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diff --git a/34600-8.txt b/34600-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..40be56e --- /dev/null +++ b/34600-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10698 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Story of American History, by Albert F. Blaisdell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Story of American History + For Elementary Schools + +Author: Albert F. Blaisdell + +Release Date: December 8, 2010 [EBook #34600] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF AMERICAN HISTORY *** + + + + +Produced by Patrick Hopkins, Juliet Sutherland, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +- Illustration captions in {brackets} have been added by the transcriber +for reader convenience. + +- Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. + +- Words surrounded by =equal signs= should be interpreted as being in bold +type. + + * * * * * + + + + + THE STORY OF + + AMERICAN HISTORY + + _FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS_ + + + + BY + ALBERT F. BLAISDELL + + AUTHOR OF "FIRST STEPS WITH AMERICAN AND BRITISH AUTHORS," + "STORIES FROM ENGLISH HISTORY," ETC. + + + + + BOSTON, U.S.A. + GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS + The Athenæum Press + 1902 + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY + ALBERT F. BLAISDELL + + ALL RIGHTS RESERVED + + + + +PREFACE. + + +Some sort of a first book on American history is now quite generally +used in schools as a preparation for the more intelligent study of a +larger and more formal text-book in the higher grammar grades. + +For beginners, a mere compilation of facts is dry and unsatisfactory. +Such books have now given place, for the most part, to those prepared on +a more attractive and judicious plan. The real aim in a first book +should be to interest boys and girls in the history of their country, +and to encourage them to cultivate a taste for further study and +reading. + +This book is intended for use in the earlier grammar grades and to be +preliminary to the study of a more advanced work in the higher grades. +The author has also kept in mind the fact that the school life of many +children is brief, and that all their instruction in American history +must come from a text-book of this kind. + +The author has not aimed to cover the whole range of our country's +history. Of many noted men and important affairs no mention is made. +Only the leading events of certain periods and the personal achievements +of a few representative "makers of our country" are treated in any +detail. The subject is approached through biographical sketches of a few +of the more illustrious actors in our nation's history. Some prominence +is given to exceptional deeds of valor, details of everyday living in +olden times, dramatic episodes, and personal incident. + +The schoolroom test demonstrates the fact that such a treatment of the +subject is more attractive and profitable to children of the lower +grades than the mere recital of minor matters and petty details of +public events. + +The author would acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. Homer B. Sprague of +New York City for editorial help in reading and revising the manuscript. +Thanks are also due to Dr. John E. Sanborn of Melrose, Mass., for +editorial assistance. + + A. F. BLAISDELL. + + NOVEMBER, 1900. + +NOTE.--The attention of teachers and pupils is especially directed to +the practical usefulness of the subject of "Reference Books and +Supplementary Reading for Successive Periods in American History," as +treated on pages 424-435 in the Appendix. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. AMERICA IN THE OLD DAYS 1 + + II. COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 10 + + III. SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH 31 + + IV. THE STORY OF THE PILGRIMS 47 + + V. MORE ABOUT THE PILGRIMS 60 + + VI. THE INDIANS AND HOW THEY LIVED 73 + + VII. THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK; THE QUAKERS IN PENNSYLVANIA 88 + + VIII. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 106 + + IX. EVERYDAY LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 126 + + X. THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION 139 + + XI. LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 158 + + XII. THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL 170 + + XIII. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 184 + + XIV. THE BURGOYNE CAMPAIGN 198 + + XV. WASHINGTON AND THE REVOLUTION 222 + + XVI. THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH 250 + + XVII. THE STORY OF ARNOLD'S TREASON 271 + + XVIII. JOHN PAUL JONES: OUR FIRST GREAT NAVAL HERO 286 + + XIX. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: HIS HIGHLY USEFUL CAREER 296 + + XX. EVERYDAY LIFE ONE HUNDRED YEARS AGO 311 + + XXI. WHAT OUR NAVY DID IN THE WAR OF 1812 323 + + XXII. THE SETTLEMENT OF THE PACIFIC COAST 339 + + XXIII. LINCOLN AND THE WAR FOR THE UNION 353 + + XXIV. MORE ABOUT THE WAR FOR THE UNION 369 + + XXV. OUR NAVY IN THE WAR FOR THE UNION 387 + + XXVI. THE WAR WITH SPAIN IN 1898 406 + + APPENDIX. Books for Reference and Collateral Reading in + the Study of American History 424 + + INDEX 436 + + + + +THE STORY OF AMERICAN HISTORY + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +AMERICA IN THE OLD DAYS. + + +=1. The Story of our Country.=--We are sure that every intelligent and +patriotic American youth must like to read the story of our country's +life. To a boy or girl of good sense no work of fiction can surpass it +in interest or power. + +How delightful to let the imagination summon up the forms and the deeds +of the fearless Norse sailors who dared to cross the unknown seas in +their frail and tiny vessels without compass and without charts! How +interesting the oft-told but ever-fresh narrative of the intrepid +Columbus and his memorable first voyage into and across the "Sea of +Darkness"! What romance was ever more exciting than the stories of the +fierce struggles between the white men and the Indians for existence and +supremacy on this continent? + +How deep the pathos of the simple tales that tell of the patient +sufferings, the severe toils, the ever-present dangers, and the heroic +self-denials of the early colonists in making for themselves homes in +the New World! How richly suggestive are those pages that record the +glorious events of our American Revolution--the splendid and immortal +deeds of Washington and his illustrious associates! + +Then there is the thrilling account of the most tremendous civil war in +all history, with its four million soldiers, its two thousand battles, +and its preservation of the Union. + +And to come down to a time within the memory of every schoolboy, the +echoes of the Spanish-American conflict have hardly yet died away. The +story of this short war in the summer of 1898 still rings in our +ears--with its astounding naval victories at Manila and Santiago, the +freedom of Cuba, and the destruction of the last vestige of the once +mighty Spanish supremacy on this western continent! + +=2. Lessons of Wisdom and Inspiration to be learned.=--But beyond and +above all mere gratification and pleasure to be derived from the study +of our country's history, there are in it lessons of wisdom to be +learned, there is inspiration to noble living, there is an uplifting of +the soul to a higher plane of thought and sentiment, there is constant +aid in the development and upbuilding of manly and womanly character. + +And when we think of the marvelous growth of less than three centuries +which, beginning with the infant colonies of Jamestown and Plymouth, has +made us a nation of more than seventy millions; when we think of the +wonderful record of trial and triumph and unceasing progress, and of the +great and good and wise men that have laid the foundations and reared +the superstructure of this mighty temple of liberty,--we must be blind +indeed and ungrateful beyond expression not to recognize with devout +thankfulness the guiding hand of a beneficent Providence. + +America, under God, stood at Plymouth for religious freedom; in the +Revolution, for independence; in our civil war, for the preservation of +the Union. She now stands for humanity, civilization, and the uplifting +of the whole race. + +=3. The People of Ancient America.=--Wise men who have made a special +study of the subject tell us that this country has been continuously +inhabited by generations of men for many thousands of years. Rude tools, +and human skulls, intermingled with bones of animals of species long +extinct, have been found in caves or dug out of deep layers of earth; +and they indicate that in the Mississippi valley and on the Atlantic +and Pacific slopes there lived, perhaps hundreds of ages ago, men of a +low grade of culture. + +In the great museums--as the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, the +Peabody Museums at Cambridge and New Haven, and the natural history +rooms at New York and elsewhere--may be seen thousands of the relics of +vanished races of men and animals that once inhabited this continent. + +=4. The Red Men or Indians.=--The Indians constitute a race by themselves. +Whether they are descended from some of those prehistoric inhabitants of +whom we have just spoken no one can say; but they make up an American +type with marks as clearly recognized as those that distinguish the +Mongolians and the Malays. For long ages the red men had spread +themselves over the two continents, from Hudson Bay to Cape Horn. With +few or no exceptions, all had the same copperish or cinnamon color, +deep-set and intensely black eyes, high cheek-bones, straight black +hair, with little or no beard; but the long lapse of time, the great +varieties of environment, and perhaps other causes, brought about +striking differences of appearance, of manners, customs, dialects, and +the like. + +=5. Three Principal Divisions of the Indians.=--The eminent historian, Dr. +John Fiske, groups the Indians in three leading divisions,--as savage, +barbarous, and half-civilized. + +The savage Indians ranged to the west of Hudson Bay, and southward +between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific, to the northern part of +Mexico. They lived by catching fish or game. They knew little or nothing +of tilling the soil. They did not dwell in permanent villages, but +roamed from place to place like Bedouin Arabs. + + [Illustration: ANCIENT CLIFF DWELLINGS.] + +The barbarous Indians inhabited the country east of the Rocky Mountains. +They did not depend wholly upon hunting or fishing, but knew how to +upturn the soil slightly with rude tools, and raise squashes, beans, +tomatoes, and, most important of all, Indian corn. They lived in +villages, and made houses that would last several years. They had dogs +of an inferior breed, but no other domestic animals. Some tribes were +able to weave coarse cloth and make weapons of polished stones. They had +strange social customs and singular religious beliefs. Fighting was +their principal occupation. + +The half-civilized Indians once lived in New Mexico and the adjoining +region. They have had almost nothing to do with the history of the +United States. They are the Pueblo Indians, so called from the _pueblos_ +or strongholds, dwellings which they built of stones or of sun-dried +brick. Some of these strongholds, story above story, would accommodate +at least three thousand inhabitants! They were built oftentimes in +situations almost inaccessible, like eagles' nests on cliffs, apparently +that they might be defended more easily against the attack of an enemy. + +=6. The Northmen and their Discoveries.=--The real contact between the +eastern and western halves of the world practically began in 1492, the +year of the first great voyage of Columbus. Occasional visitors may have +sailed before that date directly across the "Sea of Darkness" from the +Old World to the New. The subject is shrouded for the most part in the +mists of vague stories and obscure traditions. + +It seems quite certain, however, that in the year 986 a daring +Scandinavian navigator, Eric the Red, founded on the southwestern coast +of Greenland a colony that lasted four or five hundred years. In the +same year, as the Iceland Sagas (heroic legends) tell us, another Norse +sailor, voyaging from Iceland to Greenland, was driven by storms far out +towards the southwest, and was perhaps the first white man to behold the +American coast. + + [Illustration: NORSE RUINS IN GREENLAND.] + +Many interesting ruins of stone-built houses and of a church are still +to be seen on that desolate Greenland shore. In those ages the Northmen, +or Norsemen, as the people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were called, +were the most skillful sailors in the world. Eric the Red had several +sons, bold sailors like their father. The oldest of these (whose statue +stands on Commonwealth Avenue, Boston), Leif the Lucky, with thirty-five +hardy men, sailed south from Greenland in the year 1000, to explore +these lands that had been discovered fourteen years before. He landed at +several points along the coast. In a place which he called "Vinland the +Good" (land of vines), he found an abundance of luscious wild grapes. +Just where this sturdy Norse sailor feasted on the grapes is, of course, +uncertain, but good authorities are inclined to think it may have been +not far from Plymouth, on the coast of Massachusetts Bay. He returned +home in the spring. Two years later Leif's brother, Thorwald, came on a +voyage of discovery, but was killed by the natives in the summer of +1004. + +In the spring of the year 1007 an Icelandic chief, accompanied by his +wife and a crew of one hundred and sixty men, in three vessels, came to +this Vinland. He remained here three years, and had many dealings with +the Indians. + + [Illustration: A NORSE SHIP.] + +The Norsemen went home and gave vivid and accurate descriptions of the +land they visited. They described the Indians, the fish, the animals, +and the plants, all of which are given in the Icelandic chronicles. No +real relic, however, of these people has yet been found upon our own +coast. + +Columbus, who visited Iceland in the year 1477, may have had access to +the Icelandic archives, and have learned of the discoveries of these +rovers of the deep. But we have no evidence on that point. After the +eleventh century America remained as much unknown as if the bold +Northmen had never steered their dragon-prowed ships along our shores. +The waves that incessantly rolled upon its sands or dashed against its +rocks brought no vessel from the far-away lands of the East. Nearly five +hundred years were to come and go before, in the fullness of time, the +hour struck for the real and fruitful discovery of the New World. It was +left for Columbus, the great Genoese navigator, to open wide its gates! + + [Illustration: LANDING OF THE NORSEMEN.] + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. + + +=7. Commercial Activity in the Fifteenth Century.=--In southern Europe, +the last half of the fifteenth century was a period of great commercial +activity. Then, for the first time, many voyages of exploration were +made in various directions, to find new riches, new markets, or new +routes of travel and transportation. Merchants were turning their +attention more and more to enterprises in far-off regions beyond the +seas. + +Venice and Genoa became rivals for the vast and valuable trade of India. +With other Italian cities they grew rich and powerful. They kept great +fleets of merchant vessels plying back and forth across the +Mediterranean. + +They sent out to India large quantities of copper, iron, pitch, wool, +hides, and the like, and brought back cargoes of drugs, spices, silks, +pearls, and other luxuries. But the path of this commerce between the +Mediterranean and India required both ships and caravans; and whether by +way of the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, or by Damascus and the +Persian Gulf, or by the Black Sea and the Caspian and thence across the +eastern plains, the journey was long, tedious, costly; always hazardous, +and often, by reason of the Turkish wars, positively dangerous. + +And so it became important, especially for the merchants of Spain and +Portugal, the would-be rivals of Venice and Genoa, to find a shorter and +safer route. In many a country, people were asking, "Is there no easier +way to get to India?" + +In the attempts to solve this problem Portugal took the lead. Her +sailors boldly ventured farther and farther down the coast of Africa +until, about twenty years before Columbus discovered America, they +crossed the equator. But it was not till five years after the memorable +exploit of Columbus, that Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese captain, rounded +the Cape of Good Hope and crossed the broad Indian Ocean to India. Two +years later he returned home with his vessels full of rich merchandise +from that country. + +=8. The Shape of the Earth--Spherical or Flat?=--The learned men of that +age, for the most part, believed the earth to be round like a ball. But +the common people, and doubtless many of high rank, thought the land +surface to be flat, with a flat ocean flowing around it on every side. +Now if the earth were really a sphere, and no larger than was commonly +supposed, it would seem that the easiest way to get to India, unless +unforeseen obstacles intervened, would be to strike out to the west and +sail straight across the "Sea of Darkness," as the sailors called the +Atlantic. To embrace so startling a theory and deliberately to risk his +life in testing its truth, required a man of keen sagacity, of lofty +faith, of unbending resolution, and of the most heroic daring. Such a +man was Christopher Columbus. + +=9. Columbus; his Early Life as a Sailor.=--He was born at Genoa, in or +about the year 1445. He was the son of a poor wool-comber, and while yet +very young he helped in his father's daily toil. We find him a studious +boy, early able to write a good hand and to draw maps and charts for +mariners visiting his home. He loves the sea, listens eagerly to old +sailors' "yarns," weaves their fancies and legends into his day-dreams, +and is fired with ambition to go in search of strange lands. How shall +he realize his visions? Who will believe in him? + +At the age of fourteen he becomes a sailor. He sails south along the +African coast, and north as far as England, and even to Iceland. Always +observing, studying, planning, the ardent, thoughtful boy grows up an +earnest, thoughtful man. He is convinced that the earth is a globe, and +that, if he sails west far enough, he will reach India by a route +shorter than any to the east. Nothing can shake his faith in this +belief. It becomes the inspiration of his life. + +But like that of many learned men of his day, his estimate of the +distance is widely wrong. He supposes it to be only a few thousand +miles, requiring but a few weeks' sail. Little does he imagine that +directly in his westward path lies a vast continent, and beyond this +rolls an ocean far wider than the Atlantic! + +=10. Curious Things from the Unknown West.=--To reflecting minds many +facts gave hints of lands in the distant west. Curiously carved wood had +been washed ashore by westerly gales; far out on the sunset sea an old +pilot had picked up a quaintly wrought paddle; cane stalks of tropic +growth, and huge pines that could not have come from the east, had +drifted to the Azores. It was believed that these articles, strange to +European eyes, had floated across the broad ocean from the eastern coast +of Asia. + +Meditating much upon all these and kindred facts, and upon the teachings +of science, Columbus conceives himself to be divinely commissioned to +open up this new route to India, incidentally discovering unknown lands +and showing that the earth was round. But this stupendous project calls +for ships, men, and vast sums of money. He is poor, and he has no rich +patrons. + +=11. Columbus seeks Aid from Foreign Governments.=--For ten years Columbus +tried to persuade some European government to send him on this voyage +across the Atlantic. First he sought help from his own people, the +republic of Genoa; then from Venice, and afterwards from Portugal. For +seven years he had patiently and persistently endeavored to interest +Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, in his scheme of a +shorter route to India than that which their rivals, the Portuguese, +were hoping to find by sailing down the western coast of the dark +continent. After years of waiting and seeking, the long-sought help at +last came. Isabella had faith in Columbus, and proved herself a firm +friend. She listened patiently to his plans; and she finally decided to +fit out an expedition at the expense of her own kingdom of Castile. + +By the terms of the agreement, Columbus was to be admiral of all the +oceans he sailed and viceroy of all the lands he discovered, and to have +one-eighth of all the profits of the expedition--the pearls, diamonds, +gold, silver, and spices. + +It was hard work to get a crew willing to go on this long voyage into +the mysterious western seas. It was indeed a strange and hazardous +project, and prudent sailors, though stout-hearted, might well shrink +from taking the risk. Some, badly in debt, consented to ship on +condition that their debts should be paid. Others, convicted culprits, +promising to join the expedition, were released from jail. + +=12. Columbus sails on his Wonderful Voyage.=--Finally, in August, 1492, +after a delay of several months, three vessels with ninety men sailed +from Palos, a little port of Spain, on the most wonderful voyage the +world has ever seen--the voyage which ended in the discovery of the +great New World. What a heroic venture,--to sail out into an unknown +ocean! + + [Illustration: VESSELS OF COLUMBUS CROSSING THE OCEAN.] + +Every day and every hour took them farther from home. Onward and still +onward they were sailing, across the trackless and boundless deep, with +nothing in sight but sky and ocean. + +No wonder they became angry with themselves for having started upon what +seemed so foolhardy an enterprise. When at first the land sank from +sight on the eastern horizon, many of them lamented their sad fate, and +cried and sobbed like children. Columbus, fearing trouble, took the +precaution to keep two different reckonings as to the distance sailed, a +true one for himself and a false one for his men. + +To add to their fears, the needle of the compass no longer pointed, as +usual, a little to the right of the north star, but began to sway toward +the left. Columbus did not know what to make of this variation of the +compass needle, but by giving an ingenious astronomical explanation he +managed to satisfy his men. + +"This day we sailed westward, which was our course," were the simple but +grand words which the brave commander wrote in his journal day after +day. The sailors, in despair and rebellion, threatened to throw him +overboard; but he stood firm in his hope and courage, gazing almost +incessantly towards the ever-receding western horizon. + +=13. The Great Problem at last solved.=--Many times the eager sailors +thought they saw land, and many times they were disappointed. At last +birds began to circle around the ships. A bush covered with fresh red +berries floated by, and a piece of carved wood. Presently the birds were +seen to fly southward. By these signs Columbus felt sure that they were +approaching land. "We shall see land in the morning," he said to his +men. All was excitement and activity. No one could sleep. All waited +impatiently for the dawn. + +The day broke, and a beautiful island appeared before them. Columbus was +the first to step upon the beach; the others followed; all knelt as the +great discoverer kissed the ground and gave thanks to God. He rose from +his knees, drew his sword, unfurled the great flag of Spain, gorgeous +with its red and gold, and in the name of Spain he took possession of +the land, calling it San Salvador. From his sublime purpose the mighty +navigator had not swerved a hair's breadth! He had solved the great +problem! He had earned a name that should never die! + + [Illustration: COLUMBUS'S FIRST VIEW OF THE NEW WORLD.] + +=14. The New World and its Strange People; the Homeward Voyage.=--The +island on which Columbus first landed was one of those we now call the +West Indies, the name given by him. The voyagers were wild with delight +at the new country. They gazed in wonder at the rare and lovely flowers, +the bright-colored birds flashing through the sunlight, the lofty palms, +the strange trees bearing abundant fruits; but most of all at the +singular people, whom of course they called Indians. + + [Illustration: MAP OF COLUMBUS'S ROUTE ON HIS GREAT VOYAGE ACROSS THE + OCEAN.] + +Not less were the natives astonished. They thought the strange visitors +divine beings from the sky, and the ships unearthly monsters from the +deep. Columbus found the natives kindly and generous with gifts. Maize +or Indian corn, potatoes, cotton, and tobacco were found; but neither +gold nor diamonds. + +Columbus felt sure that this land was some part of Asia. After a stay of +twelve weeks he decided to sail back to Spain with the news of his great +discovery. He took with him a number of the natives and a vast store of +curiosities. On the voyage a terrific storm raged for four days, and it +seemed as if the frail vessels must be destroyed. The peril being very +great, Columbus wrote upon parchment two brief accounts of his +discoveries; each of these he wrapped in a cloth, enclosed it in a large +cake of wax, and securely packed it in a tight cask. One of these kegs +was flung into the sea, and the other was lashed to the vessel. + +The two frail vessels, however, rode out the storm and at last put into +one of the Azores to refit. On the homeward way another storm overtook +the weary voyagers, and Columbus was glad to reach at last a port in +Portugal. From thence in March, 1493, he arrived safe in the harbor of +Palos. + +=15. Columbus receives a Royal Welcome on his Return.=--A royal welcome +was given Columbus on his return. The man who had been laughed at for +his strange theories, now returning from a newly discovered world beyond +the sea, was regarded as the greatest of men. Ferdinand and Isabella +received him with royal pomp and asked him to tell them his story. +Marvelous it must have seemed, and all who heard it must have listened +with breathless attention. The highest honors were bestowed upon him. +His discovery of course excited intense interest throughout the +civilized world. + +But the high honors paid to him aroused the jealousy of the courtiers. +Once, while sitting as a guest of honor at table, one of the courtiers +said with a sneer that it was not such a great thing after all to +discover the New World; any one else could have done it. By way of reply +Columbus took an egg from a dish before him, and handing it to the +courtier, asked him to make it stand on end. The man tried but could not +do it. Others tried but failed, and the egg came back to Columbus. He +struck it upon the table with slight force, cracking the shell a little, +and then it stood upright. + +"Oh, any one could do that," said the courtier. "So any one could +discover the Indies after I have shown the way," was the reply of +Columbus. + + [Illustration: COLUMBUS REBUKING THE COURTIERS.] + +=16. Columbus sails on Other Voyages across the Atlantic.=--In spite of +the joy among the Spanish people over the great discovery, there was +general disappointment that Columbus brought back no gold or precious +stones. It was believed that another voyage might bring better success. +Accordingly he soon prepared to sail again across the ocean. There was +no trouble now in obtaining crews; multitudes wished to go. + +In September, 1493, he started--this time with seventeen ships and +fifteen hundred men! He landed among the Caribbean Islands. The natives +were frightened at the horses which were brought over, thinking the +rider and the steed all one; they were doubly terrified to see the man +dismount and the strange being come to pieces, making two separate +animals! + +Columbus coasted along the south side of Cuba, and being sure it was +India, tried to find the mouth of the Ganges! Seeing traces of a gold +mine that had once been worked, he concluded that in that region must +have been found the gold of Ophir, which had been used for Solomon's +temple, and that probably the great temple itself was not far off! + +=17. Queen Isabella proves a Friend.=--After a great deal of trouble +during his absence of nearly three years, Columbus returned home in +1496. Serious disputes followed his arrival. Much disappointment was +felt that he had found no gold or diamonds; many denounced "the foreign +upstart" as a fraud and a tyrant, saying that he cost more than he was +worth. Jealousy, intrigue, disappointed greed, hatred for fancied +slights, every motive to hostility took shape against him. Yet as +Isabella was still his friend, and as he hoped for better fortune in +another trial, he prepared for a third voyage. In May, 1498, with six +vessels and two hundred men he again set sail. + +On this voyage Columbus touched the mainland of South America and passed +the mouth of the river Orinoco. The broad flow of the great river, the +magnificent scenery, and the charming climate delighted him. "This must +be the river," he said, "that flows through the Garden of Eden." + +Meanwhile, many of the Spaniards that had been left on the islands +rebelled against him. Evil-minded officials in Spain sent out a sort of +inspector to examine into the rebellion. Prompted by malice, he exceeded +his authority and caused Columbus to be chained as a criminal. With +stern fortitude the stout-hearted mariner endured the cruel irons, and +he was thus taken back to Spain. The captain of the vessel offered to +free him from his chains. The brave discoverer answered sadly but +proudly: "No: I will wear them as a memento of the gratitude of +princes!" + +=18. The Fourth and Last Voyage.=--His firm friend, the queen, justly +indignant, received him with tears. Then the much-enduring old man broke +down, and with sobs and weeping threw himself at her feet. The +great-hearted Isabella encouraged him to go on still another expedition. +In May, 1502, with four vessels and one hundred and fifty men, he sailed +on his fourth and last voyage. + +He skirted the south side of Cuba, touched at Honduras, and coasted +along the northern shores of South America. Many of his men were killed +by the Indians, his company was short of food, his ships began to leak, +the vessel on which he sailed was wrecked, and the voyage was every way +disastrous. In November, 1504, old, feeble, and broken-hearted, Columbus +returned to. Spain. His royal patron and best friend, Isabella, was +dead. His constitution was shattered by the labors and perils he had +undergone. His last year was passed in sickness and poverty. In 1506 he +closed his eyes in death. + +=19. Columbus and his Mighty Achievement.=--After all his four eventful +voyages, this prince of explorers died in the belief that he had reached +the eastern shores of Asia, and that, too, by the best and most direct +route. He never imagined that he had found a new continent. Although +self-deceived as to the true nature of his discoveries, he yet well +deserved all the honors that have crowned his memory. His own time was +not worthy of him; but after-ages have paid him due and ever-increasing +reverence. His name will forever be linked with lofty ideas and +magnificent achievements. + +Columbus was a man of noble and commanding presence, tall, and +powerfully built. He had long-waving hair, a fair, ruddy complexion, and +keen blue-gray eyes that easily kindled and glowed. He inspired strong +affection and deep respect. He always carried himself with an air of +authority, as became a man of great heart and lofty thoughts. + +Why was this continent not named for Columbus? Let me tell you. Because +in his life it was not known as a new world, and hence had no need of a +new name. It already had the names India and Cathay (China). In 1501 +Americus Vespucius, a Florentine merchant and a mariner already familiar +with the western waters, sailed on his third voyage far southward along +the eastern coast of South America. The vast size of that country thus +became partially known. He wrote an account of his voyages to the "New +World," and in his honor it was named "America." Gradually this name was +applied to the northern continent also. + + [Illustration: LANDING OF COLUMBUS.] + +=20. The Cabots and their Voyages.=--We need not be told that these +expeditions made a great sensation in Europe, and that many bold +mariners started out from Portugal and Spain. The sovereigns of other +nations, too, as England and France, soon sent navigators to make claims +for their own countries. Among the most notable of these were the +Cabots, John and his son Sebastian. Though natives of Genoa, they lived +in England and had entered the service of King Henry VII. They had +permission from him to sail across the Atlantic and to take possession, +in his name, of any lands which were not known to Europeans. + +In May, 1497, with one ship and eighteen men, John Cabot with his son +Sebastian left England. The first land he saw is supposed to have been +either Cape Breton Island or the shores of Labrador. He did not remain +long on that cold and dismal coast, but returned home to England after +an absence of about three months. John Cabot was probably the first +European since the days of the Northmen to set foot upon the mainland of +North America. + +On his return he was received with much honor by the king. He was called +"The Great Admiral," and he went about the streets richly dressed in +silk, followed by a crowd of admirers. The next year the Cabots set out +upon a second voyage. This took a wider range. The exact limits of these +explorations are not clearly known; but it is believed that they +discovered the coast of Labrador, sailed along to Newfoundland, thence +probably as far south as Cape Cod, and perhaps to Cape Hatteras. +Inasmuch as Columbus never set foot upon the mainland of North America, +the Cabot discoveries are of importance. It is claimed that they gave +England a right to the settlement and ownership of this northern +continent. + +Sebastian lived to be a very old man, and to the last was full of +enthusiasm about the new-found world He was known as "The Great Yeoman." +It was said of him: "He gave England a continent--and no one knows his +burial place!" + +=21. A Spanish Knight seeks the Fountain of Youth.=--A singular expedition +was that of Ponce de Leon, a brave knight who had sailed with Columbus +on his second voyage. The Spaniards had heard somewhere in eastern Asia +the old, old legend, of a fountain whose water gave perpetual youth to +any one who drank of it. In 1513 Ponce de Leon sailed from Porto Rico, +where he had been governor, with three vessels, in search of this +wonderful "Fountain of Youth." + +On Easter Sunday (which in Spanish is Pascua Florida, flowering Easter) +he first came within sight of a coast to which he gave the name +Florida, partly in honor of the day and partly because it was indeed a +region of flowers. He took possession of it in the name of the King of +Spain. Never before had he seen so beautiful a region. It seemed the +land of eternal summer. + +He landed not far from what is now St. Augustine, and followed the coast +south to its western shore; but he went back disappointed. If he or any +one else ever saw this spring of magic power, it was only in dreams. In +1521 our romantic knight sailed again in search of the hoped-for +fountain; but by reason of a severe wound from an Indian arrow he was +forced to return to Cuba. There he died of his painful injury. + +=22. How De Soto sought in Vain for Gold.=--Another adventurous Spanish +knight was Ferdinand de Soto. He attempted to explore and conquer the +country across the waters to the north of Cuba. In 1539, with nine +vessels and five hundred and seventy men, he left Havana. Landing on the +eastern coast of Florida, De Soto marched north to the Savannah River, +thence going westward. Dangers beset him on every side. Sometimes the +natives, who had learned to fear and hate the Spaniards, sent poisoned +arrows flying through the air. Sometimes they purposely led their greedy +foes into swamps in the search for gold. The Spaniards in turn treated +the Indians with extreme cruelty. + + [Illustration: DE SOTO'S FIRST VIEW OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.] + +A number of dreadful battles were fought in which De Soto lost many men. +Through tangled forests and swamps the Spaniards, suffering from hunger +and sickness, plodded on their weary march. De Soto would not turn back. +He was determined to find gold. The proud Spaniard could not endure the +thought of failure. He had promised his followers an abundance of +treasure, and he resolved to keep that promise. + +At last they reached the banks of a mighty river. Compared with other +streams it was like the sea. It was the great Mississippi. De Soto was +probably the first white man that ever gazed upon it. Under his +direction the men built rafts, crossed the "Father of Waters," and +pushed far on to what is now Arkansas and Missouri, in search of the +fabled land of gold. They never found it. Instead of gems and gold, they +found hunger, sickness, and death. + +=23. Death of De Soto.=--At last, a little group exhausted and emaciated, +they turned their steps southward and toward the great river again. De +Soto was broken-hearted. A fever seized him, and he soon died. + +The Indians stood in great awe of De Soto. They called him a "child of +the Sun," and believed he would never die. His men therefore wished to +conceal the fact of their leader's death. They wrapped his dead body in +a mantle and sank it at night beneath the waters of the Mississippi. The +wretched remnant of his followers managed to build a few boats, and in +these they floated down the stream. A few of them at last reached +friends to whom they told the story of their failure. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. + + + [Illustration: SIR WALTER RALEIGH.] + +=24. Sir Walter Raleigh: Soldier, Sailor, and Courtier.=--Not until many +years after the voyages of the two Cabots did the English begin to make +settlements in the New World. For more than three-quarters of a century +no one seemed to comprehend the vast importance of the discoveries of +those explorers, or to dream of the wonderful changes that would follow +during the coming ages. But there was at last one man in England of high +rank who foresaw that a great nation would some time people the realm +beyond the Atlantic. That man was Sir Walter Raleigh. He was a skillful +sailor, a daring soldier, an accomplished scholar, an elegant poet, a +learned historian, a graceful courtier--in fact, a prince among men. He +became a great favorite with Queen Elizabeth. He was very rich, and +when he asked permission to fit out ships and establish colonies in +America, the queen readily granted his request. + +The first two vessels sent out by Raleigh reached the coast of North +Carolina in 1584. No attempt at colonization was then made, and they +soon sailed back to England. When Queen Elizabeth heard of the wonders +of the new country--its luscious fruits, its "sweete-smelling timber +trees," its rich soil, whereon the natives seemed to live "after the +manner of the golden age"--she said: "This place shall be named Virginia +in honor of me." For the great queen was called the "Virgin Queen," and +she used to boast that she was wedded to her kingdom alone. + +=25. First Attempts to colonize Virginia.=--Soon afterwards Raleigh sent +out vessels on a second voyage "to plant an English nation in America." +It had been planned to make a settlement on Roanoke Island; but the +Indians were warlike, food was scarce, and the colonists instead of +planting corn searched for gold. After they had nearly died of +starvation a vessel arrived, which carried the homesick men back to +England. Two years afterwards a third company was sent out by Raleigh. +This company included men, women, and children. These also settled at +Roanoke Island. There, in August, 1587, was born Virginia Dare, the +first American child of English parentage. + +This colony also fared hard. The governor sailed back to England for +supplies, and when he returned to America, after being delayed for three +years, every trace of the colony had disappeared. It was never known +whether the colonists had gone far away, to live with the Indians, or +had somehow perished. They were never heard of again. + +=26. How Tobacco and Potatoes came into Popular Use.=--And thus it was +that in the first colonizing of this country Sir Walter Raleigh had as +much to do as any other one man. Although his various attempts at +settlements proved failures, yet he opened the way, set the example, and +made it less difficult for others to come to America. + +One of the most wholesome and nutritious of vegetables, the common white +potato, had never been seen in Europe until some of the Virginia +settlers sent to Sir Walter as a present several of the "roots," as they +were called. He showed the poor how easily potatoes could be raised. +Thus they first came into use as a staple article of food. + +The settlers in Virginia soon found that the Indians took great comfort +in smoking the dried leaves of a certain fragrant herb. This was the now +well-known tobacco plant. The English colonists tried smoking,--and +liked it. They sent some of the plant across the ocean as a present to +Sir Walter. He tried smoking, and he also liked it! + +At first it seemed a strange sight in England to see a man smoking. The +story is often told that as Raleigh was one day enjoying his pipe, a +servant came into the room. As the man had never before seen any one +smoke, he was much astonished; he thought his master was on fire. He +rushed out of the room, seized a pitcher of water, and running back +threw it over Sir Walter! + + [Illustration: RALEIGH'S SERVANT INTERRUPTS HIS MASTER'S SMOKE.] + +From that time till now tobacco has been most extensively used. The +settler who raised tobacco could buy with it whatever he needed. Large +crops of it were carried to England and sold. It did much to establish +the commercial prosperity of the Virginia colony. + +=27. Captain John Smith and his Early Career.=--In the year 1607 there +came to Virginia a remarkable man by the name of John Smith. He plays +an important part in the early history of that colony. + +This the most famous John Smith that ever lived, was born in England in +1580. While yet a boy he was fond of wild and daring adventures. When +thirteen years old he sold his school books and ran away from home. When +he became a young man he went to the continent, and for two or three +years fought in the Dutch and French armies. + + [Illustration: CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.] + +Once, when Smith was a sailor on a ship going from Marseilles to Italy, +a terrible storm arose; the sailors, believing that he was the cause of +their bad luck, threw him overboard. But, swimming "with lusty sinews," +he managed to reach an island near by, and thus his life was saved. He +was rescued from the shore and was taken on board a French man-of-war. +Soon afterwards the ship met an enemy, and a battle ensued. In that +conflict the young English sailor fought so hard that the ship's +officers gave him a share of the plunder of the captured vessel. + +=28. His Romantic Adventures.=--Our bold adventurer now went farther east +and enlisted in the Austrian army to fight against the Turks. In that +service he soon became well known as a brave and dashing fellow, and +before long he was made a captain of cavalry. After a battle in which +the Austrians were defeated, Smith, badly wounded, lay a while among the +dead. But he was found and cared for. After his wounds had healed, he +was taken to Constantinople and sold to the Turks as a slave. A Turkish +lady showed him great kindness. + +Then he was sent to Russia. There, at a place about a mile from the +house of his cruel master, he was set to threshing grain. One day his +owner rode up and shamefully abused him. Stung by his insolence, Smith +killed the man with a flail, exchanged his own slave garments for his +victim's clothes, hid the body in the straw, mounted a horse, and +started off. He traveled over Russia, Austria, France, and Spain, and at +last, after many stirring adventures, drifted back to his old home in +England again. + +All these stories and many more Captain John tells us in his book of +travels. Perhaps they are true, and perhaps we may conclude with some +other persons that Smith was a daring fellow at telling stories as well +as at fighting Turks! + +=29. Captain John begins his Career in the New World.=--When our +adventurer arrived in England, all the talk was about the wonderful +western world. Although he had roamed so widely and had fared so hard, +he was then less than thirty years old and was ready for new adventures. +All of his previous life seemed a preparation for a career of romance +and heroism in the New World. So he joined an expedition which sailed +for Virginia in the early part of 1607. + +On the voyage his superior talents and experience were so evident that +his comrades became jealous of him, and on some pretext caused him to be +put in chains. They had a long and stormy voyage. It was as late as +April when they reached Chesapeake Bay. They were so glad to leave the +stormy ocean and find a place of rest that they named the land near +their first anchorage Point Comfort, a name it still bears. + +They entered between two capes, which they called Charles and Henry from +the king's two sons. From their king, James the First, they named the +river up which they sailed the James, and they called the village that +they built Jamestown. Thus was laid in the year 1607 the foundations of +the first permanent English settlement in the New World. + +=30. How Smith managed the Virginia Colonists.=--These Virginia colonists +were not suited to the rough, hard work of making a settlement in this +new country. They had not been accustomed to earn their living by manual +toil. They liked to call themselves "gentlemen," as if that title +somehow made an excuse for shiftless idleness. The real need was for +farmers, carpenters, blacksmiths, masons--useful mechanics and willing +laborers. These genteel settlers expected to find in this wonderful +region plenty of gold; their sole purpose was to get enough of the +precious ore, and then go back to England and remain there. + +But Captain Smith was the saving spirit of the colony. He showed the +immigrants the necessity of labor, and told them plainly that if they +would not work they must not expect to eat. He taught them to fell trees +and build huts. Their voyage had been so long, and so much of their +provisions had been spoiled, that, when they landed, their stock of food +was almost gone. Something must be done, and that soon, or they would +starve. + +Then was shown the courage, skill, and good sense of an energetic +leader. The corn that a few friendly Indians brought to the settlers was +not enough to feed so many. Therefore Smith took some companions, went +in his boat up and down the rivers, made friends of the Indians, and +bought from them corn and game, giving in payment shiny trinkets, beads, +and little mirrors. + +But the river lands were low and unhealthful; the water was bad; very +many of the settlers became sick; and, before the autumn frosts came, +more than half of them had died. Smith worked hard to help the survivors +and to teach them to help themselves. Meanwhile, in his boat, he made +long excursions up the James and the Potomac rivers, hoping perchance to +find a way to the South Sea, as every one then called the Pacific Ocean. + + [Illustration: SMITH EXPLAINING THE COMPASS TO THE INDIANS.] + +=31. Captured by the Indians.=--On one of these exploring expeditions a +gang of natives attacked Smith and killed all his men. He seized an +Indian and holding him as a shield, shot down three of the savages. The +place being swampy, he suddenly sank to his knees in the oozy soil and +was captured by the enemy. Then the quick-witted prisoner, taking out +his pocket compass, showed the vibrations and use of the needle, and +spoke of the sun, moon, and stars. He interested his captors so deeply +that they were sure he must be a supernatural being from some far-off +world. They were afraid to kill him. + +He persuaded them to send to the colony a piece of paper on which he had +written. The result surprised them all the more! This strange being +could make paper talk! + +=32. How Pocahontas saved Captain John's Life.=--At last Captain John was +sent to the great chief Powhatan, and by him was held captive during +several weeks. These Indians, too, he amused with his compass and his +writing; but after a while they grew tired of him, and Powhatan +concluded to kill him. + +So one day they gathered around the victim; he was stretched on the +ground, his head was placed on a stone, and all was ready. A savage was +just raising his club for the fatal blow, when forth rushed the bright +young Pocahontas, the pet daughter of the old chief. Throwing her arms +around Smith's neck, she turned her face to her father and begged him to +spare the captive's life. "Kill _me_," she cried; "kill _me_; you shall +not kill _him_!" It seems that Smith had been improving his time in +making whistles and rattles and strings of beads and shells for the +Indian girl, and so had won her affection; and she in return saved his +life! Indian chiefs do not often indulge in pity; but for the sake of +his beloved daughter Powhatan released Smith and soon after let him go +back to Jamestown. Such is the story of his romantic rescue as Captain +John told it years afterwards. While there is nothing improbable about +it, yet some people believe that he invented the story to magnify his +own importance. + +=33. The Romantic Story of Pocahontas.=--Pocahontas was at this time only +about twelve years of age. Ever afterward she continued to be very +friendly to the colonists, and often visited them at Jamestown, +sometimes bringing baskets of corn to the hungry white men. Once the +faithful girl came stealthily by night long miles through the dark +forests to inform Smith of an Indian plot to murder all the whites. + +As Pocahontas grew up, one of the young Englishmen, John Rolfe, became +much attached to her. He said he had had a marvelous vision telling him +that he ought to make her a Christian and marry her. That was nothing so +very wonderful, for then as now tender-hearted youths often dreamed at +night of what they were thinking of by day. In 1613, in the rude little +church at Jamestown, Pocahontas gave up her Indian religion, accepted +the Christian faith, and was baptized. She took the name Rebecca. The +next year she was married to Rolfe. This romantic marriage was very +fortunate for the colony, for it made her father, Powhatan, a warm +friend to the feeble settlers, who at this time were in sore need of +help. + +=34. The Indian Princess receives a Warm Welcome in London.=--Three years +afterwards the fair Indian girl, "Lady Rebecca," went with her husband +to England, where of course she attracted a great deal of attention. The +people came in crowds to see her. They cheered as she rode through the +streets of London. + +Pocahontas became a great favorite with the nobility, and was even +received at court by the queen. But, for all that, she soon became +homesick. Even amid the splendid novelties of London life, she longed to +be once more among the noble forests and the lovely wild flowers of her +old Virginia home. It was in the year 1617 that she prepared, with many +pleasing anticipations, to return to the scenes of her childhood. But +she suddenly sickened and, after a brief illness, died. She was only +twenty-two years old. She left an infant son who came eventually to +Virginia, and there grew to a worthy manhood. Many excellent families of +Virginia are today proud to claim him as their ancestor. + +=35. The Troubles of the Colonists increase.=--When Captain Smith, after +his romantic rescue, returned to the colonists, he found them in a +pitiful condition. During his absence the prospect had become in every +way gloomy. Hunger and sickness had reduced their number from over a +hundred men to only forty, and these were planning to go back to +England. + +At this distressing time another vessel arrived from England bringing +one hundred and twenty immigrants. This event brightened the darkly +drooping spirits of the colonists. But the sunshine did not last long. +These new-comers, like the old, were mostly idlers and "vagabond +gentlemen," as the settlers called them. "We did not come here to work," +they said. "Then you shall not eat," said the brusque leader. He was as +good as his word. They soon found they must work or starve. + +=36. The Greed of the Colonists for Gold.=--One trouble that annoyed +Captain Smith very much was this: the English people kept urging the +colonists to send home gold. Those that arrived later, like those that +came before, had no idea of working for a living, but only the hope of +shoveling up gold to carry away. + +They were so ignorant of minerals that, finding in the soil small yellow +scales of shining mica, they sent home bushels and bushels of it, +believing it to be gold. Another group of men supposed the little +glittering crystals of iron ore were really gold, and they spent weeks +in collecting the worthless stuff to send to England. No wonder Captain +Smith, although the leader of the colony, had hard work to manage and +feed men who would far rather dig "fool's gold" than raise corn. + +=37. The Starving Time in Virginia.=--All this happened while Smith was +using the utmost wisdom and skill to guide the colony for the best. On +one unhappy day a bag of gunpowder exploded near him, burning him so +badly that he had to return to England for surgical treatment. This was +in September, 1609. After he had gone, the colonists fell into still +greater trouble, and the "starving time" followed. The people were +compelled to eat dogs, rats, snakes, and toads; many died of starvation; +four hundred and ninety men were reduced to sixty; but, by the fortunate +arrival of more vessels, help finally came. + +Within the next few years the colony was set upon its feet, and the +foundations laid of a prosperous commonwealth. An energetic governor, +Sir Thomas Dale, made the idlers till the ground and promptly hanged the +criminals. The soil was found the best in the world for growing tobacco. +Hundreds of skilled farmers came over to Virginia to make their fortunes +by the cultivation of this fragrant weed. + +=38. Further Explorations along the Coast.=--Having at length recovered +from his wound, Smith scorned to remain idle, and became anxious to +undertake another maritime enterprise. There was at that time a great +deal of excitement in England about _North_ Virginia, then so called. In +1614 he sailed again with two vessels on a voyage of discovery in that +region. + +He touched first the shores of Maine, the nooks and corners of which he +explored; he then sailed along the ocean fringe from Penobscot Bay to +Cape Cod. He examined the coast carefully, entered the bays and rivers, +and named a number of prominent islands and capes. He sailed around Cape +Ann. To the three islands off the end of the cape he gave the queer name +of Three Turks' Heads. He prepared very carefully a map of the whole +country, as far as he had seen it, and he called it NEW ENGLAND. + +On his return to England Smith presented his map to the king's son, +Prince Charles, who confirmed the name that had been given to it. Next +year he started out again. His object was to found a colony in New +England, a region of which he had great hopes. But his vessel was +captured by a French man-of-war, and he was taken to France. With a +return of good fortune this hero of surprising deeds escaped, and +finally got back safely to England. + +=39. His Last Days; the "Father of Virginia."=--Our bold explorer now gave +up all plans of founding another colony in America. But he lived to know +and rejoice in the success of the Pilgrims and the Puritans in +Massachusetts. He wrote several books describing his travels and his +wonderful adventures. + +He had shown himself vigorous, quick-witted, far-seeing. He had been the +ruling spirit and the preserver of the Virginia colony. In fact, he has +often and justly been called the "Father of Virginia." His strong hand +had also opened wide the door of New England. + +We must think of Captain John Smith as the hero of the first struggle of +English civilization with the wilderness of America. Wherever he was, +his genius and resolute will had made him a leader. There was never a +braver man. After a life full of romantic adventures and daring +exploits, he died in London in 1631 at the age of fifty-two. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE STORY OF THE PILGRIMS. + + +=40. The Old-Time Idea about Kings.=--We shall do well to remember that in +England, about three hundred years ago, the sovereign's will commonly +had the force of law. Many people really thought there was such +sacredness about a royal ruler that whatever he commanded must be right, +whatever he forbade must be wrong. Indeed, there was a proverb, "The +king can do no wrong." He had his own kind of church and his own mode of +worship. Everybody must attend that sort of church and practise that +form of worship, or be punished. + +=41. Sturdy Englishmen dare to disobey the King.=--But there were, after +all, many honest, sturdy people in England who did not accept this +notion about the king. They did not like his style of religion, and they +would not pretend to like it. Besides, they felt that they had a right +to meet quietly by themselves, publicly in their own churches, or +privately in their own homes, and worship in their own way. + +But these people were regarded with suspicion. Presently a number of +them were seized and thrown into loathsome jails; not a few were heavily +fined or made to suffer bodily harm; some died on the gallows; and all +this because, in spiritual affairs, they had dared to disobey the +monarch. + +=42. The Pilgrims seek a Home in Holland; the First Attempt a +Failure.=--Those who were brave enough to oppose the king's despotism in +religious matters were at first styled Separatists, because they +separated from the "established church." Afterwards some of them came to +be called familiarly Pilgrims, because they wandered from place to place +on the way "to heaven, their dearest country," as they said. They longed +to go where they could be free to worship God as they pleased. + +At last a company of them hired a vessel to take them just across the +North Sea to Holland. They chose Holland, because in that country all +people were allowed to worship as they thought best. + +But just before the hour at which they had intended to embark, watchful +officers found them, seized most of their money and goods, dragged them +back, and put them in prison. It was indeed a pretty hard lot, punished +if they stayed in the country, and punished if they tried to get away! + +=43. The Second Attempt Successful.=--The next year the Pilgrims again +tried to leave their native land. This time they succeeded. Taking their +wives and little ones, these resolute men, led by their pastor, the good +John Robinson, went as strangers and pilgrims to Holland. From time to +time the same refuge was sought by other persecuted people, till many +hundreds had settled in the old city of Leyden. Here they first +exercised that freedom of faith which had been denied them in the land +of their birth, and now they first experienced the delight of holding +their religious meetings without fear. + +They were so industrious and honest that their Dutch neighbors took very +kindly to them. + + [Illustration: A PILGRIM COLONIST.] + +But when they had lived in Holland about twelve years, they decided to +remain no longer. Their children were learning the Dutch language, and +they themselves were slowly becoming foreigners. They were not pleased +with such results, for they still regarded themselves as Englishmen, +still loved the English people, the English ways of living, and the +glorious memories of their mother country. + +About this time people were beginning to go to the New World beyond the +ocean, and these Pilgrims made up their minds to leave Holland and seek +a dwelling place in far-off America. + +There were then about a thousand of them living in Holland. Nearly a +hundred of the young and strong were selected to go in advance and make +a beginning in the New World. They managed to charter for this purpose +two small vessels, the Speedwell and the Mayflower. In July, 1620, the +Speedwell sailed from Delftshaven; the Mayflower was chartered to sail +from an English port. + +A very pathetic parting it was for these poor exiles upon the shore of +Holland, clasping their friends' hands for the last time, and looking +upon the dear faces they were to see no more. With their beloved +minister, Elder John Robinson, they knelt upon the sand while he prayed +earnestly for God's blessing upon their perilous undertaking. The +Pilgrims stopped at Plymouth, England, on the way, and as the Speedwell +seemed to be unseaworthy, they all, with others of the same faith who +joined the company there, went on board the Mayflower. In this one +vessel, after many delays, the one hundred and two people that finally +made up the Pilgrim company sailed from Plymouth in September, 1620, on +their long and dangerous voyage. + +=44. The Pilgrims' Voyage across the Stormy Atlantic.=--Crowded upon their +little craft, this devoted company of men, women, and children had a +dreary and anxious voyage of nine weeks. During severe weather the seas +sometimes ran so high that for days the Mayflower was driven at the +mercy of wind and waves, while all of the company, except the sailors, +were compelled to remain, shivering and seasick, below the deck. In the +foul air were bred the germs of quick consumption, the disease which +carried off so many of this "Pilgrim band" during their first winter on +the wild New England shore. + +=45. An Incident of the Voyage.=--During one of these storms a lively +young man named Howland fell overboard and would have been lost had he +not seized a rope which was trailing in the sea. Bradford quaintly says +in his journal that the young fellow "was sundry fathoms under water," +but that he held on until "he was hauled up by the same rope to the brim +of the water," and with the aid of a boat-hook was at last safely landed +on deck. Howland was none the worse for his cold bath. He lived to sign +the compact at Cape Cod, and became a most useful citizen of the new +commonwealth, and the ancestor of many families. + +=46. Arrival on the Bleak New England Coast.=--How often, in the last days +of that dismal voyage, did the Pilgrims gaze far into the west, always +hopeful, but no doubt sometimes dreading the future! As the weeks passed +by, the weather became very cold, and they had scanty means for warming +their cabin. When they neared the coast a driving storm compelled them +to change their course, so that instead of going up the Hudson River as +they had intended, they were forced into Massachusetts Bay, as it is now +called, and along the icy shores of Cape Cod. + +All the coast was white with snow, and the future looked cheerless and +dark. There were no light-houses to warn them of dangerous shoals, no +life-saving men patrolling the beach to help shipwrecked mariners. No +one stood on the barren sandy shore to welcome them; they felt that they +were indeed strangers in a strange land. + +=47. They sign a Compact in the Mayflower's Cabin.=--Inside the curved +point of Cape Cod, in a small bay which is now the harbor of +Provincetown, the Mayflower first dropped anchor. While there, John +Carver and William Bradford wrote a formal agreement for the government +of the company, and all of the forty-one men signed it. + +This compact was drawn up and signed on a chest belonging to Elder +Brewster, which afterwards served as a table in his family. During the +first winter, when food was very scarce and the Pilgrims were obliged +to live almost entirely upon clams, the good Elder never failed to ask a +blessing upon their scanty meals, and to thank God, "who had yet given +them of the treasures hid in the sand." + + [Illustration: PILGRIM ELDER ASKING A BLESSING.] + +By the compact it was agreed that all were to have equal rights. They +pledged themselves to help and to defend each other, and to obey such +laws as they might make for the good of the colony. They then chose John +Carver for their first governor. + +=48. They explore the Cape Cod Shore under the Lead of Captain Miles +Standish.