it at once, as an + efficacious remedy for the purposes of disinfection. The introduction of + chlorine fumigation, seems to have superseded, in a great measure, the + use of fragrant herbs and woods; and it is questionable whether the + substitution be altogether desirable or <!-- Page 184 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page184"></a>{184}</span>advantageous. Many + scents may be agreeably and usefully employed, with much less chance of + annoyance to the patient, and considerably less injury to articles of + furniture, &c.</p> + + <p>The fumigations of sulphurous acid and chlorine are, perhaps, more + adapted as disinfectants in uninhabited apartments;—their power to + destroy vegetation, is well known. They have been used, chiefly, with the + idea of neutralizing gaseous exhalations, particularly chlorine, as it + tends to combine with hydrogen, to form hydrochloric acid, and then to + unite with ammoniacal matters, forming hydrochlorate of ammonia. This, + supposing noxious or pestilential effluvia consisted of the ammoniacal + exudations variously combined, was an exceedingly efficacious method of + rendering them inert; but as we feel convinced that no ammoniacal + compound could possibly be the cause of infection, we must look to the + influence these gases possess over other forms of matter, and as they are + so destructive, even in minute quantities, to vegetable existence, it is + possible that their beneficial effects may be due to this property. The + immediate neighbourhood of gas works is prejudicial to vegetation, I + imagine, from the amount of sulphurous vapours, and to this has been + attributed the exemption of persons employed in these works. Many other + instances might be cited of a similar nature.</p> + + <p>I have now to speak of medicinal agents, and here comes a considerable + difficulty. <!-- Page 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page185"></a>{185}</span></p> + + <p>If we might believe all that has been written on the sure and certain + remedies for the "ills that man is heir to," we should be led to + acknowledge that both nature and art were prodigal in antidotes and + specifics. The all-bountiful hand of nature, I do not doubt, has at the + same time scattered the seeds of good and of evil. The fertilizing + showers fall to irrigate the soil, and produce food and nourishment to + man; here and there is the reeking morass "feeding unnatural vegetation," + and if man takes up his abode in its vicinity, the rains which made it + unhealthy, have also made it highly fertile; by labour and cultivation he + may convert the mephitic bog into a waving corn-field, and the seeds of + life and sustenance be made to supplant the seeds of death and + corruption.</p> + + <p>It is generally believed, that where there are particular and specific + diseases, there also may be found appropriate and specific remedies; the + discoveries of chemistry, it is not improbable, may in some respects have + retarded the progress of natural medicine. In the early ages of the + world, the "healing plant" must have formed the staple of medical + commerce, for though Tubal Cain<a name="NtA73" + href="#Nt73"><sup>[73]</sup></a> has been considered as the first + surgical instrument maker, because he was the first artificer in brass + and iron, we have not discovered that chemical compounds entered into the + composition of physic, till very <!-- Page 186 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page186"></a>{186}</span>many years after his + time. To the alchemists we owe the science of chemistry, and much of the + physic of the present day may be traced to them. The multiplicity of + ingredients which at one time entered into the composition of one dose of + physic could only be spoken of under the title of "legion." Who shall + specify the active and curative ingredient (if there be one), when from + five to a hundred may have been exhibited at the same time? It has been + the pride of our physicians, that the pharmacopœia has been + simplified; it has not reached its most simple form yet. That many simple + plants have specific and wonderful power over disease, is an indubitable + fact, but I firmly believe that the laudable, though mistaken efforts of + physicians to improve their effect by various combinations, have been the + means of throwing many valuable medicines into oblivion; I must also add, + that cheap physic and adulterations have had no small share too in the + banishment of much valuable physic from ordinary practice. It has been + believed, and I think with much reason, that a thorough search into the + qualities of plants, would shew that "they are capable of affording not + only great relief, but also effectual and specific remedies." "That they + are not already found, is rather an argument that we have not been + sufficiently inquisitive, than that there are no such plants endued with + these virtues."</p> + + <p>Of the result obtained by medical treatment, in cases of epidemic or + infectious disease, it is most <!-- Page 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page187"></a>{187}</span>difficult to speak, but as my province + here is only to shew that living germs are the morbific agents, I have + but to refer to such remedies as have been most extolled in controlling + these affections. The disinfectants have already been mentioned in a + cursory manner. An enumeration only of simple medicines used during the + late Epidemic, shall conclude this work, as the treatment in former times + could not by any possibility furnish satisfactory information. Aromatics + and fragrant stimulants have in all times taken the foremost rank with + acids, such as vinegar, lime and lemon juice. Mr. Guthrie's adoption of + lemon juice in preference to bark, which he said made him worse while + suffering from an attack of fever, during the Peninsular campaign, and + his speedy recovery from the disease, though not from its effects, shews, + when many others can bear equal testimony to its value, that such a + remedy though simple is not to be despised.