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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:01:57 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:01:57 -0700 |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The English Language + +Author: Robert Gordon Latham + +Release Date: December 7, 2010 [EBook #34595] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE *** + + + + +Produced by Colin Bell, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage.<br /><br /> + +</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h3>THE</h3> + +<h1>ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</h1> + +<p class="cenhead">BY</p> + +<h3>ROBERT GORDON LATHAM, M.D., F.R.S.,</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">LATE FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE; FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF</span><br /> +<span class="scac">PHYSICIANS, LONDON; MEMBER OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY,</span><br /> +<span class="scac">NEW YORK; LATE PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE</span><br /> +<span class="scac">AND LITERATURE, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON.</span></p> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>THIRD EDITION,</h3> + +<h4>REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED.</h4> + + <p> </p> + +<h3>LONDON:</h3> + +<h3>TAYLOR, WALTON, AND MABERLY,</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW.</p> + +<h3>1850.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<p class="cenhead">LONDON:<br /> +Printed by <span class="sc">Samuel Bentley</span> & Co.,<br /> +Bangor House, Shoe Lane.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p class="cenhead">TO</p> + +<h3>THE REV. WILLIAM BUTCHER, M.A.,</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF</p> + +<p class="cenhead">ROPSLEY, LINCOLNSHIRE,</p> + +<p class="cenhead">IN ADMIRATION OF HIS ACCOMPLISHMENTS AS A LINGUIST,</p> + +<p class="cenhead">AND AS A TESTIMONY OF PRIVATE REGARD,</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><b>The following pages are Inscribed,</b></p> + +<p class="cenhead">BY HIS FRIEND,</p> + +<h3>THE AUTHOR.</h3> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">London</span>,</p> + <p><i>Nov. 4, 1841</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>{v}</span></p> + +<h3>PREFACE</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">TO THE</p> + +<h3>SECOND EDITION.</h3> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>The first edition of the present work was laid before the public, with + the intention of representing in a form as systematic as the extent of + the subject would allow, those views concerning the structure and + relations of the English language, which amongst such scholars as had + studied them with the proper means and opportunities, were then generally + received; and which, so being received, might take their stand as + established and recognized facts. With the results of modern criticism, + as applied to his native tongue, it was conceived that an educated + Englishman should be familiar. To this extent the special details of the + language were exhibited; and to this extent the work was strictly a + Grammar of the English Language.</p> + + <p>But besides this, it was well known that the current grammarians, and + the critical philologists, had long ceased to write alike upon the + English, or <!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagevi"></a>{vi}</span>indeed upon any other, language. For this + reason the sphere of the work became enlarged; so that, on many + occasions, general principles had to be enounced, fresh terms to be + defined, and old classifications to be remodelled. This introduced + extraneous elements of criticism, and points of discussion which, in a + more advanced stage of English philology, would have been superfluous. It + also introduced elements which had a tendency to displace the account of + some of the more special and proper details of the language. There was + not room for the exposition of general principles, for the introduction + of the necessary amount of preliminary considerations, and for the + <i>minutiæ</i> of an extreme analysis. Nor is there room for all this at + present. A work that should, at one and the same time, prove its + principles, instead of assuming them, supply the full and necessary + preliminaries in the way of logic, phonetics, and ethnology, and, besides + this, give a history of every variety in the form of every word, + although, perhaps, a work that one man might write, would be a full and + perfect <i>Thesaurus</i> of the English Language, and, would probably + extend to many volumes. For, in the English language, there are many + first principles to be established, and much historical knowledge to be + applied. Besides which, the particular points both of etymology and + syntax are far more numerous than is imagined. Scanty as is the amount of + declension and conjugation in current use, there are to be found in every + department of our grammars, <!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagevii"></a>{vii}</span>numerous isolated words which exhibit the + fragments of a fuller inflection, and of a more highly developed + etymology. This is well-known to every scholar who has not only viewed + our language as a derivative of the Anglo-Saxon, and observed that there + are similar relations between many other languages (<i>e. g.</i> the + Italian and Latin, the German and Mœso-Gothic, &c.), but who + has, also, generalized the phenomena of such forms of relationship and + derivation, and enabled himself to see in the most uninflected languages + of the nineteenth century, the fragments of a fuller and more systematic + inflection, altered by time, but altered in a uniform and a general + manner.</p> + + <p>The point, however, upon which, in the prefaces both of the first + edition of the present work and of his English Grammar, the writer has + most urgently insisted is the <i>disciplinal</i> character of grammatical + studies in general, combined with the fact, that the grammatical study of + one's own language is almost <i>exclusively</i> disciplinal. It is + undoubtedly true, that in schools something that is called English + Grammar is taught: and it is taught pretty generally. It is taught so + generally that, I believe, here are only two classes of English boys and + girls who escape it—those who are taught nothing at all in any + school whatever, and those who are sent so early to the great classical + schools (where nothing is taught but Latin and Greek), as to escape + altogether the English part of their scholastic education. But <!-- Page + viii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii"></a>{viii}</span>what is + it that is thus generally taught? not the familiar practice of speaking + English—that has been already attained by the simple fact of the + pupil having been born on English soil, and of English parents. Not the + scientific theory of the language—that is an impossibility with the + existing text-books. Neither, then, of these matters is taught. + Nevertheless labour is expended, and time is consumed. What is taught? + Something undoubtedly. The facts, that language is more or less regular + (<i>i. e.</i> capable of having its structure exhibited by rules); that + there is such a thing as grammar; and that certain expressions should be + avoided, are all matters worth knowing. And they are all taught even by + the worst method of teaching. But are these the proper objects of + <i>systematic</i> teaching? Is the importance of their acquisition + equivalent to the time, the trouble, and the displacement of more + valuable subjects, which are involved in their explanation? I think not. + Gross vulgarity of language is a fault to be prevented; but the proper + prevention is to be got from habit—not rules. The proprieties of + the English language are to be learned, like the proprieties of English + manners, by conversation and intercourse; and the proper school for both, + is the best society in which the learner is placed. If this be good, + systematic teaching is superfluous; if bad, insufficient. There + <i>are</i> undoubted points where a young person may doubt as to the + grammatical propriety of a certain expression. In this case let him ask + some one older, and more instructed. Grammar, <!-- Page ix --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"></a>{ix}</span>as an <i>art</i>, is, + undoubtedly, <i>the art of speaking and writing correctly</i>—but + then, as an <i>art</i>, it is only required for <i>foreign</i> languages. + For our <i>own</i> we have the necessary practice and familiarity.</p> + + <p>The claim of English grammar to form part and parcel of an English + education stands or falls with the value of the philological and + historical knowledge to which grammatical studies may serve as an + introduction, and with the value of scientific grammar as a + <i>disciplinal</i> study. I have no fear of being supposed to undervalue + its importance in this respect. Indeed in assuming that it is very great, + I also assume that wherever grammar is studied as grammar, the language + which the grammar so studied should represent, must be the mother-tongue + of the student; <i>whatever that mother-tongue may be</i>—English + for Englishmen, Welsh for Welshmen, French for Frenchmen, German for + Germans, &c. This study is the study of a theory; and for this reason + it should be complicated as little as possible by points of practice. For + this reason a man's mother-tongue is the best medium for the elements of + scientific philology, simply because it is the one which he knows best in + practice.</p> + + <p>Now if, over and above the remarks upon the English language, and the + languages allied to it, there occur in the present volume, episodical + discussions of points connected with other languages, especially the + Latin and Greek, it is because a greater portion of the current ideas on + philological subjects <!-- Page x --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagex"></a>{x}</span>is taken from those languages than from our + own. Besides which, a second question still stands over. There is still + the question as to the relative disciplinal merits of the different + <i>non</i>-vernacular languages of the world. What is the next best + vehicle for philological philosophy to our mother-tongue, whatever that + mother-tongue maybe? Each Athenian who fought at Salamis considered his + own contributions to that great naval victory the greatest; and he + considered them so because they were <i>his own</i>. So it is with the + language which we speak, and use, and have learned as our own. Yet each + same Athenian awarded the second place of honour to Themistocles. The + great classical languages of Greece and Rome are in the position of + Themistocles. They are the best when the question of ourselves and our + possessions is excluded. They are the best in the eyes of an indifferent + umpire. More than this; if we take into account the studies of the + learned world, they are second only to the particular mother-tongue of + the particular student, in the way of practical familiarity. Without + either affirming or denying that, on the simple scores of etymological + regularity, etymological variety, and syntactic logic, the Sanskrit may + be their equal, it must still be admitted that this last-named language + has no claims to a high value as a practical philological discipline upon + the grounds of its universality as a point of education; nor will it + have. Older than the Greek, it may (or may not) be; more multiform than + the Latin, it may (or may not) be: but equally rich in the attractions + <!-- Page xi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi"></a>{xi}</span>of + an unsurpassed literature, and equally influential as a standard of + imitation, it neither has been nor can be. We may admit all that is + stated by those who admire its epics, or elucidate its philosophy; we may + admire all this and much more besides, but we shall still miss the great + elements of oratory and history, that connect the ancient languages of + Greece and Italy with the thoughts, and feelings, and admiration of + recent Europe.</p> + + <p>The same sort of reasoning applies to the Semitic languages. One + element they have, in their grammatical representation, which gives them + a value in philological philosophy, in the abstract, above all other + languages—the <i>generality</i> of the expression of their + structure. This is <i>symbolic</i>, and its advantage is that it exhibits + the naturally universal phenomena of their construction in a universal + language. Yet neither this nor their historical value raises them to the + level of the classical languages.</p> + + <p>Now, what has just been written has been written with a view towards a + special inference, and as the preliminary to a practical deduction; and + it would not have been written but for some such ulterior application. If + these languages have so high a disciplinal value, how necessary it is + that the expression of their philological phenomena should be accurate, + scientific, and representative of their true growth and form? How + essential that their grammars should exhibit nothing that may hereafter + be unlearned? <i>Pace grammaticorum dixerim</i>, this is not the case. + Bad <!-- Page xii --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagexii"></a>{xii}</span>as is Lindley Murray in English, Busby and + Lilly are worse in Greek and Latin. This is the comparison of the men on + the low rounds of the ladder. What do we find as we ascend? Is the + grammatical science of even men like Mathiæ and Zump <i>much</i> above + that of Wallis? Does Buttmann's Greek give so little to be unlearned as + Grimm's German? By any one who has gone far in comparative philology, the + answer will be given in the negative.</p> + + <p>This is not written in the spirit of a destructive criticism. If an + opinion as to the fact is stated without reserve, it is accompanied by an + explanation, and (partially, perhaps) by a justification. It is the + business of a Greek and Latin grammarian to teach Greek and Latin + <i>cito, tute, ac jucunde</i>,—<i>cito</i>, that is, between the + years of twelve and twenty-four; <i>tute</i>, that is, in a way that + quantities may be read truly, and hard passages translated accurately; + <i>jucunde</i>, that is, as the taste and memory of the pupil may + determine. With this view the grammar must be <i>artificial</i>. Granted. + But then it should profess to be so. It should profess to address the + memory only, not the understanding. Above all it should prefer to leave a + point untaught, than to teach it in a way that must be unlearned.</p> + + <p>In 1840, so little had been done by Englishmen for the English + language, that in acknowledging my great obligations to foreign scholars, + I was only able to speak to what <i>might be done</i> by my own + countrymen. Since then, however, there has been a good <!-- Page xiii + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii"></a>{xiii}</span>beginning of + what is likely to be done well. My references to the works of Messrs. + Kemble, Garnet, and Guest, show that my authorities are <i>now</i> as + much English as German. And this is likely to be the case. The details of + the syntax, the illustrations drawn from our provincial dialects, the + minute history of individual words, and the whole system of articulate + sounds can, for the English, only be done safely by an Englishman: or, to + speak more generally, can, for any language, only be dealt with properly + by the grammarian whose mother-tongue is that language. The <i>Deutsche + Grammatik</i> of Grimm is the work not of an age nor of a century, but, + like the great history of the Athenian, a <span title="ktêma eis aei" class="grk" + >κτῆμα εἰς + ἀεί</span>. It is the magazine from whence all draw + their facts and illustrations. Yet it is only the proper German portion + that pretends to be exhaustive. The Dutch and Scandinavians have each + improved the exhibition of their own respective languages. Monument as is + the <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i> of learning, industry, comprehensiveness, + and arrangement, it is not a book that should be read to the exclusion of + others: nor must it be considered to exhibit the grammar of the Gothic + languages, in a form unsusceptible of improvement. Like all great works, + it is more easily improved than imitated. One is almost unwilling to + recur to the old comparison between Aristotle, who absorbed the labour of + his predecessors, and the Eastern sultans, who kill-off their younger + brothers. But such is the case with Grimm and his fore-runners in + philology. Germany, that, in <!-- Page xiv --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagexiv"></a>{xiv}</span>respect to the Reformation, is content to + be told that Erasmus laid the egg which Luther hatched, must also + acknowledge that accurate and systematic scholars of other countries + prepared the way for the <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>,—Ten Kate in + Holland; Dowbrowsky, a Slavonian; and Rask, a Dane.</p> + + <p>Nor are there wanting older works in English that have a value in + Gothic philology. I should be sorry to speak as if, beyond the writers of + what may be called the modern school of philology, there was nothing for + the English grammarian both to read and study. The fragments of Ben + Jonson's English Grammar are worth the entireties of many later writers. + The work of Wallis is eminently logical and precise. The voice of a mere + ruler of rules is a sound to flee from; but the voice of a truly powerful + understanding is a thing to be heard on all matters. It is this which + gives to Cobbett and Priestley, to Horne Tooke as a subtle etymologist, + and to Johnson as a practical lexicographer, a value in literary history, + which they never can have in grammar. It converts unwholesome doctrines + into a fertile discipline of thought.</p> + + <p>The method of the present work is mixed. It is partly historical, and + partly logical. The historical portions exhibit the way in which words + and inflections <i>have been</i> used; the logical, the way in which they + <i>ought to be</i> used. Now I cannot conceal from either my readers or + myself the fact that philological criticism at the present moment is of + an essentially <!-- Page xv --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagexv"></a>{xv}</span>historical character. It has been by working + the historical method that all the great results both in general and + special scholarship have been arrived at; and it is on historical + investigation that the whole <i>induction</i> of modern philology rests. + All beyond is <i>à priori</i> argument; and, according to many, <i>à + priori</i> argument out of place. Now, this gives to the questions in + philology, to questions concerning the phenomena of concord, government, + &c. a subordinate character. It does so, however, improperly. Logic + is in language what it is in reasoning,—a rule and standard. But in + its application to reasoning and to language there is this difference. + Whilst illogical reasoning, and illogical grammar are equally phenomena + of the human mind, even as physical disease is a phenomenon of the human + body, the illogical grammar can rectify itself by its mere continuance, + propagation, and repetition. In this respect the phenomena of language + stand apart from the other phenomena of either mind or organized matter. + No amount of false argument can make a fallacy other than a fallacy. No + amount of frequency can make physical disease other than a predisposing + cause to physical disorganization. The argument that halts in its logic, + is not on a <i>par</i> with the argument that is sound. Such also is the + case with any bodily organ. No prevalence of sickness can ever evolve + health. Language, however, as long as it preserves the same amount of + intelligibility is always language. Provided it serve as a medium, it + does its proper work; <!-- Page xvi --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagexvi"></a>{xvi}</span>and as long as it does this, it is, as far + as its application is concerned, faultless. Now there is a limit in + logical regularity which language is perpetually overstepping; just as + there is a logical limit which the reasoning of common life is + perpetually overstepping, and just as there is a physiological limit + which the average health of men and women may depart from. This limit is + investigated by the historical method; which shows the amount of latitude + in which language may indulge and yet maintain its great essential of + intelligibility. Nay, more, it can show that it sometimes transgresses + the limit in so remarkable a manner, as to induce writers to talk about + the <i>corruption of a language</i>, or <i>the pathology of a + language</i>, with the application of many similar metaphors. Yet it is + very doubtful whether all languages, in all their stages, are not equally + intelligible, and, consequently, equally what they ought to be, viz., + mediums of intercourse between man and man; whilst, in respect to their + growth, it is almost certain that so far from exhibiting signs of + dissolution, they are, on the contrary, like the Tithonus of mythology, + the Strulbrugs of Laputa, or, lastly, such monsters as Frankenstein, very + liable to the causes of death, but utterly unable to die. Hence, in + language, <i>whatever is, is right</i>; a fact which, taken by itself, + gives great value to the historical method of inquiry, and leaves little + to the <i>à priori</i> considerations of logic.</p> + + <p>But, on the other hand, there is a limit in logical regularity, which + language <i>never</i> oversteps: and as <!-- Page xvii --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="pagexvii"></a>{xvii}</span>long as this is the + case, the study of the logical standard of what language is in its normal + form must go hand in hand with the study of the processes that deflect + it. The investigation of the irregularities of language—and be it + remembered that almost all change implies original irregularity—is + analogous to the investigation of fallacies in logic. It is the + comparison between the rule and the practice, with this difference, that + in language the practice can change the rule, which in logic is + impossible. I am sure that these remarks are necessary in order to + anticipate objections that may be raised against certain statements laid + down in the syntax. I often write as if I took no account of the + historical evidence, in respect to particular uses of particular words. I + do so, not because I undervalue that department of philology, but because + it is out of place. To show that one or more writers, generally correct, + have used a particular expression is to show that they speak, in a few + instances, as the vulgar speak in many. To show that the vulgar use one + expression for another is to show that two ideas are sufficiently allied + to be expressed in the same manner: in other words, the historical fact + is accompanied by a logical explanation; and the historical deviation is + measured by a logical standard.</p> + + <p>I am not desirous of sacrificing a truth to an antithesis, but so + certain is language to change from logical accuracy to logical licence, + and, at the same time, so certain is language, when so changed, to be + <!-- Page xviii --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagexviii"></a>{xviii}</span>just as intelligible as before, that I + venture upon asserting that, not only <i>whatever is, is right</i>, but + also, that in many cases, <i>whatever was, was wrong</i>. There is an + antagonism, between logic and practice; and the phenomena on both sides + must be studied.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page xix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexix"></a>{xix}</span></p> + +<h3>CONTENTS.</h3> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents" title="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> PART I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE—DATE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SECTION </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> PAGE</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect1">1</a>. English not originally British </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect2">2</a>. Germanic in origin </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page2">2</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect3">3</a>-<a href="#sect10">10</a>. Accredited details of the different immigrations from Germany<br /> +into Britain </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page2">2</a>-4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect10">10</a>-<a href="#sect12">12</a>. Accredited relations of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons to each<br /> +other as Germans </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect13">13</a>. Criticism of evidence </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page5">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Extract from Mr. Kemble </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page6">6</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect14">14</a>. Inference </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page9">9</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE—THE IMMIGRANT TRIBES<br /> +AND THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect15">15</a>-<a href="#sect20">20</a>. The Jute immigration doubtful </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page10">10</a>-12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect22">22</a>. Difficulties in identifying the Saxons </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect23">23</a>. Difficulties in identifying the Angles </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect25">25</a>-<a href="#sect29">29</a>. Populations with the greatest <i>à priori</i> likelihood of having<br /> +immigrated </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page14">14</a>, 15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect26">26</a>. Menapians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect27">27</a>. Batavians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect28">28</a>. Frisians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect29">29</a>. Chauci </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect30">30</a>. Inference </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xx --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexx"></a>{xx}</span> +<a href="#sect31">31</a>-<a href="#sect34">34</a>. Saxons and Nordalbingians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page16">16</a>, 17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect35">35</a>-<a href="#sect50">50</a>. Populations, whereof the continental relation help us in fixing<br /> +the original country of the Angles and Saxons </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page17">17</a>-21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect36">36</a>. Germans of the Middle Rhine </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Franks </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Salians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Chamavi </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect37">37</a>. Thuringians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect38">38</a>. Catti </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect39">39</a>. Geographical conditions of the Saxon Area </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect40">40</a>. Its <i>Eastern</i> limit </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect41">41</a>-<a href="#sect50">50</a>. Slavonian frontier </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page20">20</a>, 21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect41">41</a>. ,, Polabi </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect42">42</a>. ,, Wagrians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect43">43</a>. ,, Obotriti </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect44">44</a>. ,, Lini </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect45">45</a>. ,, Warnabi </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect46">46</a>. ,, Morizani </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect47">47</a>. ,, Doxani </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect48">48</a>. ,, Hevelli </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect49">49</a>. ,, Slavonians of Altmark </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect50">50</a>. ,, Sorabians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect51">51</a>. Saxon area </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page21">21</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AREA AND OF THE SO-CALLED OLD +SAXON.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect52">52</a>, <a href="#sect53">53</a>. Extent and frontier </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect54">54</a>-<a href="#sect62">62</a>. Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page23">23</a>-25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect63">63</a>. Old-Saxon <i>data</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect64">64</a>. Specimen </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page26">26</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMANY AND +SCANDINAVIA.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect65">65</a>. <i>General</i> affinities of the English language </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect67">67</a>. The term <i>Gothic</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect69">69</a>. <i>Scandinavian</i> branch </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect70">70</a>. <i>Teutonic</i> branch </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxi"></a>{xxi}</span> +<a href="#sect71">71</a>. Mœso-Gothic </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect73">73</a>. Origin of the Mœso-Goths </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page32">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect76">76</a>. Name not Germanic </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect77">77</a>. Old High German </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page35">35</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect78">78</a>. Low Germanic division </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect79">79</a>. Frisian </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect81">81</a>. Old Frisian </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect82">82</a>. Platt-Deutsch </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect83">83</a>. Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic compound </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page38">38</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect84">84</a>. Scandinavian article </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page40">40</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect88">88</a>. Scandinavian verb </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect91">91</a>. Declension in <i>-n</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect92">92</a>. Difference between languages of the same division </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect93">93</a>. Weak and strong nouns </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Mœso-Gothic inflections </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect94">94</a>. Old Frisian and Anglo-Saxon </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect98">98</a>. The term <i>German</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page56">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect99">99</a>. The term <i>Dutch</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect100">100</a>. The term <i>Teutonic</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page58">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect101">101</a>. The term <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page59">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect102">102</a>. <i>Icelandic</i>, Old Norse </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page59">59</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER V.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE—GERMANIC ELEMENTS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect106">106</a>. The <i>Angles</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page62">62</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect109">109</a>. Extract from Tacitus </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> ,, Ptolemy </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect110">110</a>. Extracts connecting them with the inhabitants of the Cimbric + Chersonesus </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page64">64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect111">111</a>. The district called Angle </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page65">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect113">113</a>. Inferences and remarks </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page65">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect114">114</a>. What were the <i>Langobardi</i> with whom the Angles were connected<br /> + by Tacitus? </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page66">66</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect115">115</a>. What were the Suevi, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page66">66</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect116">116</a>. What were the Werini, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect117">117</a>. What were the Thuringians, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect121">121</a>. Difficulties respecting the Angles </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page68">68</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect123">123</a>-<a href="#sect128">128</a>. Patronymic forms, and the criticism based on them </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page68">68</a>-72</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect129">129</a>-<a href="#sect131">131</a>. Probably German immigrants <i>not</i> Anglo-Saxon </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page72">72</a>, 73</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxii"></a>{xxii}</span> +CHAPTER VI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE +ENGLISH.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect132">132</a>. Cambrian Celtic </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect133">133</a>. Gaelic Celtic </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect136">136</a>. Structure of Celtic tongues </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page79">79</a>-83</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect138">138</a>. The Celtic of Gaul </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page84">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect139">139</a>. The Pictish </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page84">84</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE ANGLO-NORMAN AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL STOCK.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect140">140</a>. The Classical languages </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page86">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect141">141</a>. Extension of the Roman language </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page86">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect142">142</a>. The divisions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page87">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Specimen of the Romanese </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page88">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Specimen of the Wallachian </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page88">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect143">143</a>. French dialects </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page89">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Oath of Ludwig </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page90">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect144">144</a>. Norman-French </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page91">91</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE POSITION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS INDO-EUROPEAN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect147">147</a>. The term <i>Indo-European</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page94">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect148">148</a>. Is the Celtic Indo-European? </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page95">95</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> PART II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect149">149</a>. Celtic elements </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect150">150</a>. Latin of the First Period </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page98">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect151">151</a>. Anglo-Saxon </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page98">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect152">152</a>. Danish or Norse </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page98">98</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect153">153</a>. Roman of the Second Period </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxiii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxiii"></a>{xxiii}</span> +<a href="#sect154">154</a>. Anglo-Norman </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect155">155</a>. Indirect Scandinavian </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect156">156</a>. Latin of the Third Period </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect157">157</a>. Greek elements </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect158">158</a>. Classical elements </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect159">159</a>. Latin words </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect160">160</a>. Greek elements </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect161">161</a>, <a href="#sect162">162</a>. Miscellaneous elements </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page105">105</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect163">163</a>, <a href="#sect164">164</a>. Direct and ultimate origin of words </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page106">106</a>, 107</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect165">165</a>. Distinction </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect166">166</a>-<a href="#sect168">168</a>. Words of foreign simulating a vernacular origin </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page107">107</a>-109</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect169">169</a>-<a href="#sect171">171</a>. Hybridism </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page109">109</a>, 110</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect172">172</a>. Incompletion of radical </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect173">173</a>. Historical and logical analysis </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON AND THE STAGES<br /> +OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect174">174</a>. Ancient and modern languages </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page112">112</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect175">175</a>. English and Anglo-Saxon compared </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect176">176</a>. Semi-Saxon stage </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect177">177</a>-<a href="#sect179">179</a>. Old English stage </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page119">119</a>, 122</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect180">180</a>. Middle English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page122">122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect181">181</a>. Present tendencies of the English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect182">182</a>. Speculative question </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page123">123</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE LOWLAND SCOTCH.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect183">183</a>-<a href="#sect188">188</a>. Lowland Scotch </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page124">124</a>-127</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect189">189</a>. Extracts </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect190">190</a>. Points of difference with the English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page130">130</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON CERTAIN UNDETERMINED AND FICTITIOUS LANGUAGES OF GREAT +BRITAIN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect191">191</a>, <a href="#sect192">192</a>. The Belgæ </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page132">132</a>-135</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect193">193</a>. Caledonians, Iberians </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect194">194</a>. Supposed affinities of the Irish </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Extract from Plautus </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect195">195</a>. Hypothesis of a Finnic race </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page139">139</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxiv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxiv"></a>{xxiv}</span> +PART III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, AND SPELLING.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> GENERAL NATURE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect196">196</a>. Preliminary remarks </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect197">197</a>. Vowels and consonants </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect198">198</a>. Divisions of articulate sounds </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect199">199</a>. Explanation of terms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Sharp</i> and <i>flat</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Continuous</i> and <i>explosive</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect200">200</a>. General statements </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect201">201</a>. <i>H</i> no articulation </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page144">144</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect202">202</a>. System of vowels </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>é</i> fermé, ó <i>chiuso</i>, <i>ü</i> German </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect203">203</a>. System of mutes </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Lenes and aspirates </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page146">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect204">204</a>. Affinities of the liquids </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect205">205</a>. Diphthongs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect206">206</a>. Compound sibilants </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect207">207</a>. <i>Ng</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page148">148</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect208">208</a>-<a href="#sect210">210</a>. Further explanation of terms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page148">148</a>-150</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect211">211</a>. System of vowels </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect212">212</a>. System of mutes </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect213">213</a>. Varieties </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect214">214</a>. Connection in phonetics </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page151">151</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect215">215</a>. Unpronounceable combinations </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page152">152</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect216">216</a>. Unstable combinations </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect217">217</a>. Effect of <i>y</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect218">218</a>, <a href="#sect219">219</a>. Evolution of new sounds </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page153">153</a>, 154</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect220">220</a>. Value of a sufficient system of sounds </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxv"></a>{xxv}</span> +<a href="#sect221">221</a>. Double consonants rare </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page154">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect222">222</a>. Reduplications of consonants rare </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect223">223</a>. True aspirates rare </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page155">155</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> EUPHONY; THE PERMUTATION AND TRANSITION OF LETTERS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect224">224</a>. Euphonic change exhibited </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect225">225</a>. The <i>rationale</i> of it </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect226">226</a>. The combinations <i>-mt</i>, <i>-nt</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect227">227</a>. The <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'combinations'.">combination</span> <i>-pth</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect228">228</a>. Accommodation of vowels </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect229">229</a>. Permutation of letters </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect230">230</a>. Transition of letters </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page160">160</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER V.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect231">231</a>. Distribution of consonants between two syllables </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page161">161</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON QUANTITY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect232">232</a>. <i>Long</i> and <i>short</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect233">233</a>. How far coincident with <i>independent</i> and <i>dependent</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect234">234</a>. Length of vowels and length of syllables </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON ACCENT.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect235">235</a>. Accent </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect236">236</a>. How far accent always on the root </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect237">237</a>. Verbal accent and logical accent </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect238">238</a>. Effect of accent on orthography </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page169">169</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect239">239</a>. Accent and quantity <i>not</i> the same </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page170">170</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOEPY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect240">240</a>. Meaning of the word <i>orthoepy</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect241">241</a>. Classification of errors in pronunciation </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect242">242</a>-<a href="#sect244">244</a>. Causes of erroneous enunciation </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page172">172</a>-175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxvi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxvi"></a>{xxvi}</span> +<a href="#sect245">245</a>. Appreciation of standards of orthoepy </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page175">175</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect246">246</a>. Principles of critical orthoepy </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page176">176</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect247">247</a>. Province of orthography </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect248">248</a>. Imperfections of alphabets </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect249">249</a>. Applications of alphabets </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect250">250</a>. Changes of sound, and original false spelling </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect251">251</a>. Theory of a perfect alphabet </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect252">252</a>. Sounds and letters in English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect253">253</a>. Certain conventional modes of spelling </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page187">187</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect254">254</a>. The inconvenience of them </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page189">189</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect255">255</a>. Criticism upon the details of the English orthography </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page189">189</a>-200</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER X.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect256">256</a>. Bearings of the question </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect257">257</a>. Phœnician Period </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page200">200</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect258">258</a>, <a href="#sect259">259</a>. Greek Period </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page201">201</a>-203</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect260">260</a>-<a href="#sect262">262</a>. Latin Period </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page203">203</a>-205</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect263">263</a>. The Mœso-Gothic alphabet </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect264">264</a>. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect265">265</a>. The Anglo-Norman Period </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page207">207</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect266">266</a>. Extract from the Ormulum </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page208">208</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect267">267</a>. The <i>Runes</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page209">209</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect268">268</a>. The order of the alphabet </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page210">210</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect269">269</a>. Parallel and equivalent orthographies </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> PART IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ETYMOLOGY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE PROVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect270">270</a>. Meaning of the term etymology </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page214">214</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxvii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxvii"></a>{xxvii}</span> +CHAPTER II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON GENDER.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect271">271</a>. Latin genders </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect272">272</a>. Words like <i>he-goat</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect273">273</a>. Words like <i>genitrix</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page217">217</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect274">274</a>. Words like <i>domina</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page218">218</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect275">275</a>. Sex </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect276">276</a>. True Genders in English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page219">219</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect277">277</a>. Neuters in <i>-t</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect278">278</a>. Personification </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page220">220</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect279">279</a>. True and apparent genders </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE NUMBERS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect280">280</a>, <a href="#sect281">281</a>. Dual number </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page225">225</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect282">282</a>-<a href="#sect284">284</a>. Plural in <i>-s</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page226">226</a>-230</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect285">285</a>. The form in <i>child-r-en</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page230">230</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect286">286</a>. The form in <i>-en</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect287">287</a>. <i>Men</i>, <i>feet</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect288">288</a>. <i>Brethren</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page232">232</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE CASES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect289">289</a>, <a href="#sect290">290</a>. Meaning of word <i>case</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page234">234</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect291">291</a>. Cases in English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page237">237</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect292">292</a>, <a href="#sect293">293</a>. Determination of cases </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect294">294</a>, <a href="#sect295">295</a>. Analysis of cases </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page241">241</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect296">296</a>. Case in <i>-s</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page241">241</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER V.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect297">297</a>. True personal pronoun </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page243">243</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect298">298</a>. <i>We</i> and <i>me</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page244">244</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES AND ON<br /> +ITS ABSENCE IN THE ENGLISH.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect299">299</a>. The Latin <i>se</i>, <i>sui</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page247">247</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxviii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxviii"></a>{xxviii}</span> +CHAPTER VII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect300">300</a>. <i>He</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>, <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, <i>the</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect301">301</a>. <i>These</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page251">251</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect302">302</a>. <i>Those</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page253">253</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect303">303</a>. <i>Who</i>, <i>what</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect304">304</a>. Indo-European forms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect305">305</a>. Miscellaneous observations </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page256">256</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect306">306</a>, <a href="#sect307">307</a>. <i>Eith-er</i>, <i>ov-er</i>, <i>und-er</i>, <i>bett-er</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page260">260</a>, 261</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect308">308</a>. Illustration from the Laplandic </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect309">309</a>. Idea of alternative </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page262">262</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER X.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect310">310</a>. Forms in <i>-tara</i> and <i>-îyas</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect311">311</a>. Change from <i>-s</i> to <i>-r</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect312">312</a>. Mœso-Gothic comparative </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect313">313</a>. Comparison of adverbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page264">264</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect314">314</a>. <i>Elder</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect315">315</a>. <i>Rather</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page265">265</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect316">316</a>. Excess of expression </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect317">317</a>. <i>Better</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect318">318</a>. Sequence in logic </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page266">266</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect319">319</a>-<a href="#sect325">325</a>. <i>Worse</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page267">267</a>-270</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect326">326</a>. Different modes of expression </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page271">271</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect327">327</a>. The termination <i>-st</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page272">272</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxix"></a>{xxix}</span> +CHAPTER XII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE CARDINAL NUMBERS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect328">328</a>, <a href="#sect329">329</a>. Their ethnological value </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page273">273</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Variations in form </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page274">274</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> 10+2 and 10×2 </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page275">275</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect330">330</a>. Limits to the inflection of the numeral </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page276">276</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE ORDINAL NUMBERS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect331">331</a>. <i>First</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page277">277</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect332">332</a>. <i>Second</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page277">277</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect333">333</a>. <i>Third</i>, <i>fourth</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page278">278</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect334">334</a>, <a href="#sect335">335</a>. Ordinal and superlative forms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page278">278</a>-280</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XIV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE ARTICLES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect336">336</a>. <i>A</i>, <i>the</i>, <i>no</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page281">281</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIVES, AND PATRONYMICS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect337">337</a>, <a href="#sect338">338</a>. Diminutives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page283">283</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect339">339</a>. Augmentatives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page285">285</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect340">340</a>. Patronymics </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page286">286</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XVI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> GENTILE FORMS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect341">341</a>. <i>Wales</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page288">288</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XVII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE CONNECTION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON THE<br /> +INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect342">342</a>-<a href="#sect344">344</a>. Substantival character of verbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page289">289</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect345">345</a>, <a href="#sect346">346</a>. Declension of the infinitive </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page290">290</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XVIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON DERIVED VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect347">347</a>. <i>Rise</i>, <i>raise</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page292">292</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxx --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxx"></a>{xxx}</span> +CHAPTER XIX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE PERSONS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect348">348</a>-<a href="#sect351">351</a>. Persons in English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page294">294</a>-298</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect352">352</a>. Person in <i>-t</i>, <i>-art</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect353">353</a>. Forms like <i>spakest</i>, <i>sungest</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect354">354</a>. Plurals in <i>-s</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page299">299</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect355">355</a>. Personal signs of numbers </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Run</i>, <i>ran</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON MOODS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect356">356</a>. The infinitive mood </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect357">357</a>. The imperative mood </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect358">358</a>. The subjunctive mood </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page302">302</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> OF TENSES IN GENERAL.