=--A small party soon landed and tramped along for miles looking +for a suitable place to make a home. They could nowhere find good +drinking water. For three or four weeks the Mayflower with its precious +cargo sailed along the inner coast, trying to find a safe and inviting +harbor. Small parties often went ashore to explore the country. + +One day a company of sixteen, led by Captain Standish, went ashore to +spend a number of days exploring a little way inland. This Captain +Standish, although one of the company, was not really a Pilgrim in his +way of living, nor in his religious views. His business was that of a +soldier, an employment more common then than now. He had met some of the +Pilgrims in Holland and was much pleased with their simple habits and +honest ways. When they were preparing to sail to the New World, he +thought it likely that they would need a soldier to show them how to +fight. So he came with them, and they soon were glad to have just such a +man. It was indeed well he did come, for he was often the most useful +member of the whole colony. + +While the Mayflower lay at anchor in Provincetown harbor, and the +explorers were searching for a landing-place, a baby boy--the first New +England child of English parentage--was born on board of the vessel. +They gave him the quaint name of Peregrine. At Plymouth you may still +see the cradle in which little Peregrine White was rocked. + +=49. Their Travels along the Shore of Cape Cod Bay, and what they +find.=--They discovered the remains of a hut which seemed to have been +recently occupied. So they surmised that Indians were living somewhere +in the vicinity. They came upon some piles of roasted acorns, and the +next day they caught a glimpse of a few savages and a deer. Soon +afterwards they saw a dog and more Indians. "The wild men ran away and +whistled the doggie after them." One day they discovered two or three +mounds of earth. One of these contained rude mats and an earthen dish. +They dug into other mounds and unearthed the skeletons of a grown person +and a child, a box containing Indian bows and arrows and spears with +flint points. + + [Illustration: THE MILES STANDISH HOUSE.] + +=50. They find Baskets of Indian Corn.=--In another place they noticed +heaps of sand freshly smoothed over. On scraping away the earth, what +should they find but Indian baskets full of corn! They had never seen +any such grain. They were delighted with the sight of the bright-colored +kernels, some red, some yellow, and others blue. The baskets were round, +narrow at the top, and contained about three bushels each. They carried +to the vessel all the corn they found, for they were in sore need of +food; but they were careful to save enough for seed in the spring. They +were honest men, and when long afterwards they found the Indians who had +buried the corn, they paid them a fair price for it. + + [Illustration: LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH.] + +One day these Pilgrim wanderers shot three fat geese and six ducks. +These they ate with wonderful relish, or "with soldier stomachs," as +their story says. At another time, as they were tramping through the +woods, William Bradford, not very careful, perhaps, as to where he was +stepping, suddenly found his foot entangled in a queer way. When his +companions came to help him out, they found he had been caught in a deer +trap set by the Indians! + +=51. First Attack by Indians.=--One morning, just after their night's +sleep by a camp fire, and while engaged in their prayers, the weary men +were startled by a wild cry, very different from anything they had ever +heard. For a moment even Captain Standish was alarmed. It was an Indian +war-whoop; and the cry was followed by Indian arrows. Standish and his +men now fired their guns at the Indians. The firing caused the savages +to run away in great astonishment. They had never known of guns, and +were greatly afraid of these strangers who could instantly make thunder +and lightning. The Pilgrims had never before been targets for arrows, so +they kept these strange weapons, which were pointed with eagles' claws +or sharp pieces of deer's horn, as curiosities. + +=52. The Search for a Home.=--The Pilgrims were very anxious to get +settled as soon as possible; yet when Sunday came they stopped all work +and spent the day in reading the Bible, in singing their hymns, and in +prayer. For nearly a month they sought, with much weariness and in +bitter cold, a place suitable for settlement. It must have been a cruel +and pitiful work for those poor men. They waded knee-deep in the snow; +slept unprotected under the wintry sky; often suffered from hunger; and, +for fear of Indians, were always compelled to keep anxious watch. + + [Illustration: FIRST ATTACK BY THE INDIANS.] + +After a tedious search along the shore of what is now Massachusetts Bay, +these stout-hearted wanderers at last found a sheltered place where, not +far from the shore, there was an abundant spring of good water. Near by +were some old cornfields that had formerly been used by the Indians. +Here they decided to land. The water being shallow, the vessel was +anchored nearly a mile from the beach. The Pilgrims were brought in +their boat, a few at a time, from the vessel to the landing-place. To +reach the shore, it is said that they found it convenient to step upon a +large stone. This is now known as Plymouth Rock. It is claimed that the +first English woman to set foot upon this stone on the Plymouth shore +was Mary Chilton. + +=53. The Famous Plymouth Rock.=--Plymouth Rock is not very large; but it +is sacred in the eyes and the hearts of every American. Every year +thousands go to look upon "the stepping-stone of New England"; to linger +by the graves of the Pilgrims; and to see in Pilgrim Hall the many +curious interesting things which once belonged to those pioneers of +western civilization. + + [Illustration: CANOPY OVER PLYMOUTH ROCK.] + +From the name of the last town they had left in England, the Pilgrims +named this, the first spot in Massachusetts settled by white men, New +Plymouth. The date of the landing was December 21, 1620, and its +anniversary is now celebrated as "Forefathers' Day." + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +MORE ABOUT THE PILGRIMS. + + +=54. The Hardships caused by the Winter Season.=--We may think it +unfortunate, and so indeed it was, that the Pilgrims had not come to +this country in the spring or summer. They would have had a much +pleasanter voyage, and on their arrival might have found the forests +green, the birds singing in the trees, and the ground adorned with +flowers. If they could have come in April or May they would probably +have had warm, pleasant weather for landing or exploring, and could have +built their houses at their leisure. They could have planted their +fields as soon as they landed, and in a few months could have gathered +sufficient crops for their support. + +=55. The Toil and Perils of the First Winter.=--As it was, our Pilgrim +fathers found the landing very tedious. In a single small boat they had +to come and go, and bring all their provisions and household goods. Some +of these very articles of furniture, such as Governor Carver's armchair, +old spinning wheels, odd-looking seats and chests, and the big iron +kettles in which they boiled their dinners, and also Captain Miles +Standish's sword, we can see at Plymouth to-day. + +While the men were moving the goods, and until rude structures had been +prepared for their shelter on shore, the women and children remained on +the Mayflower. Of course the best houses that could be made were very +rude affairs. In fact, rough though they were, it was a hard task to +build them at all; for hardly one of the company was really fit for such +work. + +Many times the weary men were forced to wade in deep snow. When they ran +their loaded boat on the sandy beach, they often had to leap into the +cold water up to their waists to pull it ashore. More than once they +were obliged to be out all day in a furious storm of rain and sleet, +which froze on their clothes till every man wore a covering of ice. + +=56. Suffering, Sickness, and Death make Sad Havoc.=--Thus it came about +that the Pilgrims suffered severely from exhaustion and disease. There +were soon only a few men well enough to chop down the trees for their +houses. Without beasts of burden, the tired workers themselves had to +drag the logs as best they could, and then with slow and painful toil +hew them to the right size and shape and put them in their proper +places. + +Through that long and tiresome winter nearly all sickened, and many +died. Before spring one-half of those who had landed from the Mayflower +were gone. That the Indians might not know how terribly the numbers had +been diminished by death, the bodies were buried secretly; and the +graves were marked by no mounds nor stones, but were made level with the +surrounding soil. + + [Illustration: SAMOSET'S FIRST VISIT TO THE PILGRIMS.] + +The wonder is that these Pilgrims, ill, hungry, and cold, did not become +discouraged, give up their enterprise, and go back to England in the +Mayflower. Splendidly courageous indeed they were to pursue their +purpose so bravely. Weeks and months they worked and suffered, but they +never flinched. They were content and even happy in the consciousness of +freedom gained and duty done. They had come to stay--and they stayed. + +At last the dreary winter wore away. Spring came, bringing the soft +south winds and the songs of birds. Busy hands were soon planting and +cultivating. The hearts of the Pilgrims were filled with hope. + +=57. A Kindly Visit from the Indians.=--One day in early spring they were +surprised at seeing an Indian march boldly into their settlement, +saying, "Welcome, English! Welcome, English!" His name was Samoset. He +had learned a little English from fishermen on the coast of Maine. The +settlers received him very kindly. After several hours he went away. + +In a few days he came back with another Indian named Squanto, who had +once lived in Plymouth but had been kidnapped and carried to England. +Squanto said that Massasoit, the chief of the tribes in the +neighborhood, was near by, and that with sixty of his men he would +shortly pay a visit to the Pilgrims. The Indian chief soon appeared and +was cordially received. He promised to be a good friend to the English, +and in return the settlers agreed to treat the Indians kindly. For over +fifty years this promise was sacredly kept. + +Squanto made himself very useful to the Pilgrims. He showed them how to +plant maize by first manuring the ground with fish, then putting the +kernels and the alewives together in the hill. The grain now first +received the name of Indian corn. He also taught the settlers how to +catch eels by treading them out of the mud with their feet. Shortly +afterwards Squanto came to live with the Pilgrims, and proved himself +their firm friend. + +Sometimes other Indians were hostile. Once a chief named Canonicus, who +was an enemy of Massasoit and did not like the Pilgrims, sent to +Governor Bradford a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skin of a +rattlesnake. He meant this to be a threat of war. The resolute governor +threw the arrows on the ground, filled the snake's skin with powder and +bullets, and sent it back to the chief! Canonicus was quick-witted +enough to take the hint, and thereafter he let the Pilgrims alone. + +=58. First Houses built in the New Home.=--The first building the Pilgrims +put up was a log house twenty feet square, in which they stowed away +their scanty provisions, furniture, guns, and powder. They slept there +till houses were built for separate families. This storehouse also +served as a kind of fort till they had put up a better one on top of the +high hill, now known as "Burial Hill," close by. As they had no +shingles nor boards, they used for a covering of the roof long grass and +seaweed. The chimneys they made mainly of big stones; the upper part, +however, consisted of large sticks plastered over with clay. + +The dirt floor was soon trodden hard and smooth. The large cracks +between the logs of the walls were filled with a kind of mortar made of +mud and grass. In those days glass was very costly, and so for windows +oiled paper was used. + +After the storehouse was sufficiently advanced, the settlers began to +work on other houses. They laid out a street which they called Leyden +Street, and built their houses on each side of it. The same street with +the same name is in Plymouth to-day. The whole colony was divided into +family groups, each unmarried young man choosing a family to live with, +and each group having its own dwelling. + +=59. Perils and Mishaps of the First Winter.=--Even before the houses were +finished, the men built a high picket fence around the whole settlement, +with a stout gate on each side; for they were in constant fear of the +Indians. In fact, they had to keep a sharp lookout every day, and a +guard watched every night to give the alarm in case of danger. So +watchful were they that, whether chopping wood, eating dinner, or at +meeting on Sunday, every man had his gun close at hand, ready for +instant use. + +One day, soon after the storehouse was finished, it happened that +Governor Carver and William Bradford were both within, sick in bed. +Suddenly the dry thatch caught fire from the chimney sparks, and the +whole roof went up in a blaze. The sick men were lifted out safely. No +serious damage was done to anything but the roof, and that was soon +replaced by a new one. + +=60. How the First Log Houses were built.=--If we could have made a visit +to one of the rough log houses of the Pilgrims after they had brought in +their scanty furniture from the vessel, and when affairs had become a +little settled, many things would have seemed strange to us. + +There is no front entry to the house, for there is only one rough door, +and that opens directly into the house; no parlor, no bedroom, no +kitchen, but all in one, with perhaps a loft overhead. The inside walls +are like the outside, rough, but plastered between the logs. The roof is +made of timbers, for there is no sawmill for sawing logs into boards. +The timbers do not fit closely, and although there is a covering of +thatch, the snow blows in quite freely. + +=61. A Peep into a Pilgrim's House.=--Let us take a glimpse into one of +these Pilgrim houses. The huge fireplace, made of rough stones laid in +clay, fills nearly one whole side of the house. The men bring in great +logs of wood for the fire. Even when the logs are on the fire there is +room for a person to sit on a stool at each end of the logs, and yet be +inside of the fireplace. This is the children's favorite seat. + +The chimney has a big throat, as large as a hogs-head. One can sit at +the end of the logs and look up and see the sky. The sides of the +chimney are roughly laid, and the big stones project so far into the +room that the children use them as a staircase in climbing up to their +bed in the loft. + + [Illustration: A SETTLER'S LOG CABIN.] + +In those days nobody had ever heard of a stove. All the cooking of the +family was done over a huge fire or in front of it. They used the iron +pots and skillets they had brought from England, some of which are still +preserved at Plymouth. If they had the good luck to shoot a wild goose +or turkey, they thrust a long iron rod through it and roasted it above +or before the fire, giving it a turn now and then; or else they hung it +very near the fire with a stout string, turning it around at times. The +wintry winds often dashed in strong gusts down the big chimney, making +it freezing cold all through the house. + +=62. The Scant Furnishings of their Homes.=--There were few or no chairs, +but here and there a stool, or some solid blocks cut from the trees. In +one corner, on a rude shelf resting upon two wooden pins driven into the +log, were a few books,--always a Bible, a hymn book, the Psalms, and +possibly a few others. + +Hanging from a beam was a little iron cup, in which there was some fish +oil, with a twisted rag or a bit of wick; this contrivance served for a +lamp when needed. But the big fire usually answered for an evening lamp. + +On one side of the room was a rough cupboard or case of shelves for +their few dishes. They had no nice glass or china with which to make a +display. The glass they had was coarse and of a brownish tint. The early +settlers often used leather bottles, leather cups, and rough plates +called trenchers, chipped from blocks of wood. Often two persons ate out +of one trencher. At this time forks were not in general use. The +Pilgrims cut their food with knives and then managed it with their +fingers. + +Their few pewter dishes they were very proud of, and they kept them in +sight in the cupboard, bright with frequent scouring; for the Pilgrim +women were excellent housewives, and everything about the house was +scrupulously neat and clean. + + [Illustration: PILGRIMS GOING TO CHURCH.] + +=63. Other Articles of Household Furniture.=--Around the log cabin were +two or three big chests, in which each family brought over its goods. +These were used to keep their better clothing in, if they had any, and +for seats. In the corner was a spinning wheel to spin the wool for their +clothing. On these large wheels the mothers and daughters used to spin +great piles of wool and flax. Two or three of the houses had large +looms--machines on which the thread they spun was woven into stout cloth +for the family. + +We should have seen no timepiece in their living rooms. There was +neither clock nor watch in the whole settlement. On sunny days the +women knew when to have dinner ready by the noon mark, as it was +called--a notch cut on some beam near the window, showing just where the +line betwixt sunshine and shadow came at twelve o'clock. + +In the corner of the log house was the gun, close to the door, where it +would be ready for use at any moment. + +Although the family slept in the one big room, we should not have seen +any bed in the daytime. It was turned up against the wall, and fastened +to the side of the cabin. At night it was turned down and nearly filled +the room. None of the beds were very soft, for they were filled with hay +or leaves. By and by, after they had shot enough wild fowl, they had +feather beds. + +=64. Around the Dinner Table.=--When the little family gathered around the +table for dinner, there was before them neither an abundance nor a +variety of food. There was no milk, butter, nor cheese; for there was no +cow in the colony. It was four years before a cow was brought over from +England. They had no eggs, no beef nor pork nor lamb, and of course no +vegetables yet, nor any nice white bread. The provisions they brought in +the ship were partly spoiled, and were nearly used up. So they had to +get food as best they could. + +Now and then the colonists killed some game, but they had to be careful +and not waste their powder and shot. One day they shot and cooked an +eagle; but, as Bradford wrote in his journal, it was "woefully tough." +They could not often shoot a bear or a deer. They obtained some corn of +the Indians by trading such trifles as they could best spare. The +records tell us that once a Pilgrim bartered a little dog for a peck of +corn. + +=65. The Daily Fare becomes scant; Hardships increased by Hunger.=--By and +by all the other food failed, so that their main article of diet was +corn. This they made into meal by pounding it on smooth stones. But even +this supply from the Indians was often scanty and uncertain, so that at +times they were without it until, after a year or two, they raised their +own crops. + +The rest of their provisions they obtained from the ocean--clams, +lobsters, and various kinds of fish. But their fishing boat was so frail +and their hooks and nets were so poor that this source many times +disappointed them. + +Thus, the two articles on which they chiefly depended being Indian corn +and sea-food, they were sometimes entirely destitute, unable to obtain +either. + +What a condition! "I have seen men," wrote one of the Pilgrims, +"stagger by reason of faintness for want of food; they knew not at night +where to have a bit in the morning." They were so badly off that if it +were possible for a friend to visit them, the best they could offer him +would be a piece of fish and some water! + + [Illustration: PILGRIMS WATCHING THE RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER.] + +Such was the daily living of the first Pilgrim settlers in this country. +Such were a few of the hardships they bravely and patiently endured. And +yet, strange to say, when the Mayflower sailed for home in the early +spring, as we have before stated, not one of these stout-hearted men and +women returned in her to England. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE INDIANS AND HOW THEY LIVED. + + +=66. How the Indians looked; the Clothes they wore.=--Let us now learn a +few things about the Indians as they were before their habits and mode +of life had been changed by contact with white men. + +The heads of the Indians were always bare. It was customary for them to +allow one tuft of hair to grow longer than the rest. This was called the +"scalp lock." When a fight had been finished, this lock served as a +convenience to the victor. It enabled him to remove handily the scalp +from the head of a dead enemy, and to carry it easily away as a trophy +of triumph. + +The Indians had the curious custom of smearing their faces and their +bodies with red paint. On great occasions, such as the holding of a +tribal council or a war dance, they painted themselves a more brilliant +red. The bright color was believed to give a formidable aspect. They +decked themselves with queer ornaments of many sorts. Around their necks +they wore strings of shining stones, bits of mica, baubles made of +copper, and animals' teeth highly polished. Feathers were held in great +esteem. Success in war entitled the victor to wear eagles' feathers as a +mark of the greatest distinction. In this love of finery the men were +fully as vain as the women. + + [Illustration: LONG HOUSE OF THE IROQUOIS INDIANS.] + +The clothing of the Indians was, for the most part, fashioned out of the +dried skins of animals, such as the deer and the beaver, whose flesh had +been used for food. Unlike that of civilized people, this clothing was +seldom or never changed, but was worn till it was worn out. If not +unwashable, it was rarely washed. The "noble red man" was not a model of +cleanliness. He had never heard of soap. + +=67. What the Indians had to eat.=--The food of the Indians varied with +the place and the season, but game and fish were the principal articles. +Their game was chiefly deer, bears, moose, raccoons, foxes, wild geese, +and wild turkeys. Having no salt nor spices, no bread nor potatoes, +neither milk, butter, nor cheese, their living must have lacked such +relish as we give to ours. + +In the settled villages the Indians cultivated rude gardens. In these +they raised corn, beans, squashes, and tobacco; but, considering the +crudeness of their tools, we must suppose that the crops were scanty. +The squaws used to cook corn and beans together, making _succotash_. +Both the dish and the name have come to us from the Indians. Green corn +they used to roast in hot ashes, very much as we sometimes do now at +clambakes or other outings. Meat they commonly cooked by thrusting a +stick through it and holding it over the fire; but they sometimes boiled +it in rude earthen pots. Fish they broiled on a frame of sticks. + +=68. The Indian's Struggle for a Living.=--The principal work of the +Indians was to get food enough. They did not hunt or fish merely for +sport, as men and boys of our time are apt to do. To the Indian, hunting +was the serious task of providing for his family and himself. At times +the supply became very slight. It was especially so in the winter. Then +they really suffered from hunger, and were forced to eat ground-nuts and +acorns--anything to keep alive. But when they had had good hunting they +would eat enormously. At times, when game was scarce, different tribes +would have savage fights for the best hunting ground. + +Their only drink was water. After the white man came they learned the +use of rum and whiskey, and would pay a great price for what they called +"fire water." On the other hand, the white man learned from the Indian +the use of tobacco. It was a bad bargain both ways. + +=69. Hardships of the Indian Women.=--The Indian warriors occupied +themselves with war and the chase. They looked upon ordinary labor as +degrading, and fit only for women. These they treated very much as +slaves. The squaw did all the everyday work--building the wigwam, +raising the crops, making the clothes, and weaving bark mats for the +beds. On journeys the women carried their infants, or papooses, on their +backs. + +With some tribes woman held a higher place. She had a considerable +degree of influence in public matters, and often decided the question of +peace or war. She could even drive away her husband if he failed to +bring home game or fish enough for the family. + +=70. The Indians' Weapons.=--Indian wars were conducted in a manner +entirely different from that of civilized nations. The weapons were the +bow and arrow, the hatchet of sharp stone, and the war club. The +bowstring was made of Indian hemp or the sinews of the deer. The +arrowhead was of sharp flint or bone; its point was often made of an +eagle's claw or the spur of a wild turkey. The stone hatchet, called +"tomahawk," had a long handle and was a powerful weapon. + + [Illustration: INDIAN WAR CLUB.] + +After the Indians had seen the white man's guns, hatchets, and knives, +and could obtain such things for themselves, the use of their own rude +weapons was abandoned. + +Gunpowder was for a long time a mystery to the Indians. At first they +thought that it grew from the ground, like the tobacco plant. It is said +they once sowed some of it in the spring, expecting to see it take root +and grow. They supposed every white person knew how to make it; and so, +once upon a time, when they had captured two young girls, they tried to +force them to make a supply of it. + + [Illustration: INDIAN STONE HATCHET.] + +=71. How the Indians fought.=--In battle, Indians did not come out in fair +and open fight, as is the custom of white men; but their skill consisted +in surprises, shooting from behind rocks and trees, skulking around at +night, and killing the enemy asleep. Captives in war were frequently +tortured in the most barbarous ways; sometimes they were tied to trees +and were slowly burned to death or were shot. But it was a high standard +of Indian valor to bear the sharpest pain without flinching, with never +a groan or any sign of suffering. + + [Illustration: INDIAN CALUMET OR PIPE OF PEACE.] + +The Indians, believing as they did that all animals were protecting or +unfriendly spirits, often addressed them as if they were human beings. +The story is told of an Indian who shot at a large bear and wounded him. +The bear fell and lay whining and groaning. The Indian went up to him +and said: "Bear, you are a coward, and no warrior. You know that your +tribe and mine are at war, and that yours began it. If you had wounded +me, I would not have uttered a sound; and yet you sit here and cry and +disgrace your tribe." + +=72. The Use made of Wampum, or Indian Money.=--Indians had little use for +gold or silver, but they had something in its place, which they called +"wampum." This was made of bits of seashells like beads. The pieces had +a hole in the center, so that they could be strung in long strips or +made into belts. + +Wampum was used for a long time as regular money or the medium of +exchange between the Indians and the whites, and even between one white +and another. Strings of it were passed around for purposes of trade, as +we now use coins of silver and gold. But after a while, as seashells +became plentiful, wampum became almost worthless, and then the Indians +were glad enough to take the white man's silver money. + + [Illustration: TREATY-BELT MADE OF WAMPUM.] + +Among some of the tribes, bands of wampum were woven into ornamental +belts, and these were decorated with colored beads combined into +striking figures and designs. The wampum belts were often given as a +pledge that the giver would faithfully live up to certain terms of a +treaty. + +=73. Indian Tools and Snowshoes.=--As the Indians had so little to work +with--no iron for knives, nor tools of any kind except flinty stones +made sharp and called "hatchets"--it is wonderful how ingenious they +were in supplying their personal wants. They kneaded in oil and +softened with heat the furry skins of animals, and from these they made +excellent garments for winter. From dried deerskins they fashioned a +sort of soft serviceable shoe called the "moccasin." This was wrought +from a single piece of the leather. It fitted snugly to the foot and was +tied with strips of buckskin at the ankle. + +The danger of starving in the winter when the snow was deep led the +Indians to invent the snowshoe. This was made of a light framework of +ash, filled with meshes of rawhide, thus presenting a broad surface to +the snow. By this contrivance the Indians could travel in winter as +easily as in summer. + +It is said that an Indian upon snowshoes could easily travel forty miles +a day. Strangely enough, all the cunning of the white man has never +availed to make anything better for such a purpose. + +=74. Indians as Hunters.=--The Indian contrived ingenious traps for +catching bears, moose, and other sorts of game. One of these devices +consisted of a long and heavy log, carefully balanced upon a post placed +upright in the ground, with a log attached to one end of it. The roving +animal would approach, and by jumping attempt to get the bait that was +so attractive. The movement would cause the log to fall, and thus, +perhaps, the creature would be killed. + +Fish were killed by shooting them with the arrow as they swam; or they +were caught with hooks of bone, or taken in rivers by means of a weir, +or brush fence, fixed across the stream. Sometimes they were taken in +nets woven from the bark of the elm, and in traps of wickerwork not +unlike the lobster pots now in use. + +The Indians had a remarkable faculty, resembling that of the +ventriloquist, whereby they could imitate the voices of woodland +creatures--the hoot of the owl, the cry of the wild turkey, the howl of +the wolf. By this means they could readily attract animals of various +species to a spot where they might easily kill them. Even hostile +Indians out searching for game were in this manner sometimes allured to +the place of danger. + +=75. Story illustrating the Indian's Keen Observation.=--It is marvelous +what quick eyes the Indian had to see almost instantly things that other +persons would never see at all. The story is often told of an Indian who +returned one day to his wigwam and found that a large piece of venison +had been stolen. He looked carefully around, and then started off for +the thief. He asked the first man he met if he had seen a little old +white man with a short gun and a small dog with a short tail. Afterwards +he explained how he learned all these points. He said he knew the thief +was little, for he had to pile up some stones to reach the venison; old, +by his short steps; white, by the toes of his tracks turning out; that +he had a short gun, for when it fell to the ground from where it leaned +against the tree, it made a short mark in the dirt. He knew by the dog's +track that the dog was small; he knew that the dog had a short tail, +because a short groove had been "wiggled" in the dust where the dog had +sat while his master was stealing the meat! + + [Illustration: AN INDIAN CAMP OF TO-DAY IN THE FAR WEST.] + +=76. The Indians were Cruel, Cunning, and Revengeful.=--As to character, +the Indian had, like all the rest of us, a good and a bad side. Though +usually silent and moody in the presence of white men, travelers tell +us that the Indians had lively games when by themselves, and enjoyed fun +and frolic and story-telling like other people. They were crafty and +treacherous, as well they might be from their constant warfare. + + [Illustration: INDIAN ATTACK ON A SETTLER'S HOUSE.] + +They were cruel and remorseless in their revenge, and they never forgot +a wrong. Full of cunning, they took pride in ingenious tricks. They +would wear snowshoes with the toes turned backwards, that the enemy +might think they had gone the other way! In their homes they were +filthy, lazy, and improvident. They were passionately fond of gambling, +after they had learned it of the whites! + +On the other hand, they were patient of hunger, cold, and fatigue, and +were wonderfully brave. They were hospitable to an acquaintance in need, +even sharing the last of their food with him. They were grateful for +benefits, and never forgot a kindness. Their promise was almost sacred, +and the pledge of their chief was rarely broken. + +When the early settlers in this country treated the Indians kindly, they +usually received kindness in return, as we shall see later in reading +William Penn's dealings with the Indians in Pennsylvania. But now and +then some rude white man was cruel or dishonest in dealing with them, +and then he learned that the red man knew what revenge means. + +If any serious offense was given to the Indians they brooded over it, +and then, eager to inflict more harm than they had suffered, instead of +punishing the offender alone, they spent their revenge upon all they +could reach of the white race. So they sprang suddenly upon peaceful +villages and cruelly killed innocent men, women, and children. + +=77. Anecdote of Tecumseh.=--The true Indian warrior had a certain proud +dignity that challenged respect. At a great council of the government +with the Indians, the famous Indian chief, Tecumseh, after he had made a +speech, turned to take a seat, when it was found that by accident no +chair had been placed for him. General Harrison instantly called for +one. It was brought by the interpreter, who said, "The Great Father +wishes you to take a chair." "My father!" he said with dignity, as he +wrapped his blanket about him to seat himself in Indian style upon the +ground; "the Sun is my father, the Earth is my mother, and on her bosom +will I repose." + +=78. Care and Training of the Indian Children.=--The care and training of +Indian children were peculiar. When the little papoose was very young, +it was not fondled nor much attended to. Quite early it was placed in a +small trough of bark and strapped in with a mat or skin in front, the +little bed being padded with soft moss. This bit of a cradle was handy +to carry around, to lean against a log, or to hang up in a tree. + + [Illustration: INDIAN PAPOOSE.] + +As they grew up, they were as happy as other children. Their parents +made toys for them, and their older mates taught them songs and games. +As soon as they were large enough, each had his share of work to do. The +girls had to help their mothers to dress skins for clothing, to bring +wood and water, and to work in the rude garden. + +=79. The Indian Boy's Early Training.=--The Indian boy was early trained +for hunting and war. His first lessons were to manage his bow and +arrows, and then he was taken into the woods to shoot. He was taught to +set traps for small game, and his father often slyly put some animal in +the snare to encourage the young hunter. + +So the boy was taught, not arithmetic and grammar, but all about +birds--their colors, their different whistles and cries, and what each +note means; their food and habits, where they nest, how they fly, and +the best way to shoot them. His lessons included the study of rabbits +and squirrels, of beavers and foxes, and of all such game. + + [Illustration: BOY WARNING SETTLERS OF AN INDIAN ATTACK.] + +By the time the Indian boy had seen twelve or fourteen _snows_, as the +Indian would say, he could make his own bows and arrows and could help +make canoes. He had received many lessons about shaping tomahawks and +war clubs, and how to use them. Playing ball was a favorite game with +Indian youth. Catlin, the celebrated authority on Indian life, tells us +that he used to ride thirty miles to see a ball game, and would sit on +his horse all day to see a match played by six to eight hundred or even +a thousand young Indians. + +=80. How the Indians buried their Dead.=--For the most part the Indians +buried their dead in mounds or in shallow graves, sometimes prostrate, +but often in a sitting posture facing the east. But some tribes placed +the body on a high scaffold raised on long poles out of the reach of +wild beasts. Beside the body were carefully placed the weapons of the +dead, paints, any favorite trinkets he used to wear, and food to sustain +him on his journey to the far-off Happy Hunting Grounds. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK; THE QUAKERS IN PENNSYLVANIA. + + +=81. The Search for a Shorter Route to India.=--We must not forget that +during all these years the European nations in their desire for riches +were often searching for a shorter route to China and the East Indies. +They hoped to succeed in this either by sailing to the north of Europe +or America, or by finding some opening across the newly discovered +continent. For more than a hundred years after the time of Columbus many +a daring navigator came forward to undertake this business. + +=82. Sir Henry Hudson, the Bold and Skillful Mariner.=--Several years +before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, a bold and skillful mariner +named Henry Hudson, a friend of Captain John Smith, was hired by some +London merchants to search for the imaginary northern passage. For this +purpose he made two perilous voyages. Once he sailed along the eastern +coast of Greenland until the ice stopped him. After three months he +returned to England. The next year he tried it again, and sailed +farther north, but as before was turned back by the ice. + +Hudson tells us that on one of these voyages two of his sailors saw a +mermaid swimming close to the ship's side. The upper parts of her body +were those of a woman, but below she was a fish, and as big as a +halibut! Probably the creature was a seal, an animal with which English +sailors were not at that time familiar. + +=83. Hudson enters the Dutch Service.=--At last, in 1609, Hudson, who had +now become famous, entered the service of the Dutch East India Company +and sailed from Amsterdam to find the long-sought route. Living near the +ocean, the Dutch at this time were great sailors and traders. They owned +more ships than all Europe besides. Their sails whitened every ocean. +They were glad to hire "the bold Englishman, the expert pilot, and the +famous navigator," as they called Hudson, to brave the perils of the +Arctic seas. + +Again this intrepid sailor, "the Nansen of the year 1608," went too far +north, and again he found himself caught in the ice of the desolate +Arctic regions. He now made up his mind to go farther west. He coasted +along Greenland, passed southward to Newfoundland, sighted Cape Cod, and +then sailed as far south as Virginia. Finding the English settlers +there ahead of him, he turned about and steered north again, keeping +close to the wild and unknown coast. + +=84. Hudson sails up the Hudson River in the Little "Half Moon."=--In +September, 1609, Sir Henry found himself not far from the mouth of a +broad river, and dropped anchor near what is now Sandy Hook. The Indians +here were kind to their strange visitors, and came on board the vessel +to trade. They brought grapes, furs, and pumpkins, and traded them for +beads, knives, and hatchets. + + [Illustration: THE "HALF MOON" ON THE HUDSON.] + +After a few days the anchor of the little "Half Moon" was raised, the +sails were spread, and Hudson was slowly wafted past the Palisades and +far up the noble river which still bears his name. Because for many +miles the water at high tide was salt, he thought that he had surely +found the long-wished-for passage to India. + +No white man had ever before sailed up this, perhaps the most beautiful +of American streams. With what wonder and hope must the captain and his +men have gazed on the lovely scenery, rich in the gorgeous hues of +autumnal foliage! In fact Hudson, in the story of his voyage, says that +the lands on both sides were "pleasant with grass and flowers and goodly +trees,--as beautiful a land as one can tread upon." + +=85. Kindly received by the Indians.=--The Indians, filled with curiosity, +flocked from far and near to the banks of the river to see the "great +white bird," a name they gave the "Half Moon" on account of its white +spreading canvas wings. As they peeped out from the rocks and woods +along the shore, they had the same feelings of curiosity and awe as did +the natives that gazed in wonder upon the vessels of Columbus more than +a hundred years before. + +Hudson sailed north until he reached a point near where Albany now +stands. As the river now became narrower and its water fresh, he was +convinced at last that he could never find his way to India by this +route. + +=86. Hudson returns Home; his Sad Fate.=--After a time, disappointed at +his failure to reach India, Hudson sailed out of the river and across +the ocean to England, and afterwards to Holland. The stout-hearted +mariner never saw his "great river" again. On his next and last voyage +he sailed farther north and entered the immense land-locked bay that now +bears his name. He thought that he had this time surely discovered the +long-sought opening to the Pacific. Imagine his dismay when, after +coasting around its sides for nearly three months, he was forced at last +to believe that this inland sea had no western outlet! + +The long Arctic winter came. Hudson's men were nearly starved. They had +endured so many hardships that in a frenzy of despair and wrath they at +last bound their captain hand and foot, thrust him on board a small boat +with his son and some sick sailors, and set them adrift. This was the +last ever seen or heard of Hudson. + +Probably, like De Soto, the bold navigator found his grave in the vast +waters that he was the first to discover. + +=87. The Dutch claim the Territory; Manhattan Island bought of the +Indians.=--The Dutch now laid claim to all the territory along the Hudson +River, and in 1614 they took possession of it under the name of New +Netherland. In a few years they began to establish trading posts, where +they might buy of the Indians the skins of bears, beavers, and otters. + +After a time the Indians sold the Dutch the island of Manhattan for the +sum of twenty-four dollars. This settlement, then called "New +Amsterdam," was the beginning of what is now one of the largest and +richest cities in the world--Greater New York. + +=88. The Dutch Settlers prosper.=--For the first few years the settlers in +New Amsterdam were poor; but after a time richer and more influential +men made homes for themselves in this colony. They secured from the +Dutch East India Company the right to own by purchase from the Indians a +tract of land sixteen miles in length and extending an unlimited +distance into the interior, and to establish there a colony of fifty +people. The rich landholders were called "patroons," and their great +estates laid the foundation of the wealth of many of the leading +families of the Empire State. + + [Illustration: DUTCH WINDMILL.] + +=89. How the Dutch People lived.=--As the Dutch prospered, they built +better houses. These were of wood. Each house had on its roof one +weathercock, and often many of them. The gable ends were built of +various-colored bricks brought over from Holland. + + [Illustration: A DUTCHMAN OF NEW AMSTERDAM.] + +The Dutch women were excellent housekeepers. We owe to them the +doughnut, the cruller, cookies, and many other delicious articles of +skillful cookery. Many a pleasant custom had its origin with these +genial Dutch settlers, such as the Christmas visit of Santa Claus, the +display of colored eggs at Easter, and the friendly visiting on New +Year's day. The floors in these thrifty homes were covered with white +sand, on which quaint figures were sketched with a broom. There were +huge fireplaces with Dutch tiles of different colors, on which were +represented scenes from the Bible. The Dutch men were fond of good food +and of their pipes. They used to have in front of their houses a porch +or "stoop," sometimes called a "bowerie," on which they could sit and +smoke and tell stories and take their ease generally. The men wore +several pairs of knee breeches at once, one over another, with long +stockings, and with huge buckles at the knees and on the shoes. Their +coats, too, were adorned with great buckles of silver or brass. + +The women were neatly dressed, usually wearing several short petticoats +of many colors. Their stockings were of their own knitting, and had as +many hues as the rainbow. Their shoes had very high heels. + +=90. Peter Stuyvesant, the Last Dutch Governor; New York surrenders to +the English.=--The last Dutch governor was Peter Stuyvesant, brave and +honest, but a very stubborn man. He was so obstinate that he was +nicknamed "Headstrong Peter." He was also known as "Old Silverleg," +because, having lost a leg in war, he used a wooden one adorned with +strips of silver. He was a tyrant in his way, and at length his people +would not endure his tyranny, especially as the English settlers in the +same region enjoyed more liberty and had increased more rapidly in +numbers and riches than they. + + [Illustration: PETER STUYVESANT.] + +And so it happened that when an English fleet sailed into the harbor in +1664, the people did not come to the help of "Headstrong Peter," but +gladly surrendered the town to the English in spite of "Old +Silverleg's" wrath! The name of the colony was changed to New York in +honor of the Duke of York, the brother of King Charles II. + +=91. How the Quakers were persecuted.=--About forty years after the +Pilgrims had built their homes in Plymouth, the members of a peculiar +religious sect, the Society of Friends, were bitterly persecuted in +England. In spite of their ill-treatment, which lasted for many years, +they greatly increased in numbers. A few men and women of wealth and of +high social position joined them. + +These Friends, or Quakers as they were commonly called, were singularly +blunt in speech and plain in dress. But they were an honest, sober, +God-fearing people. They wished to treat all men as friends, brothers, +and equals. They did not approve of war and would not serve as soldiers. +As they believed all men equal, they recognized no superiors: they would +not doff their hats to any one, not even to the king, for they thought +"the Lord forbade it." They said they would acknowledge no master, king, +or lord, save only Him who was their "Master in heaven," the "King of +Kings and Lord of Lords." + +Naturally enough, in those days of bigotry and intolerance the doctrines +and behavior of the Quakers made the king and his great men very angry. +They threw hundreds of them into prison. Consequently, many of the +Quakers left their homes, came to this country, and settled in +Massachusetts. But the stern sons of the Old Pilgrim Fathers would not +endure them. They drove them away or put them in prison. The Boston +Puritans even hanged four Quakers who had repeatedly come back after +having been several times punished and driven into exile. + + [Illustration: WILLIAM PENN.] + +=92. William Penn becomes a Quaker.=--About the time King Charles II was +restored to the throne of England (1660) there lived in that country a +handsome young man of noble birth and talents of the highest order. +William Penn was his name. There is a portrait of him in the dress of an +English cavalier, with flowing curls over his shoulders, and a face of +manly tenderness and beauty. This man, the founder of Pennsylvania, was +the only son of a brave English admiral who had won signal victories for +his country during the Dutch war, and was held in high favor by the king +and the royal family. While Penn was a boy and in college, his heart was +stirred within him by listening to the Quaker preachers. He believed +they were right. He was convinced that he ought to join them, and did so +in spite of the ridicule of his rich and titled friends. + +=93. Young Penn falls into Disgrace with his Family and is sent from +Home.=--Young Penn was expelled from college and sent home. The old +admiral, in his anger because his only son would disgrace his family by +uniting with the despised Quakers, drove him from his door. The mother, +however, interceded, and the stubborn youth was allowed to travel for a +time on the Continent to divert his mind from what they called his +foolishness. + +Alas for the old admiral's ambitious plans for his gifted son! William +was out-and-out a Quaker; and no title, honors, or favor could induce +him to give up his faith. He pleaded with the king to allow the English +people freedom of conscience, so that they might worship God as they +deemed best. He tried in vain to procure the release of the Quakers from +the prisons where hundreds of them were then confined. For a time Penn +was himself shut up in the Tower of London, the prison of offenders of +high rank. While there he wrote his best known work, _No Cross, no +Crown_. The king's brother, the Duke of York, however, soon brought +about his release. + +=94. Penn inherits Wealth; secures a Grant of Land from the King.=--Penn's +father was after all a generous man and regretted his treatment of his +son. On his death, in 1670, he left him all his estate. Penn made a good +use of his wealth. He devoted his time, money, and talents to secure +legal protection in England for the persecuted Quakers. The task was +almost hopeless. + +In his despair Penn longed to build a quiet home for his people in the +wilderness of America. He had heard of the happiness and prosperity of +the Pilgrim settlements, and he now planned to lead his brethren across +the Atlantic. The gallant admiral at his death had a claim against the +government of about eighty thousand dollars. Now King Charles was a +spendthrift and always in debt. Penn told the king that he would accept +lands in America instead of money in payment of this claim. The +easy-going monarch was only too glad to take up with this offer, for he +had plenty of land in America but very little silver and gold. + +On condition that he should be paid two beaver-skins every year, the +king granted Penn a large tract of land on the western bank of the +Delaware river, and named it Pennsylvania, or "Penn's Woodland." + +=95. A Colony of Quakers established in Pennsylvania.=--Penn now planned +to send his Quaker colony to the new home in America. He came over in +person in the fall of 1682, and landed at New Castle, Delaware. Penn +sailed in an open boat up the broad and beautiful Delaware River until +he came to the place on which his chief city or capital was soon to be +laid out. The "Quaker King," for thus he was called, was received with +great joy by the people. They knew that he would keep his promise to +secure full freedom of conscience and speech for all. He called it a +"free colony for all mankind." + + [Illustration: A PROSPEROUS QUAKER.] + +No person was compelled, as were the Pilgrims of New England, to attend +any church or practise any form of religious worship. Only murder and +treason were punished with death. Before this Penn had written to the +colonists, saying, "You shall be governed by laws of your own making; I +shall not usurp the right of any, or oppress his person." + +=96. Penn selects a Location for his Capital; Philadelphia, "the City of +Brotherly Love."=--On a neck of land between the Schuylkill and the +Delaware, Penn selected a site for his "faire and greene country +towne"--a city of refuge and a home of free speech and conscience. And +he generously bought the land from some Swedes, who had bought it from +the Indians. + +Penn now laid out his city and gave it the Bible name of Philadelphia, +which means "brotherly love." As he stood with his friends on the high +ground and beheld the country in its autumn foliage, the good man said: +"I have seen the finest cities of Europe, but I never saw so beautiful a +place for a city as this." + +=97. His Kind Treatment of the Indians.=--Penn knew how cruelly some of +the other colonies had treated the Indians. This should not be done in +Pennsylvania. The Indians must be fairly dealt with. Their lands were +not to be taken away by force, but must be openly bought and honestly +paid for. If a settler wronged an Indian, he was to be punished. In +short, in this Quaker colony they were all to live together as brothers. + +That everything might be done in a business-like way, Penn sent word to +various tribes of Indians that he would meet them on a certain day to +make a treaty. He wanted them to hear what he had to say. He sent word +to them that he was a man of peace, and no firearms would be brought to +the meeting. The Indians gladly accepted Penn's invitation. + + [Illustration: PENN'S MEETING WITH THE INDIANS.] + +=98. The Celebrated Treaty with the Indians.=--On the chosen day they came +from far and near. They met under the branches of a great elm tree a +little north of Philadelphia. This giant son of the forest, called ever +afterward "The Treaty Tree," became an object of deep interest. It was +protected with extreme care. During the Revolutionary war, even the +British officers posted guards around it to prevent its branches from +being used for firewood. The venerable tree blew down some ninety years +ago. Its rings proved it to be two hundred and eighty-three years of +age. A monument with a suitable inscription now marks the spot where +Penn and the Indians met to pledge in "unbroken faith." + +First, there was a feast of good things to eat, and numerous presents +were given to the delighted red men. The chiefs then seated themselves +on the ground and the council began. Penn carried no arms, wore no +uniform, and had no soldiers. He was at this time thirty-eight years +old, graceful and fine-looking, was dressed in a suit of drab-colored +clothes, had a blue sash around his waist, and wore a broad-brim hat, +which he did not take off for the sake of fashion or ceremony. + +The Indians, seated around their chiefs, listened attentively while the +"Quaker King" spoke. He told them that the English and the Indians were +to obey the same laws, and both were to be equally protected in their +rights. No advantage should be taken on either side, but all should be +openness and love; that the great God above was the Father of both white +and red men, and that all were brothers and should live together in +peace. His words, so full of kindness, good will, and justice, won the +hearts of the dusky natives. + +"We will live in peace with William Penn and his children," said the +Indians, "as long as the sun and moon endure." This treaty was never +broken. + +=99. The Indians take Penn at his Word, and live afterwards at Peace with +the Quakers.=--After this talk was over, the pipe of peace was lighted +and passed round, and each took a whiff. + +The Indians took Penn at his word. They believed in him and they kept +their part of the compact. It is said that not a drop of Quaker blood +was ever shed by an Indian, so much did the red men love and honor the +name of William Penn. + +The good Quaker often visited the Indians at their councils, or at their +"powwows," as their festive gatherings were called. He went in and out +among them, visited them in their wigwams, and ate roasted corn and +hominy with them. He had frolics with the Indian children, joined in the +outdoor games of the warriors, and talked to them about their faith in +God, whom they called the Great Spirit. + +=100. The Quakers prosper; Trials of Penn in his Old Age.=--We are not +surprised that the Quaker settlers prospered. In two years there were +six hundred houses; also schools and a printing press. Philadelphia had +grown more in three years than New York City in half a century. After a +few years the founder of the colony went back to England. He continued +to watch over his far-away colony, sending out emigrants and in every +way promoting its interest. + +After some time Penn returned to this country, but remained only two +years. In his old age he met with sore trials. His son disgraced him by +his riotous living, his trusted agent proved dishonest, and at length +the good Quaker was financially ruined and was flung into prison for +debt. Not long after his release he died at the age of seventy-eight. + +=101. Subsequent Prosperity of the Quaker Colony.=--When it once became +known that in Penn's colony a man could worship God as he pleased, enjoy +personal rights; that poor men could own their farms, and that there was +no dread of the Indians, we are not surprised that colonists quickly +flocked to Pennsylvania. This settlement surpassed all others in America +in rapid growth, and was for many years more prosperous and comfortable +than any other. About one-third of the inhabitants were Quakers, and +these were always a thrifty and peaceful people. + +At the close of the Revolutionary war Philadelphia was larger than +either Boston or New York. Among the thirteen colonies Pennsylvania +ranked third in influence and population, being surpassed by none but +Virginia and Massachusetts. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS. + + +=102. Prosperity of the Early Colonists.=--For fifty years or more after +the colonists had established their homes in the wilderness of the New +World, they were growing rich and strong. They cleared away forests, +planted fields, traded with the Indians, and built for themselves more +comfortable houses. + +Especially was this the case during the years when Cromwell and his +party were in power in England, and until after Charles II was restored +to the English throne. The settlers boldly pressed further and further +on, crossing great rivers, climbing steep mountains, and building log +cabins in far distant regions. + +The colonists in Pennsylvania and Virginia pushed westward into the +valley of the Ohio, while the English settlers in New York made their +way through the forest toward the Great Lakes. + +=103. The French in North America.=--More than seventy years before +Jamestown was settled, a French explorer by the name of Cartier had +entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, sailed up the river of the same name, +and taken possession of the country in the name of France. This same +region became afterwards the great French stronghold in America. + +A Frenchman by the name of Champlain sailed up the beautiful river St. +Lawrence, and was so charmed with the scenery of the country that in +1608, the year after Jamestown was settled, he began to plant a colony +on the site of what is now Quebec. The settlement soon became a city and +the capital of the French possessions in America. + +The French were also the first explorers of the vast interior regions of +our country. Their fur traders and trappers kept on good terms with the +Indians, and slowly pushed along the shores of the Great Lakes until +they had established a chain of trading-posts from the St. Lawrence to +Lake Superior. About the time of King Philip's War in New England Father +Marquette discovered the upper Mississippi, and floated down this great +river nearly as far as the mouth of the Arkansas. + +=104. La Salle floats down the Mighty Mississippi.=--The bravest and +ablest of all the French explorers was a fur-trader by the name of La +Salle. This daring man, whose life was filled with romantic adventures +and hardships, bravely undergone, gave France the right to claim as her +own the vast domain of the Mississippi valley. + +On Lake Erie, La Salle built a small vessel, in which he sailed to the +westward over the Great Lakes. In the year 1682, with a few companions, +he floated down the mighty Mississippi until he reached the Gulf of +Mexico. + + [Illustration: LA SALLE AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI.] + +With solemn ceremonies he claimed for France all the country drained by +this great river and its branches. This enormous territory, extending +from the Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains, he named Louisiana in honor +of his king, Louis XIV. The narrow strip of land held by the English +along the Atlantic seaboard seemed a feeble possession compared with +the vast untrodden wilderness known as "New France." + +Hand in hand with the French explorers and fur-traders, and often in +advance of them, went the Jesuit missionaries. In their efforts to carry +their religion to the Indians and convert them to their faith, these +zealous men boldly struck out into the unbroken wilderness of the great +West. They often became brave and intelligent explorers. All hardships +and all dangers, and even torture by the Indians, they endured without a +murmur. + +=105. Beginning of the Contests between the French and English +Colonists.=--At the time the French and English were making settlements +on this continent, and for many long and weary years, with very short +intervals of rest, Europe was cursed with war. Whether these cruel +strifes between the nations arose from political ambition, greed for +gain, or common jealousy, there was always intermingled the same old +undercurrent of religious hatred. The French settlers in this country +were Roman Catholics, while the English were almost all Protestants. +Hence it is not strange that these bitter religious controversies were +not confined to the Old World, but stained with blood the soil of the +New. + +The English colonists dearly loved their mother country; her wrongs were +their wrongs. Hence when war was declared between France and England, +the English colonists readily took up arms against the French. + +=106. The French and Indian Wars.=--In the seventy-four years from 1689 to +1763 the American colonies were involved in four wars, occupying in all +twenty-seven years. These were called by different names; but the last +and most important is known as the "French and Indian War," which began +in 1755 and lasted about eight years. + +These long contests really made one continuous series of hostile +operations, with only a breathing-spell now and then. It was one +long-drawn-out and stubborn battle to decide whether the French or the +English should be masters of North America. Jealous of the rich and +prosperous English colonies on the seaboard, and having determined that +England should not control the whole of this vast continent, the French +built a chain of more than sixty forts stretching from Montreal to New +Orleans. + +The French had always treated the Indians with more consideration than +had their rivals. The Jesuit missionaries had converted many of the red +men to their religious belief. Sometimes the French took Indian women +for wives, and often they adopted the red man's ways of living. + +=107. The Indians ally themselves with the French.=--When these sons of +the forest found the English slowly but surely crowding them out of +their haunts and homes, and saw that their hunting grounds were getting +reduced to mere strips of territory here and there, it was not strange +that they felt bitter towards the ever-encroaching new-comers. The +tribes had steadily diminished, and they were unable to cope +single-handed with the English. Hence they naturally looked to the +French for help, and the French readily induced the Indians to join them +against the English and their American descendants. + +It was a fierce struggle. English and American blood flowed like water +before it was ended. The Indians never fought in open field, but always +after their own fashion. They trusted to sudden attacks, especially at +night, and to rapid raids, doing their savage work suddenly and +retreating swiftly into the forest. + +Lonely families and small settlements suffered most. Like lightning out +of the clear sky came the horror of an Indian night attack. The +war-whoop waked the midnight sleepers and the glare of burning cabins +lighted up the darkness. + +The massacre of defenseless women and children crimsoned the earth in +scores of settlements during these cruel wars. + + [Illustration: INDIANS ATTACKING A SETTLER'S CABIN.] + +=108. The Indian Attack on Deerfield in the Massachusetts Colony.