</p> + + <p>But to the late Epidemic. Dr. Stevens' saline treatment, appears, on + the whole, to have been the most successful. Common salt was used both + medically and dietetically, and formed the greatest bulk of the medicine + employed. Chlorate of potash and carbonate of soda were added to the + medicine.</p> + + <p>The nitro-hydrochloric acid was used with success at St. Thomas's + Hospital.</p> + + <p>Dr. Copland used chlorate of potash, bicarb. soda, hydrochloric, + ether, and camphor water.</p> + + <p>Dr. Ayre's calomel treatment had as many, if <!-- Page 188 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page188"></a>{188}</span>not more, opponents + than advocates. Phosphorus had several advocates.</p> + + <p>Creasote and camphor were lauded by some. The beneficial operation of + all these remedies might be explained on the theory here supposed, that + living germs are the cause of Epidemic disease, but the specific action + of any one remedy has not yet had sufficient attention or trial to enable + me to make any deductions of a satisfactory or conclusive nature.</p> + + <p>In the uncertainty which generally prevailed as to the best method of + treating Cholera patients, I was induced (for reasons stated in a + pamphlet published last year) to try the efficacy of sulphur, which had + been extolled as a specific. In its effects I was not disappointed; but + as the results are already before the public, I need not do more than + refer to it among other remedies.</p> + + <p>I did not contemplate even alluding to this subject, as it would + extend far beyond my intended limits. This portion of the enquiry would + be more properly carried out by keeping records of cases, treated in + accordance with the view attempted to be established, and I have not the + slightest hesitation in saying, that the most ample success would + ultimately attend a well directed practice, based upon the principles + inculcated in these pages.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page189"></a>{189}</span></p> + +<h3>CONCLUSION.</h3> + + <p>In making the foregoing sketch, I have attempted to put together some + ideas on a subject, which has for the last few years been a theme for + meditation in leisure hours, viz. What are the causes of Epidemic, + Endemic, and Infectious Diseases? The occurrence of Epidemic Cholera last + year in this country, awakened a spirit of enquiry. Where there is + unrest, whatever may be the cause, there also is disquiet and discontent. + When the oracles of the age were consulted in the emergency, the + discordant answers perplexed and confused the anxious searcher after + truth. In the spring of last year, when the enemy was approaching, unseen + and unheard, and the thousands of unconscious victims, who are now lying + in their graves, were faithfully trusting and fully relying on the heads + of our profession, and the resources of our art, what was the state of + our defences, and what the nature or character of our resistance? One + considerable body of men would discharge from a little tube of glass, a + host of almost invisible globular atoms of sugar, said to be as potent + and inscrutably operative as the unseen enemy. These infinitesimal + practitioners assured the people that they "<i>had powerful means of + subduing the disease</i>," <!-- Page 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page190"></a>{190}</span>but even they differed among themselves, + though they carried out to the fullest extent the doctrine of their + leader, <i>similia similibus</i>, which we may suppose to refer in this + case to the minuteness of the opposing armamenta. Without, however, + agreeing with this school, I may quote a passage from Dr. Curie, which + is, alas! too true: "We have shewn, as they must (allopathists), and many + of them do acknowledge, that they have no fixed basis, no natural law + upon which their treatment rests."</p> + + <p>Who can deny the force of this observation? Sheltered by a principle, + it matters not how fallacious, a man is placed as behind a barrier. If + with any reason it could be shewn that the infinitesimal doses, could by + no possibility effect a cure in Cholera; if it could be demonstrated by + any line of argument, that a poison, a living poison, circulates with the + blood, or lodges in the tissues, the homæopathist must fall; his + "electricity and mineral magnetism," and "<i>powerful concentration of + life power towards the digestive canal</i>," will stand for what they are + worth. That minute doses of medicine can exert an active influence over + the body is not to be denied, but these must consist of powerful drugs, + as arnica, aconite, and nux vomica, with others, and it is more than + probable, that of such medicines, an inconceivably small amount may + produce a specific effect upon some portion of the organic nervous + system.</p> + + <p>How is it that a dose of nitre or digitalis, "can <!-- Page 191 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page191"></a>{191}</span>convert + cheerfulness into low spirits," or a grain of red sulphuret of antimony, + "excite warmth and lively spirits?"<a name="NtA74" + href="#Nt74"><sup>[74]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Why should indigo dyers become melancholy, and scarlet dyers + choleric?<a name="NtA75" href="#Nt75"><sup>[75]</sup></a> We do not know. + But there is one thing we most certainly do know, that a poison may be + disarmed by an antidote, and the amount of the latter must be in + proportion to that of the former, and as epidemic and contagious diseases + do most unquestionably depend upon poisons of a specific nature, and of + great amount and activity, an infinitesimal remedy, however it may claim + to direct and control the organic forces, under slight and ordinary + disturbances, can be no more effectual in destroying the poison of fever, + or small pox, than in neutralizing arsenic or prussic acid.</p> + + <p>The uncertainty which generally prevails as to the treatment of + Epidemic diseases, Fevers, &c. induced me to put together the notions + which are contained in these pages, in the hope of leading to some + definite ideas of the causes of these affections, and consequently to a + more uniform and scientific mode of treating them.