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect359">359</a>. General nature of tenses </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page303">303</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect360">360</a>. Latin preterites </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect361">361</a>. Mœso-Gothic perfects </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page304">304</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Reduplication </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect362">362</a>. Strong and weak verbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page305">305</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE STRONG TENSES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect363">363</a>. <i>Sang</i>, <i>sung</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page307">307</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect364">364</a>-<a href="#sect376">376</a>. Classification of strong verbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page308">308</a>-316</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXIV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE WEAK TENSES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect377">377</a>. The weak inflection </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page317">317</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect378">378</a>. First division </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page318">318</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect379">379</a>. Second division </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page318">318</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxxi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxi"></a>{xxxi}</span> +<a href="#sect380">380</a>. Third division </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page319">319</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect381">381</a>. Preterites in <i>-ed</i> and <i>-t</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page319">319</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect382">382</a>. Preterites like <i>made</i>, <i>had</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page321">321</a>-327</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Would</i>, <i>should</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page322">322</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Aught</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page322">322</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Durst</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page322">322</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Must</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page323">323</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Wist</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page324">324</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Do</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page325">325</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Mind</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page325">325</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Yode</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page327">327</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON CONJUGATIONS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect383">383</a>. So-called irregularities </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page328">328</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect384">384</a>. Principles of criticism </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Coincidence of form </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Coincidence of distribution </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Coincidence of order </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect385">385</a>. Strong verbs once weak </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page332">332</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect386">386</a>. Division of verbs into <i>strong</i> and <i>weak</i> natural </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page333">333</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect387">387</a>. Obsolete forms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page334">334</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect388">388</a>. Double forms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page334">334</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXVI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect389">389</a>. Difference between defectiveness and irregularity </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page335">335</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Vital and obsolete processes </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page336">336</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Processes of necessity </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page337">337</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Ordinary processes </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page338">338</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Positive processes </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page338">338</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Processes of confusion </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page339">339</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect390">390</a>. <i>Could</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page339">339</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect391">391</a>. <i>Quoth</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page340">340</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXVII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE IMPERSONAL VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect392">392</a>-<a href="#sect394">394</a>. <i>Meseems</i>, <i>methinks</i>, <i>me listeth</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page342">342</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxxii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxii"></a>{xxxii}</span> +CHAPTER XXVIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect395">395</a>. The verb substantive defective </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page344">344</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect396">396</a>. <i>Was</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page344">344</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect397">397</a>. <i>Be</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page344">344</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect398">398</a>, <a href="#sect399">399</a>. Future power of <i>be</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page345">345</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect400">400</a>. <i>Am</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page346">346</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Worth</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page347">347</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXIX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect401">401</a>. The form in <i>-ing</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page348">348</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect402">402</a>. Substantival power of participle </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page349">349</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect403">403</a>. Taylor's theory </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page349">349</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE PAST PARTICIPLE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect404">404</a>-<a href="#sect406">406</a>. Similarity to the preterite </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page351">351</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect407">407</a>. <i>Forlorn</i>, <i>frore</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page352">352</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect408">408</a>. The form in <i>-ed</i>, <i>-d</i>, or <i>-t</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page352">352</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect409">409</a>. The <i>y-</i> in <i>y-cleped</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page353">353</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON COMPOSITION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect410">410</a>-<a href="#sect414">414</a>. Definition of composition </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page355">355</a>-357</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect415">415</a>-<a href="#sect417">417</a>. Parity of accent </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page358">358</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect418">418</a>. Obscure compounds </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page361">361</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect419">419</a>. Exceptions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page362">362</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect420">420</a>. <i>Peacock</i>, <i>peahen</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page364">364</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect421">421</a>. Third element in compound words </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page365">365</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect422">422</a>. Improper compounds </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page365">365</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect423">423</a>. Decomposites </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page365">365</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect424">424</a>. Combinations </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page366">366</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect425">425</a>. Derivation </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page367">367</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect426">426</a>. Classification of derived words </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page368">368</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect427">427</a>. Words like <i>ábsent</i> and <i>absént</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page369">369</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxxiii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxiii"></a>{xxxiii}</span> +<a href="#sect428">428</a>. Words like <i>churl</i>, <i>tail</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page370">370</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect429">429</a>. Forms like <i>tip</i> and <i>top</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page370">370</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect430">430</a>. Obscure derivatives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page370">370</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ADVERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect431">431</a>. Classification of adverbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page371">371</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect432">432</a>. Adverbs of deflection </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page372">372</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect433">433</a>. Words like <i>darkling</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page373">373</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect434">434</a>. Words like <i>brightly</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page374">374</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXIV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect435">435</a>-<a href="#sect439">439</a>. <i>Here</i>, <i>hither</i>, <i>hence</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page374">374</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect440">440</a>. <i>Yonder</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page375">375</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Anon</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page375">375</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect441">441</a>. Origin of the words </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page377">377</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXVI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON PREPOSITIONS, ETC.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect442">442</a>. Prepositions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page378">378</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect443">443</a>. Conjunctions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page378">378</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect444">444</a>. <i>Yes</i> and <i>no</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page379">379</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect445">445</a>. Particles </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page379">379</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXVII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS <i>MINE</i> AND <i>THINE</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect446">446</a>. Peculiarities of inflection of pronouns </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page380">380</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect447">447</a>. Powers of the genitive case </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page381">381</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect448">448</a>. Ideas of possession and partition </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page382">382</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect449">449</a>. Adjectival expressions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page382">382</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect450">450</a>. Evolution of cases </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page383">383</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect451">451</a>. Idea of possession </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page383">383</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect452">452</a>. Idea of partition </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page383">383</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxxiv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxiv"></a>{xxxiv}</span> +<a href="#sect453">453</a>. <i>A posteriori</i> argument </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect454">454</a>-<a href="#sect458">458</a>. Analogy of <i>mei</i> and <span title="emou" class="grk">ἐμοῦ</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page384">384</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect459">459</a>. Etymological evidence </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page386">386</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect460">460</a>. Syntactic evidence </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page387">387</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect461">461</a>. Value of the evidence of certain constructions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page387">387</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect462">462</a>, <a href="#sect463">463</a>. Double adjectival form </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page388">388</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXXVIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRÆTERITE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect464">464</a>. Forms like <i>salb-ôdêdum</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page390">390</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect465">465</a>, <a href="#sect466">466</a>. The Slavonic <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'pærterite'.">præterite</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page391">391</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> PART V.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SYNTAX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER I.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect467">467</a>. The term <i>syntax</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page392">392</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect468">468</a>. What is <i>not</i> syntax </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page392">392</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect469">469</a>. What <i>is</i> syntax </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page394">394</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect470">470</a>. Pure syntax </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page395">395</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect471">471</a>, <a href="#sect472">472</a>. Mixed syntax </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page395">395</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect473">473</a>. Figures of speech </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page395">395</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect474">474</a>. Personification </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page395">395</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect475">475</a>. Ellipsis </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page395">395</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect476">476</a>. Pleonasm </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page395">395</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect477">477</a>. Zeugma </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page397">397</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect478">478</a>. <span title="Pros to sêmainomenon" class="grk">Πρὸς τὸ σημαινόμενον</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page397">397</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect479">479</a>. Apposition </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page398">398</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect480">480</a>. Collective nouns </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page398">398</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect481">481</a>, <a href="#sect482">482</a>. Complex forms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page399">399</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect483">483</a>. Convertibility </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page399">399</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect484">484</a>. Etymological convertibility </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect485">485</a>. Syntactic convertibility </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect486">486</a>. Adjectives used as substantives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxxv --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxv"></a>{xxxv}</span> + <a href="#sect487">487</a>. Uninflected parts of speech used as such </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page400">400</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect488">488</a>. Convertibility common in English </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page401">401</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER II.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect489">489</a>. Convertibility </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page402">402</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect490">490</a>. Ellipsis </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page403">403</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect491">491</a>. Proper names </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page403">403</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect492">492</a>. Pleonasm </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page404">404</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect493">493</a>. Collocation </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page404">404</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect494">494</a>. Government </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page404">404</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect495">495</a>. <i>More fruitful</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page405">405</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect496">496</a>. <i>The better of the two</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page405">405</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect497">497</a>. Syntax of adjectives simple </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page406">406</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect498">498</a>, <a href="#sect499">499</a>. Syntax of pronouns important </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page407">407</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect500">500</a>, <a href="#sect501">501</a>. Pleonasm </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page407">407</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER V.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect502">502</a>. <i>Pronomen reverentiæ</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page409">409</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect503">503</a>. <i>You</i> and <i>ye</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page409">409</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect504">504</a>. <i>Dativus ethicus</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page409">409</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect505">505</a>. Reflected personal pronouns </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page410">410</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect506">506</a>. Reflective neuter verbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page410">410</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect507">507</a>. Equivocal reflectives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page411">411</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND ON THE<br /> +PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect508">508</a>. True demonstrative pronoun </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page412">412</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect509">509</a>. <i>His mother</i>, <i>her father</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page412">412</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xxxvi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxvi"></a>{xxxvi}</span> +<a href="#sect510">510</a>, <a href="#sect511">511</a>. Use of <i>its</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page412">412</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect512">512</a>. <i>Take them things away</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page413">413</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect513">513</a>, <a href="#sect514">514</a>. <i>Hic</i> and <i>ille</i>, <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page413">413</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORD <i>SELF</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect515">515</a>. Government, apposition, composition </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page416">416</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect516">516</a>. <i>Her-self</i>, <i>itself</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page416">416</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect517">517</a>. <i>Self</i> and <i>one</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page417">417</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect518">518</a>, <a href="#sect519">519</a>. Inflection of <i>self</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page418">418</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER VIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect520">520</a>, <a href="#sect521">521</a>. <i>My</i> and <i>mine</i>, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page419">419</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER IX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect522">522</a>-<a href="#sect524">524</a>. <i>That</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>what</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page422">422</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect525">525</a>. <i>The man</i> as <i>rides to market</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect526">526</a>, <a href="#sect527">527</a>. Plural use of <i>whose</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect528">528</a>, <a href="#sect529">529</a>. Concord of relative and antecedent </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page423">423</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect530">530</a>. Ellipsis of the relative </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page424">424</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect531">531</a>. Relative equivalent to demonstrative pronoun </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page425">425</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Demonstrative equivalent to substantive </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page425">425</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect532">532</a>. Omission of antecedent </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page426">426</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect533">533</a>. <span title="Chrômai bibliois hois echô" class="grk">Χρῶμαι βιβλίοις οἷς ἔχω</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page426">426</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect534">534</a>. Relatives with complex antecedents </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page427">427</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER X.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect535">535</a>. Direct and oblique interrogations </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page428">428</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect536">536</a>-<a href="#sect539">539</a>. <i>Whom do they say that it is?</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page428">428</a>-430</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect540">540</a>, <a href="#sect541">541</a>. Structure of reciprocal expressions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page431">431</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxxvii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxvii"></a>{xxxvii}</span> +CHAPTER XII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect542">542</a>. <i>On dit</i>=<i>one says</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page433">433</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect543">543</a>-<a href="#sect546">546</a>. <i>It</i> and <i>there</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page433">433</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <i>Es sind</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page434">434</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE ARTICLES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect547">547</a>. Repetition of article </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page435">435</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XIV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE NUMERALS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect548">548</a>. <i>The thousand-and-first</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page436">436</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect549">549</a>. <i>The first two</i> and <i>two first</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page436">436</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON VERBS IN GENERAL.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect550">550</a>. Transitive verbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page437">437</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect551">551</a>. Auxiliary verbs </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page438">438</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect552">552</a>. Verb substantive </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page438">438</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XVI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE CONCORD OF VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect553">553</a>-<a href="#sect556">556</a>. Concord of person </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page439">439</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect557">557</a>. Plural subjects with singular predicates </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page443">443</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Singular subjects with plural predicates </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page443">443</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XVII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect558">558</a>, <a href="#sect559">559</a>. <i>Objective</i> and <i>modal</i> government </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page444">444</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect560">560</a>. Appositional construction </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page445">445</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect561">561</a>. Verb and genitive case </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page448">448</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect562">562</a>. Verb and accusative case </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page448">448</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect563">563</a>. The partitive construction </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page448">448</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect564">564</a>. <i>I believe it to be him</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page448">448</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect565">565</a>. <span title="phêmi einai despotês" class="grk">φημὶ εἶναι δεσπότης</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page449">449</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect566">566</a>. <i>It is believed to be</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page449">449</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xxxviii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxviii"></a>{xxxviii}</span> +CHAPTER XVIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE PARTICIPLES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect567">567</a>. <i>Dying-day</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page451">451</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect568">568</a>. <i>I am beaten</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page451">451</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XIX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE MOODS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect569">569</a>. The infinitive mood </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page452">452</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect570">570</a>. Objective construction </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page452">452</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect570">570</a>. Gerundial construction </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page453">453</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect571">571</a>. Peculiarities of imperatives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page454">454</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect572">572</a>. Syntax of subjunctives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page454">454</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XX.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE TENSES.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect573">573</a>. Present form habitual </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page455">455</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect574">574</a>. Præterite form aorist </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page455">455</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect575">575</a>, <a href="#sect576">576</a>. <i>I, or he am (is) wrong</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page456">456</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE VOICES OF VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect577">577</a>. The word <i>hight</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page458">458</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect578">578</a>. Classification </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page459">459</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect579">579</a>. Time and tense </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page461">461</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Present </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page461">461</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Aorist </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page461">461</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Future </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page461">461</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Imperfect </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page462">462</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Perfect </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page462">462</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> +<!-- Page xxxix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexxxix"></a>{xxxix}</span> +Pluperfect </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page462">462</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Future present </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page462">462</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Future præterite </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page462">462</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Emphatic tenses </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page463">463</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Predictive future </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page463">463</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Promissive future </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page463">463</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect580">580</a>. <i>Historic</i> present </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page463">463</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect581">581</a>. Use of perfect for present </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page464">464</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect582">582</a>, <a href="#sect583">583</a>. Varieties of tense </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page465">465</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Continuance </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page465">465</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Habit </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page466">466</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect584">584</a>. Inference of continuance </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page466">466</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Inference of contrast </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page467">467</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect585">585</a>. <i>Have</i> with a participle </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page467">467</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect586">586</a>. <i>I am to speak</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page469">469</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect587">587</a>. <i>I am to blame</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page469">469</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect588">588</a>. <i>Shall</i> and <i>will</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page469">469</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect589">589</a>. Archdeacon Hare's theory </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page470">470</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect590">590</a>. Mr. De Morgan's theory </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page472">472</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect591">591</a>. <i>I am beaten</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page474">474</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect592">592</a>, <a href="#sect593">593</a>. Present use of <i>ought, &c.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page475">475</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXIV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect594">594</a>. The syntax of adverbs simple </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page477">477</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect595">595</a>. <i>Full</i> for <i>fully, &c.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page477">477</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect596">596</a>. The termination <i>-ly</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page477">477</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect597">597</a>. <i>To sleep the sleep of the righteous</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page478">478</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect598">598</a>. From <i>whence, &c.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page478">478</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXV.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON PREPOSITIONS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect599">599</a>. All prepositions govern cases </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page479">479</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect600">600</a>, <a href="#sect601">601</a>. None, in English, govern genitives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page479">479</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect602">602</a>. Dative case after prepositions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page481">481</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect603">603</a>. From <i>to die</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page481">481</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect604">604</a>. For <i>to go</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page481">481</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect605">605</a>. No prepositions in composition </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page481">481</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> +<!-- Page xl --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexl"></a>{xl}</span> +CHAPTER XXVI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ON CONJUNCTIONS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect606">606</a>. Syntax of conjunctions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect607">607</a>. Convertibility of conjunctions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page482">482</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect608">608</a>. Connexion of prepositions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page483">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect609">609</a>, <a href="#sect610">610</a>. Relatives and conjunctions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page484">484</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect611">611</a>. Government of mood </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page485">485</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect612">612</a>. Conditional propositions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page486">486</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect613">613</a>. Variations of meaning </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page486">486</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect614">614</a>. <i>If</i> and <i>since</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page487">487</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect615">615</a>. Use of that </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page487">487</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect616">616</a>. Succession of tenses </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page488">488</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> Succession of moods </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page489">489</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect617">617</a>. Greek constructions </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page489">489</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect618">618</a>. <i>Be</i> for <i>may be</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page491">491</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect619">619</a>. Disjunctives </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page491">491</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect620">620</a>-<a href="#sect623">623</a>. Either, neither </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page492">492</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXVII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect624">624</a>. Position of the negative </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page495">495</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect625">625</a>. Distribution of the negative </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page495">495</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect626">626</a>. Double negative </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page496">496</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect627">627</a>. Questions of appeal </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page496">496</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect628">628</a>. Extract from Sir Thomas More </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page496">496</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> CHAPTER XXVIII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> OF THE CASE ABSOLUTE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect629">629</a>. <i>He excepted, him excepted</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page498">498</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> PART VI.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> PROSODY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect630">630</a>-<a href="#sect632">632</a>. Metre </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page499">499</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect633">633</a>. Classical metres measured by quantities </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page500">500</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect634">634</a>. English metre measured by accents </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page500">500</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xli --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexli"></a>{xli}</span> +<a href="#sect635">635</a>. Alliteration </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page500">500</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect636">636</a>. Rhyme </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page501">501</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect637">637</a>. Definition of Rhyme </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page503">503</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect638">638</a>. Measures </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page503">503</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect639">639</a>. Dissyllabic and trisyllabic </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page503">503</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect640">640</a>. Dissyllabic measures </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page504">504</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect641">641</a>. Trisyllabic measures </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page504">504</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect642">642</a>. Measures different from feet </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page505">505</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect643">643</a>. Couplets, stanzas, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page506">506</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect644">644</a>, <a href="#sect645">645</a>. Names of elementary metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page507">507</a>, 508</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect646">646</a>. Scansion </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page509">509</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect647">647</a>. Symmetrical metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page509">509</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect648">648</a>. Unsymmetrical metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page510">510</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect649">649</a>. Measures of <i>one</i> and of <i>four</i> syllables </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page510">510</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect650">650</a>. Contrast between English words and English metre </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page510">510</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect651">651</a>-<a href="#sect653">653</a>. The classical metres as read by Englishmen </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page511">511</a>, 512</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect654">654</a>-<a href="#sect657">657</a>. Reasons against the classical nomenclature as applied to<br /> + English metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page513">513</a>-515</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect658">658</a>-<a href="#sect661">661</a>. The classical metres metrical to English readers—why </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page515">515</a>-517</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect662">662</a>. Symmetrical metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page517">517</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect663">663</a>. Unsymmetrical metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page517">517</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect664">664</a>. Classical metres unsymmetrical </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page518">518</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect665">665</a>-<a href="#sect667">667</a>. Conversion of English into classical metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page519">519</a>, 520</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect668">668</a>, <a href="#sect669">669</a>. Cæsura </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page520">520</a>, 521</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect670">670</a>-<a href="#sect672">672</a>. English hexameters, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page522">522</a>-526</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect673">673</a>. Convertible metres </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page526">526</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect674">674</a>. Metrical and grammatical combinations </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page527">527</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect675">675</a>. Rhythm </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page528">528</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads '677'."><a href="#sect676">676</a></span>, <a href="#sect677">677</a>. Rhyme—its parts </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page529">529</a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> ————</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> PART VII.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.5em" colspan="2"> THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect678">678</a>. Bearing of the investigation </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page531">531</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect679">679</a>. Structural and <i>ethnological</i> views </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page531">531</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect680">680</a>-<a href="#sect682">682</a>. Causes that effect change </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page532">532</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect683">683</a>, <a href="#sect684">684</a>. Preliminary notices </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page533">533</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect685">685</a>. Philological preliminaries </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page533">533</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect686">686</a>, <a href="#sect687">687</a>. Present provincial dialects </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page534">534</a>-540</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect688">688</a>-<a href="#sect691">691</a>. Caution </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page540">540</a>-544</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> +<!-- Page xlii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexlii"></a>{xlii}</span> + <a href="#sect692">692</a>-<a href="#sect696">696</a>. Districts north of the Humber </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page545">545</a>-552</td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect697">697</a>. South Lancashire </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page552">552</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect698">698</a>. Shropshire, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page553">553</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect699">699</a>. East Derbyshire, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page553">553</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect700">700</a>. Norfolk and Suffolk </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page554">554</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect701">701</a>. Leicestershire, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page555">555</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect702">702</a>. Origin of the present written language </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page555">555</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect703">703</a>. Dialects of the Lower Thames </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page556">556</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect704">704</a>. Kent—Frisian theory </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page557">557</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect705">705</a>. Sussex, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page559">559</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect706">706</a>. Supposed East Anglian and Saxon frontier </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page560">560</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect707">707</a>. Dialects of remaining counties </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page560">560</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect708">708</a>. Objections </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page561">561</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect709">709</a>. Dialect of Gower </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page561">561</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect710">710</a>. —— the Barony of Forth </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page563">563</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect711">711</a>. Americanisms </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page565">565</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect712">712</a>. Extract from a paper of Mr. Watts </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page566">566</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect713">713</a>. Gypsy language, &c. </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page572">572</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect714">714</a>. <i>Talkee-talkee</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page573">573</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect715">715</a>, <a href="#sect716">716</a>. Varieties of the Anglo-Norman </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page574">574</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <a href="#sect717">717</a>-<a href="#sect719">719</a>. Extracts from Mr. Kemble </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page575">575</a>-580</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="padding-left:4em"> <span class="sc">Praxis</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:bottom"> <a href="#page581">581</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p> + +<h2>AN INTRODUCTION</h2> + +<p class="cenhead">TO THE STUDY OF</p> + +<h1>THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE</h1> + +<hr class="short" /> + +<h3>PART I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">GENERAL ETHNOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH +LANGUAGE.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.—DATE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect1">§ 1</a>. The first point to be remembered in the + history of the English Language, is that it was not the original language + of any of the British Islands altogether or of any portion of them. + Indeed, of the <i>whole</i> of Great Britain it is not the language at + the present moment. Welsh is spoken in Wales, Manks in the Isle of Man, + Scotch Gaelic in the Highlands of Scotland, and Irish Gaelic in Ireland. + Hence, the English that is now spoken was once as foreign to our country + as it is at present to the East Indies; and it is no more our primitive + vernacular tongue, than it is the primitive vernacular tongue for North + America, Jamaica, or Australia. Like the English of Sydney, or the + English of Pennsylvania, the English of Great Britain spread itself at + the expense of some earlier and more aboriginal language, which it + displaced and superseded. <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page2"></a>{2}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect2">§ 2</a>. The next point involves the real origin and + the real affinities of the English Language. Its <i>real</i> origin is on + the continent of Europe, and its <i>real</i> affinities are with certain + languages there spoken. To speak more specifically, the native country of + the English Language is <i>Germany</i>; and the <i>Germanic</i> languages + are those that are the most closely connected with our own. In Germany, + languages and dialects allied to each other and allied to the + mother-tongue of the English have been spoken from times anterior to + history; and these, for most purposes of philology, may be considered as + the aboriginal languages and dialects of that country.</p> + + <p><a name="sect3">§ 3</a>. <i>Accredited details of the different + immigrations from Germany into Britain.</i>—Until lately the + details of the different Germanic invasions of England, both in respect + to the particular tribes by which they were made, and the order in which + they succeeded each other, were received with but little doubt, and as + little criticism.</p> + + <p>Respecting the tribes by which they were made, the current opinion + was, that they were chiefly, if not exclusively, those of the Jutes, the + Saxons, and the Angles.</p> + + <p>The particular chieftains that headed each descent were also known, as + well as the different localities upon which they descended. These were as + follows:—</p> + + <p><a name="sect4">§ 4</a>. <i>First settlement of invaders from + Germany.</i>—The account of this gives us the year 449 for the + first permanent Germanic tribes settled in Britain. Ebbsfleet, in the + Isle of Thanet, was the spot where they landed; and the particular name + that these tribes gave themselves was that of <i>Jutes</i>. Their leaders + were Hengist and Horsa. Six years after their landing they had + established the kingdom of Kent; so that the county of Kent was the first + district where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue + of the present English, introduced from Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="sect5">§ 5</a>. <i>Second settlement of invaders from + Germany.</i>—In the year 477 invaders from Northern Germany made + the second permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Sussex was the + spot whereon they landed. The particular name that these tribes gave + themselves was that of <i>Saxons</i>. Their leader <!-- Page 3 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>{3}</span>was Ella. They established + the kingdom of the South Saxons (Sussex); so that the county of Sussex + was the second district where the original British was superseded by the + mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from Northern + Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="sect6">§ 6</a>. <i>Third settlement of invaders from + Germany.</i>—In the year 495 invaders from Northern Germany made + the third permanent settlement in Britain. The coast of Hampshire was the + spot whereon they landed. Like the invaders last mentioned, these tribes + were Saxons. Their leader was Cerdic. They established the kingdom of the + West Saxons (Wessex); so that the county of Hants was the third district + where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the + present English, introduced from Northern Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="sect7">§ 7</a>. <i>Fourth settlement of invaders from + Germany.</i>—A.D. 530, certain Saxons landed in Essex, so that the + county of Essex was the fourth district where the original British was + superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English, introduced from + Northern Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="sect8">§ 8</a>. <i>Fifth settlement of invaders from + Germany.</i>—These were <i>Angles</i> in Norfolk and Suffolk. This + settlement, of which the precise date is not known, took place during the + reign of Cerdic in Wessex. The fifth district where the original British + was superseded by the mother-tongue of the present English was the + counties of Norfolk and Suffolk; the particular dialect introduced being + that of the <i>Angles</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect9">§ 9</a>. <i>Sixth settlement of invaders from + Germany.</i>—In the year 547 invaders from Northern Germany made + the sixth permanent settlement in Britain. The south-eastern counties of + Scotland, between the rivers Tweed and Forth, were the districts where + they landed. They were of the tribe of the Angles, and their leader was + Ida. The <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'south-western'." + >south-eastern</span> parts of Scotland constituted the sixth district + where the original British was superseded by the mother-tongue of the + present English, introduced from Northern Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="sect10">§ 10</a>. It would be satisfactory if these details + rested upon cotemporary evidence; in which case the next question would + <!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>{4}</span>be + that of the relations of the immigrant tribes to each other <i>as + Germans</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the extent to which the Jute differed from (or + agreed with) the Angle, or the Saxon, and the relations of the Angle and + the Saxon to each other. Did they speak different + languages?—different dialects of a common tongue!—or dialects + absolutely identical? Did they belong to the same or to different + confederations? Was one polity common to all? Were the civilizations + similar?</p> + + <p>Questions like these being answered, and a certain amount of mutual + difference being ascertained, it would then stand over to inquire whether + any traces of this original difference were still to be found in the + modern English. Have any provincial dialects characteristics which are + Jute rather than Angle? or Angle rather than Saxon?</p> + + <p>It is clear that the second of these questions is involved in the + answer given to the first.</p> + + <p><a name="sect11">§ 11</a>. <i>The accredited relations of the Jutes, + Angles, and Saxons to each other as Germans.</i>—These are as + follows:—</p> + + <p>1. That the geographical locality of the Jutes was the Peninsula of + Jutland.</p> + + <p>2. That that of Angles, was the present Dutchy of Sleswick; so that + they were the southern neighbours of the Jutes.</p> + + <p>3. That that of the Saxons was a small tract north of the Elbe, and + some distinct point—more or less extensive—between the Elbe + and Rhine.</p> + + <p>4. That, although there were, probably, dialectal differences between + the languages, the speech of all the three tribes was mutually + intelligible.</p> + + <p><a name="sect12">§ 12</a>. Assuming, then, the accuracy of our + historical facts, the inference is, that, without expecting to find any + very prominent and characteristic differences between the different + inhabitants of England arising out of the original differences between + the Germanic immigrants, we are to look for what few there are in the + following quarters—</p> + + <p>1. For the characteristic <i>differentiæ</i> of the Jutes, in Kent, + part of Sussex, and the Isle of Wight.</p> + + <p>2. For those of the Saxons in Sussex, Essex, Hants (Wessex), and + Middlesex. <!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page5"></a>{5}</span></p> + + <p>3. For those of the Angles in Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Durham, and + Northumberland.</p> + + <p>Or, changing the expression:—</p> + + <p>1. The <i>differentiæ</i> of the people of Kent, part of Sussex, and + the Isle of Wight (if any), are to be explained by the <i>differentiæ</i> + of the original Jute immigrants—</p> + + <p>2. Those of the rest of Sussex, Wessex, Essex, and Middlesex, by those + of the Saxons—</p> + + <p>3. Those of the people of Norfolk, &c., by those of the + Angles.</p> + + <p>Such is our reasoning, and such a sketch of our philological + researches—assuming that the opinions just exhibited, concerning + the dates, conductors, localities, and order, are absolute and + unimpeachable historical facts.