=--One +bitter cold night in February, 1704, the French and Indians attacked the +town of Deerfield in the western part of Massachusetts. For this purpose +they had walked all the way from Canada on snowshoes. The people had +been warned of their danger, but the watchmen fell asleep, and the +villagers were awakened by the war-whoop of their savage foes. About +fifty men, women, and children were killed, and nearly a hundred +half-clad captives were marched off through the deep snows. Those who +could not keep up were killed with the tomahawk. + +The minister of the village, Rev. John Williams, his wife and six +children, were among those captured and carried to Canada. The wife +lagged behind and was killed. Strange to say, however, the minister and +all his children, though they suffered all manner of hardships, and were +sold as captives, after a time reached home in safety. The good man +lived to write an account of his adventures. + +One little girl seven years old was treated kindly by her captors and +was brought up as one of their tribe. She married an Indian chief and +long afterwards visited her people in Deerfield. She wore the Indian +dress and had come to love the wild life. Her former friends and +neighbors begged her to stay with them, but "she returned to the fires +of her own wigwam, and to the love of her Mohawk children." + +=109. Hannah Dustin's Famous Adventure with the Indians.=--The story of +Hannah Dustin, of Haverhill, Mass., has often been told. One day in 1697 +the Indians attacked the village. Mr. Dustin saved all his family except +his wife and her nurse, who were captured. They marched these women and +an English boy many long days to their camp on an island far up the +Merrimac River. As Mrs. Dustin's babe prevented her keeping up well on +the journey, an Indian cruelly killed it. + +The boy, who understood the Indian language, heard the savages tell of +the horrible tortures they intended to inflict upon their captives. When +Mrs. Dustin heard of this she laid her plans. She made the lad slyly +learn from the Indians how to swing a tomahawk and where to strike. + +One night, when the savages lay around the camp-fire sound asleep, the +three captives arose softly, each killed with one blow the Indian +nearest, then three more, and so on till ten were finished. One young +boy and one squaw escaped. It was an awful thing for Mrs. Dustin to do, +but the memory of her murdered child made her brave and strong. They +seized an Indian canoe, and the three paddled swiftly down the river, +and half dead with hunger and fatigue reached home. Their friends could +hardly believe their eyes. The heroic woman brought home ten Indian +scalps as proof of what she had done. + +=110. How the Colonial Boys learned to shoot.=--We can now well understand +that the settlement of a new country amid hostile Indians demanded from +our colonial fathers eternal vigilance, and developed in them remarkable +skill with firearms. + +Even the colonial boy, we are told, as soon as he was big enough to +level a musket, was given powder and ball to shoot squirrels. After a +little practice he was required to bring in as many squirrels as he was +given charges for the gun, under penalty of a severe lecture, or even of +having his "jacket tanned"! + +At the age of twelve the boy became a block-house soldier, with a +loophole assigned him from which to shoot when the settlement was +attacked by the Indians. + +Growing older, he became a hunter of deer, bears, and other wild +animals, and had at any moment, day or night, to be in readiness to pit +his life against those of hostile Indians. + +=111. Capture of Louisburg.=--During the third French and Indian war, +which began when George Washington was a boy of fourteen and which +lasted four years, the New England colonists determined to strike a hard +blow against France. They fitted out an army of about four thousand +fishermen and farmers, put their expedition under the command of General +William Pepperell, and sailed from Boston to capture Louisburg on the +island of Cape Breton. + +With its walls of masonry thirty feet high this was the strongest +fortress on the continent except Quebec, and was known as the "Gibraltar +of America." It commanded the entrance to the Gulf and the mouth of the +St. Lawrence. With the aid of a British fleet the colonists laid siege +to the great fortress. + +After a lively contest of about six weeks, Louisburg was taken (1745). +The colonial army returned to Boston and was received with shouts of +joy. But at the close of the war Louisburg was restored to the French. +Great was the wrath of the colonists, who spoke of the day of surrender +as "a black day, to be forever blotted out of New England calendars." + +=112. The Struggle beyond the Alleghanies.=--For a long time the Alleghany +Mountains served as a natural boundary between the English settlements +in the East and the French trading-posts and forts in the West. + +Meanwhile the English settlers were steadily pushing westward over the +mountains and beginning to trade with the Indians on the other side. The +French merchants often met their hated rivals in the woods and quarreled +with them. From the first, England claimed all this country as her own, +and looked upon the building of French forts as an invasion of her +territory. The French stirred up the Indians to drive the English away, +and would not even allow them to make so much as a survey of land in the +rich Ohio valley. + +=113. Young George Washington selected for an Arduous Undertaking.=--This +action of the French aroused the wrath of the prosperous Virginia colony +and of its energetic governor. He decided to send a letter to the French +commander warning him to leave the country. Governor Dinwiddie selected +for this task a land surveyor only twenty-one years of age. His name was +George Washington. He was even then known for his courage, his sound +judgment, and his knowledge of the Indians. + +It was a journey of more than a thousand miles there and back, through +an unbroken wilderness. With seven companions young Washington set out +on his perilous trip in the fall of 1753. They climbed mountains, swam +streams, and threaded their way through mountain ravines, following +Indian trails which no white man had ever seen before. + +After many hardships they reached the French posts. The French commander +read the letter that Washington had brought from the governor of +Virginia. He replied that he was there by command of his superior +officers, and that he meant to drive every Englishman out of the Ohio +valley! There was nothing for Washington to do but to start for home. +Winter had now set in and it was soon severely cold. The homeward +journey became a serious matter. The pack-horses gave out. The brave +young leader and his guide pressed ahead on foot. Often as they lay down +at night their wet clothing froze fast upon them. They secured an Indian +as a guide, but he proved a scamp. One evening at dusk he raised his gun +and fired at Washington, but missed his aim. The guide seized the +savage, flung him to the ground, and would have killed him, but +Washington spared his life. After many hardships and dangers the two men +reached home in safety. + +=114. The Beginning of the Final Struggle.=--The final struggle was now +impending between England and France to determine which should control +America. The contest began in earnest in Virginia. Washington had taken +advantage of his perilous errand to the French commander to select a +place for an English fort. It was at the point where the Alleghany and +Monongahela rivers unite to form the Ohio. This is the spot where the +city of Pittsburgh now stands. It was the main entrance to the valley of +the Ohio. For many years it was called the "Gateway of the West." The +English built a fort on this spot, but the French easily captured it and +held it under the name of Fort Du Quesne. + +=115. Braddock's Ill-Fated Expedition.=--Affairs now became so serious +that General Braddock was sent out from England with two regiments of +regulars. Early in the year 1755 he began his march through the Virginia +forests to recapture the French stronghold. He selected Washington as a +member of his staff. "I want you," said the British general, "to take +your Virginia riflemen and go with me and my veterans to drive the +French from Ohio." Washington consented. He joined Braddock's army with +three companies of Virginia riflemen. + + [Illustration: WASHINGTON ATTEMPTING TO RALLY BRADDOCK'S REGULARS.] + +The English general and his regulars were brave, but they knew nothing +about fighting Indians. Never did an army seem better prepared. They +felt sure of victory. Soon they plunged into the forest. There were no +roads there. After a hard march of four weeks they came within a few +miles of the French fort. Washington warned the proud British general +of his peril. "The Indians," said he, "may attack us in yonder deep +pass. Let me go ahead with my riflemen and skirmish for the savages." + +Braddock was an old soldier, and he thought he knew more than his young +staff-officer who had learned from experience how to fight Indians. The +general laughed at the well-meant advice. Next day, as they were +marching through a deep ravine, suddenly came the yells of savages and +the crack of rifles. The British veterans were eager to fight, but they +could see no foe. The men were shot down like sheep. + +The young Virginian and his riflemen leaped behind trees and rocks and +fought the Indians in their own way. All was confusion. Braddock acted +bravely. He had five horses killed under him. He did all that a valiant +man in such a situation could do; but it was in vain. + +=116. Washington saves Braddock's Army from Destruction.=--Washington and +his Virginia rangers saved Braddock's army from destruction. The French +and the Indians knew well the tall figure of Washington, who was in the +thickest of the fight, and they kept firing at him. Two horses were shot +under him. Four bullets passed through his clothing, but he did not +receive a scratch. + +Many years afterwards an old Indian chief came to see Washington, and +told him that he had fired from ambush on the dreadful day of Braddock's +defeat, and both he and his young warriors had often aimed at him as he +rode about delivering the general's orders; but as they could not hit +him, they had concluded that he was under the protection of the Great +Spirit and could not be slain in battle. + +Braddock was at last hit. He sank to the ground mortally wounded. "What +is to be done now?" he faintly asked. "We must retreat," replied +Washington. + +A retreat was ordered, and Washington and his riflemen defended the rear +so well that what was left of the routed army at last reached a place of +safety. More than seven hundred of them had fallen, including Braddock +himself and three-fourths of his officers. What a penalty the proud +British general paid for refusing to take good advice! + +=117. The Virginians fight desperately for their Homes.=--The French were +now left in full possession of all the region west of the Alleghanies. +The Indians took advantage of the situation to make fresh attacks upon +the Virginia colonists. + +The Virginians fought with desperation for their homes. Washington was +put in command of the forces. He wrote that "the supplicating tears of +the women and the moving petitions of the men melted him into deadly +sorrow." Three years after the Braddock calamity, Washington again +marched his men through the woods against Fort Du Quesne and recaptured +it. + +The capture of this stronghold was an important event to the colonists, +for a highway which was never afterwards closed was then opened to the +great West. The name of the fort was changed to Pittsburgh, in honor of +England's illustrious prime minister, William Pitt, who had planned the +expedition. + +It was just this experience in hard fighting against the French and +Indians that providentially aided in fitting Washington to win success +as commander-in-chief of the American forces in the fast approaching war +of the Revolution. + +=118. Quebec, the carefully guarded Stronghold.=--We must remember that +there had been fighting for nearly two years in America before England +really declared war against France in 1756. During this time the French +had held the mastery, and the English had met with sad reverses. A new +leader had now come into power in England, the great statesman, William +Pitt. + +The influence of this remarkable man changed the course of affairs as if +by magic. He fully understood America's greatest needs. From this time +the English were everywhere successful. Important forts were taken from +the French, such as Niagara, Ticonderoga, and Crown Point. + +There was only one great stronghold left to the French. This was Quebec +on the St. Lawrence. It was not only one of the strongest fortresses in +the world, but it was commanded by the Marquis de Montcalm, one of the +ablest generals of his time. + +=119. How Quebec was taken.=--A brave young officer, General Wolfe, was +sent out from England to command the attack on Quebec. The outlook was +enough to discourage any one, however experienced and skillful. The fort +itself is on a high point of land overlooking the city. The English +troops were on the river-bank, hundreds of feet below. + +Every movement of the English was reported at once to the French. Wolfe +was at first repulsed at every point. One day, as he was reconnoitering, +he discovered a steep and narrow path which led up the precipitous bluff +to a level spot known as the Plains of Abraham. He made up his mind to +climb it with his men. + +Soon afterwards the English troops were quietly rowed down the river, +under the cover of darkness, to a little bay since known as Wolfe's +Cove. As the young English general glided along in his boat, he quoted +extracts from Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard." As he repeated the +stanza beginning, "The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power," he said +that he would rather have written that poem than take Quebec. The little +pathway was reached. Wolfe leaped first on shore. Under his leadership +the English soldiers climbed the steep. + + [Illustration: WOLFE'S MEN CLIMBING TO THE PLAINS OF ABRAHAM.] + +At sunrise on the morning of Sept. 13, 1759, the British army, five +thousand strong, stood on the Plains of Abraham. Great was the amazement +of the French general, for he thought it impossible for any one to scale +the cliffs. Montcalm chose to come out of the fortress and fight the +English on the open ground. This was a fatal mistake, for after a +fierce struggle the French were defeated. + +In the hour of victory Wolfe was fatally wounded. While dying he heard +the cry, "They run! they run!" Rousing himself he asked, "Who run?" Upon +being told it was the French he exclaimed: "Now God be praised; I will +die in peace!" Montcalm was also fatally wounded. When told he could not +live, the gallant Frenchman cried out, "So much the better; I shall not +live to see the surrender of Quebec!" + +The French retired within their fortifications, but in a few days Quebec +was surrendered into the hands of the English. The fate of Canada was +decided by the fall of this city. + +=120. The End of the War and the Result.=--Although the victory at Quebec +practically ended the French and Indian War, it was not until 1763 that +peace was declared. By the treaty France gave up to England the whole of +Canada, together with all the territory between the Alleghanies and the +Mississippi, except the city of New Orleans. She retained a few barren +islands near Newfoundland as a shelter for her fishermen. The vast +region spreading westward from the Mississippi towards the Pacific, +under the name Louisiana, together with the city of New Orleans, was +made over to Spain. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +EVERYDAY LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES. + + +=121. Severe and Curious Punishments.=--In the early colonial times the +laws were for the most part rigid and the punishments severe. Criminals +were occasionally branded with a hot iron. If a man shot a fowl on +Sunday, he was often publicly whipped. Small offenses were punished in a +way which would not be tolerated in our times. A woman who had been +complained of as a scold was placed in front of her house with a stick +tied in her mouth. Sometimes a common scold was fastened to what was +known as a "ducking stool" at one end of a seesaw plank, and ducked in a +pond or river! + +Some crimes were punished by making the offender stand up on a stool in +some public place, while fastened to his breast was a large placard on +which his crime was printed in coarse letters, as LIAR or THIEF. There +were in some colonies public whipping-posts for the special benefit of +hardened offenders. In other cases the stocks were used, the culprit +being seated on a bench in a public place, his feet projecting through +holes in a plank; or the pillory, where he had to stand up with his neck +and wrists painfully confined in a similar way. These last two modes of +punishment were a source of no small amusement to the throng that +gathered around, whose jeers and scorn must have been hard to bear. Once +a couple of men in Plymouth county had a brisk little quarrel, and they +were punished by being bound together for twenty-four hours, head to +head and foot to foot. + + [Illustration: CULPRITS IN THE PILLORY AND STOCKS.] + +=122. How Sunday was kept.=--Sunday was rigidly observed in New England. +In olden times, and almost to our own day, the Lord's Day was made to +begin at sunset on Saturday evening. Sunday schools were not then known. +But every person was compelled to attend religious service or be +punished. If a man stayed away from church for a month without a good +excuse, he might be put in the stocks or into a wooden cage. No word +could be spoken with impunity against the church or the rulers. He who +used his tongue too freely was placed in the pillory or stocks, or was +fined, and in some extreme cases he lost his ears. + +The minister was the great man of the village. He was looked up to and +consulted about nearly everything, and he generally decided what +punishment should be inflicted on evil-doers. In earliest times the +people were called to meeting by drumbeat or by the blowing of a horn. +The log meeting-house had oiled paper windows, or, if of glass, small +diamond-shaped panes set in leaden frames made in England. + +Inside there was no fire and there were no cushions. Families did not +sit together as now; but old men, young men, and women all sat by +themselves. Boys occupied the pulpit steps or the gallery. On a bench +just below the preacher sat the row of deacons, facing the congregation. +If aged, they wore bright-colored flannel caps to protect their heads +from numerous drafts. It was the business of the deacons to "line off" +the Psalms as the people sang them. Books being very scarce, most of the +congregation did not have any: accordingly the deacon would read aloud +two lines, and when these were sung, read the next two, and so on. Every +one sang. There was no choir, no organ, no instrumental music of any +kind, and no hymns such as we have now. They sang the Psalms, which +were arranged in metre for convenience in singing. + +=123. The Discomforts of attending Church in Colonial Days.=--As the +meeting-house was bitter cold in midwinter, women often carried +foot-stoves, small sheet-iron boxes containing a few hot coals, which +were a source of great comfort. The sermons were tedious, lasting two +hours or even more; for those patient people valued a sermon very much +according to its length. On the pulpit stood an hour-glass, which a +deacon would reverse when the sands of the hour had fallen through. + +Since the seats were hard, and the sermons long, and the men and women +had worked early and late through the week, it was no wonder that some +of the hearers were sleepy. It was, however, a serious offense to sleep +in meeting. The watchful tithing-man, as he was called, was always on +the lookout for drowsy people. It was his duty to see that the Lord's +Day was respected by every person. He was armed with a long rod, one end +tipped with a hare's foot and the other with a hare's tail. If the +slumberer was a woman, he used to touch, possibly to tickle, her face +with the soft fur. But if a youngster nodded, his head got a sharp rap +from the rabbit's foot. + +People in those days had to be thrifty. To save wear and tear, boys and +girls walked barefoot to church in summer, with their shoes and +stockings under their arms. They put them on as they entered the +meeting-house, taking them off again as they started for home. + + [Illustration: NEW ENGLAND FIRESIDE IN COLONIAL TIMES.] + +=124. The Food in Olden Times; what it was, and how it was served.=--In +old colonial times our wheat bread was comparatively unknown. Loaves +were made of mixed Indian meal and rye, not unlike the brown bread of +our time. Baked pumpkin with milk was a favorite dish. Bean porridge was +always a common article of food, and in some parts of the country it is +still popular. It was made by boiling beans with the liquor in which +corned beef had been cooked. It was very convenient for wood-choppers in +winter to carry a frozen piece of porridge in their pockets and thaw it +out for dinner in the woods. The longer it was kept, the better it +tasted. Hence the common rhyme, "Bean porridge hot, bean porridge cold; +bean porridge in the pot; nine days old." + +In well-to-do families the cupboard or dresser shone with well-scoured +pewter plates, platters, and porringers. Square wooden plates were often +used; but with some poorer families there was one common dish used, from +which the whole family helped themselves with their fingers. + +Instead of forks, which were not known, they had thick and clumsy pewter +spoons. These were easily broken, and they often had to be melted up and +run over again into moulds by men who traveled from house to house for +this purpose. In fact shoemakers, tailors, dressmakers, butchers, and +other highly useful artisans traveled about from one family to another +in pursuit of work. + +=125. Schools in Olden Times; the Schoolmaster; Schoolhouses and how they +were furnished.=--In most of the colonies the settlers were hardly +located in their new homes before they began to provide schools for +their children. In 1635 the town of Boston "voted to entreat brother +Philemon Pormont to become schoolmaster," and, in 1647, the law was +passed which is the foundation of the splendid educational system of +Massachusetts. + +Only six years after Boston was founded, the sum of two thousand dollars +was set apart to found "a seminary at Cambridge," which has now become +Harvard University. For years afterwards, every family gave annually one +peck of corn, or one shilling in money, to support the young college. + +Besides the usual branches, the early schools were required to teach +religion and morals and the laws. They taught little enough of what we +call school studies. + +The schoolhouses were rough and crude. They usually had but one room. +Within the room, the door and the big fireplace were on one side, while +against the other three walls was a long, rough shelf, in front of which +was a seat made of a split log with legs driven beneath. The pupils +faced the wall with their backs to the teacher. In front was another +lower bench filled by the younger pupils. The teacher sat near the +middle of the room, and there the classes stood to recite. The sessions +were long, seven or eight hours a day. The boys had to furnish the +firewood, and if any unlucky fellow failed to bring in his share, he +had to sit in a cold corner for that day. When the fire was brisk, the +scholars were almost roasted on one side and nearly frozen on the other. + +The teachers were often incompetent, either broken-down men or needy +widows. The children brought each a few pennies a week for tuition. +There were not many text-books, and the supplies were very scanty. The +scholars often learned to write and "cast accounts" on pieces of white +birchbark. + +=126. Newspapers, Traveling, and the Night Watchman.=--The first printing +press was set up at Cambridge in 1639. It was used chiefly to print +sermons and small pamphlets. The first newspaper published in America +was the _Boston News-Letter_ in 1704. It was a weekly, a brown sheet +hardly more than a foot square. News traveled slowly, for there was +little communication between city and city. Travelers were few, and +conveyances were slow. A stage-coach that made forty miles a day between +New York and Philadelphia was called, on account of its great speed, the +"flying machine." + +In the cities, news was announced in the daytime by the public crier, +who walked the streets ringing a large hand-bell, and pausing at the +corners, where he recited his message of child lost, or reward offered, +or the happening of any important event. In the night the town +watchman, with rattle and lantern, paced the streets, stopping every +person he met after nine o'clock to demand his name and business. He +also called aloud the hours of the night in a sing-song tone: +"Twelve-o'clock-and-all-'s-well." + +Sometimes his night cry was intensely interesting. At Philadelphia in +October, 1781, evening after evening every one went to bed anxious about +our army at Yorktown, and hoping every hour to hear tidings of victory. +One night the old watchman's cry was heard echoing along the lonely +streets: "Two-o'clock-and-Cornwallis-'s-captured!" How the windows flew +up! and how the hearty cheers burst along from house to house all +through the city! + +=127. Other Details of Home Life in the Colonies.=--The home life of the +colonists improved as the years passed, but until the Revolution it was +very crude. In the families of well-to-do people the earth floors of +early days were replaced by boards, the proudest decoration of which was +a sprinkling of white sand, which on great occasions was swept into +ornamental waves with a broom. The door latch was for a long time of +wood, lifted by pulling a string hanging outside. Hence the hospitable +invitation used to be: "Come over and see us! We keep the latchstring +out." At night the string was drawn in, and that locked the door. + +As there were no friction matches, fire was started by striking a spark +with flint and steel, which was caught on a bit of half-burned rag, and +then brought to a blaze with a splinter of wood tipped with sulphur. On +a cold morning, if one's fire was out and these tools were not at hand, +the resort was to send a boy to a neighbor for a brand! + + [Illustration: NIGHT WATCHMAN ANNOUNCING THE CAPTURE OF CORNWALLIS.] + +=128. How our Forefathers clothed themselves.=--The clothing worn by men, +women, and children was nearly all home-made from the wool of their own +sheep. It was a matter of pride with a good housewife to supply all the +nice warm clothes needed by her family, and the daughters were brought +up to card and spin and weave clothing, bedding, and table linen. After +a time very fine linen was made, especially by the Scotch-Irish settlers +who were skillful in raising flax and in weaving linen. We may safely +infer that the women of those days were obliged to work early and late +to provide warm clothing for themselves and oftentimes for large +families. In fact it was for many years regarded as almost a disgrace to +purchase clothing which might have been made at home. + +But some were disposed to shine in apparel more showy than their purses +could afford or their rank allow. All such victims of personal vanity +were liable to be ordered to appear before the court; for any person +whose estate was less than a thousand dollars was "forbidden to wear +gold or silver lace, or any lace above two shillings a yard." Once a +"goodwife" by the name of Alice Flynt was required to show that she was +worth money enough to be able to wear a silk hood. But the woman proved +that she was, and she was allowed to wear her finery in triumph. In like +manner, "goodman" Jonas Fairbanks was arrested for wearing "great +boots," meaning boots with high tops that turned over showy red. He too +escaped punishment and continued to sport his extravagance. + +=129. How the Wealthier People lived.=--But after a while in the cities, +the really wealthy, of whom there were not a few, often dressed in fine +style. Gentlemen when fully equipped wore three-cornered cocked hats, +long velvet coats, embroidered silk waistcoats with flaps weighted with +lead, breeches coming only to the knees, long silk stockings, and +pointed shoes adorned with large silver buckles. Stately men wore their +hair powdered, a long queue hanging down the back, where it was tied +with a black ribbon. The clothing was often enriched with gold and +silver lace, and glittering buttons. A mass of lace ruffles adorned the +wrists and flowed over the hands. The street cloak glistened with gold +lace, while a gold-headed cane and a gold snuff-box confirmed the +wearer's title to rank as a gentleman. + + [Illustration: HOSPITALITY IN A SOUTHERN MANSION.] + +Ladies of wealth in the city wore rich heavy silk over stiff hoops, and +towering hats adorned with tall feathers, with hair massed and powdered +as if with snowflakes. All the fashions of high life were very exacting +and precise. The wealth and style of the cities were displayed in the +fine houses, the heavy, rich furniture imported from England, the +massive silver plate of the tables, the luxurious living, and the choice +wines. + +The forms of address, too, showed the social rank. The terms "lady" and +"gentleman" were applied only to persons of recognized standing. Our +everyday title of "Mr." was conferred only upon ministers and the +officers of the law, and upon their sons if college bred. The title +"Mrs." was limited to the wives of prominent men. But if Mr. John Smith +was proved guilty of any offense, as theft or lying, he was always +afterwards known only as John Smith. For ordinary people above the grade +of servants the title of "Goody" was in common use, meaning either +"Goodman" or "Goodwife." + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION. + + +=130. Our Forefathers, Men of Rare Ability and Sterling Character.=--Many +of our forefathers who had been driven from England to this country by +persecution were men of rare ability and sterling character. Some had +served their nation with credit in the army; others had won social and +political honors. Independent in their way of thinking, fearless in +speech and action, they were sternly opposed to governmental oppression. +They believed that royal power should be held within well-defined +limits. They would not tamely submit, as many did, to abuses from a bad +government and tyrannical kings. + +=131. The Story of their Wrongs told to their Children.=--Now we may +safely believe that the early settlers told their children all about the +persecutions in England. The young folks learned well the sad tale of +how their fathers had been punished, and some of their neighbors hanged +or burned alive for worshiping God in what they thought the right way, +and how, for this reason, they had sought a shelter in the New World. + +As the years passed, these children grew up to be men, and in their turn +they told it all to their sons. Again, when the new generation came upon +the stage of action, the fathers repeated it to their boys, and these, +when they attained manly strength, became the very heroes that fought so +bravely at Bunker Hill and King's Mountain and on many another +battlefield! + +=132. A Feeling of Brotherhood among the Colonies.=--Then there was a +sense of freedom, an inspiration to liberty, in this open, unsubdued, +apparently boundless land. The free ocean, the immense forests, the +eternal mountains, all seemed to teach that here man was to be his own +master; that in this wide, new country, the people were destined to rule +themselves, and not bound to obey some stupid and obstinate king three +thousand miles away. + +The colonies along the coast, having the same language, with similar +laws and customs, and having shared like sufferings from hunger and cold +and the Indians, were naturally drawn together by a feeling of +brotherhood. + +=133. Cruel and Short-Sighted Policy of the Royal Governors.=--Before long +there came up real grievances. One fact that diminished the affection of +our forefathers for the mother country was the harsh treatment they +received from many of the governors sent over by the king. For the +colonies were not allowed to elect their own governors, nor could they +choose even the governor's council of advisers. These were appointed by +the monarch far away, who cared little for the Americans except to +extort money from them. + +Indeed, the English king seemed to think almost anybody would do for +governor who contrived to wring money enough out of his distant +subjects. Many of the royal governors were self-conceited, arrogant, and +tyrannical. Consequently in some of the colonies there was almost +incessant quarreling between the governors and the people. By and by the +colonies came to be treated, not as a part of the home country, but as a +sort of foreign district to furnish a royal revenue. + +=134. The Colonies begin to prosper.=--Notwithstanding all their +hardships, the colonies prospered. The people were wonderfully +enterprising. They built ships and made a great deal of money by trading +with the West Indies, France, Spain, and other countries. The New +Englanders alone had over five hundred vessels engaged in domestic and +foreign commerce and in profitable fisheries. + +The early colonists were ingenious. They built and ran a sawmill a +hundred years before one was erected in England. They exported great +quantities of excellent lumber. They began very early to manufacture +farmer's tools, leather, boots and shoes, woolen cloth, hats, glass, +paper, salt, and gunpowder. The sale of these goods and of many other +things produced by them made a profitable trade. In return the colonists +bought in distant lands a great amount and variety of other merchandise. + +=135. The British Government begins its Tyrannical Policy.=--But the +English rulers, seeing all this prosperity, became jealous and said: +"This will never do! We must stop it! Those distant colonists across the +ocean are driving a great trade; the foreign nations they deal with get +their money. We must have it; we must compel them to do all their +trading with us." And that is what the English government tried to do. +By 1750 not less than twenty-nine Acts of Parliament had been passed +with the intent to have all of the loss in trade fall on the colonies +and all the gain come to England. + +In 1761 it was decided to enforce the so-called Navigation Acts, +forbidding the colonies to have any foreign commerce except in British +ships. Our colonial merchants were not allowed to export goods, nor to +import any except from England or her colonies. They must not import any +sugar or molasses without paying on it a heavy duty, which went to the +king. Under these unjust laws the British traders could fix low prices +on all they bought, and high prices on all they sold, and thus by this +double-edged method could shape their profits to suit themselves. + +=136. Other Absurd and Tyrannical Laws.=--Still more odious than these +navigation laws were other absurd and tyrannical regulations made to +cripple the industries and manufactures of the colonies. The fact was, +the English Parliament meant that England's workshops should do all the +manufacturing, her merchants all the trading, and her ships all the +carrying for the colonies, that they might keep in England all the +immense profits of the colonial trade. + +To bring this about, laws were passed forbidding the manufacture of all +such goods as English shops could produce. For instance, iron must not +be made from the abundant mines of our country. We must buy all our +hardware from England. It was a crime to use the wool from our own sheep +in making woolen goods, and we were forbidden to sell these articles +from one colony to another. For example, a Boston hatter could be +punished if he sold his hats in New York. Men were forbidden to cut down +trees on their own lands for staves and barrels. For wooden ware, as +chairs, tables, wheels, wagons, the raw material must be sent to +England to be worked up, and the finished goods brought back to this +country. + +=137. A Bitter Feeling aroused against the Home Government.=--Now all +these laws seemed very harsh and unjust. And, indeed, they were +well-nigh intolerable. They crippled and almost ruined the business of +the colonies, and violated what our forefathers regarded as their +natural right to make what they pleased and sell where they pleased. + +These laws were so unjust that our forefathers thought there was not +much wrong in evading them. They smuggled goods and carried them home. +British officers went around and searched houses from cellar to attic, +often with rudeness and insults. This conduct created much bitterness of +feeling. Pine trees of twelve inches or more in diameter were marked +with the "king's arrow," which showed that they were to be saved for use +in the navy. It was a criminal offense to cut down any such. However +much a settler might need them to build his house, he was forbidden to +touch them. In fact, before he cleared his land, he had to pay an +officer to come and make the arrow mark on the king's trees! + +These unjust and absurd statutes produced a vast deal of ill-will toward +England. If they had been strictly enforced, no doubt the Revolution +would have come several years before it did. And yet there was also +much friendly feeling for the mother country. The friends and relatives +of the colonists still lived there, letters were constantly exchanged, +and hundreds of people coming and going every year kept up an affection +between the two countries. Our people in those times always called +England "home." + + [Illustration: BRITISH STAMP.] + +=138. The Obnoxious Stamp Act.=--There came at last one event which, of +all the troubles, hastened the Revolution. The French and Indian War had +cost both England and the colonies a great deal of money. King George +wanted to compel the colonies to pay part of this expense, and +accordingly Parliament passed in 1765 the "Stamp Act," the most +unpopular measure ever tried with the colonists. This law required that +stamped paper should be used for all bills, bonds, notes, wills, and +deeds, and even for all pamphlets, almanacs, and newspapers. + +Stamps for this purpose had to be bought of stamp officers appointed by +the king. They were for the most part not unlike our revenue stamps. One +kind was a red-ink seal, made with a hand stamp; the other a seal on +blue paper, to be fastened on the article. The cost varied from one +cent to fifty dollars each. No document was legal unless stamped. + +Our people at once saw that if England could levy taxes in this way, she +could in many other ways, and there would be no end to such high-handed +and tyrannical laws. Besides, there were no American representatives in +Parliament, and Americans had no voice at all in the matter. They felt +that the tax thus laid upon them was wrong. They did not object to +paying the cost of a trifling tax. They felt bound to resist the rank +injustice of the demand. It was not the amount but the principle at +stake. + +=139. The Indignation of the People.=--The people were aroused. A storm of +indignation swept over the land. Violent opposition broke out along the +entire length of the colonies. They pledged themselves to stand by each +other. The cry passed through the land: "No taxation without +representation!" This became the watchword of the country. They did not +wish to avoid paying a fair assessment in a fair way; but they insisted +that, as always before, their own legislatures and not Parliament should +levy the contribution. Our forefathers declared over and over again that +they would not be taxed by a governing body three thousand miles away, +whose members had never seen America. + +=140. Patrick Henry and his Bold Speech.=--One day the Virginia Assembly +was in session. Washington was there in his seat, and Jefferson, then a +young law student, stood listening at the door. Patrick Henry stoutly +argued that Virginia was not bound to obey any law which was plainly a +menace to the common freedom of Englishmen. + +"Cæsar had his Brutus," said the bold and eloquent orator; "Charles the +First his Cromwell, and George the Third"---- + +"Treason!" shouted the Speaker of the Assembly, and the cry, "Treason, +treason!" rang through the room. + + [Illustration: PATRICK HENRY'S BOLD SPEECH.] + +The intrepid patriot finished his sentence: "may profit by their +example. If that be treason, make the most of it!" + +=141. The People combine to resist the Hated Law.=--The people combined to +resist, and a stamp-tax congress was held in New York. Lovers of liberty +would not deal in stamped goods. They refused to buy a single stamp. +Riots occurred at the stamp offices. Packages of stamps were seized, and +some were publicly burned in the streets. Boxes of stamped paper +arriving in vessels were seized and thrown overboard. Publishers of +newspapers decorated their headlines with skull and cross-bones instead +of stamps. Stamp officers were dragged out and compelled to swear they +would not sell any stamps. + + [Illustration: PATRICK HENRY.] + +On the day for the law to take effect, funeral bells were tolled, flags +were at half-mast, and shops were closed. New England, New York, +Virginia, and the Carolinas all felt alike and acted alike. William +Pitt, also called the Earl of Chatham, one of the greatest of +Englishmen, took his stand on the side of the colonies in a speech of +surpassing eloquence and power. The hated law was repealed in just one +year from its passage. + +This happy news was received both in England and in America with +bonfires, ringing of bells, and universal rejoicings. But the joy was +short-lived. King George, "industrious as a beaver and obstinate as a +mule," and his followers in Parliament were not slow to pick a fresh +quarrel with the Americans. + +The next year the English Parliament made a law requiring duties to be +paid on paper, glass, paints, and tea. Again the liberty-loving +Americans were a unit in opposing any kind of taxation that seemed to +them illegal. Some of the legislatures protested to Parliament, and King +George answered by breaking up the legislatures. The people indignantly +refused to buy any goods at all from England while these taxes were +demanded. English traders found their business going to ruin. Ships came +loaded with British goods, and had to carry them back. + +=142. Bitter Hatred of the British Soldiers.=--So bitter was the +opposition in Boston that a regiment of British troops was sent there to +force the people to submit even at the point of the bayonet. But a brave +people, determined to be free, is not so easily forced. + +The citizens of Boston were ordered to furnish lodging and food for the +soldiers. They would not do it--not they! Their hatred of the soldiers +grew more bitter. Brawls often occurred on the streets. The soldiers on +their part began to be insulting. + +=143. Boston Boys stand up for their Rights.=--Even the children took part +in the quarrels, as an incident will show. During the winter the boys +used to build snow-slides on Boston Common and slide down upon them to +the frog pond. The English soldiers destroyed these slides, merely to +provoke the boys. The young Americans complained of the injury and set +about repairing it. However, when they returned from school, they found +the snow-slides destroyed again. + + [Illustration: THE BOSTON BOYS MAKE THEIR PROTEST TO GENERAL GAGE.] + +Several of the boys now waited upon one of the under-officers, and told +him of the conduct of his soldiers; but he would have nothing to say to +them; and the soldiers were more impudent than ever. At last the boys +called a meeting and sent a committee of the largest of their number to +General Gage, the commander-in-chief. He asked why so many boys had +called upon him. + +"We came, sir," said the tallest, "to demand satisfaction." + +"What!" said the general; "have your fathers been teaching you +rebellion, and sent you to show it here?" + +"Nobody sent us, sir," he answered, while his cheek reddened and his eye +flashed. "We have never injured nor insulted your troops; but they have +trodden down our snow-slides and broken the ice on the pond. We +complained and they called us young rebels and told us to help ourselves +if we could. We told one of your officers of this, and he laughed at us. +Yesterday our slides were destroyed for the third time; and, sir, we +will bear it no longer." + +General Gage was a kind-hearted and courteous gentleman. He looked at +them with admiration, and said to an officer at his side: "The very +children draw in a love of liberty with the air they breathe. You may +go, my brave boys; and be assured, if my soldiers trouble you again, +they shall be punished." + +=144. The Boston Massacre.=--One night in March (1770) some soldiers +stationed in Boston got into a quarrel, and the noise increased until +the guard was called out. As the platoon of regulars drew up in line, +most of the crowd fell back. + +A few remained and reviled the red-coat soldiers, shouting, +"Lobster-backs! Fire if you dare, you cowards! You don't dare to fire!" + +Captain Preston, the officer in command, gave the word, "Fire!" The +regulars fired. + +Five men were killed and several wounded. There was now intense +excitement in Boston. The Old South Church was crowded with an angry +town-meeting. Thousands filled the streets near by. The people demanded +that the troops be removed. The governor promised to remove one +regiment. "Both regiments or none," was the watchword. + +Samuel Adams waited upon the governor, and stretching forth his long +right arm, and pointing his finger at him, he sternly demanded, in the +name of three thousand freemen, that the royal governor remove every +British soldier from Boston. + +"I observed his knees to tremble," said the stern patriot in after +years; "I saw his face grow pale--and I enjoyed the sight." + +Before sunset of the same day the British troops were removed from the +city and sent to a fort in the harbor. Not until then did the meeting in +the Old South break up. + +This unfortunate affair was the so-called "Boston Massacre." It did more +to mould public opinion than weeks of vigorous protest and fine argument +could have done. It was one step, and an important one too, toward the +final appeal to the sword and the bayonet. + +=145. The Famous Boston Tea Party.=--In view of all these troubles, +England took off the taxes from everything but tea. King George said he +must have one tax to maintain the principle of the right of taxation. +But the colonists refused to drink tea imported from China! The women +were patriotic and made their tea of raspberry leaves, sage, and other +plants, rather than use the hated foreign article. + +But the government of England was determined we should buy tea, and the +merchants sent shiploads of it to our large cities. The Americans were +firm. They vowed that not an ounce of it should land. There was only a +few cents' tax on each pound. What our people disputed was the right of +the king to tax. When the tea reached New York and Philadelphia, none +dared to receive it, lest their houses should be pulled down about their +heads. In Charleston, S. C., some was taken ashore, but as no one would +buy it or pay the duty, it was hid in damp cellars, where it soon +spoiled. In Annapolis it was burned. + +At Boston warning was several times given to the masters of the ships to +sail out of the harbor. On the last day before the tea must be landed or +be prevented by force from landing, a town-meeting was held in the Old +South Church. The crowd in the church, and in the streets about it, +numbered more than seven thousand people. "It was to be," says John +Fiske, "one of the most momentous days in the history of the world." +The discussion continued until dark, and candles were brought in. It was +decided that the tea should not be landed. + +"Who knows," shouted one in the audience, "how tea will mix with salt +water?" + +The church fairly shook with cheers. + +Then up rose Samuel Adams and quickly said: "This meeting can do nothing +more to save the country." + +This was the signal. A war-whoop was heard outside the door, and forty +or fifty men, disguised as Indians, went quietly aboard the three +vessels, and before the nine-o'clock bell rang three hundred and +forty-two chests of tea had been cut open and their contents emptied +into Boston Harbor. This was the famous "Boston Tea Party" we have so +often heard of, and it took place in the middle of December in 1773. A +large crowd of the friends of these men stood on shore until the deed +was done, and then, without doing any other injury to property, all +separated and went home in the clear, frosty moonlight. + +The next morning there was not a chest of taxed tea in Boston, on +shipboard or on shore, and Paul Revere was riding post haste to +Philadelphia to let the good people of that city know that Boston had at +last thrown down the gauntlet. + +One of the "Indians" found a handful of tea in his shoe the next +morning. He carefully saved it and sealed it in a bottle. It is still +shown as a souvenir of this informal "tea party" in Boston harbor. + +One rash fellow, probably thinking that his family would like a good +drink of real tea, cut open the lining of his coat and waistcoat, and, +watching his chance, filled them with tea; but he was caught in the act +and handled pretty roughly. + +=146. Attempts to punish Boston.=--"Boston shall be punished," said King +George when he heard of the "tea party." Parliament passed the "Boston +Port Bill." By this act the port of Boston was closed. No vessel could +go in or out except under the most rigid conditions. The object of +course was to frighten or force the Boston people into yielding to the +royal power. + +Near-by towns and the other colonies came to their help by sending food +and other needed articles. The southern colonies sent flour and rice, +the middle furnished corn and money, and many towns sent sheep and +cattle. One town in Connecticut sent a flock of two hundred and fifty +sheep. Marblehead sent fish, and other towns grain. + +Warm sympathy came from Virginia. "If need be," said Washington, "I will +raise a thousand men, subsist them at my own expense, and march myself +at their head for the relief of Boston." In fact all the colonies took +up the cause of Boston as their own. Of course the blockade made great +hardship for the poor. There was much suffering from the scarcity of +fuel and food. Still the people, as resolute as their leaders, made +little complaint and caused no disorder. + +Dr. Joseph Warren overheard some British officers boast that if a +patriot ever addressed the people again in the Old South Church, he +would surely lose his life. This was enough. Warren begged the honor. +The church was so crowded that he had to get a ladder and climb in +through a window at the back of the pulpit. Many British officers were +present who annoyed the speaker with groans and hisses. The fearless +patriot, however, made a stirring speech "on the baneful influence of +standing armies in time of peace." + +=147. The Home Government adopts Stringent Measures.=--The charter of +Massachusetts was annulled, and its free government taken away. General +Gage, the commander of the British army in America, was ordered to +Boston with several regiments and was appointed military governor with +despotic power. Cannon were mounted on the heights, tents pitched on the +Common, and companies of red-coats were marching to and fro in the +streets. + +The effect was exactly what the wisest men in Parliament had predicted. +They had said that the colonies would unite more firmly, and that the +American people would be driven into open rebellion. King George was +obstinate and used all his influence to push the most obnoxious Acts +through Parliament. + +=148. The First Continental Congress.=--The first Continental Congress +held its first meeting at Philadelphia in September, 1774. The ablest +men of the colonies were sent as delegates. They forwarded to the king a +candid statement of their grievances. It did no good. Massachusetts was +declared in a state of rebellion. In truth, it looked like it. + +Such a condition of affairs could not last long. The feeling was intense +against the king and his all-powerful friends. Arguments were useless. +The royal authority was boldly and stubbornly defied. The sword and the +bayonet must now decide whether king or people were to rule in America. + +"The contest may be severe, but the end will be glorious," said the +martyr-patriot Warren, who soon after fell at Bunker Hill. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +LEXINGTON AND CONCORD. + + +=149. The Patriots prepare for War.=--When General Gage began to increase +slowly the number of troops in Boston, and especially when he began to +fortify Boston Neck, it was plain enough that this meant war. The people +on their part began to prepare anxiously for the coming struggle. Every +one felt that desperate times were near at hand. The patriots quickly +collected arms and ammunition and, having packed them in loads of hay +and similar disguises to deceive the British spies, sent them for safe +keeping to Concord, about sixteen miles northwest of Boston. + +=150. Gage forms Plans to capture Military Stores.=--General Gage soon +learned this, and made secret preparations to capture these supplies. +Inasmuch as in previous expeditions of this kind he had met with +failure, the advantage of a surprise was this time to be increased by +the presence of a large force. The Americans, however, were quite as +keen of sight and hearing as their enemies, and had even more reason to +keep a sharp lookout. + +About midnight on the 18th of April, 1775, Gage quietly sent out from +Boston nearly eight hundred soldiers. He had two objects in view; to +seize the military stores at Concord, and to arrest Samuel Adams and +"his ready and willing tool," that "terrible desperado," John Hancock. + +Gage thought the start of his midnight soldiers was quite unknown to the +Americans. He never suspected that Warren and other vigilant patriots +had been watching every movement, and were determined to thwart his +plans. At about ten or eleven o'clock, two hours before the British +soldiers embarked, a signal lantern hung out of the belfry of the Old +North Church in Boston, and in a few minutes another by its side--"One, +if by land, and two, if by sea"--flashed the tidings of the coming +expedition. + +=151. The Country about Boston aroused.=--An hour or two before the +British troops began to cross in boats to Charlestown, two horsemen, who +had been watching for the lantern lights in the steeple, dashed out on +swift steeds by different roads towards Lexington and Concord: William +Dawes went like an arrow over Boston Neck, and then through Roxbury and +Watertown, while Paul Revere across the water sped as if on wings from +Charlestown. Their swift horses' hoofs clattered sharply in the quiet of +this beautiful night, striking fire from the stones in the darkness. +But at almost every house they paused a moment to arouse the sleepers. +"Wake up!" they shouted. Windows flew open. + +"What's the matter?"--"What's the mat-ter?" + +"Matter enough, you'll find, by daylight!" was the hurried reply. "The +British are coming!" + +=152. The Night March to Concord.=--Meanwhile the British soldiers were +marching along rapidly through the cool April night. They made no noise. +There was no drumbeat; the officers gave their commands almost in +whispers. Only the clatter of the horses' hoofs and the steady tramp of +the marching men broke the silence. When day dawned they approached the +village of Lexington, ten miles from Boston and about two-thirds of the +way to Concord. They were not entirely surprised to find, even so early, +a squad of armed minute-men awaiting them, for they had heard church +bells ringing and had seen, all along their march, lights moving to and +fro in the farm houses. + +=153. The Patriots make a stand at Lexington.=--The British arrived at +Lexington about half-past four. Ready to meet them were some sixty or +seventy men drawn up on the village green close beside the +meeting-house, with loaded guns. As they stood there, silent and +fearless, on that sweet spring morning, April 19, 1775, their leader, +Captain John Parker, who fifteen years before had climbed the Heights of +Abraham by the side of Wolfe, addressed them briefly. + +"Stand your ground. Don't fire unless fired upon," said Parker; "but if +they mean to have a war, let it begin here!" Seventy men against eight +hundred! War it was, and it did begin there. + + [Illustration: PAUL REVERE'S RIDE.] + +Major Pitcairn, who soon afterwards fell at Bunker Hill, rode up and +cried out:-- + +"Disperse, you villains! Throw down your arms, you rebels, and go home!" + +He then discharged his pistol and, turning to his soldiers, cried, +"Fire!" Instantly flashed out the first volley of the Revolutionary War, +and eight of the farmer minute-men fell dead! + +The number of the Americans was so small in proportion to that of the +British that the only sensible course was to retreat. They retired with +a few parting shots at the enemy. Then the red-coats, giving three +cheers, marched on towards Concord, six miles farther. + +The patriots at Concord had the day before received some hint of the +proposed capture, and had removed most of the military stores to the +woods. The British found two cannon, which they spiked, and some cannon +balls and gunpowder, which they threw into the river. Then they +destroyed a quantity of flour, cut down the liberty-pole, and set fire +to the courthouse. + +=154. The Fight at Concord Bridge.=--While they were busy doing this, +fresh minute-men, about four hundred in number, were coming in from all +the adjoining towns. They gathered near the old North Bridge to drive +away some regulars who had begun to take up the planks. As the militia +approached, the British soldiers fired and killed several. Among the +dead was Captain Isaac Davis. Long after life was extinct, the fingers +of this brave patriot, as if still true to his purpose, held firm grasp +on his gun. + +Major Buttrick, a leader among the soldier-farmers, shouted, "Fire, +fellow-soldiers! Fire!" Obedient to this order, the Americans in return +"fired the shot heard round the world!" The regulars fell back in +confusion. The minute-men held the bridge, and the enemy began a hasty +retreat. + + [Illustration: THE MINUTE-MEN ATTACKING THE BRITISH REGULARS ON THE + RETREAT.] + +Our men were too few in number to join in a square pitched battle with +the trained British soldiers; but as soon as these began to withdraw, +the patriots followed them closely and kept up a brisk discharge of +musketry. The previous volleys and the bell-ringing had aroused the +whole adjacent country, and fresh men came pouring in from every side. +Most of them were without their coats; but they had guns in their hands +and they knew how to use them. + +=155. The British begin their Retreat.=--Occasionally the retreating +soldiers would stop and shoot back, and then hurry on and even run, to +escape the deadly bullets. Soon the minute-men, leaping over the stone +walls, ran on ahead, or, cutting across at some bend of the road, got a +long distance in advance. Then as the column came on, the Americans, +from behind barns, trees, rocks, and walls, would pour a storm of shot +into the staggering ranks. So from right and left, behind and before, +came in showers the fatal balls of the minute-men. A British officer +afterwards said, "It seemed as if men dropped from the clouds." + +You remember Longfellow's description:-- + + How the British regulars fired and fled, + How the farmers gave them ball for ball, + From behind each fence and farm-yard wall, + Chasing the red-coats down the lane, + Then crossing the fields to emerge again, + Under the trees at the turn of the road, + And pausing only to fire and load. + +The British suffered fearfully in this six-mile march. The weather was +as sultry as in midsummer, and the dust was suffocating. They had been +on the road without food or water from midnight to noon. They were worn +and exhausted, and the ceaseless shot of the Americans, who were all +trained to the use of the rifle, brought down some of the regulars at +almost every step. To go on was perilous, to pause long was fatal. Dead +and wounded men and horses lay all along the road. + +Thus beset, the British pushed on, hurrying back over the dreadful +distance till they reached Lexington. Here they were rejoiced to find a +thousand soldiers sent out from Boston under Lord Percy to meet them. +These had marched out of Boston to the tune of Yankee Doodle! They were +formed in a hollow square, and into this shelter rushed the runaway +red-coats, falling upon the green grass from pure exhaustion, "with +their tongues hanging out of their mouths, like dogs after a chase." +Lord Percy allowed a rest of only about half an hour, knowing very well +that the longer he delayed the greater would be the increasing swarm of +armed men gathering around him. + +=156. The Panic-Stricken British Regulars at last reach the Shelter of +the Men-of-War.=--The British commander had now in all nearly eighteen +hundred men, and he made straight for Charlestown, the nearest point of +safety. But in spite of this large force, the minute-men with their +unerring aim kept on his flanks, picking off the regulars, especially +the officers, all along the road. In vain the officers threatened; the +men ran like sheep. At sunset the British reached Charlestown and found +themselves safe under the shelter of their men-of-war. + +If Percy's reinforcements had not come up, all the British soldiers that +started back from Concord would have been killed or taken prisoners. The +king's regulars had been driven in rout and almost panic before the +stout-hearted minute-men. Well might General Gage feel keenly the +disgrace. + +The loss on both sides at Lexington and Concord was small. Most of the +fighting took place on the retreat, where the loss of the Americans was +about fifty killed and forty-three wounded, while the British lost in +all two hundred and seventy-three men. + +=157. What the Eventful Day showed.=--Thus began and ended one of the most +eventful days in the history of our country. It witnessed the opening +conflict of the American Revolution. + +When that sturdy patriot, Samuel Adams, heard the crackle of the +musketry, he exclaimed, "What a glorious morning is this!" He knew that +the time had come when the people must draw the sword. + +The Americans had now shown that they could fight. They saw the +promptness with which they could assemble, and they felt that, if need +were, they could defend themselves. The British also learned that the +American farmers could fight, and that, too, on the spur of the moment. +They found that the colonies were not to be frightened into submission. +It became plain to each side that very serious work was near at hand. +The grim figure of WAR cast its long black shadow into the future. + +The shots of these resolute farmers echoed far and wide. They told the +whole world that a people stood ready to give their lives in defense of +their rights; that they fought after their own fashion, and they fought +hard. + +=158. The Minute-Men; the Work they did, and how they did it.