</p> + + <p>I have endeavoured to shew that reproduction is a phenomenon + inseparable from morbific matter, and that in all probability the + vegetable kingdom is the source of the germs.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192"></a>{192}</span></p> + + <p>The train of argument adopted is such as appeared to me most natural + for such an enquiry, and it rests now only with those who are capable of + deciding whether such a course, though (I am sensibly aware) not without + many faults in conception and execution, is calculated to advance the + science of medicine and the interests of mankind.</p> + + <p>The real tree of knowledge, possesses in the spongioles of its roots, + an elective property, by which truth alone can enter; nourished and + sustained by this, it sends a fragrant incense and breathing odour on + high, and dispels the mists of ignorance and superstition. In natural + causes and reasonable deductions we must seek for instruction and solid + information, for in over-straining either nature or art, deformity and + error must inevitably be the result.</p> + +<h3>THE END.</h3> + + <p>NORMAN AND SKEEN, PRINTERS, MAIDEN LANE, COVENT GARDEN.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>NOTES</h3> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Nt1" href="#NtA1">[1]</a> "It matters little how vague and + false hypotheses may appear at first: experiment will gradually reduce + and correct them, and all that is required, is industry to elaborate the + proof, and impartiality to secure it from + distortion."—<i>Sewell</i> "On the Cultivation of the + Intellect."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt2" href="#NtA2">[2]</a> It is stated by Mr. Crosse, of + Norwich, that vaccination was adopted in Denmark, and made compulsory in + 1800. After the year 1808 Small Pox no longer existed there, and was a + thing totally unknown; whereas during the twelve years preceding the + introduction of the preventive disease, 5,500 persons died of the Small + Pox in Copenhagen alone.—<i>Dr. Watson's Lectures.</i></p> + + <p>Dr. Blick, an intelligent Danish physician, corroborated the above + statement to Dr. Watson himself in the year 1838.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt3" href="#NtA3">[3]</a> Philosophy of Life, Lecture 6, + translated by the Rev. A. J. W. Morrison, M.A.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt4" href="#NtA4">[4]</a> The following I quote from Dr. + Fuller on Small Pox and Measles:—</p> + + <p>"To this purpose some (and particularly Kircherus) are of opinion that + animalcules have been the causes of malignant and pestilential fevers in + epidemic times, which differ in essence and symptoms, according to the + nature and venoms of those creatures.</p> + + <p>"Thus the atmosphere and air is filled both from above and beneath + with innumerable millions of millions of species or corpuscles, + aporrhœas, steams, vapours, fumes, dust, little insects, &c. + all which make it such a wonderful chaotic compost of things that + contains the <i>seeds</i> of good and evil to man as surpasseth the + understanding (as I suppose) of even the highest order of + archangels."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt5" href="#NtA5">[5]</a> I learn from an undoubted authority + that the cow when "slack of health" eats with avidity the "field + parsley;" the sheep under similar circumstances seeks the ivy, and the + goat the plantain.</p> + + <p>From an equally good source I have the following: that rabbits and + hares, when they are what is commonly called <i>pot-gutted</i>, seek the + green broom, though at a distance of <i>twenty miles</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt6" href="#NtA6">[6]</a> "My settled opinion is, that in + regard every effect is necessarily such as its cause; it must needs be + that every sort of venomous fevers is produced by its proper and peculiar + species of virus.</p> + + <p>"And that the manner and symptoms of every such fever is not so much + from the particular constitution of the sick; as from the different + nature and genius of their specific venom which caused them.</p> + + <p>"And I conceive that venomous febrile matters differ not in degree of + intenseness only, but in essence and <i>toto genere</i> also; and that + venomous fevers are for the most part contagious."—<i>Thomas + Fuller, M. D. 1730.</i> "Another important class of organic poisons are + those which when introduced in almost inappreciable quantities into the + system, seem to increase in quantity; and which when communicated in the + same inappreciable quantity from the individual poisoned to one who is + healthy, excite the same series of febrile phenomena and local + inflammation, and the same increase in the quantity of the poisonous + agent."—<i>Med. Chir. Review.</i></p> + + <p>"This unseen influence working in the body, presents very striking + analogies to the modes of operation of different poisons."—<i>Dr. + Ormerod on Continued Fever.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt7" href="#NtA7">[7]</a> I am aware that the vesicle does + not here strictly bear the relation to the original germ, supposing one + active particle alone to be sufficient for its production, that the egg + does to the bird, for in the former case multitudes of active particles + may have been generated from one. I have, therefore, merely used this + expression to signify an aggregation of vital forces, such as may be + imagined to exist in the bird.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt8" href="#NtA8">[8]</a> "At an early period the form of the + ovisacs is usually elliptical, and their size extremely + minute,—their long diameter measuring in the ox no more than 1/562 + of an inch, so that a cubic inch would contain nearly two hundred + millions of them. They are <i>at this time</i> quite distinct from the + <i>stroma</i> of the ovarium; this forms a cavity in which they are + loosely embedded."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt9" href="#NtA9">[9]</a> Coleridge, p. 56.