</p> + + <p><a name="sect13">§ 13</a>. <i>Criticism of the aforesaid + details.</i>—As a preliminary to this part of the subject, the + present writer takes occasion to state once for all, that nearly the + whole of the following criticism is not his own (except, of course, so + far as he adopts it—which he does), but Mr. Kemble's, and that it + forms the introduction to his valuable work on the Saxons in England.</p> + + <p>1. <i>The evidence to the details just given, is not historical, but + traditional.</i>—<i>a.</i> Bede, from whom it is chiefly taken, + wrote more than 300 years after the supposed event, <i>i.e.</i>, the + landing of Hengist and Horsa, in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 449.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The nearest contemporary author is Gildas, and <i>he</i> + lived at least 100 years after it.</p> + + <p>2. <i>The account of Hengist's and Horsa's landing, has elements which + are fictional rather than historical</i>—<i>a.</i> Thus "when we + find Hengist and Horsa approaching the coasts of Kent in three keels, and + Ælli effecting a landing in Sussex with the same number, we are reminded + of the Gothic tradition which carries a migration of Ostrogoths, + Visigoths, and Gepidæ, also in three vessels, to the mouths of the + Vistula."</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The murder of the British chieftains by Hengist is told + <i>totidem verbis</i>, by Widukind, and others of the Old Saxons in + Thuringia.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> Geoffry of Monmouth relates also, how "Hengist obtained from + the Britons as much land as could be enclosed <!-- Page 6 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>{6}</span>by an ox-hide; then, + cutting the hide into thongs, enclosed a much larger space than the + granters intended, on which he erected Thong Castle—a tale too + familiar to need illustration, and which runs throughout the mythus of + many nations. Among the Old Saxons, the tradition is in reality the same, + though recorded with a slight variety of detail. In their story, a + lap-full of earth is purchased at a dear rate from a Thuringian; the + companions of the Saxon jeer him for his imprudent bargain; but he sows + the purchased earth upon a large space of ground, which he claims, and, + by the aid of his comrades, ultimately wrests it from the + Thuringians."</p> + + <p>3. <i>There is direct evidence in favour of there having been German + tribes in England anterior to</i> <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 447.—<i>a.</i> At the close of the Marcomannic war, Marcus + Antoninus transplanted a number of Germans into Britain.—Dio + Cassius, lxxi. lxiii.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> Alemannic auxiliaries served along with Roman legions under + Valentinian.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> The <i>Notitia utriusque imperii</i>, of which the latest + date is half a century earlier <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'that'." + >than</span> the epoch of Hengist, mentions, as an officer of State, the + <i>Comes littoris Saxonici per Britannias</i>; his government extending + along the coast from Portsmouth to the Wash.</p> + + <p>I conclude with the following extract:—"We are ignorant what + <i>fasti</i> or even mode of reckoning the revolutions of seasons + prevailed in England, previous to the introduction of Christianity. We + know not how any event before the year 600 was recorded, or to what + period the memory of man extended. There may have been rare annals: there + may have been poems: if such there were they have perished, and have left + no trace behind, unless we are to attribute to them such scanty notices + as the Saxon Chronicle adds to Beda's account. From such sources, + however, little could have been gained of accurate information either as + to the real internal state, the domestic progress, or development of a + people. The dry bare entries of the Chronicles in historical periods may + supply the means of judging what sort of annals were likely to exist + before the general introduction of the Roman alphabet and parchment, + while, in all probability, runes supplied the place of letters, and <!-- + Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>{7}</span>stones, or + the <i>beech</i>-wood, from which their name is derived, of <i>books</i>. + Again, the traditions embodied in the epic, are pre-eminently those of + kings and princes; they are heroical, devoted to celebrate the divine or + half-divine founders of a race, the fortunes of their warlike + descendants, the manners and mode of life of military adventurers, not + the obscure progress, household peace, and orderly habits of the humble + husband-man. They are full of feasts and fighting, shining arms and + golden goblets: the gods mingle among men almost their equals, share in + the same pursuits, are animated by the same passions of love, and + jealousy, and hatred; or, blending the divine with the mortal nature, + become the founders of races, kingly, because derived from divinity + itself. But one race knows little of another, or its traditions, and + cares as little for them. Alliances or wars alone bring them in contact + with one another, and the terms of intercourse between the races will, + for the most part, determine the character under which foreign heroes + shall be admitted into the national epos, or whether they shall be + admitted at all. All history, then, which is founded in any degree upon + epical tradition (and national history is usually more or less so + founded) must be to that extent imperfect, if not inaccurate; only when + corrected by the written references of contemporaneous authors, can we + assign any certainty to its records.</p> + + <p>"Let us apply these observations to the early events of Saxon history: + of Kent, indeed, we have the vague and uncertain notices which I have + mentioned; even more vague and uncertain are those of Sussex and Wessex. + Of the former, we learn that in the year 477, Ælli, with three sons, + Cymen, Wlencing, and Cissa, landed in Sussex; that in the year 485 they + defeated the Welsh, and that in 491 they destroyed the population of + Anderida. Not another word is there about Sussex before the arrival of + Augustine, except a late assertion of the military pre-eminence of Ælli + among the Saxon chieftains. The events of Wessex are somewhat better + detailed; we learn that in 495 two nobles, Cerdic and Cyneríc, came to + England, and landed at <i>Cerdices-ora</i>, where, on the <!-- Page 8 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>{8}</span>same day, they + fought a battle: that in 501 they were followed by a noble named Port, + who, with his two sons, Bieda and Mægla, made a forcible landing at + Portsmouth: and that in 508, they gained a great battle over a British + king, whom they slew, together with five thousand of his people. In 514 + Stuff and Wihtgár, their nephews, brought them a reinforcement of three + ships; in 519, they again defeated the Britons, and established the + kingdom of Wessex. In 527, a new victory is recorded; in 530, the Isle of + Wight was subdued and given to Wihtgár; and in 534, Cerdic died, and was + succeeded by Cyneríc, who reigned twenty-six years. In 544, Wihtgár died. + A victory of Cyneríc, in 552 and 556, and Ceawlin's accession to the + throne of Wessex are next recorded. Wars of the West-Saxon kings are + noted in 568, 571, 577, 584. From 590 to 595, a king of that race, named + Ceól, is mentioned: in 591, we learn the expulsion of Ceawlin from power; + in 593, the deaths of Ceawlin, Cwichelm, and Crida, are mentioned, and in + 597, the year of Augustine's arrival, we learn that Ceólwulf ascended the + throne of Wessex.</p> + + <p>"Meagre as these details are, they far exceed what is related of + Northumberland, Essex, or East-Anglia. In 547, we are told that Ida began + to reign in the first of these kingdoms, and that he was succeeded in + 560, by Ælli: that after a reign of <i>thirty</i> years, he died in 588, + and was succeeded by Æþelríc, who again, in 593, was succeeded by + Æþelfriþ. This is all we learn of Northumbria; of Mercia, Essex, + East-Anglia, and the innumerable kingdoms that must have been comprised + under these general appellations, we hear not a single word.</p> + + <p>"If this be all that we can now recover of events, a great number of + which must have fallen within the lives of those to whom Augustine + preached, what credit shall we give to the inconsistent accounts of + earlier actions? How shall we supply the almost total want of information + respecting the first settlements? What explanation have we to give of the + alliance between Jutes, Angles, and Saxon, which preceded the invasions + of England? What knowledge will these records <!-- Page 9 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span>supply of the real number + and quality of the chieftains, the language and blood of the populations + who gradually spread themselves from the Atlantic to the Frith of Forth; + of the remains of Roman cultivation, or the amount of British power with + which they had to contend? of the vicissitudes of good and evil fortune + which visited the independent principalities before they were swallowed + up in the kingdoms of the heptarchy, or the extent of the influence which + they retained after the event! On all these several points we are left + entirely in the dark; and yet these are facts which it most imports us to + know, if we would comprehend the growth of a society which endured for at + least 700 years in England, and formed the foundation of that in which we + live."—<i>The Saxons in England.</i> Vol. I, pp. 28-32.</p> + + <p><a name="sect14">§ 14</a>. <i>Inference.</i>—As it is nearly + certain, that the year 449 is <i>not</i> the date of the first + introduction of German tribes into Britain, we must consider that the + displacement of the original British began at an earlier period than the + one usually admitted, and, consequently, that it was more gradual than is + usually supposed.</p> + + <p>Perhaps, if we substitute the middle of the fourth, instead of the + middle of the fifth century, as the epoch of the Germanic immigrations + into Britain, we shall not be far from the truth.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 10 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>{10}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">GERMANIC ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.—THE IMMIGRANT +TRIBES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO EACH OTHER.</p> + + <p><a name="sect15">§ 15</a>. By referring to <a href="#sect3">§§ + 3</a>-12, it may be seen that out of the numerous tribes and nations of + Germany, <i>three</i> in particular have been considered as the chief, if + not the exclusive, sources of the present English, viz.: the Angles, the + Saxons and the Jutes.</p> + + <p>To criticise the evidence which derives the <i>English</i> in general + from the <i>Angles</i>, the particular inhabitants of <i>Sussex</i>, + <i>Essex</i>, <i>Middlesex</i> and <i>Wessex</i>, from the <i>Saxons</i>, + and the <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> language from the <i>Angle</i> and + <i>Saxon</i> would be superfluous; whilst to doubt the truth of the main + facts which it attests would exhibit an unnecessary and unhealthy + scepticism. That the Angles and Saxons formed at least seven-tenths of + the Germanic invaders may be safely admitted. The <i>Jute</i> element, + however, requires further notice.</p> + + <p><a name="sect16">§ 16</a>. The <i>Jutes</i>.—Were any of the + German immigrants <i>Jutes</i>? If so, what were their relations to the + other German tribes?</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> Were there Jutes in England? That there was a Jute element + in England is to be maintained, not upon the <i>tradition</i> that one of + the three ships of Hengist and Horsa was manned by Jutes, but from the + following extract from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Extract from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" title="Extract from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> "Of Jotum comon Cantware and +Wihtware, þæt is seo mæiað, þe nú +eardaþ on Wiht, and þæt cynn on +West-Sexum ðe man gyt hæt Iútnacynn. +Of Eald-Seaxum comon +Eást-Seaxan, and Suð-Seaxan, and +West-Seaxan. Of Angle comon +<!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page11"></a>{11}</span> +(se á siððan stód westig betwix +Iútum and Seaxum) Eást-Engle, +Middel-Angle, Mearce, and ealle +Norðymbra." + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> From the Jutes came the inhabitants +of Kent and of Wight, that is, +the race that now dwells in Wight, +and that tribe amongst the West-Saxons +which is yet called the Jute +tribe. From the Old-Saxons came +the East-Saxons, and South-Saxons, +and West-Saxons. From the Angles Land +(which has since always stood +waste betwixt the Jutes and Saxons) +came the East-Angles, Middle-Angles, +Mercians, and all the Northumbrians.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Here the words <i>gyt hæt Iútnacynn</i> constitute cotemporary + evidence.</p> + + <p>Still there is a flaw in it; since it is quite possible that the term + <i>Iútnacynn</i> may have been no true denomination of a section of the + Germans of England, but only the synonym of a different word, + <i>Wiht-sætan</i>. Alfred writes—comon hi of þrym folcum þam + strangestan Germaniæ; þæt of <i>Seaxum</i>, and of <i>Angle</i>, and of + <i>Geatum</i>. Of Geatum fruman sindon Cantware and <i>Wiht-sætan</i>, + þæt is seo þeód se Wiht þæt ealond on eardað—<i>they came of three + folk, the strongest of Germany; that of</i> Saxons <i>and of</i> Angles, + <i>and of</i> Geats. <i>Of</i> Geats <i>originally are</i> the Kent + people <i>and</i> Wiht-set; <i>that is the people which</i> Wiht <i>the + Island live on</i>.</p> + + <p>This changes the reasoning, and leads us to the following facts.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The word in question is a compound=<i>Wight</i>=<i>the name + of the isle</i>, + <i>sætan</i>=<i>people</i>; as Somer-<i>set</i>, and + Dor-<i>set</i>.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The peninsula <i>Jut</i>-land was also called + <i>Vit</i>-land, or <i>With</i>-land.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> The <i>wiht</i>- in <i>Wiht</i>-sætan is, undoubtedly, no + such element as the <i>vit</i>- in <i>Vit</i>-land=<i>Jut-land</i>; since + it represents the older Celtic term, known to us in the Romanized form + <i>Vectis</i>.</p> + + <p>Putting all this together, it becomes possible (nay probable) that the + whole doctrine of a <i>Jute</i> element in the Anglo-Saxon migration may + have arisen out of the fact of there being a portion of the people of + Southern England neighbours of the Saxons, and bearing the name + <i>Wiht</i>-sætan; a fact which, taken along with the juxtaposition of + the <i>Vit</i>-landers (<i>Jut</i>-landers) and Saxons on the Continent, + suggested to the writers of a long later age the doctrine of a Jute + migration.</p> + + <p><a name="sect17">§ 17</a>. As this last objection impugns the evidence + rather than the fact, the following question finds place:— <!-- + Page 12 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span></p> + + <p>What were the Jutes of Germany? At present they are the natives of + Jutland, and their language is Danish rather than German.</p> + + <p>Neither is there reason to suppose that during the third and fourth + centuries it was otherwise.</p> + + <p><a name="sect18">§ 18</a>. This last circumstance detracts from the + likelihood of the <i>fact</i>; since in no part of Kent, Sussex, Hants, + nor even in the Isle of Wight—a likely place for a language to + remain unchanged—have any traces of the old Jute been found.</p> + + <p><a name="sect19">§ 19</a>. On the other hand the fact of Jutes, + <i>even though Danes</i>, being members of a Germanic confederation is + not only probable, but such was actually the case; at least for + continental wars—<i>subactis, cum Saxonibus, Euciis</i> (Eutiis), + <i>qui se nobis</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, the Franks), <i>propriâ voluntate + tradiderunt ... usque in Oceani littoribus dominio nostro + porrigitur</i>.—Theodebert to the Emperor Justinian.—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Quem <i>Geta</i>, Vasco tremunt, Danus, Eutheo,<a name="NtA1" href="#Nt1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> Saxo, Britannus,</p> + <p class="i2">Cum patre quos acie te domitasse patet."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Venantius Fortunatus ad Chilpericum regem.<a name="NtA2" + href="#Nt2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></p> + + <p><a name="sect20">§ 20</a>. <i>Inference.</i>—Of the three + following views—(1.) that the Jutes of Jutland in the fourth and + fifth centuries spoke Saxon; (2.) that they spoke Danish at home, but + lost their language after three or four centuries' residence in England; + and (3.) that a later historian was induced by the similarity between the + term <i>Wiht-sætan</i>, as applied to the <i>people of the Isle of + Wight</i>, and <i>Wit-land</i>, as applied to <i>Jutland</i>, combined + with the real probability of the fact supposed, to assume a Jute origin + for the Saxons of the parts in question, the third is, in the mind of the + present writer, the most probable.</p> + + <p><a name="sect21">§ 21</a>. It has already been stated that concerning + the Angles and Saxons, no reasonable man will put the question which was + put in respect to the Jutes, <i>viz.</i>, had they any real place among + the Germanic invaders of England? Respecting, however, their relations to + each other, and their respective geographical localities whilst occupants + of Germany, anterior to <!-- Page 13 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page13"></a>{13}</span>their immigration into Britain, there is + much that requires investigation. What were the Saxons of + Germany—what the Angles?</p> + + <p><a name="sect22">§ 22</a>. <i>Difficulties respecting the + identification of the Saxons.</i>—There are two senses of the word + <i>Saxon</i>, one of which causes difficulty by being too limited; the + other by being too wide.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> <i>The limited sense of the word Saxon.</i>—This is + what we get from Ptolemy, the first author who names the Saxons, and who + gives them a limited locality at the mouth of the Elbe, bounded by the + Sigulones, the Sabalingi, the Kobandi, the Chali, the Phundusii, the + Harudes, and other tribes of the Cimbric Peninsula, of which the Saxons + just occupied the neck, and three small islands opposite—probably + Fohr, Sylt, and Nordstand.</p> + + <p>Now a sense of the word <i>Saxon</i> thus limited, would restrict the + joint conquerors of Britain to the small area comprized between the Elbe + and Eyder, of which they do not seem even to have held the whole.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>The wide sense of the word Saxon.</i>—The reader + need scarcely be reminded that the present kingdom of Saxony is as far + inland as the northern frontier of Bohemia. Laying this, however, out of + the question, as the effect of an extension subsequent to the invasion of + Britain, we still find Saxons in ancient Hanover, ancient Oldenburg, + ancient Westphalia, and (speaking roughly) over the greater part of the + country drained by the Weser, and of the area inclosed by the eastern + feeders of the Lower Rhine, the Elbe, and the range of the Hartz.</p> + + <p>Now as it is not likely that the limited Saxon area of Ptolemy should + have supplied the whole of our Saxon population, so on the other hand, it + is certain, that of a considerable portion of the Saxon area in its + <i>wider</i> extent tribes other than the Saxons of England, were + occupants.</p> + + <p><a name="sect23">§ 23</a>. <i>Difficulties respecting the word + Angle.</i>—The reader is referred to an extract from the + Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in <a href="#sect16">§ 16</a>, where it is stated, + that "from the Angles' land (which has since always stood waste betwixt + the Jutes and the <!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page14"></a>{14}</span>Saxons) came the East-Angles, Middle-Angles, + Mercians, and all the Northumbrians."</p> + + <p>Thus to bring the great Angle population from an area no larger than + the county of Rutland, is an objection—but it is not the chief + one.</p> + + <p>The chief objection to the Angles of England being derived from the + little district of Anglen, in Sleswick, lies in the fact of there being + mention of <i>Angli</i> in another part of Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="sect24">§ 24</a>. This exposition of the elements of + uncertainty will be followed by an enumeration of—</p> + + <p>1. Those portions of the Germanic populations, which from their + geographical position, are the likeliest, <i>à priori</i>, to have helped + to people England.</p> + + <p>2. Those portions of the Germanic population, which although not + supposed to have contributed in any notable degree to the population of + Britain, had such continental relations to the Angles and Saxons, as to + help in fixing their localities.</p> + + <p>These two scenes of facts, give us what may be called our preliminary + <i>apparatus criticus</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect25">§ 25</a>. Between the northern limits of the Celtic + populations of Gaul and the southern boundary of the Scandinavians of + Jutland, we find the area which is most likely to have given origin to + the Germans of England. This is best considered under two heads.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> That of the proper <i>seaboard</i>, or the <i>coast</i> from + the Rhine to the Eyder.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> That of the <i>rivers</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the communications + between the ocean and the inland country.</p> + + <p>This double division is <i>sufficient</i>, since it is not likely that + Britain was peopled by any tribes which were not either maritime, or the + occupants of a river.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, it is <i>necessary</i>, since although the <i>à + priori</i> view is in favour of the <i>coast</i> having supplied the + British immigration, the chances of its having proceeded from the + interior by the way of the large rivers Rhine, Weser, and Elbe, must also + be taken into consideration. <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page15"></a>{15}</span></p> + + <p>The importance of this latter alternative, will soon be seen.</p> + + <p><a name="sect26">§ 26</a>. <i>The Menapians.</i>—Locality, from + the country of the Morini on the French side of the Straits of Dover, to + the Scheldt. It is generally considered that these were not Germans but + Celts. The fact, however, is by no means ascertained. If Germans, the + Menapians were the tribes nearest to Britain. Again, supposing that the + present Flemings of Belgium are the oldest inhabitants of the country, + their origin is either wholly, or in part, Menapian. Mentioned by + Cæsar.</p> + + <p><a name="sect27">§ 27</a>. <i>The Batavians.</i>—Mentioned by + Cæsar; locality, from the Maas to the Zuyder Zee. Conterminous with the + Menapians on the south, and with the Frisians on the north. If the + present Dutch of Holland be the inhabitants of the country from the time + of Cæsar downwards, their origin is Batavian.</p> + + <p><a name="sect28">§ 28</a>. <i>The Frisians.</i>—First known to + the Romans during the campaign of Drusus—"tributum <i>Frisiis</i> + transrhenano populo—Drusus jusserat modicum;"<a name="NtA3" + href="#Nt3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> Tacitus, Ann. iv. 72. Extended, according + to Ptolemy, as far north as the Ems—<span title="tên de parôkeanitin katechousin ... hoi Phrissioi, mechri tou Amisiou potamou" class="grk" + >τὴν δὲ + παρωκεανῖτιν + κατέχουσιν ... + οἱ Φρίσσιοι, + μέχρι τοῦ + Αμισίου + ποταμοῦ</span>.</p> + + <p>Now, as the dialect of the modern province of Friesland differs in + many important points from the Dutch of Holland and Flanders; and as + there is every reason to believe that the same, or greater difference, + existed between the old Frisians and the old Batavians, assuming each to + have been the mother-tongues of the present Frisian and Dutch + respectively, we may consider that in reaching the parts to the north of + the Zuyder-Zee, we have come to a second sub-division of the Germanic + dialects; nevertheless, it is not the division to which either the Angles + or the Saxons belong, as may be ascertained by the difference of dialect, + or rather language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect29">§ 29</a>. <i>The Chauci.</i>—Connected with the + Frisii.—Falling into two divisions—the lesser (?) Chauci, + from the Ems to the Weser; the greater (?) Chauci from the Weser to the + Elbe—<span title="meta de toutous" class="grk" + >μετὰ δὲ + τούτους</span> (the + Frisians), <!-- Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page16"></a>{16}</span><span title="Kauchoi hoi mikroi mechri tou Ouisourgios potamou, eita Kauchoi hoi meizous, mechri tou Albios potamou." class="grk" + >Καῦχοι οἱ + μικροὶ μέχρι + τοῦ + Οὐισούργιος + ποταμοῦ, + εἶτα Καῦχοι + οἱ μειζοῦς, + μέχρι τοῦ + Ἄλβιος + ποταμοῦ.</span></p> + + <p>Tacitus describes the Chauci thus:—"Tam immensum terrarum + spatium non tenent tantum Chauci, sed et implent; populus inter Germanos + nobilissimus."</p> + + <p>The Frisians, as has been stated, represent a separate subdivision of + the German dialects, as opposed to the ancient Batavian, and the modern + Dutch and Flemish. Did the Chauci represent a third, or were they part of + the Frisian division?</p> + + <p>The latter is the more likely, and that for the following + reasons—Vestiges of Frisian dialects are to be found on the + Continent, in Oldenburgh, and also in the island of Heligoland.</p> + + <p>More important still is the North-Frisian dialect. <i>North of the + Elbe</i>, in the Dutchy of Sleswick, and from the Eyder to Tondern, we + find a tract of land called, by Saxo Grammaticus, <i>Frisia Minor</i>, + and by other writers, <i>Frisia Eydorensis</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, as there are no grounds for considering these <i>North</i> + Frisians as other than indigenous to the tract in question, we get an + additional reason for looking upon the intermediate line of coast as + Frisian rather than either Angle or Saxon—or, at least, such parts + of it as are not expressly stated to be otherwise.</p> + + <p><a name="sect30">§ 30</a>. <i>Inference.</i>—As the whole coast + south of the Elbe seems to have been occupied by tribes speaking either + Frisian or Batavian dialects, and as neither of these sub-divisions + represents the language of the Angles and Saxons, the original localities + of those invaders must be sought for either north of the Elbe, or inland, + along the course of the rivers, <i>i.e.</i>—inland.</p> + + <p><a name="sect31">§ 31</a>. <i>The Saxons and + Nordalbingians.</i>—North of the Elbe, and south of the Eyder (as + stated in <a href="#sect22">§ 22</a>), we meet the Saxons of Ptolemy; but + that in a very circumscribed locality.</p> + + <p>In the ninth century, the tribes of these parts are divided into three + divisions:—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The <i>Holtsati</i>=the people of Holstein. Here + <i>holt</i>=<i>wood</i>, whilst <i>sat</i> is the <i>-set</i> in + Somer-<i>set</i> and Dor-<i>set</i>. <!-- Page 17 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>{17}</span></p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The <i>Thiedmarsi</i>=<i>the people of Ditmarsh</i>.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> The <i>Stormarii</i>=<i>the people of Stormar</i>.</p> + + <p>Besides the names of these three particular divisions the tribes + between the Elbe and Eyder were called by the <i>general</i> name of + <i>Nordalbingii</i>=<i>i.e. people to the north of the Elbe</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect32">§ 32</a>. <i>The people of Anglen</i>—North of + the Nordalbingii; Anglen being the name of a <i>district</i> between the + Schlie and Flensburg.</p> + + <p><a name="sect33">§ 33</a>. <i>The Jutes.</i>—In <i>Jut</i>-land, + north of the Angles and the Northfrisians.</p> + + <p><a name="sect34">§ 34</a>. <i>The Saxons of Holstein, how large their + area?</i>—There is no reason for considering the Nordalbingian + <i>Holtsati</i>, <i>Thiedmarsi</i> and <i>Stormarii</i> as other than + Saxons; although the fact of the Northfrisians to the north, and of the + Frisians of Hanover to the south of them, is a slight complication of the + <i>primâ facie</i> view.</p> + + <p>Neither is it necessary to identify the two divisions, and to consider + the Saxons as Frisians, or the Frisians as Saxons, as is done by some + authors.</p> + + <p>It is only necessary to perceive the complication which the existence + of the Northfrisians introduces, and to recognise the improbability of + <i>parts</i> of the present dutchies of Holstein and Sleswick having + constituted the <i>whole</i> of the Anglo-Saxon area.</p> + + <p>In other words, we have to ascertain in what direction the Germanic + population represented by the Saxons at the mouth of the Elbe extended + itself—for some further extension there undoubtedly must have + been.</p> + + <p><a name="sect35">§ 35</a>. This brings us to the other series of + preliminary facts, viz.: the consideration of the more important tribes + of the middle and lower courses of the three great rivers, the Rhine, the + Weser, and the Elbe.</p> + + <p><a name="sect36">§ 36</a>. <i>The Germans of the Middle + Rhine.</i>—Of the Germans of the Lower and Middle Rhine, it is only + necessary to mention one—</p> + + <p><i>The Franks.</i>—We shall see that, taking the two terms in + their widest sense, the <i>Franks</i> and the <i>Saxons</i> were in + contact, a fact which makes it necessary to notice at least some portion + of the Frank area. <!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page18"></a>{18}</span></p> + + <p><i>a.</i> <i>Salian Franks.</i>—If the element <i>Sal-</i> + represent the <i>-sel</i>, in the name of the Dutch river <i>Y-ssel</i>, + the locality of the Salian Franks was Overyssel and Guelderland, whilst + their ethnological relations were most probably with the Batavians.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>Chamavi.</i>—In the Tabula Peutingeriana we + find—Chamavi qui <i>Elpranci</i> (<i>leg. et Franci</i>). They were + conterminous with the Salii—<span title="Hupedexamên men moiran tou Saliôn ethnous, Chamabous de exêlasa" class="grk" + >Ὑπεδεξάμην + μὲν μοῖραν + τοῦ Σαλίων + ἔθνους, + Χαμάβους δὲ + ἐξήλασα</span>.—Julian, + Op. p. 280.—D.N.</p> + + <p>The following extract is more important, as it shows that a Roman + communication <i>at least</i> took place between the Rhine and Britain: + <span title="Chamabôn gar mê bouleuomenôn, adunaton estin tên tês Bretannikês nêsou sitopompian epi ta Rhôma'ika phrouria diapempesthai" class="grk" + >Χαμάβων γὰρ + μὴ + βουλευομένων, + ἀδύνατόν + ἐστιν τὴν τῆς + Βρεταννίκης + νήσου + σιτοπομπίαν + ἐπὶ τὰ + Ῥωμάϊκα + φρούρία + διαπέμπεσθαι</span>.—Eunap. + in Except. leg. ed., Bonn, p. 42.—D.N.</p> + + <p>The name Chamavi is still preserved in that of the district of + <i>Hameland</i>, near Deventer.—D.N. and G.D.S.</p> + + <p>The Bructeri, Sigambri, and Ripuarian Franks bring us to the Franks of + the Middle Rhine, a portion of the division which it is not necessary to + follow.</p> + + <p><a name="sect37">§ 37</a>. <i>The Thuringians.</i>—First + mentioned in the beginning of the fourth century. Locality, between the + Hartz, the Werra a feeder of the Weser, and the Sala a feeder of the + Elbe. As early as the sixth century the Thuringians and Saxons are + conterminous, and members of the same confederation against the + Franks.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect38">§ 38</a>. <i>The Catti.</i>—Locality, the + valley of the Fulda, forming part of the Upper Weser. Conterminous with + the Thuringi (from whom they were separated by the river Werra) on the + east, and the Franks on the west. The modern form of the word + <i>Catti</i> is <i>Hesse</i>, and the principality of Hesse is their old + locality.—G.D.S.</p> + + <p><a name="sect39">§ 39</a>.<i> Geographical conditions of the Saxon + area.</i>—<i>Southern and northern limits.</i>—The Saxons + were in league with the Thuringians and Jutes against the Franks.</p> + + <p>By the Jutes they were limited on the north, by the Thuringians on the + south-east, and by the Franks on the south-west; the middle portion of + the southern frontier being formed by the Catti between the Franks and + Thuringians. <!-- Page 19 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page19"></a>{19}</span></p> + + <p>This gives us a <i>southern</i> and a <i>northern</i> limit.</p> + + <p><i>Western limit.</i>—This is formed by the Batavians and + Frisians of the sea-coast, <i>i.e.</i>, by the Batavians of Holland, + Guelderland, and Overyssel, and, afterwards, by the Frisians of West and + East Friesland, and of Oldenburg.</p> + + <p>Here, however, the breadth of the non-Saxon area is uncertain. + Generally speaking, it is broadest in the southern, and narrowest in the + northern portion. The Frisian line is narrower than the Batavian, whilst + when we reach the Elbe the Saxons appear on the sea-coast. Perhaps they + do so on the Weser as well.</p> + + <p><a name="sect40">§ 40</a>. <i>Eastern limit.</i>—<i>Preliminary + remark.</i>—Before the eastern limit of the Saxons is investigated, + it will be well to indicate the extent to which it differs from the + southern.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The Thuringians, Catti (or Hessians), and Franks, on the + southern boundary of the Saxon area were <i>Germans</i>. Hence the line + of demarcation between their language was no broad and definite line, + like that between the English and the Welsh, but rather one representing + a difference of dialect, like that between the Yorkshire and the Lowland + Scotch. Hence, too, we ought not only not to be surprised, if we find + dialects intermediate to the Frank and Saxon, the Saxon and Thuringian, + &c., but we must expect to find them.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The same is the case with the Batavian and Frisian + frontier.—We really find specimens of language which some writers + call Saxon, and others Dutch (Batavian).</p> + + <p>The eastern frontier, however, will be like the frontier between + England and Wales, where the line of demarcation is broad and definite, + where there are no intermediate and transitional dialects, and where the + two contiguous languages belong to different philological + classes.—<i>The languages to the east of the Saxon area will be + allied to the languages of Russia, Poland, and Bohemia;</i> i.e., <i>they + will be not Germanic but Slavonic.</i></p> + + <p><i>Note.</i>—The northern frontier of the Saxon area is + intermediate in character to the western and southern on one hand, and to + the eastern on the other; the Danish of the Cimbric Peninsula + being—though not German—Gothic. <!-- Page 20 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page20"></a>{20}</span></p> + + <p>We begin at the northern portion of the Saxon area, <i>i.e.</i>, the + south-eastern corner of the Cimbric Peninsula, and the parts about the + Town of Lubeck; where the Dutchies of Mecklenburg Schwerin and Holstein + join. The attention of the reader is particularly directed to the + dates.</p> + + <p><a name="sect41">§ 41</a>. <i>Slavonians of Holstein, Mecklenburg, and + Lauenburg.</i>—The <i>Polabi</i>—From <i>po</i>=<i>on</i>, + and <i>Labe</i>=<i>the Elbe</i>. Name Slavonic. Germanized by the + addition of the termination—<i>ing</i>, and so become + <i>Po-lab-ing-i</i>; just as in <i>Kent</i> we find the + <i>Kent-ing-s</i>. Conterminous with the Nordalbingian <i>Stormarii</i>, + from whom they are divided by the river <i>Bille</i>, a small confluent + of the Elbe. Capital Ratzeburg. First mentioned by writers subsequent to + the time of Charlemagne.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect42">§ 42</a>. The <i>Wagrians</i>.—North of the + Polabi, and within the Cimbric Peninsula, divided from the Danes by the + Eyder, from the Non-Danish Nordalbingians by the Trave. Capital + Oldenburg. The Isle of Femern was Wagrian. Authorities—chiefly + writers of and subsequent to the time of Charlemagne. In one of these we + learn that the town of <i>Haðum</i> (Sleswick) lies between the Angles, + the Saxons, and the <i>Wends</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, <i>Wend</i> is the German designation of the <i>Slavonians</i>; + so that there must have been Slavonians in the Cimbric Peninsula at least + as early as the ninth century.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect43">§ 43</a>. <i>Obotriti</i>, written also + <i>Obotritæ</i>, <i>Abotriti</i>, <i>Abotridi</i>; <i>Apodritæ</i>, + <i>Abatareni</i>, <i>Apdrede</i>, <i>Afdrege</i>, and for the sake of + distinction from a people of the same name, <i>Nort-Obtrezi</i>, + occupants of the western part of Mecklenburg, and extended as far east as + the Warnow, as far south as Schwerin. Called by Adam of Bremen, + <i>Reregi</i>. The Obotrites were allies of the Franks against the + Saxons, and after the defeat and partial removal of the latter, were + transplanted to some of their localities.—"Saxones transtulit" + (<i>i.e.</i>, Charlemagne), "in Franciam et pagos transalbianos Abodritis + dedit."—Eginhart Ann. <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + 804.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect44">§ 44</a>. The <i>Lini</i>—Slavonians on the + left bank of the Elbe, and the first met with on that side of the river. + Occupants of Danneburg, Luchow and Wustrow, in Luneburg. By the <!-- Page + 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21"></a>{21}</span>writers + subsequent to the time of Charlemagne the <i>Smeldengi</i> (a German + designation), and the <i>Bethenici</i> are mentioned along with the Lini + (or Linones). Of this Slavonic a Paternoster may be seen in the + Mithridates representing the dialect of the neighbourhood in Luchow in + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1691. It is much mixed with the German. + About the middle of the last century this (Cis-Albian Slavonic) dialect + became extinct.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect45">§ 45</a>. The <i>Warnabi</i> or + <i>Warnavi</i>.—Locality. Parts about Grabow, Valley of the Elbe. + This is the locality of the <i>Varini</i> of Tacitus, the <span + title="Ou'irounoi" class="grk" + >Οὐΐρούνοι</span> + of Ptolemy, and the <i>Werini</i> of later writers, a tribe connected + with the Angli, and generally considered as Germanic.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect46">§ 46</a>. <i>Morizani.</i>—The district round + the Moritz Lake.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect47">§ 47</a>. <i>Doxani.</i>—Locality; the valley + of the Dosse.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect48">§ 48</a>. <i>Hevelli.</i>—Locality; the valley + of the Hevel. These are the Slavonians of Brandenburg and + Mittelmark.—D.N.</p> + + <p><a name="sect49">§ 49</a>. <i>Slavonians of Altmark.</i>—In + Altmark, as in Lunenburg, though on the German side of the Elbe we find + the names of the places Slavonic, <i>e.g.</i>, Klotze, Wrepke, Solpke, + Blatz, Regatz, Colbitz, &c.; so that Altmark, like Lunenburg, was + originally a <i>Cis</i>-Albian Slavonic locality.</p> + + <p><a name="sect50">§ 50</a>. South of the Hevel we meet with the + <i>Sorabian</i>, or <i>Sorb</i> Slavonians, the descendants of whom form + at the present time part of the population of Lusatia and Silesia. It is + not, however, necessary to follow these further, since the German + frontier now begins to be Thuringian rather than Saxon.</p> + + <p><a name="sect51">§ 51</a>. <i>Saxon area.</i>—From the preceding + investigations we determine the area occupied by the Saxons of Germany to + be nearly as follows:</p> + + <p><i>a.</i>—<i>Ethnologically considered.</i>—Tract bounded + on the north by the North Frisian Germans and Jute Danes of Sleswick; on + the north and north-east by the Slavonians of the Elbe, sometimes + <i>Trans</i>-Albian like the Wagrians and Obotrites; sometimes + <i>Cis</i>-Albian, like the Linones and the Slaves of Altmark; on the + south by the Thuringians, Catti, and Franks; on the west by the Franks, + Batavians, and Frisians.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>Considered in relation to the ancient population that it + <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page22"></a>{22}</span>comprised.</i>—The country of the + Saxons of Ptolemy; the Angli of Tacitus; the Langobardi of Tacitus; the + Angrivarii; the Dulgubini; the Ampsivarii (?); the Bructeri Minores (?); + the Fosi, and Cherusci; and probably part of the Cauci. Of populations + mentioned by the later writers (<i>i.e.</i> of those between the seventh + and eleventh centuries), the following belong to this area—the + Stormarii, Thietmarsi, Hotsati (=the Nordalbingii, or Nordleudi), the + Ostfali, (Osterluidi), Westfali, Angarii, and Eald-Seaxan (Old + Saxons).</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> <i>Considered in relation to its modern + population.</i>—Here it coincides most closely with the kingdom of + Hanover, <i>plus</i> parts of the Dutchies of Holstein and Oldenburg, and + parts of Altmark? Brunswick? and Westphalia, and <i>minus</i> the Frisian + portion of East Friesland, and the Slavonic part of Luneburg.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i> <i>River system.</i>—By extending the Saxons of + Westphalia as far as Cleves (which has been done by competent judges) we + carry the western limit to the neighbourhood of the Rhine. This, however, + is as far as it can safely be carried. In the respect to the Upper Ems, + it was probably Saxon, the lower part being Frisian. The Weser is + pre-eminently the river of the Saxons, with the water-system of which + their area coincides more closely than with any other physical division. + The Elbe was much in the same relation to the Germans and Slavonians, as + the Rhine was to the Germans and the Gauls. Roughly speaking, it is the + frontier—the <i>Cis</i>-Albian Slaves (the Linones and the + Slavonians of Altmark) being quite as numerous as the <i>Trans</i>-Albian + Germans, (the people of Stormar, Ditmarsh, and Holstein). The Eyder was + perhaps equally Danish, Frisian, and Saxon.</p> + + <p><i>e.</i> <i>Mountains.</i>—The watershed of the Weser on the + one side, and of the Ruhr and Lippe on the other, is the chief high land + <i>contained</i> within the Saxon area, and is noticed as being the line + most likely to form a subdivision of the Saxon population, either in the + way of dialect or political relations—<i>in case such a subdivision + exists</i>, a point which will be considered in the next chapter.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 23 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>{23}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE DIALECTS OF THE SAXON AREA, AND OF THE SO-CALLED, +OLD SAXON.</p> + + <p><a name="sect52">§ 52</a>. The area occupied by the Saxons of Germany + has been investigated; and it now remains to ask, how far the language of + the occupants was absolutely identical throughout, or how far it fell + into dialects or sub-dialects. In doing this, it may as well be asked, + First, what we expect, <i>à priori</i>; Second, what we really find.</p> + + <p><a name="sect53">§ 53</a>. To the Saxon area in Germany, there are + five philological frontiers, the Slavonic, the Frisian, the Batavian, the + Frank, and the Thuringian, to which may probably be added the Hessian; in + each of which, except the Slavonic, we may expect that the philological + phenomenon of intermixture and transition will occur. Thus—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The Saxon of Holstein may be expected to approach the Jute + and Frisian.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> That of South Oldenburg and East Friesland, the Frisian and + Batavian.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> That of Westphalia, the Batavian and Frank.</p> + + <p><i>d</i>, <i>e</i>. That of the Hessian and Thuringian frontiers, the + Hessian and Thuringian.</p> + + <p>Finally, the Saxon of the centre of the area is expected to be the + Saxon of the most typical character.</p> + + <p><a name="sect54">§ 54</a>. Such is what we expect. How far it was the + fact is not known for want of <i>data</i>. What is known, however, is as + follows.—There were at least <i>two</i> divisions of the Saxon; + (1st) the Saxon of which the extant specimens are of English origin, and + (2nd), the Saxon of which the extant specimens are of continental origin. + We will call these at present the Saxon of England, and the Saxon of the + Continent. <!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page24"></a>{24}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect55">§ 55</a>. Respecting the Saxon of England and the + Saxon of the Continent, there is good reason for believing that the first + was spoken in the northern, the second in the southern portion of the + Saxon area, <i>i.e.</i>, the one in Hanover and the other in Westphalia, + the probable boundaries between them being the line of highlands between + Osnaburg and Paderborn.</p> + + <p><a name="sect56">§ 56</a>. Respecting the Saxon of England and the + Saxon of the Continent, there is good reason for believing that, whilst + the former was the mother-tongue of the Angles and the conquerors of + England, the latter was that of the Cherusci of Arminius, the conquerors + and the annihilators of the legions of Varus.</p> + + <p><a name="sect57">§ 57</a>. Respecting the Saxon of England and the + Saxon of the Continent, it is a fact that whilst we have a full + literature in the former, we have but fragmentary specimens of the + latter—these being chiefly the following: (1) the Heliand, (2) + Hildubrand and Hathubrant, (3) the Carolinian Psalms.</p> + + <p><a name="sect58">§ 58</a>. The preceding points have been predicated + respecting the difference between the two ascertained Saxon dialects, for + the sake of preparing the reader for the names by which they are known. + Supposing the nomenclature to be based upon any of the preceding facts, + we might have the following nomenclature:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Nomenclature of Saxon" title="Nomenclature of Saxon"> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> FOR THE SAXON OF THE CONTINENT. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> FOR THE SAXON OF ENGLAND.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> 1. Continental Saxon. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> Insular Saxon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> 2. German Saxon. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> English Saxon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> 3. Westphalian Saxon. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> Hanoverian Saxon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> 4. South-Saxon. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> North Saxon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> 5. Cheruscan Saxon. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> Angle Saxon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> 6. Saxon of the Heliand.<a name="NtA4" href="#Nt4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> Saxon of Beowulf.<a href="#Nt4"><sup>[4]</sup></a></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Of these names the last would be the best for strictly scientific + purposes, or for the purposes of investigation; since the fact upon which + it is based is the most undeniable.</p> + + <p>Such is what the nomenclature might be, or, perhaps, ought to be. What + it is <i>is</i> another question.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25"></a>{25}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect59">§ 59</a>. The Saxon of England is called Anglo-Saxon; + a term against which no exception can be raised.</p> + + <p><a name="sect60">§ 60</a>. The Saxon of the Continental <i>used to</i> + be called <i>Dano</i>-Saxon, and <i>is</i> called <i>Old</i> Saxon.</p> + + <p><a name="sect61">§ 61</a>. <i>Why called + </i>Dano<i>-Saxon.</i>—When the poem called <i>Heliand</i> was + first discovered (and that in an English library), the difference in + language between it and the common Anglo-Saxon composition was accounted + for by the assumption of a <i>Danish</i> intermixture.</p> + + <p><a name="sect62">§ 62</a>. <i>Why called </i>Old<i> + Saxon.</i>—When the Continental origin of the <i>Heliand</i> was + recognised, the language was called <i>Old Saxon</i>, because it + represented the Saxon of the mother-country, the natives of which were + called <i>Old</i> Saxons by the <i>Anglo</i>-Saxons themselves. Still the + term is exceptionable; the Saxon of the Heliand is most probably a + <i>sister</i>-dialect of the <i>Anglo</i>-Saxon, rather the + <i>Anglo</i>-Saxon itself is a continental locality. Exceptionable, + however, as it is, it will be employed.</p> + + <p><a name="sect63">§ 63</a>. The <i>data</i> for the study of the Old + Saxon are as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Abrenuntiatio Diaboli, e Codice Vaticano.</i>—Graff, + Diutisca, ii. 191.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Confessionis Formulæ, e Codice Essensi.</i>—Lacomblet, + Archiv, für Geschichte des Niederrhins, 1, 4-9.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Fragmentum de Festo omnium Sanctorum, e Codice + Essensi.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Rotulus redituum Essensis.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>5. <i>The Frekkenhorst Roll.</i>—Denkmäler von Dorow, 1, 2, + 1.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Glossæ Saxonicæ, e Codice Argentorat.</i>—Diutisca, + 192.</p> + + <p>7. <i>T. Lipsii; Epist. cent. <span class="scac">III.</span> ad Belgas + pertinentium, Ep.</i> 44.</p> + + <p>8. <i>Hildebrand.</i>—Heroic fragment, in alliterative + metre.</p> + + <p>9. <i>The Carolinian Psalms.</i>—A translation of the Psalms, + referred to the time of Charlemagne; sometimes considered to be old + Batavian.</p> + + <p>10. <i>Heliand</i>, a Gospel Harmony in alliterative metre, and the + chief <i>Old</i> Saxon composition extant. <!-- Page 26 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page26"></a>{26}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SPECIMEN.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><a name="sect64">§ 64</a>. <i>Heliand</i>, pp. 12, 13. (<i>Schmeller's Edition.</i>)</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Luc. II.</span> 8-13.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Extract from Heliand" title="Extract from Heliand"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> Tho uuard managun cud,<br /> +Obar thesa uuidon uuerold.<br /> +Uuardos antfundun,<br /> +Thea thar ehuscalcos<br /> +Uta uuarun,<br /> +Uueros an uuahtu,<br /> +Uuiggeo gomean,<br /> +Fehas aftar felda:<br /> +Gisahun finistri an tuue<br /> +Telatan an lufte;<br /> +Endi quam lioht Godes,<br /> +Uuanum thurh thui uuolcan;<br /> +Endi thea uuardos thar<br /> +Bifeng an them felda.<br /> +Sie uurdun an forhtun tho,<br /> +Thea man an ira moda;<br /> +Gisahun thar mahtigna<br /> +Godes Engil cuman;<br /> +The im tegegnes sprac.<br /> +Het that im thea uuardos—<br /> +"Uuiht ne antdredin<br /> +Ledes fon them liohta.<br /> +Ic scal eu quad he liobora thing,<br /> +Suido uuarlico<br /> +Uuilleon seggean,<br /> +Cudean craft mikil.<br /> +Nu is Krist geboran,<br /> +An thesero selbun naht,<br /> +Salig barn Godes,<br /> +An thera Davides burg,<br /> +Drohtin the godo.<br /> +That is mendislo<br /> +Manno cunneas,<br /> +Allaro firiho fruma.<br /> +Thar gi ina fidan mugun,<br /> +An Bethlema burg,<br /> +Barno rikiost.<br /> +Hebbiath that te tecna,<br /> +<!-- Page 27 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>{27}</span> +That ic eu gitellean mag,<br /> +Uuarun uuordun,<br /> +That he thar biuundan ligid,<br /> +That kind an enera cribbiun,<br /> +Tho he si cuning obar al<br /> +Erdun endi himiles,<br /> +Endi obar eldeo barn,<br /> +Uueroldes uualdand."<br /> +Reht so he tho that uuord gespracenun<br /> +So uuard thar engilo te them<br /> +Unrim cuman,<br /> +Helag heriskepi,<br /> +Fon hebanuuanga,<br /> +Fagar folc Godes,<br /> +Endi filu sprakun,<br /> +Lofuuord manag,<br /> +Liudeo herron;<br /> +Athobun tho helagna sang,<br /> +Tho sie eft te hebanuuanga<br /> +Uundun thurh thin uuolcan.<br /> +Thea uuardos hordun,<br /> +Huo thin engilo craft<br /> +Alomahtigna God,<br /> +Suido uuerdlico,<br /> +Uuordun louodun.<br /> +"Diurida si nu," quadun sie,<br /> +"Drohtine selbun,<br /> +An them hohoston<br /> +Himilo rikea;<br /> +Endi fridu an erdu,<br /> +Firiho barnum,<br /> +Goduuilligun gumun,<br /> +Them the God antkennead,<br /> +Thurh hluttran hugi." + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> Then it was to many known,<br /> +Over this wide world.<br /> +The words they discovered,<br /> +Those that there, as horse-grooms,<br /> +Were without,<br /> +Men at watch,<br /> +Horses to tend,<br /> +Cattle on the field—<br /> +They saw the darkness in two<br /> +Dissipated in the atmosphere,<br /> +And came a light of God<br /> +—through the welkin;<br /> +And the words there<br /> +Caught on the field.<br /> +They were in fright then<br /> +The men in their mood—<br /> +They saw there mighty<br /> +Angel of God come;<br /> +That to them face to face spake.<br /> +It bade them these words—<br /> +"Dread not a whit<br /> +Of mischief from the light.<br /> +I shall to you speak glad things,<br /> +Very true;<br /> +Say commands;<br /> +Show great strength.<br /> +Now is Christ born,<br /> +In this self-same night;<br /> +The blessed child of God,<br /> +In David's city,<br /> +The Lord the good.<br /> +That is exultation<br /> +To the races of men,<br /> +Of all men the advancement.<br /> +There ye may find him<br /> +In the city of Bethlehem,<br /> +The noblest of children—<br /> +Ye have as a token<br /> +That I tell ye<br /> +True words,<br /> +That he there swathed lieth,<br /> +The child in a crib,<br /> +Though he be King over all<br /> +Earth and Heaven,<br /> +And over the sons of men,<br /> +Of the world the Ruler."<br /> +Right as he that word spake,<br /> +So was there of Angels to them,<br /> +In a multitude, come<br /> +A holy host,<br /> +From the Heaven-plains,<br /> +The fair folk of God,<br /> +And much they spake<br /> +Praise-words many,<br /> +<i>To</i> the Lord of Hosts (people).<br /> +They raised the holy song,<br /> +As they back to the Heaven-plains<br /> +Wound through the welkin.<br /> +The words they heard,<br /> +How the strength of the Angels<br /> +The Almighty God,<br /> +Very worthily,<br /> +With words praised.<br /> +"Love be there now," quoth they,<br /> +"To the Lord himself<br /> +On the highest<br /> +Kingdom of Heaven,<br /> +And peace on earth<br /> +To the children of men,<br /> +Goodwilled men<br /> +Who know God,<br /> +Through a pure mind." + +</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>{28}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">AFFINITIES OF THE ENGLISH WITH THE LANGUAGES OF GERMANY +AND SCANDINAVIA.</p> + + <p><a name="sect65">§ 65</a>. The last chapter has limited the + Anglo-Saxon area to the northern part of the Saxon area in general. + Further details, however, upon this point, may stand over until the + <i>general</i> affinities of the English language have been + considered.</p> + + <p><a name="sect66">§ 66</a>. Over and above those languages of Germany + and Holland which were akin to the dialects of the Angles and the Saxons, + cognate languages were spoken in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and + the Feroe isles, <i>i.e.</i>, in Scandinavia.</p> + + <p><a name="sect67">§ 67</a>. The general collective designation for the + Germanic tongues of Germany and Holland, and for the Scandinavian + languages of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe Isles, is + taken from the name of those German tribes who, during the decline of the + Roman Empire, were best known to the Romans as the <i>Goths</i>; the term + <i>Gothic</i> for the Scandinavian and Germanic languages, collectively, + being both current and convenient.</p> + + <p><a name="sect68">§ 68</a>. Of this great <i>stock</i> of languages the + Scandinavian is one <i>branch</i>; the Germanic, called also Teutonic, + another.</p> + + <p><a name="sect69">§ 69</a>. The Scandinavian branch of the Gothic stock + comprehends, 1. The dialects of Scandinavia Proper, <i>i.e.</i>, of + Norway and Sweden; 2. of the Danish isles and Jutland; 3. of Iceland; 4. + of the Feroe Isles. On the side of Lapland the languages of this branch + come in contact with the Laplandic and Finlandic; whilst in Sleswick they + are bounded by the Low German. <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page29"></a>{29}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SPECIMENS.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Icelandic</i> (Fareyïnga-Saga—Ed. Mohnike).</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Ok nú er þat eitthvert sinn um sumarit, at Sigmundr mælti til þóris: + "Hvat mun verða, þo at við farim í skóg þenna, er hèr er norðr frá + garði?" þórir svarar: "á því er mèr eingi forvitni," segir hann. "Ekki er + mèr svâ gefit," segir Sigmundr, "ok þángat skal ek fara." "þú munt ráða + hljóta," segir þûrir, "en brjótum við þa boðorð fóstra míns." Nu fóru + þeir, ok hafði Sigmundr viðaröxi eina i hendi sèr; koma i skóginn, ok í + rjôðr eitt fagurt; ok er þeir hafa þar eigi leingi verit, þá heyra þeir + björn mikinn harðla ok grimligan. þat var viðbjörn mikill, úlfgrár at + lit. þeir hlaupa nu aptra á stiginn þan, er þeir hölðu þángat farit; + stigrinn var mjór ok þraurigr, ok hleypr þórir fyrir, en Sigmundr síðar. + Dýrit bleypr nú eptir þeim á stiginn, ok verðr því þraungr stigrinn, ok + brotna eikrnar fyrir þvi. Sigmundr snyr þá skjótt út af stignum millum + trjánna, ok biðr þar til er dyrit kemr jafn-fram honum. þa höggr hann + jafnt meðal hlusta á dŷrinu með tveim höndum, svâ at exin sökkr. En + dŷrit fellr áfram, ok er dautt.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Feroic.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Nú vär so til ajna Ferina um Summari, at Sigmundur snakkaji so vi + Towra: "Kvat man bagga, towat vìd färin uj henda Skowin, uj èr hèr + noran-firi Gärin?" Towrur svärar, "Ikkji hävi e Hu at forvitnast ettir + tuj," sìir han. "Ikkji eri e so sintur," sìir Sigmundur, "og häar skäl e + fara." "Tù fert tå at råa," sìir Towrur, "men tå browtum vid Forbo + Fostirfäjir mujns." Nù fowru tajr, og Sigmundur heji ajna öksi til + Brennuvì uj Hondini; tajr koma in uj Skowin, og å ajt väkurt rudda Plos + men ikkji häva tajr veri här lájngji, firin tajr hojra kvödtt Brak uj + Skownun, og bråt ettir sujgja tajr ajna egvulia stowra Bjödn og gruiska. + Tä vä ajn stowr Skowbjödn grågulmut å Litinun. Tair lejpa nù attir å + Råsina, sum tajr höddu gingji ettir; Råsin vär mjåv og trong; Towrur + lejpur undan, og Sigmundur attanå. Djowri leipur nù ettir tajmum å + Råsini; og nù verur Råsin trong kjå tuj, so at Ajkjinar brotnavu frå tuj. + Sigmundur snujur tå kvikliani útäf Råsini inimidlum Trjini, og bujar här + til Djowri kjemur abajnt han. Tå höggur han bajnt uj Ojrnalystri å + Djowrinum vi båvun Hondun, so at öxin sökkur in, og Djowri dettir bajnt + framettir, og er standejt.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Swedish.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Och nu var det engång on sommaren, som Sigmund sade till Thorer: "Hvad + månde väl deraf warda, om vi åter gå ut i skogen, som ligger der norr on + gården?" "Det är jag alldeles icke nyfiken att veta," svarade Thor. "Icke + går det så med mig," sade Sigmund, "och ditret mäste jag." "Du kommer då + att råda," sade Thor, "men dermed öfverträda vi vår <!-- Page 30 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page30"></a>{30}</span>Fosterfaders bud." De + gingo nu åstad, och Sigmund bade en vedyxa i handen; de kommo in i + skogen, och strat derpå fingo de se en ganska stor och vildsinnt björn, + en dråpelig skogsbjörn, varg-grå till färgen. De sprungo då tillbaka på + samma stig som de hade kommit dit. Stigen var smal och trång; och Thorer + sprang fråmst, men Sigmund efterst. Djuret lopp nu efter dem på stigen, + och stigen blef trång för detsamma, så att träden sönderbrötos i dess + lopp. Sigmund vände då kurtigt retaf från stigen, och ställde sig mellan + träden, samt stod der, tills djuret kom fram midt för honom. Då fattade + han yxan med begge händerna, och högg midt emellan öronen på djuret, så + att yxan gick in, och djuret störtade framåt, och dog på stället.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Danish.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Og nu var det engang om Sommeren, at Sigmund sagde til Thorer: "Hvad + mon der vel kan flyde af, om vi end gaae hen i den Skov, som ligger her + nordenfor Gaarden?" "Det er jeg ikken nysgjerrig efter at vide," svarede + Thorer. "Ei gaar det mig saa," sagde Sigmund, "og derud maa jeg." "Du + kommer da til at raade," sagde Thorer, "men da overtræde, vi vor + Fosterfaders Bud." De gik nu, og Sigmund havde en Vedöxe i Haanden; de + kom ind i Skoven, og strax derpaa saae de en meget stor og grum Björn, en + drabelig Skovejörn, ulvegraa af Farve. De löb da tilbage ad den samme + Sti, ad hvilken de vare komne derhen. Stien var smal og trang; og Thorer + löb forrest, men Sigmund bagerst. Dyret löb nu efter dem paa Stien, og + Stien blev trang for det, og Træerne brödes i dets. Löb Sigmund dreiede + da nu hurtig ud af Stien, og stillede sig imellem Træerne, og stod der + indtil Dyret kom frem lige for ham. Da fattede han öxen med begge Hænder, + og hug lige imellem örerne paa Dyret, saa at öxen sank i, og Dyret + styrtede fremad, og var dödt paa Stedet.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>English.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>And now is it a time about the summer, that Sigmund spake to Thorir: + "What would become, even if we two go into the wood (shaw), which here is + north from the house?" Thorir answers, "Thereto there is to me no + curiosity," says he. "So is it not with me," says Sigmund, "and thither + shall I go." "Thou mayst counsel," says Thorir, "but we two break the + bidding-word of foster-father mine." Now go they, and Sigmund had a + wood-axe in his hands; they come into the wood, and into a fair place; + and as they had not been there long, they hear a bear, big, fierce, and + grim. It was a wood-bear, big, wolf-grey in hue. They run (leap) now back + (after) to the path, by which they had gone thither. The path was narrow + and strait; and Thorir runs first, and Sigmund after. The beast runs now + after them on the path, and the path becomes strait, and broken oaks + before it. Sigmund turns then short out of the path among the trees, and + bides there till the beast comes even with him. Then cuts he even in + between <!