=--The +minute-men were bands of enrolled patriots pledged to start at a +minute's notice to a call for their services. They had few good weapons, +mostly shotguns for hunting birds and squirrels. They were short of +powder and ball. In many of the families the women melted or pounded up +their pewter spoons and dishes into bullets and slugs. + +The minute-men were numerous in every town, and when the alarm was +given, they would leave plow or shop, hurry home, take down the gun from +its hooks over the fireplace, bid good-by to wife and children, and be +off to help their country in its peril. + +Israel Putnam, in leather frock and apron, was at work in a field on his +farm in Connecticut when he heard of Lexington. Leaving the plow in the +furrow, he jumped on his horse and rode the hundred or more miles to +Cambridge in eighteen hours. John Stark was at work in his sawmill in +New Hampshire when the news of Lexington came. He stopped the mill, +hurried home, took down his rifle, and rode on horseback to Cambridge. +In his haste he even forgot to put on his coat! + + [Illustration: THE FIGHT AT CONCORD BRIDGE.] + +Every town had a company or two of minute-men and of militia soldiers, +who regularly met and drilled. The soldiers and the officers of these +companies were usually the best citizens of the towns. Thirty-one towns +were represented among the patriots who hastened to the fight on the +nineteenth of April. + +=159. Tablets now shown along this Historic Road.=--If some day we should +take a ride over this very road, we should notice along the way numerous +landmarks of that famous contest--carved monuments, houses with bullet +holes carefully preserved, bronze tablets on houses, marking some spot +of special interest. At Fiske's Hill, in Lexington, an inscription +records that at a well near by two soldiers met to drink. The British +grenadier raised his gun and said to James Hayward, "You are a dead +man!" "And so are you!" replied the minute-man. Both fired; one was +instantly killed, and the other mortally wounded. + +On Lexington Common we should see a stately monument with a long +inscription reciting the event. + +At Concord Bridge would be seen a noble statue of the Minute-Man, +beneath which on the pedestal are Emerson's famous verses:-- + + Here once the embattled farmers stood, + And fired the shot heard round the world. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. + + +=160. More Regulars sent to Boston.=--The battle of Lexington, fought as +we have read, on the nineteenth of April, 1775, was a most momentous +event, since it showed for the first time the resolute purpose of the +Americans to draw the sword and defend themselves from British +oppression. The news reached England near the end of May. Those +Lexington muskets said plainer than words that the colonies would not +submit to unjust taxation. + +Fully aware that the situation was becoming serious, the British +government sent a large number of fresh troops to reinforce the garrison +in Boston. These came under the command of Generals Howe, Clinton, and +Burgoyne, and made in all an army of about ten thousand men. + +=161. A Patriot Army is gathered around Boston.=--The patriots, too, were +gathering in large numbers around Boston. They came by hundreds from all +directions. Quite a large body was from Connecticut under Colonel +(afterwards General) Israel Putnam. General Ward was commander of these +forces until Washington arrived at Cambridge on July 3, 1775, and first +took command of the American army under the old elm. + +On the twelfth of June, General Gage issued a proclamation declaring all +those in arms to be rebels and traitors, but offering pardon to all who +would lay down their weapons and obey the British governor. Two, John +Hancock and Samuel Adams, were excepted. Their patriotism had been too +intense and outspoken to be forgiven. + + [Illustration: WASHINGTON TAKING COMMAND OF THE PATRIOT ARMY.] + +The American army, now nearly twenty thousand strong, formed a line of +encampments in a great semicircle of sixteen miles, halfway around the +city from Roxbury Neck to the Mystic River. They soon learned that Gage +intended to break through the American lines into the country for a +supply of provisions. + +=162. Plans to checkmate the British.=--General Ward, having discovered +that the British were planning to sally forth through Charlestown, +determined to strike first and so defeat their project. It was decided +to seize and fortify some suitable hill in Charlestown. Colonel William +Prescott, a well-tried soldier of the French-Indian wars, and +grandfather of Prescott, the famous historian, was ordered, on the +sixteenth of June, to march that night with nearly a thousand men to +Bunker Hill and throw up breastworks. + +Soon after sunset the soldiers were formed in a hollow square on +Cambridge Common, and President Langdon of Harvard College offered +prayer. The good man then gave them his blessing and bade them +"Godspeed." At nine o'clock they started on their silent march. At +Charlestown Neck they met General Putnam with more soldiers and +wagon-loads of picks and shovels. + +=163. Entrenched on Bunker Hill.=--Prescott led them to the top of Bunker +Hill. After consultation with his officers, he moved on through the +darkness to Breed's Hill, which had a better command of the city and the +shipping. The lines were soon staked out, and at midnight the farmer +soldiers began their entrenchments. So rapidly did they work that the +dim morning twilight disclosed a large square of fresh trenches +crowning the hill, with long wings stretching right and left. They had +made a fort in a single night. + +How surprised the British were at the sight, as the sun rose on a +beautiful summer morning! They could scarcely believe their eyes. It +seemed like a work of magic. A thousand men had shoveled as they never +shoveled before, and not a British sentry had heard the click of their +spades. They saw at once that the Americans, if they only had time +enough to plant a battery of cannon there, could very soon drive them +out of Boston. So the only thing for them to do was to drive the +Americans from that hill, and that too without delay. Accordingly, the +British men-of-war, Lively and Falcon, and then the forts on Copp's Hill +in Boston immediately opened fire. + +Meanwhile some hundreds of fresh soldiers arrived to help the Americans, +hungry and weary with their hard night's work. The shot and shell from +ships and fort dropped around and among them, but they worked bravely on +in the hot sunshine till nearly noon. At the left, on the northern slope +of the hill, they moved some rail fences so as to build long double +lines close together, and stuffed the space between with new-mown hay, +making an excellent breastwork. + +=164. The British prepare to storm the Entrenchments.=--Things are now +looking serious. The Americans can see and hear the British in Boston +preparing for an attack. Prescott sends hurrying messengers to General +Ward at the Cambridge headquarters for more soldiers. During the +forenoon General Stark arrives with five hundred fresh New Hampshire +troops, who were posted behind the rail fence on the extreme left. Next +General Warren comes, and, laying aside his rank, takes a place of +danger among the troops. The combat hastens, and every minute throbs +with emotion. + +Soon after one o'clock twenty-eight large boats are seen crossing over +from Boston, loaded with soldiers and artillery. The Americans are now +exchanging shovels for muskets and preparing for the foe. Now the +red-coats are landing at the foot of the hill! See! they are forming in +two columns, their bright cannon and muskets glistening in the hot sun. +It is now about three o'clock in the afternoon. They begin to march up +the hill! + +General Howe's column is on our left, to break through the grass wall +and push his way behind our forces. Their other column, under General +Pigot, is marching up the hill to attack our redoubt in front. They are +coming slowly in the hot sun of a bright June afternoon. The artillery +booms and crashes incessantly with a deafening roar. + +General Gage has ordered that Charlestown be set on fire, and the flames +and smoke of five hundred burning buildings make a terrible scene. All +the surrounding heights, house-tops, and spires are crowded with +thousands of anxious spectators breathlessly watching the thrilling +sight. + + "Here were sister, wife, and mother, looking wild upon each other, + And their lips were white with terror as they said, 'THE HOUR HAS + COME!'" + +=165. The Battle begins.=--Behind those hasty breastworks fifteen hundred +patriots lie silently awaiting the steady march of over three thousand +trained British soldiers. Still on and up they toil, burdened with their +heavy knapsacks, pausing to fire as they march. + +"Don't fire until I give the word," said Prescott; "then fire low! Pick +off the officers." + +Putnam shouted to his men: "Powder is scarce, boys, don't waste it; wait +till you see the whites of their eyes." + +When the red-coats came within about a hundred and fifty feet of the +breastworks, suddenly came Prescott's sharp order:--"Fire!" Instantly a +flash of flame blazed along our entire line, and down fell the whole +front of the advancing ranks. Under the ceaseless rain of bullets the +British veterans gave way and retreated down the hillside in disorder. + +Then burst forth from our side a strong shout, the first ringing cry on +this continent for national independence. But it was a sad sight--the +long rows of dead and dying soldiers, mowed down as if by a sudden sweep +of a giant scythe. + + "Oh, the sight our eyes discover as the blue-black smoke blows over! + The red-coats stretched in windrows as a mower rakes his hay." + +Inside the breastworks some were killed and many wounded. Prescott, +Putnam, and Warren were passing up and down the line, cheering and +encouraging the patriots. + +=166. The British beat a Hasty Retreat to their Boats.=--The British +officers rallied their troops as best they could. Death and wounds had +thinned their number by hundreds, and the survivors were far from +willing to make a second charge against that wall of fire. But the +threats of the officers and even blows with their swords finally +compelled them to it. + +Up they marched again, firing as they came, their ranks moving slowly, +stepping over the bodies of their fallen comrades. + +"Wait, boys!" shouted Warren. "Don't fire yet! Wait." + +On they came as before, nearer and nearer, until the distance was less +than thirty yards to our silent but fatal line, when instantly there +burst forth another long blaze of fire, even deadlier than before. + + [Illustration: BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL.] + +The Americans were by practice good marksmen, and the bright red coats +and shining belts of the enemy made excellent targets. The British +returned the fire, and a brisk discharge of musketry was kept up for a +few minutes. But it was useless. Hundreds of their number fell dead on +the fatal slope, and in spite of their officers, the broken ranks +staggered and retreated, flying in a panic to the shore. + +=167. The British advance to the Third Attack.=--Now all was fright and +confusion among the British. They were dismayed at the deadly reception +our untrained soldiers had given them. General Clinton, who had been +watching the battle from Copp's Hill and saw the day going against them, +instantly hurried over with fresh troops. Once more the British regulars +formed at the foot of the hill. + +We may imagine with what mingled feelings the Americans, gazing down +through the rifts of smoke from burning Charlestown, watched the +movements of the reinforced foe. Putnam and Warren again went around +cheering our men. + +Prescott shouted, "Let's drive them back once more, and they cannot +rally again." + +But alas! the stock of powder was giving out! The patriots had only +three or four rounds left, and as for close fighting, there were only +about fifty bayonets to all their guns. Orders were passed along to use +their powder carefully, to hold fire until the enemy came within twenty +yards, and to make every shot tell. + +Meantime the enemy's cannon from the ships had got a better range, and +were pouring in a galling fire. The prospect on our side was beginning +to look desperate. Short of powder; without bayonets; confronted by +brave enemies always twice our number, and now with fresh troops; tired +out with marching or digging all night and shoveling or fighting all +day; for the most part without food and water,--our men still defiantly +held the fort. + +At five o'clock the British formed for the third attack, advancing now +in three columns to charge us on three sides. This time their knapsacks +were laid aside, and they marched in light order. Up they came as +before, only slower; for they realized that they had a dangerous enemy +before them. They reserved their fire. When they reached that same +deadly range, once more our ramparts poured forth the deadly volleys. + +The British wavered, but then rallied and rushed forward to the +breastworks with fixed bayonets. + +"Make every shot tell!" shouted Prescott to his men. + +As the British began to climb over our earthworks, our soldiers spent +their last shots upon those who mounted first. Among those who fell dead +at the redoubt was Major Pitcairn, who at Lexington had cried out, +"Disperse, ye rebels!" + +=168. The Patriots forced to retreat from Lack of Ammunition.=--Their +powder all gone, what could the patriots do but retreat? This they did +in good order for raw soldiers, many staying to smite the enemy with the +butts of their muskets, then with the barrels after the butts were +broken off, and some even with stones. The British were now closing in +upon them on all sides, and at last Prescott, to avoid being completely +shut in, gave the word to retreat. He was one of the last to leave, +defending himself with his sword from the bayonets of the enemy. + +Alas! one shot of the last volley from the British killed our beloved +Warren! When General Howe heard of this he said, "Warren's death is +equal to the loss of five hundred men to the Americans." + +Stark and Knowlton held the grass fence till the troops had left the top +of the hill, and then retreated with them in good order to Charlestown +Neck. On their way back they met at Bunker Hill General Putnam, who had +collected fresh soldiers and wanted to occupy the trenches he had formed +there, and make a fresh stand against the enemy. But the British ships +on both sides could rake this position, and it was decided to move back +to Prospect Hill, which our forces fortified. It was about six o'clock +when the retreat began. + +=169. Bunker Hill and the Lesson it taught.=--In less than three hours, +and with only one hour of actual fighting, all these fearful scenes +were enacted. The Americans, with about fifteen hundred men, lost four +hundred and fifty killed and wounded. But the British, with over three +thousand, had lost one thousand and fifty-four, of whom one hundred and +fifty-seven were officers! + +Although in form the result of the battle was a defeat, as our army lost +their ground, yet its effect upon the Americans was that of a victory. +It taught them that they were a match for the British troops in a fair +fight. This knowledge nerved them to further resistance against royal +oppression. Thus this battle, the first clear bugle-call of the +Revolution, proving beyond all doubt that the British troops were not +invincible, was worth just at this time many decided victories to the +Americans. To the patriots of every colony it gave strength and heart, +and the belief that their cause would succeed. In the march of events +and of ideas Bunker Hill was of momentous importance. It gave the shock +that made the patriots conscious of their might; it cleared their vision +and roused them to action. + +When Washington first heard of the battle he was riding on horseback to +take command of the army at Cambridge. "Did our men stand fire?" he +asked of the messenger. Being told that they did, and that they waited +till the enemy was only eight rods off, he said, "The liberties of the +country are safe!" + +But if the Americans learned that they could fight, the British learned +it too! General Gage wrote home: "The trials we have had prove the +rebels are not the despicable rabble too many have supposed them to be." + +"If they call that a victory," said a French general, "two or three more +such would extinguish the British army." + +"I wish," said General Greene, "that we could sell the British another +hill at the same price." + +After Gage had made his formal report of the battle to his superior +officers in England, he was called back in disgrace, and was never +entrusted with another military service. Generals Howe and Clinton +learned a costly lesson, and never again through the war that followed +did they lead their men in an open field against entrenched American +soldiers. + +Such, briefly told, is the story of Bunker Hill. The truth is, the whole +movement was on the part of the Americans an audacious act. There was +more heroism in it than military prudence. General Ward had at Cambridge +only a few barrels of powder for his entire army; and to send a thousand +men to entrench before a well prepared enemy, in front of batteries and +warships, though it needed to be done, was yet, from a military point of +view, a very rash act. On the other hand, General Gage made a very +unwise military movement. No wonder he was censured for the reckless +sacrifice of his soldiers at Bunker Hill. + +=170. Bunker Hill Monument.=--On the crown of the hill and in the center +of the old redoubt stands the splendid monument that tells of this +famous struggle. The square shaft is of Quincy granite, thirty-one feet +on each side at the base, fifteen feet at the top, two hundred and +twenty-one feet in height. Inside, a stairway of two hundred and +ninety-four stone steps leads to a room at the top, whose four windows +command a view of wonderful extent and beauty. Just by the base of the +monument we can see to-day a little grassy ridge, the slight remains of +the breastworks of 1775. + +The corner-stone was laid by Lafayette in 1825, exactly fifty years +after the battle, and on that occasion Daniel Webster delivered one of +his greatest orations. In front of him sat forty venerable survivors of +the conflict. The finished structure was dedicated in 1842. On this +occasion Webster again delivered a magnificent oration. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. + + +=171. The Colonists still regard themselves as English Subjects.=--It +seems to us now very remarkable that all through the year 1775, +notwithstanding the conflicts at Lexington and Concord, and even after +the battle of Bunker Hill, our forefathers still considered themselves +loyal British subjects. Although they were violently opposing the +despotism of the king of England, they never for a moment hesitated to +acknowledge him as their rightful ruler. They regarded all the unjust +acts of the king and the Parliament as so many encroachments upon their +rights as Englishmen, just as much as if they were living in their old +home in England instead of in a British colony. They insisted that, +although they were three thousand miles away, distance did not diminish +their just claims as free subjects of King George. They had fought as +Englishmen, not against England. + +Therefore, even for months after Bunker Hill, the colonists had no +intention of separating from the mother country. Very few had much faith +in such a scheme, and still fewer had seriously urged it. A large +number of the people, probably a majority, thought the quarrel might +even at that time be settled, and the colonies might resume their former +friendly relations with England. All they had asked and all they had +fought for was simply their rights as Britons. + +Washington, when he took command of the army soon after the battle of +Bunker Hill, said that he abhorred the idea of our separating from the +mother country, and becoming an independent nation. Franklin declared +that he had traveled all over the country and talked with all classes of +people, but had never heard independence mentioned. + +=172. Slow Growth of the Idea of Independence.=--We must not fail to +remember that the idea of independence took form very slowly. The first +"Stamp Act," so offensive to the colonists, became a law in 1764, more +than ten years before actual hostilities broke out. During all those +years our ancestors were gradually losing their friendly feeling for +England. They were slowly drifting towards an open conflict, in fact, +the Revolution. + +This hostility to England grew to be a serious matter after the battle +of Bunker Hill. It was deepened and embittered early in 1776 by a number +of events that still more sharply estranged America from her unkind +mother. After the battle the British continued to occupy Boston with +many hostile demonstrations, just as if it were an enemy's country, +until at the end of a long siege they were driven out by Washington. +This weary investment caused a great deal of bitterness. Everything took +on the sombre shadow of war, and this of course meant permanent +hostility to England. + +Another step that greatly angered the Americans, and very justly too, +was a British proclamation, the design and effect of which was to +destroy all the commerce of the colonies by forfeiting their ships. This +was itself equal to a declaration of war by England. + +Then three petitions to the king, George III, by three different +congresses, were treated with indifference or even with insolent +contempt. The only obvious effect of the petitions was to goad England +to greater severities. To a proposal at one time to exchange prisoners, +it was answered that England "received no applications from rebels, +unless they came to implore the king's mercy." This stinging and +insolent reply necessarily implied that all American patriots were +rebels; that they were guilty of treason; that, but for the king's +mercy, they must expect the penalty of treason, which is death! + +=173. Active Measures taken by the British.=--Meanwhile obstinate King +George, humored by his prime minister, Lord North, was busily making +enormous preparations for pushing the war upon a large scale. Already +twenty-five thousand British soldiers had been sent to America, or had +been enlisted for immediate service. But so large a party in England was +opposed to the war against their own countrymen in the colonies, that +the king could not raise at home all the troops he needed. So he made a +bargain with a German state, Hesse, hiring twenty thousand foreign +soldiers to cross the ocean and fight his rebellious subjects. + + [Illustration: "INDEPENDENCE HALL," PHILADELPHIA, AS IT APPEARED IN + 1776.] + +When our forefathers heard of this, it angered them more than anything +else that had been done. But even worse still, it was learned that the +British government was taking steps, by means of secret agents, to +employ the Indians to fight on the British side, and use their tomahawks +against British colonists! + +Finally, to all petitions and appeals the English government replied +that it would not abate any of its demands, and that it would accept +from us nothing short of entire submission and obedience. + +=174. Independence slowly but surely becomes a Stern Necessity.=--Now, if +we recall all the wrongs as to taxation that we have read of in a +previous chapter, and add to them this list of subsequent outrages, the +preparations for a long war, the hiring of Hessians, and the incitement +of Indians to fight us, we must see that our forefathers were compelled +to regard England as their determined enemy. Such were the successive +steps by which the old feeling of loyalty to the mother country +gradually vanished, and bitter hostility took its place. + +What should the colonies do to protect themselves? This was the +all-important question. The people had been tending toward the +conviction that the only remedy was to break off all connection with +England and to be independent. + +But it was a long while before this feeling became general. It was a +steady and natural but slow growth. The public indignation, constantly +strengthened by repeated British outrages, at last culminated in mature +conviction--a conviction that the only course left us was to be wholly +free, and to stand by ourselves among the nations of the earth. + +As this conviction became stronger and stronger among the good people +all along the narrow coast line from Boston to Charleston, it soon found +expression in many ways. The few newspapers spoke out; public meetings +were called to discuss it, and conventions dared to announce it. + + [Illustration: THOMAS JEFFERSON.] + +People learned at last that their chief enemy was the king. They saw +that the controversy which began merely as a colonial struggle for their +rights as British subjects had grown broader and deeper, till it became +a contest for our rights as MEN and for the freedom of our entire +country from British control. A pamphlet entitled "Common Sense," +written by Thomas Paine, an Englishman who had recently arrived in +America, had an enormous sale and exerted a powerful influence. It +abounded in ready wit, sharp reasoning, and rough eloquence. It +stimulated the longing for independence and the determination to be +free or die. In May, 1775, the people of Mecklenburg County in North +Carolina were the first to pass resolutions advocating independence. +They sent them to their delegates in Congress; but these at that early +day did not dare present them. + +In May, 1776, Congress, then in Philadelphia, following the trend of +public opinion, advised the colonies to consider themselves as no longer +holding any powers under the authority of Great Britain. That was about +the same as a declaration of independence. Many colonies accordingly set +up state governments of their own without asking the king's consent. + +=175. Steps taken for a Formal Declaration of Independence.=--The second +Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, May 10, 1775. Early in June, +1776, one of the delegates, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered a +resolution that "these United Colonies are and of right ought to be free +and independent states." John Adams, of Massachusetts, seconded it in a +powerful speech. Three weeks of delay, to enable some of the colonies to +send in their approval, occurred before its adoption. Then a committee +of five, consisting of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, +Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston, who had been appointed to draw +up a formal statement, presented the Declaration of Independence. + +=176. The Declaration of Independence; what it said to the World.=--The +simple and yet luminous words of this Declaration were written by +Jefferson. His draft was prepared in his lodgings, on a little writing +desk which still exists. Jefferson, in after years, delighted to tell +how the final vote was hastened by the extremely hot weather and by the +fact that there was a stable near by, and swarms of flies came in +through the open windows and added much to the discomfort of the +patriots already worn out with the debate and the heat. + + [Illustration: JEFFERSON READING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE TO + FRANKLIN.] + +Jefferson read his "fair copy" of the Declaration to his friend Benjamin +Franklin. The old philosopher was delighted with the terse style and the +vigorous sentences. + +"That's good; that's right to the point," said he; "that will make King +George wince. I wish I had written it myself." + +One of Franklin's biographers declares that it is fortunate that +Franklin did not compose the Declaration, for he would surely have put a +joke into the immortal document! + +Every line and sentence of the Declaration of Independence stirred the +hearts of the people then, and it does even now, after the lapse of more +than one hundred and twenty-four years. It embodies in a noble and +enduring form the hopes, feelings, convictions, and aspirations of every +true American. When first proclaimed, it said in thunder tones to all +the world that here was a people in far-away America willing to give +their fortunes and their lives for what they believed to be right. + +=177. Independence declared.=--On the second of July, 1776, the +sub-committee of five patriots submitted to Congress the important +document. There was deep silence as the solemn and earnest words were +slowly read. Hearts beat faster and eyes flashed at the recital of the +tyranny of the king and the sufferings of the people. + +A three days' discussion followed. Jefferson remained silent under the +sharp criticism, but the genial old philosopher, Franklin, sat next to +him and soothed his feelings by telling him stories that fitted the +case. + +At last the great Declaration of Independence, in its final form, was +adopted, July 4, 1776. + +During the discussion there was intense excitement in and around the old +State House in Philadelphia, where Congress was in session. Thousands +thronged about the building, watching the barred doors and closed window +shutters with feverish anxiety. The faces of the crowd are turned upward +to the steeple, for there hangs a bell brought from London nearly a +quarter of a century before, bearing the prophetic and singularly +appropriate words of Scripture, "Proclaim liberty throughout the land +unto all the inhabitants thereof." + + [Illustration: LIBERTY BELL, INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA.] + +It had been arranged by some one that the bell should be rung the moment +the Declaration of Independence was adopted. The old bell-ringer placed +a small boy at the hall door to await the signal of the doorkeeper. +When at last the vote for independence was declared, the doorkeeper gave +the signal, and the boy ran out shouting, "Ring, ring, ring!" + +And the old bell-ringer did ring as he never rang before! + + [Illustration: THE PEOPLE WAITING FOR THE FINAL VOTE ON THE + DECLARATION.] + +=178. How the Declaration was received by the People.=--After it had +passed Congress, the Declaration was sent to be read to the people +throughout the thirteen colonies. It was received everywhere with the +greatest joy. Bells were rung, cannon were fired, fireworks were burned, +and flags were flung to the breeze. The bands played martial music, and +even the smallest towns and villages were in a blaze of excitement. +Washington ordered the Declaration to be read to all the brigades of +the patriot army in and around New York City. The occasion was +celebrated the same night by pulling down the leaden statue of George +III on Bowling Green, and casting it into bullets. + +The magic word was INDEPENDENCE. + +John Adams truthfully predicted that these demonstrations of joy would +be reflected in many a year to come by the people of our free country. + +The eloquent words of the Declaration of Independence had been +pronounced, but it was left for Washington and his little army to make +it good. + +England at this time was the most powerful nation in the world. Her navy +was large, and her army was fully equipped and well drilled. Her +resources were vast, and she had now made up her mind to crush the +"rebels" in America. To men in foreign lands it seemed madness for the +feeble colonies in America to resist the royal power of England. + +The Declaration of Independence after a time was signed by fifty-six +delegates from all the colonies. + +=179. Incidents connected with the Great Event.=--If we look at a +facsimile of the signatures to the Declaration, we notice that the name +of Stephen Hopkins, of Rhode Island, was written with a tremulous hand. +This was due to a partial paralysis. After he had signed, he smiled at +his irregular penmanship and said, "You see my hand trembles, but my +heart doesn't!" + +John Hancock's signature is noted for its big, bold letters. + +"There," said he, "John Bull can read that without 'specs'!" + +As they gathered round to sign their names to the document, "pledging +their lives, their fortune, and their sacred honor" to maintain and +defend their action, every one of them understood very well that, if +this revolution failed and, he should be captured, he was liable to be +hanged as a traitor. + +John Hancock said to a group of the signers, "We must stand by each +other; no pulling different ways--we must all hang together in this +matter." + +"Yes," said Franklin, "we must indeed, or we shall all hang separately!" + +The Fourth day of July, marked by the momentous event popularly known as +the adoption of the "Declaration of Independence," has properly become +our National Holiday. The day has been celebrated, just as our +forefathers said it would be, with the firing of cannon, the ringing of +bells, parades, and bonfires. From that day to the present, the immortal +document has been listened to with reverence by our people. + +=180. What the Declaration of Independence should mean to us.=--Thus we +have traced the growth of the passion for liberty which finally reached +its loftiest expression in this noble Declaration. Read it and let it +grow into your memory. Do not forget that lovers of liberty, the world +over, regard it as the sublimest state paper ever produced by man, +marking the grandest advance in political progress ever made by the +human race. + +To us of the present day its chief charm lies in its noble beginning and +its no less noble end. We care little now about the faults and the +follies of King George, but the bold assertions of great truths in the +opening sentences of the Declaration appeal as warmly to us to-day as +they did to those for whom they were first written. + +It is interesting to know that it was signed by men of lofty purpose and +exalted character, every one of whom held to his last day a reputation +never dishonored. These were the chosen men, worthy to be leaders with +Washington of the young nation. + +For good or evil this most momentous step was now taken. There was no +choice left the colonies but to win by hard fighting or to be crushed by +their enemy. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +THE BURGOYNE CAMPAIGN. + + +=181. First Campaign for the Control of the Hudson fails.=--It did not +require much intelligence on the part of the British government to +perceive that it would be wise policy to separate if possible one group +of its revolting colonies from the rest. This was practicable only along +the line of the Hudson. The two long lakes, Champlain and George, with +the navigable river, almost made a great water highway from Canada on +the north to the sea on the south. + +The plan to cut off New England from the other colonies was acted upon +in the summer of 1776. Carleton, a most efficient British general, came +down from Canada, captured Crown Point, and got as far as Ticonderoga, +when, having heard nothing of Howe, who was to come up from the south, +he was forced by the lateness of the season to return. Howe had been +delayed and baffled by Washington until it was too late to march north +to meet Carleton. Thus the first campaign for the control of the Hudson +proved a failure. + +=182. The Plan for the Second Campaign.=--The British ministry at once +planned for another attempt during the next summer. This time the +invasion was to be carried out by three separate armies working towards +a common point. The main attack was to be made from the north. The army +in Canada was to march south, capture Ticonderoga, and go down the +Hudson to Albany. This part of the campaign was entrusted to General +Burgoyne. + +Meanwhile Sir William Howe was to go up the Hudson and join his forces +with those of Burgoyne at Albany. Now, as there were many Tories in +central New York, and also powerful Indian tribes friendly to the +British cause, a small force under the command of Colonel St. Leger was +to sail up the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario, land at Oswego, and then +march down the Mohawk valley to join Burgoyne on the Hudson. + +The English government built great hopes upon Burgoyne's expedition. No +expense or effort was spared to make it a success. Money and supplies +were furnished without stint. + +=183. Burgoyne begins Operations with a Great Army and Much Show.=--When +Burgoyne opened his campaign in the early summer of 1777, he had command +of the best army that had yet taken the field in America. There were +about four thousand English veterans, three thousand Germans, or +Hessians as they were called, nearly five hundred Indian warriors, and a +small force of Canadians. Most of the soldiers, as well as the officers, +were veterans. Forty cannon, well served and equipped, made up the +artillery train. + +It was a splendid and imposing sight when this army in the middle of +June sailed into Lake Champlain in a large flotilla with bands playing +and banners flying. Burgoyne was a clever, agreeable, and well-bred man, +and a brave soldier; but he was vain, headstrong, and self-confident. + +The British general served a great feast to his Indian allies on the +shore of the lake near Crown Point. He was dressed in showy uniform, and +so were all of his chief officers. He made a pompous speech to his +savage guests, who were adorned with war paint on their faces and +eagles' feathers in their hair. He told them not to scalp the wounded, +nor murder aged men, helpless women, or children. These "wild hyenas," +as Burke called them in one of his great speeches before the English +Parliament, promised to obey their "great white father." + +The sturdy settlers knew what an Indian promise meant, and they speedily +packed their goods and sent their families across the Green Mountains to +the Connecticut Valley. Burgoyne had written poetry, and many poor +plays, and so now he wrote in his high-flown style an address to the +American people. All were warned against driving off their cattle, +hiding their corn, and breaking down the bridges in his way. He +threatened to let loose his savages upon them if they disobeyed. He also +made a stirring address to his soldiers, in which he gave out the famous +watchword, "This army must not retreat." + +=184. The Capture of Ticonderoga and what followed.=--Every one supposed +that Fort Ticonderoga would be a barrier to Burgoyne. Unfortunately the +commander, St. Clair, had failed to secure a neighboring position which +commanded the fortress. No one thought it possible to drag cannon up the +steep and rugged sides of this mountain; but the British general worked +night and day in hewing out a path, and with oxen dragged up his cannon +and placed them in position to pour a plunging fire into the fort. + +The next morning the top of the crag, now named Mount Defiance, was +swarming with British troops. St. Clair saw with amazement the trap in +which he was caught. The next night the far-famed fortress was +abandoned, and the Continental army retreated southward. At daybreak the +British and the Hessians sprang to arms, ready to follow sharply both by +land and water the retreating army. So hot was the pursuit that the +Americans were forced to destroy their boats. All the wagon-loads of +arms, stores, and baggage fell into British hands. + +There was a sharp fight a few days afterwards in the woods at a place +called Hubbardton, where the rear guard of the Americans, under Warner, +was surprised early in the morning, while the men were cooking +breakfast. They made a gallant and stubborn resistance against the +picked veterans of Burgoyne's army. Warner was outnumbered and defeated, +but the pursuit was so checked that St. Clair was able to bring what was +left of his army safely to Fort Edward, where he joined Schuyler. + +=185. Burgoyne, elated by Success, begins to make Blunders.=--The curtain +now falls upon the first act of this great war drama. Burgoyne had been +highly favored. Ticonderoga had fallen in a night. Everybody was +astounded. The news fell like a sound of doom over the land. Washington +wrote to Schuyler: "The evacuation of Ticonderoga is an event of chagrin +and surprise not apprehended, nor within the compass of my reasoning." + +Burgoyne now began to boast that victory would certainly crown his +future movements, and even predicted the speedy end of the war and the +submission of the colonies. He hurried off a special messenger to King +George, telling the king that everything was going just as he wished it. +The king rushed into the queen's apartments, says Walpole, clapping his +hands and shouting, "I have beat them! I have beat all the Americans." + +In reality, Burgoyne's troubles were just beginning. + +In his haste to crush the Americans before they could combine against +him, Burgoyne began to make serious blunders. For instance, it was a +fatal mistake when he decided on marching to Fort Edward through the +wilderness, instead of going back to Ticonderoga and proceeding thence +up Lake George and on to Fort Edward and the Hudson. Time, that +all-important factor in military campaigns, was lost sight of by this +over-confident British general. Again, Burgoyne made another serious +mistake in underestimating the fighting qualities of his enemy. + +=186. General Schuyler carries out a Masterly Policy.=--Fortunately for +the Americans, Schuyler was an able and experienced general, and +Washington knew it. He had less than five thousand poorly armed men, but +he faced the situation bravely. He knew that if he could delay the +British invaders for a time, men enough would rally for the defense of +their homes to meet his foe in open battle. He did at once the best +thing possible. He put every obstacle in Burgoyne's way that ingenuity +could devise or experience suggest. He made the axe and the crowbar help +him. + +Hundreds of trees were felled across the road. All the cattle were +driven out of reach. The country was stripped of all provisions. The +bridges were burnt, the creeks choked with stumps and stones, and the +wood-roads were destroyed. The aspect of things began to change. +Schuyler did his work well. He abandoned Fort Edward and fell back to +Stillwater, where he entrenched himself and waited. + + [Illustration: {Map of Adirondack Mountain area.}] + +It is only about twenty-six miles from Skenesboro to Fort Edward, but it +took Burgoyne twenty-four days to march this distance, and even then he +had to wait two weeks longer for the arrival of his artillery. New roads +had to be made, forty bridges built, and supplies and heavy ammunition +carried through an almost impassable wilderness. + +=187. The Sturdy Pioneers of the North rise in Defense of their +Homes.=--Meanwhile, what were the stout-hearted pioneers of the north +doing? The time for prompt action had come. The frontiersmen rose nobly +to the demands of the situation. Burgoyne's Indians, ever since they +left the Canadian border, had been ravaging and scalping. Never was a +British general more mistaken than when he thought such bloody work +would frighten the American people. It aroused the fierce spirit of +revenge in them as no other act could have done. + +=188. The Murder of Jane McCrea.=--The sad story of Jane McCrea has been +read and re-read ever since this beautiful girl was tomahawked and +scalped by Burgoyne's savages. It is not certain just how it happened. +It is true that a party of Indians seized and carried away Miss McCrea, +and a Mrs. McNeil with whom she was visiting in the latter's home near +Fort Edward. + +It is also known that Jane was betrothed to one of Burgoyne's officers, +and as her own home was in New Jersey, it is probable that the +unfortunate girl was planning to meet her lover. + +Some say that the Indians quarreled over a barrel of rum that was to be +given them as a reward on her safe arrival; others claim that a band of +American militia fired into the party. At all events, Mrs. McNeil came +alone to the English camp. + +The next day the body of the murdered girl was found near a spring, +pierced with three bullets. An Indian came into camp with a scalp, which +Mrs. McNeil recognized as that of her friend by its black, silky hair, +more than a yard long. + +There was nothing unusual about the murder, for it was only one of many +such. The deed has, however, been woven into song and story, which have +been repeated with endless variations in detail for more than six-score +years. The name "Jenny McCrea" became a watchword to the stout and +resolute farmers who were hastening from far and near to the scene of +action. + +=189. Burgoyne gets his First Hard Blow; Desperate Fighting in the Mohawk +Valley.=--The first hard blow Burgoyne received came from the west. +Colonel St. Leger, as we remember, was marching with seventeen hundred +men down the Mohawk Valley. He came to a stronghold called Fort Stanwix, +and ordered its commander, Colonel Gansevoort, to surrender. The demand +met with a pointed refusal, and the British began a regular siege. + +Everywhere through this beautiful valley was great excitement. General +Herkimer, a militia officer over sixty years of age, a thorough master +of Indian warfare, was a man of might in this section. Eight hundred +hardy pioneers of this frontier region rallied at the veteran's call +and marched with him to the relief of the fort. The younger officers +would not listen to the old general's advice to move with caution. + +"You," said the old patriot, stung by their taunts, "you, who want to +fight so badly now, will be the first to run when you smell burnt +powder." + +There was not a proper advance guard, and the men fell into an ambush of +the Tories and their Indian allies on the steep slope of a ravine, near +a place called Oriskany. A desperate fight began hand to hand and from +tree to tree. The worst thunderstorm of the season put an end to the +battle for about an hour. + + [Illustration: HERKIMER DIRECTING THE BATTLE.] + +Herkimer was shot in the leg in the early part of the encounter. He was +lifted from his fallen horse and placed, at his own request, upon his +saddle, propped against a beech tree. The old soldier lighted his pipe, +and though the bullets were whistling about him, and men were falling +thick and fast within a few yards, he coolly continued to direct the +battle, giving his orders calmly, as if on a parade ground. Through the +leafy depths of the forest rang the clashing of steel, the crack of +rifle, and, above all, the hideous yells of the savages. Suddenly the +Indians raised the retreating cry of "Oonah!" and in an instant they +were gone! The desperate fighting was too much for the Tories, and they +too fled, leaving the patriots in possession of the hard-earned field. + +Thus was fought one of the most hotly contested and, for the numbers +engaged, one of the deadliest of the Revolutionary battles. No quarter +was given on either side. Of the eight hundred men under Herkimer that +fought on that sultry August day, only about a third ever saw their +homes again. + +The brave old Dutchman was carried to his home, where, propped up in bed +with pillows, he calmly smoked his pipe, read his Bible, and waited +serenely for the end. He died a few days later. He had fought what was +perhaps the most desperate battle of the Revolution, and he was victor. + +=190. Gallant Defense of Fort Stanwix; First American Flag raised.=--In +the mean time St. Leger, in spite of this heavy check, moved up to +within one hundred and fifty yards of the fort and again demanded its +surrender. The gallant Gansevoort made a flag from portions of an old +blue coat, a white shirt, and some strips from a red flannel petticoat, +and raised it above five captured British flags and defied his foes to +take the fort. We should remember the date, August 6, 1777; for it is +claimed that this was the first American flag with stars and stripes +that was ever flung to the breeze. + + [Illustration: RAISING "OLD GLORY" FOR THE FIRST TIME.] + +While the siege was in full progress, the besiegers suddenly broke up +their camps and retreated toward Canada in great confusion, leaving +behind them their cannon, supplies, and even their tents. What was the +matter? Arnold had been sent north by Washington immediately after the +fall of Ticonderoga, and had arrived at Schuyler's headquarters three +weeks before. Restless and impatient, he was despatched by Schuyler to +relieve the brave garrison. On his way he captured and was going to hang +as a spy a half-witted but ugly young Tory. The boy's mother begged his +life. + +Arnold granted the mother's request on condition that the young fellow +should take some friendly Indians with him and hasten to the British +camp and so alarm St. Leger as to induce him to raise the siege and +retreat! The frightened Tory set out on his perilous errand, his brother +being held by Arnold as a hostage, and reached the British camp just as +the Indians were holding a "pow-wow" over the dubious enterprise in +which they were engaged. + +As the savages saw the Tory's coat full of bullet holes, and listened to +his wonderful story of his own narrow escape, and heard that Arnold was +close on their heels with two thousand regulars, the savages said, "The +pow-wow said we must go"; and go they did in utmost haste. In vain the +British officers stormed and swore. The troops were seized with a panic. +St. Leger and all his army retreated in disorder, broken and beaten, to +Oswego, and afterwards to Montreal. The valley of the Mohawk was safe. +St. Leger's defeat dealt a severe blow to the plans and prospects of +Burgoyne. Arnold was now able to rejoin Schuyler. + +=191. Burgoyne plans a Raid into the Country to secure Supplies.=--All +this time Burgoyne was hard pushed for food. Every pound of bread and +meat had to be brought from Canada. Nobody but Tories would sell him an +ounce of beef or an ear of corn. + +The British general was also anxious to strike a blow at the good people +of New England. He knew that the supplies of the patriots were stored at +Bennington. Supplies he must have. On August 11 he sent off Colonel Baum +with about five hundred Hessians, Indians, and Tories on a plundering +trip to this little village. + +Four days later a second division of about six hundred men was sent +under Colonel Breymann to help Baum, for it was evident that the +situation was looking ugly. Instead of raiding the country, Baum, +learning that the militia were gathering in all directions, entrenched +himself on a hill about four miles from Bennington and waited for +reinforcements. + +=192. The Men of New England rally to defend their Homes.=--The men of New +England, instead of waiting till their houses were burnt, their crops +destroyed, and their wives and children scalped, were rapidly arriving +from far and near to meet their hated foe. The instant the Hessians and +Indians threatened to come over the line, the men of New England knew +there was only one thing to do and it must be done at once. That was to +kill as many of the enemy as they could and drive the rest back. They +had already prepared for this. + +Not every man was able to act as did staunch old John Langdon, who kept +a store in Portsmouth. He said to the New Hampshire Assembly: "I have +three thousand dollars in hard money. I will pledge my plate for as much +more. I have seventy hogsheads of rum, which shall be sold. Our old +friend John Stark, who defended the rail fence at Bunker Hill, will work +like a beaver to stop Burgoyne." + +Among the rugged hills of northern New England no other man had such a +personal following as had John Stark--a man of dauntless courage, rough +simplicity, and real Yankee shrewdness. + +In appearance Stark was a man of medium size, well proportioned, and of +great strength and endurance. It is remarkable that in all his years of +hard service in the French and Indian wars, and in the many severe +battles of the Revolution, he had never received a wound. He lived to be +ninety-four years of age. He survived all the high officers that had +taken part in the Revolution except Sumter, the famous southern general. + +Messengers rode on fast horses over the hills with orders for the men to +rally at once. Each man packed his knapsack, grasped his rifle, left the +women to get in the crops, and started for Charlestown on the +Connecticut River, where Stark had raised his standard. Old men of +seventy and even boys of fifteen turned out. Some of the farmers +brought clock weights, some their pewter spoons and porringers, to be +melted into bullets. The metal was kept running into the bullet moulds +night and day. An old rusty cannon was found; it was mounted on a pair +of cart wheels and dragged over the Green Mountains. + +The story is told of one mother whose boy of only fifteen was ready to +start, but had no coat. The patriot mother took a meal bag, made a hole +for the head, two more for the arms, cut off the feet of a pair of her +long stockings which she sewed on for sleeves,--and hurried him away to +Stark's camp! + +=193. How John Stark whipped the British at Bennington.=--Stark was now +ready to march against Baum. On August 14 he was within a mile of the +British camp. The next day it rained heavily. Fighting in such pouring +torrents was out of the question. The Hessians worked hard on the +entrenchments all day, and Stark sheltered his men in brush huts and +under the lee of fences. + +One hundred men from the Berkshire Hills arrived in the night. A +minister who could fight as well as preach came with them in a sulky. + +"General Stark," said he, "we have never had a chance to fight, and if +you don't give us a chance now, we shall never turn out again." + +"Do you want to fight now in the rain and at night?" said Stark. + +"No," said the good man. + +"Well, then," said Stark, "if the Lord gives us sunshine once more, and +I don't give you fighting enough, you needn't turn out again." + +Old soldiers who had fought behind the rail fence at Bunker Hill with +Stark, and who had been in the front ranks with him at Trenton, knew +that there would be no boy's play in the coming battle. The next +morning, which was Saturday, August 16, broke clear and hot. + + [Illustration: STARK ADDRESSING HIS MEN BEFORE THE BATTLE OF + BENNINGTON.] + +The ever-active and energetic Stark determined to storm the hill before +reinforcements could reach the enemy. This was a desperate undertaking +for country militia armed only with muskets and fowling pieces, without +bayonets or side arms. Baum was well entrenched on a hill behind +breastworks defended by highly disciplined veterans. + +About midday Stark, calling his men together in a large field, leaped to +the topmost rail of a fence, steadied himself by a tall post, and +addressed his troops in the historic words: "Now, my men, yonder are the +Hessians. They are bought for seven pounds tenpence a man. Are you worth +more? Prove it. To-night the American flag floats over yonder hill, or +Molly Stark sleeps a widow!" + +Foreseeing that there would be close work with the Tories, who were +dressed in farmers' clothes, like most of his own men, Stark gave orders +that a corn husk in the hatband should be the badge of his own men. Five +hundred men were sent to form in the rear of Baum's entrenchment, and +two hundred more were massed on the right as a flanking party. + +It is now about three o'clock. With all his men in position Stark gives +the word "Forward!" The battle begins in earnest. With wild shouts the +farmer-soldiers press forward, using their rifles with deadly effect. +The Indians, panic-stricken, yelling like demons, take to their heels, +and make their escape into the forest. They have no intention of being +caught in a trap. The Hessians stand their ground and fight bravely. + +For two hours there is hot work, "one continuous roar," as Stark +afterwards said. The old cannon on cart wheels fires stones, for there +are no cannon balls! At last Stark leads his men in a fierce charge. +Baum falls mortally wounded, and his men surrender. A wild hurrah goes +up. The battle is won. + +It was in the nick of time. Breymann arrived with fresh troops and began +a lively attack. Stark rallied his men. A hundred and fifty "Green +Mountain boys," hearing the roar of the battle, came up in the rear at +just the right moment. They fell upon the Hessians like a thunderbolt, +routed them, and would have captured them all if it had not been nearly +dark. As it was, the enemy retreated in haste under cover of the +darkness. + +The pioneer settlers of New England had proved themselves more than a +match for entrenched regulars. Stark had beaten two of Burgoyne's best +officers in a pitched battle. The victory was won by the sheer hard +fighting of men who were well led. + +=194. Mighty Efforts of the Patriots to crush Burgoyne.=--The battle of +Bennington was a severe blow for Burgoyne. His army never fully +recovered from it. A thousand of his best men were lost, besides cannon, +arms, and supplies of war. Even the savages began to leave in large +numbers. + +The effect of this brilliant victory on the country was magical. It +began to be thought that the whole of Burgoyne's army might be captured. +Militia came in increasing numbers even from points on the Atlantic +coast. + +Washington had some time before sent two of his best officers--Arnold, +who as a fighter in pitched battles was unsurpassed, and Morgan, who +came with five hundred sharpshooters, each man of whom, it was said, +could hit a squirrel with his rifle at a distance of three hundred +yards. + + [Illustration: THE BATTLE MONUMENT AT BENNINGTON, VT.] + +Congress, misinformed, now set aside the noble General Schuyler and sent +Gates, a schemer and intriguer, to supersede him. Schuyler's wise +forethought and steadfast courage had already begun to show results. By +a stupid blunder of the British government, orders for Sir William Howe +to march north to aid Burgoyne had been delayed. + +General Lincoln had moved with two thousand men to the rear of the +British army. The outposts of Ticonderoga had been retaken, and the +road to Canada was thus closed for help or retreat. + +=195. The Hard-fought Battle near Saratoga.=--Burgoyne soon found that he +must do something. About the middle of September he crossed to the west +bank of the Hudson and came within two miles of the American camp at +Bemis Heights. Here took place, on September 18, a hotly contested +battle known as that of Freeman's Farm. If Gates had been an able +general, probably the British army would have been crushed and the +Burgoyne campaign ended then and there. As it was, the deadly fire of +the riflemen inflicted a severe blow. + +Gates did not follow up his advantage. The two armies glared at each +other. There was no rest for either side. There was sharp skirmishing +all along the lines. The nights were made hideous by the howls of large +packs of wolves that were attracted by the partially buried bodies of +those slain in the battle. + +At last, on October 7, Burgoyne came out from his entrenched camp with +fifteen hundred picked men and ten cannon. A bloody hand-to-hand battle +was fought. + +Gates had removed Arnold from his command. Angry and desperate, this +impetuous but hard fighter placed himself at the head of a detachment +of the Continental troops, and under a terrific fire led the men to +battle. Mounted on a dark-brown horse, he rode at full gallop over the +field. He was greeted with wild cheers. "Call that fellow back," said +Gates, "or he will do something rash." With mad fury his men charged and +drove the enemy at the point of the bayonet. + +In the final retreat a wounded Hessian, lying on the ground, took aim +and fired at Arnold. The bullet killed his horse and wounded the general +in the same leg that had been hit by a musket ball nearly two years +before, at the storming of Quebec. A thousand times better would it have +been had the bullet gone through his heart! + +As Arnold fell, one of his men rushed up and was just going to bayonet +the soldier who had shot his beloved general; but Arnold cried, "In +Heaven's name, don't kill him! He is a fine fellow!" This was the moment +when the general whom Washington so much admired for his rash bravery +should have died. + +In less than an hour the British were driven back and retreated behind +their entrenchments. + +Some time afterward, when Arnold had turned traitor and captured an +American officer, he asked him, "What will your people do with me if +they catch me?" + +"If my countrymen catch you," replied the fearless patriot, "they will +first cut off your lame leg, which was wounded at Quebec and Saratoga, +and bury it with the honors of war, and afterwards hang the rest of your +body on a gallows." + +Darkness alone stopped the battle. General Morgan, as he saw a brave +Scottish officer riding everywhere along the line, said to one of his +best marksmen: "That is General Fraser. I admire and honor him, but it +is necessary that he should die. Take your station in yonder bushes and +do your duty." Shortly afterwards, this splendid Scotchman, who said to +an aid when warned of his peril, "My duty forbids me to fly from +danger," fell mortally wounded. + +=196. Effect of the Great Victory at Saratoga.=--Such was the battle of +Bemis Heights, or Saratoga. It was really fought within a very few rods +of the place where the battle of Freeman's Farm occurred. + +The rest of the story is soon told. Burgoyne retreated through the storm +to Saratoga. The attempt to escape was hopeless. He was hemmed in on +every side. The "trap" which the best British officers had foreseen, had +been sprung. There was only one thing to do, and that was to yield to +the inevitable. + +Burgoyne, with his army of about six thousand men, surrendered October +17, 1777. + +The battle of Saratoga has justly been called "one of the decisive +battles of history." It made a profound impression in Europe. It was the +defeat of Burgoyne's army that convinced France that it was time to come +to the help of the American colonies. It lifted the cloud of gloom which +had settled upon the hearts of the American people, and which had wrung +despondent words even from the hopeful Washington. + +From the day of this memorable victory until liberty was fully realized, +four years later, in the final surrender at Yorktown, no true American +gave up the idea of final triumph. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +WASHINGTON AND THE REVOLUTION. + + +=197. Boyhood and Youth of George Washington.=--During the infancy of our +nation there were many staunch and noble patriots; but far above all +stood, and stands to-day, the majestic figure of George Washington. He +came upon the stage at just the right time to give the vigor of his +manhood to the military service of his country, and the maturity of his +judgment to the formation of the new government and later to the +presidency. He was born in Virginia on February 22, 1732. + +In those days the country was thinly settled, good schools were rare, +and even the rich planters did not find it easy to have their children +well disciplined in learning. The future president had only a plain +education in reading, writing, and arithmetic. In his childhood he +showed a martial spirit. While at school he was often the captain of a +little military company with paper hats and wooden swords, and even in +their marches and sham battles the boy exhibited somewhat of the +soldierly bearing and honorable character that distinguished him later +in life. + +He took an interest in study and enjoyed reading good books. He wrote an +excellent hand, and some productions in his superior penmanship have +been kept to this day, showing remarkable neatness and accuracy. They +comprise lessons in geometry, forms of business papers, and even some +neatly written extracts in verse. He studied by himself book-keeping and +mathematics, especially land surveying, which was much needed in that +new country. These studies proved of great value to him in after years. + +=198. Boyhood's Sports.=--Washington when a lad was robust, fond of +athletic games, running, jumping, and wrestling. In these healthful +sports he outdid his comrades. He could surpass them all in throwing a +stone across the Rappahannock. The boys all liked him, for he was +generous and open-hearted, and they used to make him a judge in their +disputes. + +He was especially given to horsemanship, and delighted to break in the +dashing young colts, and even to train dangerous horses. + +=199. Washington's Love for his Mother.=--When Washington was about eleven +years old his father died, and the family was broken up. George's +mother, like the mothers of most great men, had a strong, upright +character and brought up her children exceedingly well. Like all worthy +boys, he dearly loved his mother and was willing to be guided by her +wishes. + +When about fourteen, he had a great longing to go to sea. Ships of war +sometimes anchored in the Potomac River, near his home. The officers +used to visit his brother's estate at Mount Vernon, and the boy no doubt +listened eagerly to their stories of naval battles and adventures. + +He passionately desired to become a sailor. His mother at last gave an +unwilling consent. His trunk was packed and all was ready. But when the +hour for parting came, the quiet entreaty of his mother, "Don't go, +George," with tears running down her cheeks, changed his purpose. + +This good mother lived until 1789, when she died at the age of +eighty-two. Her lot was a rare one. She lived to see her son the most +illustrious of living men, with a spotless fame, and as much admired for +the purity of his character as for the greatness of his deeds. It is +said that she used to listen to praise of him in silence, and only +answered: "Yes, George was always a good boy!" + +=200. His Faithful Work as a Surveyor in the Virginia Wilderness.