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt10" href="#NtA10">[10]</a> "All vegetables," says Sharon + Turner, "from that pettiness which escapes our natural sight, to that + magnitude which we feel to be gigantic, have these properties in common + with all animals—organization; an interior power of progressive + growth, a principle of life, with many phenomena that resemble + irritability, excitability, and susceptibility, and a self-reproductive + and multiplying faculty."—<i>Sharon Turner's Sacred + History.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt11" href="#NtA11">[11]</a> "Plants highly sensitive to + light are those of the leguminous, or Pea kind. They always close up in + the evening and clasp their two upper surfaces together, presenting only + their backs to the air. Plants of pinnated leaves, as the Tansy, are more + sensible than these to the effects of light. They fold up when light is + too strong, as in Robinia; it produces the same effect as want of light. + Its leaves close up, apparently, because they are receiving too much. So + they do if a hot iron be brought near them. They contract as if to avoid + the heat. Sensitive plants, and those of the Oxalis Lent. are so + sensitive that the least motion, even a breath of air, will make them + close."—<i>Sir J. Smith.</i></p> + + <p>"The vitality of plants seems to depend upon the existence of an + irritability, which although far inferior to that of animals, is + nevertheless of an analogous character."—<i>Lindley's Introduction + to Botany.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt12" href="#NtA12">[12]</a> Provincial Medical and Surgical + Journal. July 10th, 1850. No. xiv. p. 367. "Practical Observations on the + Vaccination Question." By E. Oke Spooner, M. R. C. S., Blandford.</p> + + <p>"If we examine the Cow Pox and the Small Pox microscopically, as I + have done very carefully in every stage, we find that the essential + character consists of a number of minute cells, not exceeding the + 10,000th part of an inch in diameter, being about one-fourth smaller than + the globules of the blood, containing <i>within their circumference many + still more minute nuclei, and presenting</i> beyond their circumference + bud-like cells of the same size and character as those contained within + the circle. They exactly resemble in everything except the size, the + globules of the yeast plant, the Torula Cerevesiæ. Now if we examine more + circumstantially the analogies of what I would call the Torula Variolæ + with the Torula Cerevesiæ, we observe the following corresponding + facts.</p> + + <p>"What do we accomplish by inoculation as it is called? Simply this. We + take on the top of a lancet, or an ivory point, a few of these minute + cells or germs, and we put them <i>in their appropriate nidus</i>, the + subcuticular tissue, where, after a few days if they find their + appropriate nutrient elements, they grow and multiply."</p> + + <p>Simon, Chemistry of Man, vol. i. p. 127. "Macgregor ascertained that + the air expired by persons ill of confluent Small Pox, contained as much + as <i>eight</i> per cent of carbonic acid, and in proportion as health + was restored the percentage was diminished to its natural standard." + Carbonic acid is also produced during the process of fermentation and + germination.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt13" href="#NtA13">[13]</a> See History of the Jews, p. + 71.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt14" href="#NtA14">[14]</a> It is said by Whewell, that the + murrain is supposed to have fallen only on the animals which were in the + open pasture.—<i>History of the Jews.</i></p> + + <p>"J. S. Michael Leger, published at Vienna, in 1775, a treatise + concerning the mildew as the principal cause of the epidemic disease + among cattle. The mildew is that which <i>burns</i> and <i>dries</i> the + grass and leaves. It is observed early in the morning, particularly after + <i>thunder-storms</i>. Its poisonous quality, which does not last above + twenty-four hours, never operates but when it is swallowed immediately + after its falling."—<i>Mitchell on Fevers.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt15" href="#NtA15">[15]</a> "The prevalence of the + south-east wind was observed to be particularly favourable to the + increase of both cholera and influenza: and I cannot but think that this + had some connexion with the general tendency exhibited by the former to + spread from east to west. Has the morbific property of this wind aught to + do with the haziness of the air when it prevails—a haziness seen in + the country remote from smoke, and quite distinct from fog? What is this + haze? In the west of England a hazy day in spring is called a + <i>blight</i>."—<i>Dr. Williams' Principles of Medicine.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt16" href="#NtA16">[16]</a> We are to understand also that + some peculiar operation took place of a nature difficult to comprehend, + which seems also to typify reproduction, for the handfuls of ashes which + Moses threw into the air <i>became a dust in all the land of Egypt</i>, + thus signifying an enormous reproduction of atomic matter.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt17" href="#NtA17">[17]</a> The Chinese affect to trace the + origin of Small Pox back to a period of at least 3000 years, or 20 years + beyond the era of the Trojan war, 1212, A. C.</p> + + <p>The Chinese pretend to discriminate no less than 40 different species + of Small Pox.</p> + + <p>"They also pretend to discover whether a person has died by violence + or from natural causes, not only after the body has been some time + interred and decomposition of the softer parts has commenced, but even + after the total disappearance of the soft parts, and when the dry + skeleton alone is left."—For the process, see <i>Hamilton's History + of Medicine</i>, vol. i. p. 31.</p> + + <p>To give some notion of the state of Medical Science among the Chinese, + I may quote the following: "The theory of the circulation of the blood, + Du Halde affirms, was known by the Chinese about 400 years after the + deluge; be this assertion veracious or not, no correct knowledge up to + the present day, do the nation possess of the circulating system of the + human frame."—<i>China and the Chinese, Henry Charles Sirr, M. + A.