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page31"></a>{31}</span>the ears of the beast with his two hands, so + that the axe sinks, and the beast falls forward, and is dead.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect70">§ 70</a>. The Teutonic branch falls into three + divisions:—</p> + + <p>1. The Mœso-Gothic.</p> + + <p>2. The High Germanic.</p> + + <p>3. The Low Germanic.</p> + + <p><a name="sect71">§ 71</a>. It is in the Mœso-Gothic that the + most ancient specimen of any Gothic tongue has been preserved. It is also + the Mœso-Gothic that was spoken by the conquerors of ancient Rome; + by the subjects of Hermanic, Alaric, Theodoric, Genseric (?), Euric, + Athanaric, and Totila.</p> + + <p>This history of this language, and the meaning of the term by which it + is designated, is best explained by the following passages:—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 482. "Trocondo et Severino + consulibus—Theodoricus cognomento Valamer utramque Macedoniam, + Thessaliamque depopulatus est, Larissam quoque metropolim depredatus, + Fausto solo consule (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 485)—Idem + Theodoricus rex Gothorum Zenonis Augusti munificentia pene pacatus, + magisterque præsentis militiæ factus, consul quoque designatus, + <i>creditam sibi Ripensis Daciæ partem</i> Mœsiæque <i>inferioris, + cum suis satellitibus pro tempore tenuit</i>."—Marcellini Comitis + Chronicon, D.N.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> "Frederichus ad Theodoricum regem, qui tunc apud Novam + Civitatem provinciæ Mœsiæ morabatur, profectus est."—Vita S. + Severini, D.N.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> "Zeno misit ad Civitatem Novam, in quâ erat Theodoricus dux + Gothorum, filius Valameris, et eum invitavit in solatium sibi adversus + Basiliscum."—Anon. Valesii, p. 663, D.N.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i> <i>Civitas Nova</i> is Nicopolis on the Danube; and the + nation thus spoken of is the Gothic nation in the time of Zeno. At this + time they are settled in the Lower Mœsia, or Bulgaria.</p> + + <p>How they got here from the <i>northern</i> side of the Danube we find + in the history of the reign of Valens. When pressed by intestine wars, + and by the movements of the Huns, they were assisted by that emperor, and + settled in the parts in question. <!-- Page 32 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page32"></a>{32}</span></p> + + <p>Furthermore, they were converted to Christianity; and the Bible was + translated into their language by their Bishop Ulphilas.</p> + + <p>Fragments of this translation, chiefly from the Gospels, have come + down to the present time; and the Bible translation of the Arian Bishop + Ulphilas, in the language of the Goths of Mœsia, during the reign + of Valens, exhibits the earliest sample of any Gothic tongue.</p> + + <p><a name="sect72">§ 72</a>. How Gothic tribes reached the Lower Danube + is a point upon which there is a variety of opinion. The following facts, + however, may serve as the basis of our reasoning.</p> + + <p>A.D. 249-251—The Goths are found about equidistant from the + Euxine Sea, and the eastern portion of the range of Mount Hæmus, in the + Lower Mœsia, and at Marcianopolis. Here they gain a great battle + against the Romans, in which the Emperor Decius is killed.</p> + + <p>His successor, Gallus, purchases a peace.</p> + + <p>Valerian defends himself against them.</p> + + <p>During the reign of Gallienus they appear as <i>maritime</i> warriors, + and ravage Asia Minor, Greece, and Illyria.</p> + + <p>A.D. 269—Are conquered at Naissus, on the western boundary of + Mœsia <i>Superior</i> by Claudius.</p> + + <p>A.D. 282—Are defeated by Carus.</p> + + <p>A.D. 321—Ravage Mœsia (Inferior?) and Thrace.</p> + + <p>A.D. 336—Attacked by Constantine in Dacia—<i>north</i> of + the Danube.</p> + + <p>A.D. 373—In the reign of Valens (as already stated), they were + admitted to settle within the limits of the empire.</p> + + <p><a name="sect73">§ 73</a>. Now, although all this explains, how a + Gothic language was spoken in Bulgaria, and how remnants of it have been + preserved until the nineteenth century, the manner in which the tribe who + spoke it reached Marcianopolis, so as to conquer the Emperor Decius, in + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 249, is unexplained.</p> + + <p>Concerning this there are three opinions—</p> + + <p><i>A.</i> <i>The Baltic doctrine.</i> According to this the Goths + migrated from the Baltic to the Mæotis, from the Mæotis to the Euxine, + and from the Euxine to the Danube, along which river they moved from + <i>east to west</i>. <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page33"></a>{33}</span></p> + + <p><i>B.</i> <i>The Getic doctrine.</i>—Here the Goths are made out + to be the aborigines of the Lower Danube, of Dacia, Mœsia, and even + Thrace; in which case their movement was, also, from <i>east to + west</i>.</p> + + <p><i>C.</i> <i>The German doctrine.</i>—Here the migration is from + west to east, along the course of the Danube, from some part of + south-eastern Germany, as its starting-point, to Asia Minor as its + extreme point, and to Bulgaria (<i>Mœsia Inferior</i>) as its point + of settlement.</p> + + <p><a name="sect74">§ 74</a>. Respecting the first of these views the + most that can be said in its favour is, that it is laid down by + Jornandes, who wrote in the fifth century, and founded his history upon + the earlier writings of Ablavius and Dexippus, Gothic historians, who, in + their turn took their account from the old legends of the Goths + themselves—<i>in priscis eorum carminibus, pæne historico ritu</i>. + On the other hand, the evidence is, at best, traditional, the fact + improbable, and the likelihood of some such genealogy being concocted + after the relationship between the Goths of the Euxine, and Germans of + the Baltic had been ascertained exceedingly great.</p> + + <p><a name="sect75">§ 75</a>. The second is supported by no less an + authority than Grimm, in his latest work, the History of the German + Language;—and the fact of so learned and comprehensive an + investigator having admitted it, is, in the mind of the present writer, + the only circumstance in its favour. Over and above the arguments that + may be founded on a fact which will soon be noticed, the chief reasons + are deduced from a list of Dacian or Getic plants in Dioscorides, which + are considered to bear names significant in the German. Whether or not, + the details of this line of criticism will satisfy the reader who refers + to them, it is certain that they are not likely to take a more cogent + form than they take in the hands of the <i>Deutsche Grammatik</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect76">§ 76</a>. The third opinion is the likeliest; and if + it were not for a single difficulty would, probably, never have been + demurred to. The fact in question is the similarity between the words + <i>Getæ</i> and <i>Gothi</i>.</p> + + <p>The fact that a tribe called G-O-T-H-I should, when they first peopled + the Mœsogothic country, have hit upon the <!-- Page 34 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page34"></a>{34}</span>country of a people with + a name so like their own as G-E-T-Æ, by mere accident, is strange. + English or American colonies might be sent to some thousand places before + one would be found with a name so like that of the mother-country as + <i>Get</i> is to <i>Got</i>. The chances, therefore, are that the + similarity of name is <i>not</i> accidental, but that there is some + historical, ethnological, or geographical grounds to account for it. + Grimm's view has been noticed. He recognises the difficulty, and accounts + for it by making the <i>Goths</i> indigenous to the land of Getæ.</p> + + <p>To a writer who (at one and the same time) finds difficulty in + believing that this similarity is accidental and is dissatisfied with + Grimm's reasoning, there seems to be no other alternative but to consider + that the Goths of the Lower Danube had no existence at all in Germany + <i>under that name</i>, that they left their country under a different<a + name="NtA5" href="#Nt5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> one, and that they took the + one by which they were known to the Romans (and through them to us), on + reaching the land of the <i>Getæ</i>—as, in England, the Saxons of + <i>Essex</i> and <i>Wessex</i> did <i>not</i> (since they brought their + name with them), but as the East and West <i>Kent-ings</i><a name="NtA6" + href="#Nt6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> did.</p> + + <p>This doctrine, of course, falls to the ground directly it can be shown + that the Goths of Mœsia were either called <i>Goths</i> in Germany, + or any where else, anterior to their settlement in the + <i>Geta</i>-land.</p> + + <p>Be this, however, as it may, the first division of the Teutonic branch + of languages is the Mœso-Gothic of the Goths of the Lower Danube, + in the fourth century, as preserved in the translation of Ulphilas, and + in other less important fragments.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SPECIMEN.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Luke</span> i. 46-56.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Jah quaþ Mariam. Mikileid saivala meina Fan, jah svegneid ahma meins + du Goþa nasjand meinamma. Unte insahu du hnaivenai þiujos seinaizos: <!-- + Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span>sai + allis fram himma nu audagjand mik alla kunja. Unte gatavida mis mikilein + sa mahteiga, jah veih namo is. Jah armahairtei is in aldins aldê þaim + ogandam ina. Gatavida svinthein in arma seinamma; distahida mikilþuhtans + gahugdai hairtins seinis; gadrausida mahteigans af stolam, jah ushauhida + gahnaividans; gredigans gasôþida þiuþe, jah gabignandans insandida + lausans; hleibida Israela þiumagu seinamma, gamundans armahairteins, sva + sve rodida du attam unsaraim Abrahaima jah fraiv is und aiv.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect77">§ 77</a>. The Old High German, called also Francic + and Alemannic, was spoken in the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, in + Suabia, Bavaria, and Franconia. It is in the Old High German that the + Krist of Otfrid, the Psalms of Notker, the Canticle of Willeram, the + Glosses of Kero, the Vita Annonis, &c., are composed.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SPECIMEN.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Krist</span>, i. 12. (Edit. Graff.)</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Tho uuarun thar in lante hirta haltente;</p> + <p class="i2">Thes fehes datun uuarta uuidar fianta.</p> + <p>Zi ín quam boto sconi, engil scinenti;</p> + <p class="i2">Joh uuurtun sie inliuhte fon himilisgen liohte.</p> + <p>Forahtun sie in tho gahun so sinan anasahun;</p> + <p class="i2">Joh hintarquamun harto thes Gotes boten uuorto.</p> + <p>Sprah ther Gotes boto sar. "Ih scal íú sagen uuuntar.</p> + <p class="i2">Ju scal sin fon Gote heil; nales forahta nihein.</p> + <p>Ih scal iu sagen imbot, gibot ther himilisgo Got;</p> + <p class="i2">Ouh nist ther er gihorti so fronisg arunti.</p> + <p>Thes uuirdit uuorolt sinu zi euuidon blidu,</p> + <p class="i2">Joh al giscaft thiu in uuorolti thesa erdun ist ouh dretenti</p> + <p>Niuuui boran habet thiz lant then himilisgon Heilant;</p> + <p class="i2">The ist Druhtin Krist guater fon iungeru muater.</p> + <p>In Bethleem thiue kuninga thie uuarun alle thanana,</p> + <p class="i2">Fon in uuard ouh giboran iu sin muater magad sconu.</p> + <p>Sagen ih íú, guate man, uuio ir nan sculut findan,</p> + <p class="i2">Zeichen ouh gizami thuruh thaz seltsani.</p> + <p>Zi theru burgi faret hinana, ir findet, so ih íú sageta,</p> + <p class="i2">Kind niuuui boranaz in kripphun gilegitaz.</p> + <p>Tho quam unz er zin tho sprah engilo heriscaf,</p> + <p class="i2">Himilisgu menigi, sus alle singenti—</p> + <p>In himilriches hohi si Gote guallichi;</p> + <p class="i2">Si in erdu fridu ouh allen thie fol sin guates uuillen</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 36 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>{36}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Same, in English.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Then there was in the land herdsmen feeding:</p> + <p class="i2">Of their cattle they made watch against foes.</p> + <p>To them came a messenger fair, an angel shining,</p> + <p class="i2">And they became lit with heavenly light.</p> + <p>They feared, suddenly as on him they looked;</p> + <p class="i2">And followed much the words of God's messenger:</p> + <p>Spake there God's messenger strait, "I shall to you say wonders.</p> + <p class="i2">To you shall there be from God health; fear nothing at all.</p> + <p>I shall to you say a message, the bidding of the heavenly God:</p> + <p class="i2">Also there is none who has heard so glad an errand.</p> + <p>Therefore becomes his world for ever blythe,</p> + <p class="i2">And all creatures that in the world are treading this earth.</p> + <p>Newly borne has this land the heavenly Savior,</p> + <p class="i2">Who is the Lord Christ, good, from a young mother.</p> + <p>In Bethleem, of the kings they were all thence—</p> + <p class="i2">From them was also born his mother, a maid fair.</p> + <p>I say to you, good men, how ye him shall find,</p> + <p class="i2">A sign and token, through this wonder.</p> + <p>To your burgh fare hence, ye find, so as I to you said,</p> + <p class="i2">A child, new born, in a crib lying."</p> + <p>Then came, while he to them spake, of angels an host,</p> + <p class="i2">A heavenly retinue, thus all singing:</p> + <p>"In the heavenly kingdom's highth be to God glory;</p> + <p class="i2">Be on earth peace also to all who are full of God's will."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The Middle High German ranges from the thirteenth Century to the + Reformation.</p> + + <p><a name="sect78">§ 78</a>. The Low Germanic Division, to which the + Anglo-Saxon belongs, is currently said to comprise six languages, or + rather four languages in different stages.</p> + + <p>I. II.—The Anglo-Saxon and Modern English.</p> + + <p>III.—The Old Saxon.</p> + + <p>IV. V.—The Old Frisian and Modern Dutch.</p> + + <p>VI.—The Platt-Deutsch, or Low German.</p> + + <p><a name="sect79">§ 79</a>. <i>The Frisian and Dutch.</i>—It is a + current statement that the Old Frisian bears the same relation to the + Modern Dutch of Holland that the Anglo-Saxon does to the English.</p> + + <p>The truer view of the question is as follows:— <!-- Page 37 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>{37}</span></p> + + <p>1. That a single language, spoken in two dialects, was originally + common to both Holland and Friesland.</p> + + <p>2. That from the northern of these dialects we have the Modern Frisian + of Friesland.</p> + + <p>3. From the southern, the Modern Dutch of Holland.</p> + + <p>The reason for this refinement is as follows:—</p> + + <p>The Modern Dutch has certain grammatical forms <i>older</i> than those + of the Old Frisian; <i>e.g.</i>, the Dutch infinitives and the Dutch weak + substantives, in their oblique cases, end in <i>-en</i>; those of the Old + Frisian in <i>-a</i>: the form in <i>-en</i> being the older.</p> + + <p><a name="sect80">§ 80</a>. The true Frisian is spoken in few and + isolated localities. There is—</p> + + <p>1. The Frisian of the Dutch state called Friesland.</p> + + <p>2. The Frisian of the parish of Saterland, in Westphalia.</p> + + <p>3. The Frisian of Heligoland.</p> + + <p>4. The North Frisian, spoken in a few villages of Sleswick. One of the + characters of the North Frisian is the possession of a Dual Number.</p> + + <p><a name="sect81">§ 81</a>. In respect to its stages, we have the Old + Frisian of the Asega-bog, the Middle Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, and the + Modern Frisian of the present Frieslanders, Westphalians, and + Heligolanders.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Asega-bog</i>, i. 3. p. 13, 14. (<i>Ed. Wiarda.</i>)</p> + + <p>Thet is thiu thredde liodkest and thes Kynig Kerles ieft, theter + allera monna ek ana sina eyna gode besitte umberavat. Hit ne se thet ma + hine urwinne mith tele and mith rethe and mith riuchta thingate, sa + hebbere alsam sin Asega dema and dele to lioda londriuchte. Ther ne hach + nen Asega nenne dom to delande hit ne se thet hi to fara tha Keysere fon + Rume esweren hebbe and thet hi fon da liodon ekeren se. Sa hoch hi thenne + to demande and to delande tha fiande alsare friounde, thruch des ethes + willa, ther hi to fara tha Keysere fon Rume esweren heth, tho demande and + to delande widuon and weson, waluberon and alle werlosa liodon, like to + helpande and sine threa knilinge. Alsa thi Asega nimth tha unriuchta mida + and tha urlouada panninga, and ma hini urtinga mi mith twam sine + juenethon an thes Kyninges bonne, sa ne hoch hi nenne dom mar to delande, + truch thet thi Asega thi biteknath thene prestere, hwande hia send siande + and hia skilun wesa agon there heliga Kerstenede, hia skilun helpa alle + tham ther hiam seluon nauwet helpa ne muge.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page38"></a>{38}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Same, in English.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>That is the third determination and concession of King Charles, that + of all men each one possess his own goods (house?) unrobbed. It may not + be that any man overcome him with charge (tales), and with summons + (rede), and with legal action. So let him hold as his Asega (judge) dooms + and deals according to the land-right of the people. There shall no Asega + deal a doom unless it be that before the Cæsar of Rome he shall have + sworn, and that he shall have been by the people chosen. He has then to + doom and deal to foes as to friends, through the force (will) of the oath + which he before the Cæsar of Rome has sworn, to doom and to deal to + widows and orphans, to wayfarers and all defenceless people, to help them + as his own kind in the third degree. If the Asega take an illegal reward, + or pledged money, and a man convict him before two of his colleagues in + the King's Court, he has no more to doom, since it is the Asega that + betokens the priest, and they are seeing, and they should be the eyes of + the Holy Christendom, they should help all those who may nought help + themselves.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect82">§ 82</a>. <i>The Low German and + Platt-Deutsch.</i>—The words <i>Low German</i> are not only lax in + their application, but they are <i>equivocal</i>; since the term has two + meanings, a <i>general</i> meaning when it signifies a division of the + Germanic languages, comprising English, Dutch, Anglo-Saxon, Old Saxon, + and Frisian, and a limited one when it means the particular dialects of + the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe. To avoid this the dialects in question + will be henceforth called by their continental name of + <i>Platt-Deutsch</i>; which although foreign, is convenient.</p> + + <p><a name="sect83">§ 83</a>. The points of likeness and difference + between two languages belonging to different branches of the same Gothic + stock may be partially collected from the following comparison between + certain Icelandic, Norse or Scandinavian, and certain Anglo-Saxon or + Germanic inflections.</p> + + <p>Declension of substantives ending with a <i>vowel</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of substantives ending with a vowel" title="Declension of substantives ending with a vowel"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Saxon.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Icelandic.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Neuter.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eáge (<i>an eye</i>). </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Auga (<i>an eye</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eáge </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Auga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eágan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Auga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eágan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Auga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>{39}</span> +<i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eágan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eágan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eágan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eágan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augna.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Masculine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Nama (<i>a name</i>). </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bogi (<i>a bow</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Naman </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Naman </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Naman </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Naman </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bogar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Naman </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Namum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bogum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Namena </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boga.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Feminine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tunge (<i>a tongue</i>). </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túnga (<i>a tongue</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngur.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngur.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungena </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngna.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Declension of Substantives ending with a <i>Consonant</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of substantives ending with a consonant" title="Declension of substantives ending with a consonant"> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Saxon.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Icelandic.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i> Neuter.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáf (<i>a leaf</i>). </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skip (<i>a ship</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáf </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skip.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáfe </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáfes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skips.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáf </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skip.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáf </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skip.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáfum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Leáfa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipa.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Masculine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smið (<i>a smith</i>). </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konungr (<i>a king</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smið </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smiðe </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konungi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smiðes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konungs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 40 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>{40}</span> + <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smiðas </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konungar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smiðas </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konunga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smiðum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konungum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Smiða </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Konunga.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Feminine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽc (<i>a speech</i>). </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúðr (<i>a bride</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽce </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽce </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúði.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽce </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúðar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽca </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúðir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽca </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúðir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽcum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúðum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sprǽca </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brúða.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect84">§ 84</a>. The most characteristic difference between + the Saxon and Icelandic lies in the peculiar position of the definite + article in the latter language. In Saxon, the article corresponding with + the modern word <i>the</i>, is <i>þæt</i>, <i>se</i>, <i>seó</i>, for the + neuter, masculine, and feminine genders respectively; and these words, + regularly declined, are <i>prefixed</i> to the words with which they + agree, just as is the case with the English and with the majority of + languages. In Icelandic, however, the article, instead of preceding, + <i>follows</i> its noun, <i>with which it coalesces</i>, having + previously suffered a change in form. The Icelandic article corresponding + to <i>þæt</i>, <i>se</i>, <i>seó</i>, is <i>hitt</i> (<span + class="scac">N.</span>), <i>hinn</i> (<span class="scac">M.</span>), + <i>hin</i> (<span class="scac">F.</span>): from this the <i>h</i> is + ejected, so that, instead of the regular inflection (<i>a</i>), we have + the forms (<i>b</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Icelandic article" title="The Icelandic article"> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hitt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hin.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hitt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hina.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinir </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hina </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hinna.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>b.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —it </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —inn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —in.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —it </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —inn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —ina (-na).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>{41}</span> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —nu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —num </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —inni (-nni).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —ins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —ins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —innar (-nnar).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —in </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —nir </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —nar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —in </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —na </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —nar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —num </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —num </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —num.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —nna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —nna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —nna.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>whence, as an affix, in composition,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Icelandic article in composition" title="The Icelandic article in composition"> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-top:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augat </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boginn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augat </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boginn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túnguna.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Auganu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boganum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngunni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augans </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bogans </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngunnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augun </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bogarnir </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngurnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augun </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bogana </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngurnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augunum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bogunum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngunum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Augnanna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Boganna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Túngnanna.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect85">§ 85</a>. In the Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish this + peculiarity in the position of the definite article is preserved. Its + origin, however, is concealed; and an accidental identity with the + indefinite article has led to false notions respecting its nature. In the + languages in point the <i>i</i> is changed into <i>e</i>, so that what in + Icelandic is <i>it</i> and <i>in</i>, is in Danish <i>et</i> and + <i>en</i>. <i>En</i>, however, as a separate word, is the numeral + <i>one</i>, and also the indefinite article <i>a</i>; whilst in the + neuter gender it is <i>et</i>—en Sol, <i>a sun</i>; et Bord, <i>a + table</i>: Solen, <i>the sun</i>; Bordet, <i>the table</i>. From modern + forms like those just quoted, it has been imagined that the definite is + merely the indefinite article transposed. This it is not.</p> + + <p>Reference will be made to this passage on more occasions than one, to + show how words originally distinct may, in the process of time, take the + appearance of being identical. To apply an expression of Mr. Cobbett's, + <i>en</i>=<i>a</i>, and <i>-en</i>=<i>the</i>, are <i>the same + combination of letters, but not the same word</i>. <!-- Page 42 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>{42}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of adjectives" title="Declension of adjectives"> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Saxon</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Icelandic</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Definite</i>.<a name="NtA7" href="#Nt7"><sup>[7]</sup></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Definite</i>.<a href="#Nt7"><sup>[7]</sup></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Singular</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Singular</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neut</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masc</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> <i>Fem</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neut</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masc</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Fem</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Góde. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagi </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódan.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Abl</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódan.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Abl</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódan.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódan.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högu.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Plural</i>. +</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; vertical-align:top" colspan="4" rowspan="3"> +<i>Högu</i> is the Plural form for all<br />the Cases and all the Genders.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódan </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Abl</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódena </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódena </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódena.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Indefinite</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Indefinite</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Singular</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Singular</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neut</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masc</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> <i>Fem</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neut</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masc</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Fem</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gód </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gód </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gód. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagr </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hög.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gód </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódne </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Góde. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hög.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Abl</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódre. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Abl</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagri.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódre. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagri.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódes </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódre. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hags </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hags </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagrar.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em; padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Plural</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Plural</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Góde. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hög </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagir </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Góde. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hög </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Haga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Abl</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódum. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Abl</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódum. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Högum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódra </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódra </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right : 1px solid black; padding-right:1em;"> Gódra. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagra </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagra </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hagra.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect86">§ 86</a>. Observe in the Icelandic forms the absence + of the termination <i>-an</i>. Observe also the neuter termination + <i>-t</i>, as <i>hagr</i>, <i>hagt</i>. Throughout the modern forms of + the Icelandic (<i>viz.</i> the Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian languages) + this termination is still preserved: e.g., <i>en god Hest</i>, a good + horse; <i>et godt Hjært</i>, a good heart; <i>en skön Pige</i>, a + beautiful damsel; <i>et skarpt Svœrd</i>, a sharp sword.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 43 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>{43}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect87">§ 87</a>. Amongst the pronouns the following + differences present themselves. The Saxon forms are, for the pronoun of + the second person, <i>þu</i> (thou), <i>git</i> (ye <i>two</i>), + <i>ge</i> (ye); whilst in Icelandic they are <i>þu</i>, <i>þið</i>, + <i>per</i>, respectively. Again, in Saxon there is no reflective pronoun + corresponding with the Latin <i>se</i>. In Icelandic we have <i>sik</i>, + <i>sér</i>, <i>sin</i>, corresponding to the Latin <i>se</i>, + <i>sibi</i>, <i>suus</i>. Besides this, the word <i>sin</i> is declined, + so that like the Latin <i>suus</i> it becomes adjectival.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of Icelandic sin" title="Declension of Icelandic sin"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sitt</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sín.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sitt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sína.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínum</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinnar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sín </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínir</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sín </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sína </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sínum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinna</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinna</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sinna.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In Saxon there is of course no such an adjectival form. <i>There</i> + the Possessives of the Third Person correspond not with the Latin + <i>suus</i>, <i>sua</i>, <i>suum</i>; but with the Latin <i>ejus</i> and + <i>eorum</i>. The English words <i>his</i> and <i>her</i> are + <i>genitive</i> cases, not <i>adjectives</i>.</p> + + <p>Further remarks upon the presence of the Reflective Pronoun <i>sik</i> + in Icelandic, and its absence in Saxon, will appear in the sequel.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">THE NUMERALS.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The numerals" title="The numerals"> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Saxon.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Icelandic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 1. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Án </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eitt, einn, ein.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Twá </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tvö, tveir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þreó </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þrju, þrir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 4. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Feower </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fjögur, fjórir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 5. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fíf </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fimm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 6. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Six </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sex.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 7. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Seofon </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sjö.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 8. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eahta </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Átta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 9. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Nigon </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Niu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right"> 10.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tyn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tiu.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Of the Icelandic verbs the infinitives end in <i>-a</i>; as + <i>kalla</i>, to call; <i>elska</i>, to love; whereas the Saxon + termination is <i>-an</i>; as <i>lufian</i>, to love; <i>wyrcan</i>, to + work. <!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page44"></a>{44}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect88">§ 88</a>. The persons are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Persons of the present tense" title="Persons of the present tense"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Saxon.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Icelandic.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Pres.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Bærne </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brenni.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Bærnst </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brennir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Bærnð </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brennir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Bærnað </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brennum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Bærnað </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brennið.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Bærnað </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brenna.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect89">§ 89</a>. The characteristic, however, of the + Icelandic (indeed, of all the Scandinavian languages) is the possession + of a <i>passive</i> form, or a <i>passive</i> voice, ending in + <i>-st</i>:—<i>Ek</i>, <i>þu</i>, <i>hann brennist</i>=<i>I</i>, + <i>thou</i>, <i>he is burnt</i>; <i>Ver brennumst</i>=<i>We are + burnt</i>; <i>þér brennizt</i>=<i>ye are burnt</i>; <i>þeir + brennast</i>=<i>they are burnt</i>. Past tense, <i>Ek</i>, <i>þu</i>, + <i>hann brendist</i>; <i>ver brendumst</i>, <i>þér brenduzt</i>, <i>þeir + brendust</i>. Imperat.: <i>brenstu</i>=<i>be thou burnt</i>. Infinit.: + <i>brennast</i>=<i>to be burnt</i>.</p> + + <p>In the modern Danish and Swedish, the passive is still preserved, but + without the final <i>t</i>. In the <i>older</i> stages of Icelandic, on + the other hand, the termination was not <i>-st</i> but <i>-sc</i>; which + <i>-sc</i> grew out of the reflective pronoun <i>sik</i>. With these + phenomena the Scandinavian languages give us the evolution and + development of a passive voice; wherein we have the following series of + changes:—1st. the reflective pronoun coalesces with the verb, + whilst the sense changes from that of a reflective to that of a middle + verb; 2nd. the <i>c</i> changes to <i>t</i>, whilst the middle sense + passes into a passive one; 3rd. <i>t</i> is dropped from the end of the + word, and the expression that was once reflective then becomes strictly + passive.</p> + + <p>Now the Saxons have no passive voice at all. That they should have one + <i>originating</i> like that of the Scandinavians was impossible. Having + no reflective pronoun, they had nothing to evolve it from.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Auxiliary Verb" title="The Auxiliary Verb"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>The Auxiliary Verb.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Saxon.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Icelandic.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Indicative.</i> <i>Present.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Eom (<i>I am</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Em.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Eart. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ert.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Is. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Er.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 45 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>{45}</span> + <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Synd (Syndon) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Erum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Synd (Syndon) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eruð.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Synd (Syndon) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eru.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Indicative.</i> <i>Past.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Wǽs </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Var.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Wǽre </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vart.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Wǽs </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Var.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Wǽron </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vorum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Wǽron </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Voru.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Wǽron </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Voru.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Subjunctive. Present.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sý </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sé.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sý </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sér.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sý </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sé.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sýn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Séum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sýn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Seuð.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sýn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Séu.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Subjunctive. Past.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Wǽre </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Væri.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Wǽre </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Værir.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Wǽre </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Væri.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Wǽron </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Værum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Wǽron </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Væru.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Wǽron </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Væruð.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Infinitive.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wesan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vera.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Participle.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wesende </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Verandi.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect90">§ 90</a>. Recapitulating, we find that the + characteristic differences of the greatest importance between the + Icelandic and Saxon are three in number:—</p> + + <p>1st. The peculiar nature of the definite article.</p> + + <p>2nd. The neuter form of the adjectives in <i>-t</i>.</p> + + <p>3rd. The existence of a passive voice in <i>-sc</i>, <i>-st</i>, or + <i>-s</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect91">§ 91</a>. In the previous comparison the substantives + were divided as follows:—1st. into those ending with a vowel; + 2ndly, into those ending with a consonant. In respect to the substantives + ending with a vowel (<i>eáge</i>, <i>nama</i>, <i>tunge</i>), it may have + been observed that their cases were in A. S. almost <!-- Page 46 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page46"></a>{46}</span>exclusively formed in + <i>-n</i>, as <i>eágan</i>, <i>tungan</i>, &c.; whilst words like + <i>skip</i> and <i>smið</i> had, throughout their whole declension, no + case formed in <i>-n</i>; no case indeed wherein the sound of <i>-n</i> + entered. This enables us (at least with the A. S.) to make a general + assertion concerning the substantives ending in a <i>vowel</i> in + contrast to those ending in a <i>consonant</i>, viz. that they take an + inflection in <i>-n</i>.</p> + + <p>In Icelandic this inflection in <i>-n</i> is concealed by the fact of + <i>-an</i> having been changed into <i>-a</i>. However, as this <i>-a</i> + represents <i>-an</i>, and as fragments or rudiments of <i>-n</i> are + found in the genitive plurals of the neuter and feminine genders + (<i>augna</i>, <i>tungna</i>), we may make the same general assertion in + Icelandic that we make in A. S., <i>viz.</i> that substantives ending in + a vowel take an inflection in <i>-n</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect92">§ 92</a>. The points of likeness and difference + between two languages, belonging to different <i>divisions</i> of the + same Germanic <i>branch</i>, may be partially collected from the + following comparison between certain Mœso-Gothic and certain + Anglo-Saxon inflections.</p> + + <p><a name="sect93">§ 93</a>. It must, however, be premised, that, + although the distinction between nouns taking an inflection in <i>-n</i>, + and nouns not so inflected, exists equally in the Mœso-Gothic and + the Icelandic, the form in which the difference shows itself is + different; and along with the indication of this difference may be + introduced the important terms <i>weak</i> and <i>strong</i>, as applied + to the declension of nouns.</p> + + <p><i>Weak</i> nouns end in a vowel; or, if in a consonant, in a + consonant that has become final from the loss of the vowel that + originally followed it. They also form a certain proportion of their + oblique cases in <i>-n</i>, or an equivalent to <i>-n</i>—Nom. + <i>augô</i>, gen. <i>aug-in-s</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Strong</i> nouns end in a consonant; or, if in a vowel, in one of + the vowels allied to the semivowels <i>y</i> or <i>w</i>, and through + them to the consonants. They also form their oblique cases by the + addition of a simple inflection, without the insertion of <i>n</i>.</p> + + <p>Furthermore, be it observed that <i>nouns</i> in general are + <i>weak</i> and <i>strong</i>, in other words, that adjectives are + <i>weak</i> or <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47"></a>{47}</span><i>strong</i>, as well as substantives. + Between substantives and adjectives, however, there is this + difference:—</p> + + <p>1. A substantive is <i>either</i> weak or strong, <i>i.e.</i>, it has + one of the two inflections, but not both. <i>Augô</i>=<i>an eye</i>, is + weak under all circumstances; <i>waurd</i>=<i>a word</i>, is strong under + all circumstances.</p> + + <p>2. An adjective is <i>both</i> weak and strong. The Anglo-Saxon for + <i>good</i> is sometimes <i>god</i> (strong), sometimes <i>gode</i> + (weak). Which of the two forms is used depends not on the word itself, + but on the state of its construction.</p> + + <p>In this respect the following two rules are important:—</p> + + <p>1. The definite sense is generally expressed by the weak form, as + <i>se blinde man</i>=<i>the blind man</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The indefinite sense is generally expressed by the strong form, as + <i>sum blind man</i>=<i>a blind man</i>.</p> + + <p>Hence, as far as adjectives are concerned, the words <i>definite</i> + and <i>indefinite</i> coincide with the words <i>weak</i> and + <i>strong</i> respectively, except that the former are terms based on the + syntax, the latter terms based on the etymology of the word to which they + apply.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Declension of Weak Substantives in Mœso-Gothic.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of Weak Substantives in Moeso-Gothic" title="Declension of Weak Substantives in Moeso-Gothic"> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Neuter.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugô (<i>an eye</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugôna.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugô </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugôna.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugam.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áugônê.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Masculine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Manna (<i>a man</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mannans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mannan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mannans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mannin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mannam.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mannins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mannanê.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggô (<i>a tongue</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggôns.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggôn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggôns.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggôn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggôm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggôns </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tuggônô.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Declension of Strong Substantives in Mœso-Gothic.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of Strong Substantives in Moeso-Gothic" title="Declension of Strong Substantives in Moeso-Gothic"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Neuter.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrd (<i>a word</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrd </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrdam.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrdis </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaúrdê.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Masculine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fisks (<i>a fish</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiskôs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fisk </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiskans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiska </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiskam.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiskis </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiskê.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþs (<i>a bride</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþeis.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþins.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþai </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþim.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþais </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Brûþê.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>These may be compared with the Saxon declensions; viz. <i>aúgô</i> + with <i>eáge</i>, <i>manna</i> with <i>nama</i>, <i>tuggô</i> with + <i>tunge</i>, <i>vaúrd</i> with <i>leáf</i>, <i>fisks</i> with + <i>smið</i>, and <i>brûþs</i> with <i>spræc</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Declension of Weak (or Definite) Adjectives in Mœso-Gothic.</i><a name="NtA8" href="#Nt8"><sup>[8]</sup></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of Weak Adjectives in Moeso-Gothic" title="Declension of Weak Adjectives in Moeso-Gothic"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"> <i>Singular.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindô </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blinda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindô.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindô </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindins </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôns.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="4"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindans </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôns.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindans </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôns.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindam </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindam </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindônê </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindanê </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindônô.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 49 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49"></a>{49}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Declension of strong (or indefinite) adjectives in Mœso-Gothic.</i><a name="NtA9" href="#Nt9"><sup>[9]</sup></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of Strong Adjectives in Moeso-Gothic" title="Declension of Strong Adjectives in Moeso-Gothic"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"> <i>Singular.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindata </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blinds </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blinda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindata </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindana </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blinda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindamma</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindamma</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindái.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindis </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindis </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindáizôs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="4"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blinda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindái </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blinda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindans </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindôs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindáim </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindáim </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindáim.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindáizê</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindáizê</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Blindáizô.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><i>Observe</i>—In the neuter form <i>blindata</i> M. G. we have + the sound of <i>t</i>, as in Icelandic. This becomes <i>z</i> (<i>ts</i>) + in Old High German, and <i>s</i> in modern German.</p> + + <p>The conjugation of the M. G. is as follows. From the Anglo-Saxon it + differs most in its plural persons.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Conjugation in Moeso-Gothic" title="Conjugation in Moeso-Gothic"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black;" colspan="2"> <i>Indicative.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Subjunctive.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> M.G. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> A.S. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> M.G. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> A.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black;" colspan="2"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Present.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sôk-ja </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufie. </td><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sôkjáu </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> Lufige.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôk-eis </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufast. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôkjáis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôk-eiþ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufað. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôkjái</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sôk-jam </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufiað. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle">1. Sôkjáima </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> Lufion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôk-eiþ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufiað. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôkjáiþ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôk-jand </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufiað. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôkjáina</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em; border-right:1px solid black;" colspan="2"> <i>Præt.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Præt.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sôkida </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufode. </td><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sôkidêdjáu </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> Lufode.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôkides </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufodest. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôkidêdeis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôkida </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufode. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôkidêdi</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sôkidêdum </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufodon. </td><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sôkidêdeima </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> Lufodon. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôkidêduþ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufodon. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sôkidêdeiþ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôkidêdun </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Lufodon. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sôkidêdeina</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The conjugation of the auxiliary verb in Mœso-Gothic is as + follows. It may be compared with the A. S. <a href="#sect89">§ + 89</a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 50 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page50"></a>{50}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Conjugation of auxiliary verb in Moeso-Gothic" title="Conjugation of auxiliary verb in Moeso-Gothic"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black;" colspan="2"> <i>Indicative. Pres.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <i>Subjunctive. Pres.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Im (<i>I am</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Sijum. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Sijáu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sijáima.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Is </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Sijuþ. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Sijáis</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sijáiþ.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Ist </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Sind. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Sijái </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sijáina.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black; padding-top:1em;" colspan="2"> <i>Præt.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="2"> <i>Præt.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Vas </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Vêsum. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Vêsjáu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vêseima.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Vast </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Vêsuþ. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Vêseis </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vêseiþ.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Vas </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black;"> Vêsun. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Vêsei </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vêseina.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="4"> <i>Inf.</i> Visan and Sijan—(<i>to be</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="4"> <i>Part.</i> Visands—(<i>being</i>).</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect94">§ 94</a>. The points of likeness or difference + between two languages, each of the Low Germanic division, may be + partially collected from the following comparison between certain Old + Frisian and certain <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'Anglo-Saxons'." + >Anglo-Saxon</span> inflections.</p> + + <p>In the comparison the first point to be noticed is the <i>Transition + of Letters</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>á</i> in Frisian corresponds to <i>eá</i> in A. S.; as <i>dád</i>, + <i>rád</i>, <i>lás</i>, <i>strám</i>, <i>bám</i>, <i>cáp</i>, <i>áre</i>, + <i>háp</i>, Frisian; <i>deád</i>, <i>reád</i>, <i>leás</i>, + <i>streám</i>, <i>beám</i>, <i>ceáp</i>, <i>eáre</i>, <i>heáp</i>, Saxon; + <i>dead</i>, <i>red</i>, <i>loose</i>, <i>stream</i>, <i>tree</i> (boom), + <i>bargain</i> (cheap, chapman), <i>ear</i>, <i>heap</i>, English.</p> + + <p><i>é</i> Frisian corresponds to <sup>a</sup>), the A. S. <i>á</i>; as + <i>Eth</i>, <i>téken</i>, <i>hél</i>, <i>bréd</i>, Fris.; <i>áþ</i>, + <i>tácen</i>, <i>hál</i>, <i>brád</i>, Saxon; <i>oath</i>, <i>token</i>, + <i>hale</i>, <i>broad</i>, English;—<sup>b</sup>), to A. S. + <i>æ</i>; <i>hér</i>, <i>déde</i>, <i>bréda</i>, <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'Frisian; Fris.'.">Frisian;</span> <i>hær</i>, + <i>dæd</i>, <i>brædan</i>, A. S.; <i>hair</i>, <i>deed</i>, <i>roast</i>, + English.</p> + + <p><i>e</i> to <i>ea</i> and <i>æ</i> A. S.—Frisian <i>thet</i>, A. + S. <i>þæt</i>, Engl. <i>that</i>, Fris. <i>gers</i>, A. S. <i>gærs</i>, + Engl. <i>grass</i>.—Also to <i>eo</i>; <i>prestere</i>, Fr.; + <i>preost</i> A. S., <i>priest</i> Engl.; <i>berch</i> Fr., <i>beorh</i> + A. S.; <i>hill</i> (<i>berg</i>, as in <i>iceberg</i>) Engl.; + <i>melok</i> Fr., <i>meoloc</i> A. S., <i>milk</i> Engl.</p> + + <p><i>i</i> to <i>eo</i> A. S.—Fr. <i>irthe</i>, A. S. + <i>eorðe</i>; Fris. <i>hirte</i>; A. S. <i>heorte</i>; Fris. <i>fir</i> + A. S. <i>feor</i>=in English <i>earth</i>, <i>heart</i>, <i>far</i>.</p> + + <p><i>já</i>=<i>eo</i> A. S.; as <i>bjada</i>, <i>beódan</i>, + <i>bid</i>—<i>thet fjarde</i>, <i>feorðe</i>, <i>the + fourth</i>—<i>sják</i>, <i>seóc</i>, <i>sick</i>.</p> + + <p><i>ju</i>=<i>y</i> or <span class="correction" title="Omitted in original." + ><i>eo</i></span> A. S.; <i>rjucht</i>, <i>ryth</i>, + <i>right</i>—<i>frjund</i>, <i>freond</i>, <i>friend</i>. <!-- Page + 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"></a>{51}</span></p> + + <p><i>Dsz</i>=A. S. <i>cg</i>; Fr. <i>sedza</i>, <i>lidzja</i>; A. S. + <i>secgan</i>, <i>licgan</i>; Engl. <i>to say</i>, <i>to lie</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Tz</i>, <i>ts</i>, <i>sz</i>, <i>sth</i>=A. S. <i>c</i> or + <i>ce</i>; as <i>szereke</i>, or <i>sthereke</i>, Frisian; <i>cyrice</i> + A. S., <i>church</i> Engl.; <i>czetel</i> Fr., <i>cytel</i> A. S., + <i>kettle</i> English.</p> + + <p><i>ch</i> Fr.=<i>h</i> A. S., as <i>thjach</i> Fr., <i>þeóh</i> A. S., + <i>thigh</i> Engl.—<i>berch</i>, <i>beórh</i>, <i>hill</i> + (berg)—<i>dochter</i>, <i>dohtor</i>, <i>daughter</i>, &c.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>As a general statement we may say, that in the transition letters the + Frisian corresponds with the A. S. more closely than it does with any + other language. It must, moreover, be remarked, that, in such pairs of + words as <i>frjund</i> and <i>freond</i>, the difference (as far at least + as the <i>e</i> and <i>j</i> are concerned) is a mere difference of + orthography. Such also is probably the case with the words <i>déd</i> and + <i>dæd</i>, and many others.</p> + + <p>The Anglo-Saxon inflection of <sup>a</sup>) Substantives ending in a + vowel, <sup>b</sup>) Substantives ending in a consonant, <sup>c</sup>) + Adjectives with an indefinite <sup>d</sup>) Adjectives with a definite + sense, <sup>e</sup>) Verbs Active <sup>f</sup>) and verbs auxiliar, may + be seen in the comparison between the A. S. and the Icelandic. The + corresponding inflections in Frisian are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Frisian substantives ending in a vowel" title="Frisian substantives ending in a vowel"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="5"> (<i>a</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="5"> <i>Substantives ending in a vowel.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áre (<i>an ear</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campa (<i>a champion</i>)</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tunge (<i>a tongue</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áre </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tunga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ára </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tunga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ára </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tunga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ára </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tunga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ára </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tunga.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Áron </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campon </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Árona </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Campona </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tungona.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Frisian substantives ending in a consonant" title="Frisian substantives ending in a consonant"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="4"> (<i>b</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"> <i>Substantives ending in a consonant.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skip (<i>a ship</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hond (<i>a hand</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skip </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hond.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>{52}</span> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipe </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hond.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipis </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Honde.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Honda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Honda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hondum (-on).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Skipa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Honda.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>With respect to the masculine substantives terminating in a consonant, + it must be observed that in A. S. there are two modes of declension; in + one, the plural ends in <i>-s</i>; in the other, in <i>-a</i>. The + specimen in <a href="#sect83">§ 83</a> represents the first of these + modes only. From this the Frisian is essentially different. With the + second it has a close alliance; <i>e.g.</i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension with plural in -a" title="Declension with plural in -a"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Saxon.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Frisian.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sunu (<i>a son</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sunu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sunu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sunu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Suna.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sunum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sunum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sunena </td><td class="qspcsingle"> (Sunena).</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Frisian declension of adjectives" title="Frisian declension of adjectives"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="5"> (<i>c</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="5"> <i>Indefinite Declension of Adjectives.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gód </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gód </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gód.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gód </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódene </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-um) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-um). </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódere.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódere.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum (-a) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum (-a) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódum (-a).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódera </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódera </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gódera.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="5"> (<i>d</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="5"> <i>Definite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>{53}</span> + </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-on) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-on) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-on).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-ona) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-ona) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Góda (-ona).</td></tr> +</table> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Frisian Persons of the Present Tense" title="Frisian Persons of the Present Tense"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> (<i>e</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>The Persons of the Present Tense.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Indicative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Berne </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Bernst </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Thou burnest.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Bernth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>He burns.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. Bernath </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>We burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. Bernath </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Ye burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. Bernath </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>They burn.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In the inflection of the verbs there is between the Frisian and A. S. + this important difference. In A. S. the infinite ends in <i>-an</i> + <i>macian</i>, to make, <i>læran</i>, to learn, <i>bærnan</i>, to burn; + whilst in Frisian it ends in <i>-a</i>, as <i>maka</i>, <i>léra</i>, + <i>berna</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Frisian Auxiliar Verb" title="Frisian Auxiliar Verb"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> (<i>f</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>The Auxiliar Verb</i> Wesa, <i>To Be</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Indicative.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> <i>Past.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> <i>Sing.</i> +</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> +<table class="nob" style="margin-left: -0.25em; margin-top: -0.25em; "> +<tr><td>1. Ik ben</td></tr> +<tr><td>2. ?</td></tr> +<tr><td>3. Hi is</td></tr> +</table> +</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> +<table class="nob" style="margin-left: -0.25em; margin-top: -0.25em;"> +<tr><td>1. Ik</td><td rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td rowspan="3">Was.</td></tr> +<tr><td>2. Thú</td></tr> +<tr><td>3. Hi</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> <i>Plur.</i> +</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> +<table class="nob" style="margin-left: -0.25em; margin-top: -0.25em; "> +<tr><td>1. Wi</td><td rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td rowspan="3">Send </td></tr> +<tr><td>2. I</td></tr> +<tr><td>3. Hja</td></tr> +</table> +</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> +<table class="nob" style="margin-left: -0.25em; margin-top: -0.25em;"> +<tr><td>1. Wi</td><td rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td rowspan="3">Weron.</td></tr> +<tr><td>2. I</td></tr> +<tr><td>3. Hja</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em;" colspan="3"> <i>Subjunctive.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"><i>Present.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> <i>Past.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> 1. 2. 3. Se </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> 1. 2. 3. Wére.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> 1. 2. 3. Se </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="vertical-align:top"> 1. 2. 3. Wére.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Infin. Wesa.</i> <i>Pr. Part.</i> Wesande. <i>Past Part.</i> E-wesen.</p> + + <p>The Frisian numerals (to be compared with those of the Anglo-Saxons, + p. <a href="#page43">43</a>), are as follows:—<i>Én</i>, + <i>twá</i>, <i>thrjú</i>, <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page54"></a>{54}</span><i>fjúwer</i>, <i>fíf</i>, <i>sex</i>, + <i>sjúgun</i>, <i>achta</i>, <i>njugun</i>, <i>tian</i>, &c. Of these + the first three take an inflection, e.g., <i>En</i>, like <i>Gode</i> and + the adjectives, has both a definite and an indefinite form, <i>en</i>, + and <i>thet ene</i>; whilst <i>twa</i> and <i>thrjú</i> run as + follows:—<i>Nom.</i> and <i>Acc. Neut.</i> twa; <i>Masc.</i> twene; + <i>Fem.</i> twa; <i>Dat.</i> twam; <i>Gen.</i> twira.—<i>Nom.</i> + and <i>Acc. Neut.</i> thrju; <i>Masc.</i> thre; <i>Fem.</i> thrja; + <i>Dat.</i> thrim; <i>Gen.</i> thrira.</p> + + <p>In respect to the Pronouns, there is in the Old Frisian of Friesland + no dual number, as there is in Anglo-Saxon. On the other hand, however, + the Frisians (whilst they have no such form as <i>his</i>) possess, like + the Icelandic, the inflected adjectival pronoun <i>sin</i>, corresponding + to the Latin <i>suus</i>: whilst, like the Anglo-Saxons, and unlike the + Icelanders, they have nothing to correspond with the Latin <i>se</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect95">§ 95</a>. In Frisian there is between the + demonstrative pronoun used as an article, and the same word used as a + demonstrative in the limited sense of the term, the following difference + of declension:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">THE ARTICLE.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Frisian article" title="The Frisian article"> +<tr><td class="nspac"> </td><td class="nspac"></td><td class="nspac"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="nspac"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="nspac"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thet </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thi </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thjú.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thet </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thene </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"><a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="2"> Thá </td><td class="qspcsingle"> There.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="2"> Thes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> There.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="3"><a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:11.5em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Thá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Thá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat. </i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Thá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Théra.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">PRONOUN.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Demonstrative in the limited sense of the word.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Frisian demonstrative" title="The Frisian demonstrative"> +<tr><td class="nspac"> </td><td class="nspac"></td><td class="nspac"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="nspac"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="nspac"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thet </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thi </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Se.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thet </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thene </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Se.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"><a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="2"> Tham </td><td class="qspcsingle"> There.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="2"> Thes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> There.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="3"><a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:11.5em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"></a>{55}</span> +<i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Se.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Se.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat. </i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Thám.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Théra.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Saxons draw no such a distinction. With them the article and + demonstrative is declined as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Saxon article and demonstrative" title="The Saxon article and demonstrative"> +<tr><td class="nspac"> </td><td class="nspac"></td><td class="nspac"> <i>Neuter.</i> </td><td class="nspac"> <i>Masculine.</i> </td><td class="nspac"> <i>Feminine.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þæt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Se </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Seo.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þæt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þone </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"><a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="2"> Þam </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þǽre.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="2"> Þæs </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Þǽre.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:3.5em;" colspan="3"><a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:11.5em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"><i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Þá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Þá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat. </i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Þám.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:8.5em;" colspan="3"> Þára.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect96">§ 96</a>. <i>Specimen of Glossarial + affinity.</i>—Taken from Rask's Preface to his Frisian + Grammar:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Frisian and Anglo Saxon glossary" title="Frisian and Anglo Saxon glossary"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Frisian.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Anglo Saxon.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>English.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Áge </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eáge </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Eye</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Háved </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Heáfod </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Head</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Kind </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Cild </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Child</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Erva </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eafora </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Heir</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Drochten </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Drihten </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Lord</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Nacht </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Niht </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Night</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Réd </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Rǽd </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Council</i> (<i>Rede</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Déde </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dǽd </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Deed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Nose </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Nasu </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nose</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Éin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ágen </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Own</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Kápie </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ceapige </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I buy</i> (<i>Chapman</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Dua </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Don </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>To do</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Slá </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sleán </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Slay</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gunga </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gangan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Go</i> (<i>Gang</i>).</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p><a name="sect97">§ 97</a>. In this Chapter there has been, thus far, + an attempt to do two things at once. Firstly, to exhibit the + <i>general</i> likeness between stocks, branches, &c.; and secondly, + to show the <i>special</i> affinities between certain languages allied to + our <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page56"></a>{56}</span>own, and of the Gothic Stock. What follows, + consists of certain observations upon two or three points of + nomenclature.</p> + + <p><a name="sect98">§ 98</a>. <i>German.</i>—The points to remember + concerning this term are—</p> + + <p>1. That it is no national name, but a name given by the Latins to the + natives of the country called Germania. The word <i>German</i> is foreign + to all the Gothic languages.</p> + + <p>2. That it was first applied to proper Germanic tribes in the time of + Julius Cæsar, and that it served to distinguish the Gothic Germans from + the Celtic Gauls.</p> + + <p>3. That, anterior to the time of Cæsar, there is no proof of it being + applied as a distinctive designation to any of the tribes to whom it was + afterwards limited. The first tribe to whom it was applied, was (in the + opinion of the present writer) a Gallic tribe.</p> + + <p>4. That since the time of Julius Cæsar, its application has been + constant, <i>i.e.</i>, it has always meant Gothic tribes, or Gothic + languages.</p> + + <p>5. That sometimes it has been general to the whole + nation—<i>Unde fit ut tantæ populorum multitudines arctoo sub axe + oriantur, ut non immerito universa illa regio Tanai tenus usque ad + occiduum, licet et propriis loca ea singula nuncupentur nominibus, + generali tamen vocabulo Germania vocitetur ... Gothi, siquidem, + Vandalique, Rugi, Heruli, atque Turcilingi, necnon etiam aliæ feroces ac + barbaræ nationes e Germania prodierunt.</i>—Paulus Diaconus.</p> + + <p>6. That sometimes it has been peculiar and distinctive to certain + prominent portions of the nation—<i>equi frænis</i> Germanicis, + <i>sellis</i> Saxonicis <i>falerati</i>.</p> + + <p>7. That the general power of the word has been, with few exceptions, + limited to the Germans of Germany. We do not find either English or + Scandinavian writers calling their countrymen <i>Germani</i>.</p> + + <p>8. That the two German tribes most generally meant, when the word + <i>German</i> is used in a limited sense, are the Franks and the + Alemanni.</p> + + <p>9. That by a similar latitude the words <i>Francic</i> and <!-- Page + 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page57"></a>{57}</span><i>Alemannic</i> have been occasionally used + as synonymous with <i>Germanic</i>.</p> + + <p>10. That the origin of the word <i>Germani</i>, in the Latin language, + is a point upon which there are two hypotheses.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> That it is connected with the Latin word + <i>Germani</i>=<i>brothers</i>, meaning either tribes akin to one + another, or tribes in a degree of <i>brotherly</i> alliance with + Rome.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> That it grew out of some such German word as <i>Herman</i>, + <i>Irmin</i>, <i>Wehrmann</i>, or the <i>Herm-</i> in <i>Hermunduri</i>, + <i>Hermiones</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Neither of these views satisfies the present writer.</p> + + <p>For all the facts concerning the word <i>Germani</i>, see the + Introduction to the third edition of the Deutsche Grammar.</p> + + <p><a name="sect99">§ 99</a>. <i>Dutch.</i>—For the purposes of + Philology the meaning given to this word is inconvenient. In England, it + means the language of the people of Holland.</p> + + <p>In Germany, Holland, and Scandinavia, it means the language of the + people of Germany in <i>general</i>; and this <i>general</i> power of the + word is retained even with us in the expression High-Dutch, and + Low-Dutch. In the present work the term is avoided as much as possible. + Nevertheless, wherever it occurs it means the Dutch of Holland.</p> + + <p>The origin of the word has been a subject of much investigation; the + question, however, may be considered to be settled by the remarks of + Grimm, D. G.—<i>Introduction to the third edition</i>.</p> + + <p>1. It was originally no national name at all.</p> + + <p>2. In the earliest passage where it occurs, the derivative form + <i>þiudiskô</i> corresponds with the Greek word <span title="ethnikôs" class="grk" + >ἐθνικῶς</span>—<i>The + Mœso-Gothic Translation of the New + Testament</i>—<i>Galatians</i>, ii. 14.</p> + + <p>3. The derivation of the word from the substantive <i>þiudu</i>=<i>a + people</i>, <i>a nation</i>, is undoubted.</p> + + <p>4. So also is the derivation of the modern word <i>Dutch</i>, in all + its varied forms:—Old High-German, <i>Diutisc</i>; Anglo-Saxon, + <i>Þeódisc</i>; Latin, <i>Theodisca</i>, <i>Theudisca</i>, + <i>Teutisca</i>; Italian, <i>Tedesco</i>; Danish, <i>Tyske</i>; English, + <i>Dutch</i>; the latter part of the word being the adjectival ending + <i>-isc</i>=<i>ish</i>. <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>{58}</span></p> + + <p>5. The original meaning being <i>of, or belonging to, the people</i>, + or <i>of, or belonging to, the nation</i>, secondary meanings grew out of + it.</p> + + <p>6. Of these the most remarkable are <i>a</i>) the power given to the + word in Ulphilas (<i>heathen</i>), illustrated by the similarly secondary + power of the Greek <span title="ethnikos" class="grk" + >ἔθνικος</span>; <i>b</i>) the + meaning <i>vernacular</i>, <i>provincial</i> or <i>vulgar</i> given to it + as applied to language.</p> + + <p>7. This latter power was probably given to it about the ninth + century.</p> + + <p>8. That it was not given much before, is inferred from negative + evidence. The word <i>theotisca</i> is not found in the Latin writers of + the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries, although there are plenty of + passages where it might well have been used had it existed. The terms + really used are either <i>patrius sermo</i>, <i>sermo barbaricus</i>, + <i>sermo vulgaricus</i>, <i>lingua rustica</i>; or else the names of + particular tribes, as <i>lingua Anglorum</i>, <i>Alamannorum</i>.</p> + + <p>9. That it was current in the ninth century is evident from a variety + of quotations:—<i>Ut quilibet episcopus homilias aperte transferre + studeat in rusticam Romanam linguam, aut </i>þeotiscam<i>, quo tandem + cuncti possint intelligere quæ dicantur.</i>—Synodus Turonensis. + <i>Quod in lingua </i>Thiudisca<i> scaftlegi, id est armorum depositio, + vocatur.</i>—Capit. Wormatiense. <i>De collectis quas + </i>Theudisca<i> lingua heriszuph appellat.</i>—Conventus + Silvacensis. <i>Si </i>barbara<i>, quam </i>Teutiscam<i> dicunt, lingua + loqueretur.</i>—Vita Adalhardi, &c.—D.G., i. p. 14, + <i>Introduction</i>.</p> + + <p>10. That its present national sense is wholly secondary and + derivative, and that originally it was no more the name of a people or a + language than the word <i>vulgate</i> in the expression <i>the vulgate + translation of the Scriptures</i> is the name of a people or a + language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect100">§ 100</a>. <i>Teutonic.</i>—About the tenth + century the Latin writers upon German affairs began to use not only the + words <i>Theotiscus</i> and <i>Theotiscé</i>, but also the words + <i>Teutonicus</i> and <i>Teutonicé</i>. Upon this, Grimm remarks that the + latter term sounded more learned; since <i>Teutonicus</i> was a classical + word, an adjective derived from the Gentile name of the Teutones + conquered by Manus. Be it so. It then follows that the connexion between + <i>Teutonicus</i> and <i>Theotiscus</i> is a mere accident, the origin + <!-- Page 59 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>{59}</span>of + the two words being different. The worthlessness of all evidence + concerning the Germanic origin of the Teutonic tribes conquered by + Marius, based upon the connexion between the word <i>Teuton</i> and + Dutch, has been pointed out by the present writer in the 17th number of + the Philological Transactions.<a name="NtA10" + href="#Nt10"><sup>[10]</sup></a> All that is proved is this, <i>viz.</i>, + that out of the confusion between the two words arose a confusion between + the two nations. These last may or may not have been of the same + race.</p> + + <p><a name="sect101">§ 101</a>. <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>—In the ninth + century the language of England was <i>Angle</i>, or <i>English</i>. The + <i>lingua Anglorum</i> of Bede is translated by Alfred <i>on + englisce</i>. The term <i>Saxon</i> was in use also at an early (perhaps + an equally early) date—<i>fures quos</i> Saxonice <i>dicimus + vergeld</i> þeóvas. The compound term <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> is + later.—Grimm, <i>Introduction to the third edition of</i> D.G., p. + 2.</p> + + <p><a name="sect102">§ 102</a>. <i>Icelandic, Old + Norse.</i>—Although <i>Icelandic</i> is the usual name for the + mother-tongue of the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, the Norwegian + philologists generally prefer the term <i>Old Norse</i>.</p> + + <p>In favour of this view is the fact that Norway was the mother-country, + Iceland the colony, and that much of what is called Old Icelandic was + composed in Norway.</p> + + <p>Still the reason is insufficient; since the present term + <i>Icelandic</i> is given to the language not because Iceland <i>was</i> + the country that <i>produced</i>, but because it is the country that has + <i>preserved</i> it.</p> + + <p>This leads to the argument in its most general form—should a + language be named from the colony, or from the mother-country? The + Norwegians say from the mother-country. Let us consider this.</p> + + <p>Suppose that whilst the Latin of Virgil and Cicero in Italy had been + changing into the modern Italian, in some old Roman colony (say Sardinia) + it had remained either wholly <!-- Page 60 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page60"></a>{60}</span>unaltered, or else, altered so little as for + the modern <i>Sardinian</i>—provided he could read at all—to + be able to read the authors of the Augustan age, just like those of the + era of Charles Albert; no other portion of the old Roman + territory—not even Rome itself—having any tongue more like to + that of the Classical writers, than the most antiquated dialect of the + present Italian. Suppose, too, that the term <i>Latin</i> had become + obsolete, would it be imperative upon us to call the language of the + Classics <i>Old Italian</i>, <i>Old Roman</i>, or at least <i>Old + Latin</i>, when no modern native of Rome, Latium, or Italy could read + them? Would it be wrong to call it <i>Sardinian</i> when every Sarde + <i>could</i> read them? I think not. <i>Mutatis mutandis</i>, this is the + case with Iceland and Norway.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>{61}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE—GERMANIC ELEMENTS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect103">§ 103</a>. The population and, to a certain extent, + the language of England, have been formed of three elements, which in the + most general way may be expressed as follows:—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> Elements referable to the original British population, and + derived from times anterior to the Anglo-Saxon invasion.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, or imported elements.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> Elements introduced since the Anglo-Saxon conquest.</p> + + <p><a name="sect104">§ 104</a>. Each of these requires a special + analysis, but that of the second will be taken first, and will form the + contents of the present chapter.</p> + + <p>All that we have at present learned concerning the Germanic invaders + of England, is the geographical area which they wholly or partially + occupied, and the tribes and nations with which they were conterminous + whilst in Germany. How far, however, it was simple Saxons who conquered + England single-handed, or how far the particular Saxon Germans were + portions of a complex population, requires further investigation. Were + the Saxons one division of the German population, whilst the Angles were + another? or were the Angles a section of the Saxons, so that the latter + was a generic term, including the former? Again, although the Saxon + invasion may be the one which has had the greatest influence, and drawn + the most attention, why may there not have been separate and independent + migrations, the effects and record of which, have in the lapse of time, + become fused with those of the more important divisions?</p> + + <p>Questions like these require notice, and in a more advanced state of + what may be called <i>minute ethnographical</i> <!-- Page 62 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>{62}</span><i>philology</i> will + obtain more of it than has hitherto been their share. At present our + facts are few, and our methods of investigation imperfect.</p> + + <p><a name="sect105">§ 105</a>. In respect to this last, it is necessary + to distinguish between the opinions based on <i>external</i>, and the + opinions based on <i>internal</i> evidence. To the former class belong + the testimonies of cotemporary records, or (wanting these) of records + based upon transmitted, but cotemporary, evidence. To the latter belong + the inferences drawn from similarity of language, name, and other + ethnological <i>data</i>. Of such, a portion only will be considered in + the present chapter; not that they have no proper place in it, but + because the minuter investigation of an important section of these + (<i>i.e.</i>, the subject of the <i>English dialects</i>) will be treated + as a separate subject elsewhere.</p> + + <p><a name="sect106">§ 106</a>. <i>The Angles; who were they, and what + was their relation to the Saxons?</i>—The first answer to this + question embodies a great fact in the way of internal evidence, + <i>viz.</i>, that they were the people from whom <i>England</i> derives + the name it bears=<i>the Angle-land</i>, i.e., <i>land of the Angles</i>. + Our language too is <i>English</i>, i.e., <i>Angle</i>. Whatever, then, + they may have been on the Continent, they were a leading section of the + invaders here. Why then has their position in our inquiries been hitherto + so subordinate to that of the Saxons? It is because their definitude and + preponderance are not so manifest in Germany as we infer (from the terms + <i>England</i> and <i>English</i>) it to have been in Britain. Nay more, + their historical place amongst the nations of Germany, and within the + German area, is both insignificant and doubtful; indeed, it will be seen + from the sequel, that <i>in and of themselves</i> we know next to nothing + about them, knowing them only in their <i>relations</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, to + ourselves and to the Saxons. The following, however, are the chief facts + that form the foundation for our inferences.</p> + + <p><a name="sect107">§ 107</a>. Although they are the section of the + immigration which gave the name to England, and as such, the + preponderating element in the eyes of the present <i>English</i>, they + were not so in the eyes of the original British; who neither knew at the + time of the Conquest, nor know now, of any other name for their German + enemies but <i>Saxon</i>. And <i>Saxon</i> is the <!-- Page 63 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page63"></a>{63}</span>name by which the present + English are known to the Welsh, Armorican, and Gaelic Celts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Names for Saxons" title="Names for Saxons"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Welsh </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Saxon</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Armorican </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Soson</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gaelic </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sassenach</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect108">§ 108</a>. Although they are the section of the + immigration which gave the name to <i>England</i>, &c., they were + quite as little Angles as Saxons, in the eyes of foreign cotemporary + writers; since the expression <i>Saxoniæ trans-marinæ</i>, occurs as + applied to England.</p> + + <p><a name="sect109">§ 109</a>. Although they are the section of the + immigration which gave the name to <i>England</i>, &c., the material + notice of them as Germans of Germany, are limited to the following + facts.</p> + + <p><i>Extract from Tacitus.</i>—This merely connects them with + certain other tribes, and affirms the existence of certain religious + ordinances common to them—</p> + + <p>"Contra Langobardos paucitas nobilitat: plurimis ac valentissimis + nationibus cincti, non per obsequium, sed prœliis et periclitando + tuti sunt. Reudigni deinde, et Aviones, et <i>Angli</i>, et Varini, et + Eudoses, et Suardones, et Nuithones, fluminibus aut silvis muniuntur: nec + quidquam notabile in singulis, nisi quod in commune Herthum, id est, + Terram matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus hominum, invehi populis, + arbitrantur. Est in insula Oceani castum nemus, dicatumque in eo + vehiculum, veste contectum, attingere uni sacerdoti concessum. Is adesse + penetrali deam intelligit, vectamque bobus feminis multâ cum veneratione + prosequitur. Læti tunc dies, festa loca, quæcumque adventu hospitioque + dignatur. Non bella ineunt, non arma sumunt, clausum omne ferrum; pax et + quies tunc tantùm nota, tunc tantùm amata, donec idem sacerdos satiatam + conversatione mortalium deam templo reddat: mox vehiculum et vestes, et, + si credere velis, numen ipsum secreto lacu abluitur. Servi ministrant, + quos statim idem lacus haurit. Arcanus hinc terror, sanctaque ignorantia, + quid sit id, quod tantùm perituri vident."<a name="NtA11" + href="#Nt11"><sup>[11]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Extract from Ptolemy.</i>—This connects the Angles with <!-- + Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64"></a>{64}</span>the + <i>Suevi</i>, and <i>Langobardi</i>, and places them on the Middle + Elbe.</p> + + <p><span title="Entos kai mesogeiôn ethnôn megista men esti to, te tôn Souêbôn tôn Angeilôn, hoi eisin anatolikôteroi tôn Langobardôn, anateinontes pros tas arktous mechri tôn mesôn tou Albios potamou." class="grk" + >Ἐντὸς καὶ + μεσογείων + ἐθνῶν + μέγιστα μέν + ἐστι τό, τε + τῶν Σουήβων + τῶν + Ἀγγειλῶν, + οἵ εἰσιν + ἀνατολικώτεροι + τῶν + Λαγγοβάρδων, + ἀνατείνοντες + πρὸς τὰς + ἄρκτους + μέχρι τῶν + μέσων τοῦ + Ἄλβιος + ποταμοῦ.</span></p> + + <p><i>Extract from Procopius.</i>—For this see <a href="#sect129">§ + 129</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Heading of a law referred to the age of Charlemagne.</i>—This + connects them with the Werini (Varni), and the Thuringians—"Incipit + lex <i>Angliorum</i> et <i>Verinorum</i> (<i>Varni</i>); hoc est + <i>Thuringorum</i>."—Zeuss, 495, and Grimm. G.D.S.</p> + + <p><a name="sect110">§ 110</a>. These notices agree in giving the Angles + a German locality, and in connecting them ethnologically, and + philologically with the Germans of Germany. The notices that follow, + traverse this view of the question, by indicating a slightly different + area, and Danish rather than German affinities.</p> + + <p><i>Extracts connecting them with the inhabitants of the Cimbric + Peninsula.</i>—<i>a.</i> The quotation from the Anglo-Saxon + Chronicle of <a href="#sect16">§ 16</a>.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> From Bede; "Porro de Anglis, hoc est illa patria, quæ + <i>Angulus</i> dicitur, et ab eo tempore usque hodie, manere desertus + inter provincias Jutarum et Saxonum perhibetur."—Angl. i. 15.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> From Alfred, "And be wæstan eald Seaxum is Albe muða þære ea + and Frisland. And þanon west norð is þæt land, the man <i>Angle</i>, hæt + and Sillende, and summe dæl Dena."<a name="NtA12" + href="#Nt12"><sup>[12]</sup></a>—Oros. p. 20.</p> + + <p>Also, speaking of Other's voyage,<a name="NtA13" + href="#Nt13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> "He seglode to þæm porte þe man hæt + Hæþum; se stent betwuhs Winedum and Seaxum, and <i>Angle</i>, and hyrð in + on Dene ... and þa <!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page65"></a>{65}</span>twegen dagas ær he to Hædhum come, him wæs + on þæt steorbord Gothland and Sillende and iglanda fela. On þæm landum + eardodon Engle, ær hi hiðer on land comon."<a name="NtA14" + href="#Nt14"><sup>[14]</sup></a>—Oros. p. 23.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i> From Etherwerd, writing in the eleventh + century—"<i>Anglia</i> vetus sita est inter Saxones et Giotos, + habens oppidum capitale, quod sermone Saxonico <i>Sleswic</i> nuncupatur, + secundum vero Danos <i>Hathaby</i>."<a + href="#Nt14"><sup>[14]</sup></a></p> + + <p><a name="sect111">§ 111</a>. <i>The district called + Angle.</i>—The district of <i>Anglen</i>, so called (where it is + mentioned at all) at the present moment, is a part of the Dutchy of + Sleswick, which is literally an <i>Angle</i>; <i>i.e.</i>, a triangle of + irregular shape, formed by the Schlie, the Flensborger Fiord, and a line + drawn from Flensborg to Sleswick; every geographical name in it being, at + present, Danish, whatever it may have been previously. Thus some villages + end in <i>bye</i> (Danish=<i>town</i>) as Hus-<i>bye</i>, + Herreds-<i>bye</i>, Ulse-<i>bye</i>, &c.; some in <i>gaard</i> + (=<i>house</i>), as <i>Oegaard</i>; whilst the other Danish forms are + <i>skov</i>=<i>wood</i> (<i>shaw</i>), <i>hofved</i>=<i>head</i>, + <i>lund</i>=<i>grove</i>, &c. In short it has nothing to distinguish + it from the other parts of the peninsula.</p> + + <p><a name="sect112">§ 112</a>. Add to these the Danish expression, that + <i>Dan</i> and <i>Angul</i> were brothers, as the exponent of a + recognised relationship between the two populations, and we have a view + of the evidence in favour of the Danish affinity.</p> + + <p><a name="sect113">§ 113</a>. <i>Inferences and + remarks.</i>—<i>a.</i> That whilst the root <i>Angl-</i> in + Tacitus, Ptolemy, Procopius, and the Leges Anglorum, &c., is the name + of a <i>people</i>, the root <i>Angl-</i> in the <i>Anglen</i> of + Sleswick, is the name of a district; a fact which is further confirmed by + the circumstance of there being in at least one other part of + Scandinavia, a district with a similar name—"Hann átti bu a + Halogolandi i <i>Aungli</i>."<a + href="#Nt14"><sup>[14]</sup></a>—Heimskringla, iii. 454.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> That the derivation of the <i>Angles</i> of England from the + <i>Anglen</i> of Sleswick is an inference of the same kind with the one + respecting the Jutes (see <a href="#sect20">§ 20</a>), made by the same + writers, probably on the same principle, and most likely incorrectly.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> That the Angles of England were the Angli of Tacitus, <!-- + Page 66 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span>Ptolemy, + Procopius, and the Leges Anglorum et Werinorum, whatever these were.</p> + + <p><a name="sect114">§ 114</a>. What were the <i>Langobardi</i>, with + whom the Angles were connected by Tacitus? The most important facts to be + known concerning them are, (1) that the general opinion is in favour of + their having belonged to the <i>High</i>-German, or Mœso-Gothic + division, rather than to the <i>Low</i>; (2) that their original locality + either reached or lay beyond the Elbe; a locality, which, in the tenth + century, was <i>Slavonic</i>, and which, in the opinion of the present + writer, we have no reason to consider to have been other than Slavonic + during the nine preceding ones.—That they were partially, at least, + on this side of the Elbe, we learn from the following:—"Receptæ + Cauchorum nationes, fracti Langobardi, gens etiam Germanis feritate + ferocior; denique usque ad flumen Albim ... Romanus cum signis perductus + exercitus."<a name="NtA15" + href="#Nt15"><sup>[15]</sup></a>—Velleius Paterc. ii. 106.</p> + + <p><a name="sect115">§ 115</a>. What were the <i>Suevi</i>, with whom the + Angles were connected by Tacitus? The most important facts to be known + concerning them are, (1) that the general opinion is in favour of their + having belonged to the <i>High</i>-German or Mœso-Gothic, division, + rather than to the <i>Low</i>; (2) that their original locality either + reached or lay beyond the Elbe; a locality, which, in the tenth century, + was <i>Slavonic</i>, and which, in the opinion of the present writer, we + have no reason to consider to have been other than Slavonic during the + nine preceding ones. In other words, what applies to the Langobardi + applies to the Suevi also.</p> + + <p>What the Suevi were, the Semnones were also, "Vetustissimos se + nobilissimosque Suevorum Semnones memorant." Tac. Germ., 39. Speaking, + too, of their great extension, he says, <i>centum pagi ab iis + habitantur</i>.<a href="#Nt15"><sup>[15]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Velleius states that there were Suevi on the west of the Middle Elbe, + Ptolemy, that there were Suevi to the east of it, <i>i.e.</i>, as far as + the River Suebus (Oder?).—<span title="Kai to tôn Souêbôn tôn Semnonôn, hoitines diêkousi meta ton Albin apo tou eirêmenou merous" class="grk" + >Καὶ τὸ τῶν + Σουήβων τῶν + Σεμνόνων, + οἵτινες + διήκουσι + μετὰ τὸν + Ἄλβιν ἀπὸ + τοῦ + εἰρημένου + μέρους</span> <!-- Page 67 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>{67}</span>(the middle Elbe) <span + title="pros anatolas mechri tou Souêbou potamou" class="grk" + >πρὸς + ἀνατολὰς + μέχρι τοῦ + Σουήβου + ποταμοῦ</span>.<a name="NtA16" + href="#Nt16"><sup>[16]</sup></a></p> + + <p>In the letter of Theodeberht to the Emperor Justinian, we find the + <i>North</i>-Suevians mentioned along with the Thuringians, as having + been conquered by the Franks; "Subactis Thuringis ... <i>Norsavorum</i> + gentis nobis placata majestas colla subdidit."<a + href="#Nt16"><sup>[16]</sup></a></p> + + <p><a name="sect116">§ 116</a>. What were the <i>Werini</i>, with whom + the Angles were connected in the <i>Leges Anglorum et Werinorum</i>? + Without having any particular <i>data</i> for connecting the Werini + (Varni, <span title="Ouarnoi" class="grk" + >Οὐάρνοι</span>) with either + the High-German, or the Mœso-Gothic divisions, there are in favour + of their being Slavonic in locality, the same facts as applied to the + Suevi and Langobardi, with the additional one, that the name probably + exists at present in the River <i>Warnow</i>, of Mecklenburg Schwerin, at + the mouth of which (Warnemunde) the town of Rostock stands.</p> + + <p><a name="sect117">§ 117</a>. What were the <i>Thuringians</i>, with + whom the Angles are connected in the <i>Leges Anglorum</i>, &c.; + Germanic in locality, and most probably allied to the Goths of + Mœsia in language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect118">§ 118</a>. Of the Reudigni, Eudoses, Nuithones, + Suardones, and Aviones, too little is known in detail to make the details + an inquiry of importance. Respecting them all, it may be said at once, + that whatever may be the Germanic affinities involved in their connection + with the Suevi, Langobardi, Angli, &c., they are traversed by the + fact of their locality being in the tenth century Slavonic.</p> + + <p><a name="sect119">§ 119</a>. The last tribe which will be mentioned, + is that of the <i>Angrarii</i>, most probably another form of the + <i>Angrivarii</i> of Tacitus, the name of the occupants of the valley of + the Aller, the northern confluent of the Weser.</p> + + <p>As this word is compound + (-<i>varii</i>=<i>ware</i>=<i>inhabitants</i>), the root remains + <i>Angr-</i>, a word which only requires the <i>r</i> to become <i>l</i> + in order to make <i>Angl-</i>. As both the locality and the relation to + the Saxons, make the <i>Angrivarian</i> locality one of the best we could + assume for the <i>Angles</i>, the only <!-- Page 68 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>{68}</span>difficulty lies in the + change from <i>r</i> to <i>l</i>. Unfortunately, this, in the + Saxon-German, is an unlikely one.</p> + + <p><a name="sect120">§ 120</a>. The last fact connected with the Angles, + will be found in a more expanded form in the Chapter on the Dialects of + the English Language. It relates to the distribution over the conquered + parts of Britain. Their chief area was the Midland and Eastern counties, + Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Leicestershire, + &c., rather than the parts south of the Thames, which were Saxon, and + those north of the Wash, where Danish influences have been + considerable.</p> + + <p><a name="sect121">§ 121</a>. The reader has now got a general view of + the extent to which the position of the Angles, as a German tribe, is + complicated by conflicting statements; statements which connect them with + (probably) <i>High</i>-German Thuringians, Suevi, and Langobardi, and + with (probably) <i>Slavonic</i> Varni, Eudoses, Suardones, &c.; + whereas in England, they are scarcely distinguishable from the + <i>Low</i>-German Saxons. In the present state of our knowledge, the only + safe fact seems to be, that of the common relation of both <i>Angle</i> + and Saxon, to the present <i>English</i> of England.</p> + + <p>This brings the two sections within a very close degree of affinity, + and makes it probable, that just, as at present, descendants of the + Saxons are English (<i>Angle</i>) in Britain, so, in the third and fourth + centuries, ancestors of the Angles were Saxons in Germany. Why, however, + the one name preponderated on the Continent, and the other in England is + difficult to ascertain.</p> + + <p><a name="sect122">§ 122</a>. By considering the Angles as Saxons under + another name (or <i>vice versâ</i>), and by treating the statement as to + the existence of Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight as wholly + unhistorical, we get, as a general expression for the Anglo-Germanic + immigration, that it consisted of the closely allied tribes of the + North-Saxon area, an expression that implies a general uniformity of + population. Is there reason to think that the uniformity was + absolute?</p> + + <p><a name="sect123">§ 123</a>. The following series of facts, when put + together, will prepare us for a fresh train of reasoning concerning the + different geographical and ethnological relations of the <!-- Page 69 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page69"></a>{69}</span>immigrants into + England, during their previous habitation in Germany.</p> + + <p>1. The termination <i>-as</i> is, like the <i>-s</i> in the modern + English, the sign of the plural number in Anglo-Saxon.</p> + + <p>2. The termination <i>-ing</i> denotes, <i>in the first instance</i>, + a certain number of individuals collected together, and united with each + other as a clan, tribe, family, household.</p> + + <p>3. In doing this, it generally indicates a relationship of a + <i>personal</i> or <i>political</i> character. Thus two <i>Baningas</i> + might be connected with each other, and (as such) indicated by the same + term from any of the following causes—relationship, subordination + to the same chief, origin from the same locality, &c.</p> + + <p>4. Of these <i>personal</i> connections, the one which is considered + to be the commonest is that of <i>descent</i> from a common ancestor, so + that the termination <i>-ing</i> in this case, is a real + <i>patronymic</i>.</p> + + <p>5. Such an ancestor need not be real; indeed, he rarely if ever is so. + Like the <i>eponymus</i> of the classical writers, he is the + hypothetical, or mythological, progenitor of the clan, sept, or tribe, as + the case may be; <i>i.e.</i>, as Æolus, Dorus, and Ion to the Æolians, + Dorians, and Ionians.</p> + + <p>Now, by admitting these facts without limitation, and by applying them + freely and boldly to the Germanic population of England, we arrive at the + following inferences.</p> + + <p>1. That where we meet two (or more) households, families, tribes, + clans, or septs of the same name (that name ending in <i>-ing</i>), in + different parts of England, we may connect them with each other, either + directly or indirectly; directly when we look on the second as an offset + from the first; indirectly, when we derive both from some third + source.</p> + + <p>2. That when we find families, tribes, &c., of the same name, both + in Britain and in Germany, we may derive the English ones from the + continental.</p> + + <p>Now neither of these views is hypothetical. On the contrary each is a + real fact. Thus in respect to divisions of the population, designated by + names ending in <i>-ing</i>, we have</p> + + <p>1. In Essex, Somerset, and Sussex,—<i>Æstingas</i>.</p> + + <p>2. In Kent, Dorset, Devonshire, and Lincoln,—<i>Alingas</i>. + <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page70"></a>{70}</span></p> + + <p>3. In Sussex, Berks, and Northamptonshire,—<i>Ardingas</i>.</p> + + <p>4. In Devonshire, Gloucestershire, and + Sussex,—<i>Arlingas</i>.</p> + + <p>5. In Herts, Kent, Lincolnshire, and Salop,—<i>Baningas</i>.</p> + + <p>6. In Norfolk, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, and the Isle of + Wight,—<i>Beadingas</i>.</p> + + <p>7. In Kent, Devonshire, Lincolnshire, Herefordshire, Salop, and + Somerset,—<i>Beringas</i>.</p> + + <p>8. In Bedford, Durham, Kent, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, + Northamptonshire, Northumberland, Salop, Sussex, and the Isle of + Wight,—<i>Billingas</i>, &c.—the list being taken from + Mr. Kemble, vol. i. p. 64.</p> + + <p><a name="sect124">§ 124</a>. On the other hand, the following + Anglo-Saxon names in <i>-ing</i>, reappear in different parts of Germany, + sometimes in definite geographical localities, as the occupants of + particular districts, sometimes as mentioned in poems without further + notice.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Wælsingas</i>,—as the Volsungar of the Iceland, and the + Wælsingen of the German heroic legends.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Herelingas</i>,—mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon poem known by + the name of the Traveller's Song, containing a long list of the Gothic + tribes, families, nations, &c.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Brentingas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Scyldingas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Scylfingas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Ardingas.</i></p> + + <p>7. <i>Baningas</i>, Traveller's Song, mentioned as the subjects of + Becca.</p> + + <p>8. <i>Helsingas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>9. <i>Myrgingas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>10. <i>Hundingas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>11. <i>Hocingas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>12. <i>Seringas.</i>—Ibid.</p> + + <p>13. <i>Dhyringas</i>=Thuringians. (?)</p> + + <p>14. <i>Bleccingas.</i></p> + + <p>15. <i>Gytingas.</i></p> + + <p>16. <i>Scydingas.</i></p> + + <p>17. <i>Dylingas.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect125">§ 125</a>. We will still, for argument's sake, and + for the sake <!-- Page 71 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page71"></a>{71}</span>of the illustration of an ethnological + method, take these names along with the observations by which they were + preceded, as if they were wholly unexceptionable; and, having done this, + ask how far each is known as <i>German</i>. So doing, we must make two + divisions:</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> Those which we have no reason to think other than Angle or + Saxon.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> Those which indicate elements of the migration other than + Angle or Saxon.</p> + + <p><a name="sect126">§ 126</a>. <i>Patronymics which do not necessarily + denote a non-Saxon element.</i>—Of these, the following are so + little known, that they may pass as Saxons, simply because we have no + grounds for thinking them aught else; the Brentings, Banings, Helsings, + Serings, Ardings, Hundings, Blekings, Herelings, Gytings, Scydings, + Dylings. The Scyldings and Scefings, belong, in a more positive way, to + the Anglo-Saxon division; since their eponymi, Scyld and Sceaf, form a + portion of the Anglo-Saxon mythology.</p> + + <p><a name="sect127">§ 127</a>. <i>Patronymics indicating a non-Saxon, + rather than a Saxon element.</i>—<i>a.</i> The Wælsings—In + the way of tradition and mythology, this is a <i>Frank</i> gentile + name.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The Myrgings.—<i>Ditto.</i> This is the German form of + the Merovingians.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> The Hocings.—This is the German form of the Chauci, + and, as such, a Frisian gentile name.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i> The Dhyrings.—Perhaps Thuringians of Thuringia.</p> + + <p>Thus, then, if we still assume that the method in question is + unexceptionable, we have, from the evidence of what may be called either + the <i>gentile forms</i>, or the <i>patronymics</i> in <i>-ing</i>, + reasons for believing that Frank <i>Myrgings</i>, Frisian <i>Hocings</i>, + and Thuringian <i>Dhyrings</i>, formed part of the invasion—these, + at least; possibly others besides.</p> + + <p>And why should the reason be other than unexceptionable? Do we not in + North America, believe, that, <i>as a general rule</i>, the families with + particular names, coincide with the families so-called in England; that + the names of certain places, <i>sometimes</i>, at least, indicate a + population <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'orginating'." + >originating</span> in places similarly designated here? that the Smiths + and Johnstons <!