=--It +seems strange now, as we look back on his early life, to see how +Washington unconsciously prepared himself for his great future. He +employed a trainer and took a severe course of lessons in skillful +fencing and sword drill, and, besides, he made a careful study of +military science and tactics. + + [Illustration: GEORGE WASHINGTON.] + +He became prominent as a young man of superb vigor, fond of study and +work, and full of promise of great achievements. So Lord Fairfax, an +eccentric nobleman, who was a great fox hunter and who much admired his +young friend's bold riding, selected him to survey the thousands of +acres of forest land that the king had granted to him beyond the Blue +Ridge. This was a pretty large undertaking for a boy of sixteen! But the +youngster was enough of a man to do it. He and his assistant took each a +horse, a gun, an axe, surveyor's tools, and camp outfit. They spent +months in the vast forests and among the mountains; cutting their paths +through woods, fording rivers, facing the drenching storms, surveying +and measuring by day, and writing out the notes in the light of +camp-fires by night; living on the game they shot,--wild turkeys, +squirrels, rabbits, and deer; often meeting Indians. + +All this was just the school to prepare him for coming duties and for +the great career he never then dreamed of. Here he gained in a high +degree the hardy virtues of courage, self-reliance, promptness in +danger, quick and prudent foresight, and unflinching endurance under +difficulties. + +On his return, young Washington had done his work so well that the +Governor appointed him public surveyor. It was a prominent office, and +he filled it honorably. His surveys were so correct that it is said they +are used even to this day. + +Lord Fairfax lived many years after this. He was bitterly opposed to the +war of the Revolution. One day he heard the people shouting and cheering +near his home. He asked his old negro servant what it all meant, and he +was told that Lord Cornwallis had surrendered to General Washington. At +this the old man groaned, "Take me to bed, Joe; it is high time for me +to die!" + +=201. His Work as an Army Officer.=--Washington was twenty-three years +old when he was appointed on the staff of General Braddock. We have read +in Chapter VIII the story of this disastrous campaign. The choice proved +the Governor's insight into Washington's remarkable character. His +surprising bravery, his insensibility to fear amid the whistling of +bullets, his coolness in danger, and his maturity of judgment, really +saved the whole campaign and rescued Braddock's shattered forces from +total ruin. + + [Illustration: WASHINGTON CROSSING A RIVER ON A RAFT IN THE WILDERNESS + DURING MID-WINTER.] + +Shortly afterwards Washington withdrew for a while from military life. +In 1759, he married Mrs. Martha Custis, a young widow with two small +children and a large fortune. A short time after their marriage Colonel +and Mrs. Washington, or Lady Washington, as she was called, retired to +Mount Vernon, a fine estate of eight thousand acres which he had +inherited from his brother Lawrence. His many visitors who expected to +see a heroic figure could not have been disappointed in his personal +appearance. + +Washington was a man of noble presence, six feet two in height, of +dignified and courtly manners and a noble military air. With health and +wealth, a happy home and all that makes life pleasant, he was enjoying +his honors and the comforts of rural life. + +=202. Advancement in Political Honors.=--So high was the trust reposed by +all in Washington that he was now elected to the Virginia legislature, +the House of Burgesses, a signal proof of popular confidence. He always +studied the business of every day carefully, though he seldom made +speeches. When he first entered and took his seat, in 1759, the Speaker +of the House rose and in eloquent language returned thanks to him in the +name of the colony for his services during the war. + +Washington stood up to reply; blushed, stammered, trembled, and could +not utter a word. + +"Sit down, Mr. Washington," said the Speaker with a smile; "your modesty +equals your valor, and that surpasses the power of any language I +possess." + +For the next sixteen years Washington's life passed quietly and +contentedly. Then was heard the distant thunder of the coming +Revolution. + +We may be sure that Washington studiously watched the course of events, +and often went back to Mount Vernon from the public meetings with an +anxious mind. + +=203. Becomes Commander-in-Chief of the American Army.=--Soon a problem +presented itself before the Continental Congress of which Washington was +a member. Who shall be chosen Commander-in-Chief of our armies? Who +shall be singled out for this most difficult task? + +There was one man to whom all turned. On a motion of John Adams of +Massachusetts the choice was George Washington--"a gentleman from +Virginia who is among us, and very well known to all of us." The choice +was unanimous. It was a spontaneous tribute to his superior military +experience and skill; to the strength and purity of his character, the +ardor and unselfishness of his patriotism, and the perfect confidence +which his whole career had inspired. + +Washington, in the course of his brief and modest speech of acceptance, +said his service would be freely given without salary, asking that only +his expenses be paid, and of which he would keep a careful record. His +expense-books, kept during the Revolution in his own neat handwriting, +are still carefully preserved. + +With the promptness which was a part of his self-training, he began at +once his new duties. In a few days, as we have read in Chapter XII, he +took command of the patriot army at Cambridge. + +We know how Washington's well-planned siege shut up the British army in +Boston all that summer and all the next winter until March, when his +admirable strategy compelled the proud Howe to sail silently away. This +achievement of the brave Virginia officer, and of his raw +farmer-soldiers against the much larger force of British regulars, well +deserved the gold medal given him by Congress. + +=204. Takes Command in New York; his Masterly Retreat.=--Howe and +Washington, after the evacuation of Boston, moved their armies to New +York, each knowing the other would do so. The British plan was to take +and hold the Hudson River and thus to separate the troublesome New +England colonies from the others. The possession of New York was +therefore of vast importance. + +Washington arrived first, and as the Brooklyn Heights opposite New York +controlled the latter city, he did well to occupy this position. But it +would have been very unwise to place all his army there. He stationed +about nine thousand men under General Putnam in Brooklyn. The rest he +used across the river in the city, and to hold Fort Lee and Fort +Washington. + +Against Putnam's force the British brought an army of twenty thousand, +stealing a night march, and with their greater number defeated our +troops. This severe reverse, which could not have been prevented by him, +Washington followed with a military success; for in the night, which +fortunately happened to be very foggy, he silently and safely withdrew +all our remaining troops across the East River from the overwhelming +British force. The boats were managed by companies of Marblehead +fishermen, who thus had an opportunity of doing a most signal service. +When Howe the next morning moved his victorious regulars again to the +attack, his enemy was gone! + +This masterly retreat from the very sight and under the guns of the +enemy gave Washington a great reputation. He managed and watched it +personally, spending two days and two nights in his saddle, without rest +or sleep! + +=205. Some of the Many Difficulties with which Washington had to +struggle.=--But now came the trouble that distressed Washington all +through the war--the lack of soldiers. The British government sent over +thousands of disciplined troops, and kept them well equipped. + +The colonies were uncertain and irregular in furnishing soldiers. The +colonial money used to pay them rapidly lost its value; so that +Washington was continually distressed to procure and retain enough +troops. Besides, the terms of enlistment were usually short--six months +or even less--and thus his little army was constantly dwindling away. To +add to his anxieties, the supply of cannon, guns, powder, clothing, +food, and all needed equipments, was often painfully meager. + +How then could Washington with his small and ill-furnished forces--his +"ragged continentals"--oppose successfully the much larger and +well-supplied troops of the enemy? To keep risking battles with an army +much stronger than his own would invite defeat and ruin. + +But there were some things he could do--watch the enemy sharply, harass +and worry him by repeated small engagements, obstruct his plans, and +whenever possible attack a small separate body and defeat or capture it. + +This is exactly what Washington did, and often with consummate skill. He +won his best moves because he first carefully fought over all his +battles in his own brain, and then fought them out with the guns of his +soldiers; for he had a faculty of inspiring his men with his own high +purpose. They admired him as a hero, trusted him as a friend, and loved +him as a father. + +=206. The Brilliant Victory at Trenton.=--Washington had successfully +withdrawn the troops from Brooklyn, but he knew perfectly well that with +his scanty force of half-trained men he could not risk a battle with +four times as many of the well-drilled enemy--it would be certain ruin +to the patriot cause. + +Our army now had to retreat across New Jersey, the British following +closely all the way! It was a distressing movement and it produced +general gloom. The country was discouraged, Congress was discouraged, +the army itself was becoming discouraged. The British said Washington +did not dare to fight, and that the war was about over. + +In all this gloom there was only one ray of light: Washington never +despaired! Sorely tried, he yet kept up his faith and hope. Sick at +heart but ever resolute, he declared to his friends that if all others +forsook him, he would retire to the backwoods of Virginia and there make +a final stand against Great Britain. + +Reaching the Delaware, the great commander crossed into Pennsylvania. +General Howe came up on the east side, and then spread out his army, +placing a thousand Hessians at Trenton. + +See what Washington did. On Christmas night, 1776, he crossed the +Delaware to attack the Hessians. The river was so full of floating ice +that the Marblehead soldiers found it very hard to manage the boats. +After the crossing, the men marched nine miles through snow and hail, +sometimes marking the whitened ground with blood from their shoeless +feet. + + [Illustration: THE NIGHT MARCH TO TRENTON.] + +As they drew near Trenton, Washington, who rode in front, asked a man +chopping wood by the roadside:-- + +"Which way is the Hessian picket?" + +"I do not know," was the surly answer. + +"You may tell," said the officer at Washington's side, "for that is +General Washington." + +"God bless and prosper you!" cried the man instantly. "The picket is in +that house, and the sentry stands near that tree." + +The Hessians, who were celebrating Christmas with wild revelry, were +surprised, and soon forced to surrender. + +Washington was in great danger from the superior forces of the enemy +close at hand, and was obliged immediately to recross the Delaware with +his tired troops and his prisoners. The weather was so severe that two +men were frozen to death that Christmas night. Notwithstanding +Washington's haste, he found time to visit the dying Hessian Commander, +Colonel Rahl, and speak kindly to him. + +It was a battle of this kind that showed the courage and genius of a +great general who, in the midst of the most unfavorable circumstances, +could plan well, fight well, and outwit the enemy! It was such masterful +watchfulness and bravery as this that saved the country. Mighty applause +now rang all through the land! "Hurrah for Washington, and hurrah for +his ragged but plucky little army!" + +Well might the people shout, for this was the first real victory of the +continental army. Lord Howe was very angry and said it would never do, +and he sent Cornwallis to defeat this rebel general. Let us see what +Cornwallis did. The British general marched from Princeton with about +eight thousand men, and found Washington's army of some three thousand +with its rear to the river. At about dusk he planted his own army in +front, and then felt sure of his prey. "At last we have run down the old +fox," said the over-confident British general as he went to bed in high +spirits, "and we will bag him easily in the morning." The situation was +indeed a dangerous one for the patriot army. + + [Illustration: WASHINGTON BEFORE TRENTON.] + +=207. How Washington surprised the British at Princeton.=--During the +night Washington left a front line of camp-fires burning, and a few +soldiers noisily digging trenches and throwing up breastworks, while his +entire army made a circuitous march around Cornwallis, got in his rear, +attacked Princeton early, captured three regiments and a lot of +supplies, and moved on to Morristown, a strong place where the British +dared not attack him. + +In this battle the commanding figure of Washington riding to and fro on +his white horse made a notable object for the enemy's marksmen. + +These two battles brought Washington great applause all over this +country and through Europe. Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, said: +"This young American general opens a fresh chapter in the art of war; +England hasn't a man to match him." + +=208. How Washington helped to defeat Burgoyne.=--During the next year, +1777, Washington was busy watching Lord Howe and keeping him confined +closely in New York. Although he lacked the army with which to fight any +great battle, yet he did the greatest service. The British planned this +year, as we have just read in the preceding chapter, a second effort to +occupy the Hudson and divide the colonies. + +But, as we have seen, the plan was doomed to failure. Burgoyne was +wrecked by Schuyler and Stark, and the Mohawk force was defeated by +Arnold and Morgan. Then all depended on Howe's army which was to come up +the Hudson. But Howe could not come! Washington was skillfully blocking +his plans, so that the British general could spare no soldiers. And so +resulted the great surrender at Saratoga--the most cheering victory +during this period of the war. + +Howe's army then went by sea to Philadelphia and wintered there. + +=209. Sufferings at Valley Forge.=--Washington wintered at Valley Forge, +not far away. The winter was very severe. The patriot army was ill-fed, +ill-clothed, and unpaid. Hundreds of soldiers were barefoot, their +bloody steps tracking the snow. Hungry, shivering, and bleeding, they +keenly felt how much it cost to be a "ragged continental." + +The money issued was almost worthless, fifty dollars of paper for one of +specie. It took six months' pay to buy a pair of boots; for England +counterfeited the continental money, brought over huge parcels of it, +and put it into circulation. Congress seemed neglectful. Discouragement +prevailed. + +Washington seemed to have the care of the whole patriot cause on his +shoulders alone. He had everything to do,--appealing perpetually to +Congress for action; begging the Governors for aid; getting food, arms, +ammunition, and clothing; recruiting and drilling the army; planning +campaigns; and so working unceasingly in every direction. + +=210. Help from France; the Battle of Monmouth.=--In the spring of 1778 +help came. The French sent ships, soldiers, and officers, and again the +sun began to shine. Their help was of vital importance. Perhaps we could +never have got on without it. + +Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded Lord Howe, fearing the approach of +a French fleet, now made up his mind to leave Philadelphia and march +across New Jersey to New York. Washington sent forward a division of his +army under General Charles Lee to pursue the British and give them +battle. The patriots, ready and eager to fight, came up with the enemy +at Monmouth. Unfortunately, the mischief-making Lee, now known to have +been little better than a traitor, ordered a retreat. + +As Washington advanced with the main army, he was filled with surprise +and anger to learn from stragglers of Lee's treacherous action. He set +spurs to his horse and galloped to the front. + +According to tradition, this was one of the very few times when +Washington was thought to have lost his self-control. With a fierce +oath he demanded of Lee what he meant by retreating. Washington's look, +according to Lafayette, was terrible. + +"What is the meaning of all this, sir?" he repeated. + +There could be no good answer. Lee quailed before his angry commander. + +Having sent the apparently treacherous officer to the rear, Washington +showed at once his superb generalship. Like Sheridan at Cedar Creek, +about which we shall hear later, he inspired his men with fresh courage +and led them against the enemy. The continental army now showed the +results of the long winter's drill at Valley Forge. The lines were +re-formed, the main army was brought up, and the British were soon +repulsed. + +Clinton retreated during the same night. He reached New York and the +protection of the fleet before the patriot army could overtake him. + +Such was the battle of Monmouth, fought on a very hot and sultry Sunday +in June, 1778. It was the last battle in the north, and practically +closed the campaign for the control of the Middle States. + +=211. The Story of Mollie Pitcher.=--The account of this battle would not +be complete without the oft-told story of Mollie Pitcher. During the day +a soldier having charge of a cannon was shot down at his post. His +newly wedded wife, a young Irish woman, was at the time bringing water +for the thirsty men from a neighboring spring. She saw her husband fall +at the cannon he was serving, and heard his commander order the piece to +be removed from the field. Instantly dropping her pail, Mollie seized +the rammer and, stationing herself by the gun, performed her husband's +duty with skill and courage all through the battle. + + [Illustration: MOLLIE PITCHER TAKES HER HUSBAND'S PLACE AT MONMOUTH.] + +The soldiers gave her the nickname of Major Mollie, and being presented +to General Washington the day after the battle, she received a +sergeant's commission, and Congress gave her half-pay for life! Some of +the French officers, it is said, were so delighted with her courage that +they presented her with a hat full of gold pieces and christened her "La +Capitaine"! + +=212. Washington plans the Yorktown Campaign.=--In the spring of 1781, +Washington was still hemming in Clinton at New York. In the south, where +there had been severe fighting for two years, General Greene had driven +Cornwallis from the Carolinas up to Virginia, and our generous friend, +Lafayette, had helped push the British general to the point of land at +Yorktown. Washington, learning this, arranged that the French fleet +should sail there and prevent the escape of the enemy by sea. + +Then Washington planned what has been regarded as the proudest +achievement of the war. He decided to hurry his own army to Yorktown, +and with it and the southern forces and the French fleet finish the +seven years' struggle. + +Yes; but if Clinton should hear of it, he would sail from New York and +checkmate the plan. How could Washington do all this and keep Clinton in +the dark? Everything turned on that. He kept up a lively show of +activity around New York, and had decoy letters written to his distant +generals to come and help him capture Clinton's army. Very strange, but +those letters reached the British general! + +When the right moment came, leaving a small force at New York for show, +Washington by a swift and skillful movement moved his army of six +thousand through New Jersey. The Commander-in-Chief was unsurpassed at +keeping a secret. His own generals did not know where they were going. +They marched to Elkton, at the head of the Chesapeake, and took ships +for Yorktown. + +The hour for the final success of the patriot cause had now come. +Cornwallis was shut in by sea and land. Washington with his own hand +fired the first cannon of the attack. This was on October 9, 1781. + +By night and by day the sound of the heavy guns was incessantly heard. +The shells of the besieged and besiegers crossed each other in the air. + +At one time during the siege Washington, with many officers about him, +was watching an assault with intense interest. Those who stood near him +were afraid he would be hit by a chance shot, and one of his aids +ventured to say that the situation was very much exposed. + +"If you think so," replied he gravely, "you are at liberty to step +back." + +A little later a musket ball hit a cannon near the group and fell at +Washington's feet. General Knox grasped his arm. + +"My dear general," exclaimed he, "we can't spare you yet." + +"It is a spent ball," answered the Commander-in-Chief quietly; "no harm +is done." + +When the redoubts were taken, he drew a long breath and said to Knox, +"The work is done, and _well done_!" During the battle, a famous +Virginia officer, Governor Nelson, who had raised troops and supplied +money at his own risk, was asked what part of the town it would be best +to fire upon. He pointed to a large, handsome building, which he thought +was probably the enemy's headquarters. It was his own house! + +=213. The Superb Victory at Yorktown.=--After a few days of fighting, +Cornwallis found himself in so hopeless a condition that he made an +unsuccessful attempt to escape. Shortly afterward he was forced to +surrender with eleven thousand men, a hundred and sixty cannon, a huge +amount of camp supplies, and ten thousand dollars in money. Five days +after the surrender, General Clinton arrived with ships and heavy +reinforcements. Too late, Sir Henry, too late! + +When the news of the capture of Cornwallis reached London, Lord North, +the British Prime Minister, walked up and down his room, wringing his +hands and crying out, "O God! it is all over! It is all over!" + +How unspeakably the great leader's heart must have rejoiced at this +famous victory; the labors, anxieties, and sufferings of seven years +ending at last in glorious triumph! The whole country gave way to +transports of joy. Congress appointed a day of general thanksgiving and +prayer, and voted special thanks to the distinguished generals and many +other officers. It was felt that a death-blow had been given to +England's efforts to crush the colonies. + +The victory at Yorktown practically ended the war. It took several years +for the country to recover from the wreck and ruin wrought, to frame the +machinery of our new government, and to lay the solid foundations of +this grand edifice of constitutional liberty. In all this work of +nation-building Washington was a prominent actor, no less sagacious as a +statesman than as a skilled warrior. + +=214. Washington, the First President of the United States.=--When it came +to the choice of a first president, all eyes turned to that one stately +figure--to him who had saved his country in war, and who in peace could +best carry its precious interests safely in his great brain and heart. +He was unanimously elected--not a vote for any other person--an honor +never paralleled. With his usual modesty he would have declined; but his +sense of duty and his willingness to serve his country made him accept. + +His journey to New York was one continued ovation. Bells were rung, +cannon fired, and eloquent addresses made. All the vessels in New York +harbor were gayly decked with flags. When the dignified President-elect +landed, the salutes of cannon, the ringing of bells, and the shouts of +the crowd were multiplied tenfold. + +On April 30, 1789, Washington took the solemn oath to perform the duties +of the President of the United States. + +On this important occasion he was dressed in a suit of dark brown cloth +of American manufacture. He wore white silk stockings, silver buckles +and a steel-hilted sword. His hair was powdered and tied behind, +according to the fashion of that time. The day was given up to +rejoicings; and in the evening there were illuminations and fireworks. + +Washington was reëlected, and served his country honorably for two terms +of four years each. His administration was worthy in every way of his +great ability, his statesmanship, and his exalted patriotism. + +=215. Washington retires to Private Life.=--Beloved and honored by a whole +people, but weary of public life, Washington at last retired to his +beautiful and beloved Mount Vernon to enjoy a well-earned repose. He +took up his former manner of living. He began to repair his buildings +and to improve his estate. His good wife, Martha, said that she and the +general when he left the presidency felt like children just released +from school, and she spoke of her satisfaction in settling down again to +the "duties of an old-fashioned Virginia housekeeper, steady as a clock, +busy as a bee, and cheerful as a cricket." + + [Illustration: MARTHA WASHINGTON.] + +Washington was a model farmer. He gave personal attention to every +detail. He rode on horseback ten or fifteen miles every morning, looking +after his estate and its servants. Two o'clock was the dinner hour; +three o'clock if there were guests of importance. The general would not +wait more than five minutes for any guest, however distinguished. So +much time he allowed for the difference of watches. "My cook," said he, +"does not ask whether the guests have arrived, but whether the hour +has." + +Washington's dress and appearance were very simple. "How shall I know +him?" asked a gentleman who was about to ride off in search of him. + +"You will meet, sir," replied his friend, "an old gentleman riding alone +in plain drab clothes, a broad-brimmed white hat, a hickory switch in +his hand, and an umbrella with a long staff attached to his saddle-bow. +That person, sir, is General Washington." + +A pleasant story is told by a gentleman who was a guest at Mount Vernon. +It seems that he coughed much during the early part of the night. "After +some time had elapsed," said the guest, "the door of my room was gently +opened, and, on drawing my bed curtains, I saw Washington himself, +standing at my bedside, with a bowl of hot tea in his hand." + +No wish for power, or regret at being no longer before the eyes of the +world, ever disturbed the happiness of Washington in his retirement. A +little over two years now passed happily at the great mansion, with its +generous living and its gracious hospitality. + +=216. Sickness and Death; Universal Sorrow.=--One day in December, 1799, +while taking his usual ride on horseback Washington was exposed to rain, +hail, and snow, with a raw wind blowing. The next day his family noticed +that he had a slight cold, but he paid no heed to such trifling +ailments. + +The next day he was much worse, breathed with difficulty, and could +hardly speak. His mind was perfectly clear, and he believed he should +not get well. He was never unprepared for death. The same night he +passed away. + +Mourning spread over the whole country. In foreign lands as well as at +home the news was received with sincerest sorrow. The American people +felt that they had indeed lost their protector, the Father of his +Country. + + [Illustration: MOUNT VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON.] + +To Americans his memory will always be precious. His birthday is +celebrated every year throughout our broad land; and the bell of every +steamer that glides along the quiet Potomac tolls as it slowly passes +Mount Vernon, the last resting-place of George Washington! + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH. + + +=217. Utter Failure thus far to subdue the Colonists.=--Midway in the war +of the Revolution there was a period of over two years when active +fighting was for the most part suspended. After the surrender of +Burgoyne at Saratoga, the English seemed to lose heart. A feeble effort +was even made by the British government to secure peace. England would +yield everything except the claim of the colonies to independence. This +was the very thing that now, after three years of fighting, the colonies +would not yield. + +Each side seemed to be tired of bloodshed. The patriots were in a bad +enough way, and England had her troubles with other nations. + +Of all the territory the British had occupied during three years, the +only spot they now held was New York, and even there Washington's superb +generalship with his small but active army was giving them constant +trouble. + +=218. The British now attempt to subdue the Southern Colonies.=--Thus it +became necessary for the British to contrive some plan that would offer +better results. They now proposed to go south, subdue one colony after +another, and so push their conquests northward. + +The British had already tried their hand at the south, and with results +not quite to their liking. In June, 1776, General Clinton came with a +fleet to capture Charleston. But Colonel William Moultrie had built on +an island in the harbor a low redoubt of palmetto logs and sand bags, +from which his guns made sad havoc with the fleet, while the British +shot could not pierce through the tough, spongy logs of the fort. After +a disastrous fight, Clinton went back disheartened. The gallant defense +of this fort had a most wholesome effect upon the patriot cause. + + [Illustration: SERGEANT JASPER'S BOLD DEED.] + +One heroic deed of the battle is often told. The flag of the fort +floated from a high mast, against which the enemy directed their fire +until the top of the flagstaff was shot away and fell over the ramparts +on the beach. A daring soldier by the name of William Jasper leaped over +the wall of palmetto logs, walked the whole length of the fort in the +face of the enemy's fire, tore away the flag, fastened it to the rammer +of a cannon, and floated it on the ramparts. + +=219. Disasters to the Patriot Cause.=--In December, 1778, a large British +force, sent from New York, landed and captured Savannah with about five +hundred prisoners. The enemy also captured Augusta, brought all Georgia +under British control, and put the royal governor back into office. + +In October, 1779, our General Lincoln and a French fleet made a combined +attack on Savannah, hoping to recapture it, but they utterly failed. +These two disasters in two years were very discouraging to all +Americans. + +The year 1780 brought still worse fortune, for early in the year Clinton +came again from New York and made a second attack on Charleston. In May +he captured the city and all Lincoln's army, with four hundred cannon. +Clinton then returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis in command with +five thousand men. + +The British, possessing Savannah and Charleston with the river +connections, held the key to the whole of Georgia and South Carolina. +They could obtain all their supplies by water, and so did not need to +rely upon the country for support. + +=220. The Bitter and Cruel Warfare in the South.=--The patriots did not +now have a body of soldiers in the south large enough to call an army. +The entire region was open to British plunder. + +Bands of soldiers roamed through the country, plundering, burning, and +killing without restraint. No mercy was shown to patriots. A squad of +soldier bandits once came to the home of Thomas Sumter, the famous +patriot officer, turned his wife and children out of doors and burned +the house. + +Sumter was a bold and energetic fighter in the wild warfare of the +south. He was a tall and powerful man and of a very stern make-up. He +lived to be ninety-nine years of age--the last surviving general of the +Revolution. "But for Sumter and Marion," said Cornwallis, "South +Carolina would be at peace." + +There now remained in South Carolina but one battalion of patriot +soldiers. These were about four hundred in number under Colonel Buford, +then in the northwestern part of the state. Clinton sent against him a +force of seven hundred regulars and Tories under Colonel Tarleton, an +active but base and cruel man. + +Tarleton surrounded the patriots and demanded their surrender. While +Buford was quietly discussing the matter, his soldiers resting at ease +under the protection of a flag of truce, Tarleton treacherously arranged +his men for an attack. Suddenly the flag of truce was taken down, and +instantly the British cavalry rushed from all sides upon Buford's men +and killed one hundred and thirteen and wounded one hundred and fifty. + +Even the boys were nerved to deeds of valor. A schoolboy named Andrew +Jackson, thirteen years old, who had seen the dead of the Buford +massacre, and helped care for the wounded, and whose own brother had +been killed by the British, was himself captured. While under guard, a +pompous British officer came up to him and cried out:-- + +"Here, boy! clean my boots!" + +"No, sir! clean your own boots. I am a prisoner of war and entitled to +better treatment." + +Down came the officer's sword, aiming at the boy's head. Warding off the +blow with his arm, he received a wound, the marks of which he carried to +his grave. This boy grew up to become the seventh president of the +United States! + +=221. General Gates meets with Disaster.=--When General Washington learned +of the disasters in the south, the loss of Savannah and Charleston and +of Lincoln's army, he was anxious to send down General Greene, his +right-hand man. But Congress unwisely interfered, and sent General +Gates, who had contrived to get the credit of Burgoyne's capture at +Saratoga. + +In August, Gates moved to Camden, S. C., to meet Cornwallis. A strange +battle ensued. Each general had planned to surprise the other by a night +attack; the armies met in the dark. Both waited till daylight, and then +the battle began. It was a disastrous defeat for the patriots. Gates's +army was destroyed. This was perhaps the worst catastrophe of the war. + +Now the patriot prospect was wretched enough. Where could there be any +hope? The Tories all through the state were delighted, and thronged to +the British side. + +=222. Marion proves a Source of Terror to the British.=--The patriots felt +now that they must defend themselves singly or in small groups; there +was no army to help them. So they assembled, a few dozen here and there, +and used their utmost endeavors on every opportunity to cripple the +enemy. The British had small stations through the state, from which +murderous raids could be made. They would plunder, burn, slay, and then +return to their posts. To attack these posts, or to do any military work +successfully, the patriots needed a leader. One soon came, Francis +Marion, who combined a few groups of patriots and did most effective +work with them. + + [Illustration: MARION'S TROOPERS ATTACKING A BRITISH CAMP.] + +This gallant and intrepid partisan chieftain was rather below the middle +stature, lean, and swarthy. His forehead was large and high, and his +eyes black and piercing. He was at this time about forty-eight years of +age, with a body capable of enduring great fatigue and every privation. +He never tarnished his fame with acts of cruelty. + +"Never shall a house be burned by one of my men," said he; "to distress +helpless women and children is what I detest." + +Marion used to wear a close-fitting red jacket and a leather cap. His +body was so slight that he never did personal deeds of valor. His sword +was so rarely used that once he could not draw it from the scabbard on +account of the rust. + +Never was Napoleon's guard more attached to their general than were +Marion's men to the partisan chief who so often led them to victory. + +=223. How the "Swamp Fox" did his Fighting.=--Marion was familiar with the +country, and in many of the numerous swamps he occupied, with his +troopers, secret haunts approached by devious paths not easily followed. +The British, smarting under his attacks, called him the "swamp fox"; but +he proved to them rather a wolf or a tiger. These patriots who sprang to +his side to defend their homes were patriots indeed. They had no pay, no +uniforms, and but scanty clothing. They were a shabby-looking band of +soldiers; but their arms were strong and their hearts were true. + +Many had no guns, until they supplied themselves from the enemy. They +melted their pewter dishes for bullets. They often made their breakfast +on blackberries, dined on potatoes and green corn, and not infrequently +supped on the memory of their dinner. + +Much of the time Marion himself did not have even a blanket. One night +his bed of brush caught fire, and it not only burnt his blanket but +singed his hair and spoilt his leather cap! + +Marion always kept his plans secret, even from his own officers, until +the moment for action came. There was an air of mystery in what he +undertook, and a bustle of hearty enterprise about his movements, which +gave a charm to life in his famous brigade. Marion enjoyed fully the +confidence of his men, shared all their privations, and braved more than +his share of their dangers. + +=224. One of Marion's First Exploits.=--One of Marion's first exploits was +against a large force of Tories under Major Gainey. Marion and his men +fell on his camp at daybreak as suddenly as if they had dropped from the +clouds. Gainey fled on horseback, closely pursued by Major James, who +followed so fast and so far that he suddenly found himself alone and +getting surrounded by Tories. His quick wits saved him. + +Turning in his saddle and waving his sword, he shouted back as if to a +large body of followers, "Come on, boys! Here they are!" The Tories +scattered and fled! In this little brush Marion did not lose a man. + +Marion was always on the alert--quick, dash, fire, away!--that was his +way of fighting. No wonder he carried terror to the enemy. And yet he +never used exactly the same tactics twice. Once he planned to fall +suddenly on a force twice as large as his own. It had a watchful leader +who could not be caught napping. Dangerous business, we say. Yes, but +see how the "swamp fox" did it! He carefully hid a body of his best +sharpshooters in ambush along the road about a mile from the British. + +Then he made a lively attack on the enemy and soon retreated along this +road. Of course the enemy followed briskly, when up sprang Marion's +troopers in ambush and soon defeated them. "All's fair in war," says the +proverb. + +These furious and almost incessant attacks kept the British in terror. +They never knew when they were safe. + +=225. Some of Marion's Famous Exploits.=--Many a story of this daring +chieftain's exploits used to be told by the evening fireside. In +October, 1780, Marion brought hope to the patriots by one of his +brilliant attacks. Colonel Tynes was gathering a large body of Tories to +assist the British, and he held stores of guns, ammunition, and clothing +for their use. Marion's scouts learned all the facts. These were just +the articles he wanted for his half-clothed, half-fed, and poorly armed +men. + +For him to resolve was to act. He came cautiously at midnight. The +camp-fires were burning; some soldiers were singing, some playing +cards, some eating stolen chickens; but nobody was on guard. Marion's +troopers rushed in with a wild shout, and the attack went all one way. A +large number were killed, twenty-three were taken prisoners, and the +supplies of the Tory camp were enjoyed by Marion's men for a long time. +Not one of his force was lost. + +Soon after Gates's defeat, Marion learned by his scouts that the British +were not far off with a large body of American prisoners. He sent at +midnight a squad to hold the road to their camp, and before dawn he +approached it silently with his own force. Just at daylight he made a +sudden attack upon them. The surprise and the assault were an amazing +success. Twenty-four of the enemy were killed or captured, and one +hundred and fifty captives were set free, while not one of his men was +lost. + +=226. Marion invites a British Officer to Dinner.=--One day a young +British officer came to Marion under a flag of truce, to plan an +exchange of some prisoners. The business finished, Marion asked the +officer to dine with him. The dinner consisted entirely of baked sweet +potatoes brought by a negro on a piece of bark for a plate, with a log +for a table. + +"But this can't be your usual fare?" asked the Britisher. + +"Yes, indeed," said Marion, "and we are lucky to-day to have enough for +company." + +This was no idle talk to affect the young officer, but it did impress +him; for the story is that on returning to his own camp he said, "It's +no use trying; I've seen Marion, and I tell you that men who work for no +pay and live on potatoes while fighting for their liberties, are not +going to be beaten, and I am not going to fight any longer against them. +I shall resign to-day." + + [Illustration: MARION INVITES A BRITISH OFFICER TO DINE WITH HIM.] + +=227. A Great Victory at King's Mountain.=--After the Camden disaster the +deep gloom continued till October, when Colonel Ferguson was sent with a +force of British and Tories to the northwest to subdue the patriots in +that region. Instantly there was a general uprising of the hunters and +farmers of this wild and romantic region to defend their homes from the +brutal enemy. These hardy mountaineers, ready to move at a moment's +warning, came from every direction to a common meeting-place. + +At King's Mountain, in North Carolina, where the British were +entrenched, these American riflemen charged up the steep sides, +surrounded the enemy, and cut them down till about half were killed and +the rest fled in dismay. It was a brilliant victory, won by sheer hard +fighting, and it brought supreme joy to the long-suffering patriots; for +it proved to be decisive. It turned the tide of British rule in the +south. + +=228. General Greene takes Command in the South.=--A new Continental army +was now to be sent from the north, and this time Washington had his +choice of commanders. He sent one of his best and most trusted officers, +General Greene, who had been a Rhode Island blacksmith. He knew how to +fight; for he had served under the eye of Washington in many battles, +and so had been well trained in military matters. + +It was in December, 1780, that Greene took command of the so-called +"southern army" at Charlotte, a little town in North Carolina. He had in +all about two thousand men, but only eight hundred were fit for duty. + +On the day Greene took command there were not three days' provisions in +camp. He had no money. The people would not touch the Continental paper +money. Ably, patiently, and brilliantly, this sagacious general at once +set to work to effect his great purpose of driving the British armies +from the south. + +With Greene came another famous officer, General Daniel Morgan, the man +who had marched with Arnold to Canada, and who commanded the infantry at +Stillwater and Saratoga. + + [Illustration: GENERAL GREENE TAKING COMMAND OF THE SOUTHERN ARMY.] + +This was the man who, when he heard of Lexington, led his riflemen six +hundred miles in twenty-one days, from Virginia, to join Washington in +Cambridge. + +Morgan was of gigantic stature, vast physical strength, and wonderful +powers of endurance. In his youth he was a teamster. One day by order of +a tyrannical British officer he was given five hundred lashes for some +slight offense. He walked away saucy and defiant as before. + +Of a gentle and unselfish nature, resolute, fearless in battle, a born +fighter, Morgan was the ideal leader of the riflemen of the frontier. +His force was smaller than Greene's, who had detached him to occupy a +post in South Carolina. + +=229. How General Morgan defeated the British at Cowpens.=--Cornwallis in +January, 1781, sent Tarleton with eleven hundred troops to meet Morgan +and dispose of him. They met at Cowpens, but Morgan, with a smaller +army, reversed the order and disposed of Tarleton! He killed a large +number, ten officers and more than one hundred men, took over five +hundred prisoners, with all the artillery and stores. + +It was at Cowpens that Colonel Washington, a distant relative of the +Commander-in-Chief, wounded Tarleton in a hand-to-hand combat. Shortly +afterwards this hated British officer said to a lady:-- + +"You seem to think very highly of Colonel Washington; and yet I have +been told that he is so ignorant a fellow that he can hardly write his +name." + +"It may be so," quickly replied the lady; "but no man can testify better +than yourself that he knows how to 'make his mark.'" + +At another time the haughty Tarleton, boasting of his own deeds and +speaking with disdain of the continental cavalry, said to a lady:-- + +"I have a very earnest desire to see your far-famed hero, Colonel +Washington." + +"Your wish, colonel, might have been gratified," she promptly replied, +"had you dared to look behind you at the battle of Cowpens!" + +=230. Greene's Masterly Retreat.=--How angry Cornwallis was at the ruin of +his best army at Cowpens! He started to pursue Morgan and punish him. +But the patriot general foresaw this, and not having soldiers enough, he +got well ahead, and one day at dusk crossed the Catawba River. The +advanced detachment of Cornwallis's army came up two hours later, and +waited for morning. That night a heavy rain swelled the stream and +checked the British advance. Morgan pushed on to the Yadkin and crossed, +meeting Greene's army. + +Determined that his little band should not be destroyed, since the fate +of the war in the south depended upon it, and not being strong enough to +meet Cornwallis with his well-equipped regiments in open battle, Greene +now planned a retreat with as much method and care as he would have +exercised in preparing for a battle. + +The river Roanoke for a long distance runs near the boundary between +Virginia and North Carolina. The upper portion of this stream is called +the Dan. Greene now started for the fords of this river, seventy miles +away, with Cornwallis close at his heels. The roads were deep with mud +and almost impassable. The patriot soldiers, wretchedly clothed and +nearly barefoot, struggled along, marking the road, as Greene wrote to +Washington, with blood-stained tracks. + +"How you must suffer from the cold!" said the general to a barefooted +sentry. + +"I do not complain," replied the soldier; "I know I should fare well if +our general could procure supplies; and if, as you say, we fight in a +few days, I shall take care to get some shoes." + +It was a most masterly and gallant retreat. The men were kept in hand, +and a serious encounter with the enemy was avoided. + +One morning during the retreat, when everything seemed dark, Greene rode +up to the door of a tavern. The host, a true friend, met him. + +"What! alive, my dear general?" + +"Yes; tired, hungry, alone, and penniless." + +The hostess, Mrs. Elizabeth Steele, was of the stuff of which patriots +are made. She gave the weary general a good breakfast, and while he was +eating she put in his hands a bag filled with bright silver dollars, +saying, "You need them, and I can do without them." + +As the story goes, the gallant Greene, admiring the devotion of the +noble woman, stepped to the mantel, over which hung a portrait of King +George, turned it to the wall, and wrote upon the back, "Hide thy face, +King George, and blush!" + + [Illustration: THE PATRIOTIC AND GENEROUS LANDLADY.] + +Cornwallis pressed the patriots hard through forests and over streams, +but he was baffled at every move. Reaching the river Dan, the American +army was safely carried over by the boats which its sagacious commander +had arranged for many days before. + +Cornwallis came up in hot haste only to find that the deep and rapid +river flowed between him and his foe. It would have been madness for +him to cross the river. He sullenly withdrew his army to a point farther +south. + +=231. Greene now begins to fight and shows Rare Generalship.=--Having +recruited and rested his men, Greene moved his army south of the Dan and +began active operations. He followed sharply after Cornwallis, and in +March brought him to battle at Guilford. The fight was severe, and the +British general, though he gained the advantage, was so roughly handled +that he retired towards Wilmington, the nearest point on the coast. + +Greene now made a bold and hazardous move. Instead of preventing +Cornwallis from advancing to the north, he left the British general to +do as he pleased, faced about suddenly and boldly marched to South +Carolina. His plan was to thrust himself between the main British army +and its southern division and then attack the latter and their fortified +posts. + +Like a skillful general, having decided upon this daring change, Greene +acted quickly. He marched with all speed for Camden, one hundred and +sixty miles distant. His object was to break the British hold upon South +Carolina. + +A brighter day was now dawning, and the sunshine of hope was soon to +appear. The adroit activities of Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, and the +skill and vigor of Greene and Morgan were now bringing their harvest, +and they gave the patriots new life and cheer. + +At Hobkirks Hill, near Camden, Greene attacked the British. He was +defeated, but it was a fruitless victory. + +"We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again," wrote Greene to a friend. + +One by one the strong posts of the enemy in South Carolina fell into our +hands. The British hold on both the Carolinas was slowly but surely +broken. The enemy wisely kept near the coast. The last battle of the +long and stubborn struggle was fought at Eutaw Springs, S. C., in +September, 1781. The contest was desperate on both sides; but the +British, badly crippled, retreated in the night to Charleston. + +=232. Greene's Brilliant Campaign in the South.=--Greene had with the +scantiest of means done a great work in his southern campaign. He had +driven Cornwallis to Virginia, to meet his fate at Yorktown. He had +cleared both Carolinas of the British and restored them to the patriots. + +In few if any campaigns carried on with small armies was ever so +effective and brilliant work done as did General Greene with his little +force of patriots. Most mortifying was it to the haughty British +commanders to know that they had been out-generaled, out-marched, and in +the long run, out-fought by a Yankee blacksmith. + +The war in the south was now soon over. Savannah was captured in July, +1782; in December, 1783, the British left Charleston. It was a proud day +for Greene and Morgan and Marion when they followed with their army on +the heels of the departing foe. As the patriots marched in, happy +thousands cheered, and floral wreaths flew from crowded windows. + +The noble Greene lived only a few years after he had carried the +Revolution to a triumph in the south. He died in 1786 from the effects +of a sunstroke. + +Among the great generals of the American Revolution, it is generally +admitted that Greene ranked, in military genius, second only to +Washington. + +General Anthony Wayne, called "Mad Anthony" on account of his daring, +who had fought by the side of Greene, and who watched by the death-bed +of his comrade, wrote to a friend: "He was great as a soldier, great as +a citizen, immaculate as a friend. The honors--the greatest honors of +war--are due his remains. I have seen a great and good man die." + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +THE STORY OF ARNOLD'S TREASON. + + +=233. A Gloomy Outlook for the Patriot Cause in 1780.=--During the long +war of the Revolution from Lexington in 1775 to Yorktown in 1781, there +were many times when it seemed as if it were really of no use for the +Americans to fight for independence. Of these years probably 1780 was +the darkest. + +We have just read of the sad disasters in the south during this year. If +"hope long deferred maketh the heart sick," surely our forefathers had +at this time ample cause for discouragement. It seemed to many, no +doubt, that the policy of the British Parliament of "tiring the +Americans out" might succeed after all. + +Financial matters were in a deplorable condition. Congress had no +authority to raise money by taxation to carry on the war. Sometimes the +colonies responded to the call for money from Congress; oftener they did +not. There were paper promises enough issued by Congress and known as +continental currency, but they had sadly fallen in value. Washington, it +is said, once remarked that it took a wagon-load of it to buy a +wagon-load of provisions. Samuel Adams tells us that he paid two +thousand dollars for a hat and a suit of clothes. + +A tradesman, to show his contempt for it, papered his shop with +continental currency. The current phrase, "not worth a continental," has +survived all these years as a reminder of the deplorable condition of +our finances at this time. No wonder the famishing and half-frozen +soldiers in Washington's army, when paid off in the flimsy stuff, were +mutinous at times, and that the desertions averaged more than a hundred +a month. + +=234. Arnold the Traitor.=--In the midst of all the trials of this "year +of disasters," the country was startled by the disclosure of a plot of +the blackest treason. The recklessly brave but unscrupulous Arnold +proved himself a traitor of the deepest dye. + +Born in Connecticut, he was early known as "a bad boy." From earliest +childhood he was disobedient, cruel, reckless, and profane, caring +little or nothing for the good will of others. While he was apprentice +to an apothecary he enlisted in the colonial army, but soon deserted. +Afterwards he set up as druggist in New Haven, but wasted the money he +earned and ended the business by becoming bankrupt. + +=235. His Brilliant Military Career.=--When the startling news from +Lexington thrilled all the country, Arnold raised a company of soldiers +and was appointed captain. Soon he became colonel and aided Ethan Allen +in the attack on Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Next he was sent to +assist General Montgomery in the assault on Quebec, where he proved +himself a valiant soldier. He received a severe wound in the leg while +gallantly leading his men. For these useful services, Congress made him +a brigadier-general. + +Soon after this, Congress bestowed upon five prominent brigadiers the +distinguished rank of major-general, but Arnold was not one of them. He +felt slighted and became very jealous. Washington wrote him a kindly +letter, which partly appeased his wounded vanity. + +During the Burgoyne campaign, as we have read, Arnold won special renown +for his splendid bravery at the battle of Saratoga, where he was again +wounded. For his signal valor in this battle he was now made a +major-general. But even this probably failed to satisfy him; for there +were still five others superior to him in rank. + +=236. The Beginning of his Wicked Career.=--As his wounded leg needed +rest, Arnold obtained from Washington, in the summer of 1778, the +command of Philadelphia, lately evacuated by the British. During his +nine months there his conduct was bad. His manners were haughty and +insolent. He lived with costly extravagance far beyond his means, drove +a fine coach and four, and gave splendid parties. His associates were +largely among the Tories, and he married a Miss Shippen, a bitterly +disloyal young woman. His intimate friends were now for the most part +the enemies of his country. + +Arnold's expensive habits of living soon brought him deeply in debt, and +when the storekeepers urged payment of their bills, he contrived +dishonest methods of obtaining money belonging to the government. Formal +charges of misconduct were made; he was tried, found guilty, and +sentenced to the very mild punishment of a public reproof by the +Commander-in-Chief. This reprimand Washington performed as gently as +possible, sparing his feelings by combining high praise for his past +heroism with censure for his late misdeeds. + +Arnold was angry. He had hoped to escape all censure. You may know how +black a villain he was from the fact that, in his speech in court, +defending himself, he spoke of his past services in battle and promised +even more faithful devotion in future to his dear country, which he +said he loved as his own life. It came out afterwards that even then he +had been for months secretly exchanging letters with Sir Henry Clinton, +and plotting how to betray his country! His letters were signed +"Gustavus," and were secretly sent by his wife. The replies from Clinton +purported to be from "John Anderson." + +=237. Secretly plans to betray his Country.=--Arnold knew that of all +things Clinton most longed to get possession of West Point; for it was +the key of the river northward up to Lake Champlain, and it also +controlled the crossing between New England and the Middle States. +Arnold studied how to betray it, and by one bad act to satisfy both his +revenge and his greed for money. + +The first thing to do was to change the sullenness that had marked his +behavior since the trial. He at once became cheerful, loudly patriotic, +and so eager to help his dear country! Next he contrived to persuade +some prominent officers to induce Washington to appoint him to the +command of West Point. Not suspecting his treachery, Washington gave him +the place. He took command in August, 1780. + +=238. Arnold and André meet, and plot Treason.=--Now Arnold's plot began +to ripen. But Clinton wanted to be very sure of what he was doing. He +concluded to send a trusty officer to meet Arnold and settle the plan +beyond doubt. So he selected the Adjutant General of his army, a +brilliant young officer, Major John André, who knew all about it thus +far, for he was the "John Anderson" who had, under Clinton's directions, +answered the "Gustavus" letters. + +On the morning that he started, André had a parting lunch with his +fellow officers, with wine-drinking and song-singing--a right jolly +time! Ah! if he could only have foreseen! André was an estimable young +man, brave, educated, accomplished, a poet, an artist, and brought up in +the best society of England. + +André went up the Hudson in the sloop-of-war Vulture. After the moon +went down, and it was dark enough for such a deed, a boat came silently +from the west shore near Haverstraw, and took back from the vessel a +tall young man wrapped in a black cloak. Arnold met him on the bank and +led him into a thicket of fir trees. There, like two ugly spirits of +evil, they crouched in the darkness, and talked over the details of the +dastardly deed. + +Arnold, eager for British gold, haggled for a higher price. They plotted +the utter ruin of the patriot cause, till, at the earliest streak of +dawn, boom! boom! sounded some cannon! The traitor was frightened! One +of our shore batteries was firing a few shots at the Vulture, so that +she had to drop down stream a few miles. André therefore could not +return directly to the Vulture, but was obliged to remain hidden all +that day. + +The plans had all been arranged. Clinton was to send up a fleet with +soldiers to West Point, and Arnold was meanwhile to have removed most of +his troops from the fort on some pretense, so that Clinton's force could +easily capture it. Arnold gave André some papers to carry to Clinton, +maps of the fort, with instructions how to approach and take it. + +Sir Henry had warned André not to receive any papers from Arnold nor to +put on any disguise. André for some reason did not obey these orders. He +may have suspected that, after all, some trap was planned to deceive the +British, and thought best to carry back papers in Arnold's own +handwriting. At all events, it was a fatal mistake for poor André. + +=239. Capture of André.=--- André wore long riding-boots. Between his +stockings and the soles of his feet he put these papers. He took also a +pass from Arnold to carry him through the guards. The Vulture having +dropped down the river, André crossed over and set out on horseback to +go back to New York on the east side. + +All went well until he reached the vicinity of Tarrytown. At this time +the region was infested with "cowboys" and "skinners," who under the +pretense of keeping up a partisan warfare for their respective sides +used to steal whatever they could find. + +On this morning several men from the American army had been sent out to +look after the "cowboys." As André rode along, three of this party +sprang from the bushes, leveled their muskets at him, and ordered him to +halt. They were young men, and their names were John Paulding, David +Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. One of them happened to have on the coat +of a Hessian soldier whom he had captured. This may have misled André +and prompted him to make a blunder. + +"Gentlemen," said André, "I hope you belong to our side." + +"Which side?" asked Van Wart. + +"The lower party," answered André. "I am a British officer on urgent +duty, and hope you will not detain me." + +Then the three patriots ordered him off his horse. André saw his +mistake. He showed them Arnold's pass, but they insisted on searching +him. They examined his saddle, took off his coat and vest, but finding +nothing wrong, were about to let him go, when Paulding said:-- + +"Boys, I am not satisfied; his boots must come off." + +André objected: "his boots were very tight--he must not be +detained--you'll suffer yet for what you are doing." + +But off came the boots, and out came the fatal papers! + +"Boys, this fine fellow is a spy!" exclaimed Paulding. + + [Illustration: CAPTURE OF ANDRÉ.] + +André offered his captors his splendid gold watch, his horse, and a +thousand dollars in money, if they would only let him off. The three +common soldiers proved true to themselves and to their great cause and +refused a bribe. Believing their captive to be a spy, they took him to +their commander, Colonel Jameson. + +=240. The Arch Traitor makes his Escape.=--This officer made the blunder +of sending a messenger to Arnold with a letter saying a certain John +Anderson had been arrested! The horseman found the arch traitor at +breakfast with several of his prominent officers as his guests. His +beautiful young wife was presiding with charming grace at the table. + +Arnold, concealing his terror, left the table, kissed his sleeping babe, +told his fainting wife he might never see her again, seized a horse, +galloped to the river, sprang into a boat, and urged the oarsmen by +their love of money and rum to row him to the Vulture. When the boat +reached the vessel, the traitor was so mean as to hand over the poor +oarsmen as prisoners. But the British captain generously sent them back. + +Washington arrived at Arnold's house a few hours after he had escaped, +and when the papers in Arnold's handwriting were shown him, his hand +shook; he was overwhelmed with amazement and sorrow. + +Turning to Lafayette, with tears running down his cheeks, and choking +with grief, he cried out:-- + +"Arnold is a traitor, and has fled to the British! Whom can we trust +now?" + +It was only for a moment. The next instant Washington had recovered his +iron self-control. + +=241. What became of Arnold.=--Washington contrived an ingenious plan to +capture Arnold, but it failed. The traitor got his reward; he was made a +major-general in the British army and received thirty thousand dollars +for his villany. But the gold turned to ashes in his hands. Everybody +despised him. Men pointed the finger of scorn at him, saying, "There +goes Arnold the traitor." + +A member of Parliament, in the midst of a speech saw Arnold in the +gallery, and, pausing, said, "Mr. Speaker, I will not go on while that +traitor is in the house." + +Washington had, all the years before, been Arnold's steadfast friend. He +admired one who could fight with such energy, and who never knew fear. +After the treason it is said that Washington could never mention the +traitor's name without a shudder. + +"What do you think of the doings of that diabolical dog?" wrote Colonel +Williams, the gallant southern fighter, to General Morgan. + +"Curse on his folly and perfidy!" said the noble-hearted General Greene. +"How mortifying to think that he is a New Englander!" + +=242. André's Sad Fate.