</i></p> + + <p>According to their anatomy, the trachea extends from the larynx + through the lungs to the heart, whilst the œsophagus goes over them + to the stomach.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt18" href="#NtA18">[18]</a> "And Aaron took as Moses + commanded, and ran into the midst of the congregation: and behold the + plague was begun among the people; and he put on incense and made an + atonement for the people. And he stood between the dead and the living, + and the plague was stayed."—<i>Numbers.</i></p> + + <p>The practice of burning scented herbs has been observed in all times + during an invasion of the plague, as a means of protection. Also wearing + perfumes and aromatic preparations has been recommended. Whether they + have any counteracting influence, it is impossible to say.</p> + + <p>Virgil in the third Georgic speaks of a murrain among cattle. He says, + if any wore a vestment made of wool from an infected sheep, fiery blains + and filthy sweat overspread his body, and ere long a pestilential fire + preyed upon his infected limbs.</p> + + <p>In his directions for preserving the health of flocks he + says—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Disce et odoratam stabulis accendere cedrum."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The motive for burning the fragrant cedar is not mentioned; we cannot + doubt but it was a good one, and having some great practical utility, + from the following line—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Galbaneoque agitare graves nidore chelydros."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="Nt19" href="#NtA19">[19]</a> The earliest mention of this + complaint upon which reliance can be placed, is an ancient Arabic MS. + preserved in the public library at Leyden. "This year, in fine, the Small + Pox and Measles made their first appearance in Arabia." The year alluded + to being that of the birth of Mahomet, or the year 572 of the Christian + æra.—<i>Hamilton's History of Medicine</i>, vol. i. p. 215.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt20" href="#NtA20">[20]</a> Dr. W. A. Greenhill's + translation.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt21" href="#NtA21">[21]</a> The Black Assize at Oxford, + 1572, is an instance in which a pestilential vapour suddenly appeared in + the court, "whereby the judge, several noblemen, and more than 300 + others, died within three days."</p> + + <p>"Of an unaccountable vapour suddenly coming, I have this relation from + Richard Humphrey, my neighbour, and a man of veracity, that on Wednesday, + April 27, 1727, as he and one Walter, were travelling a-foot from + Canterbury; when they came to Rainham, they were assaulted with such a + strong loathsome stink, as he thought was like the stench from a + corrupted human corpse. They were so offended at it, as thinking it was + from carrion in that town, that they would not stay there to rest and + refresh themselves, but travelled on for about two hours, mostly in the + stench, but sometimes out of it, till they came to the hill that leads + down to Chatham: and there they went clear out of it and smelt it no + more."—<i>Dr. Fuller</i>.</p> + + <p>It appears that these persons did not fall sick of any disease, but + the fact of itself is remarkable enough.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt22" href="#NtA22">[22]</a> Hamilton's History of + Medicine.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt23" href="#NtA23">[23]</a> It has been said, that "an + induction once carefully drawn, is as perfect from a single instance as + it is from ten thousand, and that it is only an uncultivated mind which + requires a load and accumulation of knowledge to assist his + thoughts."—<i>Sewell</i> "on the Cultivation of the Intellect."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt24" href="#NtA24">[24]</a> See Dr. Alison's Pamphlet on the + Fever in Edinburgh.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt25" href="#NtA25">[25]</a> Earthquakes have in all times + been considered to have some connexion with pestilences. "A most grievous + pestilence broke out in Seleucia, which from thence to Parthia, Greece, + and Italy, spread itself through a great part of the world, from the + opening of an ancient vault in the temple of Apollo, and that it raged + with so much fury as to sweep away a third part of the inhabitants of + those countries it visited."—<i>Dr. Quincy, on the Causes of + Pestilential Disease.</i></p> + + <p>"Upon an earthquake the earth sends forth noisome vapours which infect + the air; so it was observed to be at Hull in Yorkshire, by the Rev. Mr. + Banks, of that place, after a small earthquake there in 1703, it was a + most sickly time for a considerable while afterwards, and the greatest + mortality that had been known for fifteen years."—<i>Anonymous</i>, + 1769.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt26" href="#NtA26">[26]</a> See Sharon Turner's Sacred + History, text and notes, vol. i. p. 161 & 162.</p> + + <p></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <span class="unpoem"><a name="Nt27" href="#NtA27">[27]</a></span> + <p class="hg3">"Each seed includes a plant; that plant, again,</p> + <p>Has other seeds, which other plants contain,</p> + <p>Those other plants have all their seeds; and those</p> + <p>More plants, again, successively enclose.</p> + <p>Thus ev'ry single berry that we find,</p> + <p>Has really in itself whole forests of its kind.</p> + <p>Empire and wealth one acorn may dispense,</p> + <p>By fleets to sail a thousand ages hence;</p> + <p>Each myrtle-seed includes a thousand groves,</p> + <p>Where future bards may warble forth their loves."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="Nt28" href="#NtA28">[28]</a> "On June 5th, 1849, a man and + his son, a lad aged 14 years, left Noss to fish, and when five miles out + at sea, no vessel being in sight, they both simultaneously became aware + of a hot <i>offensive</i> stream of air passing over them. It was so + decided, that the crab pots were examined to discover if it were from + them, but it did not, and five minutes after the father's attention was + directed to the boy, who was vomiting and purging."