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page72"></a>{72}</span>are English in origin, and that O'Connors + and O'Neils are Irish? We certainly believe all this, and, in many cases, + we believe it, on the ground of the identity of name only.</p> + + <p><a name="sect128">§ 128</a>. <i>Exceptions.</i>—Still there are + exceptions. Of these the most important are as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. The termination <i>-ing</i> is sometimes added to an undoubtedly + British root, so as to have originated within the island, rather than to + have been brought from the continent, <i>e.g.</i>, the + <i>Kent-ings</i>=<i>the people of Kent</i>. In such a case, the + similarity to a German name, if it exist at all, exists as an + accident.</p> + + <p>2. The same, or nearly the same, name may not only occur in different + parts of one and the same division of the Germanic areas, but in + different ones, <i>e.g.</i>, the Dhyrings <i>may</i> denote the + Thuringians of Thuringia; but they may also denote the people of a + district, or town, in Belgium, designated as <i>Dorringen</i>.<a + name="NtA17" href="#Nt17"><sup>[17]</sup></a></p> + + <p>Still as a method, the one in question should be understood; although + it has been too short a time before the learned world to have borne + fruit.</p> + + <p>N.B.—What applies to the coincidence of <i>gentile</i> or + <i>patronymic</i> names on the two sides of the water, applies also to + dialects; <i>e.g.</i>, if (say) the Kentish differed from the other + dialects of England, just in the same way, and with the same peculiar + words and forms, as (say) the Verden dialect differed from the ones of + Germany, we might fairly argue, that it was from the district of Verden + that the county of Kent is peopled. At present we are writing simply for + the sake of illustrating certain philological methods. The question of + dialect will be treated in Part VII.</p> + + <p><a name="sect129">§ 129</a>. <i>German tribes where there is no direct + evidence as to their having made part of the population of England, but + where the </i>à priori<i> probabilities are strongly in their favour.</i> + This applies to—<i>a.</i> The Batavians. No direct evidence, but + great <i>à priori</i> probability.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>The Frisians.</i>—Great <i>à priori</i> + probability, and <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page73"></a>{73}</span>something more; <span title="Brittian de tên nêson ethnê tria poluanthrôpotata echousi, basileus te heis autôn hekastôi ephestêken, onomata de keitai tois ethnesi toutois Angiloi te kai Phrissones kai hoi têi nêsôi homônumoi Brittônes. Tosautê de hê tônde tôn ethnôn poluanthrôpia phainetai ousa hôste ana pan etos kata pollous enthende metanistamenoi xun gunaixi kai paisin es Phrangous chôrousin" class="grk" + >Βριττίαν δὲ + τὴν νῆσον + ἔθνη τρία + πολυανθρωπότατα + ἔχουσι, + βασιλεύς + τε ἑῖς αὐτῶν + ἑκάστῳ + ἐφέστηκεν, + ὀνόματα δὲ + κεῖται τοῖς + ἔθνεσι + τούτοις + Ἀγγίλοι τε + καὶ + Φρίσσονες + καὶ οἱ τῇ + νήσῳ + ὁμώνυμοι + Βρίττωνες. + Τοσαύτη δὲ ἡ + τῶνδε τῶν + ἐθνῶν + πολυανθρωπία + φαίνεται + οὖσα ὥστε + ἀνὰ πᾶν ἔτος + κατὰ + πολλοὺς + ἐνθένδε + μετανιστάμενοι + ξὺν γυναιξὶ + καὶ παισὶν + ἐς + Φράγγους + χώρουσιν</span>.<a + name="NtA18" href="#Nt18"><sup>[18]</sup></a>—Procop. B. G. iv. + 20.</p> + + <p><a name="sect130">§ 130</a>. I believe, for my own part, there were + portions in the early Germanic population of Britain, which were not + strictly either Angle or Saxon (Anglo-Saxon); but I do this without + thinking that it bore any great ratio to the remainder, and without even + guessing at what that ratio was, or whereabouts its different component + elements were located—the Frisians and Batavians being the most + probable. With this view, there may have been Jutes as well; + notwithstanding what has been said in <a href="#sect16">§§ 16</a>-20; + since the reasoning there is not so against a Jute element <i>in + toto</i>, as against that particular Jute element, in which Beda, Alfred, + and the later writers believed and believe.</p> + + <p><a name="sect131">§ 131</a>. No exception against the existence of + Batavian, Frisian, Frank, and other elements not strictly Anglo-Saxon, is + to be taken from the absence of traces of such in the present language, + and that for the following reason. <i>Languages which differ in an older + form may so far change according to a common principle, as to become + identical in a newer one.</i> <i>E.g.</i>, the Frisian infinitive in + verbs ends in <i>-a</i>, (as <i>bærna</i>=<i>to burn</i>), the Saxon in + <i>-an</i> (as <i>bærnan</i>=<i>to burn</i>). Here is a difference. Let, + however, the same change affect both languages; that change being the + abandonment, on both sides, of the infinitive termination altogether. + What follows? even that the two originally different forms <i>bærn-a</i>, + and <i>bærn-an</i>, both come out <i>bærn</i> (<i>burn</i>); so that the + result is the same, though the original forms were different.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page74"></a>{74}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE CELTIC STOCK OF LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO THE +ENGLISH.</p> + + <p><a name="sect132">§ 132</a>. The languages of Great Britain at the + invasion of Julius Cæsar were of the Celtic stock.</p> + + <p>Of the Celtic stock there are two branches.</p> + + <p>1. The British or Cambrian branch, represented by the present Welsh, + and containing, besides, the Cornish of Cornwall (lately extinct) and the + Armorican of the French province of Brittany. It is almost certain that + the old British, the ancient language of Gaul, and the Pictish were of + this branch.</p> + + <p>2. The Gaelic or Erse Branch, represented by the present Irish Gaelic, + and containing, besides, the Gaelic of the Highlands of Scotland and the + Manks of the Isle of Man.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SPECIMENS.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">BRITISH.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Lord's Prayer in Cornish.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Specimens of Cornish" title="Specimens of Cornish"> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top;"> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Old Cornish.</i></p> + + <p>An Taz, ny es yn nêf, bethens thy hannow ughelles, gwrênz doz thy + gulas ker: bethens thy voth gwrâz yn oar kepare hag yn nêf: ro thyn ny + hithow agan peb dyth bara; gava thyn ny ny agan cam, kepare ha gava ny + neb es cam ma erbyn ny; nyn homfrek ny en antel, mez gwyth ny the worth + drok: rag gans te yn an mighterneth, and creveder, hag an' worryans, byz + a venitha.</p> + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top;"> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Modern Cornish.</i></p> + + <p>Agan Taz, leb ez en nêv, benigas beth de hanno, gurra de gulasketh + deaz, de voth beth gwrêz en' oar pokar en nêv; ro dony hithow agan pyb + dyth bara; ha gava do ny agan cabmow, pokara ny gava an gy leb es cam mo + war bidn ny; ha na dege ny en antail, brez gwitha ny dort droge; rag an + mychteyrneth ew chee do honnen, ha an crêvder, ha an 'worryans, rag + bisqueth ha bisqueth.</p> + +</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 75 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>{75}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Welsh</i> (Cambrian).</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Luke</i> <span class="sc">xv</span>. 11. 19.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Prodigal Son.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>11. Yr oedd gan ryw wr ddau fab:</p> + + <p>12. A 'r jeuangaf o honynt a ddwedoddwrth <i>ei</i> dâdd, Fy nhâd, + dyro i mi y rhan a ddigwydd o 'r da. Ac efe a ranodd iddynt <i>ei</i> + fywyd.</p> + + <p>13. Ac yn ôl ychydig ddyddiau y mâb jeuangaf a gasglodd y cwbl ynghyd, + ac a gymmerth ei daith i wlâd bell; ac yno efe a wasgarodd ei dda, gan + fyw yn affrallon.</p> + + <p>14. Ac wedi iddo dreulio 'r cwbl, y cododd newyn mawr trwy 'r wlâd + honno; ac yntef a ddechreuodd fod mewn eisiau.</p> + + <p>15. Ac efe a aeth, ac a lynodd wrth un o ddinaswyr y wlâd honno; ac + efe a 'i hanfonodd ef i 'w faefydd i borthi môch.</p> + + <p>16. Ac efe a chwennychai lenwi ei fol â 'r cibaua fwytai 'r môch; ac + ni roddodd neb iddo.</p> + + <p>17. A phan ddaeth arto ei hur, efe addywedodd, Pa sawl gwâs cyflog o + 'r eiddo fy nhâd sydd yn cael eu gwala a 'i gweddill o fara, a minnau yn + marw o newyn!</p> + + <p>18. Mi a godaf, ac a âf at fy nhâd, ac a ddwyedaf wrtho, Fy nhâd, + pechais yn erbyn y nef, ac o'th flaen dithau.</p> + + <p>19. Ac mwyach nid ydwyf deilwng i 'm galw yn fâb i ti: gwna si fel un + o'th weision cyflog.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Armorican of Bas-Bretagne</i> (Cambrian).</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE SAME.</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>11. Eunn dén en doa daou vab.</p> + + <p>12. Hag ar iaouanka anézhô a lavaraz d'he dâd.—Va zâd, ro d'in + al lôden zanvez a zigouéz d'in. Hag hén a rannaz hé zanvez gant ho.</p> + + <p>13. Hag eunn nébeûd dervésiou goudé, ar mâb iaounka, ô véza dastumet + kémend en doa en em lékéaz enn hent évit mond étrézég eur vrô bell + meûrbeá, hag énô é tispiñaz hé zanvez ô véva gant gadélez.</p> + + <p>14. Ha pa en doé dispiñet kémend en doa, é c'hoarvézaz eunn naounégez + vrâz er vrô-ze, hag é teûaz, da ézommékaat.</p> + + <p>15. Kuîd éz éaz eta, hag en em lakaad a réaz é gópr gand eunn dén eûz + ar vro. Hag hé man hen kasaz enn eunn ti d'ézhan war ar méaz, évit mesa + ar môc'h.</p> + + <p>16. C'hoantéed en divije leûña he góf gand ar c'hlosou a zebré ar + môc'h: ha dén na rôé d'ézhan.</p> + + <p>17. Hôgen ô veza distrôed d'ezhan hé unar, é lavaraz: a béd gôpraer zo + é ti va zâd hag en deûz bara é leiz, ha mé a varv aman gand ann + naoun!</p> + +<p><!-- Page 76 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>{76}</span></p> + + <p>18. Sévet a rinn, hag éz inn étrézé va zad, hag é livirinn d'ezhan: Va + zâd, pech 'ed em euz a eneb ann env hag enu da enep.</p> + + <p>19. N'ounn két talvoudek pello 'ch da véza galved da vâb: Va zigémer + ével unar euz da c'hôpraerien.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead">GAELIC.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Irish Gaelic</i> (Gaelic).</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE SAME.</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>11. Do bhádar diás mac ag duine áirighe:</p> + + <p>12. Agus a dubhairt an ti dob óige aca re <i>na</i> athair, Athair, + tabhair dhamh an chuid roitheas <i>misi</i> dod mhaóin. Agus do roim + seision a mhaoin eatorra.</p> + + <p>13. Agus tar éis bheagáin aimsire ag cruinniughadh a choda uile don + mhac dob óige, do chúaidh sé air coigcrigh a dtalamh imchian, agus do + dhiombail se ann sin a mhaóin lé na bheathaidh báoth-chaithfigh.</p> + + <p>14. Agus tar éis a choda uile do chaitheamh dho, deirigh gorta romhór + ann sa tír sin; agus do thosaigh seision ar bheith a ríachdanus.</p> + + <p>15. Agus do imthigh sé roimhe agus do cheangal sé e féin do + cháthruightheoir don tír sin; noch do chuir fá na dhúichte a mach é do + bhúachuilleachd muc.</p> + + <p>16. Agus bá mhián leis a bholg do línoadh do na féithléoguibh do + ithidís na muca: agus ní thugadh éunduine dhó íad.</p> + + <p>17. Agus an tan do chuimhnigh sé air féin, a dubhairt sé, Gá mhéd do + luchd tuarasdail matharsa aga bhfúil iomarcdid aráin, agus misi ag dul a + múghd lé gorta!</p> + + <p>18. Eíréochaidh mé agus rachaidh mé dionnsuighe mathair, agus deáruidh + me ris; A athair! do pheacaid mé a naghaidh neimhe agusad + fhíadhnuisisi.</p> + + <p>19. Agus ní fiú mé feasda do mhacsa do ghairm dhoim: déana mé mar áon + dod luchd thuarasduil.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Scotch Gaelic</i> (Gaelic).</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE SAME.</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>11. Bha aig duine àraidh dithis mhac:</p> + + <p>12. Agus thubhairt <i>mac</i> a b'òige dhiubh r' <i>a athair</i>, + Athair, thoir dhomhsa chuid-roim a thig <i>orm</i>, do <i>d</i> mhaoin. + Agus roinn e eatorra a bheathacahadh.</p> + + <p>13. Agus an déigh beagain do láithibh, chruinnich am mac a b'òige a + chuid uile, agus ghabh e a thurus do dhùthaich fad air astar, agus an sin + chaith e a mhaoin le beatha struidheasaich.</p> + + <p>14. Agus an uair achaith e a <i>chuid</i> uile, dh' éirich gorta ro + mhòr san tír sin; agus thoisich e ri bhi ann an uireasbhuidh.</p> + + <p>15. Agus chaidh e agus cheangail se e féin ri aon do shaor-dhaoinibh + na dùcha sin: agus chuir ed' fhearan e, a bhiadhadh mhuc.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>{77}</span></p> + + <p>16. Agus bu mhiann leis a bhrú a liònadh do na plaosgaibh a bha na + mucan ag itheadh; oir cha d' thug neach air bith dha.</p> + + <p>17. Agus un uair a thainig e chuige féin, thubhairt e, Cia lìon do + luchd tuarasdail m'atharsa aig am bheil aran gu leoir agus r' a + sheach-nadh, 'nuair a ta mise a' bàsachadh le gorta!</p> + + <p>18. Eiridh me, agus théid omi dh' ionnsuidh m' athar, agus their mi + ris athair, pheaeaich mi 'n aghaidh fhlaitheanais, agus a' d' là + thairsa.</p> + + <p>19. Agus cha 'n fhiu mi tuilleadh gu 'n goirte do mhacsa dhiom: deon + mi mar aon do d' luchd tuarasdail.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Manks</i> (Gaelic).</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE SAME.</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>11. Va daa vac ec dooinney dy row:</p> + + <p>12. As doort y fer saa rish e ayr; Ayr! cur dooys yh ayrn dy chooid ta + my chour. As rheynn eh e chooid orroo.</p> + + <p>13. As laghyn ny lurg shen, hymsee yn mac saa ooilley cooidjagh as + ghow eh jurnah gys cheer foddey, as ayns shen hug he jummal er e chooid + liorish baghey rouanagh.</p> + + <p>14. As tra va ooilley baarit eihey, dirree genney vooar ayns y cheer + shen; as ren eh toshiaght dy ve ayns feme.</p> + + <p>15. As hie eh as daill eh eh-hene rish cummaltagh jeh'n cheer shen; as + hug eshyn eh magh gys ny magheryn echey dy ve son bochilley muickey.</p> + + <p>16. As by-vian lesh e volg y lhieeney lesh ny bleaystyn va ny muckyn + dy ee: as cha row dooinney erbee hug eooney da.</p> + + <p>17. As tra v'eh er jeet huggey hene, dooyrt eh, Nagh nhimmey sharvaant + failt t'ee my ayr ta nyn saie arran oe, as fooilliagh, as ta mish goll + mow laecal beaghey!</p> + + <p>18. Trog-ym orrym, as hem roym gys my ayr, as jir-ym rish, Ayr! ta mee + er n'yannoo peecah noi niau, as kiongoyrt rhyt's.</p> + + <p>19. As cha vel mee ny-sodjey feeu dy ve enmyssit dty vac: dell rhym + myr rish fer jeh dty harvaantyr failt.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect133">§ 133</a>. Taken altogether the Celtic tongues form + a very remarkable class. As compared with those of the Gothic stock they + are marked by the following characteristics—</p> + + <p><i>The scantiness of the declension of Celtic nouns.</i>—In + Irish there is a peculiar form for the dative plural, as + <i>cos</i>=<i>foot</i>, <i>cos-aibh</i>=<i>to feet</i> (ped-<i>ibus</i>); + and beyond this there is nothing else whatever in the way of <i>case</i>, + as found in the German, Latin, Greek, and other tongues. Even the + isolated form in question is not found in the Welsh and Breton. Hence + <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page78"></a>{78}</span>the + Celtic tongues are preeminently uninflected in the way of + <i>declension</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect134">§ 134</a>.—2. <i>The agglutinate character of + their verbal inflections.</i>—In Welsh the pronouns for <i>we</i>, + <i>ye</i>, and <i>they</i>, are <i>ni</i>, <i>chwyi</i>, and <i>hwynt</i> + respectively. In Welsh also the root=<i>love</i> is <i>car</i>. As + conjugated in the plural number this is—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Welsh verb inflections" title="Welsh verb inflections"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> car-<i>wn</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = am-<i>amus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> car-<i>ych</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = am-<i>atis</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> car-<i>ant</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = am-<i>ant</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Now the <i>-wn</i>, <i>-ych</i>, and <i>-ant</i>, of the persons of + the verbs are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is really a + verb and a pronoun in a state of <i>agglutination</i>; <i>i. e.</i>, in a + state where the original separate existence of the two sorts of words is + still manifest. This is probably the case with languages in general. The + Celtic, however, has the peculiarity of exhibiting it in an unmistakable + manner; showing, as it were, an inflexion in the process of formation, + and (as such) exhibiting an early stage of language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect135">§ 135</a>. <i>The system of initial + mutations.</i>—The Celtic, as has been seen, is deficient in the + ordinary means of expressing case. How does it make up for this? Even + thus. The noun changes its initial letter according to its relation to + the other words of the sentence. Of course this is subject to rule. As, + however, I am only writing for the sake of illustrating in a general way + the peculiarities of the Celtic tongues, the following table, from + Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, is sufficient.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Welsh initial mutations" title="Welsh initial mutations"> +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2"> Câr, <i>a kinsman</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Câr agos, <i>a near kinsman</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei gâr, <i>his kinsman</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei châr, <i>her kinsman</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 4. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vy nghâr, <i>my kinsman</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Tâd, <i>a father</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tâd y plentyn, <i>the child's father</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei dâd, <i>his father</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei thâd, <i>her father</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 4. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vy nhâd, <i>my father</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Pen, <i>a head</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Pen gwr, <i>the head of a man</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei ben, <i>his head</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei phen, <i>her head</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 4. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vy mhen, <i>my head</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Gwâs, <i>a servant</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gwâs fydhlon, <i>a faithful servant</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei wâs, <i>his servant</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page79"></a>{79}</span> + 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vy ngwas, <i>my servant</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Duw, <i>a god</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Duw trugarog, <i>a merciful god</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei dhuw, <i>his god</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vy nuw, <i>my god</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Bara, <i>bread</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bara cann, <i>white bread</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei vara, <i>his bread</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vy mara, <i>my bread</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Lhaw, <i>a hand</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lhaw wenn, <i>a white hand</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei law, <i>his hand</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Mam, <i>a mother</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mam dirion, <i>a tender mother</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei vam, <i>his mother</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Rhwyd, <i>a net</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Rhwyd lawn, <i>a full net</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ei rwyd, <i>his net</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> <p class="cenhead">From the Erse.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2"> Súil, <i>an eye</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 1. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Súil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> A húil, <i>his eye</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="nspac" colspan="2" style="padding-top:1em"> Sláinte, <i>health</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> 2. <i>form</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Do hláinte, <i>your health</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect136">§ 136</a>. When we have seen that one of the great + characteristics of the Celtic tongues is to express inflection by initial + changes, we may ask how far the principle of such change is common to the + two branches—British or Gaelic; this and a few other details being + quite sufficient to show the affinity between them.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Inflections formed by Changes of Initial Consonants.</i></p> + + <p>The changes in Welsh, classified according to the relationship of the + sounds are—</p> + + <p>1. From the sharp lenes to the corresponding flats; as <i>p</i> to + <i>b</i>, <i>t</i> to <i>d</i>, <i>c</i> to <i>g</i>. The changes in + Irish are the same.</p> + + <p>2. From the flat lenes to their corresponding so-called aspirates; as + <i>b</i> to <i>v</i>, <i>d</i> to <i>ð</i>. This is the change in Welsh. + In Irish we have the same, but only as far as <i>b</i> is concerned; the + aspirate of <i>d</i> (<i>ð</i>) being wanting in that language. In + neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of <i>g</i>. In neither + Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of <i>c</i>; which, being + wanting, is replaced by the sound of the <i>ch</i> in the German + <i>auch</i>, here spelt <i>ç</i>.</p> + + <p>Now the Welsh grammarians deal with the changes from sharp to flat, + and from lene to aspirate, alike; since, in respect to the grammar of + their language, they are enabled to state that they take place under the + same circumstances. <!-- Page 80 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page80"></a>{80}</span>Taken collectively they are called light: + and words wherein <i>p</i> is changed to <i>b</i>, and those wherein + <i>b</i> is changed to <i>v</i>, are equally said to assume the light + sound. This the Welsh express in spelling, and write <i>ben</i> for + <i>pen</i>, and <i>vraint</i> for <i>braint</i>, &c. In Irish the + arrangement is different. When a so-called aspirate is substituted for a + lene, the word is said to take an aspiration, and <i>bheul</i> is written + <i>beul</i>. If, however, the sharp be made flat, the original sound is + said to be eclipsed. In spelling, however, it is preserved; so that + <i>teine</i>, with the <i>t</i> changed, is written <i>dteine</i>, and + pronounced <i>deine</i>. With this view we can now ask how far the change + from <i>p</i> to <i>b</i>, <i>t</i> to <i>d</i>, <i>c</i> to <i>g</i>, + <i>b</i> to <i>v</i>, <i>c</i> to <i>ç</i>, takes place in Irish and + Welsh under similar circumstances.</p> + + <p>In <i>Welsh</i>—after all verbs, except those of the infinitive + mood; as <i>caravi gaer</i> (for <i>caer</i>)=<i>I love a fort</i>.</p> + + <p>In <i>Irish</i>—after all verbs, provided that the substantive + be masculine; as <i>ta me ag gearrad çrainn</i>=<i>I am cutting (at to + cut) a tree</i>. Here <i>çrainn</i> comes from <i>crainn</i>. This change + in Irish extends only to the change from lene to aspirate.</p> + + <p>In <i>Welsh</i>—after the possessive pronouns <i>thy</i>, + <i>thine</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>its</i>, <i>mine</i> (but not <i>my</i>); as + <i>dy vâr</i> (for <i>bâr</i>)=<i>thy wrath</i>; <i>ei vraint</i> (from + <i>braint</i>)=<i>his privilege</i>. <i>N. B.</i> Although the same word + (<i>ei</i>) means <i>her</i>, <i>his</i>, and <i>its</i>, it induces the + light change only when it is either masculine or neuter.</p> + + <p>In <i>Irish</i>—after the possessive pronouns <i>my</i>, + <i>thy</i>, and <i>his</i>. Here the change is of the first sort only, or + an aspiration; as <i>mo vàs</i> (<i>bàs</i>)=<i>my death</i>; <i>do + ços</i> (<i>cos</i>)=<i>thy foot</i>; <i>çeann</i> (<i>ceann</i>)=<i>his + head</i>. <i>N. B.</i> Although the same word (<i>a</i>) means + <i>her</i>, <i>his</i>, and <i>its</i>, it induces the aspirate only when + it is either masculine or neuter.</p> + + <p>In <i>Welsh</i>—the initials of adjectives become light when + their substantive is feminine.</p> + + <p>In <i>Irish</i>—the initials of adjectives singular, aspirated + in the oblique cases only of the masculine, are aspirated throughout in + the feminine.</p> + + <p>In <i>Welsh</i>—after certain adverbs called formative, used + like the English words <i>to</i>, <i>as</i>, &c., in the formation of + the degrees of nouns, and the moods of verbs (in other words, <!-- Page + 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>{81}</span>after certain + particles), initial sounds become light; as <i>rhy vyçan</i> + (<i>byçan</i>)=<i>very</i> (<i>over</i>) <i>little</i>; <i>ni çarav</i> + (<i>carav</i>)=<i>I do not love</i>.</p> + + <p>In <i>Irish</i>—the same, in respect to the change from lene to + aspirate; <i>ro veag</i>=<i>very little</i>; <i>ni vualim</i> + (<i>bualim</i>)=<i>I do not beat</i>; <i>do vuaileas</i>=<i>I struck</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p>In <i>Welsh</i>—initials are light after all prepositions except + <i>in</i> and <i>towards</i>.</p> + + <p>In <i>Irish</i>—the prepositions either eclipse the noun that + they govern or else aspirate it. A Welsh grammarian would say that it + made them light.</p> + + <p>In <i>Welsh</i>—initials of feminines become light after the + Articles.</p> + + <p>In <i>Irish</i>—masculines are aspirated in the genitive and + dative singular; feminines in the nominative and dative. <i>N.B.</i> The + difference here is less than it appears to be. The masculine dative is + changed, not as a masculine, but by the effect of the particle <i>do</i>, + the sign of the dative; the genitive, perhaps, is changed <i>ob + differentiam</i>. This being the fact, the nominative is the only case + that is changed <i>as such</i>. Now this is done with the feminines only. + The inflection explains this.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Aspiration in Irish" title="Aspiration in Irish"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2" style="padding-left:2em; text-align:center;"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> an crann=<i>the tree</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> an ços=<i>the foot</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> an çrainn. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> an cos.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> don çrann. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> don ços.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> an crainn. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> an cos.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Such the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate. The + second order of changes is remarkable, <i>viz.</i> from the mutes to + their corresponding liquids, and, in the case of series <i>k</i>, to + <i>ng</i>. This, in Welsh, is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Mute to liquid in Welsh" title="Mute to liquid in Welsh"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black;"> <i>Sharp.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em; text-align:center;"> <i>Flat.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> <i>p</i> to <a name="NtA19" href="#Nt19"><sup>[19]</sup></a><i>m=h</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <i>b</i> to <i>m</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> <i>t</i> to <a href="#Nt19"><sup>[19]</sup></a><i>n=h</i>.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <i>d</i> to <i>n</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> <i>k</i> to <i>ng=h</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <i>g</i> to <i>ng</i>. </td></tr> +</table> + + <p><i>e.g.</i>, <i>nheyrnas</i> for <i>teyrnas</i>, <i>ngherð</i> for + <i>cerð</i>, <i>nuw</i> for <i>duw</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>{82}</span></p> + + <p>In Irish the combinations <i>m</i> + <i>h</i>, <i>n</i> + <i>h</i>, + <i>ng</i> + <i>h</i> are wanting: <i>t</i>, however, under certain + conditions, becomes <i>h</i>, as <i>mo high</i> (<i>tigh</i>)=<i>my + house</i>. With the unaspirated liquids the change, however, coincides + with that of the Welsh—<i>ar maile</i> (spelt <i>mbaile</i>)=<i>our + town</i>; <i>ar nia</i> (spelt <i>ndia</i>)=<i>our God</i>; <i>ar + ngearran</i>=<i>our complaint</i>. These words come respectively from + <i>baile</i>, <i>dia</i>, <i>gearran</i>. To show that this change takes + place in Irish and Welsh under similar circumstances is more than can be + expected; since <i>ð</i> being wanting in Irish, leaves <i>d</i> to be + changed into <i>n</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Inflections formed by changes in the middle of words</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Plurals from Singulars</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Singular to plural by middle change" title="Singular to plural by middle change"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black;" colspan="3"> <i>Welsh.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em; text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Irish.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black;"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em; text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Aber</td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a conflux</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> ebyr. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> Ball </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a spot</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> baill.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Barð</td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a bard</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> beirð. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> Cnoc </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a hill</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> cnoic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bràn</td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a crow</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> brain. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> Poll </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a pit</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> poil.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Fon </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a staff</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> fyn </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> Fonn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a tune</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> foinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Maen</td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a stone</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> mein. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> Crann</td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a tree</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> crainn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gûr </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a man</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; border-right:1px solid black;"> gûyr. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> Fear </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>a man</i>; </td><td class="qspcsingle"> fir.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-right:2em; text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black;" colspan="3"> &c. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:2em; text-align:center;" colspan="3"> &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Inflections formed by addition.</i></p> + + <p><i>Plural forms.</i>—When not expressed by a change of vowel, + <i>-d</i> (or an allied sound) both in Welsh and Irish has a plural + power; as <i>merç</i>, <i>merçed</i>; <i>hyð</i>, <i>hyðoð</i>; + <i>teyrn</i>, <i>teyrneð</i>=<i>girls</i>, <i>stags</i>, <i>kings</i>; + Welsh:—<i>gealaç</i>, <i>gealaçad</i>; <i>sgolog</i>, + <i>sgolagad</i>; <i>uiseog</i>, <i>uiseogad</i>=<i>moons</i>, + <i>farmers</i>, <i>larks</i>; Irish. In each language there are plural + forms in <i>-d</i>.</p> + + <p>Also in <i>-n</i>, as <i>dyn</i>=<i>a person</i>, + <i>dynion</i>=<i>persons</i>. In Irish there is the form <i>cu</i>=<i>a + greyhound</i>; Plural <i>cuin</i>. It may be doubted, however, whether + <i>-n</i> is not ejected in the singular rather than added in the + plural.</p> + + <p>Also in <i>-au</i>, Welsh (as <i>pén-au</i>=<i>heads</i>), and in + <i>-a</i>, Irish (as <i>cos-a</i>=<i>feet</i>).</p> + + <p>In each language there is, in respect to both case and <!-- Page 83 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page83"></a>{83}</span>gender, an equal + paucity of inflections. The Irish, however, preserves the Indo-European + dative plural in <i>b</i>; as <i>ços-aiv</i>=ped-<i>ibus</i>.</p> + + <p>The ordinals in Welsh are expressed by <i>-ved</i>; as + <i>saiþ</i>=<i>seven</i>, <i>seiþved</i>=<i>seventh</i>. The ordinals in + Irish are expressed by <i>-vad</i>, as <i>seaçt</i>=<i>seven</i>, + <i>seaçt-vad</i>=<i>seventh</i> (spelt <i>seachmhadh</i>).</p> + + <p>The terminations <i>-n</i> and <i>-g</i> are diminutive in Welsh; as + <i>dyn-yn</i>=<i>mannikin</i>, <i>oen-ig</i>=<i>lambkin</i>. They have + the same power in Irish; as <i>cnoc-an</i>=<i>a hillock</i>; + <i>duil-eog</i>=<i>a leaflet</i>. In Irish, currently spoken, there is no + inflection for the comparative degrees;—there is, however, an + obsolete form in <i>-d</i>, as <i>glass</i>, + <i>glaiside</i>=<i>green</i>, <i>greener</i>. In Welsh the true + comparative ends in <i>ç</i>, as <i>main</i>=<i>slender</i>, + <i>mainaç</i>=<i>more slender</i>. A form, however, exists in <i>-ed</i>, + meaning equality, and so implying comparison, <i>viz.</i>, + <i>mein-ed</i>=<i>so slender</i>.</p> + + <p>As expressive of an agent, the termination <i>-r</i> is common to both + languages. Welsh, <i>mor-ûr</i>=<i>a seaman</i>; <i>telynaur</i>=<i>a + harpist</i>; Irish, <i>sealg-aire</i>=<i>a hunter</i>; + <i>figead-oir</i>=<i>a weaver</i>.</p> + + <p>As expressive of "abounding in," the termination <i>-c</i> (or + <i>-g</i>) is common in both languages. Welsh, + <i>boliûag</i>=<i>abounding in belly</i>; <i>toirteaç</i>=<i>abounding in + fruit</i>. In each language a sound of series <i>t</i>, is equivalent to + the English <i>-ly</i>. Welsh, <i>mab-aið</i>=<i>boy-like</i>. Irish, + <i>duin-eata</i>=<i>manly</i>.</p> + + <p>Of the personal terminations it may be said, that those of both the + Irish and Welsh are those of the other European tongues, and that they + coincide and differ in the same way with those of the Gothic stock: the + form in <i>m</i> being the one more constant. For the theory of the + personal terminations, the reader is referred to the Eastern Origin of + the Celtic Nations, by Dr. Prichard.</p> + + <p>The present notices being indicative of grammatical affinities only, + the glossarial points of likeness between the Welsh and Irish are + omitted.</p> + + <p><a name="sect137">§ 137</a>. The Celtic tongues have lately received + especial illustration from the researches of Mr. Garnett. Amongst other, + the two following points are particularly investigated by him:— + <!-- Page 84 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page84"></a>{84}</span></p> + + <p>1. The affinities of the ancient language of Gaul.</p> + + <p>2. The affinities of the Pictish language or dialect.</p> + + <p><a name="sect138">§ 138</a>. <i>The ancient language of Gaul + Cambrian.</i>—The evidence in favour of the ancient language of + Gaul being Cambrian rather than Gaelic, lies in the following + facts:—</p> + + <p>The old Gallic glosses are more Welsh than Gaelic.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> <i>Petorritum</i>=<i>a four-wheeled carriage</i>, from the + Welsh, <i>peaer</i>=<i>four</i>, and <i>rhod</i>=<i>a wheel</i>. The + Gaelic for <i>four</i> is <i>ceathair</i>, and the Gaelic compound would + have been different.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>Pempedula</i>, the <i>cinque-foil</i>, from the Welsh + <i>pump</i>=<i>five</i>, and <i>dalen</i>=<i>a leaf</i>. The Gaelic for + <i>five</i> is <i>cuig</i>, and the Gaelic compound would have been + different.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> <i>Candetum</i>=a measure of 100 feet, from the Welsh + <i>cant</i>=100. The Gaelic for <i>a hundred</i> is <i>cead</i>, and the + Gaelic compound would have been different.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i> <i>Epona</i>=<i>the goddess of horses</i>. In the Old + Armorican the root <i>ep</i>=<i>horse</i>. The Gaelic for a horse is + <i>each</i>.</p> + + <p><i>e.</i> The evidence from the names of geographical localities in + Gaul, both ancient and modern, goes the same way: <i>Nantuates</i>, + <i>Nantouin</i>, <i>Nanteuil</i>, are derived from the Welsh + <i>nant</i>=<i>a valley</i>, a word unknown in Gaelic.</p> + + <p><i>f.</i> The evidence of certain French provincial words, which are + Welsh and Armorican rather than Erse or Gaelic.</p> + + <p><i>g.</i> An inscription on an ancient Celtic tablet found at Paris, + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1711, and representing a bull and three + birds (cranes), is TARWOS TRI GARANOS. Now, for the first two names, the + Gaelic affords as good an explanation as the Welsh; the third, however, + is best explained by the Welsh.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Bull and three cranes" title="Bull and three cranes"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Bull</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>tarw</i>, Welsh; <i>tarbh</i>, Gaelic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Three</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>tri</i>, Welsh; <i>tre</i>, Gaelic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Crane</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>garan</i>, Welsh; <i>corr</i>, Gaelic.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect139">§ 139</a>. <i>The Pictish most probably + Cambrian.</i>—The evidence in favour of the Pictish being Cambrian + rather than Gaelic lies in the following facts:—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> When St. Columba preached, whose mother-tongue was Irish + Gaelic, he used an interpreter—<i>Adamnanus apud <!-- Page 85 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>{85}</span>Colgarum</i>, 1, + 11, c.32. This is a point of external evidence, and shows the + <i>difference</i> between the Pict and Gaelic. What follows are points of + internal evidence, and show the affinity between the Pict and Welsh.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> A manuscript in the Colbertine library contains a list of + Pictish kings from the fifth century downwards. These names are not only + more Celtic than Gothic, but more Welsh than Gaelic. + <i>Taran</i>=<i>thunder</i> in Welsh. <i>Uven</i> is the Welsh + <i>Owen</i>. The first syllable in <i>Talorg</i> (=<i>forehead</i>) is + the <i>tal</i> in <i>Talhaiarn</i>=<i>iron forehead</i>, + <i>Taliessin</i>=<i>splendid forehead</i>, Welsh names. <i>Wrgust</i> is + nearer to the Welsh <i>Gwrgust</i> than to the Irish <i>Fergus</i>. + Finally, <i>Drust</i>, <i>Drostan</i>, <i>Wrad</i>, <i>Necton</i>, + closely resemble the Welsh <i>Trwst</i>, <i>Trwstan</i>, <i>Gwriad</i>, + <i>Nwython</i>. <i>Cineod</i> and <i>Domhnall</i> (<i>Kenneth</i> and + <i>Donnell</i>), are the only true Erse forms in the list.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> The only Pictish common name extant is the well-known + compound <i>pen val</i>, which is in the oldest MS. of Bede <i>peann + fahel</i>. This means <i>caput valli</i>, and is the name for the eastern + termination of the Vallum of Antoninus. Herein <i>pen</i> is + unequivocally Welsh, meaning <i>head</i>. It is an impossible form in + Gaelic. <i>Fal</i>, on the other hand, is apparently Gaelic, the Welsh + for a <i>rampart</i> being <i>gwall</i>. <i>Fal</i>, however, occurs in + Welsh also, and means <i>inclosure</i>.</p> + + <p>The evidence just indicated is rendered nearly conclusive by an + interpolation, apparently of the twelfth century, of the Durham MS. of + Nennius, whereby it is stated that the spot in question was called in + Gaelic <i>Cenail</i>. Now Cenail is the modern name <i>Kinneil</i>, and + it is also a Gaelic translation of the Pict <i>pen val</i>, since + <i>cean</i> is the Gaelic for <i>head</i>, and <i>fhail</i> for + <i>rampart</i> or <i>wall</i>. If the older form were Gaelic, the + substitution, or translation, would have been superfluous.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i> The name of the <i>Ochil Hills</i> in Perthshire is better + explained from the Pict <i>uchel</i>=<i>high</i>, than from the Gaelic + <i>uasal</i>.</p> + + <p><i>e.</i> Bryneich, the British form of the province Bernicia, is + better explained by the Welsh <i>bryn</i>=<i>ridge</i> (<i>hilly + country</i>), than by any word in Gaelic.—Garnett, in + <i>Transactions of Philological Society</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 86 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>{86}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE ANGLO-NORMAN, AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL +STOCK.</p> + + <p><a name="sect140">§ 140</a>. The languages of Greece and Rome belong + to one and the same stock.</p> + + <p>The Greek and its dialects, both ancient and modern, constitute the + Greek or Hellenic branch of the Classical stock.</p> + + <p>The Latin in all its dialects, the old Italian languages allied to it, + and the modern tongues derived from the Roman, constitute the Latin or + Ausonian branch of the Classical stock.</p> + + <p>Now, although the Greek or Hellenic dialects are of secondary + importance in the illustration of the history of the English language, + the Latin or Ausonian elements require a special consideration.</p> + + <p>The French element appeared in our language as a result of the battle + of Hastings (<span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1066), <i>perhaps, in a + slight degree, at a somewhat earlier period</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect141">§ 141</a>. Previous to the notice of the immediate + relations of the Norman-French, or, as it was called after its + introduction into England, Anglo-Norman, its position in respect to the + other languages derived from the Latin may be exhibited.</p> + + <p>The Latin language overspread the greater part of the Roman empire. It + supplanted a multiplicity of aboriginal languages; just as the English of + North America <i>has</i> supplanted the aboriginal tongues of the native + Indians, and just as the Russian <i>is</i> supplanting those of Siberia + and Kamskatcha.</p> + + <p>Sometimes the war that the Romans carried on against the old + inhabitants was a war of extermination. In this case the original + language was superseded <i>at once</i>. In other cases their influence + was introduced gradually. In this case the influence of the original + language was greater and more permanent. <!-- Page 87 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>{87}</span></p> + + <p>Just as in the United States the English came in contact with an + American, whilst in New Holland it comes in contact with an Australian + language, so was the Latin language of Rome engrafted, sometimes on a + Celtic, sometimes on a Gothic, and sometimes on some other stock. The + nature of the original language must always be borne in mind.</p> + + <p>From Italy, its original seat, the Latin was extended in the following + chronological order:—</p> + + <p>1. To the Spanish Peninsula; where it overlaid or was engrafted on + languages allied to the present Biscayan (<i>i.e.</i>, languages of the + Iberic stock), mixed in a degree (scarcely determinable) with Celtic + elements=Celtiberic.</p> + + <p>2. To Gaul, or France, where it overlaid or was engrafted on languages + of the Celtic stock. This took place, at least for the more extreme parts + of Gaul, in the time of Julius Cæsar; for the more contiguous parts, in + the earlier ages of the Republic.</p> + + <p>3. To Dacia and Pannonia; where it overlaid or was engrafted on a + language the stock whereof is undetermined. The introduction of the Latin + into Dacia and Pannonia took place in the time of Trajan.</p> + + <p>From (1stly,) the original Latin of Italy, and from the imported + Latin, of (2ndly,) the Spanish Peninsula, (3rdly,) Gaul, (4thly,) Dacia + and Pannonia, we have (amongst others) the following modern + languages—1st Italian, 2nd Spanish and Portuguese, 3rd French, 4th + Wallachian. How far these languages differ from each other is currently + known. <i>One</i> essential cause of this difference is the difference of + the original language upon which the Latin was engrafted.</p> + + <p><a name="sect142">§ 142</a>. I am not doing too much for the sake of + system if I classify the languages, of which the Italian, French, + &c., are the representatives, as the languages of Germany were + classified, <i>viz.</i>, into divisions.</p> + + <p>I. The Spanish and Portuguese are sufficiently like the Italian to be + arranged in a single division. This may conveniently be called the + Hesperian division.</p> + + <p>II. The second division is the Transalpine. This comprises the + languages of Gaul, <i>viz.</i>, the Modern French, the <!-- Page 88 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>{88}</span>Anglo-Norman, + and the Provençal. It also includes a language not yet mentioned, the + Romanese (<i>Rumonsch</i>), or the language of the Grisons, or + Graubünten, of Switzerland.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Specimen of the Romanese</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Luke</i> <span class="scac">XV</span>. 11.</p> + + <p>11. Ün Hum veva dus Filgs:</p> + + <p>12. Ad ilg juven da quels schet alg Bab, "Bab mi dai la Part de la + Rauba c' aud' à mi:" ad el parchè or ad els la Rauba.</p> + + <p>13. A bucca bears Gis suenter, cur ilg Filg juven vet tut mess + ansemel, scha tilà 'l navent en ünna Terra dalunsch: a lou sfiget el tut + sia Rauba cun viver senza spargn.</p> + + <p>14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha vangit ei en quella Terra ün grond + Fumaz: ad el antschavet a ver basengs.</p> + + <p>15. Ad el mà, à: sa plidè enn ün Burgeis da quella Terra; a quel ilg + tarmatet or sin sês Beins a parchirar ils Porcs.</p> + + <p>16. Ad el grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas ch' ils + Porcs malgiavan; mo nagin lgi deva.</p> + + <p>17. Mo el mà en sasez a schet: "Quonts Fumelgs da mieu Bab han budonza + da Pann, a jou miei d' fom!"</p> + + <p>18. "Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier mieu Bab, e vi gir a lgi: 'Bab, jou + hai faig puccau ancunter ilg Tschiel ad avont tei;</p> + + <p>19. "'A sunt bucca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tieu Filg: fai mei + esser sco ün da tes Fumelgs.'"</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>III. The third division is the Dacian, Pannonian, or Wallachian, + containing the present languages of Wallachia and Moldavia.</p> + + <p>In the <i>Jahrbücher der Literatur</i>, June, 1829, specimens are + given of two of its dialects: 1, the Daco-Wallachian, north of the + Danube; 2, the Macedono-Wallachian, south of the Danube. The present + specimen varies from both. It is taken from the New Testament, printed at + Smyrna, 1838. The Dacian division is marked by placing the article after + the noun, as <i>homul</i>=<i>the man</i>=<i>homo ille</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Luke</i> <span class="sc">xv</span>. 11.</p> + + <p>11. Un om avea doĭ fec´orĭ.</p> + + <p>12. Shi a zis c´el maĭ tinr din eĭ tatluĭ su: tat, + dmĭ partea c´e mi se kade de avucie: shi de a imprcit lor + avuciea.</p> + + <p>13. Shi nu dup multe zile, adunint toate fec orul c´el maĭ tinr, + s'a dus intr 'o car departe, shi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind + intr dezmĭerdrĭ.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page89"></a>{89}</span></p> + + <p>14. Shi keltuind el toate, c'a fkut foamete mare intr' ac´ea car: shi + el a inc´eput a se lipsi.</p> + + <p>15. Shi mergina c'a lipit de unul din lkuitoriĭ criĭ + ac´eia: si 'l a trimis pre el la carinide sale c pask porc´iĭ.</p> + + <p>16. Shi doria c 'shĭ sature pinctec´ele sŭ de roshkobele + c´e minka porc´iĭ; shi niminĭ nu ĭ da luĭ.</p> + + <p>17. Iar viind intru sine, a zis: kicĭ argacĭ aĭ + tatluĭ mieŭ sint indestulacĭ de piĭne, iar + eŭ pĭeiŭ de foame.</p> + + <p>18. Skula-m-vioŭ, shi m' voiŭ duc´e la tata micŭ, + shi vioŭ zic´e lui:</p> + + <p>19. Tat, greshit-am la c´er shi inaintea ta, shi nu mai sint vrednik a + m kema fiul tŭ; fm ka pre unul din argaciĭ tĭ.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect143">§ 143</a>. Such is the <i>general</i> view of the + languages derived from the Latin, <i>i.e.</i>, of the languages of the + Latin branch of the Classical stock.</p> + + <p>The French languages of the Transalpine division require to be more + minutely exhibited.</p> + + <p>Between the provincial French of the north and the provincial French + of the south, there is a difference, at the present day, at least of + dialect, and perhaps of language. This is shown by the following + specimens: the first from the canton of Arras, on the confines of + Flanders; the second, from the department of Var, in Provence. The date + of each is <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1807.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">I.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Luke</i> <span class="sc">xv</span>. 11.</p> + + <p>11. Ain homme avoüait deeux garchéons.</p> + + <p>12. L'pus jone dit a sain père, "Main père, baillé m'chou qui doüo me + 'r'v'nir ed vous bien," et leu père leu partit sain bien.</p> + + <p>13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, chéon jours après l'pus tiò d'cnés + déeux éféans oyant r'cuéllé tout s'n' héritt'main, s'ot' ainvoye dains + nâin pahis gramain loüon, dû qu'il échilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant + l'braingand dains chés cabarets.</p> + + <p>14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mié et tout drélé, il o v'nu adonc + dains ch' pahis lo ainn' famaine cruüelle, et i c'mainchouait d'avoir + fon-ye d' pon-ye (<i>i.e</i>. faim de pain).</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead">II.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE SAME.</span></p> + + <p>11. Un homé avié dous enfans.</p> + + <p>12. Lou plus pichoun diguét a son päiré, "Moun päiré, dounas mi ce què + <!-- Page 90 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>{90}</span>mi + reven de vouastré ben;" lou päiré faguet lou partagé de tout ce que + poussédavo.</p> + + <p>13. Paou de jours après, lou pichoun vendét tout se què soun päiré li + avié desamparat, et s'en anét dins un päis fourço luench, ounté dissipét + tout soun ben en debaucho.</p> + + <p>14. Quand aguét ton aecaba, uno grosso famino arribet dins aqueou päis + et, leou, si veguét reduech à la derniero misèro.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Practically speaking, although in the central parts of France the + northern and southern dialects melt each into the other, the Loire may be + considered as a line of demarcation between two languages; the term + language being employed because, in the Middle Ages, whatever may be + their real difference, the northern tongue and the southern tongue were + dealt with not as separate dialects, but as distinct languages—the + southern being called Provençal, the northern Norman-French.</p> + + <p>Of these two languages (for so they will in the following pages be + called, for the sake of convenience) the southern or Provençal approaches + the dialects of Spain; the Valencian of Spain and the Catalonian of Spain + being Provençal rather than standard Spanish or Castilian.</p> + + <p>The southern French is sometimes called the Langue d'Oc, and sometimes + the Limousin.</p> + + <p>It is in the Southern French (Provençal, Langue d'Oc, or Limousin) + that we have the following specimen, <i>viz</i>., the Oath of Ludwig, + sworn <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 842.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Oath of the King.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Pro Deo amur et pro Xristian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist + di en avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist + meon fradre Karlo, et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit + son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet: et ab Ludher nul + plaid nunquam prindrai qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karle in damno + sit.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Oath of the People.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Si Loduuigs sagrament, que son fradre Karlo jurat, conservat; et + Karlus, meos sendra, de suo part non lo stanit; si io returnar non l'int + pois, ne io, ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra + Lodhuwig num li iver.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The same in Modern French.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Pour de Dieu l'amour et pour du Chrêtien peuple et le notre commun + salut, de ce jour en avant, en quant que Dieu savoir et pouvoir me donne + <!-- Page 91 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page91"></a>{91}</span>assurément sauverai moi ce mon frère + Charles, et en aide, et en chacune chose, ainsi comme homme par droit son + frère sauver doit, en cela que lui à moi pareillement fera: et avec + Lothaire nul traité ne onques prendrai qui, à mon vouloir, à ce mien + frère Charles en dommage soit.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>Si Louis le serment, qu'à son frère Charles il jure, conserve; + Charles, mon seigneur, de sa part ne le maintient; si je détourner ne + l'en puis, ni moi, ne nul que je détourner en puis, en nulle aide contre + Louis ne lui irai.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect144">§ 144</a>. The Norman-French, spoken from the Loire + to the confines of Flanders, and called also the Langue d'Oyl, differed + from the Provençal in (amongst others) the following circumstances.</p> + + <p>1. It was of later origin; the southern parts of Gaul having been + colonized at an early period by the Romans.</p> + + <p>2. It was in geographical contact, not with the allied languages of + Spain, but with the Gothic tongues of Germany and Holland.</p> + + <p>It is the Norman-French that most especially bears upon the history of + the English language.</p> + + <p>The proportion of the original Celtic in the present languages of + France has still to be determined. It may, however, be safely asserted, + that at a certain epoch between the first and fifth centuries, the + language of Gaul was more Roman and less Celtic than that of Britain.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SPECIMEN.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From the Anglo-Norman Poem of Charlemagne.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Un jur fu Karléun al Seint-Denis muster,</p> + <p>Reout prise sa corune, en croiz seignat sun chef,</p> + <p>E ad ceinte sa espée: li pons fud d'or mer.</p> + <p>Dux i out e demeines e baruns e chevalers.</p> + <p>Li emperères reguardet la reine sa muillers.</p> + <p>Ele fut ben corunée al plus bel e as meuz.</p> + <p>Il la prist par le poin desuz un oliver,</p> + <p>De sa pleine parole la prist à reisuner:</p> + <p>"Dame, véistes unkes humc nul de desuz ceil</p> + <p>Tant ben séist espée ne la corone el chef?</p> + <p>Uncore cunquerrei-jo citez ot mun espeez."</p> + <p>Cele ne fud pas sage, folement respondeit:</p> +<!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>{92}</span> + <p>"Emperere," dist-ele, trop vus poez preiser.</p> + <p>"Uncore en sa-jo on ki plus se fait léger,</p> + <p>Quant il porte corune entre ses chevalers;</p> + <p>Kaunt il met sur sa teste, plus belement lui set."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the northern French we must recognise not only a Celtic and a + Classical, but also a Gothic element: since Clovis and Charlemagne were + no Frenchmen, but Germans; their language being <i>High</i>-Germanic. The + High-Germanic element in French has still to be determined.</p> + + <p>In the northern French of <i>Normandy</i> there is a second Gothic + element, <i>viz.</i>, a Scandinavian element. By this the proper northern + French underwent a further modification.</p> + + <p>Until the time of the Scandinavians or Northmen, the present province + of Normandy was called Neustria. A generation before the Norman Conquest, + a Norwegian captain, named in his own country <i>Rolf</i>, and in France + <i>Rollo</i>, or <i>Rou</i>, settled upon the coast of Normandy. What + Hengist and the Germans are supposed to have been in Britain, Rollo and + his Scandinavians were in France. The province took from them its name of + Normandy. The <i>Norwegian</i> element in the Norman-French has yet to be + determined. Respecting it, however, the following statements may, even in + the present state of the question, be made:—</p> + + <p>1. That a Norse dialect was spoken in Normandy at Bayeux, some time + after the battle of Hastings.</p> + + <p>2. That William the Conqueror understood the Norse language.</p> + + <p>3. That the names Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney are as truly Norse + names as Orkney and Shetland.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>{93}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE POSITION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS INDO-EUROPEAN.</p> + + <p><a name="sect145">§ 145</a>. In each of the three preceding chapters a + separate stock of languages has been considered; and it has been shown, + in some degree, how far languages of the same stock differ from, or agree + with, each other.</p> + + <p>Furthermore, in each stock there has been some particular language + that especially illustrates the English.</p> + + <p>In the Gothic stock there has been the Anglo-Saxon; in the Celtic the + Welsh; and in the Classical the Anglo-Norman.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, the importance of the languages of these three divisions + is by no means equal. The Gothic tongues supply the basis of our + investigations. The Celtic afford a few remnants of that language which + the Anglo-Saxon superseded. The Anglo-Norman language exhibits certain + superadded elements.</p> + + <p><a name="sect146">§ 146</a>. Over and above the Gothic, Celtic, and + Classical languages, there are others that illustrate the English; and + some of our commonest grammatical inflections can be but half understood + unless we go beyond the groups already enumerated.</p> + + <p>The Gothic, Celtic (?),<a name="NtA20" + href="#Nt20"><sup>[20]</sup></a> and Classical stocks are but subordinate + divisions of a wider class. Each has a sufficient amount of mutual + affinities to be illustrative of each other, and each is contained, along + with two other groups of equal value, under a higher denomination in + philology.</p> + + <p>What is the nature of that affinity which connects languages so + different as the Gothic, Celtic (?), and Classical stocks? or what is the + amount of likeness between, <i>e.g.</i>, the <!-- Page 94 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page94"></a>{94}</span>German and Portuguese, + the Greek and Islandic, the Latin and Swedish, the Anglo-Saxon and + Italian? And what other languages are so connected?</p> + + <p>What other philological groups are connected with each other, and with + the languages already noticed, by the same affinities which connect the + Gothic, Celtic (?), and Classical stocks? Whatever these languages may + be, it is nearly certain that they will be necessary, on some point or + other, for the full illustration of the English.</p> + + <p>As both these questions are points of general, rather than of English, + philology, and as a partial answer may be got to the first from attention + to the degree in which the body of the present work exhibits + illustrations drawn from widely different languages, the following + statements are considered sufficient.</p> + + <p><a name="sect147">§ 147</a>. The philological denomination of the + class which contains the Gothic, Celtic (?), and Classical divisions, + and, along with the languages contained therein, all others similarly + allied, is <i>Indo-European</i>; so that the Gothic, Celtic (?), + Classical and certain other languages are Indo-European.</p> + + <p>All Indo-European languages illustrate each other.</p> + + <p>The other divisions of the great Indo-European group of languages are + as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. The Iranian stock of languages.—This contains the proper + Persian languages of Persia (Iran) in all their stages, the Kurd + language, and all the languages of Asia (whatever they may be) derived + from the Zend or Sanskrit.</p> + + <p>2. The Sarmatian stock of languages.—This contains the languages + of Russia, Poland, Bohemia, and of the Slavonian tribes in general. It + contains also the Lithuanic languages, <i>i.e.</i>, the Lithuanic of + Lithuania, the old Prussian of Prussia (now extinct), and the Lettish or + Livonic of Courland and Livonia.</p> + + <p>3, 4, 5. The Classical, Gothic, and Celtic (?) stocks complete the + catalogue of languages undoubtedly Indo-European, and at the same time + they explain the import of the term. Indo-European is the name of a class + which embraces the majority of the languages of <i>Europe</i>, and is + extended over <!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page95"></a>{95}</span>Asia as far as <i>India.