=--The three faithful men who captured André were +highly honored. Each received a silver medal from Congress, with a life +pension of two hundred dollars a year. Their graves are marked by +worthy monuments. + +But poor André! what became of him? He was tried within a week by a +court-martial of fourteen generals and condemned to death as a spy. + +"We cannot save him," said the kindly old veteran, Baron Steuben. "Oh +that we had the traitor who has dragged this gallant young officer to +death, so that he might suffer in his stead!" André wrote a full and +frank letter to Washington, urging that he was not really a spy. All +Americans felt deep pity for him because of his youth, his virtues, his +many accomplishments, his belief that he was serving his country, and +because he had been the victim of a villain. + +But Americans could not forget that the British, four years before, had +captured a brave young American officer, Captain Nathan Hale, and hanged +him as a spy without any manifestation of pity or sympathy. + +The officer who commanded the escort that brought André across the +Hudson to the main army was a college classmate of Hale. As the young +officers rode along on horseback, mention was made of Hale's sad fate. + +"Surely," said André, "you do not think his case and mine alike!" + +"They are precisely alike," answered the officer, "and similar will be +your fate." + +Washington, who shed tears when he signed the death warrant, would +gladly have saved André's life; but the stern rules of war and the good +of the American cause left no room for mercy. His execution was put off +one day, it is said, in hope that Arnold might be captured and made to +suffer in his stead. + +André bravely faced the awful event, and on the morning of the day of +his death conversed freely and even cheerfully. He was disturbed only +about the mode of his death; he begged to be shot as a soldier, and not +hanged as a spy; but the grim custom and rules of war forbade. + +=243. Arnold dies in Disgrace.=--Arnold lived in London for more than +twenty years after his foul treason. No doubt they were years of bitter +remorse and self-reproach. His wife proved herself a devoted woman. +Arnold's children and grandchildren all felt keenly the disgrace that +rested upon the family. + +As the traitor came to his final sickness, his mind seemed to recall the +days when he fought for his country with distinction. He thought of the +steadfast friendship that Washington once cherished for him. After +Saratoga, this friend had presented him with epaulettes and a +sword-knot, and put them on with his own hand. The old uniform in which +he had fought his battles, and which he wore on the day he escaped to +the Vulture, had been carefully kept during all these years of disgrace. + +Just before his death the desolate old man called for these sad +reminders and put them on again. + +"Let me die," said he, "in this old uniform in which I fought so many +battles for my country. May God forgive me for ever putting on any +other!" + + [Illustration: ON HIS DEATHBED ARNOLD CALLS FOR HIS OLD UNIFORM.] + +Thus perished the man who, with the exception of Washington and Greene, +prior to his infamous deed, had done perhaps more efficient service for +the cause of our independence than any other American general. + +Think of the contrast between the deep infamy of an Arnold and the +patriotic grit and unselfishness of those ragged, half-starved +Pennsylvania soldiers who rose in mutiny during the next winter. Mad +Anthony Wayne had led some of these men at the storming of Stony Point, +and he was dearly beloved by them all; yet they would not obey even him. + +As Wayne was speaking to them, two men, who had been sent by General +Clinton to tamper with the mutineers and offer a bounty and high pay if +they would enlist in the British army, were detected. The soldiers in +their wrath turned these emissaries over to their general, and they were +hanged as spies. + +"Tell General Clinton," said these men who had not received a cent of +pay to send home to their families for over a year, "that we are not +Benedict Arnolds." + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +JOHN PAUL JONES: OUR FIRST GREAT NAVAL HERO. + + +=244. The Colonies poorly prepared to cope with England on the Sea.=--Now +we must remember that the American Revolution, which lasted about seven +years, and which resulted in our independence, was fought almost +entirely on land. We were poor, and besides had but little or no +experience in building men-of-war. The few vessels that had been built +in this country were mostly sloops or schooners for fishing, or for +trading. + +In this lack of large sailing craft during the Revolution, we should +have got on very poorly but for the generous aid of France. When +Washington's forces closed in upon the enemy at Yorktown, he would not +then have been able to capture the whole British army and so end the +great struggle, but for the thirty-six French ships that arrived just in +time to give us the assistance we so much needed. + +In the first years of the war the colonies began to build a number of +warships, but these were of little account compared with the navy of +England. Such few vessels as we already had were hastily fitted up for +naval service and armed with small cannon. These had to make up for +their want of size by the boldness of their crews and the quickness of +their movement. + +Privateering was then very common. This means that a vessel owned or +officered by private persons has a commission from the government to go +out and attack the enemy's vessels. Without this authority it would have +been regarded as a pirate. + +=245. John Paul Jones begins his Remarkable Career.=--The feeble colonies +had then not only few vessels, but few officers to command them. There +was one officer, however, John Paul Jones, who soon became widely famous +as a naval commander of extraordinary courage and superb audacity. He +was born in Scotland. When a boy of only twelve years he began to go to +sea. In time he visited his elder brother, a farmer in Virginia. During +the next few years he made a number of voyages to the West Indies, and +became rich by his skill in trading. + +When the war of the Revolution began, this energetic young Scotch sailor +determined to take an active part in it. He entered the navy in 1775, +when twenty-eight years old, and became lieutenant of the sloop-of-war +Alfred. + +On this vessel Paul Jones hoisted to the masthead the first American +flag ever displayed over an American warship. It was a yellow silk flag +showing a pine tree, with a rattlesnake coiled at its root as if about +to strike, and the motto, "Don't tread on me." Our present flag, with +its beautiful stripes and glowing stars, was adopted by Congress two +years later. + +The Alfred was the flagship of a little fleet of seven vessels. They +soon captured two British vessels from the Bahamas, then went to Nassau, +the capital of the islands, took the governor prisoner, and carried away +nearly a hundred cannon with a large quantity of military supplies. On +the way home they seized two more British vessels. On a later cruise, of +forty-seven days, Jones took sixteen prizes. + +=246. John Paul Jones performs Daring Deeds on the English +Coast.=--Afterwards Paul Jones went to France, and sailing from Brest in +his ship the Ranger, he swept the seas all around England, taking or +destroying every hostile ship he met. He was so audacious as to sail +into British ports, wrecking and pillaging everywhere. He entered the +harbor of Whitehaven, England, surprised the forts, spiked the guns, and +burned some ships at the docks. English commerce was crippled, insurance +rates rose to a fabulous price, and merchants met with enormous losses. + +The English were so alarmed that they sent out the well-armed +sloop-of-war Drake to capture Jones and bring him in a prisoner. But the +daring hero turned the game just the other way. He met the British craft +in the Irish Sea, and after a severe battle of over an hour he captured +her with more than two hundred prisoners and took the prize to Brest. +All this pleased the French wonderfully, for they had had war with +England. + +In fact all Europe rang with the praises of John Paul Jones. + + [Illustration: JOHN PAUL JONES.] + +=247. Jones's Interview with Franklin; secures Help from France.=--The +American Commissioners in Paris, of whom Franklin was the leader, +promised Jones a much larger ship; but they could not get the money to +pay for it, and Jones was very impatient to be off to sea again. He went +to the harbor of Lorient, on the west coast of France, to choose a ship. +Week after week he waited for an order from Paris to buy the vessel, but +none came. + +One day, while in a restaurant, the young officer took up a copy of +_Poor Richard's Almanac_, a very unique little annual, really the work +of Franklin. Reading the bright sayings scattered over every page, he +came upon this maxim: "If you would have your business done, go; if not, +send!" + +The truth of the homely saying came to his mind like a flash. He sprang +to his feet. + +"That was written for me," he said. "Here I am, _sending_ to Paris, when +I ought to _go_!" + +He started at once. He appealed to the Minister of Marine, and then to +King Louis himself. He pleaded his way to success. The king immediately +gave him a forty-gun ship at Lorient. He went back and took command. The +first thing Paul Jones did was to paint out the old name and give for a +new one the French equivalent of Dr. Franklin's almanac name, Bon Homme +Richard ("Poor Richard," or "Goodman Richard"); for he gave the credit +of his sudden success to Franklin's wise maxim. + +=248. The Battle between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis.=--Our +daring mariner soon sailed out with six other vessels, all flying the +beautiful new American flag. The crew on the Richard numbered nearly +four hundred men, a medley of sailors from almost every nation in +Europe, and even including some Malays. He sailed up between England and +Ireland, taking a number of prizes, then around the north of Scotland +and down on the east coast of England. + +Here, in the evening of a clear September day in 1779, his little fleet +met, off Flamborough, the new British ship of forty-four guns, commanded +by Captain Pearson. The Serapis, though a larger and better ship than +the old Richard, tried to escape, but the Richard chased her and brought +her to. It was just at twilight, and so near the land that crowds of +people thronged the shores to see the contest. + +As darkness settled down, the ships drew nearer. Just then the full moon +rose slowly over the sea, and right in the range of its broad field of +light were the dark shapes of the two hostile vessels. + +Now they draw closer. On each ship rests a stillness like that of death. +The men stand at their guns silent and thoughtful. The thousands on +shore hold their breath. Silently up goes the British flag on the +mainmast of the Serapis, and over the Richard waves the new banner of +the "stars and stripes." + +"Ship ahoy!" shouted Captain Jones through his speaking trumpet. + +"Aye, aye!" was the reply from the English vessel. + +"What's your name?" came ringing over the water. + +"His majesty's ship Serapis! What's yours?" + +"Bon Homme Richard!" replied the gallant Jones; "haul down your flag!" + +The Englishman's answer was the flash and boom of a cannon shot that +whizzed through the rigging of the Richard. Then raged the lightning and +thunder of battle. Fast and furious was the roar of the big guns, now +from this ship, now from that. + +They drift nearer together; now their rigging is entangled; now they +touch! Now the struggling crews fight hand to hand. Right and left the +conflict rages, with pikes and pistols and cutlasses. + +Jones is now here, now there, seeing all, controlling all, and mixing +with the bravest, now training some gun, now pulling at some rope or +cheering some lagging sailor lad. His strong will and sturdy pluck give +new life to his men. They cheer as their shot begin to tell. The air is +filled with the crash of cannon, the rattle of pistols, the orders of +officers, the yells of the crews, and the groans of the dying. + +The American flag is obscured with smoke, so that Captain Pearson, not +seeing it, shouts, "Are you ready to surrender?" + +Instantly comes Jones's defiant reply, "Surrender! I've not yet begun to +fight!" + +Then Jones lashed the ships together, while the cannon balls tore +through the vessels, cut the masts, and scattered the wounded and dead +all around. The Richard is leaking badly, but the fight still rages. +Marines in the rigging bring down the enemy with incessant shots, and +hurl grenades that fire the Serapis. + + [Illustration: THE BATTLE BETWEEN THE BON HOMME RICHARD AND THE + SERAPIS.] + +The flames spread; both ships are on fire! but still the big guns roar. +Both vessels have been on fire three times, but the pumps are at work +and the battle still rages. The scene is one of appalling, indescribable +grandeur. Finally, at about ten o'clock, Captain Pearson sees there is +no hope against such a foe as this, and so strikes his flag. When the +haughty English captain gave up his sword to the brave Yankee sailor, he +said: "I cannot but feel much mortification at the idea of surrendering +my sword to a man who has fought me with a rope round his neck." + +The gallant Jones received the Englishman's sword, and at once returned +it, saying, "You have fought bravely, sir, and I hope your king will +give you a better ship." + +Thus ended one of the most desperate sea fights recorded in naval +history. The Bon Homme Richard was a complete wreck and was fast +sinking. Accordingly Jones took all on board the Serapis, which of +course was then under his command, and in a few hours the American +vessel went down in the deep sea, carrying with her the bodies of her +dead. The victorious commander took the Serapis, with all his prisoners, +into a Holland port. + +=249. Effect of this Grand Naval Victory; After-Life of Paul Jones.=--This +famous victory was a severe blow to England's naval prestige. The moral +effect upon the nations of Europe of such a victory within sight of the +English coast was something remarkable. + +Franklin praised Jones, and Washington wrote him a warm letter of +thanks. The French king invited him to his palace, and presented him +with a superb gold-mounted sword. The empress of Russia gave him an +honorary ribbon, and the king of Denmark awarded him a pension. + +In America this victory brought universal joy, and Congress bestowed on +the victor a large gold medal. The brave Captain Pearson was afterwards +knighted by his king. On hearing of it, Jones said, "He deserves it; +and if I fall in with him again I'll make a lord of him." + +After a few years' further service in our navy, Paul Jones was offered a +position of honor in the Russian navy. He accepted it and soon won a +brilliant victory in the Black Sea over the Turks, who were frightened +at his remarkable bravery. + +Afterwards, when living in Paris, Jones became broken down in health. No +wonder, for he had fought twenty-four naval battles! When he was taken +sick, the queen sent her physician, to attend him. He died in Paris in +1792, at the early age of forty-five, thirteen years after his memorable +victory. No one knows the place of his burial. At the public funeral a +vast concourse filled the streets of the French capital. + +General sorrow was shown throughout the United States at the death of +John Paul Jones, the great ocean hero of the Revolution--indeed, the +first heroic character in our country's naval history. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +BENJAMIN FRANKLIN: HIS HIGHLY USEFUL CAREER. + + +=250. Benjamin Franklin, one of the most Useful and Influential Men of +his Time.=--Among the many men who acted a conspicuous part as "makers of +our country," Benjamin Franklin holds a unique and interesting place. +Combined with shrewd common sense and a practical philosophy was a +genial and rare personality, which made him during his long lifetime a +most useful and influential citizen. + +Franklin did not fight and win battles like Washington and Greene, but +he gained notable victories in diplomacy when the struggling colonies +sorely needed them. For over sixty years he wrote hundreds of pamphlets, +tracts, and newspaper articles, which moulded public opinion at critical +times, and also served to increase the comfort and happiness of his +fellow-men. + +Most men who have attempted to write their own lives have made a sad +failure of it. This busy man of the world, with no education save that +which he was able to get in the "odds and ends" of time, told the story +of his own life in a way that has commanded the interest and admiration +of multitudes of readers for over a hundred years. + +=251. Franklin's Early Life; his Genius for Useful Inventions.=--Benjamin +Franklin, the fifteenth of a family of seventeen children, was born in +Boston in 1706. His father was a poor man, who could afford his youngest +boy only about two years of schooling. When he was ten, the lad left +school to assist his father at his trade of making soap and tallow +candles. + +Nothing else pleased the boy so much as a book. He had access at this +time to very few, and most of these were dull, but he read them eagerly. +He read and re-read Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ until he knew it by +heart. He disliked his father's trade and longed to do something more +agreeable. He even thought of running away to sea as one of his brothers +had done. + +=252. Learns the Printer's Trade; how he learned to write Good +English.=--Finally the boy was bound out as an apprentice to his older +brother James, to learn the printer's trade. This was more to the boy's +liking, for it gave him a better chance to read. For three years young +Franklin worked hard to master the business. In a short time he could +set type as well as any of the Boston printers. He went on errands to +the bookstores, and, making friends with the clerks, he was often able +to borrow books to read. He would carry them home, sit up most of the +night reading, and return them on the next morning. + +In his story of his own life, Franklin gives a most interesting account +of his finding an odd volume of Addison's _Spectator_, and how charmed +he was with the style. He would read one of Addison's essays with great +care, close the book, and then write it out in his own words. This was +carefully compared with the original, and corrected and re-corrected +until he had improved upon his first effort. + +This and other similar exercises were long continued, and they gave the +ambitious boy the command of a singularly clear and interesting style. + +=253. Writes for his Brother's Newspaper.=--For three years the young +printer worked steadily at his trade, without a moment of leisure except +such as he took from his sleep or from his meals. He often sat up late +and rose early, that he might have more time for study. + +His brother James, for whom he worked, so prospered in his business that +he began to print in 1721 a weekly newspaper. It was young Benjamin's +duty to set the type and strike off the edition of a few hundred +papers, and then carry the little sheet to the houses of the +subscribers. + +The boy read his brother's paper and soon had confidence enough in +himself to write articles for it. He did not dare to let his brother +know it, but slipped them under the door at night. They were printed and +eagerly read for some time before their authorship was known. + +=254. Goes to Philadelphia; First Appearance in that City.=--Young +Franklin and his brother did not, however, get along well together. They +quarreled, and the young printer at last sold some of his books and set +sail for New York on a sloop. Unable to find work there, he was advised +to go to Philadelphia. After many hardships and mishaps, he stepped +ashore at the Quaker City one Sunday morning with one silver dollar and +about a shilling in copper in his pocket. + +Franklin was at this time a sturdy youth of seventeen. He was dressed in +the peculiar fashion of the times. He wore knee breeches of buckskin, +also a huge coat, the pockets of which bulged out with his spare shirts +and stockings. He hastened to the first baker's shop and asked for +threepenny worth of bread. The baker handed him three long rolls. He +took one under each arm, and ate the third as he walked along the +streets. + +A young girl happened to see him as he passed her father's house, and +she laughed aloud at the young man's comical appearance. The girl's name +was Deborah Read, and she afterwards became the wife of Franklin. Hungry +and tired, he ate his rolls, then walked down to the river for a drink +of water, and at last went into a Quaker meeting and soon fell sound +asleep. + + [Illustration: FRANKLIN'S FIRST APPEARANCE IN PHILADELPHIA.] + +A good Quaker helped Franklin to get work at his trade as a printer. The +young man soon proved himself a prize to his employer. He was strong, +quick, frugal, of a studious mind, and, what was a rare virtue in those +days, he never touched strong drink. Bright and sunny hours now came. He +received good wages, saved his money, and made friends everywhere. + +=255. Goes to London and works at his Trade.=--One of these friends was +the governor of Pennsylvania. He advised Franklin to set up a printing +office of his own. He urged him to go to London to buy a printing +outfit, and promised him letters to people in England who, he said, +would let him have all the money he needed. The young printer trusted +too much to the pompous governor's promises and sailed for England, +hoping to find the letters in the vessel's letter bag. But the governor +had disappointed him; no such letters were ever written. + +In due time Franklin found himself in the great city of London, where he +did not know a single person. He at once showed what stuff he was made +of. He quietly went to work at his trade and worked harder than ever. He +kept up his studious habits, and spent all his spare time in reading +good books. + +=256. Returns to Philadelphia; successful as a Printer and +Publisher.=--After a stay of a year and a half in London, Franklin +returned to Philadelphia, and soon after set up in business for himself +as a printer. After a time he started a newspaper. He worked early and +late, attending to every detail himself. He was not ashamed to carry +material for his paper through the streets on a wheelbarrow. + +Once he invited a rival in his business home to dine. Pointing to a loaf +of bread from which they had eaten, he said, "Unless you can live +cheaper than I, you cannot starve me out." + +When he was twenty-four the prosperous young printer married Deborah +Read, the young woman who had laughed at him years before as he trudged +through the streets with the rolls under his arms. Deborah proved +herself a real helpmate, thrifty and industrious. Attached to the +printing office was a little shop which the young wife tended. + +"Our table was plain and simple," says Franklin in his autobiography, +"our furniture of the cheapest. For instance, our breakfast was for a +long time bread and milk (no tea), and I ate it out of a twopenny +earthen porringer, with a pewter spoon." In after years the thrifty +couple indulged in some splendor, for in 1765 Mrs. Franklin, in a letter +to her husband, alludes proudly to a papered room, horsehair chairs, a +sideboard, and three carpets. + +=257. His Happy, Useful, and Prosperous Career in Philadelphia.=--For +twenty years Franklin lived a prosperous life as an active business man +of the good Quaker city. He had become noted for his integrity, +sagacity, and prosperity. His newspaper became known for its sparkling +and timely editorials. The most intelligent and influential men of the +city met in his office to discuss the questions of the day. + +The same year that Washington was born (1732) Franklin issued the first +number of his _Poor Richard's Almanac_, which soon gained great fame for +its wise and pithy sayings. The popularity which this little work +maintained for twenty-five years was astonishing. Its shrewd and quaint +maxims soon became household words in almost every shop and home of the +land. + +Even with his increasing prosperity Franklin found time every day to +devote many hours to his books. He became proficient in French, Spanish, +Italian, and even Latin. He gave much time to music, and played with +skill upon the harp, the guitar, and the violin. + +This remarkable man now began to be at the head of many kinds of public +and private enterprises, from treating with the Indians to plans for +cleaning the streets. Honors, both public and private, were heaped upon +him. He started a public library in Philadelphia, the first of its kind +in America. + +He invented the famous "Franklin fireplace," which proved very popular +and is even in use to-day. The most trivial events would often suggest +to him something that would secure beneficial results. + +The story is told that Franklin saw one day in a ditch the fragments of +a basket of yellow willow, in which some foreign goods had been brought +into the country. One of the twigs had sprouted. He planted it; and it +is said that it became the parent of all the yellow willows in our +country. + +=258. Franklin's Famous Kite Experiment.=--Franklin was a great student of +the sciences, especially electricity. He wrote a pamphlet to prove that +lightning and electricity are the same thing. The idea was sneered at, +and people asked, "Of what use is it?" To which the genial philosopher +replied, "What is the use of a child? It may become a man!" He hit on a +plan to prove his theory. + + [Illustration: FRANKLIN'S FAMOUS KITE EXPERIMENT.] + +This was the famous kite experiment which he tried in 1752. He made a +kite of silk, fastened a piece of wire to the stick, and went out with +his son to fly it during a thunderstorm. At the lower end of the hempen +string was fastened a key, and below that a cord of silk, which is a +non-conductor. He held the silk cord in his hand, and when a low thunder +cloud passed, he saw that the fibres of the string rose, separated, and +stood on end, exactly as the hair does on one's head when one is charged +with electricity as he stands on an insulating stool. + +When Franklin brought his knuckles near the key that he had tied to the +string, sparks came from the metal, and he felt slight shocks. + +This discovery made a great sensation in the scientific world. Franklin +at once became famous, took high rank as a man of science, and was +afterwards known as "Doctor Franklin." He now invented the lightning +rod, which has been in use ever since all over the civilized world. + +=259. Entrance into a Broader Public Life.=--From this time Franklin began +to occupy more important positions in public life. In 1754 he was sent +on a mission to Albany to enlist the chiefs of the powerful "Six +Nations" to become allies of the English. On this journey he drew up a +plan for the union of the colonies. It was almost like that by which +they were afterwards bound together as a nation. + +During the Braddock campaign Franklin in vain warned the haughty British +general that "the Indians would surprise, on its flanks, the slender +line, nearly four miles long, which the army must make," and would "cut +it like a thread into several pieces." From his own purse Franklin +advanced for this ill-starred expedition between six and seven thousand +silver dollars. + +The quarrels between the Pennsylvania Assembly and the Proprietors in +England became so bitter that Franklin was sent to England in 1757 as +the sole commissioner to make an appeal to the English government. He +was cordially received abroad and highly honored by the most eminent +scientific men of the time. He returned home after an absence of nearly +six years. + +Franklin was now fifty-seven years old. He had an ample fortune, perfect +health, and a superiority to most men in personal appearance and +dignity. He hoped to withdraw from public life and give the rest of his +days to the study of science. + +=260. Franklin becomes a most Useful and Sagacious Helper to the +Struggling Colonies.=--Great and momentous events, however, were at hand. +There was more important work for him to do. The struggling colonies, +already taxed almost beyond endurance to carry on the war against the +French and Indians, were allowed no representation nor voice in the +matter of taxation. Franklin, with patriotic foresight and with keen +force of logic, resisted the outrage. He declared it to be the "mother +of mischief." + +In 1764 Franklin was again sent by the Assembly to England, to present +to the British court the protest of the people against "taxation without +representation." + + [Illustration: FRANKLIN AT THE COURT OF FRANCE.] + +From this time Franklin served the colonies in England as a most +accomplished diplomatist, a vigorous writer, and a shrewd and sagacious +agent. He failed to stop the passage of the notorious Stamp Act, but he +fought the measure so vigorously by his writings and discussions that he +aroused bitter opposition to it among the industrial classes, so that +Parliament was compelled at last to repeal the obnoxious measure. + +He was once brought before the House of Parliament and sharply +questioned. + +"Do you think," asked the prime minister, "the people of America would +submit to pay the stamp duty if it was changed?" + +"No, never," said Franklin; "the American people will never submit to +it." + +The colonists received with unbounded delight the tidings of Franklin's +masterly diplomacy and the repeal of the Stamp Act. Bells were rung, +bonfires blazed, and cannon were fired. "I never heard so much noise in +my life," wrote Franklin's daughter Sallie to him; "the very children +seem distracted." + +Franklin now watched with honest shrewdness and a penetrating mind the +many attempts of the British government to tax the Americans. Other +colonies recognized his ability, and New Jersey, Georgia, and +Massachusetts appointed him as their agent. + +At last, when all attempts to induce the government to change its +oppressive policy had failed and war was sure to follow, Franklin sailed +for home. He reached Philadelphia about sixteen days after the battle at +Lexington and Concord. + +The morning after his arrival he was unanimously chosen a member of the +Continental Congress, which was to meet in Philadelphia on the tenth of +May. He now took a leading part in aiding his countrymen in their war +for liberty. He was one of the five men, it will be remembered, chosen +to draft the Declaration of Independence. + +=261. His Remarkable Service Abroad as a Diplomatist.=--Shortly afterwards +Franklin was chosen a special ambassador to France. + +"I am old and good for nothing," said the philosopher; "but, as the +storekeepers say of their remnants of cloth, 'I am but a fag end, and +you may have me for what you please.'" + +Two years afterwards, by his wisdom and his thorough knowledge of +diplomacy, Franklin was chiefly instrumental in securing a treaty with +France. By this memorable compact our independence was acknowledged, and +we were recognized by France as one among the nations of the world. + +The news of the treaty was received in America with unbounded joy. +General Washington drew up his little half-starved army at Valley Forge +to announce the event, and to offer prayers and thanksgiving to God. +During the next three years Franklin rendered invaluable services in +obtaining money, arms, and other means to aid his country in her life +and death struggle with England. + +At last, when Great Britain gave up all hope of subduing her American +colonies, and was ready to make terms of peace, Franklin's diplomacy +triumphed. Probably no other man in America could have guided the affair +so wisely. + +=262. Franklin's Last Days.=--Franklin was now an old man of +seventy-eight. He was so feeble that he could not walk, and could only +ride in a litter. Thomas Jefferson was sent over to France in 1784 as +his successor. + +Upon his arrival the French prime minister said, "You replace Doctor +Franklin, I understand." + +"No!" replied Jefferson, "I _succeed_ him. No man can replace him!" + +The long sea voyage homeward proved very beneficial to the old +philosopher's health. He was chosen a delegate to the convention that +met in Philadelphia in 1787 to frame a new constitution. Although he was +now eighty-one years of age, he was regularly in his seat, five hours a +day, for four months. + +Three years later, at his home in Philadelphia, in 1790, the "grand old +man" died, at the age of eighty-four. The whole nation mourned his loss. +No man of that period, except Washington, was held in higher esteem and +veneration the world over than was Benjamin Franklin. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +EVERYDAY LIFE ONE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. + + +=263. Our Country One Hundred Years Ago.=--Let us now take a hasty glance +backward for a century and note the vast changes that have taken place +in the matter of daily living during this time. Very different was the +country in which our forefathers lived from that with which we are +familiar. To be sure, there was a fringe of villages along the coast +from Maine to Georgia. Fifty miles back from the Atlantic the country +was for the most part an unbroken wilderness. + +A few hundred settlers, and perhaps a hundred log cabins, made up a +village where now stands the great city of Cincinnati. Indians and +buffaloes roamed over the rich plains of the West which to-day furnish +grain for Europe. Only seven of the states then had well-defined +boundaries. Thousands of the marvelous inventions and discoveries which +have added so much to the comfort and convenience of life had at that +time no existence. + +=264. Newspapers.=--Forty-three newspapers managed to survive the war of +the Revolution. Even the best of these were mean-looking, and printed +on poor paper. For the most part, they contained but four small pages, +and were issued not oftener than two or three times a week. As to +quantity of printed matter, they could not sustain comparison for one +moment with the newspaper of our time. + +There was no such thing as an editorial page. All kinds of queer +advertisements there were; as, for runaway slaves or stolen horses: +tedious letters appeared, written to the editor from distant points: +treatises on geography and morals abounded instead of news. To fill out +space, the editor would occasionally reprint some standard historical +work or book of travels. + +That material which gives the modern newspaper its peculiar value and is +now known under the general name of "news" was unknown. There were few +or no facilities for gathering facts as to the happenings of events or +the doings of individuals, communities, and nations; and certainly no +pains was taken to forward such material for publication. + +=265. The Postal Service and Letter-Writing.=--In the early colonial times +there was no such thing as an official postal service. Up to the time of +the Revolution there were certain means provided for carrying letters, +but they were very meagre. + +The postmen used to travel some thirty to fifty miles a day in good +weather. Letters were sent from New York to Boston three times a week +during summer, and twice a week in winter. Six days and even more were +required to make the journey. One pair of saddlebags easily contained +all the mail. + + [Illustration: A DISCUSSION ON A FINANCIAL QUESTION OF THE TIMES.] + +If such were the scanty mail accommodations of the chief cities, we can +imagine what they were in the small country towns. Sacks of letters and +papers are now easily carried in one afternoon farther than they were +then transported in five weeks. After the war, Washington had an +extensive and important correspondence with the influential men of the +country. In many of his replies he complained of the tedious delay in +receiving his mail. Well he might, for his letters were sometimes longer +in going from Mount Vernon to Boston than they would now be in reaching +China. + +In remote sections the post-rider was often a decrepit man or some +crippled soldier. One old postman used to improve his time, as his horse +jogged slowly along, by knitting woolen mittens and stockings. There was +no special protection to the service. Letters and packages were opened +and freely read or examined by the carriers. So common was this evil +that the great men of this time used to correspond in cipher. + +We may be sure that when it cost much to send letters, and the +difficulties of forwarding them were so many, the letter-writers of +those days took special pains to write long epistles, full of news. +People learned most of the news of the day from distant places, whether +it pertained to politics, society, or gossip, through faithful +correspondents. + +Imagine a busy merchant in one of our great cities writing a business +letter, but giving most of the space to the results of the last +election, or the doings of the state legislature. The telegraph, the +telephone, stenography, and the typewriter of our day have +revolutionized business communication and much of personal +correspondence. + +=266. The Stage Coaches.=--During the war of the Revolution, stages +stopped running between distant cities, and horseback traveling was +resumed. When peace was declared, the "coach and four" again took the +road. Boston and New York were then the two great commercial centers of +the country; yet during Washington's first term two stages and twelve +horses carried all the passengers by land between these two cities. + +The stage coach at this time was not much better than a huge covered box +mounted on springs. There were no closed sides, glass windows, steps, or +doors. It was not to be compared for one moment with the far-famed +Concord coaches in after years. In summer an ordinary day's journey was +forty miles, but in winter only about one-half of this distance. + +The stage started early each morning--often at three o'clock--and its +daily time limit was about ten at night. Often the passengers were +forced to get out and help lift it out of the mud or a deep rut. If +there were no unusual accidents or mishaps, it reached New York, from +Boston, at the end of the sixth day. Even at this snail pace the good +people used to wonder at the ease, as well as the speed, with which the +journey was made. + +It is no wonder, then, that a journey to any remote place became a +serious matter. Prudent men, when ready to set out for a distant point, +arranged their business affairs for any emergency, made their wills, +and, after a formal dinner at the tavern, bade their family and +neighbors a solemn farewell. + +=267. How Fires were put out.=--The law at this time compelled every man +to take an active part in putting out fires. He was obliged to keep at +least four leathern buckets hung up at some convenient place in his +house or shop, with his name painted on them, together with a big canvas +bag. When an alarm of fire was raised, either by vigorous shouts of +"Fire! fire!" or the ringing of the church bell, the good citizen seized +his fire buckets and his canvas bag, and, guided by the smoke or flame, +started for the scene of action. + +There were no idlers at an old-time fire. Some rushed into the building +with their canvas bags and filled them with such movable goods as could +be readily carried in them. A double line extending to the water was +formed of men, boys, and even women. One line passed the full buckets to +those who were nearest the fire, while the other line returned the empty +vessels to the well or river. + +Some of the larger towns boasted of a "fire engine." This was merely a +pump mounted over a tank, which the men kept full by pouring in water +from the buckets. The rich householder was allowed to send his slave or +servant to the fire with the fire buckets. + +When the fire was out, the buckets were left in the road, to be picked +up and carried home by their owners. Persons who neglected to keep their +fire buckets in good order and in their proper places, or who failed to +carry them home after the fire, were fined. + +=268. How Sunday was passed.=--The observance of Sunday began at sundown +on Saturday. The early part of the evening was devoted to family +worship, and shortly after eight o'clock all were in bed. No work except +such as was really necessary was done on Sunday. Most of the cooking was +done the day before. Each member of the family, unless sick in bed, went +to church. The farmer traveled on horseback with his wife on the pillion +behind. + +The singers sat in the front gallery. The boys and young men had seats +in the left-hand gallery, while that on the right was occupied by the +young women. We have read in a previous chapter something about the +tithing-man and his duties. The short noon interval was devoted to +eating a cold lunch. + +No meeting-house in those days was warmed. Old and feeble women were +allowed to use tin foot-stoves, filled with a few hot coals. In the +bitter cold months of a New England winter it was no trifling affair to +endure the actual suffering that accompanied religious worship on +Sunday. The story is told of a good minister in Connecticut who in the +depths of winter prudently preached in overcoat and mittens, but +complained that his voice was drowned by persons stamping and knocking +their feet together to keep warm. + +=269. The Minister and the Meeting-Houses.=--The minister was always held +in high esteem. He was usually the most important man of the village, +and was looked upon with reverence not unmingled with awe. His authority +was almost supreme. If a person spoke disrespectfully of him, or even +laughed at his oddities, the offender was heavily fined. The advice of +the minister was often asked, and sometimes given unasked, on matters of +business as well as of religion. Fearless and resolute in what they +believed to be right, the influence of the ministers of that time in +public affairs was deservedly very great. + +The minister's salary was but a pittance. It was never the same two +years in succession, and was rarely paid in cash. Donations of corn, +beans, turnips, and other farm products were usually given in place of +hard money. + +The sermon was the one event of the week. Every well person in the +village turned out to hear it. Copious notes were taken, and its various +points furnished topics for fireside discussion during the week. + +=270. How the Doctors healed the Sick.=--The village doctor, together with +the minister and schoolmaster, held a high social rank. There were only +two medical colleges in the country, and these were not well attended. +Medical books were scarce and costly. Even the best doctors could not +boast of a medical library of fifty volumes. + + [Illustration: A VILLAGE MAGNATE RIDING IN THE OLD-TIME CHAISE.] + +The future doctor served his time as a student with some well-known +physician. He ground the powders, mixed the potions, rolled the pills, +cleaned the bottles, tended the night bell, and otherwise made himself +useful. If the young student had a good preceptor and was gifted with a +keen observation and a retentive memory, he returned to his native town +or went elsewhere fairly prepared to begin practice. + +There were no drug stores in those days, and each doctor was his own +apothecary. He ground his own drugs, made his own tinctures, salves, and +plasters. Most of the medical preparations used then would not be +tolerated to-day. + +Then as now the country doctor used to ride night and day, year after +year, whatever the weather or the condition of the roads, to attend the +good people of his neighborhood. He received, as he richly deserved, the +respect and affection of his patients for his life of hardship and +self-denial. + +=271. How the Schoolmaster taught School.=--Besides the doctor, minister, +and lawyer, the village schoolmaster was socially and otherwise an +important man. He was usually a student who was "working his way" +through college, and who sought, by teaching winters and working on a +farm in summer, to defray his expenses at Yale, Dartmouth, or Harvard. + +In many of the school districts he was expected to "board round." That +is, he lived with the parents of his pupils, regulating his stay +according to the number of the children of the family who attended +school. + + [Illustration: AN OLD SOLDIER FIGHTING HIS BATTLES OVER AGAIN.] + +In those days there were large families and many children, and the young +schoolmaster was a welcome guest. The best room in the house, the +warmest corner by the fireplace, and the choicest food were reserved for +him. During the long winter evenings he discussed theology and politics +with the fathers, played games with the children, and escorted the girls +to "spelling matches" and "quilting bees." + +=272. The Everyday Home Life.=--Such conveniences and comforts as are now +found in almost every home were then unknown. Cooking stoves, matches, +refined sugar, sewing machines, and kerosene oil had never been heard +of. The mechanic's home had no carpets on the floor, no pictures on the +walls, no coal in the cellar, no water faucets in the kitchen. Fruits +and vegetables, now so cheap in their season, such as tomatoes, oranges, +bananas, celery, and dates, were either quite unknown or beyond the +reach of scanty means. + +The farmers of a century ago ate plain food and wore plain clothes. +Their daily fare was usually salt fish, salt pork, beef, a few +vegetables, and dried apples. The numerous farm implements, which have +done so much to cheapen food and to bring thousands of acres into a +state of high cultivation, were not yet invented. + +The well-to-do farmer managed to pick up a great deal of general +information and news of the day. He was noted for an inquiring turn of +mind. He could tire out the weary visitor or stranger on the road with +numberless questions on current social, political, or religious topics. +At times he would unbend enough to play "fox and geese" with his +children, or attend "apple bees" and corn huskings. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +WHAT OUR NAVY DID IN THE WAR OF 1812. + + +=273. Outrages committed by the Pirates of the Barbary Coast.=--A hundred +years ago the ports of the nations lying on the northern coast of +Africa--the Barbary States, as they were called, Morocco, Algiers, +Tunis, and Tripoli--were infested by fierce pirates. They used to rush +out with their swift vessels and capture the ships of Christian nations. +After plundering them of their valuables, they would hold the crews as +slaves, or sell them to slave dealers. + +These pirates became for years the terror of Europe. Merchants paid +annual tributes of large sums of money to the Pasha to save their +cargoes from seizure. Even our own nation, in 1795, paid these sea +robbers for the release of American sailors captured and held by them as +slaves, and also for the exemption of our ships from attack. First and +last we paid these robber states not less than a million dollars to buy +their good will. + +It is difficult to realize that there was once a time when the President +of the United States negotiated treaties, the Senate ratified them, and +Congress voted tribute money to keep the peace with pirates. + +In 1801 a disagreement arose about our regular payment; and the Bashaw +of Tripoli, whose greed it was hard to satisfy, had the impudence to +declare war against the United States and cut down the flagstaff in +front of our consul's residence. + +=274. The Gallant Exploits of Decatur and his Brave Men.=--Although we had +only a small navy, President Jefferson thought it best to put a stop to +this blackmail business, and settle with the pirates in a different way. +So he sent some war vessels to punish them, and they did it quite +thoroughly. + +During one of these encounters the United States frigate Philadelphia, +one of our best, under the command of Captain Bainbridge, chased a +pirate craft into the harbor of Tripoli, but unluckily ran on a reef. +She stuck fast, helpless either to fight or to sail. She was captured, +with all her crew, by the enemy. + +But a few months afterwards, Stephen Decatur, a gallant lieutenant of +only twenty-five, sailed from Sicily in a small vessel, the Intrepid, +which had just been captured from the Moors. He boldly entered the +harbor of Tripoli one evening about dusk, and sailed quietly along close +to the Philadelphia. Then pirates did not suspect harm, as the Intrepid +appeared to be a Moorish vessel. With its crew of seventy men concealed +under the bulwarks, the little vessel was instantly made fast to the +ill-fated frigate. + +"Follow me, lads!" cried Decatur. + +The men from the Intrepid sprang to their feet and climbed on board the +Philadelphia. The surprise was complete. In ten minutes Decatur and his +bold sailors had killed or driven overboard every pirate, then set the +ship afire, leaped back upon the Intrepid, and escaped from the harbor +amid a storm of shot from the batteries. Not one of our men was lost in +the whole affair. + +This heroic adventure, which made young Decatur a captain, became common +talk in Europe. England's greatest naval hero, Lord Nelson, said, "It +was the most bold and daring act of the ages." There is no single naval +exploit to be compared with it for boldness, except Cushing's +destruction of the ironclad Albemarle in the war for the Union. + +=275. Outrageous Conduct of the British toward American Sailors.=--During +the years soon after 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte was at war with almost all +Europe, and especially with England. + +The British navy was very large and in constant need of sailors. To get +them, English men-of-war used to stop American merchant ships wherever +they met them on the high seas. They would fire a cannon shot across the +bows of the American vessel to compel it to heave to. British officers +would then come on board, marshal the crew in line, and pick out sailors +whom they claimed to be deserters from British ships. + +Very likely the ones thus singled out could prove that they were +Americans by birth or adoption. No matter for that! They were needed, +and, as the men-of-war had the power to take them by force, go they +must. In time this dastardly business became even worse. The British +sometimes stationed their war vessels off the entrance of our largest +harbors, ready to search our merchantmen as they sailed out. + +Now all this bid fair to destroy our commerce. None of our ships were +safe. Importing, exporting, our vast fisheries, important +manufactures--many kinds of business--were on the verge of ruin. + +In spite of our protests the British government kept up this practice +for years, until it was said that more than nine hundred American +vessels had been searched, and over six thousand American sailors +kidnapped from them. + +=276. The War of 1812 begun.=--Why did we endure these insults from +England so long? Perhaps the principal reason was our small navy. The +English war fleets then numbered over a thousand vessels, and ours less +than twenty! These outrages could not, however, be longer tolerated. +England even insisted that she had a perfect _right_ to seize our ships +and to carry off our citizens. + +War was declared in 1812. In this war most of our land battles were more +or less failures, but the brilliant success of our naval contests more +than made up for them. In fact, whenever we speak of the war of 1812, we +always think of the surprising series of victories won by our splendid +though small naval force against England. + + [Illustration: ISAAC HULL.] + +=277. The Great Naval Battle between the Constitution and the +Guerrière.=--Only a few weeks after war was declared, our frigate +Constitution, Captain Isaac Hull, met the enemy's man-of-war Guerrière, +Captain Dacres, off the Massachusetts shore. The British vessel had been +sailing proudly up and down our coast, challenging the Yankee craft to +fight. The Guerrière in real British pride flings out a flag from the +top of each "ocean spire." Her guns flash but the balls fall short. + +"Not a cannon to be fired till I give the word," cried Captain Hull; +"double shot the guns." + +"May we not begin?" shouted his first officer as the shot came tearing +through the rigging. + +Another broadside from the Guerrière! The men are getting impatient. +Captain Hull calmly waits until he can bring every gun to bear. + +"Now, boys, give it to them!" he shouted at the top of his voice. + +They did their work well. In twenty minutes the proud English frigate +was a helpless wreck. + +"I will not take your sword," said the gallant Hull to Captain Dacres as +the British officer surrendered; "but I will trouble you for that hat!" + +It seems that these two brave captains were personal friends, and Hull +had made a bet with Dacres that his vessel would "whip" the Guerrière if +there should ever be a war, and the loser was to forfeit his hat! + +The Constitution was almost unhurt. The Guerrière, shattered and +useless, was set on fire, and in a few minutes blew up. All that was +left of the splendid vessel instantly vanished from sight forever. Hull +took his prisoners to Boston, where he was received with enthusiastic +welcome. + +The news of this victory created equal joy in every section of the +country. Its chief importance lay in the confidence it inspired among +all the people, demonstrating that a first-class English battleship was +far from invincible. The British government was astounded. So were the +naval authorities, some of whom had sneered at the Constitution as "a +bundle of pine boards." + + [Illustration: CAPTAIN HULL REFUSES TO ACCEPT CAPTAIN DACRES' SWORD.] + +=278. Naval Battle between the Wasp and Frolic; Other Brilliant Naval +Victories for the American Sailors.=--A few weeks later the American +sloop-of-war Wasp fell in with the British brig Frolic off Virginia. It +was a sharp fight for three-quarters of an hour. Both vessels were +nearly destroyed, when the Wasp came close to the Frolic and gave a +tremendous broadside that carried away everything before it. Then the +Wasp's crew boarded the Frolic and found not a sailor on deck--only the +officers, who surrendered. The surviving sailors had gone below to +escape the deadly fire. + +The very next week Commodore Decatur of the frigate United States +attacked the British frigate Macedonian near the Canary Islands. It was +a brisk fight of two hours, when the Macedonian surrendered with a loss +of over one hundred men. + +Decatur's victory produced a profound impression both in this country +and in England. Congress recognized its importance by a vote of thanks +and a gold medal to the commodore. + +=279. "Old Ironsides" and her Noble Record.=--In the same month occurred +the famous battle off Brazil between the Constitution under Commodore +Bainbridge and the frigate Java. It was a furious contest for two hours. +The enemy's ship had every mast shot away, and her hull was torn with +shot. Her deck was covered with more than two hundred killed and +wounded. The wreck of the Java surrendered, the survivors were taken on +board the Constitution, and the hull was burned. This was the fourth +brilliant naval victory gained within six months. + +The Constitution has ever since been popularly known as "Old Ironsides," +by which name her exploits have been celebrated from that day until this +in oratory and song. Many years ago the government planned to break her +up and sell her timbers. This prompted Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes to +write his famous poem beginning:-- + + Ay, tear her tattered ensign down! + Long has it waved on high. + +These stirring lines had a powerful influence upon the public mind, and +the noble-vessel was saved. She may be seen now (1900), carefully +protected, in the navy yard at Charlestown, Mass. + +Slowly but surely the idea dawned upon many minds in Europe that a +nation was springing up on the other side of the Atlantic that would +sometime dispute with England, the "mistress of the seas," the supremacy +of the ocean. + +=280. Battle between the Chesapeake and Shannon.=--The year 1813 opened +with hopeful prospects, but the scale turned less in our favor than +during 1812. A brilliant young officer, Captain James Lawrence, was +given in reward for his bravery the command of the Chesapeake, then +lying in Boston Harbor. She was one of the finest frigates in our young +navy, but had the name among the sailors of being an "unlucky" craft. + +Lawrence had hardly taken charge of his new ship when he received a +challenge from the British frigate Shannon, cruising outside, daring him +to come out and fight. He hastily made ready for sea, collected such a +crew as he could, part landsmen and part foreigners, and sailed out. +This was really very unwise. + + [Illustration: JAMES LAWRENCE.] + +The Shannon's crew were picked men, and had had long and careful drill, +while Lawrence's men were fresh and unprepared. Lawrence was young, +proud of his late victory, and full of courage. The hostile ships fought +fiercely and with terrible effect. In a few minutes every one of the +Chesapeake's officers was either killed or wounded. + +While Lawrence was giving an order, a musket ball inflicted upon him a +fatal wound. As he was carried below, his dying words were, + +"DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP!" + +--a stirring battle-cry, which has ever since been a source of +inspiration to our navy. + +The battle was soon over. The torn rigging of the Chesapeake was +entangled with that of the Shannon, the enemy's officers leaped on board +and raised the British flag. The Chesapeake was taken to Halifax, where +Lawrence was buried with military honors. + +=281. Commodore Perry and his Brilliant Victory on Lake Erie.=--The story +of Perry's brilliant victory on Lake Erie has been told in prose and +verse ever since it took place. The control of this inland sea between +two hostile countries was very important. The British already had a +little fleet of six vessels with sixty-three guns, to oppose which we +had hardly anything in the shape of vessels or trained men. + +A naval officer, Oliver Hazard Perry of Rhode Island, not quite +twenty-eight years old and who had never been in action before, was +appointed to take charge of the whole matter in behalf of the United +States. First, he must have an armed flotilla to meet the enemy. + +With remarkable energy the young captain put a large force of +wood-choppers and ship carpenters at work for months near Erie, Pa., +felling huge trees and building war vessels of the green timber. Soon he +had launched nine, with fifty-four cannon--more vessels than the enemy, +but fewer guns. + +One beautiful September morning the British fleet was seen on the +horizon. + +"Sail ho!" rang out from the masthead of the American flagship. + +"Enemy in sight!" "Get under way!" was the signal sent to each vessel. + +Perry stripped his flagship, the Lawrence, for action. At her masthead +he raised a blue battle-flag, upon which had been painted in large white +letters the dying words of the brave Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship." + +"My brave lads," said Perry, "this flag has on it the dying words of +Captain Lawrence. Shall I hoist it?" + +"Aye, aye, sir," shouted every man, and cheer after cheer echoed and +reechoed through the fleet. This was the signal for battle. + +The enemy's fire was directed mostly upon Perry's vessel, which fought +the two largest British ships till the Lawrence was almost a helpless +wreck--cannon dismounted, masts shot away, and most of the crew either +killed or wounded. + +Should Perry surrender? NOT HE! + +Taking his motto banner, he sprang into his only open boat, with his +little brother and four stout sailors, and standing erect with his +battle-flag half folded about him, balls flying all around him, he was +rowed through the thickest of the fight to another of his ships, the +Niagara, half a mile distant. + +A mighty shout went up from all our fleet at the sight of this heroic +deed. + +"Fire upon that boat," ordered the British commander. + +The enemy at once poured a hail of cannon-balls, grapeshot, and musket +bullets around the men in the open boat. Strange to say, not a person +was hurt. Perry sprang on board of the Niagara, took command, sailed his +vessels into the enemy's line, and thundered a series of broadsides +right and left into five of their best ships. + + [Illustration: OLIVER HAZARD PERRY.] + +In fifteen minutes from this moment the work was over! For the first +time in history an American fleet had met a British fleet in a fair +fight--and captured it! + +The battle had lasted three hours. The victory was complete. Then with +singular pride Perry returned to the shattered Lawrence and there +received the enemy's surrender! When he was sure of victory, he wrote +in pencil on the back of an old letter, resting the paper on his cap, +and sent to General Harrison (afterwards President in 1841) that +remarkable despatch, the first sentence of which has been so often +repeated: + +"WE HAVE MET THE ENEMY AND THEY ARE OURS!" + +This victory, so astonishing for its daring act of valor, turned the +scales of war. It saved the western states from further inroads by the +British, and paved the way for General Harrison to recover what was lost +in General Hull's surrender of Detroit. + +=282. Other Events of this War.=--The next year, 1814, which saw the end +of the war, was marked by events few but important. In the summer the +British with their vast fleet blockaded all our most important ports, +and sailing up rivers and into unprotected harbors, they plundered +without mercy the defenseless cities and towns. + +In August one of their fleet sailed up to Washington, the city being +entirely unguarded. President Madison, the officers of the government, +and many citizens fled, and General Ross marched unopposed into the +city. Obeying instructions from his government, he burned the Capitol, +the President's house, the Treasury, and other public buildings, with +vast amounts of valuable books and records. This shameful act has +always received the sharpest condemnation from the civilized world. + +Next the British army marched to Baltimore, where the fleet bombarded +Fort McHenry all day and all night, but without avail. The next morning +Francis Scott Key, then a prisoner on a British ship, seeing the flag +still flying over the fort, hastily wrote in pencil, on the back of an +old letter, the stirring song that we all know so well, "The +Star-Spangled Banner." + +The British General Ross was killed, and his army hastened to the ships +and sailed away. + +In September the English, with an army of fourteen thousand veterans, +tried to force a way from Canada to New York through Lake Champlain. +Their army marched from Quebec, while the fleet sailed down the lake, +and both were at Plattsburg together. But our gallant flotilla under +Commodore McDonough utterly destroyed the British squadron, far superior +to ours. + +=283. How General Jackson defeated the British at New Orleans.=--Later in +the year the British made a vigorous effort to capture New Orleans. More +than ten thousand trained veterans, believed to be the finest troops in +the world, were met by less than half that number of men under Andrew +Jackson, afterwards President. The battle was short but decisive. + +The British general repeated the fatal error of Bunker Hill in marching +his soldiers to attack men who were behind breastworks, and who knew how +to hit every time they fired. Jackson's wall of cotton bales was +assaulted time and again, but the red-coat lines broke and ran before +the withering fire of the backwoods rifles. The sharpshooters of the +South-west had worsted British veterans who had defeated the best +soldiers of Napoleon. + +In less than an hour the enemy's leader, General Packenham, was killed, +seven hundred of his men lay dead on the field, and the contest was +over. The British lost over two thousand in all, the Americans only +thirteen! Never had a British army met a more decisive defeat. + +This battle, fought on the eighth of January, 1815, was really needless; +for peace had been made in Europe about two weeks before. + +=284. Results of the War.