—<i>Dr. Roe on + the Cholera at Plymouth, Med. Gaz. Aug. 24th, 1850.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt29" href="#NtA29">[29]</a> Linnæus remarked that Erigeron + Canadense was introduced into gardens near Paris from North America. The + seeds had been carried by the wind, and this plant was in the course of a + century spread over all France, Italy, Sicily and Belgium.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt30" href="#NtA30">[30]</a> Hecker.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt31" href="#NtA31">[31]</a> This is found most generally to + be the case where rivers flow through uncultivated tracts of country. The + Californian emigrants suffer much from diarrhœa and dysentery, if + they drink of the river and certain well waters of that gold + district.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt32" href="#NtA32">[32]</a> "Purification from leprosy. As + this fearful disease was contagious and hereditary to the third and + fourth generation, the separation of lepers from the camp and + congregation, and the destruction of infected houses and clothes, was of + the utmost importance to the preservation of public health.</p> + + <p>"Leprosy was of three kinds: 1st, Leprosy in man. 2nd, Leprosy in + houses. 3rd, Leprosy in clothes.</p> + + <p>"Contagious or malignant leprosy was of two kinds, viz.</p> + + <p>"1st. The white leprosy, or bright berat, which was the most serious + and obstinate form which leprosy assumes. It exhibited itself as a bright + white and spreading scale, on an elevated base; turning the hair white in + patches, which were continually spreading.</p> + + <p>"2nd. The black leprosy, or dusky berat, which was less serious than + the foregoing. It did not change the colour of the hair, nor was there + any depression in the dusky spot; but the patches were perpetually + spreading, as in the white leprosy."—<i>Analysis and Summary of Old + Testament History.</i> <i>Oxford.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt33" href="#NtA33">[33]</a> The Mexican Aloe blows when nine + years old, and then dies. At least this is its usual course in the island + of Cuba.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt34" href="#NtA34">[34]</a> "Ground that has not been + disturbed for some hundred years, on being ploughed, has frequently + surprised the cultivator by the appearance of plants which he never + sowed, and often which were then unknown to the country. The principle + has been ascertained to be capable of existing in this latent state for + above 2000 years, unextinguished, and springing again into active + vegetation, as soon as planted in a congenial soil.</p> + + <p>"In boring for water near Kingston on Thames, some earth was brought + up from a depth of 360 feet, and though carefully covered with a + hand-glass to prevent the possibility of other seeds being deposited on + it, was yet in a short time covered with vegetation.</p> + + <p>"Turner says, from the depth, these seeds must have been of the + diluvian age."—<i>Jesse's Gleanings.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt35" href="#NtA35">[35]</a> Hamilton's History of Medicine, + vol. ii. p. 276, note.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt36" href="#NtA36">[36]</a> "What I wish you to remark is + this, that while almost all men are prone to take the disorder, large + portions of the world have remained for centuries entirely exempt from + it, until at length it was imported, and that then it infallibly diffused + and established itself in those parts."—<i>Dr. Watson on the + Principles and Practice of Physic.</i></p> + + <p>Dr. R. Williams says, "The seeds of intermittent fever lay dormant for + months, it was not at all uncommon for cases of intermittent fever to be + brought into the hospital eight or ten months after the patients had + subjected themselves to the influence of paludal or marsh effluvia."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt37" href="#NtA37">[37]</a> I have observed in the + hot-houses, that many of the exotic plants, which are in company with the + diseased vines, have been attacked, while others again have been entirely + free.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt38" href="#NtA38">[38]</a> By causes of the greatest + variety plants may become extinct for a time. It is not very easy to + trace them, but one fact may be mentioned in proof of the statement. Dr. + Prichard states that vast forests are destroyed either for the purpose of + tillage or accidentally by conflagrations. "The same trees do not + reappear in the same spots, but they have successors, which seem + regularly to take their place. Thus the pine forests of North America + when burnt, afford room to forests of oak trees."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt39" href="#NtA39">[39]</a> Hecker says of Chalin de + Vinario, that "he asserted boldly and with truth, that <i>all epidemic + diseases might become contagious, and all fevers + epidemic</i>,—which attentive observers of all subsequent ages have + confirmed." P. 60.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt40" href="#NtA40">[40]</a> In 1539, the thirty-first year + of Henry the Eighth, was great death of burning agues and flixes; and + such a drought that welles and small rivers were dryed up, and many + cattle dyed for lacke of water; the salt water flowed above London + Bridge.—<i>Stowe.</i></p> + + <p>In 1556, the fourth of Mary, and the third of Philip, about this time + began the burning fevers, quarterne agues, and other strange diseases, + whereof died many.—<i>Stowe.</i></p> + + <p>The next winter, 1557, the quarterne agues continued in like manner, + or more vehemently than they had done the last + yere.—<i>Stowe.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt41" href="#NtA41">[41]</a> Every writer on the climate of + Egypt has remarked, that the Endemic Fever which is so frequent, + originating on the coast, particularly about Alexandria, becomes + occasionally so virulent, that it cannot be distinguished from the + <i>true Plague.</i>—<i>Robertson on the Atmosphere</i>, vol. 2. p. + 384.