</i> Until the + Celtic was shown by Dr. Prichard to have certain affinities with the + Latin, Greek, Slavonic, Lithuanic, Gothic, Sanskrit, and Zend, as those + tongues had with each other, the class in question was called + Indo-<i>Germanic</i>; since, up to that time, the Germanic languages had + formed its western limit.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p><a name="sect148">§ 148</a>. <i>Meaning of the note of interrogation + (?) after the word Celtic.</i>—In a paper read before the + Ethnological Society, February 28th, 1849, and published in the Edinburgh + Philosophical Magazine, the present writer has given reasons for + considering the claims of the Celtic to be Indo-European as somewhat + doubtful; at the same time he admits, and highly values, all the facts in + favour of its being so, which are to be found in Prichard's Eastern + Origin of the Celtic Nations.</p> + + <p>He believes, however, that the Celtic can only be brought in the same + group with the Gothic, Slavonic, &c., by <i>extending</i> the value + of the class.</p> + + <p>"To draw an illustration from the common ties of relationship, as + between man and man, it is clear that a family may be enlarged in two + ways.</p> + + <p>"<i>a.</i> A brother, or a cousin, may be discovered, of which the + existence was previously unknown. Herein the family is enlarged, or + increased, by the <i>real</i> addition of a new member, in a recognised + degree of relationship.</p> + + <p>"<i>b.</i> A degree of relationship previously unrecognised may be + recognised, <i>i.e.</i>, a family wherein it was previously considered + that a second-cousinship was as much as could be admitted within its + pale, may incorporate third, fourth, or fifth cousins. Here the family is + enlarged, or increased, by a <i>verbal</i> extension of the term.</p> + + <p>"Now it is believed that the distinction between increase by the way + of real addition, and increase by the way of verbal extension, has not + been sufficiently attended to. Yet, that it should be more closely + attended to, is evident; since, in mistaking a verbal increase for a real + one, the whole end and aim of classification is overlooked. The + publication of Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, in + 1831, <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page96"></a>{96}</span>supplied philologists with the most definite + addition that has perhaps, yet been made to ethnographical philology.</p> + + <p>"Ever since then the Celtic has been considered to be Indo-European. + Indeed its position in the same group with the Iranian, Classical, + Slavono-Lithuanic, and Gothic tongues, supplied the reason for + substituting the term Indo-<i>European</i> for the previous one + Indo-<i>Germanic</i>.</p> + + <p>"On the other hand, it seems necessary to admit that <i>languages are + allied just in proportion as they were separated from the mother-tongue + in the same stage of its development</i>.</p> + + <p>"If so, the Celtic became detached anterior <i>to the evolution of the + declension of nouns</i>, whereas the Gothic, Slavonic, Classical and + Iranian languages all separated <i>subsequent to that stage</i>."<a + name="NtA21" href="#Nt21"><sup>[21]</sup></a></p> + + <p>This, along with other reasons indicated elsewhere,<a name="NtA22" + href="#Nt22"><sup>[22]</sup></a> induces the present writer to admit an + affinity between the Celtic and the other so-called Indo-European + tongues, but to deny that it is the same affinity which connects the + Iranian, Classical, Gothic and Slavonic groups.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page97"></a>{97}</span></p> + +<h3>PART II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect149">§ 149</a>. The Celtic elements of the present + English fall into five classes.</p> + + <p>1. Those that are of late introduction, and cannot be called original + and constituent parts of the language. Such are (amongst others) the + words <i>flannel</i>, <i>crowd</i> (a fiddle), from the Cambrian; and + <i>kerne</i> (an Irish foot-soldier), <i>galore</i> (enough), + <i>tartan</i>, <i>plaid</i>, &c., from the Gaelic branch.</p> + + <p>2. Those that are common to both the Celtic and Gothic stocks, and are + Indo-European rather than either Welsh, or Gaelic, or Saxon. Such + (amongst others) are <i>brother</i>, <i>mother</i>, in Celtic + <i>brathair</i>, <i>mathair</i>; the numerals, &c.</p> + + <p>3. Those that have come to us from the Celtic, but have come to us + through the medium of another language. Such are <i>druid</i> and + <i>bard</i>, whose <i>immediate</i> source is, not the Celtic but, the + Latin.</p> + + <p>4. Celtic elements of the Anglo-Norman, introduced into England after + the Conquest, and occurring in that language as remains of the original + Celtic of Gaul.</p> + + <p>5. Those that have been retained from the original Celtic of the + island, and which form genuine constituents of our language. These fall + into three subdivisions.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> Proper names—generally of geographical localities; as + <i>the Thames</i>, <i>Kent</i>, &c. <!-- Page 98 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>{98}</span></p> + + <p><i>b.</i> Common names retained in the provincial dialects of England, + but not retained in the current language; as <i>gwethall</i>=<i>household + stuff</i>, and <i>gwlanen</i>=<i>flannel</i> in Herefordshire.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> Common names retained in the current language.—The + following list is Mr. Garnett's:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Common English words derived from Welsh" title="Common English words derived from Welsh"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Welsh</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>English</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Basgawd </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Basket</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Berfa </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Barrow</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Botwm </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Button</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bràn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Bran</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Clwt </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Clout</i>, <i>Rag</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Crochan </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Crock</i>, <i>Crockery</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Crog </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Crook</i>, <i>Hook</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cwch </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Cock</i>, in <i>Cock-boat</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cwysed </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gusset</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cyl, Cyln </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Kiln</i> (<i>Kill</i>, provinc.).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Dantaeth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dainty</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Darn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Darn</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Deentur </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Tenter</i>, in <i>Tenterhook</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Fflaim </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Fleam</i>, <i>Cattle-lancet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Fflaw </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Flaw</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ffynnell (air-hole) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Funnel</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gefyn (fetter) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gyve</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Greidell </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Grid</i>, in <i>Gridiron</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Grual </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gruel</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gwald (hem, border) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Welt</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gwiced (little door)</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Wicket</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gwn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gown</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gwyfr </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Wire</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Masg (stitch in netting)</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Mesh</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Mattog </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Mattock</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Mop </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Mop</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Rhail (fence) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Rail</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Rhasg (slice) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Rasher</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Rhuwch </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Rug</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Sawduriaw </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Solder</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Syth (glue) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Size</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Tacl </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Tackle</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect150">§ 150</a>. <i>Latin of the first + period.</i>—Of the Latin introduced by Cæsar and his successors, + the few words remaining are those that relate to military affairs; + <i>viz.</i> <i>street</i> (<i>strata</i>); <i>coln</i> (as in + <i>Lincoln</i>=<i>Lindi colonia</i>); <i>cest</i> (as in + <i>Gloucester</i>=<i>glevæ castra</i>) from <i>castra</i>. The Latin + words introduced between the time of Cæsar and Hengist may be called the + <i>Latin of the first period</i>, or the <i>Latin of the Celtic + period</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect151">§ 151</a>. <i>The Anglo-Saxon.</i>—This is not + noticed here, because from being the staple of the present language it is + more or less the subject of the book throughout.</p> + + <p><a name="sect152">§ 152</a>. <i>The Danish, or Norse.</i>—The + pirates that pillaged Britain, under the name of Danes, were not + exclusively the inhabitants of Denmark. Of the three Scandinavian + nations, the Swedes took the least share, the Norwegians the greatest + <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page99"></a>{99}</span>in + these invasions. Not that the Swedes were less piratical, but that they + robbed elsewhere,—in Russia, for instance, and in Finland.</p> + + <p>The language of the three nations was the same; the differences being + differences of dialect. It was that which is now spoken in Iceland, + having been once common to Scandinavia and Denmark. Whether this was + aboriginal in <i>Denmark</i>, is uncertain. In <i>Scandinavia</i> it was + imported; the tongue that it supplanted having been, in all probability, + the mother-tongue of the present Laplandic.</p> + + <p>The Danish that became incorporated with our language, under the reign + of Canute and his sons, may be called the direct Danish (Norse or + Scandinavian) element, in contradistinction to the indirect Danish of <a + href="#sect144">§§ 144</a>, <a href="#sect155">155</a>.</p> + + <p>The determination of the amount of Danish in English is difficult. It + is not difficult to prove a word <i>Scandinavian</i>. We must also show + that it is not German. A few years back the current opinion was against + the doctrine that there was much Danish in England. At present, the + tendency is rather the other way. The following facts are from Mr. + Garnett.—Phil. Trans. Vol. i.</p> + + <p>1. The Saxon name of the present town of <i>Whitby</i> in Yorkshire + was <i>Streoneshalch</i>. The present name <i>Whitby</i>, <i>Hvitby</i>, + or <i>White-town</i>, is Danish.</p> + + <p>2. The Saxon name of the capital of Derbyshire was + <i>Northweortheg</i>. The present name is Danish.</p> + + <p>3. The termination <i>-by</i>=<i>town</i> is Norse.</p> + + <p>4. On a monument in Aldburgh church, Holdernesse, in the East Riding + of Yorkshire, referred to the age of Edward the Confessor, is found the + following inscription:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Ulf</i> het aræran cyrice <i>for hanum</i> and for Gunthara saula.</p> + <p>"Ulf bid rear the church for him and for the soul of Gunthar."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Now, in this inscription, <i>Ulf</i>, in opposition to the Anglo-Saxon + <i>wulf</i>, is a Norse form; whilst <i>hanum</i> is a Norse dative, and + by no means an Anglo-Saxon one.—Old Norse <i>hanum</i>, Swedish + <i>honom</i>.</p> + + <p>5. The use of <i>at</i> for <i>to</i> as the sign of the infinitive + mood <!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page100"></a>{100}</span>is Norse, not Saxon. It is the regular + prefix in Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Feroic. It is also found in the + northern dialects of the Old English, and in the particular dialect of + Westmoreland at the present day.</p> + + <p>6. The use of <i>sum</i> for <i>as</i>; <i>e.g.</i>—<i>swa + sum</i> we forgive oure detturs.</p> + + <p>7. Isolated words in the northern dialects are Norse rather than + Saxon.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Provincial English words derived from Norse" title="Provincial English words derived from Norse"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Provincial.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Common Dialect.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Norse.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Braid </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Resemble</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bråas, <i>Swed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Eldin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Firing</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Eld, <i>Dan</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Force </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Waterfall</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fors, <i>D. Swed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gar </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Make</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Göra, <i>Swed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gill </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Ravine</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gil, <i>Iceland</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Greet </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Weep</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Grata, <i>Iceland</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ket </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Carrion</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Kiöd=Flesh, <i>Dan</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Lait </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Seek</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lede, <i>Dan</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Lathe </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Barn</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lade, <i>Dan</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Lile </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Little</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lille, <i>Dan</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect153">§ 153</a>. <i>Roman of the Second + Period.</i>—Of the Latin introduced under the Christianised Saxon + sovereigns, many words are extant. They relate chiefly to ecclesiastical + matters, just as the Latin of the Celtic period bore upon military + affairs.—<i>Mynster</i>, a minster, <i>monasterium</i>; + <i>portic</i>, a porch, <i>porticus</i>; <i>cluster</i>, a cloister, + <i>claustrum</i>; <i>munuc</i>, a monk, <i>monachus</i>; <i>bisceop</i>, + a bishop, <i>episcopus</i>; <i>arcebisceop</i>, archbishop, + <i>archiepiscopus</i>; <i>sanct</i>, a saint, <i>sanctus</i>; + <i>profost</i>, a provost, <i>propositus</i>; <i>pall</i>, a pall, + <i>pallium</i>; <i>calic</i>, a chalice, <i>calix</i>; <i>candel</i>, a + candle, <i>candela</i>; <i>psalter</i>, a psalter, <i>psalterium</i>; + <i>mæsse</i>, a mass, <i>missa</i>; <i>pistel</i>, an epistle, + <i>epistola</i>; <i>prædic-ian</i>, to preach, <i>prædicare</i>; + <i>prof-ian</i>, to prove, <i>probare</i>.</p> + + <p>The following are the names of foreign plants and + animals:—<i>camell</i>, a camel, <i>camelus</i>; <i>ylp</i>, + elephant, <i>elephas</i>; <i>ficbeam</i>, fig-tree, <i>ficus</i>; + <i>feferfuge</i>, feverfew, <i>febrifuga</i>; <i>peterselige</i>, + parsley, <i>petroselinum</i>.</p> + + <p>Others are the names of articles of foreign origin, as <i>pipor</i>, + pepper, <i>piper</i>; <i>purpur</i>, purple, <i>purpura</i>; + <i>pumicstan</i>, pumice-stone, <i>pumex</i>. <!-- Page 101 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page101"></a>{101}</span></p> + + <p>The above-given list is from Guest's English Rhythms (B. iii. c. 3). + It constitutes that portion of the elements of our language which may be + called the Latin of the second, or Saxon period.</p> + + <p><a name="sect154">§ 154</a>. <i>The Anglo-Norman + element.</i>—For practical purposes we may say that the French or + Anglo-Norman element appeared in our language after the battle of + Hastings, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1066.</p> + + <p>Previous, however, to that period we find notices of intercourse + between the two countries.</p> + + <p>1. The residence in England of Louis Outremer.</p> + + <p>2. Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard Duke of Normandy, + and the two children were sent to Normandy for education.</p> + + <p>3. Edward the Confessor is particularly stated to have encouraged + French manners and the French language in England.</p> + + <p>4. Ingulphus of Croydon speaks of his own knowledge of French.</p> + + <p>5. Harold passed some time in Normandy.</p> + + <p>6. The French article <i>la</i>, in the term <i>la Drove</i>, occurs + in a deed of <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 975.—See Ranouard, + <i>Journal des Savans</i>, 1830.</p> + + <p>The chief Anglo-Norman elements of our language are the terms + connected with the feudal system, the terms relating to war and chivalry, + and a great portion of the law terms—<i>duke</i>, <i>count</i>, + <i>baron</i>, <i>villain</i>, <i>service</i>, <i>chivalry</i>, + <i>warrant</i>, <i>esquire</i>, <i>challenge</i>, <i>domain</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect155">§ 155</a>. The Norwegian, Danish, Norse, or + Scandinavian element of the Anglo-Norman (as in the proper names + <i>Guernsey</i>, <i>Jersey</i>, <i>Alderney</i>, and perhaps others) + constitutes the <i>indirect</i> Scandinavian element of the English.</p> + + <p><a name="sect156">§ 156</a>. <i>Latin of the Third + Period.</i>—This means the Latin which was introduced between the + battle of Hastings and the revival of literature. It chiefly originated + with the monks, in the universities, and, to a certain extent, in the + courts of law. It must be distinguished from the <i>indirect</i> Latin + introduced as part and parcel of the Anglo-Norman. It has yet to be + accurately analyzed. <!-- Page 102 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page102"></a>{102}</span></p> + + <p><i>Latin of the Fourth Period.</i>—This means the Latin which + has been introduced between the revival of literature and the present + time. It has originated in the writings of learned men in general, and is + distinguished from that of the previous periods by—</p> + + <p>1. Being less altered in form—</p> + + <p>2. Preserving, in the case of substantives, in many cases its original + inflections; <i>axis</i>, <i>axes</i>; <i>basis</i>, + <i>bases</i>—</p> + + <p>3. Relating to objects and ideas for which the increase of the range + of science in general has required a nomenclature.</p> + + <p><a name="sect157">§ 157</a>. <i>Greek.</i>—Words derived + <i>directly</i> from the Greek are in the same predicament as the Latin + of the third period—<i>phænomenon</i>, <i>phænomena</i>; + <i>criterion</i>, <i>criteria</i>, &c.; words which are only + <i>indirectly</i> of Greek origin, being considered to belong to the + language from which they were immediately introduced into the English. + Such are <i>deacon</i>, <i>priest</i>, &c., introduced through the + Latin; thus a word like <i>church</i> proves no more in regard to a Greek + element in English, than the word <i>abbot</i> proves in respect to a + Syrian one.</p> + + <p><a name="sect158">§ 158</a>. The Latin of the fourth period and the + Greek agree in retaining, in many cases, the Latin or Greek inflexions + rather than adopting the English ones; in other words, they agree in + being but <i>imperfectly incorporated</i>. The phænomenon of imperfect + incorporation (an important one) is reducible to the following + rules:—</p> + + <p>1. That it has a direct ratio to the date of the introduction, + <i>i.e.</i>, the more recent the word the more likely it is to retain its + original inflexion.</p> + + <p>2. That it has a relation to the number of meanings belonging to the + words: thus, when a single word has two meanings, the original inflexion + expresses one, the English inflexion another—<i>genius</i>, + <i>genii</i>, often (<i>spirits</i>), <i>geniuses</i> (<i>men of + genius</i>).</p> + + <p>3. That it occurs with substantives only, and that only in the + expression of number. Thus, although the plural of substantives like + <i>axis</i> and <i>genius</i> are Latin, the possessive cases are + English. So also are the degrees of comparison, for <!-- Page 103 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page103"></a>{103}</span>adjectives + like <i>circular</i>, and the tenses, &c. for verbs, like + perambulate.</p> + + <p><a name="sect159">§ 159</a>. The following is a list of the chief + Latin substantives, introduced during the latter part of the fourth + period; and, preserving the <i>Latin</i> plural forms—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">FIRST CLASS.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Words wherein the Latin Plural is the same as the Latin Singular.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Words wherein the Latin Plural is the same as the Latin Singular" title="Words wherein the Latin Plural is the same as the Latin Singular"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> (<i>a</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Apparatus </td><td class="qspcsingle"> apparat<i>us</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hiatus </td><td class="qspcsingle"> hiat<i>us</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Impetus </td><td class="qspcsingle"> impet<i>us</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> (<i>b</i>) </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Caries </td><td class="qspcsingle"> cari<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Congeries </td><td class="qspcsingle"> congeri<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Series </td><td class="qspcsingle"> seri<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Species </td><td class="qspcsingle"> speci<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Superficies </td><td class="qspcsingle"> superfici<i>es</i>.</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="cenhead">SECOND CLASS.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Words wherein the Latin Plural is formed from the Latin Singular by +changing the last Syllable.</i></p> + + <p>(<i>a</i>).—<i>Where the Singular termination </i>-a<i> is + changed in the Plural into </i>-æ<i></i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Where the Singular termination -a is changed in the Plural into -æ" title="Where the Singular termination -a is changed in the Plural into -æ"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Formul<i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> formul<i>æ</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Lamin<i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> lamin<i>æ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Larv<i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> larv<i>æ</i></td></tr> +</table> + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Nebul<i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> nebul<i>æ</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Scori<i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> scori<i>æ</i>.</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>(<i>b</i>).—<i>Where the singular termination </i>-us<i> is + changed in the Plural into </i>-i<i></i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Where the Singular termination -us is changed in the Plural into -i" title="Where the Singular termination -us is changed in the Plural into -i"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Calcul<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> calcul<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Coloss<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> coloss<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Convolvul<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> convolvul<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Foc<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> foc<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Geni<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> geni<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Mag<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mag<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Nautil<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> nautil<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Œsophag<i>us</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> œsophag<i>i</i></td></tr> +</table> + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Polyp<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> polyp<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Radi<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> radi<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ranuncul<i>us</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> ranuncul<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Sarcophag<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> sarcophag<i>i</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Schirrh<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> schirrh<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Stimul<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> stimul<i>i</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Tumul<i>us</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> tumul<i>i</i>.</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>(<i>c</i>).—<i>Where the Singular termination </i>-um<i> is + changed in the Plural into </i>-a<i></i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Where the Singular termination -um is changed in the Plural into -a" title="Where the Singular termination -um is changed in the Plural into -a"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Animalcul<i>um</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> animalcul<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Arcan<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> arcan<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Collyri<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> collyri<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Dat<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> dat<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Desiderat<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> desiderat<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Effluvi<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> effluvi<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Empori<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> empori<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Encomi<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> encomi<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Errat<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> errat<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gymnasi<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> gymnasi<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> +<!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page104"></a>{104}</span> + Lixivi<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> lixivi<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Lustr<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> lustr<i>a</i></td></tr> +</table> + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Mausole<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mausole<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Medi<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> medi<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Memorand<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> memorand<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Menstru<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> menstru<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Moment<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> moment<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Premi<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> premi<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Scholi<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> scholi<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Spectr<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> spectr<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Specul<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> specul<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Strat<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> strat<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Succedane<i>um</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> succedane<i>a</i>.</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr></table> + + <p>(<i>d</i>).—<i>Where the singular termination </i>-is<i> is + changed in the Plural into </i>-es<i></i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Where the Singular termination -is is changed in the Plural into -es" title="Where the Singular termination -is is changed in the Plural into -es"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Amanuens<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> amanuens<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Analys<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> analys<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Antithes<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> antithes<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ax<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ax<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bas<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> bas<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Cris<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> cris<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Diæres<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> diæres<i>es</i></td></tr> +</table> + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ellips<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ellips<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Emphas<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> emphas<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Hypothes<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> hypothes<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Oas<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> oas<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Parenthes<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> parenthes<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Synthes<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> synthes<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Thes<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> thes<i>es</i>.</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="cenhead">THIRD CLASS.</p> + + <p><i>Words wherein the Plural is formed by inserting </i>-e<i> between + the last two sounds of the singular, so that the former number always + contains a syllable more than the latter</i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Plural formed by inserting -e" title="Plural formed by inserting -e"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Sing</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plur</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Apex </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>sounded</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> apec-<i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> apic<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Appendix </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> appendic-<i>s</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> appendic<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Calix </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> calic-<i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> calic<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cicatrix </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> cicatric-<i>s</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> cicatric<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Helix </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> helic-<i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> helic<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Index </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> indec-<i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> indic<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Radix </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> radic-<i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> radic<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Vertex </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> vertec-<i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> vertic<i>es</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Vortex </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> vortec-<i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> vortic<i>es</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In all these words the <i>c</i> of the singular number is sounded as + <i>k</i>, of the plural as <i>s</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect160">§ 160</a>. The following is a list of the chief + Greek substantives lately introduced, and preserving the <i>Greek</i> + plural forms—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">FIRST CLASS.</p> + + <p><i>Words where the singular termination </i>-on<i> is changed in the + plural into </i>-a<i></i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Greek plurals in -a" title="Greek plurals in -a"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Apheli<i>on</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> apheli<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Periheli<i>on</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> periheli<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Automat<i>on</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> automat<i>a</i></td></tr> +</table> + +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"> +<table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Criteri<i>on</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> criteri<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ephemer<i>on</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> ephemer<i>a</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Phænomen<i>on</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> phænomen<i>a</i>.</td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr></table> + +<p><!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>{105}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">SECOND CLASS.</p> + + <p><i>Words where the plural is formed from the original root by adding + either </i>-es<i> or </i>-a<i>, but where the singular rejects the last + letter of the original root.</i></p> + + <p><i>Plurals in </i>-es<i></i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Greek plurals in -es where the singular drops a letter" title="Greek plurals in -es where the singular drops a letter"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Original root.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Apsid- </td><td class="spacsingle"> apsid<i>es</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> apsis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cantharid- </td><td class="spacsingle"> cantharid<i>es</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> cantharis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Chrysalid- </td><td class="spacsingle"> chrysalid<i>es</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> chrysalis</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ephemerid- </td><td class="spacsingle"> ephemerid<i>es</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> ephemeris</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tripod- </td><td class="spacsingle"> tripod<i>es</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> tripos.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><i>Plurals in</i> -a:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Greek plurals in -a where the singular drops a letter" title="Greek plurals in -a where the singular drops a letter"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Original root.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dogmat- </td><td class="spacsingle"> dogmat<i>a</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> dogma</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lemmat- </td><td class="spacsingle"> lemmat<i>a</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> lemma</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Miasmat- </td><td class="spacsingle"> miasmat<i>a</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> miasma<a name="NtA23" href="#Nt23"><sup>[23]</sup></a></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect161">§ 161</a>. <i>Miscellaneous elements.</i>—Of + miscellaneous elements we have two sorts; those that are incorporated in + our language, and are currently understood (<i>e.g.</i>, the Spanish word + <i>sherry</i>, the Arabic word <i>alkali</i>, and the Persian word + <i>turban</i>), and those that, even amongst the educated, are considered + strangers. Of this latter kind (amongst many others) are the Oriental + words <i>hummum</i>, <i>kaftan</i>, <i>gul</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Of the currently understood miscellaneous elements of the English + language, the most important are from the French; some of which agree + with those of the Latin of the fourth period, and the Greek in preserving + the <i>French</i> plural forms—as <i>beau</i>, <i>beaux</i>, + <i>billets-doux</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Italian.</i>—Some words of Italian origin do the same: as + <i>virtuoso</i>, <i>virtuosi</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Hebrew.</i>—The Hebrew words, <i>cherub</i> and <i>seraph</i> + do the same; the form <i>cherub-im</i>, and <i>seraph-im</i>, being not + only plurals but Hebrew plurals.</p> + + <p>Beyond the words derived from these five languages, none form their + plurals other than after the English method, <i>i.e.</i>, in <i>-s</i>: + as <i>waltzes</i>, from the German word <i>waltz</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect162">§ 162</a>. The extent to which a language, which + like the English, at one and the same time requires names for many + objects, comes in contact with the tongues of half the world, <!-- Page + 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>{106}</span>and has, + moreover, a great power of incorporating foreign elements, derives fresh + words from varied sources, may be seen from the following incomplete + notice of the languages which have, in different degrees, supplied it + with new terms.</p> + + <p><i>Arabic.</i>—Admiral, alchemist, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, + alembic, algebra, alkali, assassin, from a paper of Mr. Crawford, read at + the British Association, 1849.</p> + + <p><i>Persian.</i>—Turban, caravan, dervise, + &c.—<i>Ditto.</i></p> + + <p><i>Turkish.</i>—Coffee, bashaw, divan, scimitar, janisary, + &c.—<i>Ditto.</i></p> + + <p><i>Hindu languages.</i>—Calico, chintz, cowrie, curry, lac, + muslin, toddy, &c.—<i>Ditto.</i></p> + + <p><i>Chinese.</i>—Tea, bohea, congou, hyson, soy, nankin, + &c.—<i>Ditto.</i></p> + + <p><i>Malay.</i>—Bantam (fowl), gamboge, rattan, sago, shaddock, + &c.—<i>Ditto.</i></p> + + <p><i>Polynesian.</i>—Taboo, tattoo.—<i>Ditto.</i></p> + + <p><i>Tungusian</i>, or some similar Siberian language.—Mammoth, + the bones of which are chiefly from the banks of the Lena.</p> + + <p><i>North American Indian.</i>—Squaw, wigwam, pemmican.</p> + + <p><i>Peruvian.</i>—Charki=prepared meat; whence <i>jerked</i> + beef.</p> + + <p><i>Caribbean.</i>—Hammock.</p> + + <p><i>Ancient Carian.</i>—Mausoleum.</p> + + <p><a name="sect163">§ 163</a>. In <a href="#sect157">§ 157</a> a + distinction is drawn between the <i>direct</i> and <i>indirect</i>, the + latter leading to the <i>ultimate origin</i> of words.</p> + + <p>Thus a word borrowed into the English from the French, might have been + borrowed into the French from the Latin, into the Latin from the Greek, + into the Greek from the Persian, &c., and so <i>ad infinitum</i>.</p> + + <p>The investigation of this is a matter of literary curiosity rather + than any important branch of philology.</p> + + <p>The ultimate known origin of many common words sometimes goes back to + a great date, and points to extinct languages—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Ancient Nubian (?)</i>—Barbarous.</p> + <p><i>Ancient Egyptian.</i>—Ammonia.</p> + <p><i>Ancient Syrian.</i>—Cyder.</p> + <p><i>Ancient Syrian.</i>—Pandar.</p> +<!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page107"></a>{107}</span> + <p><i>Ancient Lydian.</i>—Mæander.</p> + <p><i>Ancient Persian.</i>—Paradise.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect164">§ 164</a>. Again, a word from a given language may + be introduced by more lines than one; or it may be introduced twice over; + once at an earlier, and again at a later period. In such a case its form + will, most probably, vary; and, what is more, its meaning as well. Words + of this sort may be called <i>di-morphic</i>, their <i>di-morphism</i>, + having originated in one of two reasons—a difference of channel, or + a difference of date. Instances of the first are, <i>syrup</i>, + <i>sherbet</i>, and <i>shrub</i>, all originally from the <i>Arabic</i>, + <i>srb</i>; but introduced differently, viz., the first through the + Latin, the second through the Persian, and the third through the Hindoo. + Instances of the second are words like <i>minster</i>, introduced in the + Anglo-Saxon, as contrasted with <i>monastery</i>, introduced during the + Anglo-Norman period. By the proper application of these processes, we + account for words so different in present form, yet so identical in + origin, as <i>priest</i> and <i>presbyter</i>, <i>episcopal</i> and + <i>bishop</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect165">§ 165</a>. <i>Distinction.</i>—The history of + the languages that have been spoken in a particular country, is a + different subject from the history of a particular language. The history + of the languages that have been spoken in the United States of America, + is the history of <i>Indian</i> languages. The history of the languages + of the United States is the history of the Germanic language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect166">§ 166</a>. <i>Words of foreign simulating a + vernacular origin.</i>—These may occur in any mixed language + whatever; they occur, however, oftener in the English than in any + other.</p> + + <p>Let a word be introduced from a foreign language—let it have + some resemblance in sound to a real English one: lastly, let the meanings + of the two words be not absolutely incompatible. We may then have a word + of foreign origin taking the appearance of an English one. Such, amongst + others, are <i>beef-eater</i>, from <i>bœuffetier</i>; + <i>sparrow-grass</i>, <i>asparagus</i>; <i>Shotover</i>, <i>Chateau + vert</i>;<a name="NtA24" href="#Nt24"><sup>[24]</sup></a> + <i>Jerusalem</i>, <i>Girasole</i>;<a name="NtA25" + href="#Nt25"><sup>[25]</sup></a> <i>Spanish <!-- Page 108 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>{108}</span>beefeater</i>, <i>Spina + befida</i>; <i>periwig</i>, <i>peruke</i>; <i>runagate</i>, + <i>renegade</i>; <i>lutestring</i>, <i>lustrino</i>;<a name="NtA26" + href="#Nt26"><sup>[26]</sup></a> <i>O yes</i>, <i>Oyez!</i> + <i>ancient</i>, <i>ensign</i>.<a name="NtA27" + href="#Nt27"><sup>[27]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Dog-cheap.</i>—This has nothing to do with <i>dogs</i>. The + first syllable is <i>god</i>=<i>good</i> transposed, and the second the + <i>ch-p</i> in <i>chapman</i> (=<i>merchant</i>) <i>cheap</i>, and + <i>East-cheap</i>. In Sir J. Mandeville, we find <i>god-kepe</i>=<i>good + bargain</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Sky-larking.</i>—Nothing to do with <i>larks</i> of any sort; + still less the particular species, <i>alauda arvensis</i>. The word + improperly spelt <i>l-a-r-k</i>, and banished to the slang regions of the + English language, is the Anglo-Saxon <i>lác</i>=<i>game</i>, or + <i>sport</i>; wherein the <i>a</i> is sounded as in <i>father</i> (not as + in <i>farther</i>). <i>Lek</i>=<i>game</i>, in the present Scandinavian + languages.</p> + + <p><i>Zachary Macaulay</i>=<i>Zumalacarregui</i>; <i>Billy + Ruffian</i>=<i>Bellerophon</i>; <i>Sir Roger Dowlass</i>=<i>Surajah + Dowlah</i>, although so limited to the common soldiers, and sailors who + first used them, as to be exploded vulgarisms rather than integral parts + of the language, are examples of the same tendency towards the irregular + accommodation of misunderstood foreign terms.</p> + + <p><i>Birdbolt.</i>—An incorrect name for the <i>gadus lota</i>, or + <i>eel-pout</i>, and a transformation of <i>barbote</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Whistle-fish.</i>—The same for <i>gadus mustela</i>, or + <i>weazel-cod</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Liquorice</i>=<i>glycyrrhiza</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wormwood</i>=<i>weremuth</i>, is an instance of a word from the + same language, in an antiquated shape, being equally transformed with a + word of really foreign origin.</p> + + <p><a name="sect167">§ 167</a>. Sometimes the transformation of the + <i>name</i> has engendered a change in the object to which it applies, + or, at least, has evolved new ideas in connection with it. How easy for a + person who used the words <i>beef-eater</i>, <i>sparrow-grass</i>, or + <i>Jerusalem</i>, to believe that the officers designated by the former + either eat or used to eat more beef than other people (or at least had an + allowance of that viand); that the second word was the name for a + <i>grass</i>, or herb of which <i>sparrows</i> were fond; and that + <i>Jerusalem</i> artichokes came from Palestine.</p> + + <p>What has just been supposed is sometimes a real <!-- Page 109 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>{109}</span>occurrence. To account + for the name <i>Shotover-hill</i>, I have heard that Little John <i>shot + over</i> it. Here the confusion in order to set itself right, breeds a + fiction. Again, in chess, the piece now called the <i>queen</i>, was + originally the <i>elephant</i>. This was in Persian, <i>ferz</i>. In + French it became <i>vierge</i>, which, in time, came to be mistaken for a + derivative, and <i>virgo</i>=<i>the virgin</i>, <i>the lady</i>, <i>the + queen</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect168">§ 168</a>. Sometimes, where the form of a word in + respect to its <i>sound</i> is not affected, a false spirit of + accommodation introduces an unetymological <i>spelling</i>; as + <i>frontispiece</i><a name="NtA28" href="#Nt28"><sup>[28]</sup></a> from + <i>frontispecium</i>, <i>sover</i>eig<i>n</i>, from <i>sovrano</i>, + <i>colle</i>a<i>gue</i> from <i>collega</i>, <i>lant</i>h<i>orn</i> (old + orthography) from <i>lanterna</i>.</p> + + <p>The value of forms like these consists in their showing that language + is affected by false etymologies as well as by true ones.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p><a name="sect169">§ 169</a>. In <i>lambkin</i> and <i>lancet</i>, the + final syllables (<i>-kin</i> and <i>-et</i>) have the same power. They + both express the idea of smallness or diminutiveness. These words are but + two out of a multitude, the one (<i>lamb</i>) being of Saxon, the other + (<i>lance</i>) of Norman origin. The same is the case with the superadded + syllables: <i>-kin</i> is Saxon; <i>-et</i> Norman. Now to add a Saxon + termination to a Norman word, or <i>vice versâ</i>, is to corrupt the + English language.</p> + + <p>This leads to some observations respecting—</p> + + <p><a name="sect170">§ 170</a>. <i>Introduction of new + words</i>—<i>Hybridism.</i>—Hybridism is a term derived from + <i>hybrid-a</i>, <i>a mongrel</i>; a Latin word <i>of Greek + extraction</i>.</p> + + <p>The terminations <i>-ize</i> (as in <i>criticize</i>), <i>-ism</i> (as + in <i>criticism</i>), <i>-ic</i> (as in <i>comic</i>), these, amongst + many others, are Greek terminations. To add them to words of other than + of Greek origin is to be guilty of hybridism.</p> + + <p>The terminations <i>-ble</i> (as in <i>penetrable</i>), <i>-bility</i> + (as in <i>penetrability</i>, <i>-al</i> (as in + <i>parental</i>)—these, amongst many others, are Latin + terminations. To add them to words of other than of Latin origin is to be + guilty of hybridism.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>{110}</span></p> + + <p>Hybridism is the commonest fault that accompanies the introduction of + new words. The hybrid additions to the English language are most numerous + in works on science.</p> + + <p>It must not, however, be concealed that several well established words + are hybrid; and that, even in the writings of the classical Roman + authors, there is hybridism between the Latin and the Greek.</p> + + <p>The etymological view of every word of foreign origin is, not that it + is put together in England, but that it is brought whole from the + language to which it is vernacular. Now no derived word can be brought + whole from a language unless, in that language, all its parts exist. The + word <i>penetrability</i> is not derived from the English word + <i>penetrable</i>, by the addition of <i>-ty</i>. It is the Latin word + <i>penetrabilitas</i> imported.</p> + + <p><i>In derived words all the parts must belong to one and the same + language</i>, or, changing the expression, <i>every derived word must + have a possible form in the language from which it is taken</i>. Such is + the rule against Hybridism.</p> + + <p><a name="sect171">§ 171</a>. A true word sometimes takes the + appearance of a hybrid without really being so. The <i>-icle</i>, in + <i>icicle</i>, is apparently the same as the <i>-icle</i> in + <i>radicle</i>. Now, as <i>ice</i> is Gothic, and <i>-icle</i> classical, + hybridism is simulated. <i>Icicle</i>, however, is not a derivative but a + compound; its parts being <i>is</i> and <i>gicel</i>, both Anglo-Saxon + words.</p> + + <p><a name="sect172">§ 172</a>. <i>On Incompletion of the + Radical.</i>—Let there be in a given language a series of roots + ending in <i>-t</i>, as <i>sæmat</i>. Let a euphonic influence eject the + <i>-t</i>, as often as the word occurs in the nominative case. Let the + nominative case be erroneously considered to represent the root, or + radical, of the word. Let a derivative word be formed accordingly, + <i>i.e.</i>, on the notion that the nominative form and the radical form + coincide. Such a derivative will exhibit only a part of the root; in + other words, the radical will be incomplete.</p> + + <p>Now all this is what actually takes place in words like + <i>hæmo-ptysis</i> (<i>spitting of blood</i>), <i>sema-phore</i> (<i>a + sort of telegraph</i>). The Greek imparisyllabics eject a part of the + root in the nominative case; the radical forms being <i>hæmat-</i> and + <i>sæmat-</i>, not <i>hæm-</i> and <i>sæm-</i>. <!-- Page 111 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>{111}</span></p> + + <p>Incompletion of the radical is one of the commonest causes of words + being coined faultily. It must not, however, be concealed, that even in + the classical writers, we have (in words like <span title="distomos" class="grk" + >δίστομος</span>) + examples of incompletion of the radical.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p><a name="sect173">§ 173</a>. The preceding chapters have paved the way + for a distinction between the <i>historical</i> analysis of a language, + and the <i>logical</i> analysis of one.</p> + + <p>Let the present language of England (for illustration's sake only) + consist of 40,000 words. Of these let 30,000 be Anglo-Saxon, 5,000 + Anglo-Norman, 100 Celtic, 10 Latin of the first, 20 Latin of the second, + and 30 Latin of the third period, 50 Scandinavian, and the rest + miscellaneous. In this case the language is considered according to the + historical origin of the words that compose it, and the analysis (or, if + the process be reversed, the synthesis) is an historical analysis.</p> + + <p>But it is very evident that the English, or any other language, is + capable of being contemplated in another view, and that the same number + of words may be very differently classified. Instead of arranging them + according to the languages whence they are derived, let them be disposed + according to the meanings that they convey. Let it be said, for instance, + that out of 40,000 words, 10,000 are the names of natural objects, that + 1000 denote abstract ideas, that 1000 relate to warfare, 1000 to church + matters, 500 to points of chivalry, 1000 to agriculture, and so on + through the whole. In this case the analysis (or, if the process be + reversed, the synthesis) is not historical but logical; the words being + classed not according to their origin, but according to their + meaning.</p> + + <p>Now the logical and historical analysis of a language generally in + some degree coincides, as may be seen by noticing the kind of words + introduced from the Anglo-Norman, the Latin of the fourth period, and the + Arabic.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 112 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>{112}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE RELATION OF THE ENGLISH TO THE ANGLO-SAXON, +AND THE STAGES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect174">§ 174</a>. The relation of the present English to + the Anglo-Saxon is that of a <i>modern</i> language to an <i>ancient</i> + one: the words <i>modern</i> and <i>ancient</i> being used in a defined + and technical sense.</p> + + <p>Let the word <i>smiðum</i> illustrate this. <i>Smiðum</i>, the dative + plural of <i>smið</i>, is equivalent in meaning to the English <i>to + smiths</i>, or to the Latin <i>fabris</i>. <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'Smðium'."><i>Smiðum</i></span> however, is a + single Anglo-Saxon word (a substantive, and nothing more); whilst its + English equivalent is two words <i>i.e.</i>, a substantive with the + addition of a preposition). The letter <i>s</i>, in <i>smiths</i> shows + that the word is plural. The <i>-um</i>, in <i>smiðum</i>, does this and + something more. It is the sign of the <i>dative case</i> plural. The + <i>-um</i> in <i>smiðum</i>, is the part of a word. The preposition to is + a separate word with an independent existence. <i>Smiðum</i> is the + radical syllable <i>smið</i>, <i>plus</i> the subordinate inflectional + syllable <i>-um</i>, the sign of the dative case. <i>To smiths</i> is the + substantive <i>smiths</i>, <i>plus</i> the preposition <i>to</i>, + equivalent in power to the sign of a dative case, but different from it + in form. As far, then, as the word just quoted is concerned, the + Anglo-Saxon differs from the English thus. It expresses a given idea by a + modification of the form of the root, whereas the modern English denotes + the same idea by the addition of a preposition. The Saxon inflection is + superseded by a combination of words.</p> + + <p>The part that is played by the preposition with nouns, is played by + the auxiliaries (<i>have</i>, <i>be</i>, &c.) with verbs.</p> + + <p>The sentences in italics are mere variations of the same general + statement. (1.) <i>The earlier the stage of a given <!-- Page 113 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>{113}</span>language the + greater the amount of its inflectional forms, and the later the stage of + a given language, the smaller the amount of them.</i> (2.) <i>As + languages become modern they substitute prepositions and auxiliary verbs + for cases and tenses.</i> (3.) <i>The amount of inflection is in the + inverse proportion to the amount of prepositions and auxiliary verbs.</i> + (4.) <i>In the course of time languages drop their inflection and + substitute in its stead circumlocutions by means of prepositions, &c. + The reverse never takes place.</i> (5.) <i>Given two modes of expression, + the one inflectional </i>(smiðum)<i>, the other circumlocutional </i>(to + smiths)<i>, we can state that the first belongs to an early, the second + to a late, stage of language.</i></p> + + <p>The present chapter, then, showing the relation of the English to the + Anglo-Saxon, shows something more. It exhibits the general relation of a + modern to an ancient language. As the English is to the Anglo-Saxon, so + are the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian, to the old Norse; so also the + Modern High German to the Mœso-Gothic; so the Modern Dutch of + Holland to the Old Frisian; so, moreover, amongst the languages of a + different stock, are the French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanese + and Wallachian to the Latin, and the Romaic to the Ancient Greek.</p> + + <p><a name="sect175">§ 175</a>. Contrasted with the English, but + contrasted with it only in those points where the ancient tongue is + compared with the modern one, the Anglo-Saxon has the following + differences.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">NOUNS.</p> + + <p><i>Of Gender.</i>—In Anglo-Saxon there are three genders, the + masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. With <i>adjectives</i> each + gender has its peculiar declension; with <i>substantives</i> there are + also appropriate terminations, but only to a certain degree; <i>e.g.</i>, + of words ending in <i>-a</i> (<i>nama</i>, a name; <i>cuma</i>, a guest), + it may be stated that they are always masculine; of words in <i>-u</i> + (<i>sunu</i>, a son; <i>gifu</i>, a gift), that they are never neuter; in + other words, that they are either mas. or fem.</p> + + <p>The definite article varies with the gender of its substantive; <i>þæt + eage</i>, the eye; <i>se steorra</i>, the star; <i>seo tunge</i>, the + tongue. <!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page114"></a>{114}</span></p> + + <p><i>Of Number.</i>—The plural form in <i>-en</i> (as in + <i>oxen</i>), rare in English, was common in Anglo-Saxon. It was the + regular termination of a whole declension; <i>e.g.</i>, <i>eágan</i>, + eyes; <i>steorran</i>, stars; <i>tungan</i>, tongues. Besides this, the + Anglo-Saxons had forms in <i>-u</i> and <i>-a</i>, as <i>ricu</i>, + kingdoms; <i>gifa</i>, gifts. The termination <i>-s</i>, current in the + present English was confined to a single gender and to a single + declension, as <i>endas</i>, ends; <i>dagas</i>, days; <i>smiðas</i>, + smiths.</p> + + <p><i>Of Case.</i>—Of these the Saxons had, for their substantives, + at least three; viz. the nominative, dative, genitive. With the pronouns + and adjectives there was a true accusative form; and with a few especial + words an ablative or instrumental one. <i>Smið</i>, a smith; + <i>smiðe</i>, to a smith; <i>smiðes</i>, of a smith. Plural, + <i>smiðas</i>, smiths; <i>smiðum</i>, to smiths; <i>smiða</i>, of smiths: + <i>he</i>, he; <i>hine</i>, him; <i>him</i>, to him; <i>his</i>, his; + <i>se</i>, the; <i>þa</i>, the; <i>þy</i>, with the; <i>þam</i>, to the; + <i>þæs</i>, of the.</p> + + <p>Of the dative in <i>-um</i>, the word <i>whilom</i> (<i>at times</i>, + <i>at whiles</i>) is a still extant and an almost isolated specimen.</p> + + <p><i>Of Declension.</i>—In <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> it is necessary to + determine the termination of a substantive. There is the weak, or simple + declension for words ending in a vowel (as <i>eage</i>, <i>steorra</i>, + <i>tunga</i>), and the strong, or complex declension for words ending in + a consonant (<i>smið</i>, <i>spræc</i>, <i>leáf</i>). The letters + <i>i</i> and <i>u</i> are dealt with as semivowels, semivowels being + dealt with as consonants; so that words like <i>sunu</i> and <i>gifu</i> + belong to the same declension as <i>smið</i> and <i>sprǽc</i>.</p> + + <p>That the form of adjectives varies with their definitude or + indefinitude, has been seen from <a href="#sect93">§ 93</a>: definite + adjectives following the inflection of the simple; indefinite ones that + of the complex declension.</p> + + <p>The detail of the Anglo-Saxon declension may be collected from <a + href="#sect83">§§ 83</a>-89.</p> + + <p>The Anglo-Saxon inflection of the participles present is remarkable. + With the exception of the form for the genitive plural definite (which, + instead of <i>-ena</i>, is <i>-ra</i>,) they follow the declension of the + adjectives. From the masculine substantives formed from them, and + denoting the agent, they may be distinguished by a difference of + inflection. <!-- Page 115 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page115"></a>{115}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S Participle and Substantive" title="A-S Participle and Substantive"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Participle.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Substantive.