=--The war of 1812 was not fought in vain. It put +an end at once to searching American vessels and kidnapping American +sailors on the high seas. Foreign nations saw that we were determined to +maintain our rights on the ocean, and have never thought it best since +then to insult our country. This war also served to strengthen the +American feeling of nationality. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +THE SETTLEMENT OF THE PACIFIC COAST. + + +=285. The Great Rush Westward.=--Shortly after the close of the +Revolution, long processions of emigrant wagons, with their white canvas +covers and their companies of hardy men and women, began to move +westward on all the main roads through New England, over the highways of +New York toward the lakes, over the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, +and through the valley of the Ohio. + +Thousands of thrifty settlers followed just behind the pioneers and +cleared the forests, bridged the streams, built villages, and tilled the +rich valleys. Thousands left their homes in the Carolinas and went over +the mountains to settle on the rich lands of Kentucky and Tennessee. + +The hardships which these early settlers endured are beyond description. +It was one long hard struggle for food, shelter, and life itself. This +was only the beginning of that mighty stream of migration which flowed +for the next half century or more beyond the Mississippi, beyond the +Rocky Mountains, into the region of the extreme Northwest and to the +shores of the Pacific. + +The story of the marvelous growth of our country beyond the Alleghanies +during the last hundred years reads more like a fairy tale than the +plain truth. + +=286. Discovery of the Columbia River.=--In 1792 Captain Robert Gray of +Boston, in the ship Columbia, was coasting along the Pacific shores, +trading with the Indians for furs, when he discovered a broad and deep +stream, which he entered and sailed up for many miles, and named after +his vessel. The discovery of this great river produced momentous and +far-reaching results. + +=287. The Purchase of Louisiana by President Jefferson.=--Now comes +another important event. Our pioneers, who wanted to push on still +farther, could not consistently cross the Mississippi River to stay +there; for all that country belonged to France. This entire region of +over a million square miles was then called Louisiana. + +Our people were very anxious to obtain part of this land, because it +included New Orleans. The possession of it seemed necessary for our +growing commerce and for our future protection. Thomas Jefferson, then +President (1803), was on the point of attempting to buy of France enough +of this southern region to include the mouth of the river, when he +learned to his surprise that the French would be glad to sell us the +whole of that vast territory! + +Napoleon was just then planning military operations on a great scale +against England, and he was in sore need of "the sinews of war"; so he +was glad to sell to this country this immense area for fifteen million +dollars. + +The addition of the Louisiana territory more than doubled the area of +the United States. + +=288. The Wonders revealed by the Lewis and Clarke Exploring +Expedition.=--The next year President Jefferson thought it best to learn +all about this wonderful addition to our territory, and so sent an +expedition, under Captains Lewis and Clarke, to explore it. They started +from St. Louis in May, 1804. What a remarkable journey it was!--more +than two thousand miles up the Missouri River to its source, then across +the Rocky Mountains, next down the Columbia River to the Pacific. They +were the first white men who ever explored this vast domain, having +traveled about six thousand miles. + +On their return in September, 1806, they were welcomed with unbounded +joy. The stories of their perilous adventures sounded like a fairy +romance, and the book of their travels was read everywhere. The +explorers brought back word that the Indians had immense quantities of +valuable furs. Soon throngs of American hunters and trappers began to +roam over the vast plains and through the forests. + +All the way from the Missouri River to the Pacific a chain of trading +posts, and stores for exchanging goods for furs were established. The +wagons of the fur-traders and the winding caravans of emigrants that +went under their protection soon made a pretty fair road. This was known +as the Oregon trail, and in time it became the principal northern +highway for Pacific travel. + +=289. How Dr. Whitman saved Oregon to the Union.=--In 1836 a group of +young missionaries, two of them with their brides, went from New England +to Oregon, taking with them a wagon all the way from the Missouri to +their new homes on the Columbia River. One of these was a doctor by the +name of Marcus Whitman, whose labors and counsel became of great value +to the company. + +After they had been settled in Oregon some years Dr. Whitman discovered, +one day in October, 1842, that the British were sending large bands of +settlers down into Oregon, apparently to crowd American emigrants out of +that rich country and to take complete possession. + +"The country is ours! The United States is too late. England will have +Oregon and you cannot help it," exclaimed an English subject to him. + +"I will see," was the doctor's quiet reply. + +The moment Dr. Whitman heard this he became alarmed at the danger. If +the President at Washington could only be informed of the facts, the +threatened loss might be averted. The National Capital was three +thousand or more miles away; and yet to delay a year or two might mean +the seizure of all this rich country by the British. + +How to inform the government at Washington was the question. Could he +himself do anything to save to his country this immense and valuable +region?--one man, in midwinter, and across a continent? The problem +haunted him--"Must I go?" He could not sleep. Difficult, almost +impossible, as would be the journey, yet he heard the clear call of +duty. + +A firm and bold, resolve, quick as a flash, had taken hold of him. He +rode home in haste. + +"I am going to Washington to lay bare this scheme," said he to his wife. +"I will bring settlers to Oregon." + +"You cannot ever get there," exclaimed the young wife; "you will perish +on the way." + +"I must go; Oregon must be saved," said Whitman. + +=290. Whitman begins his Perilous Journey.=--Twenty-four hours later Dr. +Whitman, with one companion, and pack mules for the guide and their +supplies, started on horseback on the perilous undertaking. + +Over mountain ranges, through deep gorges and rugged forests, now +drenched in storms, now buried in snow, and half famishing for +food--their sufferings cannot be described. + + [Illustration: WHITMAN'S FAMOUS "RIDE FOR OREGON."] + +They fed their horses on cotton-wood bark, while the men themselves +lived on mule and dog meat. Two or three times they were really lost in +the blinding snowstorms, and wandered about bewildered for days. Once +only, Whitman gave up in despair, and then, worn out and bewildered, he +knelt in the deep snow, and in a final prayer surrendered to God all +earthly hopes. Then the party sank down and awaited a snowy burial. They +were not, however, to die in the wilderness, but were rescued from +death almost as if by a miracle, and after untold hardships for three +months they reached St. Louis. + +=291. Dr. Whitman succeeds in his Grand Mission.=--Dr. Whitman at last +arrived in Washington and convinced President Tyler and Daniel Webster, +his Secretary of State, of the great value of Oregon and its importance +to the Union. It is claimed that he thus saved to our nation, by his +famous "Ride for Oregon," that entire region of country now known as +Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, an area thirty-two times as large as the +state of Massachusetts. + +This heroic patriot afterwards went through the Eastern States and told +the people of the wonders of the Pacific coast. He stirred up such an +interest that when, in the following June, he started back for Oregon he +had the satisfaction of leading a caravan of two hundred wagons, with +nearly a thousand people. After that, emigrants thronged every year in +larger and larger numbers, till the territory was soon beyond the danger +of British invasion. + +The dispute as to which nation had a right to Oregon was at last settled +in 1846 by a treaty between the United States and England. By this +treaty the boundary line was fixed, and our rightful claim to the vast +Oregon country was confirmed for all time. + +=292. California becomes One of the United States.=--During all these +years, while so many eyes were turned towards Oregon, few thought much +of California, for it then belonged to Mexico. The coast trade in hides +and furs and the inland immigration from the United States had slowly +changed the kind of population. Although it was still Mexican by name, +yet by 1846, besides the Spanish, Mexicans, and Indians, there were +about ten thousand other inhabitants, mostly American citizens. In that +year war was declared between the United States and Mexico. Then the +large body of Americans in California thought they had a right to +declare their independence of Mexico. + +At just this time John C. Fremont, an army officer and a famous western +mountain explorer, was fortunately on the great plains, and was sent +with an army expedition to explore a new route to Oregon. Being informed +by special messenger of the war with Mexico, he changed his course and +went to California. When he arrived there his small but courageous band, +increased in number by patriotic residents and acting in harmony with +our fleet, soon secured the independence of this great state. + +=293. The Discovery of Gold in California.=--It appears fortunate and even +providential that California came into our hands just when it did, for +shortly afterwards a most remarkable event occurred. Captain Sutter, an +early emigrant, had settled on the Sacramento River and built a sawmill. + +In January, 1848, one of Sutter's laborers, by the name of Marshall, +while digging a ditch for the mill, found shiny pieces of yellow metal +which they suspected might be gold. + +"I wonder what that yellow stuff is," said he. "I wonder if it is gold." + +"I reckon it is brass," said one of his helpers. + +"Let me try vinegar on it," said Marshall. It was tried and the vinegar +did not affect the "yellow stuff." + +The men about the sawmill threw down their tools and went to work +searching for gold. Mr. Sutter laughed at the idea. But gold indeed it +was, and there was plenty of it! + +=294. The Effect of this Great Discovery.=--The news spread. Soon +everybody about knew that pure gold was found and in wonderful +quantities. What a rush there was to the "diggings"! How all sorts of +people from all over the western coast crowded in! Doctors left their +sick, ministers their pulpits, traders their shops, mechanics their +tools, and farmers their fields, all half frantic with the desire to dig +their fortunes out of the golden sands of California. + +When the news of the discovery of gold reached the East, many people +seemed to catch the contagion. Multitudes started at once for +California. Thousands came by long wagon trains over the dreary plains. +Hundreds died of starvation or were killed by Indians. Thousands went by +the Isthmus, other thousands by Cape Horn. Vast numbers came from +foreign countries. Even the crews and often the officers abandoned the +ships that brought crowds to the Pacific coast and started for the gold +"diggings." + +=295. The Mad Rush to the Gold Regions.=--The rush to the gold fields +began in 1848, but became enormous in 1849. Those who went that year are +since called "Forty-niners." There were over eighty thousand of them! +The crowds that thronged the gold regions dug up the country for miles +around Sutter's mill. They tore up his beautiful valley and ruined his +farm. But they soon learned that gold was also to be found in larger +quantities along the streams, among the mountains, and in valleys. + +Month by month new-comers swarmed in, and the excitement grew more +intense. Some found prizes, nuggets of solid gold as large as an acorn +or a walnut, and at times masses two or three pounds in weight. However +much gold a man found, he was wildly eager to get more. + +A great deal of suffering ensued from the scarcity of food and the +enormous prices of everything needful. Potatoes sold for a dollar +apiece, eggs at the same price, wood at fifty dollars a cord, and flour +at a hundred dollars a barrel. Large butcher knives were found very +useful for digging, and brought thirty dollars each. A dose of the +cheapest medicine in an apothecary's shop cost five dollars, and a +physician's visit a hundred dollars. Unskilled laborers were paid +twenty-five dollars a day. + +Money was not used at the mines, but in its place the ore itself, or +"dust," at about sixteen dollars an ounce. Miners carried small scales, +weighed their gold dust, and paid their bills with it. + +At the rough log tavern: "What do you charge for dinner here?" "Half an +ounce." + +At the wayside store: "What's the price of these boots?" "Three ounces." + +=296. The Pony Express and its Remarkable History.=--San Francisco, being +the principal base of operations and the center of much of the immense +travel to and from the mines, grew in a few years from a cluster of +shanties to a large and wealthy city. The people of California now +demanded more frequent and more expeditious transmission of mail matter +than that by steamers and across the Isthmus. + +It was finally decided to establish a horseback letter express between +St. Joseph, on the Missouri River, and San Francisco, about two thousand +miles. It was a daring and hazardous project. But the express began +business in April, 1860, and made the through trip in ten days. Only +letters were carried. The charge was five dollars each, afterwards +reduced one-half. The company had sixty hardy riders and four hundred +and twenty strong, fast horses, though it was nicknamed the "pony +express." + + [Illustration: THE "PONY EXPRESS" RIDER.] + +A rider started from each end of the journey at the same hour. There +were stations every twenty-five miles for keeping and changing horses. +On a postman's arrival at a station the bags were instantly slung on a +fresh horse (for never more than two minutes must be spent at a +station), and away went the new courier for the next station. The speed +was by and by increased, until the long run was made in only eight +days! + +Ah! that was furious riding! What speed they made! In 1861 the pony +riders took President Lincoln's message through in one hundred and +eighty-five hours! It was dangerous riding too. Day and night, over +sandy plains and lofty mountains, on, on dashed these bold riders. + +The "pony express" was worth to the nation a hundred times its cost. +Why? Because just at that time our Civil War was beginning to darken the +land, and the South was making desperate efforts to entice the vast +Pacific region to unite with the seceding states. This "pony express" +line proved to be the first strand of a strong cable to unite the East +and the West. + +=297. More Rapid Means of Communication between the East and the Pacific +Coast urgently needed.=--For many years before 1860 there was talk of the +urgent need, and finally of the absolute necessity, of closer connection +between the old East and the new West. There were plenty of reasons for +a railroad; but in 1861 there came another overpowering reason that +eclipsed all others. The war for the Union had begun, and it was a +matter of supreme importance that the Pacific states should be saved in +the Union. No step could lead more surely toward this result than to +have a railroad for constant and swift travel. + +=298. The Railroad over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast rapidly +built.=--In 1863 the great work was begun. The government was wonderfully +generous and contributed money and land freely, for it was felt that the +railroad must be built as quickly as possible. The completion of the +gigantic undertaking in 1869 at Ogden, Utah, was gayly celebrated. Two +trains, loaded with passengers from New York and San Francisco, +approached each other at this place. The last rail was laid, the last +rivet clinched, the last spike, a spike of gold sent from California, +was driven, when the locomotives moved up and saluted, amid the cheers +of the enthusiastic throngs! + +In seven years' time, from 1849 to 1856, the gold found in California +was worth nearly five hundred millions of dollars! Imagine the effect of +such an output of the precious metal upon the industries and commerce of +our country! + +California is still rich in its gold, but it is still richer in its +wonderful climate and its marvelous scenery; in the wealth of its grain +fields; its sheep and cattle; its orange groves and its vineyards. These +make California the real El Dorado,--the real land of gold, and ensure +the prosperity and happiness of its people. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +LINCOLN AND THE WAR FOR THE UNION. + + +=299. Abraham Lincoln; the Abiding Influence of his Good Mother.=--The +early settlers in the Western states were generally very poor. It was +the honorable poverty of the pioneer, who bravely begins with only his +axe and a few tools, with which he builds his log cabin, clears the +forest, and works his way to competence and comfort. + +So lived in Larue County, in the state of Kentucky, about fifty miles +south of Louisville, Thomas Lincoln and his wife Nancy, in a rude log +cabin with no windows, a dirt floor, and only a flapping bearskin for a +door! In this humble abode, which they called home, there was born to +them on February 12, 1809, a son, Abraham. + +The father was a strong and kindly man, and the mother was a woman +rather above her lowly position in life, and well educated for the time +and place. As her boy grew up she read to him stories from the Bible and +taught him to read for himself. + +In after years, when Abraham Lincoln had gained the people's ear, men +noticed that he scarcely made a speech or wrote a state paper in which +there was not an 'illustration or a quotation from the Bible. He had +been thoroughly instructed in it by his mother. It was the one book to +which she, being a woman of deep religious feeling, turned for sympathy +and guidance. Out of it she taught her boy to spell and read, and with +its principles she so familiarized him that they always governed his +after life. + +When Abraham was eight years old the family moved to Indiana, where, in +about a year, his mother died. This was an unutterable grief to him, for +he loved her most deeply and tenderly. Throughout his life he revered +her memory, and when he was in his prime he said, "All that I am or hope +to be, I owe to my mother." + +=300. How Lincoln learned to read Good Books.=--Young Lincoln attended +school only six weeks. He was a tall, gaunt lad, and his long, stout +arms were very useful to his father on the farm. + +Like Franklin, he had a hunger for books, and having none himself, he +used to walk miles to some family to borrow them. Every evening he used +to read by the log fire _Pilgrim's Progress_, the poems of Robert Burns, +_The Life of Washington_, or _Plutarch's Lives_. Think of that boy +sitting before the cabin fire, reading over and over the story of +Washington; and then think of what he came to be. + +When the family went to bed he used to climb, on a rude ladder of stout +pegs driven in the logs, up to his bed made of hay, and there, by the +light of his tallow candle, would read over and over his precious books. +He bought a biography of Washington with three hard days' work at +twenty-five cents a day. He carried the book with him to the field, and +read it at the noon hour and while the horse rested. + + [Illustration: LINCOLN READING HIS FAVORITE BOOKS BY THE FIRESIDE.] + +=301. Some Things Lincoln did when a Young Man.=--When Lincoln was about +twenty-one, the family moved to Illinois. The young man was rugged and +tall, six feet and four inches, but very strong. In feats of running, +jumping, and wrestling he easily surpassed the best men in the county. + +He was hired at ten dollars a month to go down to New Orleans on a +flatboat loaded with farm produce. On the trip he saw gangs of slaves +chained together, and he attended a slave auction, where men, women, and +children were bid off like cattle. The painful sight sank deep into his +heart, and he never forgot it. He was a soldier in the Black Hawk war, +and was chosen by his comrades captain of the company, for all the men +loved and respected him. + +=302. Makes up his Mind to become a Lawyer.=--Young Lincoln grew rapidly +in public esteem. People took kindly to him, for he was himself kind and +unselfish. Though awkwardly tall and homely, there was a something +tender and friendly about him, which made every one feel that he was +honest and sincere. + +As the years passed Lincoln kept on steadily educating himself by +devoting every leisure hour to his books. He took regular studies, such +as grammar, arithmetic, geometry, which he exceedingly enjoyed. + +He was a thoughtful reader of a few of the great English classics. He +could repeat numerous scenes from Shakespeare and many of the poems of +Robert Burns. Whatever he read was read thoroughly--to understand it. + +His need of money led the ambitious young man to study surveying, as +Washington did--a very desirable attainment in a new country. He +surveyed well Everything he did, he did well. + +Visiting a courthouse one day, he heard for the first time the argument +of a lawyer. He was absorbed and delighted. Never before had anything so +captivated his imagination. From that day he made up his mind to be a +lawyer. Too poor to waste any money on shoes, he walked twelve miles +barefoot once to borrow a law book; and he came home reading it as he +walked. + +=303. His Early Studies and Rapid Advancement in his Profession.=--The +struggling young lawyer now carefully studied the art of the clear and +exact expression of thought. He attended that nursery of American +oratory, the country debating club, and was a faithful student of the +best method of speaking, making rapid progress by long and patient +practice. + +We no longer think of him as the boy of the log house, the homespun +clothes, the coon-skin cap, and the bare feet, but rather as the brave +young lawyer, studious, honest, persevering, self-reliant, and always +faithful to duty. + +After this Lincoln's advancement is rapid. His worthy traits draw to him +many and strong friends. At twenty-five he is elected to the +legislature. He discharges the duties of the office so well that two +years later he is chosen again. Now an older lawyer invites him to be +his partner. + +He has become a man of note. People come from far to consult him. His +growing fame daily widens. The people next call him to a higher place. +At thirty-nine he is honored by being chosen a member of Congress. He +fills the place with credit and honor. He is now the rising man of his +state. + +=304. Slavery as a Menace to the Country.=--There had always been one +serious trouble in our republic--slavery. It began early. About a year +before the Pilgrims came over in the Mayflower a Dutch ship brought +twenty negroes from Africa to Virginia, and they were sold as slaves to +the planters. + +As years passed the traffic rapidly increased, and paid an enormous +profit. Some of the colonists tried to stop this, but in vain; it was +profitable. Soon slavery spread all over the country; mostly in the +South, but somewhat even in New England. In the South, slaves were very +useful in raising tobacco and rice, and, later, cotton and sugar cane. + +At the formation of the republic all the Southern states came in as +slave states. To this most of the Northern people, though they held +slavery to be a great wrong, and feared that it would some day bring +serious trouble, did not strenuously object, because it had long existed +throughout the colonies. But as years passed the North strongly opposed +the extension of slavery into new states or free territory. The South, +however, had come to believe that slavery was right. When Missouri asked +admission to the Union, the South claimed that it should be received as +a slave state. The North said, No! There was a great discussion over +this question, which was finally settled in 1821 by allowing Missouri to +come in as a slave state. After this it was understood that slavery +should never be introduced north of the line of its southern boundary. + + [Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN.] + +=305. Lincoln chosen President of the United States.=--In 1854 an effort +was made to bring in Kansas and Nebraska as possible slave states. This +at once aroused a storm of indignation throughout the North. Mr. +Lincoln stood forth as a champion of freedom, and Stephen A. Douglas, +popularly known as "the little giant of the West," supported the claims +of the South. They held public debates all through Illinois, being rival +candidates for the United States Senate. + +These great debates were listened to by thousands. Lincoln's speeches +especially attracted much attention. They were printed and read in all +sections. Many a voter said, "How plain he makes it all! He says it far +better than I could." This contest raged in 1859. Douglas won the +smaller prize of senator; but Lincoln, suddenly lifted into national +fame by his splendid defense of freedom, was next year chosen President +of the United States. + +He was elected because of the firm determination of the North that, +while they would not disturb slavery where it already existed, it should +not extend any farther into free territory. This resolve was not +unfriendly to the Southern people. It did not invade their rights as the +North understood them. It was not intended as a threat to the people of +that section; but they chose so to regard it and immediately took a +hostile attitude. + +In December, 1860, South Carolina seceded, then other states; so that +before Mr. Lincoln began his duties as President the seven cotton +states had seceded. Believing that they had a right to do so, they +formed a government of their own and assumed a warlike attitude to the +general government. + +=306. The Momentous Responsibilities of the Position.=--We have traced the +poor boy of the Western cabin step by step up to the highest office of +the nation, to rule as the chief magistrate of thirty millions of +people. It was not a nation in peace, but torn asunder, each half in +deadly conflict with the other. Upon him were to rest the control of +vast armies, of a great navy, the decision of questions of unspeakable +importance, and the solution of most perplexing international problems. + +Can this self-trained lawyer from the Western prairies bear all this +sudden and tremendous burden, and bear it with courage, credit, and +success? Surely no man of modern times ever faced a greater or more +difficult task. + +=307. War begins; the Effect at the North and in the South.=--The next +month (April 12, 1861) after Lincoln's inauguration, Fort Sumter, in +Charleston Harbor, was attacked by a circle of nineteen hostile +batteries. After thirty-six hours of furious bombardment, Major +Anderson, his powder and food being exhausted, his flagstaff shot away, +his fort crumbling and on fire, felt that he could do nothing but +surrender. He and his little force, carrying with them their tattered +flag, were taken on board a Union ship to New York. + +The shots fired at Sumter kindled another fire all through the North. A +conflagration of patriotic zeal flamed up all over the loyal states. The +people accepted instantly the awful challenge and sternly resolved to +defend the endangered Union at every hazard. + +Both sides had been deceived. Vast numbers through the North had not +believed the slave states would really carry out their threat of +secession. Vast numbers through the South had always believed the North +would never fight, but at the last moment would consent to some sort of +compromise. + +Northern men felt that they had in no way wronged the South, that no act +of theirs and no word of President Lincoln had given cause for +precipitating the horrors of a civil war. + +Southern men claimed that according to the Declaration of Independence +all governments derive their power from the consent of the governed, and +that the South had a right to withdraw its consent and establish a +government of its own. Although there were some disloyal men all through +the North, political parties vied with each other in the fervor of +general devotion to one country and one flag. The President's call for +seventy-five thousand volunteers was answered by the enthusiastic +enlistment of the whole number. + +In the South the excitement was equally great, but different in +character. The masses went wild with passionate delight; but very many +thoughtful people lamented the bombardment of Sumter as hasty, reckless, +and ruinous. Some of the states were at first unwilling to secede, and +finally went out reluctantly; but a belief that they were right swept +them along, and, once out, they were as active as any. + +=308. Vigorous Efforts to preserve the Union.=--Neither side was prepared +for a long war, but the South was much better prepared to begin it than +the North. Instantly every effort was put forth by the government to +preserve the Union. Scores of warships blockaded the Southern ports to +prevent cotton from being sent to England, and to cut off English ships +from bringing in supplies, especially military stores. + +The governments of Europe, except the Russian, were unfriendly to us. +Four more states soon seceded, making eleven out of the fifteen slave +states. Thousands of troops were gathered for the defense of the +National Capital. + +In July a Confederate army of about thirty thousand threatened +Washington. A battle was fought at Manassas, only thirty miles southwest +of the city. At first the Union forces had the advantage and seemed +victorious; but just then heavy reinforcements of fresh troops came to +help the Confederates, drove back the weary forces, and the day ended in +Union disaster. + + [Illustration: MAP OF SEAT OF WAR IN VIRGINIA.] + +This battle of Manassas, or Bull Run, was a severe and unexpected +defeat. It showed the scope of the tremendous conflict yet to come. +There was not much more heavy fighting during the remainder of that +year; both sides were busily making enormous preparations for the future +struggle. + +=309. The Desperate Struggles of 1862.=--In the early part of the next +year (1862) each side had ready in the field about half a million of +men. In the East, General McClellan, with a large army, set out in April +from Washington for Richmond. He advanced within seven miles of that +city, where was fought the battle of Fair Oaks. Neither side was +victorious. The desperate seven days' battles soon followed, with result +still indecisive. This, the so-called Peninsular Campaign, failed of its +purpose. + +In September the Confederate General Lee marched north and, invading +Maryland, fought the bloody battle of Antietam. He was slightly worsted, +and forced to retire into Virginia. + +In the West, General Grant, the coming man, with the help of Commodore +Foote's fleet of gunboats, captured in February Forts Henry and Donelson +with ten thousand prisoners. Soon followed the desperate battle of +Shiloh, in which Grant, reinforced by General Buell, repulsed the +Confederates. + +In April a great navy and army sailed up the Mississippi River, +bombarded the forts below New Orleans, then passed up and captured the +city. This was an important Union triumph. + +The year had been one of many hard-fought battles, only a few of which +we are able to mention. The general result was in the East lamentable +failure, but in the West brilliant success, of the Union armies. + +At the close of 1862, after a year and a half of fighting, the war had +already lasted longer than either side expected when it began. At first +both had hoped that after a few months the trouble would be settled by +some kind of agreement or compromise. Each side was surprised at the +vast number of soldiers, the immense military equipment, and the +determined spirit shown by the other. + +=310. The Emancipation of the Slaves.=--As the war went on, it was plain +that the tens of thousands of slaves, although they did not actually +fight in the Southern armies, were helping the South just as much as if +they carried muskets. They built forts, toiled in gun shops and powder +mills, and raised crops at home. This, of course, released thousands of +whites from home duties and swelled the ranks of the Confederate army. +It was a terrible and costly war. The final result even seemed doubtful. +To save the Union the South must be crippled at every possible point. To +set the slaves free was to weaken the South. Mr. Lincoln held that a +sound principle of military law gave him the authority to abolish +slavery. He proposed to do it primarily as an act of military necessity +by virtue of his office as Commander-in-Chief of the army, just as when +a general in active warfare destroys buildings or burns bridges to aid +his army operations. + +It was sound common sense, as well as a profound military policy, to +seize the most favorable opportunity to strike at the real cause of the +trouble. Public opinion was rapidly shaping itself to this end. Lincoln +was one of the most clear-sighted and sagacious of men. He patiently +abided his time for so momentous a step. + +=311. The Proclamation of Emancipation.=--Finally, acting on his own +judgment and that of his trusted advisers, Lincoln issued in September, +1862, his warning proclamation to the effect that if the Confederate +States did not cease hostilities before the first of the next January, +all slaves within the Confederate lines should be thenceforth and +forever free. + +The negroes very soon heard this wonderful news and many thousands of +them eagerly awaited the coming of the day when "Massa Linkum would set +'em free." They looked upon the good President as the savior of their +race. + +On that famous morning, January 1, 1863, the prophecy was fulfilled. +That New Year's Day will be forever memorable as the date of the great +Emancipation Proclamation, an act by which four millions of slaves were +brought from the night of bondage to the sunlight of freedom. + +This was the monumental event of the war, perhaps the wisest thing +President Lincoln ever did or ever could do. In after years it will +perhaps be regarded as the greatest event of the century. Few men in all +history have had an opportunity of doing a deed of so vast and +far-reaching importance. + +Emancipation was quickly followed by the enlistment of negroes, or +"freedmen" as they were now called, as soldiers in the armies of the +Union. During the year 1863 more than fifty thousand of them, and before +the end of the war nearly two hundred thousand, had enlisted under the +banner of freedom. They were good soldiers, and on many a battlefield +they fought with an unflinching courage. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +MORE ABOUT THE WAR FOR THE UNION. + + +=312. Union Defeat at Chancellorsville.=--Now let us return to our +narrative of a few of the prominent military operations of the war. In +May, 1863, the army of the Potomac, under General Hooker, moved +southward from Washington. At Chancellorsville it was met by a +Confederate force under Generals Lee and Jackson. The battle lasted two +days, and was disastrous to the Union arms; in fact, the worst defeat of +the war. It marked the zenith of Confederate success. In this battle +"Stonewall" Jackson, so called from his splendid firmness, one of the +ablest of the Southern generals, was mortally wounded. + + [Illustration: "STONEWALL" JACKSON.] + +=313. The Mighty Struggle at Gettysburg.=--General Lee, proud of this +success, now resolved to lead his army into the North. Sweeping past +Washington and across Maryland, he pushed up into Pennsylvania, the +whole country around being terrified at his approach, especially +Baltimore and Philadelphia, both of which cities were threatened. Lee +had now eighty thousand soldiers, the finest army the South ever +possessed. The army of the Potomac, under the command of General Meade, +whom Grant called the right man in the right place, followed closely. +The two defiant armies met at Gettysburg, where occurred the most +momentous battle ever fought on this continent. It lasted three days, +July 1-3, 1863. The first day's fighting ended in favor of the +Confederates. On the second day their desperate efforts to drive the +Union forces from their positions were repelled, but with an enormous +loss on each side. + + [Illustration: GENERAL MEADE.] + +On the third day came the final test. The brave Confederate General +Pickett led many thousands of soldiers over an open plain in a most +desperate charge to break the Union center. On, on they came, their +ranks now torn through and through by Union shot and shell, but still on +they charged. Drawing nearer, up they rushed to the Union line with the +familiar Southern yell, and with frantic fury dashed upon our firm-set +ranks. Our men wavered with the mighty shock and for a moment fell back, +but instantly rallied with the Union cheer. + +In the furious onset and the hand-to-hand fight, friend and foe fell by +thousands. But the charging battalions were shattered, crushed, driven +back, melting away under the concentrated fire, and only some few +fragments of all that vast column straggled back over the field of +death. + + [Illustration: GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE.] + +Lee was baffled, defeated; the Union was safe. The invaders, with that +vast army that came with stately pride, went back to Virginia with +sorrowing memories of the direst disaster of the war. Never again did a +large Confederate force hazard a march into the North. After Gettysburg +there was little hope of Confederate triumph. + +=314. Memorials of the Victory.=--Gettysburg was a costly victory. Over +that broad area of the three days' battles, strewn through wood and +meadow, on field and hill, lay the bodies of thousands of soldiers. +One-third of Lee's entire army, and about a fourth of the Union forces, +had been killed or wounded. The arena of fiercest fighting in the third +day's final charge is now marked by a suitable monument, which bears +upon a bronze tablet an inscription that indicates the historical +importance of the spot. + +Upon opposite columns are also inscribed the names of the officers who +led the surging columns of gray, and the names of those officers who +held firm the impregnable walls of blue. + +The whole field of battle, covering several square miles, is dotted with +hundreds of similar memorials of many varieties. These monuments have +been erected year after year by the survivors or by their friends. They +indicate the positions held by regiments, brigades, and divisions, where +desperate charges and equally desperate repulses occurred, or where +gallant officers fell. + +=315. Lincoln's Masterly Address at Gettysburg.=--In November, 1863, the +central portion of the battlefield was set apart as a National Cemetery +and dedicated with solemn ceremonies. The most important of these was +the notably eloquent address by President Lincoln, which has passed into +history as an event hardly less memorable than the great conflict +itself. Perhaps in no language, ancient or modern, are any words found +more comprehensive and eloquent than this brief speech. + +Time has tested the strength of this short, simple address. After more +than a quarter of a century it is still as familiar as household words. + + [Illustration: GENERAL U. S. GRANT.] + +=316. Success of General Grant in the West.=--Let us now read about a few +of the great events of the war in the West during the first half of the +year 1863. Here General Grant was the central figure of important +military operations. He had already become prominent by the brilliant +campaigns we have mentioned. His remarkable career furnishes one of the +many examples of great men coming up from obscure and unpromising +conditions of life. + + [Illustration: MAP OF MILITARY OPERATIONS IN THE WEST.] + +He was born in Ohio in 1822, and received a military education at West +Point. He was a successful officer in the Mexican War, having been +engaged in nearly all the battles of the war, where he manifested +conspicuous bravery. Returning from Mexico, he engaged a while in +farming, but with discouraging results. Evidently it was not his +vocation. + +When the Civil War opened, Grant was employed at a small salary in his +father's leather store in Galena, Illinois. He at once offered the +governor his services, and was appointed a colonel of an Illinois +regiment. He rose rapidly to conspicuous positions. + +=317. Capture of Vicksburg.=--General Grant, after defeating the +Confederates at the battle of Shiloh, and driving them south to Corinth, +followed them to Vicksburg. This was a stronghold from which they seemed +to defy every effort to dislodge them. + +The city stands on a high bluff some two hundred feet above the +Mississippi, and as there were heavy batteries all along the river front +and on the hillsides, Grant could not attack the city with his gunboats. +On the north there were miles of swamps and creeks, so that he could not +approach on that side. On the east the city was heavily fortified with +cannon. + +President Lincoln and the country expected General Grant to capture +Vicksburg. What could he do? Witness his superb generalship! + +He first protected against cannon shot a number of gunboats and steamers +by means of bales of hay, and planned to run them past eight miles of +batteries one dark night in April. This movement was so perilous that +officers would not order their men to go, but called for volunteers. So +many were eager to go that lots were drawn for a chance. One soldier +refused one hundred dollars for his place. + +Soon as the watchful Confederates sighted the first boat of the grim +procession, they opened a deafening cannonade, and started a series of +bonfires that lighted up all the miles of that voyage of death. Some of +the transports were destroyed, but enough got through to answer the +general's purpose. + +Next Grant ferried his army across the river some miles below Vicksburg, +and fought and defeated General Pemberton's troops, which had moved down +to meet him. Then, learning that General Johnston was coming to attack +him, he marched up between the two armies. On his east side he met +Johnston's army and defeated it. Thence he turned west and drove +Pemberton again, and the next day routed him once more and drove his +entire army into Vicksburg. + +Commodore Porter's gunboats now threw huge shells into the doomed city +from the river and Grant's army bombarded it on the east. It was an +awful siege. No building was safe. The people lived in caves dug in the +sides of the hills. Food was so scarce that mules, cats, dogs, and rats +were devoured. At last, after seven weeks of siege, Pemberton, on July +4, surrendered his entire army of about thirty thousand men, the largest +force captured during the war. + +These two great victories, at Gettysburg and at Vicksburg, one in the +East, the other in the West, both won at the same time, gave new hope +to the Union cause. The Confederacy was at last cut in two, for the +Mississippi River was open in its entire length, and its waters, in Mr. +Lincoln's words, "flowed unvexed to the sea." + +From this eventful Fourth of July in 1863 the strength of the +Confederacy began to decay. There was little hope for its final success +after this time. All its future contests only delayed the inevitable +end. + +=318. Two Other Important Victories in the West.=--In September occurred +the severe battle of Chickamauga, where the Union army would probably +have been utterly defeated but for the valor of General Thomas, who thus +won for himself the name of the "Rock of Chickamauga." Late in November +the Union army was shut in at Chattanooga by the ever alert +Confederates, and was relieved only by General Grant's skillful planning +and hard fighting. + + [Illustration: GENERAL THOMAS.] + +This battle was fought on a cold, drizzly day. The fog, settling on the +valley and sides of Lookout Mountain, up which our brave boys climbed, +covered the lower part of the advancing army so that only the upper +lines were visible. This brilliant victory is popularly known as "the +Battle above the Clouds." These movements ended the army operations of +1863. + +=319. Sherman's Famous March to the Sea.=--The year 1864 saw two great +movements, both planned by General Grant, who had now been called by +President Lincoln to come to Washington and take control of all the +armies of the Republic. One was his own advance against Richmond, and +the other General Sherman's famous "March to the Sea." + + [Illustration: GENERAL W. T. SHERMAN.] + +General W. T. Sherman, a brilliant officer and General Grant's dear +comrade and lifelong friend, had driven his opponents southward and +captured Atlanta. General Hood then very boldly but injudiciously led a +Confederate army up to Nashville, where General Thomas attacked and +utterly defeated him. + +Meanwhile Sherman had begun his celebrated march to the sea. Having +burned the mills, foundries, and workshops at Atlanta which had been of +great value to the Confederates, he started in November with an army of +sixty thousand on a three-hundred-mile expedition to the Atlantic! They +marched on three and sometimes four parallel roads, foraging on the +country, destroying railroads, burning bridges, and devastating a belt +of territory from forty to sixty miles wide. Our army was followed by +thousands of negroes, enjoying their new freedom. + +In December Sherman reached the sea and telegraphed to President Lincoln +the capture of Savannah as a Christmas present! Resting there, he then +marched his conquering legions north, through both Carolinas, up to +Goldsboro, having met and defeated Johnston's army at several points +along the way. He was now able to aid General Grant, whose campaign +against Richmond we must now consider. + +=320. Grant's Advance on Richmond; Lee's Surrender at Appomattox.=--Early +in May, Grant had started with a hundred and twenty thousand men on his +advance against Richmond. He pushed his work with great vigor, fighting +almost daily, but after every battle flanking Lee's right, and thus +working constantly southward. It was a series of bloody battles, and +the slaughter was enormous; but such is war. He continued slowly +advancing all summer, and in the fall of 1864 began the siege of +Richmond. + +Finally, in April, 1865, General Sheridan had cut the last of the +railroads supplying the Confederate capital. Then with Grant's army on +one side and Sheridan's on the other, the Confederacy quickly collapsed. +Jefferson Davis fled and a panic seized upon the people in the doomed +city, while fire and havoc ran riot. The Union army soon marched in and +restored order. + + [Illustration: GENERAL SHERMAN ON HIS MARCH TO THE SEA.] + +One week later Lee surrendered his whole army at Appomattox. General +Grant treated his fallen foes with great generosity, requiring only the +oath of officers and men not to fight further against the United +States. The victorious general permitted all the men to keep their +horses, to enable them, as he said, "to do their spring plowing on their +farms." + +=321. The Story of Sheridan's Famous Ride.=--Read's stirring poem, +"Sheridan's Ride," has always been a favorite, for it records in verse +the gallant deed of one of the most brilliant generals in the war for +the Union. In the early fall of 1864 Grant sent General Sheridan with a +large force of cavalry to lay waste the Shenandoah Valley. Sheridan did +the work so well that it was said, "If a crow wants to fly down the +valley, he must carry his provisions with him." + + [Illustration: GENERAL SHERIDAN.] + +The story runs as follows:-- + +One morning in October the Confederates approached under cover of a fog +and surprised the Union forces at Cedar Creek and put them to flight. +Sheridan was then at Winchester, twenty miles away, slowly riding back +to join his army. A messenger met him with the bad news. On his famous +black horse he dashed forward at full speed down that "good broad +highway, as with eagle flight," towards the line of battle. As he came +nearer he met the first of the fugitives and rallied them with fierce +and forcible words. At once they were as eager to fight again as they +had been ready to fly. + +A brave nucleus of the army which had not shared in the surprise was +fighting with determined pluck to prevent disaster from becoming +disgrace. Men said, "Oh for one hour of Sheridan!" All at once a +deafening cheer was heard above the roar of musketry and artillery as +the tired men recognized the long-looked-for Sheridan. The news flashed +from brigade to brigade along the front with telegraphic speed. As the +gallant general, cap in hand, dashed along the retreating lines, a +continuous cheer burst from the whole army. + +The entire aspect of affairs seemed changed in a moment. Further retreat +was no longer thought of. "This retreat must be stopped!" shouted +Sheridan to his officers as he galloped down the lines. The line of +battle was speedily re-formed; the retreating army turned its face to +the foe. + +The ranks of the Confederates swayed and broke everywhere before the +charge of the Union cavalry and the impetuous advance of the infantry. +They were completely defeated, with the loss of many prisoners, and +nearly all of their guns. + +Sheridan's ride to the front, October 19, 1864, has passed into history +as one of the most thrilling events that have ever given interest to a +battle scene. Stripped of all poetic gloss, the result achieved by +Sheridan's superb generalship, after reaching his shattered army on the +field of Cedar Creek, still stands, with few if any parallels in +history, as an illustration of the magnetic influence of one man over +many, and as an example of snatching a great victory from an appalling +defeat. + + [Illustration: SHERIDAN RALLYING HIS TROOPS AT CEDAR CREEK.] + +=322. Death of Lincoln.=--Wild was the delight of the country when peace +came. There were public meetings, processions, bonfires, every possible +display of universal joy! + +Suddenly, like a total eclipse at noonday, came the darkness of a great +sorrow. Abraham Lincoln, the great and good President, whose heart had +bled for the nation's suffering, who had never held a trace of bitter +feeling towards the South, was shot down by an assassin! + +Instantly the nation was plunged into the deepest sorrow; joy ended in +grief, delight was turned to mourning. Ninety thousand Union soldiers +had been slain, but this last sacrifice overshadowed all. Never before +was a great nation shrouded in a sorrow so deep. Thousands mourned, as +for the loss of a personal friend. + +The people hardly realized till his death the greatness of this man, the +hero of the mighty struggle by which the Union was saved. From that day +to this, the admiration and love, not only of the nation but of all +mankind, have been increasing for the great and kind-hearted man, the +wise leader, the blameless President,--Abraham Lincoln. + +=323. The Cost of the War.=--The cost of the four years' war was something +tremendous. At the close of the strife the total debt was about three +thousand millions of dollars! This, however, was but a small part of the +loss. + +The cost in human life can never be estimated in money. The area fought +over was so large that there was fighting somewhere almost every day! +The number of battles, great and small, was more than two thousand! The +total Union loss of men killed in battle and of those who died of wounds +and disease was not less than three hundred and sixty thousand. The +number of enlisted soldiers on the Union side was over two and a half +millions. + +=324. Grand Review of Troops at Washington.=--At the close of the war a +grand review of Union troops was held at Washington. These comprised the +army of the Potomac, commanded by General Meade in person, and Sherman's +army fresh from its march to the sea. These battle-scarred veterans, +perhaps one-fifth of all the Union soldiers who had tramped and fought +for years, now passed in review, bearing aloft the tattered and +shot-torn flags around which they had rallied on many a battlefield. The +two days were beautiful and the sight was superb. + +The National Capital was full of strangers in holiday dress, and every +house was decorated with flags. For two days the two armies marched in +close column around the Capitol, down Pennsylvania Avenue, past the +President and cabinet, who occupied a large stand prepared for the +occasion in front of the White House. On the second day it took six +hours and a half for Sherman's magnificent army of sixty-five thousand +sunburnt veterans to march in solid columns in review before the +President. + +This grand review was a fitting conclusion to the war. The million men +who were still in arms at the close of the war, old comrades of camp and +field, shook hands and parted, each to his home, where mother or sister +or wife or children or other dear ones awaited the long-absent soldier. + +=325. The Country after the War.=--The war proved beyond all question that +the American Republic is a nation, not a league, and it rid it also of +human slavery. It took, of course, a long time for the bitter feeling on +both sides to die away. More than a generation has passed since the +great Civil War desolated our fair land. The people of to-day have +little cause to recall its sufferings and horrors. + +How dear to the hearts of the American people are the familiar +ceremonies of Memorial Day! What more impressive object lesson could our +children have than to see the gray-haired veterans marching with thinner +ranks and more faltering steps, on this sacred anniversary! + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + +OUR NAVY IN THE WAR FOR THE UNION. + + +=326. Our Navy at the Beginning of the War.=--For a number of months +before the breaking out of the war the Southern leaders of the secession +movement had been quietly but skillfully preparing for it. + +A large part of the soldiers had been sent off to the frontier posts. +Rifles, cannon, and all such supplies had been taken months before from +Northern stations and sent South. Our navy had been purposely scattered +all over the world. More ships were abroad or useless than were at home +fit for service. The whole number available after the attack on Fort +Sumter was only thirteen. + +All through the South most of the southern-born officers of the +government who were in control of Federal property, as custom houses, +post offices, arsenals, forts, navy yards, and ships, abandoned their +trust, or turned all these properties over to the seceding states. + +It was in reference to such a piece of transfer that the Secretary of +the Treasury, John A. Dix, sent to New Orleans that famous telegram +which thrilled the whole North:-- + +"IF ANY ONE ATTEMPTS TO HAUL DOWN THE AMERICAN FLAG, SHOOT HIM ON THE +SPOT!" + +Great was the peril. More vessels must be had, and that at once. The +seventeen warships in foreign ports were called home, scores of steamers +were bought and dozens were built as quickly as possible. + +=327. Urgent Need of Vessels to blockade Southern Ports.=--One of the most +urgent needs for a navy was to blockade the Southern ports. This was to +be done by stationing well-armed ships near the mouth of every harbor to +seize any vessel trying to get out with a cargo of cotton, or to capture +any ship coming in with supplies. "Running" this blockade was a +profitable but dangerous business. + +But we can judge whether our gallant navy did its duty in watching the +eighteen hundred miles of Southern coast line, if we remember that +during the four years of the war the Union blue-jackets captured or +destroyed over fifteen hundred blockade runners--more than one a day. + +=328. Naval Operations on the Western Rivers.=--The Confederates had +fortified many cities and important bluffs along the Mississippi River +and its branches, and had built many heavy gunboats. Our government had +at first not a single gunboat to meet them. Something must be done very +soon. In less than a hundred days there were built at St. Louis, from +the keel up, with powerful engines, heavy armor plate, and cannon, eight +powerful gunboats, all ready for action. These ironclads, with some +mortar boats, did effective service at the capture of Forts Henry and +Donelson, of Columbus, Memphis, and Vicksburg, and all along the rivers. + +=329. How New Orleans was protected against an Attack by the Union +Forces.=--While the Union ironclads were fighting farther north along the +Mississippi and other large rivers, Commodore Farragut was doing valiant +work below New Orleans. This city was protected by two strong forts. + +Just below the forts there stretched from each bank towards the middle a +big boom of logs. The space in the middle of the river between the ends +of the booms was filled with hulks of old ships, first firmly anchored, +then heavily chained to each other, and lashed to the booms with huge +cables, making almost a bridge. Above this formidable barrier was a +fleet of iron rams and gunboats. + +Besides all this, there were a number of fire rafts, loaded with cotton +and hay, ready to be set in a blaze and float down on any Union craft +that would dare to come up. How was it possible for the Union vessels to +force their way up the river in the face of these obstructions? + + [Illustration: ADMIRAL FARRAGUT.] + +=330. Farragut prepares for the Attack.=--Farragut had about fifty vessels +all told: frigates, ships, sloops, gunboats, and mortar vessels. He +anchored the mortar boats around a point of land nearly two miles below +the forts, and dressed them with evergreens and foliage of trees +disguising their position. Then the great thirteen-inch bombs burst +inside and around the forts all day, all night, for six days. + +Meanwhile two small gunboats went one night up to the chained hulks to +break the barrier; and though detected and fired on, the officers +worked calmly and persistently. They contrived to get a gunboat +through, then steamed up the river, turned and rushed down on the cable +with such force as to break it! Daylight showed a wide opening for the +Union fleet. + +=331. The Grand Work done by Farragut and his Fleet.=--The next morning at +two o'clock, April 24, 1862, the fleet steamed up. The forts fired and +the ships fired, but the fleet kept moving in the darkness. Soon one +passed through, then another, the swift ones dashing ahead. + +But the flagship Hartford, on which was Farragut, having passed through, +turned aside to avoid a blazing fire raft, when she ran aground! Then +the Confederates, seeing the Hartford stuck fast, pushed a fire raft up +against it. Instantly the flames flashed along the rigging and the +ports, the big guns of the fort meanwhile pounding her. But the gun +crews kept working their cannon as steadily as if on practice, and the +rest fought the flames, and soon subdued them. The flagship was saved. +Other ships passed up, all fighting, some surviving by hairbreadth +escapes; a few were lost. + +When the morning sun rose, the astounding work had been done, the gates +of fire had been passed, and the Union fleet under Farragut was +triumphant. New Orleans was captured and the control of the river +secured nearly up to Vicksburg. + +=332. The Merrimac and the Monitor.=--When the war for the Union began, +and just before the Confederates seized the navy yard at Norfolk, the +commanding officer there contrived to burn or sink all the ships; but +the best one, the Merrimac, was soon raised and rebuilt as a powerful +ironclad. + +When the fine old frigate had been remodeled her entire appearance was +changed. She had no longer the appearance of a ship, but seemed like a +house afloat. The story is told that an old sailor on board the +Cumberland, who first sighted her, reported gravely to the officer of +the deck, "Quaker meeting-house floating down the bay, sir." + +In anticipation of what harm it might do, the government engaged Captain +Ericsson, a Swedish inventor in New York, to build as quickly as +possible, after his own plans, an ironclad, a new and very odd-shaped +kind of warship--the now famous Monitor. The construction was pushed day +and night without an hour of delay. + +=333. Attack of the Merrimac on the Union Fleet.=--Before long the dreaded +Merrimac was finished, and on March 8, 1862, the ponderous black monster +steamed slowly out to attack the Union ships in Hampton Roads. She made +straight for the fine frigate Cumberland, the solid shot of whose +broadside fell like pebbles into the sea from the slopes of the huge +ironclad. On, on came the ponderous monster, and crashing into the +wooden side of the Cumberland, opened a hole "wide as a church door." +The sinking ship went down with her flag flying and her guns booming to +the last! + +Next the Merrimac attacked the Congress, whose captain and three-fourths +of her crew were killed or wounded. Hot shot were used, which soon set +the Congress in a blaze. Then the ironclad, as if she had done enough +for one day, went grimly back to Norfolk, intending to continue her +destruction the next day. + +Everywhere in that region is alarm. The shores are thronged with anxious +thousands. The city of Washington is almost in a panic. The grim monster +may steam up here on the next day, and hurl its exploding shells into +the Capitol or the White House. Philadelphia, Baltimore, and all the +seacoast cities of the country are exposed to destruction. What is to be +done? Can the danger be averted? + +=334. Timely Arrival of the Monitor.=--That very night, as if by a special +providence, the Monitor arrived from New York! Early next morning, when +the naval Goliath of yesterday came out in his iron armor, victorious +and confident, a young David stood up to defy him! + +A strange craft indeed was the Monitor. Her rail was but little above +the water, and nothing was to be seen on her deck but a kind of round +iron box in the middle, a pilot house forward, and a small smokestack +aft. At a mile's distance she might be taken for a raft. Indeed, the +Confederates well described her when they called her a "Yankee +cheese-box on a raft." + + [Illustration: THE FAMOUS CONTEST BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC.] + +=335. Famous Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac.=--It was a +Sunday morning, and the sun rose in a cloudless sky. The batteries on +both sides of the bay were crowded with men waiting for the coming +contest. At the first sign of life on board the Merrimac, the Monitor +began her preparations for the battle. + +Slowly the Confederate ram came down the bay. She opened fire on the +Minnesota, which was still aground. The frigate responded with a mighty +broadside, but the cannon balls rattled off the iron flanks of the huge +ram like so many peas. Clearly everything depended upon the little +Monitor. + +The battle now began, and the huge shells and heavy shot crashed like +loudest thunder. It was a strange, an awful battle. At times the two +vessels were in actual contact. The dense smoke, the deafening roar of +explosions, the shouts of officers' orders, the crews often hurled off +their feet by the terrific blows smiting the iron armor--all made it +beyond description fearfully sublime. The Merrimac's plates were split +and torn. One shot, entering her port, did terrible havoc. + +Just as Lieutenant Worden of the Monitor was looking through the slit in +the turret to take aim, a shell struck outside and filled his face and +eyes with powder and iron splinters! He was insensible for some time. + +When he came to himself, his first question was, "Have I saved the +Minnesota?" + +"Yes," was the reply, "and whipped the Merrimac." + +"Then I don't care what becomes of me," he answered. + +After more than three hours of this frightful combat, the humbled +Merrimac steamed back to Norfolk, the victorious little Monitor giving a +series of farewell shots as she sailed away. + +Thus ended this marvelous battle, the first in the world's history +between ironclad vessels. All Washington retired to sleep that night +with a sense of relief, for it seemed as if the nation had been saved. + +The brave Worden shortly after the famous battle went to Washington. +President Lincoln was at a cabinet meeting when he heard of the +lieutenant's arrival. He rose hastily and said, "Gentlemen, I must go to +that fellow." + +When Lincoln entered his room, Worden was lying on a sofa with his eyes +and head heavily bandaged. + +"Mr. President," said he, "you do me great honor by this visit." + +"Sir," said Mr. Lincoln, with tears in his eyes, "I am the one who is +honored by this interview." + +=336. Confederate Privateers attack Union Merchantmen.