</p> + + <p>"Endemial Fevers of every situation become occasionally so aggravated, + that they cannot be distinguished from such as originate from contagion; + and in every unusual virulence of this Endemic Fever, it is probable that + it may be propagated afterwards by contagion as every epidemic." + <i>Ibid.</i> p. 388.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt42" href="#NtA42">[42]</a> Dr. Ure.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt43" href="#NtA43">[43]</a> "The metamorphosis of starch + into sugar depends simply, as is proved by analysis, on the addition of + the elements of water. All the carbon of the starch is found in the + sugar; none of its elements have been separated, and except the elements + of water, no foreign element has been added to it in this + transformation."—<i>Liebig</i>, <i>Organic Chemistry</i>, p. + 71.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt44" href="#NtA44">[44]</a> As regards starch there appears + to be some peculiar faculty regarding it. It is converted into sugar + during the ripening of fruit, and it is just possible that being as it is + of a cellular nature, the property of vitality may attach to it until it + has, by being converted into sugar, fulfilled its destination.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt45" href="#NtA45">[45]</a> Though I do not consider that + the fermentation process is a fac-simile of diseased action, yet I think + its phenomena generally afford an apt illustration of the changes which + may be effected by living germs. Many able chemists still maintain the + entire dependence of fermentation upon the Torula: "M. Blondeau propounds + the view that <i>every kind</i> of fermentation is <i>caused</i> by the + development of fungi."</p> + + <p>The varieties of opinions found in the literature of this subject, + forms a curious specimen of scientific enquiry, and is sufficient alone + to convince us of its vast importance and extensive relations.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt46" href="#NtA46">[46]</a> By Dr. Mantell.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt47" href="#NtA47">[47]</a> Mitchell on Fevers.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt48" href="#NtA48">[48]</a> We wonder, and ask ourselves: + "What does <span class="scac">SMALL</span> mean in + Nature?"—<i>Schleiden's Lectures on Botany.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt49" href="#NtA49">[49]</a> Speaking of the bunt in wheat: + "It appears certainly to be contagious, from numerous experiments, which + shew that the contagious principle lasts a long time. I have tried it + myself; some, however, doubt it, but it cannot be denied, that seed sown, + infected with bunt, produces plants similarly affected; every one who has + had the slightest experience must be convinced of it."—<i>Essay on + the Diseases of Plants.</i> <i>Count Ré.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt50" href="#NtA50">[50]</a> We have already spoken of the + effects of these poisons, and have stated that the amount of each poison + capable of destroying the body is pretty accurately known.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt51" href="#NtA51">[51]</a> The italics are my own.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt52" href="#NtA52">[52]</a> Gmelin says: "But the mode of + action in these transformations, sometimes admits of other explanations; + and when this is not the case, our conception of it is by no means + sufficiently clear to justify the positive assumption of this, so called + contact-action or catalytic force, which, after all, merely states the + fact without explaining it"—<i>Gmelin's Hand-book of Chemistry</i>, + vol. i. p. 115.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt53" href="#NtA53">[53]</a> The history and symptoms of some + epidemic diseases, such as cholera and influenza, are not inconsistent + with the hypothesis that they are caused by the sudden development of + animalcules from ova in the blood. But there is a total want of direct + observation in support of this hypothesis.—<i>Dr. Williams' + Principles of Medicine.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt54" href="#NtA54">[54]</a> Since writing the above, I have + referred for information on this subject, and find, that the Anguillula + aceti exhibits sexual distinctions; and that the ovaries of the females + are situated on each side of the alimentary canal.—<i>Cyclo. Anat. + and Phys. Art. Entozoa.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt55" href="#NtA55">[55]</a> Speaking of the examination of + the infusory animalcules—Mr. Kirby says: "But to us the wondrous + spectacle is seen, and known only in part; for those that still escape + all our methods of assisting sight, and remain members of the invisible + world, may probably <i>far exceed those that we + know</i>."—<i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, vol. i. p. 158.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt56" href="#NtA56">[56]</a> Mr. Owen has added another + class, as the first, called Protelmintha, which comprises the cercariadæ + and vibrionidæ.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt57" href="#NtA57">[57]</a> "It is probable that in the + waters of our globe an infinity of animal and vegetable molecules are + suspended, that are too minute to form the food of even the lowest and + minute animals of the visible creation: and therefore an infinite host of + invisibles was necessary to remove them as + nuisances."—<i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, vol. i. p. 159.</p> + + <p>"When Creative Wisdom covered the earth with plants, and peopled it + with animals, He laid the foundations of the vegetable and animal + kingdoms with such as were most easily convertible into nutriment for the + tribes immediately above them. The first plants, and the first animals, + are scarcely more than animated molecules,* and appear analogues of each + other; and those above them in each kingdom represent jointed + fibrils."†—<i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, vol. i. p. 162.</p> + + <p>* Globulina and Monus. † + Oscillatoria and Vibrio.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt58" href="#NtA58">[58]</a> "A treatise which should present + a systematic arrangement of all the diseases of plants, giving in detail + the exact history of each, and adding the means of preventing and curing + them, would certainly be of the greatest utility to agriculture." + —<i>Essay on the Diseases of Plants, Count Philippo Ré, translated + into Gardener's Chron.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt59" href="#NtA59">[59]</a> "Plenck published a treatise on + Vegetable Pathology, in which he divided diseases into eight classes: 1. + External injuries; 2. Flux of juices; 3. Debility; 4. Cachexies; 5. + Putrefactions; 6. Excrescences; 7. Monstrosities; and 8. Sterility. And + he concludes with an enumeration of the animals which injure + plants."—<i>Essay on the Diseases of Plants, Gardener's + Chronicle.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt60" href="#NtA60">[60]</a> The Bunt. "This disease appears + at the moment of the germination of the plant. The affected individuals + are of a dark green, and the stem is discoloured. As the ears are issuing + from the sheaths, their stalks are of a dark green, but very slender. + When the ear has fully grown out, its dull, dirty colour, causes it to be + immediately distinguished from the healthy ones, and it soon turns + white."—<i>Essay on the Diseases of Plants.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt61" href="#NtA61">[61]</a> <i>Vidi</i> understood.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt62" href="#NtA62">[62]</a> "At the close of the year 1665," + says Dr. Hodges, "even women, before deemed barren, were said to prove + prolific."</p> + + <p>"After the cessation of the Black Plague, a greater fecundity in women + was every where remarkable—a grand phenomenon, which from its + occurrence after every destructive pestilence proves to conviction, if + any occurrence can do so, the prevalence of a higher power in the + direction of general organic life. Marriages were almost without + exception prolific; and double and treble births were more frequent than + at other times."—<i>Hecker</i>, p. 31.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt63" href="#NtA63">[63]</a> It is stated that on the decline + of the Plague, 1665, those who returned early to London, or new comers, + were certain to be attacked. In proof of this the 1st week of November, + the deaths increased 400, and "physicians reported that above 3000 fell + sick that week, mostly new comers."</p> + + <p>See also Dr. Copland's Dict. Pract. Med. Epidemic and Endemic + Diseases.</p> + + <p>"The hardy mountaineer is a surer victim of paludal fever, whether he + visits the low countries of the tropics, or the marshes of a more + temperate climate, than the feebler native of those + countries."—<i>Dr. R. Williams on Morbid Poisons.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt64" href="#NtA64">[64]</a> "Substances presented to the + gastro-intestinal surfaces, are mixed up with various secretions, mucus, + saliva, gastric juice, bile, pancreatic liquor, and special exudations + from the peculiar glands of each successive section, while aerial + poisons, unmixed and unfettered, are applied at once to a surface on + which, behind scarcely a shadow of a film, circulates the blood prepared, + by the habitual action of the respiratory function, to absorb almost + every vapour, and every odour, which may not be too irritating to pass + the gates of the <i>glottis</i>."—<i>Mitchell on Fevers.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt65" href="#NtA65">[65]</a> Hecker on the "Black Death."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt66" href="#NtA66">[66]</a> The stomach in some cases is no + doubt the medium by which some diseases are contracted. It is well known, + that in many places the water induces diarrhœa, the permanent + residents, however, may not suffer, but all new comers are more or less + affected by drinking it.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt67" href="#NtA67">[67]</a> "Similar effects have been + experienced from the use of mouldy provisions."—<i>Dr. Lindley's + Vegetable Kingdom.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt68" href="#NtA68">[68]</a> "Untold numbers die of the + diseases produced by scanty and <i>unwholesome + food</i>."—<i>Southey.</i></p> + + <p>A large, nay, a most extensive adulteration of flour with plaster of + Paris was detected not many years since. The flour was supplied by a + contractor for the manufacture of biscuits for the navy.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt69" href="#NtA69">[69]</a> See Southey's Doctor, vol. ii. + interchapter vi. p. 115, for an illustration of this subject.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt70" href="#NtA70">[70]</a> Both these patients died.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt71" href="#NtA71">[71]</a> "A good part of the clove trees + which grew so plentifully in the island of Ternate, being felled at the + solicitation of the Dutch, in order to heighten the price of that fruit, + such a change ensued in the air, <i>as shewed the salutary effect of the + effluvia of clove trees and their blossoms; the whole island, soon after + they were cut down, becoming exceeding sickly</i>."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt72" href="#NtA72">[72]</a> The observation is originally + taken from the City Remembrancer, 133.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt73" href="#NtA73">[73]</a> See Hamilton's History of + Medicine, vol. i. p. 4.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt74" href="#NtA74">[74]</a> Feuchtersleben's Medical + Psychology, p. 176, 177.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt75" href="#NtA75">[75]</a> Ibid. p. 321.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Epidemics Examined and Explained: or, +Living Germs Proved by Analogy to be a Source of Disease, by John Grove + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EPIDEMICS EXAMINED *** + +***** This file should be named 34603-h.htm or 34603-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/6/0/34603/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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