=--When the North +began blockading the Southern ports, the South of course used all its +energies to break the blockade by aiding ships to pass in or out, and +also to destroy our commerce wherever it might be found. + +The first craft that went out on this errand of destruction was an ocean +steamer then at New Orleans. It had been speedily altered into a warship +and named the Sumter. She slipped through the blockade in June, 1861, +and did a lively business capturing and burning our merchantmen. + +Then the South, as it had no navy of its own, had to seek aid abroad. +England seemed to be very willing that her shipbuilders should furnish +ships for the use of the Confederacy in seizing and destroying Union +vessels. + +The first of the cruisers secretly built in a British shipyard to +destroy our commerce was the Florida. She burned or sank over forty +vessels before she was captured. + +=337. The Famous Alabama makes Sad Havoc.=--The Alabama was the most +famous of the Confederate cruisers. She was built under false pretenses +and with a false name, in an English port, of English material, armed +with English cannon, and manned by English sailors. + +The Alabama, once fairly at sea under Captain Semmes, skillfully avoided +our men-of-war sent to capture her, and continued in her two years' +cruise till she had burned or captured sixty-seven of our merchant +ships. + +=338. The Alabama destroyed by the Kearsarge.=--At last the Alabama went +into the harbor of Cherbourg, in France. Captain Winslow of the United +States warship Kearsarge, then searching for her, heard of this and at +once challenged her, and then waited outside. On the nineteenth day of +June, 1864, the Alabama was compelled by law to leave the port. The +battle began, and was watched by thousands from the shores. + +The Kearsarge swept around in great circles, compelling the Alabama, +about half a mile distant, to do the same. The men on the Alabama fired +fast and wild. Their shots flew over, or fell short; but the Kearsarge +fired carefully and with true aim. Nearer drew the Kearsarge, circling +still. Its two eleven-inch guns made frightful havoc, tearing great +rents in the Alabama's sides. She was sinking, and started for the +shore. Winslow now steamed in front and headed her off. Then down came +the Confederate flag. + +Soon the far-famed and dreaded cruiser sank to her watery grave. The +names Winslow and Kearsarge long rang through this country with plaudits +of enthusiastic praise. + +"I would rather have fought that fight," said brave old Admiral +Farragut, "than any ever fought on the ocean." + +=339. England pays for the Damage done by the Alabama.=--After the war +England refused for years to make compensation for the damage the +Alabama had done to our commerce. But seeing that the same course might +some day injure herself, and sensible of the injustice, she at last +consented to make amends. In 1872 a Board of Arbitrators met at Geneva, +and agreeably to its decision "John Bull" promptly paid $15,500,000 to +"Uncle Sam" to distribute among those who had suffered by the +depredations. + +=340. Preparations for the Capture of Mobile.=--In the summer of 1864 a +prominent Southern port, Mobile, was yet uncaptured. Its defenses were +strong. Two splendid forts stood sentry at the gateway. Long lines of +piles narrowed the channel to about three hundred feet, and a triple row +of torpedoes threatened any approach. In the harbor the Confederates had +a small fleet of gunboats and one tremendous ram, the Tennessee. + +Admiral Farragut determined to capture Mobile. He had four monitors and +fourteen wooden ships. All the preparations were made with the utmost +care. The officers and men of the fleet regarded the admiral with +staunch loyalty and absolute trust. The attack was made early on the +morning of August 5. + +=341. Farragut's Crowning Victory at Mobile.=--The fleet passing through +the channel, rained shot and shell so furiously upon the forts that the +Confederates could not well serve their guns. But our finest ironclad, +the Tecumseh, was struck by a torpedo, and she sank with over a hundred +of her brave men! + +Her captain, the gallant Craven, was at the time in the pilot-house with +the pilot. As the huge ironclad lurched heavily over and began to sink, +both rushed to the narrow door, but there was only room for one to pass +at a time. Craven stepped to one side, saying, "After you, pilot." The +pilot leaped to a place of safety, but the noble captain went to the +bottom in his iron coffin. + +The fleet now fought a desperate battle with the Confederate ironclads. +The armored vessels were soon sunk or scattered. The Tennessee tried to +ram our ships, but with little success. Then our ironclads gathered +around our "wooden walls," steamed straight for the ram, and there was +fought one of the most desperate naval fights of the war. + +Sharpshooters fired into the ram's ports, our ships successively poured +in a terrific fire, and hammered at close range with huge solid shot and +fifteen-inch bolts of iron, till the white flag went up, and once more +the stars and stripes waved triumphantly over the harbor of Mobile. + +Thus ended the battle of Mobile Bay,--one of the most brilliant naval +contests of modern times,--Farragut's crowning victory. Three hours +elapsed from the time the first gun was fired until the great ram hauled +down the Confederate flag. + +The port of Mobile was thenceforward closed against blockade runners, +and the last channel of communication between the Confederacy and the +outside world was cut off. + +=342. Farragut in the Rigging during the Battle.=--During the battle +Farragut stood in the main rigging; but as the smoke increased he +gradually climbed higher, until he was close by the maintop. The shots +were flying thick and fast. There was great danger that he would lose +his footing, and so the captain sent aloft one of the men with a rope +who lashed him to the rigging so that he might not fall if wounded. + + [Illustration: FARRAGUT LASHED TO THE RIGGING.] + +When Farragut saw the danger from the approaching Tennessee, as he stood +tied to the rigging, he said to his signal officer, who was lashed to +the other mast:-- + +"Can you signal, 'For Heaven's sake'?" + +"I can signal anything," replied Kinney. + +"Well, signal to all the fleet, 'For Heaven's sake, go for the ram!'" + +The fact that the admiral was fastened to the main rigging during the +greatest sea fight perhaps in our history gave him a unique reputation +throughout the country. Farragut was amused and amazed at the notoriety +of the incident. + +When a picture of the scene in one of the illustrated papers came to +hand a few days after the battle, the admiral said to one of his +captains in conversation, "How curiously some trifling incident catches +the popular fancy! My being in the main rigging was a mere incident, +owing to the fact that I was driven aloft by the smoke. The lashing was +the result of your own fears for my safety." + +=343. Cushing plans to destroy the Ironclad Albemarle.=--One of the large +sounds, or inland gulfs, on the coast of North Carolina was the scene of +a great deal of blockade running during the war. The place needed +constant watching by our ships. + +But the chief cause of anxiety was a monster ironclad, the Albemarle, +that the Confederates had built up the Roanoke River. She had sunk or +disabled several Union gunboats. She had gone up the river to refit. The +entrance to the sound was so shallow that none of our large warships +could pass in. + +Could anything be done to check the Albemarle? Lieutenant Cushing, only +twenty-one, but a most daring naval officer, said, "Yes, there could!" +His plan was to steal carefully up by night, seize the huge ironclad and +bring it away, if possible, or else blow it up. The river was guarded on +both banks, and the ram itself was watched by special sentries. No +matter for that; he would go. He obtained a noiseless steam launch, and +rigged a torpedo on the end of a long spar, turning on a hinge at its +side. The crew of the launch consisted of fifteen men, with Cushing in +command. + +=344. Cushing's Plan Successful; Destruction of the Albemarle.=--One dark +rainy night Cushing steamed in his little torpedo boat up the river. +They passed all the river guards undiscovered. A camp-fire on the bank +near the ironclad showed to him, as he stood in the bow of his boat, the +dark outlines of the monster. He steamed on softly. Just then a dog +barked! Then guards sprang up and fired. The big bell on the ram clanged +its alarm, lights flashed on the water and shots hissed all around the +launch. + +The brave young officer saw that the ram was surrounded by a large raft +of huge logs. Instantly his resolution was formed. He steamed off some +distance to get a long run, then turned and rushed for the Albemarle. +Shot whistled around him. On came his little craft, bumped upon the +logs, crashed over them, and pushed up under the huge ram. Cushing now +lowered his torpedo spar, calmly guided it into its place, pulled the +fatal cord--crash! a roar of thunder!--and all was over. The great +ironclad was a terror no longer. + + [Illustration: CUSHING'S BRILLIANT EXPLOIT.] + +=345. Cushing reaches the Fleet in Safety.=--Each man had to save himself +as best he might. Cushing leaped into the water. After about an hour's +swimming he reached the shore and fell exhausted upon the bank. He crept +into a swamp for some distance, tearing his feet and hands with briers +and oyster shells. + +Next day he met an old negro whom he thought he could trust. The negro +was frightened at Cushing's wild appearance and tremblingly asked who he +was. + +"I am a Yankee," replied Cushing, "and I am one of the men who blew up +the Albemarle." + +"My golly, massa!" said the negro; "dey kill you if dey catch you; you +dead gone, sure!" + +Cushing gave the negro all the money he had to go into the town and +learn the news. + +After a time the negro came back, and, to Cushing's joy, reported the +Albemarle sunk. At last the intrepid officer found a boat and paddled +for eight hours until he reached the Union squadron. After hailing one +of the vessels, he fell into the bottom of the boat, utterly exhausted +by hunger, cold, fatigue, and excitement. + +Lieutenant Cushing, to whose intrepidity and skill the country was +indebted for this and many other bold exploits, was engaged in +thirty-five naval combats during the war. What a record for a young man +of twenty-three! He died at thirty-two, the youngest officer of his rank +in the United States Navy. One of our finest torpedo boats, which did +good service during the Spanish-American war, is well named "The +Cushing." + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +THE WAR WITH SPAIN IN 1898. + + +=346. The Downfall of Spain on this Continent.=--For half a century or +more after the time of Columbus, Spain was the greatest military and +political power in the world. Her ships and her sailors carried the +proud banner of Castile to every shore and clime then known. + +The vast domain claimed by Spain on this continent by right of discovery +and exploration comprised the fertile islands of the West Indies, the +greater portion of Central and South America, and all that part of our +own country west of the Mississippi. In territory, in wealth, in power, +the sovereignty of Spain became the mightiest in the world. + +How are the mighty fallen! The once powerful empire has crumbled into +dust. The year 1898 saw its overthrow on this side of the Atlantic and +in the Philippines. + +=347. Spain's Cruel Policy towards her Colonies.=--For the most part Spain +ruled her colonies with shocking oppression. Her policy was to extort +all possible gain from them to her own selfish profit. She retained to +the last the barbarous methods of less civilized centuries. Finally, +after long years of oppression, the South American colonies began to cut +loose from her tyrannical sway. + +In a few years Spain was stripped of all her possessions in America, +excepting only her islands in the West Indies. + +=348. Cuba rebels against Spanish Oppression.=--One would naturally +suppose that these disastrous losses would have taught Spain to govern +her only remaining American colonies, Cuba and Porto Rico, with more +wisdom. But not so; she kept right on as before, growing worse, if +possible, still clinging to the old policy of cruel oppression and +merciless extortion. + +Some thirty years ago a rebellion began in Cuba which lasted ten years. +In vain Spain spent millions of money and sent thousands of soldiers to +subdue it. Hundreds of Cubans were cast into prison to die of fever and +starvation, and their property was confiscated. + +=349. Cuba again rebels against Spain in 1895.=--In 1895 the +long-suffering Cubans rose in rebellion again. Their army was larger, +better furnished, and they gained possession of a much more extensive +portion of the island. + +Now Spain became really alarmed. She sent to Cuba a hundred and twenty +thousand soldiers. They melted away, mostly from sickness and +mismanagement, like frost in the morning sun. It was all in vain; for it +was now plain that Spain could never conquer the Cubans, and just as +evident that the Cubans unaided could never win their independence. + +The war had already been barbarous enough, when the Spanish General +Weyler set in operation his inhuman concentration plan. This meant the +gathering up in the country districts of thousands of helpless old men, +women, and children, and driving them to the towns and forts, where they +were shut up like cattle in large enclosures, surrounded by a deep ditch +and a barbed wire fence. + +Along the line of the fence were frequent guardhouses, where soldiers +with loaded guns prevented escape. The poor outcasts were crowded into +wretched palm-leaf huts, with foul water and scanty food. It is said +that in the island about four hundred thousand helpless people were +herded in this way. They died by thousands. + +=350. The Barbarities in Cuba excite Great Indignation in this +Country.=--Now, all these horrors in Cuba aroused a great deal of +indignation in this country and excited profound sympathy for the +sufferers. Shiploads of provisions were sent by the Red Cross and other +societies to relieve the starving thousands. + +The feeling throughout this country at last came to be intense. For +years and years past our people had watched the long struggle with the +keenest interest. For years our presidents had protested to Spain +against the useless warfare. + +Now, when the real state of affairs in Cuba in 1897 became known, our +government sent word to Spain that this slow starvation of helpless men, +women, and children was not war, but savage barbarity, and must be +stopped. In reply, Spain asked for some delay and promised milder +measures. + +=351. The Battleship Maine blown up in Havana Harbor.=--In order to +protect American interests in Cuba, the battleship Maine was sent to +Havana in January, 1898. + +A calamity now occurred that shocked the world. On the evening of +February 15 this magnificent ship, while at anchor in the harbor of +Havana, was destroyed by an explosion. Two officers and two hundred and +sixty-four American sailors were hurled to instant death! + +The awful disaster sent a thrill of horror and indignation through our +country. A court of inquiry was instantly appointed by President +McKinley to investigate the matter and ascertain the cause. Meanwhile +the country waited for forty days, with surprising patience, for the +report, which came during the last of March, stating that the Maine had +been blown up from the outside by the explosion of a submarine mine. +Subsequent evidence before the Senate committee showed that the mine had +been exploded by men who wore the uniform of Spain. + +=352. War declared against Spain.=--Public feeling in our country grew +more intense every hour. The President continued to do his utmost to +avert war by peaceful and diplomatic methods. Thinking people knew well +enough that such efforts would be in vain. It was evident that Spain +would never grant independence to Cuba. It was also evident that the +American people (from the moment they heard of the blowing up of the +Maine) had made up their minds that the only real solution of the +problem was to put an end forever to Spanish rule on this side of the +Atlantic. This of course meant war. + +Congress took the responsibility and declared war against Spain on April +21, 1898. + +=353. Dewey acts promptly and sails for Manila from Hong Kong.=--The first +step of our war with Spain was to send Commodore Sampson with a fleet to +blockade the large seaports of Cuba. All eyes were turned to this +island; for every one expected the war to begin there; but instantly +the scene of action was shifted to the other side of the globe. + + [Illustration: ADMIRAL DEWEY.] + +The first day of May saw one of the greatest naval victories in the +history of the world. Our government had telegraphed orders to Commodore +George Dewey, then at Hong Kong, China, in command of our Asiatic +squadron, to sail at once to the Philippine Islands and "capture or +destroy" the Spanish ships. + +Dewey had taken part in important naval battles in our Civil War, and +was an experienced and skillful officer. In anticipation of war, his +fleet was ready for action on an hour's notice. + +After his instructions arrived from Washington, Dewey promptly sailed +for Manila with six warships and two tenders. He delayed outside the +harbor till the moon had set, and then steamed silently through the +three-mile-wide channel. He was entering in the dark a bay he had never +seen. He knew it was planted with torpedoes, and that he was going to +attack a Spanish fleet of ten ships, besides large forts with heavy +guns. + +A wonderful task! but Dewey was a wonderful man. He understood his +business. He had been trained under the eye of the great Admiral +Farragut and had fought long and hard in the war for the Union. + +=354. The Remarkable Naval Victory at Manila.=--Dewey's fleet arrived +before sunrise in front of the forts and the line of Spanish ships. The +battle at once began. Our vessels kept moving on the curve of a long +ellipse or flattened circle, and every time each came around it poured a +series of rapid and accurate shots directly into the enemy. They +answered furiously, but not deliberately. Round and round wheeled our +ships in a slow and deadly circle. Our men could see the walls of the +forts crumbling, some ships all ablaze, and others shattered and +sinking. + +After two hours of these tremendous circuits Dewey stopped firing and +moved his ships about three miles out of range to rest his men, give +them breakfast, and look after his ammunition. The men, in fine spirits, +ate their morning meal, and rested. It was a stoker on the flagship +Olympia who said that below "the temperature is nearly up to two hundred +degrees, and so hot that our hair is singed." + +Before noon Dewey returned, circled nearer still, and fought even more +fiercely. In an hour and a half more the work was finished. One ship +was riddled, then reeled and sank; then another; one was broken midway +and went down; now one was in flames, then a second, and so on till the +entire Spanish fleet, besides gunboats and transports, were sunk or +burned up or shot to pieces! + + [Illustration: BATTLE OF MANILA.] + +How did our ships stand the contest? Only two or three were hit at all, +and none seriously injured. Our six had destroyed thirteen Spanish +vessels and silenced their forts. The Spaniards had lost six hundred and +thirty-four men, killed and wounded. We had only one man killed and +seven slightly wounded. + +=355. The Nation's Grateful Appreciation of Dewey's Victory.=--Thus was +fought, on May Day, 1898, at Manila, perhaps the most surprising naval +conflict the world had ever seen. In three and a quarter hours the naval +power of Spain went down in the blue waters of the bay, and the splendid +fame of George Dewey echoed round the globe. Congress gave him a vote of +thanks and a gold medal; and he was made Admiral, the highest officer in +the American navy. + +Many years ago Admiral Farragut said to the father of the hero of +Manila, "Doctor Dewey, your son George is a worthy and brave officer. He +has an honorable record, and some day he will make his mark." + +Never before in the history of our country was there projected a series +of patriotic demonstrations grander in their purpose or finer in their +execution than those which greeted Admiral Dewey on his return to this +country, in the fall of 1899, from the scene of his famous victory. + +When Dewey sank the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, he opened a new era in +the history of our country. From that day the United States received +more distinct recognition among the nations responsible for the +political affairs of the world. + +=356. Preparations to meet the Spanish Fleet.=--Now let us return to the +scene of war in our own country. On the last day of April the Spanish +fleet, under Admiral Cervera, left the Cape Verde Islands, sailing west; +there were four armed cruisers and three torpedo-boat destroyers; all +good new ships and in prime condition. The alarming question was, Where +will they strike? The good people of our great eastern cities began to +imagine what would happen if these powerful warships should come sailing +into our harbors. + +Every effort was promptly and vigorously made to defend exposed points +with forts and torpedoes. Events proved that it was needless. No ship of +that Spanish fleet came within five hundred miles of any American city. +Yet it was evident that Cervera's fleet must be captured or destroyed +before our coast could be safe, or military operations could be +prudently begun in Cuba. + +Extraordinary efforts were made to ascertain the exact location of the +hostile squadron. + +Finally it was found that it had slipped on May 19 into the bay of +Santiago. Our fleet at once gathered around to blockade the entrance, +to make it impossible for any vessel to pass in, and to attack Cervera's +ships should they attempt to come out. Among our blockaders were the +splendid ships New York, Massachusetts, Brooklyn, Texas, Iowa, Indiana, +and the Oregon that had sailed around Cape Horn from San Francisco, +fourteen thousand miles in sixty-seven days. + + [Illustration: RESCUE OF HOBSON BY THE SPANISH ADMIRAL.] + +=357. Hobson's Brilliant Exploit.=--Admiral Sampson did not deem it +advisable to steam in and attack Cervera, as the channel was thickly +planted with mines. So our semicircle of ships watched and waited. At +night our strong search-lights blazed into the mouth of the harbor and +lighted it with a fiery glare. + +If the narrow neck of the harbor could only be somehow obstructed, so +that Cervera's ships would either be completely "bottled up," or would +have to creep out to sea by daylight, the naval power of Spain would be +crippled. So thought Admiral Sampson, and he selected Lieutenant Hobson +for this daring deed. It meant going right into the midst of the enemy's +batteries and torpedoes. + +A large steamer, the Merrimac, was taken and loaded down with coal; and +a crew of seven men were selected to go with Hobson. Strange fascination +of mingled courage and patriotism! Hundreds of sailors begged the chance +to go! + +It was all carefully planned; and about two hours before dawn, on June +3, they started. As they drew near, the Spanish made the water boil and +hiss with their shots. But on they went to the chosen spot, balls and +shells striking all about, howling and shrieking in their ears and +tearing their ship. + +Coolly but quickly they sank the Merrimac, sprang to the raft they had +prepared, and were clinging to it when the firing ceased and a little +steam launch came up with Cervera in it! The Spanish admiral reached out +and helped lift in Hobson and his seven comrades! He took them ashore, +praised them for their daring, gave them dry clothing, fed them, and +soon after exchanged them for some Spanish officers who had been +captured by our men. =358. The Army does Brilliant Service at +Santiago.=--It was plain that the Spanish ships would never come out +until they were driven out. So during the last week in June an army of +about twenty-five thousand men, under General Shafter, landed a few +miles east of Santiago to coöperate with our fleet in capturing the +city. Our forces, losing no time, moved on through tropical jungles, +exposed to the enemy's sharpshooting from trees. It was a deadly advance +towards log forts on the steep heights, impeded by the annoying tangle +of barbed-wire fences. + +On the first and second days of July our gallant troops captured the two +forts, El Caney and San Juan, which overlooked Santiago, and drove the +enemy in hot haste into the city. + +=359. The Remarkable Naval Victory at Santiago.=--Then Cervera's hour had +come! On July 3, a beautiful Sunday morning, the eyes that for more than +a month had watched with sleepless vigilance that narrow opening between +the rocks, saw at last the bow of a Spanish warship. It slipped out and +turned sharply to the west; then came another, and a third, and so on +till all six had passed. They at once opened a fierce but ill-directed +fire upon our fleet. + +The men on our vessels were mustering for Sunday morning inspection when +the enemy was seen. "The enemy is coming out!" was signalled from ship +to ship, and on each deck rang out the command, "All hands clear ship +for action!" + +Every man was ready to do his duty. Every ship was stripped for action. +Instantly our ships were after the Spanish squadron, firing as they +followed. What a sight was that! There was never before one like it! Two +lines of hostile ships rushing along the coast, tearing the ocean to +foam, each a volcano pouring out smoke, and more than a hundred big guns +hurling shells and shot which strike with awful crash upon the iron +walls of the enemy's ships! + + [Illustration: ADMIRAL SAMPSON.] + +On they dashed, mile after mile. One of our huge shells fell midway of +the Pluton, which at once went down with an awful plunge. The Furor, +riddled with shot, fled to the shore and broke in pieces on the rocks. +Furious was the chase for the other four; nearer and nearer, till our +ships came up. Then the Maria Teresa, the flagship, with huge holes torn +in her, and set on fire by our exploding shells, escaped to the beach, a +sinking, burning wreck. Next the Oquendo, half her men killed, and her +sides all split open, also fell helpless on the beach. In forty minutes +these four ships had gone to their doom. + + [Illustration: ADMIRAL SCHLEY.] + +Still beyond was the famous Vizcaya, doing her best to escape. But the +Brooklyn, Commodore Schley's flagship, gained on her and poured shells +into her, so that with the Oregon now rushing up in a burst of speed +which astonished all who saw her, her race was soon run, and she, too, +went to her grave on the strand, a shattered, blazing hulk. + +Yet one more, the Colon, newest, fastest, and best of the squadron, was +now about four miles ahead; but our ships gained steadily upon her, and +in less than two hours she hauled down her flag and ran ashore +forty-five miles from Santiago. + +=360. After the Battle at Santiago.=--The sun that shone in the morning +upon six of Spain's finest ships looked down at noon upon a row of +half-sunken wrecks along the coast. + +At the risk of their lives our men rescued their foes from the mangled +hulks, the burning decks, and the surging water. + +"Don't cheer, boys," cried one gallant captain, "the poor fellows are +dying." + +Another captain said in his report, "So long as the enemy showed his +flag, our men fought like American seamen; but when the flag came down, +they were as gentle and tender as American women." + +The Spanish loss, according to their own accounts, was three hundred and +fifty killed or drowned, and about one hundred officers and one thousand +six hundred and seventy-five men prisoners, including the brave Admiral +Cervera. Their loss in value was over twelve million dollars. Upon our +side only one man was killed, and three were wounded, all on the +Brooklyn. Not one of our ships was badly injured. Evidently the Spanish +gunners could not shoot straight! + +So ended this famous naval engagement. Never, perhaps, has the world +seen two such instances of the utter destruction of an enemy's naval +force as in the battles of Manila and Santiago. + +=361. The Campaign in Porto Rico.=--The surrender of all Cuba soon +followed. Then General Miles was sent with nine thousand troops to Porto +Rico, the only remaining island on this side belonging to Spain. He +landed near Ponce, on the southern coast. The city surrendered without a +shot and welcomed our army. The Spanish troops fled on the approach of +our soldiers. + +General Miles in a proclamation assured the inhabitants that they should +enjoy the rights and immunities of American citizens. As he moved +inwards, other cities along his line of march surrendered, and the +Spanish forces made only occasional resistance to our progress. Just +before an expected battle news of peace came from Washington. All +fighting ceased, and this fertile island came into our hands with little +bloodshed. + +=362. End of the War.=--Meanwhile our government was making energetic +preparations to send a powerful fleet under Commodore Watson across the +Atlantic and to carry the war to the Spanish coast. We may be sure that +Spain, and even some of her neighbors, did not like the prospect. There +had been enough of rapid, crushing, and unbroken defeats to satisfy even +the Castilian point of honor. + +When it became evident that Watson's fleet would be ready in a few days +to carry the war to the very doors of Spain, the representatives of the +great nations of Europe said things had gone far enough. Diplomatic +pressure was applied to poor Spain. She was politely but firmly told +that she must make peace at once, and on any terms. + +The French Minister at Washington was authorized by Spain to sign a +preliminary document, or _protocol_, embodying in precise language the +conditions on which our government would negotiate peace. This document +was signed at Washington on August 12, and hostilities ceased. + +The formal treaty of peace was signed in Paris December 10, 1898. By the +terms of this treaty Spain agreed to give up its sovereignty in Cuba, to +cede to the United States Porto Rico, a few small West India islands, +and one of the Ladrone group; also to cede to this country the +Philippines, after payment by us of twenty millions of dollars as +"reimbursement for insular expenses." + +=363. Our Nation's Future.=--The immediate results of this short-lived +Spanish war were full of deep meaning to our nation. No one now can +safely say what the distant outcome will be. It is certain to be +far-reaching and momentous. + +Our country has rapidly advanced to its position as one of the foremost +nations of the world in wealth and in power. Let us trust it may also +lead in good government, in national honor and righteousness. Let us +earnestly hope that in the long years before us our sacred Union shall +still be preserved, unbroken,--forever one great Union of prosperous and +happy states. + + + + +APPENDIX. + +BOOKS FOR REFERENCE AND COLLATERAL READING IN THE STUDY OF AMERICAN +HISTORY. + + +This book is designed to be used before the formal text-book on American +history is begun in grammar-school grades. It is intended also to serve +as a convenient basis for more extended work both on the part of the +teacher and of pupils. Hence the reading of the preceding chapters is +only one part of the proposed plan. A systematic course in supplementary +reading should be added. The following plan is suggested, but it may be +modified, of course, to meet the needs of any particular class of +pupils. + + NOTE.--The whole subject of reference books on American History is + treated thoroughly in Montgomery's _Student's American History_ + [see "Short List of Books," page xxiv in Appendix, and "Authorities + Cited," page xxx in Appendix], Montgomery's _American History_ [see + "Short List of Books," page xxxiii in Appendix], and Fiske's + _History of the United States_ [see Appendix D, page 518, Appendix + E, page 527, and Appendix F, page 529]. + + +REFERENCE BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. + +Two books are of special value to teachers. These are Channing and +Hart's _Guide to American History_ [Ginn & Company, Publishers, price +$2.00], and Gordy and Twitchell's _Pathfinder in American History_ [Lee +& Shepard, Publishers, complete in one volume, $1.20. In separate parts, +Part I, 60 cents; Part II, 90 cents]. + +These two works are replete with suggestions, hints and helps on +collateral study, numerous references, detailed lists of topics, and a +wide range of other subjects which make them indispensable to the +teacher of American history. + + +SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS FOR READING AND REFERENCE. + +Pupils should have easy access, by means of the school library or +otherwise, to a few of the formal school text-books on American history. +In connection with this book Montgomery's _Leading Facts of American +History_ and Fiske's _History of the United States_ are especially +valuable. The following books are perhaps equally serviceable: +Eggleston's _History of the United States_; Steele's _Brief History of +the United States_ [usually known as "Barnes's History"]; Thomas's +_History of the United States_ and Mowry's _History of the United +States_. These books are useful in reading for additional topics, for +dates, maps, illustrations, reference tables, and for "filling in" +subjects which do not come within the scope of this book. + + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. + +For ordinary school work the text-books to which we have just referred +will furnish enough and suitable material for these topics. When, +however, standard works on history are of easy access, through the +school or public libraries, it is well even for pupils of the lower +grades to read sparingly by topics from such works. These topics should +be carefully selected by the teacher. They should be brief and call only +for a few pages of reading. + +In the succeeding pages references have been given only to a very few +standard works, such as those by Fiske, Parkman, Irving, and McMaster, +and such other books as can ordinarily be easily obtained. + + +REFERENCES FOR READING. + +Pupils should also have easy reference to books from which topics may be +read or which may be read sparingly by select passages indicated by the +teacher. Many of these books have been suggested more on account of +their interesting style than for strict historical accuracy. Read the +designated works not as a whole but only by topics or selections. They +will do much to awaken and maintain a lively interest in American +history. + + +OUTSIDE READINGS. + +While the study of this book is in progress it is well for the pupils to +limit their miscellaneous reading to such books as bear directly upon +our subject. Under this head we have suggested many productions which +belong to the "story-book" order. Wholesome books of fiction and +semi-fiction may certainly do much to stimulate and hold the attention +of young students of American history. With this topic, as with all +other topics on collateral reading, the teacher should exercise a +careful supervision. + + +FOR READING OR RECITATION. + +The work should be enlivened by reading occasionally, before the class +or the school, poems or prose selections which bear directly upon the +general topic under consideration. We have referred only to a very few +such extracts from good literature. Other selections will readily +suggest themselves. + + +USE OF A TOPIC BOOK OR NOTEBOOK. + +The teacher and pupil should appreciate the scope and usefulness of a +Topic book or Notebook. By this is meant a blank book with semi-flexible +or board covers, of a convenient size, and of at least 48 pages. Into +this blank book should be written carefully with ink brief notes as the +several chapters of this book are read or studied. It may well be a kind +of enlarged diary of the pupil's work. + +Make brief notes of the various books read in whole or by topics; topics +not treated in this book but discussed in the class, such as King +Philip's War, the Mexican War, etc., and references to new books to be +reserved for future reading and other subjects which will readily +suggest themselves. + +This notebook should be well illustrated. The basis should be the +inexpensive photographic copies (sold for about one cent each) of +famous pictures illustrating important events in American history. +Catalogues giving the exact titles, cost, and other details are sent to +applicants, free of expense. + +Portraits, maps, facsimiles of documents and autographs, etc., are often +easily obtained from book catalogues, guide books, advertising pages, +and secondhand text-books. + +All this illustrative material should be pasted in the notebook at the +proper place, neatly and with good judgment, allowing plenty of space +for margins. Such a compilation is, of course, a matter of slow growth. +It should be carefully preserved as a pleasant reminder of school days. + + NOTE.--Think of enriching your notebook with photographic + reproductions of such works as Stuart's "Washington"; Faed's + "Washington at Trenton"; Trumbull's "Surrender of Cornwallis" and + "Signing the Declaration of Independence"; Benjamin West's "Penn's + Treaty"; Leutze's "Washington Crossing the Delaware"; Vanderlyn's + "Landing of Columbus"; Johnson's "Old Ironsides" and Overend's "An + August Morning with Farragut." + + + + +REFERENCE BOOKS AND SUPPLEMENTARY READING FOR SUCCESSIVE PERIODS IN +AMERICAN HISTORY. + +[Intended for use in connection with the study of this book.] + + +CHAPTER I. PAGES 1-9. + +AMERICA IN THE OLD DAYS. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--The following topics are thoroughly +discussed in Fiske's _Discovery of America_:-- + +The People of Ancient America, Vol. I, pp. 1-19; Origin of the American +Indians, Vol. I, p. 19; The Indians of the Pueblos, Vol. I, p. 82; The +Mysterious Mound Builders, Vol. I, p. 140; Voyages of the Northmen to +Vinland, Vol. I, p. 164. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--For a readable account of the Mound Builders +and the American Indians, consult Shaler's _The Story of Our +Continent_. + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Starr's _American Indians_; The Voyages to Vinland +from the Saga of Eric the Red, _Old South Leaflets_, No. 32; Glasscock's +_Stories of Columbia_. + +FOR READING OR RECITATION.--Whittier's _Norumbega_ and _Norsemen_; +Longfellow's _Skeleton in Armor_. + + +CHAPTER II. PAGES 10-30. + +COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--Topics from Fiske's _Discovery of +America_:-- + +First Voyage of Columbus, Vol. I, p. 419; Last Voyage of Columbus, Vol. +I, p. 505; Vespucius and the "New World," Vol. II, p. 96; The Cabots and +their Voyages, Vol. II, p. I; Ponce de Leon, Vol. II, p. 486; Adventures +of De Soto, Vol. II, p. 509. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Read selections from the one-volume edition of +Irving's _Life of Columbus_; Abbott's _Life of Columbus_ (Ajax Series); +Adams's _Columbus_ (Makers of America); Brooks's _True Story of +Columbus_; Adventures of De Soto, Parkman's _Pioneers of France in the +New World_, p. 13. + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Griffis's _Romance of American Discovery_; +Glasscock's _Stories of Columbia_; The Discovery of America, from the +Life of Columbus, by his son, Ferdinand Columbus, _Old South Leaflets_, +No. 29; Columbus's Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the first +voyage, _Old South Leaflets_, No. 33; Americus Vespucius's Account of +his First Voyage, _Old South Leaflets_, No. 34; Death of De Soto, _Old +South Leaflets_, No. 36; The Voyages of the Cabots, _Old South +Leaflets_, No. 37. + + +CHAPTER III. PAGES 31-46. + +SIR WALTER RALEIGH AND CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--For various topics in connection with +Sir Walter Raleigh and Captain John Smith, see the Index to Fiske's +_Old Virginia and her Neighbours_. Incidents in the Life of Captain John +Smith: see John Esten Cooke's _Virginia_ (American Commonwealth Series), +pp. 22-76. The Story of Pocahontas, Cooke's _Virginia_, pp. 35-103. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Towle's _Raleigh, his Voyages and Adventures_; +Cooke's _Stories of the Old Dominion_; Eggleston's and Seelye's +_Pocahontas_ (Ajax Series). + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Towle's _Magellan, or the First Voyage Round the +World_. + + +CHAPTERS IV AND V. PAGES 47-72. + +THE PILGRIMS. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--Many topics in connection with this +chapter may be selected from Fiske's _The Beginnings of New England_, +as, The Separatists, p. 66; Why the Pilgrims did not stay in Holland, p. +74; Voyage of the Mayflower, p. 80; The Pilgrims and the Indians, p. 83. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Griffis's _The Pilgrims and their Three Homes_; +Moore's _Pilgrims and Puritans_; Abbott's _Captain Miles Standish_ (Ajax +Series); Drake's _On Plymouth Rock_; Bacon's _Historic Pilgrimages in +New England_. + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Jane G. Austin's _Standish of Standish_, _Betty +Alden_, _Nameless Nobleman_, and _David Alden's Daughter_. + +FOR READING OR RECITATION.--Mrs. Hemans's _Landing of the Pilgrims_; +Longfellow's _Courtship of Miles Standish_; Bryant's _Twenty-Second of +December_; Holmes's _The Pilgrim's Vision_. + + +CHAPTER VI. PAGES 73-87. + +THE INDIANS. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--For special topics about the Indians, +see Parkman's _Conspiracy of Pontiac_, Vol. I, p. 1, also the +Introduction to Parkman's _Jesuits in North America_. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Brooks's _Story of the American Indian_; +Drake's _Indian History for Young Folks_; Starr's _American Indians_; +Shaler's _The Story of Our Continent_. + +FOR READING OR RECITATION.--Longfellow's _Hiawatha_. + + +CHAPTER VII. PAGES 88-105. + +THE DUTCH IN NEW YORK; THE QUAKERS IN PENNSYLVANIA. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--Henry Hudson: his voyages, voyage upon +the Great River, his tragic fate, see Fiske's _The Dutch and Quaker +Colonies in America_, Vol. I, pp. 83-95. William Penn: see the Index to +Fiske's _The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America_. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--_The Great Peace Maker_ (Penn) (Daring Deed +Series); Abbott's _Peter Stuyvesant_ (Ajax Series). + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Butterworth's _Wampum Belt_ (Penn); Irving's +_Knickerbocker's History of New York_ (humorous and satirical account of +the Dutch Colony of New Netherland); Paulding's _The Dutchman's +Fireside_ (Colonial Life in New York). + + +CHAPTER VIII. PAGES 106-125. + +THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--For a great variety of topics in +connection with the French and Indian Wars and the overthrow of New +France, the student will find the books of Parkman a vast storehouse of +intensely fascinating reading matter. See the index to the various +volumes. For example, read La Salle's Descent of the Mississippi, +Parkman's _La Salle_, pp. 275-288; Braddock's March and Defeat; +Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. I, p. 204, and The Heights of +Abraham, Vol. II, p. 259-297. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Johnson's _Old French War_; Drake's _Border +Wars of New England_. + +OUTSIDE READINGS.-Abbott's _Life of King Philip_ (Ajax Series); Henty's +_With Wolfe in Canada_; Cooper's _Last of the Mohicans_ (story of Seven +Years' War); James Otis's _At the Siege of Quebec_. + + +CHAPTER IX. PAGES 126-138. + +EVERYDAY LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--The great storehouse of facts regarding +the social and domestic life of the American people is McMaster's +_History of the People of the United States_ (5 vols. now ready). For +topics see detailed index of each volume. Consult especially Vol. II, +pp. 538-582, on "Town and Country Life in 1800." This work is somewhat +voluminous for elementary work. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Earle's _Home Life in Colonial Days_; Earle's +_Child Life in Colonial Days_, _Tavern and Stage Coach in Colonial +Days_; Earle's _Sabbath in Puritan New England_; Earle's _Customs and +Fashions of Old New England_; Earle's _Colonial Dames and Goodwives_; +Coffin's _Old Times in the Colonies_; Coffin's _Building the Nation_; +Scudder's _Men and Manners in America 100 years Ago_; Wharton's _Through +Colonial Doorways_; Wharton's _Colonial Days and Dames_; Fisher's _Men, +Women, and Manners in Colonial Times_; Markham's _Colonial Days_; +Hawthorne's _Grandfathers Chair_. + + +CHAPTERS X-XVIII. PAGES 139-295. + +THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--For a series of topics on the American +Revolution, to be read in connection with these nine chapters, consult +the index to Fiske's _American Revolution_ (2 vols.). + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--For the Revolution as a whole the two best +works for supplementary reading in schools are perhaps Lodge's _Story of +the Revolution_ and Fiske's _War of Independence_ (Riverside Literature +Series). Lossing's _Field Book of the Revolution_ is voluminous but +interesting, and fully illustrated. + +Among the scores of excellent works which may be consulted, the +following may be safely recommended: Coffin's _Story of Liberty_; +Fiske-Irving's _Washington and his Country_; Abbot's _Blue Jackets of +'76_; Bacon's _Historic Pilgrimages in New England_; C. H. Woodman's +_Boys and Girls of the Revolution_; Brooks's _Century Book of the +American Revolution_; Drake's _Burgoyne's Invasion of 1777_; Seawell's +_Paul Jones_; Abbott's _Paul Jones_ (Ajax Series); Brooks's _Story of +the American Sailor_; Frost's _Swamp Fox_ (Marion). + +OUTSIDE READING.--There are numerous books on the war of the Revolution +suitable for outside reading. For the school grades for which this book +is intended, the following books are interesting and for the most part +instructive: Watson's _Noble Deeds of our Fathers_; Watson's _Tea Party +and Other Stories_; Butterworth's _Patriot Schoolmaster_ (Story of the +Minute Men and Sons of Liberty); Otis's _Signal Boys of 1775_; +Tomlinson's _Stories of the American Revolution_ (several series); +Stoddard's _Red Patriot_; Thompson's _The Rangers or the Tory's +Daughter_; Thompson's _Green Mountain Boys_; Otis's _Boys of Fort +Schuyler_; _Patriot Boy_ (Washington) (Famous Boy Series); _Father of +his Country_ (Washington) (Daring Deed Series); Abbott's _Life of +Washington_ (Ajax Series); Scudder's _George Washington_; Brooks's _True +Story of George Washington_; Miss Hoppens's _A Great Treason_ (Arnold +and André); Cooper's _Last of the Mohicans_ (last French or Seven Years' +War); Cooper's _Lionel Lincoln_ (Boston at time of Bunker Hill); +Cooper's _Pilot_ (Paul Jones). + +These six novels by William Gilmore Simms furnish under the guise of +fiction a connected and most readable account of the Revolution in the +South from the fall of Charleston to 1782: _The Partisan_, +_Mellichampe_, _The Scout_, _Katherine Walton_, _The Foragers_, _The +Eutaws_. + +See also Kennedy's _Horse Shoe Robinson_ (South Carolina in the +Revolution); Churchill's _Richard Carvel_ (Paul Jones); Guerber's _Story +of the Thirteen Colonies_; Guerber's _Story of the Great Republic_; +Eggleston's _First Book in American History_; Johonnot's _Stories of our +Country_; Mowry's _First Steps in the History of our Country_; +Montgomery's _Beginner's American History_. + +FOR READING OR RECITATION.--Longfellow's _Paul Revere's Ride_; Emerson's +_Concord Hymn_; Holmes's _Grandmother's Story of the Battle of Bunker +Hill_; Bryant's _Song of Marion's Men_; Pierpont's _General Warren's +Address_; Finch's _Nathan Hale_; Bryant's _Nineteenth of April_; Simms's +_Ballad of King's Mountain_. + + +CHAPTER XIX. PAGES 296-310. + +BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--For topics to be read in connection with +the life and career of Franklin, see the index to Fiske's _The American +Revolution_, Fiske's _The Critical Period of American History_ +(1783-1789), and Morse's _Benjamin Franklin_ (American Statesmen +Series). + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Franklin's _Autobiography_ should be read +before all other books on Franklin. Read also _Printer Boy_ (Franklin) +(Famous Boy Series); _Poor Richards Story_ (Franklin) (Daring Deed +Series); Abbott's _Benjamin Franklin_ (Ajax Series) and Parton's _Life +of Franklin_. + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Butterworth's _True to his Home_ (Franklin); Brooks's +_True Story of Benjamin Franklin_. + + +CHAPTER XX. PAGES 311-322. + +EVERYDAY LIFE ONE HUNDRED YEARS AGO. + +This chapter is supplementary to Chapter IX on "Everyday Life in +Colonial Times." The same works for collateral reading in connection +with that chapter maybe equally serviceable for supplementary work for +this chapter. Refer especially to the works of McMaster, Alice Morse +Earle, Scudder, C. C. Coffin, Fisher, and Wharton. + + +CHAPTER XXI. PAGES 323-338. + +OUR NAVY IN THE WAR OF 1812. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--From this time to the present day +McMaster's _History of the People of the United States_ is a storehouse +of important and interesting topics. See especially the chapter on +"State of the People in 1812," Chapter III, p. 459, and various chapters +in Vol. IV. Consult the detailed index to the several volumes for quick +reference to the desired topics. + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Abbot's _Blue Jackets of 1812_; Brooks's _Story +of the American Sailor_; Johnson's _War of 1812_; Lossing's _History of +the War of 1812_; Roosevelt's _Naval War of 1812_; Lossing's _Story of +the United States Navy_ (for boys). + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Barnes's _Hero of Lake Erie_ (Commodore Perry); +Seawell's _Midshipman Paulding_ (Commodore Paulding); Seawell's _Little +Jarvis_ (cruises of the Constellation); Seawell's _Decatur and Somers_; +George Cary Eggleston's three stories: _Signal Boys_, _Captain Sam_, and +_Big Brother_. + +FOR READING OR RECITATION.--Holmes's _Old Ironsides_; Key's _The +Star-Spangled Banner_. + + +CHAPTER XXII. PAGES 339-352. + +THE SETTLEMENT OF THE PACIFIC COAST. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--For special topics in connection with +the settlement of the Pacific coast consult Barrows's _Oregon_ and +Royce's _California_ (both volumes in the American Commonwealth's +Series). + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Irving's _Astoria_ and Dana's _Two Years before +the Mast_ were written many years ago, but present vivid pen-pictures of +the early days on the Pacific coast. + + +CHAPTERS XXIII-XXV. PAGES 353-405. + +THE WAR FOR THE UNION. + +TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING.--The literature of the Civil War is so +voluminous that the utmost care must be used in the selection of even +the best books for collateral reading. + +For school purposes two of the best briefer books for supplementary use +are Champlin's _Young Folks' History of the War for the Union_ and +Dodge's _Bird's-Eye View of the Civil War_. Consult also _Nichol's Story +of the Great March_ (Sherman); Swinton's _Twelve Decisive Battles of the +War_; Drake's _Battle of Gettysburg_; Morse's _Abraham Lincoln_, 2 vols. +(American Statesmen Series). + +REFERENCES FOR READING.--Abbot's _Battlefields of '61_; Abbot's _Blue +Jackets of '61_; Soley's _Sailor Boys of '61_; Brooks's _True Story of +Abraham Lincoln_; Brooks's _True Story of General Grant_; Brooks's +_Story of the American Soldier_; Coffin's _Days and Nights on the +Battlefield_; Coffin's _Drumbeat of the Nation_; Coffin's _Redeeming the +Republic_; Coffin's _Marching to Victory_; Coffin's _Freedom +Triumphant_; Cooke's _Stonewall Jackson_; Cooke's _Robert E. Lee_. + +OUTSIDE READINGS.--Blaisdell's _Stories of the Civil War_; Goss's _Jed, +a Boy's Adventures in the Army_; Goss's _Tom Clifton_; Keiffer's +_Recollections of a Drummer Boy_; Barnes's _Midshipman Farragut_; +Henty's _With Lee in Virginia_; Page's _Two Little Confederates_. + +FOR READING AND RECITATION.--Read's _Sheridan's Ride_; Whittier's +_Barbara Frietchie_; Howe's _Battle Hymn of the Republic_; Bryant's _Our +Country's Call_; Bret Harte's _John Burns at Gettysburg_; Whitman's _O +Captain! My Captain!_ (Death of Lincoln); Finch's _Blue and the Gray_; +Miss Preston's _Gone Forward_ (Death of General Lee); Longfellow's +_Cumberland_; Boker's _Black Regiment_; Byers's _Sherman's March to the +Sea_; Bryant's _The Battlefield_; Wilson's _The Old Sergeant_; Bryant's +_Abraham Lincoln_; Higginson's _Decoration_; Bryant's _Our Country's +Call_; Stedman's _Sumter_; Bayard Taylor's _To the American People_, and +_Scott and the Veteran_; Holmes's _Voyage of the Good Ship Union_; +Stedman's _Wanted--a Man_; Whittier's _Battle Autumn of 1862_, and _Laus +Deo_. + + +CHAPTER XXVI. PAGES 406-423. + +THE WAR WITH SPAIN IN 1898. + +The most useful book for schools is perhaps Henry Cabot Lodge's _The War +with Spain_. + +The following books are also useful: Brooks's _Story of Our War with +Spain_; Abbot's _Blue Jackets of 1898_; Morris's _The War with Spain_; +Davis's _The War of 1898_; and Spears's _Our Navy in the Spanish War_. + + + + +INDEX. + + + PAGE + + Alabama, career of the, 397 + destroyed by Kearsarge, 397 + claims for damage paid by England, 398 + + Albemarle, destruction of the, 403 + + America, in old days, 1 + ancient, people of, 3 + + André, meeting with Arnold, 276 + capture of, 277 + sad fate of, 281 + + Appomattox, surrender of Lee at 380 + + Arnold, Benedict, sent to relieve Fort Stanwix, 209 + story of his treason, 271-285 + brilliant military career, 273 + begins his wicked career, 273 + meeting with André, 275 + escape of, 280 + after life of, 281 + death of, 283 + + + Barbary States, pirates of, 323 + + Battles: Antietam, 365 + Bennington, 213 + Bon Homme Richard and Serapis, 290 + Bull Run, 364 + Bunker Hill, 170-183 + Camden, 255 + Cedar Creek, 381 + Chancellorsville, 369 + Chesapeake and Shannon, 331 + Chickamauga, 377 + Concord, 162 + Constitution and Guerrière, 327 + Cowpens, 264 + Eutaw Springs, 269 + Fair Oaks, 365 + Forts Henry and Donaldson, 365 + Freeman's Farm, 218 + Gettysburg, 369 + Hobkirk's Hill, 269 + Kearsarge and Alabama, 397 + King's Mountain, 261 + Lake Erie, 333 + Lexington, 160 + Lookout Mountain, 377 + Manassas, 364 + Manila, 410 + Mobile, 399 + Monitor and Merrimac, 392 + Monmouth, 239 + New Orleans, 337, 390 + Oriskany, 207 + Princeton, 237 + Santiago, 418 + Saratoga, 219 + Trenton, 233 + Vicksburg, 375 + Yorktown, 242 + + Bennington, battle of, 213 + + Bon Homme Richard, battle with Serapis, 290 + + Boston boys and General Gage, 150 + + Boston massacre, 151 + tea party, 152 + Port Bill, 155 + + Braddock, expedition of, 118 + + Buford massacre, 253 + + Bull Run, battle of, 364 + + Bunker Hill, battle of, 170-183 + lesson taught by, 180 + Monument, 183 + + Burgoyne campaign, 198-221 + + + Cabots, John and Sebastian, 26 + their voyages, 26, 27 + + California enters the Union, 346 + discovery of gold in, 346 + rush to gold regions of, 348 + + Camden, defeat at, 255 + + Cedar Creek, Sheridan at, 383 + + Cervera and Spanish fleet, 415 + + Chancellorsville, battle of, 369 + + Charleston, defense of, 251 + capture of, 252 + + Chesapeake, battle with the Shannon, 331 + + Chickamauga, battle of, 377 + + Churches in colonial times, 129 + + Colonial times, everyday life in, 126 + + Colonies begin to prosper, 141 + tyrannical treatment of, 142 + + Columbia River, discovery of, 341 + + Columbus, Christopher, 10 + early life of, 12 + seeks aid, 14 + first voyage of, 15 + welcome on return, 19 + other voyages, 20-23 + + Concord Bridge, fight at, 162 + + Congress, First Continental, 157 + Second Continental, 190 + + Constitution, battle with Guerrière, 327 + her noble record, 330 + + Cowpens, battle of, 264 + + Cuba, barbarities in, 407 + rebels against Spain, 406 + + Cushing, daring exploit of, 402-405 + + + Decatur, exploits of, 324 + + Deerfield, attack on, 112 + + De Soto, Ferdinand, 28-30 + + Dewey, Admiral, victory at Manila, 412 + nation's reception of, 414 + + Dustin, Hannah, story of, 113 + + Dutch, settlement in New York, 92 + how they lived, 93 + + + Emancipation of the slaves, 366 + proclamation of, 367 + + Erie, Lake, battle of, 333 + + Eutaw Springs, battle of, 269 + + Everyday home life one hundred years ago, 311-321 + + + Farragut, Admiral, 390 + captures New Orleans, 391 + captures Mobile, 399 + in the rigging at Mobile, 401 + + Fires, how put out one hundred years ago, 316 + + Flag, American, first raised, 209 + + Franklin, Benjamin, 296-310 + early life of, 297 + learns printer's trade, 297 + goes to Philadelphia, 299 + life in London, 301 + career in Philadelphia, 302 + famous kite experiment, 304 + public career, 305 + service as diplomatist, 309 + last days of, 310 + + Freeman's Farm, battle of, 218 + + French in North America, 106 + + French and Indian Wars, 110 + + + Gage, General, and Boston boys, 150 + plans to capture military stores, 158 + + Gates, General, 217, 255 + + Gettysburg, battle of, 369-372 + memorials of, 372 + Lincoln's address at, 372 + + Gold, Discovery of, in California, 347 + effects of discovery, 348 + + Grant, General, success in the West, 375 + + Greene, General, takes command in South, 262 + his masterly retreat, 265 + rare generalship of, 268 + brilliant campaign in South, 269 + + + Henry, Patrick, speech of, 147 + + Herkimer, General, 206 + + Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 269 + + Hobson, brilliant exploit of, 416 + + Home life in colonial times, 134 + + Hudson, Sir Henry, 88 + enters Dutch service, 89 + discovers Hudson River, 90 + his sad fate, 92 + + + Independence, Declaration of, 184-197 + what it said to the world, 191 + how received, 194 + incidents connected with, 195 + what it should mean, 197 + + Independence declared, 192 + slow growth of the idea, 185 + stern necessity of, 188 + first steps towards, 190 + + Indians, 4 + principal divisions of, 4 + Pueblo, 6 + appearance and clothing, 73 + food of the, 74 + weapons and how they fought, 76 + as hunters, 80 + cunning and revengeful, 82 + their children, 85 + ally themselves with French, 111 + + + Jackson, Andrew, anecdote of, 254 + wins the battle of New Orleans, 337 + + Jackson, Stonewall, 369 + + Jasper, Sergeant, bravery of, 251 + + Jones, John Paul, begins his remarkable career, 287 + daring deeds on English coast 288 + interview with Franklin, 289 + after life of, 294 + battle with the Serapis, 290 + + + Kearsarge destroys the Alabama 397 + + King's Mountain, battle of, 261 + + + La Salle, 107 + + Laws, absurd and tyrannical, 143 + resistance to, 147 + + Lee, General Charles, at Monmouth, 240 + + Lee, Robert E, 371 + + Lewis and Clarke expedition, 341 + + Lexington, battle of, 160 + + Life, everyday, one hundred years ago, 311, 322 + + Lincoln, Abraham, influence of mother, 353 + reads good books, 354, 356 + studies law, 357 + chosen President, 359 + death of, 383 + + Lookout Mountain, battle of, 377 + + Louisburg, capture of, 115 + + Louisiana, purchase of, 340 + + + Maine, blowing up of the, 409 + + Manila, naval victory at, 410 + + Marion, General, 255-261 + method of fighting of, 257 + first exploits of, 258 + famous exploits of, 259 + visit from British officer, 260 + + McCrea, Jane, murder of, 205 + + Meade, General, 370 + + Merrimac, attack on Union fleet, 392 + battle with Monitor, 394 + + Ministers and meeting-houses one hundred years ago, 318 + + Minute-men, 167 + + Mobile, capture of, 399 + + Monitor, building of, 392 + arrival of, 393 + battle with the Merrimac, 394 + + Monmouth, battle of, 239 + + Montcalm, death of, 125 + + Morgan, General, victory at Cowpens 264 + + + Naval operations on the Western rivers, 388 + + Navy in the War of 1812, 323-338 + at beginning of the war for the Union, 387 + + New England, rally of people in defense of, 211 + + New Orleans, battle of, 337 + capture of, 365, 389-391 + + Newspapers one hundred years ago, 311 + + Northmen, 6 + + + Oregon saved to the Union, 342 + + + Pacific Coast, settlement of 339-352 + + Pacific Railroad, first built, 353 + + Penn, William, 97 + becomes a Quaker, 98 + establishes a colony in America, 100 + kind treatment of Indians, 101 + treaty with Indians, 102 + his old age, 104 + + Perry, Commodore, victory on Lake Erie, 333 + + Pilgrims, story of, 47 + home in Holland, 48 + voyage across Atlantic, 51 + sign compact, 52 + explorations of, 53 + hardships and suffering of, 60, 65 + visit from Indians, 63 + peep into houses of, 66 + household furniture of, 69 + daily fare of, 71 + + Pitcher, Mollie, story of, 241 + + Plymouth Rock, 59 + + Pocahontas, romantic story of, 41 + + Ponce de Leon, 27 + + Pony Express, its history, 349 + + Porter, Commodore, 376 + + Porto Rico, campaign in, 420 + + Postal service one hundred years ago, 312 + + Potatoes first used in Europe, 33 + + Princeton, battle of, 237 + + Privateers, Confederate, 396 + + + Quakers, persecution of, 96 + + Quebec, capture of, 123 + + + Railroad built to California, 352 + + Raleigh, Sir Walter, 31 + + Revere, Paul, ride of, 159 + + Review in Washington, grand, 385 + + Richmond, capture of, 380 + + + Sailors, American, treatment of by British, 325 + + Santiago, naval victory at, 418 + + Saratoga, battle of, 219 + effect of victory at, 220 + + Savannah, capture of, 252 + + Schoolmaster one hundred years ago, 320 + + Schools and schoolmasters in colonial times, 131 + + Schuyler, General, and Burgoyne campaign, 203 + + Sheridan, General, 381 + famous ride of, 381 + + Sherman, W. T., General, 378 + march to the sea, 379 + + Shiloh, battle of, 375 + + Slavery, a menace to the country, 358 + + Slaves, emancipation of the, 366 + + Smith, Captain John, 34 + early career, 35 + career in new world, 37 + and Pocahontas, 40 + + South, war of Revolution in, 250 + cruel warfare in, 253 + + Spain, downfall of, 406 + colonial policy of 406 + Cuba rebels against, 406 + war declared against, 409 + end of war against, 421 + + Spanish fleet, preparations to meet, 415 + + Stage coaches one hundred years ago, 314 + + Stamp Act, 145 + + Standish, Captain Miles, 54 + + Stanwix, Fort, defense of, 208 + + Stark, John, at Bennington, 213 + + Steele, Mrs., anecdote of, 266 + + Stuyvesant, Peter, 95 + + Sumter, Fort, attack on, 361 + + Sunday, in colonial times, 127 + how kept one hundred years ago, 317 + + + Tablets, historic, 169 + + Tea Party, Boston, 152 + + Thomas, General, 377 + + Ticonderoga, capture of, 201 + + Tobacco, first use of by Europeans, 33 + + Trenton, battle of, 233 + + + Union, War for, beginning of, 361 + cost of, 384 + situation after the, 386 + + + Valley Forge, sufferings at, 238 + + Vicksburg, capture of, 375 + + Virginia, first attempt to colonize, 32 + starving time in, 44 + + + War, Civil, beginning of, 361 + cost of, 384 + situation after the, 386 + + War of 1812, causes of, 326 + results of, 338 + + Warren, Joseph, 156 + death of, 180 + + Washington, George, first difficult task, 117 + with Braddock's expedition, 118 + boyhood and youth of, 222 + as a surveyor, 224 + as a colonial army officer, 226 + advancement in political honors, 228 + as commander-in-chief, 229 + his many difficulties, 231 + victory at Trenton, 233 + victory at Princeton, 237 + helps defeat Burgoyne, 237 + plans Yorktown campaign, 242 + elected President, 245 + retires to private life, 246 + death of, 248 + + Washington, Colonel, anecdote of, 264 + + Whitman, Dr., saves Oregon, 342 + his perilous ride for Oregon, 344 + success in his mission, 345 + + Wolfe, capture of Quebec, 123 + + + Yorktown, plan of campaign, 242 + victory at, 244 + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of American History, by +Albert F. 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