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspac" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> Wegferende=<i>Wayfaring</i>. </td><td class="nspac" style="text-align:center"> Wegferend=<i>Wayfarer</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferende </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferend.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendne </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferend.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Abl.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferende </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferende.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferende.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendes </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferende </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendas.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendum </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferendra </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wegferenda.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><i>Pronouns Personal.</i>—Of the pronominal inflection in Saxon, + the character may be gathered from the chapter upon pronouns. At present, + it may be stated that, like the Mœso-Gothic and the Icelandic, the + Anglo-Saxon language possessed for the first two persons a <i>dual</i> + number; inflected as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S Dual Pronouns" title="A-S Dual Pronouns"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="nspac" style="text-align:center; padding-right:2em;" colspan="2"> <i>1st Person.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="nspac" style="text-align:center; padding-right:2em;" colspan="2"> <i>2nd Person.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Wit </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>We two.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Git </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Ye two.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Unc </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Us two.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Inc </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>You two.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Uncer </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Of us two.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Incer </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Of you two. </i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Besides this, the demonstrative, possessive, and relative pronouns, as + well as the numerals <i>twa</i> and <i>þreo</i>, had a fuller declension + than they have at present.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">VERBS.</p> + + <p><i>Mood.</i>—The subjunctive mood that in the present English + (with the exception of the conjugation of the verb substantive) differs + from the indicative only in the third person singular, was in Anglo-Saxon + inflected as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S Verb Present" title="A-S Verb Present"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="6"> <i>Indicative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <i>Pres. Sing.</i> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lufige. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <i>Plur.</i> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> Lufiað.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lufast. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lufað. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="6"> <i>Subjunctive Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <i>Pres. Sing.</i> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> Lufige. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <i>Plur.</i> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> Lufion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The Saxon infinitive ended in <i>-an</i> (<i>lufian</i>), and besides + this there was a so-called gerundial form, to <i>lufigenne</i>. <!-- Page + 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page116"></a>{116}</span></p> + + <p><i>Tense.</i>—In regard to tense, the Anglo-Saxon coincided with + the English. The present language has two tenses, the present and the + past; the Saxon had no more. This past tense the modern English forms + either by addition (<i>love</i>, <i>loved</i>), or by change + (<i>fall</i>, <i>fell</i>). So did the Anglo-Saxons.</p> + + <p><i>Number and Person.</i>—In the present English the termination + -<i>eth</i> (<i>moveth</i>) is antiquated. In Anglo-Saxon it was the only + form recognized. In English the plural number (indicative as well as + subjunctive) has no distinguishing inflection. It was not so in + Anglo-Saxon. There, although the <i>persons</i> were identical in form, + the <i>numbers</i> were distinguished by the termination -<i>að</i> for + the indicative, and -<i>n</i> for the subjunctive. (<i>See above.</i>) + For certain forms in the second conjugation, see the remarks on the forms + <i>drunk</i> and <i>drank</i>, in Part IV.</p> + + <p>Such are the chief points in the declension of nouns and the + conjugation of verbs that give a difference of character between the + ancient Anglo-Saxon and the modern English: and it has already been + stated that the difference between the New and the Old German, the Dutch + and the Frisian, the Italian, &c., and the Latin, the Romaic and the + Greek, &c., are precisely similar.</p> + + <p>How far two languages pass with equal rapidity from their ancient to + their modern, from their inflected to their uninflected state (in other + words, how far all languages alter at the same rate), is a question that + will be noticed elsewhere. At present, it is sufficient to say, that + (just as we should expect <i>à priori</i>) languages do <i>not</i> alter + at the same rate.</p> + + <p>Akin to the last question is a second one: viz.: how far the rate of + change in a given language can be accelerated by external circumstances. + This second question bears immediately upon the history of the English + language. The grammar of the current idiom compared with the grammar of + the Anglo-Saxon is simplified. How far was this simplification of the + grammar promoted by the Norman Conquest. The current views exaggerate the + influence of the Norman Conquest and of French connexions. The remark of + Mr. Price in his Preface to Warton, acceded to by Mr. Hallam in his + Introduction to the Literature of Europe, is, that every one of the <!-- + Page 117 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>{117}</span>other + Low Germanic languages (affected by nothing corresponding to the Norman + Conquest) displays the same simplification of grammar as the Anglo-Saxon + (affected by the Norman Conquest) displays. Confirmatory of this remark, + it may be added, that compared with the Icelandic, the Danish and Swedish + do the same. Derogatory to it is the comparatively complex grammar of the + <i>new</i> German, compared, not only with the Old High German, but with + the Mœso-Gothic. An extract from Mr. Hallam shall close the present + section and introduce the next.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than to + determine the commencement of the English language: not so much, as in + those on the Continent, because we are in want of materials, but rather + from an opposite reason, the possibility of showing a very gradual + succession of verbal changes that ended in a change of denomination. We + should probably experience a similar difficulty, if we knew equally well + the current idiom of France or Italy in the seventh and eighth centuries. + For when we compare the earliest English of the thirteenth century with + the Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, it seems hard to pronounce why it should + pass for a separate language, rather than a modification or + simplification of the former. We must conform, however, to usage, and say + that the Anglo-Saxon was converted into English:—1. By contracting + and otherwise modifying the pronunciation and orthography of words. 2. By + omitting many inflections, especially of the noun, and consequently + making more use of articles and auxiliaries. 3. By the introduction of + French derivatives. 4. By using less inversion and ellipsis, especially + in poetry. Of these, the second alone, I think, can be considered as + sufficient to describe a new form of language; and this was brought about + so gradually, that we are not relieved from much of our difficulty, as to + whether some compositions shall pass for the latest offspring of the + mother, or the earlier fruits of the daughter's fertility. It is a proof + of this difficulty that the best masters of our ancient language have + lately introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which is to cover everything from + A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1250."—Chapter i. 47.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect176">§ 176</a>. At a given period, then, the Anglo-Saxon + of the standard, and (if the expression may be used) classical authors, + such as Cædmon, Alfred, Ælfric, &c., had undergone such a change as + to induce the scholars of the present age to denominate it, not Saxon, + but <i>Semi</i>-Saxon. It had ceased to be genuine Saxon, but had not yet + become English. In certain parts of the kingdom, where the mode of speech + <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page118"></a>{118}</span>changed more rapidly than elsewhere, the + Semi-Saxon stage of our language came earlier. It was, as it were, + precipitated.</p> + + <p>The History of King Leir and his Daughters is found in two forms. + Between these there is a difference either of dialect or of date, and + possibly of both. Each, however, is Semi-Saxon. The extracts are made + from Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, p. 143.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Samples of Semi-Saxon" title="Samples of Semi-Saxon"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +Bladud hafde ene sune,<br /> +Leir was ihaten;<br /> +Efter his fader daie,<br /> +He heold þis drihlice lond,<br /> +Somed an his live,<br /> +Sixti winter.<br /> +He makade ane riche burh,<br /> +Þurh radfulle his crafte,<br /> +And he heo lette nemnen,<br /> +Efter him seolvan;<br /> +Kaer-Leir hehte þe burh.<br /> +Leof heo wes þan kinge,<br /> +Þa we, an ure leod-quide,<br /> +Leir-chestre clepiad,<br /> +Geare a þan holde dawon. +</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +Bladud hadde one sone,<br /> +Leir was ihote,<br /> +After his fader he held þis lond,<br /> +In his owene hond,<br /> +Ilaste his lif-dages,<br /> +Sixti winter.<br /> +He makede on riche borh,<br /> +Þorh wisemenne reade,<br /> +And hine lette nemni,<br /> +After him seolve;<br /> +Kair-Leir hehte þe borh.<br /> +Leof he was þan kinge;<br /> +Þe we, on ure speche,<br /> +Leþ-chestre cleopieþ,<br /> +In þan eolde daiye. +</td></tr></table> + + <p>The Grave, a poetical fragment, the latter part of the Saxon + Chronicle, a Homily for St. Edmund's Day (given in the Analecta), and + above all the printed extracts of the poem of Layamon, are the more + accessible specimens of the Semi-Saxon. The Ormulum, although in many + points English rather than Saxon, retains the dual number of the + Anglo-Saxon pronouns. However, lest too much stress be laid upon this + circumstance, the epistolary character of the Ormulum must be borne in + mind.</p> + + <p>It is very evident that if, even in the present day, there were spoken + in some remote district the language of Alfred and Ælfric, such a mode of + speech would be called, not Modern English, but Anglo-Saxon. This teaches + us that the stage of language is to be measured, not by its date, but by + its structure. Hence, Saxon ends and Semi-Saxon begins, not at a given + year, A.D., but at that time <!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page119"></a>{119}</span>(whenever it be) when certain grammatical + inflections disappear, and certain characters of a more advanced stage + are introduced.</p> + + <p>Some amongst others, of the earlier changes of the standard + Anglo-Saxon are,</p> + + <p>1. The substitution of -<i>an</i> for -<i>as</i>, in the plural of + substantives, <i>munucan</i> for <i>munucas</i> (monks); and, conversely, + the substitution of -<i>s</i> for -<i>n</i>, as <i>steorres</i> for + <i>steorran</i> (stars). The use of -<i>s</i>, as the sign of the plural, + without respect to gender, or declension, may be one of those changes + that the Norman Conquest forwarded; -<i>s</i> being the sign of the + plural in Anglo-Norman.</p> + + <p>2. The ejection or shortening of final vowels, <i>þæt ylc</i> for + <i>þæt ylce</i>; <i>sone</i> for <i>sunu</i>; <i>name</i> for + <i>nama</i>; <i>dages</i> for <i>dagas</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The substitution of -<i>n</i> for -<i>m</i> in the dative case, + <i>hwilon</i> for <i>hwilum</i>.</p> + + <p>4. The ejection of the -<i>n</i> of the infinitive mood, <i>cumme</i> + for <i>cuman</i> (<i>to come</i>), <i>nemne</i> for <i>nemnen</i> (<i>to + name</i>).</p> + + <p>5. The ejection of -<i>en</i> in the participle passive, <i>I-hote</i> + for <i>gehaten</i> (<i>called</i>, <i>hight</i>).</p> + + <p>6. The gerundial termination -<i>enne</i>, superseded by the + infinitive termination -<i>en</i>; as <i>to lufian</i> for <i>to + lufienne</i>, or <i>lufigenne</i>.</p> + + <p>7. The substitution of -<i>en</i> for -<i>að</i> in the persons plural + of verbs; <i>hi clepen</i> (<i>they call</i>) for <i>hi clypiað</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p>The preponderance (not the occasional occurrence) of forms like those + above constitute Semi-Saxon in contradistinction to standard Saxon, + classical Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon proper.</p> + + <p><a name="sect177">§ 177</a>. <i>Old English Stage.</i>—Further + changes convert Semi-Saxon into Old English. Some, amongst others, are + the following:—</p> + + <p>1. The ejection of the dative plural termination -<i>um</i>, and the + substitution of the preposition <i>to</i> and the plural sign -<i>s</i>; + as <i>to smiths</i> for <i>smiðum</i>. Of the dative singular the + -<i>e</i> is retained (<i>ende</i>, <i>worde</i>); but it is by no means + certain that, although recognized in writing, it was recognized in + pronunciation also.</p> + + <p>2. The ejection of -<i>es</i> in the genitive singular whenever the + <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page120"></a>{120}</span>preposition <i>of</i> came before it; + <i>Godes love</i> (<i>God's love</i>), but the <i>love of God</i>, and + not the <i>love of Godes</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The syllable <i>-es</i> as a sign of the genitive case extended to + all genders and to all declensions; <i>heart's</i> for <i>heortan</i>; + <i>sun's</i> for <i>sunnan</i>.</p> + + <p>4. The same in respect to the plural number; <i>sterres</i> for + <i>steorran</i>; <i>sons</i> for <i>suna</i>.</p> + + <p>5. The ejection of <i>-na</i> in the genitive plural; as <i>of + tunges'</i> for <i>tungena</i>.</p> + + <p>6. The use of the word <i>the</i>, as an article, instead of + <i>se</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>The preponderance of the forms above (and not their occasional + occurrence) constitutes old English in contradistinction to + Semi-Saxon.</p> + + <p>The following extract from Henry's history (vol. viii. append. iv.) is + the proclamation of Henry III. to the people of Huntingdonshire, A.D. + 1258. It currently passes for the earliest specimen of English.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Henry, thurg Godes fultome, King on Engleneloande, lhoaurd on + Yrloand, Duke on Normand, on Acquitain, Eorl on Anjou, send I greting, to + alle hise holde, ilærde & ilewerde on Huntingdonschiere.</p> + + <p>"That witen ge well alle, thæt we willen & unnen (grant) thæt ure + rædesmen alle other, the moare del of heom, thæt beoth ichosen thurg us + and thurg thæt loandes-folk on ure Kuneriche, habbith idon, and schullen + don, in the worthnes of God, and ure threowthe, for the freme of the + loande, thurg the besigte of than toforen iseide rædesmen, beo stedfæst + and ilestinde in alle thinge abutan ænde, and we heaten alle ure treowe, + in the treowthe thæt heo us ogen, thet heo stede-feslliche healden & + weren to healden & to swerien the isetnesses thet beon makede and beo + to makien, thurg than toforen iseide rædesmen, other thurg the moare del + of heom alswo, also hit is before iseide. And thet æheother helpe thet + for to done bitham ilche other, aganes alle men in alle thet heo ogt for + to done, and to foangen. And noan ne of mine loande, ne of egetewhere, + thurg this besigte, muge beon ilet other iwersed on oniewise. And gif oni + ether onie cumen her ongenes, we willen & heaten, thæt alle ure + treowe heom healden deadlichistan. And for thæt we willen thæt this beo + stædfast and lestinde, we senden gew this writ open, iseined with ure + seel, to halden amanges gew ine hord. Witnes us-selven æt Lundæn, thæne + egetetenthe day on the monthe of Octobr, in the two and fowertigthe geare + of ure crunning."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect178">§ 178</a>. The songs amongst the political verses + printed by the Camden Society, the romance of Havelok the Dane, <!-- Page + 121 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>{121}</span>William + and the Werwolf, the Gestes of Alisaundre, King Horn, Ipomedon, and the + King of Tars; and, amongst the longer works, Robert of Gloucester's + Chronicle, and the poems of Robert of Bourn (Brunn), are (amongst others) + Old English. Broadly speaking, the <i>Old</i> English may be said to + begin with the reign of Henry III., and to end with that of Edward + III.</p> + + <p>In the Old English the following forms predominate.</p> + + <p>1. A fuller inflection of the demonstrative pronoun, or definite + article; <i>þan</i>, <i>þenne</i>, <i>þære</i>, <i>þam</i>;—in + contradistinction to the Middle English.</p> + + <p>2. The presence of the dative singular in <i>-e</i>; <i>ende</i>, + <i>smithe</i>;—<i>ditto</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The existence of a genitive plural in <i>-r</i> or <i>-ra</i>; + <i>heora</i>, theirs; <i>aller</i>, of all;—<i>ditto</i>. This with + substantives and adjectives is less common.</p> + + <p>4. The substitution of <i>heo</i> for <i>they</i>, of <i>heora</i> for + <i>their</i>, of <i>hem</i> for <i>them</i>;—in contradistinction + to the later stages of English, and in contradistinction to old Lowland + <i>Scotch</i>. (See Chapter III.)</p> + + <p>5. A more frequent use of <i>min</i> and <i>thin</i>, for <i>my</i> + and <i>thy</i>;—in contradistinction to middle and modern + English.</p> + + <p>6. The use of <i>heo</i> for <i>she</i>;—in contradistinction to + middle and modern English and old Lowland <i>Scotch</i>.</p> + + <p>7. The use of broader vowels; as in <i>iclep</i>u<i>d</i> or + <i>iclep</i>o<i>d</i> (for <i>iclep</i>e<i>d</i> or + <i>ycl</i>e<i>pt</i>); <i>geong</i>o<i>st</i>, youngest; <i>ascode</i>, + asked; <i>eldore</i>, elder.</p> + + <p>8. The use of the strong preterits (<i>see</i> the chapter on the + tenses of verbs), where in the present English the weak form is found; + <i>wex</i>, <i>wop</i>, <i>dalf</i>, for <i>waxed</i>, <i>wept</i>, + <i>delved</i>.</p> + + <p>9. The omission not only of the gerundial termination <i>-enne</i>, + but also of the infinitive sign <i>-en</i> after <i>to</i>; <i>to + honte</i>, <i>to speke</i>;—in contradistinction to Semi-Saxon.</p> + + <p>10. The substitution of <i>-en</i> for <i>-eþ</i> or <i>-eð</i> in the + first and second persons plural of verbs; <i>we wollen</i>, we will: + <i>heo schullen</i>, they should;—<i>ditto</i>.</p> + + <p>11. The comparative absence of the articles <i>se</i> and + <i>seo</i>;—<i>ditto</i>. <!-- Page 122 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page122"></a>{122}</span></p> + + <p>12. The substitution of <i>ben</i> and <i>beeth</i>, for <i>synd</i> + and <i>syndon</i>=<i>we</i>, <i>ye</i>, <i>they are</i>;—in + contradistinction to Semi-Saxon.</p> + + <p><a name="sect179">§ 179</a>. The degree to which the Anglo-Saxon was + actually influenced by the Anglo-Norman has been noticed. The degree + wherein the two languages came in contact is, plainly, another + consideration. The first is the question, How far one of two languages + influenced the other? The second asks, How far one of two languages had + the opportunity of influencing the other? Concerning the extent to which + the Anglo-Norman was used, I retail the following statements and + quotations.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>1. "Letters even of a private nature were written in Latin till the + beginning of the reign of Edward I., soon after 1270, when a sudden + change brought in the use of French."—<i>Mr. Hallam, communicated + by Mr. Stevenson</i> (<i>Literature of Europe, I. 52, and note</i>).</p> + + <p>2. Conversation between the Members of the Universities was ordered to + be carried on either in Latin or French:—"<i>Si qua inter se + proferant, colloquio Latino vel saltem Gallico + perfruantur.</i>"—<i>Statutes of Oriel College, + Oxford.—Hallam, ibid.</i> from Warton.</p> + + <p>3. "The Minutes of the Corporation of London, recorded in the Town + Clerk's Office, were in French, as well as the Proceedings in Parliament, + and in the Courts of Justice."—<i>Ibid.</i></p> + + <p>4. "In Grammar Schools, boys were made to construe their Latin into + French,"—<i>Ibid.</i> "<i>Pueri in scholis, contra morem cæterarum + nationum, et Normannorum adventu, derelicto proprio vulgari, construere + Gallice compelluntur. Item quod filii nobilium ab ipsis cunabulorum + crepundiis ad Gallicum idioma informantur. Quibus profecto rurales + homines assimulari volentes, ut per hoc spectabiliores videantur, + Francigenari satagunt omni nisu.</i>"—<i>Higden</i> (<i>Ed. + Gale</i>, p. 210).</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>That there was French in England before the battle of Hastings appears + on the authority of Camden:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Herein is a notable argument of our ancestors' steadfastness in + esteeming and retaining their own tongue. For, as <i>before the + Conquest</i>, they misliked nothing more in King Edward the Confessor, + than that he was Frenchified, and accounted the desire of a foreign + language then to be a foretoken of the bringing in of foreign powers, + which indeed happened."—<i>Remains</i>, p. 30.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect180">§ 180</a>. In Chaucer and Mandeville, and perhaps in + all the writers of the reign of Edward III., we have a transition <!-- + Page 123 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>{123}</span>from + the Old to the Middle English. The last characteristic of a grammar + different from that of the present English, is the plural form in + <i>-en</i>; <i>we tellen</i>, <i>ye tellen</i>, <i>they tellen</i>. As + this disappears, which it does in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (Spenser + has it continually), the Middle English may be said to pass into the New + or Modern English.</p> + + <p><a name="sect181">§ 181</a>. The <i>present</i> tendencies of the + English may be determined by observation; and as most of them will be + noticed in the etymological part of this volume, the few here indicated + must be looked upon as illustrations only.</p> + + <p>1. The distinction between the subjunctive and indicative mood is + likely to pass away. We verify this by the very general tendency to say + <i>if it is</i>, and <i>if he speaks</i>, for <i>if it be</i>, and <i>if + he speak</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The distinction (as far as it goes) between the participle passive + and the past tense is likely to pass away. We verify this by the tendency + to say <i>it is broke</i>, and <i>he is smote</i>, for <i>it is + broken</i>, and <i>he is smitten</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Of the double forms, <i>sung</i> and <i>sang</i>, <i>drank</i> and + <i>drunk</i>, &c. one only will be the permanent.</p> + + <p>As stated above, these tendencies are a few out of a number, and have + been adduced in order to indicate the subject rather than to exhaust + it.</p> + + <p><a name="sect182">§ 182</a>. What the present language of England + would have been had the Norman Conquest never taken place, the analogy of + Holland, Denmark, and of many other countries enables us to determine. It + would have been much as it is at present. What it would have been had the + <i>Saxon</i> conquest never taken place, is a question wherein there is + far more speculation. Of France, of Italy, of Wallachia, and of the + Spanish Peninsula, the analogies all point the same way. They indicate + that the original Celtic would have been superseded by the Latin of the + conquerors, and consequently that our language in its later stages would + have been neither British nor Gaelic, but Roman. Upon these analogies, + however, we may refine. Italy, was from the beginning, Roman; the Spanish + Peninsula was invaded full early; no ocean divided Gaul from Rome; and + the war against the ancestors of the Wallachians was a war of + extermination.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>{124}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE LOWLAND SCOTCH.</p> + + <p><a name="sect183">§ 183</a>. The term <i>Lowland</i> is used to + distinguish the Scotch of the South-east from the Scotch of the + Highlands. The former is English in its immediate affinities, and + Germanic in origin; the latter is nearly the same language with the + Gaelic of Ireland, and is, consequently, Celtic.</p> + + <p>The question as to whether the Lowland Scotch is a dialect of the + English, or a separate and independent language, is a verbal rather than + a real one.</p> + + <p>Reasons for considering the Scotch and English as <i>dialects</i> of + one and the same language lie in the fact of their being (except in the + case of the more extreme forms of each) mutually intelligible.</p> + + <p>Reasons for calling one a dialect of the other depend upon causes + other than philological, <i>e.g.</i>, political preponderance, literary + development, and the like.</p> + + <p>Reasons for treating the Scotch as a separate substantive language lie + in the extent to which it has the qualities of a regular cultivated + tongue, and a separate substantive literature—partially separate + and substantive at the present time, wholly separate and substantive in + the times anterior to the union of the crowns, and in the hands of + Wyntoun, Blind Harry, Dunbar, and Lindsay.</p> + + <p><a name="sect184">§ 184</a>. Reasons for making the + <i>philological</i> distinction between the English and Scotch dialects + exactly coincide with the geographical and political boundaries between + the two kingdoms are not so easily given. It is not likely that the Tweed + and Solway should divide modes of speech so accurately as they divide + laws and customs; that broad and trenchant lines of demarcation should + separate the Scotch <!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page125"></a>{125}</span>from the English exactly along the line of + the Border; and that there should be no Scotch elements in + Northumberland, and no Northumbrian ones in Scotland. Neither is such the + case. Hence, in speaking of the Lowland Scotch, it means the language in + its typical rather than in its transitional forms; indeed, it means the + <i>literary</i> Lowland Scotch which, under the first five Stuarts, was + as truly an independent language as compared with the English, as Swedish + is to Danish, Portuguese to Spanish, or <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect185">§ 185</a>. This limitation leaves us fully + sufficient room for the notice of the question as to its <i>origin</i>; a + notice all the more necessary from the fact of its having created + controversy.</p> + + <p>What is the <i>primâ facie</i> view of the relations between the + English of England, and the mutually intelligible language (Scotch or + English, as we choose to call it) of Scotland? One of three:—</p> + + <p>1. That it originated in England, and spread in the way of extension + and diffusion northwards, and so reached Scotland.</p> + + <p>2. That it originated in Scotland, and spread in the way of extension + and diffusion southwards, and so reached England.</p> + + <p>3. That it was introduced in each country from a common source.</p> + + <p>In any of these cases it is Angle, or Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon, even as + English is Angle, or Saxon, or Anglo-Saxon.</p> + + <p><a name="sect186">§ 186</a>. A view, however, different from these, + and one disconnecting the Lowland Scotch from the English and Anglo-Saxon + equally, is what may be called the <i>Pict</i> doctrine. Herein it is + maintained that the Lowland <i>Scotch is derived from the Pict, and that + the Picts were of Gothic</i> origin. The reasoning upon these matters is + to be found in the Dissertation upon the Origin of the Scottish Language + prefixed to Jamieson's Etymological Dictionary: two extracts from which + explain the view which the author undertakes to combat:—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> "It is an opinion which, after many others, has been pretty + generally received, and, perhaps, almost taken for granted, that the + language spoken in the Lowlands of <!-- Page 126 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>{126}</span>Scotland is merely a + corrupt dialect of the English, or at least of the Anglo-Saxon."</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> "It has generally been supposed that the Saxon language was + introduced into Scotland in the reign of Malcolm Canmore by his good + queen and her retinue; or partly by means of the intercourse which + prevailed between the inhabitants of Scotland and those of Cumberland, + Northumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham, which were held by the Kings of + Scotland as fiefs of the crown of England. An English writer, not less + distinguished for his amiable disposition and candour than for the + cultivation of his mind, has objected to this hypothesis with great force + of argument."</p> + + <p><a name="sect187">§ 187</a>. Now, as against any such notion as that + involved in the preceding extracts, the reasoning of the learned author + of the Scottish Dictionary may, perhaps, be valid. No such view, however, + is held, at the present moment, by any competent judge; and it is + doubtful whether, in the extreme way in which it is put forward by the + opponent of it, it was ever maintained at all.</p> + + <p>Be this, however, as it may, the theory which is opposed to it rests + upon the following positions—</p> + + <p>1. That the Lowland Scotch were Picts.</p> + + <p>2. That the Picts were Goths.</p> + + <p>In favour of this latter view the chief reasons are—</p> + + <p>1. That what the Belgæ were the Picts were also.</p> + + <p>2. That the Belgæ were Germanic.</p> + + <p>Again—</p> + + <p>1. That the natives of the Orkneys were Picts.</p> + + <p>2. That they were also Scandinavian.</p> + + <p>So that the Picts were Scandinavian Goths.</p> + + <p>From whence it follows that—assuming what is true concerning the + Orkneys is true concerning the Lowland Scotch—the Lowland Scotch + was Pict, Scandinavian, Gothic, and (as such) more or less Belgic.</p> + + <p>For the non-Gothic character of the Picts see the researches of Mr. + Garnett, as given in <a href="#sect139">§ 139</a>, as well as a + paper—believed to be from the same author—in the Quarterly + Review for 1834. <!-- Page 127 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page127"></a>{127}</span></p> + + <p>For the position of the Belgæ, see Chapter IV.</p> + + <p><a name="sect188">§ 188</a>. That what is true concerning the Orkneys + (viz. that they were Scandinavian) is <i>not</i> true for the south and + eastern parts of Scotland, is to be collected from the peculiar + distribution of the Scottish Gaelic; which indicates a distinction + between the Scandinavian of the north of Scotland and the Scandinavian of + the east of England. The Lowland Scotch recedes as we go northward. + Notwithstanding this, it is <i>not</i> the extreme north that is most + Gaelic. In Caithness the geographical names are Norse. <i>Sutherland</i>, + the most northern county of Scotland, takes its name from being + <i>south</i>; that is, of Norway. The Orkneys and Shetland are in name, + manners, and language, Norse or Scandinavian. The Hebrides are Gaelic + mixed with Scandinavian. The Isle of Man is the same. The word + <i>Sodor</i> (in Sodor and Man) is Norse, with the same meaning as it has + in <i>Sutherland</i>. All this indicates a more preponderating, and an + earlier infusion of Norse along the coast of Scotland, than that which + took place under the Danes upon the coasts of England, in the days of + Alfred and under the reign of Canute. The first may, moreover, have this + additional peculiarity, <i>viz.</i> of being Norwegian rather than + Danish. Hence I infer that the Scandinavians settled in the northern + parts of Scotland at an early period, but that it was a late period when + they ravaged the southern ones; so that, though the language of Orkney + may be Norse, that of the Lothians may be Saxon.</p> + + <p>To verify these views we want not a general dictionary of the Scottish + language taken altogether, but a series of local glossaries, or at any + rate a vocabulary, 1st, of the northern; 2ndly, of the southern + Scottish.</p> + + <p>Between the English and Lowland Scotch we must account for the + likeness as well as the difference. The Scandinavian theory accounts for + the difference only.</p> + + <p><a name="sect189">§ 189</a>. Of the following specimens of the Lowland + Scotch, the first is from The Bruce, a poem written by Barbour, + Archdeacon of Aberdeen, between the years 1360 and 1375; the second from + Wyntoun; the third from Blind Harry's poem, Wallace, 1460; and the fourth + from Gawin Douglas's translation of the Æneid, A.D. 1513. <!-- Page 128 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page128"></a>{128}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>The Bruce</i>, iv. 871—892.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And as he raid in to the nycht,</p> + <p>So saw he, with the monys lycht,</p> + <p>Schynnyng off scheldys gret plenté;</p> + <p>And had wondre quhat it mycht be.</p> + <p>With that all hale thai gaiff a cry,</p> + <p>And he, that hard sa suddainly</p> + <p>Sic noyis, sumdele affrayit was.</p> + <p>Bot in schort time he till him tais</p> + <p>His spyrites full hardely;</p> + <p>For his gentill hart, and worthy,</p> + <p>Assurit hym in to that nede.</p> + <p>Then with the spuris he strak the sted,</p> + <p>And ruschyt in amaing them all.</p> + <p>The feyrst he met he gert him fall;</p> + <p>And syne his suord he swapyt out,</p> + <p>And roucht about him mony rout,</p> + <p>And slew sexsum weill sone and ma:</p> + <p>Then wndre him his horss thai sla:</p> + <p>And he fell; but he smertty rass,</p> + <p>And strykand rowm about him mass:</p> + <p>And slew off thaim a quantité.</p> + <p>But woundyt wondre sar was he.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Wyntoun's Chronicle</i>, <span class="scac">I.</span> xiii. 1—22.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Blessyde Bretayn Beelde sulde be</p> + <p>Of all þe Ilys in þe Se,</p> + <p>Quhare Flowrys are fele on Feldys fayre</p> + <p>Hale of hewe, haylsum of ayre.</p> + <p>Of all corne þare is copy gret,</p> + <p>Pese and A'tys, Bere and Qwhet:</p> + <p>Báth froyt on Tre, and fysche in flwde;</p> + <p>And tyl all Catale pasture gwde.</p> + <p>Solynus Sayis, in Brettany</p> + <p>Sum steddys growys sá habowndanly</p> + <p>Of Gyrs, þat sum tym (but) þair Fe</p> + <p>Frá fwlth of Mete refrenyht be,</p> + <p>Ðair fwde sall turne þam to peryle,</p> + <p>To rot, or bryst, or dey sum quhyle.</p> + <p>Ðare wylde in Wode has welth at wille;</p> + <p>Ðare hyrdys hydys Holme and Hille:</p> + <p>Ðare Bwyis bowys all for Byrtht,</p> +<!-- Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>{129}</span> + <p>Báthe Merle and Maẅesys mellys for myrtht:</p> + <p>Ðare huntyng is at all kyne Dere,</p> + <p>And rycht gud hawlkyn on Bÿwer;</p> + <p>Of Fysche þaire is habowndance;</p> + <p>And nedfulle thyng to Mannys substance.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Wallace</i>, xi. 230-262.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A lord off court, quhen he approchyt thar,</p> + <p>Wnwisytly sperd, withoutyn prouision;</p> + <p>"Wallace, dar ye go fecht on our lioun?"</p> + <p>And he said; "Ya, so the Kyng suffyr me;</p> + <p>Or on your selff, gyff ye ocht bettyr be."</p> + <p>Quhat will ye mar? this thing amittyt was,</p> + <p>That Wallace suld on to the lioun pas.</p> + <p>The King thaim chargyt to bring him gud harnas:</p> + <p>Then he said; "Nay, God scheild me fra sic cass.</p> + <p>I wald tak weid, suld I fecht with a man;</p> + <p>But (for) a dog, that nocht off armes can,</p> + <p>I will haiff nayn, bot synglar as I ga."</p> + <p>A gret manteill about his hand can ta,</p> + <p>And his gud suerd; with him he tuk na mar;</p> + <p>Abandounly in barrace entryt thar.</p> + <p>Gret chenys was wrocht in the yet with a gyn,</p> + <p>And pulld it to quhen Wallace was tharin.</p> + <p>The wod lyoun, on Wallace quhar he stud,</p> + <p>Rampand he braid, for he desyryt blud;</p> + <p>With his rude pollis in the mantill rocht sa.</p> + <p>Aukwart the bak than Wallace can him ta,</p> + <p>With his gud suerd, that was off burnest steill,</p> + <p>His body in twa it thruschyt euirilkdeill.</p> + <p>Syn to the King he raykyt in gret ire,</p> + <p>And said on lowd; "Was this all your desyr,</p> + <p>To wayr a Scot thus lychtly in to wayn?</p> + <p>Is thar mar doggis at ye wald yeit haiff slayne?</p> + <p>Go, bryng thaim furth, sen I mon doggis qwell,</p> + <p>To do byddyng, quhill that with thee duell.</p> + <p>It gaynd full weill I graithit me to Scotland;</p> + <p>For grettar deidis thair men has apon hand,</p> + <p>Than with a dog in battaill to escheiff—</p> + <p>At you in France for euir I tak my leiff."</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 130 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>{130}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Gawin Douglas</i>, Æn. ii.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>As Laocon that was Neptunus priest,</p> + <p>And chosin by cavil vnto that ilk office,</p> + <p>Ane fare grete bull offerit in sacrifice,</p> + <p>Solempnithe before the haly altere,</p> + <p>Throw the still sey from Tenedos in fere,</p> + <p>Lo twa gret lowpit edderis with mony thraw</p> + <p>First throw the flude towart the land can draw.</p> + <p>(My sprete abhorris this matter to declare)</p> + <p>Aboue the wattir thare hals stude euirmare,</p> + <p>With bludy creistis outwith the wallis hie,</p> + <p>The remanent swam always vnder the se,</p> + <p>With grisly bodyis lynkit mony fald,</p> + <p>The salt fame stouris from the fard they hald,</p> + <p>Unto the ground thay glade with glowand ene,</p> + <p>Stuffit full of venom, fire and felloun tene,</p> + <p>With tounges quhissling in thar mouthis red,</p> + <p>Thay lik the twynkilland stangis in thar hed.</p> + <p>We fled away al bludles for effere.</p> + <p>Bot with ane braide to Laocon in fere</p> + <p>Thay stert attanis, and his twa sonnys zyng</p> + <p>First athir serpent lappit like ane ring,</p> + <p>And with thare cruel bit, and stangis fell,</p> + <p>Of tender membris tuke mony sory morsel;</p> + <p>Syne thay the preist invadit baith twane,</p> + <p>Quhilk wyth his wappins did his besy pane</p> + <p>His childer for to helpen and reskew.</p> + <p>Bot thay about him lowpit in wympillis threw,</p> + <p>And twis circulit his myddel round about,</p> + <p>And twys faldit thare sprutillit skynnis but dout,</p> + <p>About his hals, baith neck and hed they schent.</p> + <p>As he ettis thare hankis to haue rent,</p> + <p>And with his handis thaym away haue draw,</p> + <p>His hede bendis and garlandis all war blaw</p> + <p>Full of vennum and rank poysoun attanis,</p> + <p>Quhilk infekkis the flesche, blude, and banys.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect190">§ 190</a>. In the way of orthography, the most + characteristic difference between the English and Scotch is the use, on + the part of the latter, of <i>qu</i> for <i>wh</i>; as <i>quhen</i>, + <i>quhare</i>, <i>quhat</i>, for <i>when</i>, <i>where</i>, <i>what</i>. + The substitution of <i>sch</i> for <i>sh</i> (as <i>scho</i> for + <i>she</i>), and of <i>z</i> for the Old English <i>ȝ</i> (as + <i>zour</i> for <i>ȝeowr</i>, <i>your</i>), is as much northern + English as Scotch. <!-- Page 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page131"></a>{131}</span></p> + + <p>In pronunciation, the substitution of <i>d</i> for <i>ð</i> (if not a + point of spelling), as in <i>fader</i> for <i>father</i>; of <i>a</i> for + <i>o</i>, as <i>báith</i> for <i>both</i>; of <i>s</i> for <i>sh</i>, as + <i>sall</i> for <i>shall</i>; and the use of the guttural sound of + <i>ch</i>, as in <i>loch</i>, <i>nocht</i>, are the same.</p> + + <p>The ejection of the <i>n</i> before <i>t</i>, or an allied sound, and + the lengthening of the preceding vowel, by way of compensation, as in + <i>begouth</i> for <i>beginneth</i>, seems truly Scotch. It is the same + change that in Greek turns the radical syllable <span title="odont" class="grk" + >ὀδοντ</span> into <span title="odous" class="grk" + >ὀδούς</span>.</p> + + <p>The formation of the plural of verbs in <i>-s</i>, rather than in + <i>-th</i> (the Anglo-Saxon form), is Northern English as well as + Scotch:—Scotch, <i>slepys</i>, <i>lovys</i>; Northern English, + <i>slepis</i>, <i>lovis</i>; Old English, <i>slepen</i>, <i>loven</i>; + Anglo-Saxon <i>slepiað</i>, <i>lufiað</i>.</p> + + <p>The formation of the plural number of the genitive case by the + addition of the syllable <i>-is</i> (<i>blastis</i>, <i>birdis</i>, + <i>bloomis</i>), instead of the letter <i>-s</i> (<i>blasts</i>, + <i>birds</i>, <i>blooms</i>), carries with it a metrical advantage, + inasmuch as it gives a greater number of double rhymes.</p> + + <p>The same may be said of the participial forms, <i>affrayit</i>, + <i>assurit</i>, for <i>affrayd</i>, <i>assured</i>.</p> + + <p>Concerning the comparative rate of change in the two languages no + general assertion can be made. In the Scotch words <i>sterand</i>, + <i>slepand</i>, &c., for <i>steering</i>, <i>sleeping</i>, the form + is antiquated, and Anglo-Saxon rather than English. It is not so, + however, with the words <i>thai</i> (<i>they</i>), <i>thaim</i> + (<i>them</i>), <i>thair</i> (<i>their</i>), compared with the + contemporary words in English, <i>heo</i>, <i>hem</i>, <i>heora</i>. In + these it is the Scottish that is least, and the English that is most + Anglo-Saxon.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>{132}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF CERTAIN UNDETERMINED AND FICTITIOUS LANGUAGES OF +GREAT BRITAIN.</p> + + <p><a name="sect191">§ 191</a>. The languages mentioned in the present + chapter claim their place on one ground only,—<i>they have been the + subject of controversy</i>. The notice of them will be brief. The current + texts upon which the controversies have turned will be quoted; whilst the + opinion of the present writer is left to be collected from the title of + the chapter.</p> + + <p><i>The Belgæ.</i>—By some these are considered a Germanic rather + than a Celtic tribe; the view being supported by the following extracts + from Cæsar:—"<i>Gallia est omnis divisa in tres partes; quarum unam + incolunt Belgæ, aliam Aquitani, tertiam, qui ipsorum lingua Celtæ, nostra + Galli, appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se + differunt. Gallos—a Belgis Matrona et Sequana + dividit.</i>"—B. G. i. "<i>Belgæ ab extremis Galliæ finibus + oriuntur.</i>"—B. G. ii. "<i>Quum ab his quæreret, quæ civitates, + quantæque in armis essent, et quid in bello possent, sic reperiebat: + plerosque Belgas esse ortos a Germanis, Rhenumque antiquitùs transductos, + propter loci fertilitatem ibi consedisse; Gallosque, qui ea loca + incolerent, expulisse; solosque esse qui patrum nostrorum memoria, omni + Gallia vexata Teutones Cimbrosque intra fines suos ingredi + prohibuerunt.</i>"—B. G. ii. 4. "<i>Britanniæ pars interior ab iis + incolitur quos natos in insulâ ipsâ memoriâ proditum dicunt: maritima + pars ab iis, qui prædæ ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgio + transierant.</i>"—B. G. v. 12.</p> + + <p><a name="sect192">§ 192</a>. The possibly Germanic origin of the + Belgæ, and the Belgic element of the British population, are matters + which bear upon the question indicated in <a href="#sect10">§ 10</a>, or + that of the Germanic influences anterior to <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 449. <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page133"></a>{133}</span></p> + + <p>They have a still more important bearing, the historian over and above + identifying the Belgæ with the Germans, affirms <i>that what applies to + the Belgæ applies to the Picts</i> also.</p> + + <p>Now this is one of the arguments in favour of the doctrine exhibited + (and objected to) in pp. <a href="#page124">124</a>-127, and the extent + of questions upon which it bears, may be collected from the following + quotation:—"A variety of other considerations might be mentioned, + which, although they do not singly amount to proof, yet merit attention, + as viewed in connexion with what has been already stated.</p> + + <p>"As so great a part of the eastern coast of what is now called England + was so early peopled by the Belgæ, it is hardly conceivable that neither + so enterprising a people, nor any of their kindred tribes, should ever + think of extending their descents a little farther eastward. For that the + Belgæ and the inhabitants of the countries bordering on the Baltic, had a + common origin, there seems to be little reason to doubt. The Dutch assert + that their progenitors were Scandinavians, who, about a century before + the common era, left Jutland and the neighbouring territories, in quest + of new habitations.<a name="NtA29" href="#Nt29"><sup>[29]</sup></a> The + Saxons must be viewed as a branch from the same stock; for they also + proceeded from modern Jutland and its vicinity. Now, there is nothing + repugnant to reason in supposing that some of these tribes should pass + over directly to the coast of Scotland opposite to them, even before the + Christian era. For Mr. Whitaker admits that the Saxons, whom he strangely + makes a Gaulic people, in the second century applied themselves to + navigation, and soon became formidable to the Romans.<a name="NtA30" + href="#Nt30"><sup>[30]</sup></a> Before they could become formidable to + so powerful a people, they must have been at least so well acquainted + with navigation as to account it no great enterprise to cross from the + shores of the Baltic over to Scotland, especially if they took the + islands of Shetland and Orkney in their way.</p> + + <p>"As we have seen that, according to Ptolemy, there were, in his time, + different tribes of Belgæ, settled on the northern <!-- Page 134 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span>extremity of our + country: the most natural idea undoubtedly is, that they came directly + from the Continent. For had these Belgæ crossed the English Channel, + according to the common progress of barbarous nations, it is scarcely + supposable that this island would have been settled to its utmost + extremity so early as the age of Agricola.</p> + + <p>"There is every reason to believe, that the Belgic tribes in + Caledonia, described by Ptolemy, were Picts. For as the Belgæ, Picts, and + Saxons seem to have had a common origin, it is not worth while to differ + about names. These frequently arise from causes so trivial, that their + origin becomes totally inscrutable to succeeding ages. The Angles, + although only one tribe, have accidentally given their name to the + country which they invaded, and to all the descendants of the Saxons and + Belgæ, who were by far more numerous.</p> + + <p>"It is universally admitted, that there is a certain national + character, of an external kind, which distinguishes one people from + another. This is often so strong that those who have travelled through + various countries, or have accurately marked the diversities of this + character, will scarcely be deceived even as to a straggling individual. + Tacitus long ago remarked the striking resemblance between the Germans + and Caledonians. Every stranger, at this day, observes the great + difference and complexion between the Highlanders and Lowlanders. No + intelligent person in England is in danger of confounding the Welsh with + the posterity of the Saxons. Now, if the Lowland Scots be not a Gothic + race, but in fact the descendants of the ancient British, they must be + supposed to retain some national resemblance of the Welsh. But will any + impartial observer venture to assert, that in feature, complexion, or + form, there is any such similarity as to induce the slightest + apprehension that they have been originally the same people?"<a + name="NtA31" href="#Nt31"><sup>[31]</sup></a></p> + + <p>It is doubtful, however, whether Cæsar meant to say more than that + over above certain differences which distinguished the Belgæ from the + other inhabitants of the common country <i>Gallia</i>, there was an + intermixture of Germans.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 135 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span></p> + + <p>The import of a possibly Germanic origin for the Belgæ gives us the + import of a possibly Germanic origin for—</p> + + <p><a name="sect193">§ 193</a>. <i>The Caledonians.</i>—A + speculative sentence of Tacitus indicates the chance of the Caledonians + being Germanic:—"<i>Britanniam qui mortales initio coluerint, + indigenæ an advecti, ut inter barbaros, parum compertum. Habitus corporum + varii: atque ex eo argumenta: namque rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, + magni artus, Germanicam originem adseverant.</i>"—Agricola, xi.</p> + + <p>The continuation of the passage quoted in § 193 has induced the notion + that there have been in Britain Spanish, Iberic, or Basque + tribes:—"<i>Silurum colorati vultus, et torti plerumque crines, et + posita contra Hispania, Iberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes occupâsse + fidem faciunt.</i>"—Agricola, xi.</p> + + <p>As this, although an opinion connected with the history of the + languages of Great Britain, is not an opinion connected with the history + of the English language, it is a question for the Celtic, rather than the + Gothic, philologist. The same applies to the points noticed in <a + href="#sect136">§§ 136</a>-138. Nevertheless they are necessary for the + purposes of minute philological analysis.</p> + + <p><a name="sect194">§ 194</a>. As early as the year <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1676, an opinion was advanced by<a name="NtA32" + href="#Nt32"><sup>[32]</sup></a> Aylett Sammes, in a work entitled + Britannia Antiqua Illustrata, that the first colonisers of Ireland were + the merchants of Tyre and Sidon. In confirmation of this opinion the + existence of several Eastern customs in Ireland was adduced by subsequent + antiquarians. Further marks of an Eastern origin of the Irish were soon + found in the Gaelic dialect of that country. Finally, the matter (in the + eyes at least of the national writers) was satisfactorily settled by the + famous discovery, attributed to General Vallancey, of the true meaning of + the Carthaginian lines in Plautus.</p> + + <p>In the Little Carthaginian (Pœnulus) of the Latin comic writer + Plautus, a portion of the dialogue is carried on in the language of + Carthage.</p> + + <p>That the Punic language of Carthage should closely <!-- Page 136 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>{136}</span>resemble that + of the mother-city Tyre, which was Phœnician; and that the + Phœnician of Tyre should be allied to the language of Palestine and + Syria, was soon remarked by the classical commentators of the time. + Joseph Scaliger asserted that the Punic of the Pœnulus <i>differed + but little from pure Hebrew</i>—"<i>Ab Hebraismi puritate parum + abesse.</i>"</p> + + <p>Emendated and interpreted by Bochart, the first ten lines of a speech + in Act v. s. 1. stand thus:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. N' yth alionim valionuth sicorath jismacon sith</p> + <p>2. Chy-mlachai jythmu mitslia mittebariim ischi</p> + <p>3. Liphorcaneth yth beni ith jad adi ubinuthai</p> + <p>4. Birua rob syllohom alonim ubymisyrtohom</p> + <p>5. Bythrym moth ymoth othi helech Antidamarchon</p> + <p>6. Ys sideli: brim tyfel yth chili schontem liphul</p> + <p>7. Uth bin imys dibur thim nocuth nu' Agorastocles</p> + <p>8. Ythem aneti hy chyr saely choc, sith naso.</p> + <p>9. Binni id chi lu hilli gubylim lasibil thym</p> + <p>10. Body aly thera ynn' yss' immoncon lu sim—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="rtlpoem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>The Same, in Hebrew Characters.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="N' 'T `LYWNYM W`LYWNWT SHKWRT YSMKWN Z'T:" ><bdo dir="rtl">נא את עליונים ועליונות שכורת יסמכון זאת׃</bdo></span>‎ .1</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="KY MLKY NTMW: MTSLYCH MDBRYHM `SQY:" ><bdo dir="rtl">כי מלכי נתמו׃ מצליח מדבריהם עסקי׃</bdo></span>‎ .2</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="LPWRQNT 'T BNY 'T YD `DY WBNWTY:" ><bdo dir="rtl">לפורקנת את בני את יד עדי ובנותי׃</bdo></span>‎ .3</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="BRWCH RB SHLHM `LYWNYM WBMSHWRTHM:" ><bdo dir="rtl">ברוח רב שלהם עליונים ובמשורתהם׃</bdo></span>‎ .4</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="BT`RM MWT CHNWT 'WTY HLK 'NTYDMRKWN:" ><bdo dir="rtl">בטרם מות חנות אותי הלך אנתידמרכון׃</bdo></span>‎ .5</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="'YSH SHYD`LY: BRM T`PL 'T CHYLY SHKYNTM L'PL:" ><bdo dir="rtl">איש שידעלי׃ ברם טפל את חילי שכינתם לאפל׃</bdo></span>‎ .6</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="'T BN 'MYTS DBWR TM NQWT` NWH 'GWRST`WQLYS:" ><bdo dir="rtl">את בן אמיץ דבור תם נקוט נוה אגורסטוקליס׃</bdo></span>‎ .7</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="CHWTM CHNWTY HW' KYWR SH'LY CHWQ Z'T NWSH':" ><bdo dir="rtl">חותם חנותי הוא כיור שאלי חוק זאת נושא׃</bdo></span>‎ .8</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="BYNY `D KY LW H'LH GBWLYM LSHBT TM:" ><bdo dir="rtl">ביני עד כי לו האלה גבולים לשבת תם׃</bdo></span>‎ .9</p> + <p><span lang="he" class="heb" title="BW' DY `LY TR` 'N': HNW 'SH'L 'M MNKR LW 'M" ><bdo dir="rtl">בוא די עלי תרע אנא׃ הנו אשאל אם מנכר לו אם</bdo></span>‎ .01</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Six lines following these were determined to be + <i>Liby</i>-Phœnician, or the language of the native Africans in + the neighbourhood of Carthage, mixed with Punic. These, it was stated, + had the same meaning with the ten lines in Carthaginian.</p> + + <p>The following lines of Plautus have, by all commentators, <!-- Page + 137 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span>been + viewed in the same light, <i>viz.</i> as the Latin version of the speech + of the Carthaginian.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. Deos deasque veneror, qui hanc urbem colunt,</p> + <p>2. Ut, quod de mea re huc veni, rite venerim.</p> + <p>3. Measque hic ut gnatas, et mei fratris filium</p> + <p>4. Reperire me siritis: Di, vostram fidem!</p> + <p>5. Quæ mihi surruptæ sunt, et fratris filium:</p> + <p>6. Sed hic mihi antehac hospes Antidamas fuit.</p> + <p>7. Eum fecisse aiunt, sibi quod faciendum fuit.</p> + <p>8. Ejus filium hic esse prædicant Agorastoclem:</p> + <p>9. Deum hospitalem et tesseram mecum fero:</p> + <p>10. In hisce habitare monstratum est regionibus.</p> + <p>11. Hos percunctabor, qui huc egrediuntur foras.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Guided by the metrical <i>paraphrase</i> of the original author, + Bochart laid before the scholars of his time a Latin version, of which + the following is an English translation:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Close Translation of Bochart's Latin Version.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. I ask the gods and goddesses that preside over this city,</p> + <p>2. That my plans may be fulfilled.—May my business prosper under their guidance!</p> + <p>3. The release of my son and my daughters from the hands of a robber.</p> + <p>4. May the gods grant this, through the mighty spirit that is in them and by their providence!</p> + <p>5. Before his death, Antidamarchus used to sojourn with me.</p> + <p>6. A man intimate with me: but he has joined the ranks of those whose dwelling is in darkness (the dead).</p> + <p>7. There is a general report that his son has here taken his abode; <i>viz.</i> Agorastocles.</p> + <p>8. The token (tally) of my claim to hospitality is a carven tablet, the sculpture whereof is my god. This I carry.</p> + <p>9. A witness has informed me that he lives in this neighbourhood.</p> + <p>10. Somebody comes this way through the gate: behold him: I'll ask him whether he knows the name.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>To professed classics and to professed orientalists, the version of + Bochart has, <i>on the whole</i>, appeared satisfactory. Divisions of + opinion there have been, it is true, even amongst those who received it; + but merely upon matters of detail. Some have held that the Punic is + Syriac rather than Hebraic, whilst others have called in to its + interpretation the Arabic, <!-- Page 138 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page138"></a>{138}</span>the Maltese, or the Chaldee; all (be it + observed) languages akin to the Hebrew. Those who look further than this + for their affinities, Gesenius<a name="NtA33" + href="#Nt33"><sup>[33]</sup></a> dismisses in the following cavalier and + cursory manner:—"<i>Ne eorum somnia memorem, qui e Vasconum et + Hiberniæ linguis huic causæ succurri posse opinati sunt; de quibus + copiosius referre piget.</i>"</p> + + <p>The remark of Gesenius concerning the pretended affinities between the + Punic and Hibernian arose from the discovery attributed to General + Vallancey; <i>viz.</i> that the speech in Plautus was Irish Gaelic, and + consequently that the Irish was Carthaginian, and <i>vice versâ</i>. The + word <i>attributed</i> is used because the true originator of the + hypothesis was not Vallancey, but O'Neachtan.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The Gaelic Version.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. N 'iath all o nimh uath lonnaithe socruidshe me comsith</p> + <p>2. Chimi lach chuinigh! muini is toil, miocht beiridh iar mo scith</p> + <p>3. Liomhtha can ati bi mitche ad éadan beannaithe</p> + <p>4. Bior nar ob siladh umhal: o nimh! ibhim a frotha!</p> + <p>5. Beith liom! mo thime noctaithe; neil ach tan ti daisic mac coinme</p> + <p>6. Is i de leabhraim tafach leith, chi lis con teampluibh ulla</p> + <p>7. Uch bin nim i is de beart inn a ccomhnuithe Agorastocles!</p> + <p>8. Itche mana ith a chithirsi; leicceath sith nosa!</p> + <p>9. Buaine na iad cheile ile: gabh liom an la so bithim'!</p> + <p>10. Bo dileachtach nionath n' isle, mon cothoil us im.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>In English.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. Omnipotent much-dreaded Deity of this country! assuage my troubled mind!</p> + <p>2. Thou! the support of feeble captives! being now exhausted with fatigue, of thy free will guide to my children!</p> + <p>3. O let my prayers be perfectly acceptable in thy sight!</p> + <p>4. An inexhaustible fountain to the humble: O Deity! let me drink of its streams!</p> + <p>5. Forsake me not! my earnest desire is now disclosed, which is only that of recovering my daughters.</p> + <p>6. This was my fervent prayer, lamenting their misfortunes in thy sacred temples.</p> + <p>7. O bounteous Deity! it is reported here dwelleth Agorastocles.</p> +<!-- Page 139 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>{139}</span> + <p>8. Should my request appear just, let here my disquietudes cease.</p> + <p>9. Let them be no longer concealed; O that I may this day find my daughters!</p> + <p>10. They will be fatherless, and preys to the worst of men, unless it be thy pleasure that I should find them.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>From the quotations already given, the general reader may see that + both the text and the translation of Plautus are least violated in the + reading and rendering of Bochart, a reading and rendering which no + <i>Gothic</i> or <i>Semitic</i> scholar has ever set aside.</p> + + <p><a name="sect195">§ 195</a>. <i>The hypothesis of an aboriginal Finnic + population in Britain and elsewhere.</i>—A Celtic population of + Britain preceded the Germanic. Are there any reasons for believing that + any older population preceded the Celtic?</p> + + <p>The reasoning upon this point is preeminently that of the Scandinavian + (<i>i.e.</i> Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian) school of philology and + ethnology.</p> + + <p>Arndt, I believe, was the first who argued that if the so-called + Indo-European nations were as closely connected with each other as they + are generally considered, their separation from the common stock must + have been subsequent to the occupation of Europe by some portion or other + of the human species—in other words, that this earlier population + must have been spread over those areas of which the Indo-Europeans took + possession only at a later period.</p> + + <p>That the divisions of such an earlier population were, <i>at + least</i>, as closely connected with each other as the different members + of the so-called Indo-European class, was a reasonable opinion. It was + even reasonable to suppose that they were <i>more</i> closely connected; + since the date of their diffusion must have been nearer the time of the + original dispersion of mankind.</p> + + <p>If so, all Europe (the British Isles included) might have had as its + aborigines a family older than the oldest members of the Indo-European + stock; a family of which every member may now be extinct, or a family of + which remains may still survive.</p> + + <p>Where are such remains to be sought? In two sorts of localities— + <!-- Page 140 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page140"></a>{140}</span></p> + + <p>1. Parts <i>beyond</i> the limits of the area occupied by the + so-called Indo-Europeans.</p> + + <p>2. Parts <i>within</i> the limits of the so-called Indo-Europeans; but + so fortified by nature as to have been the stronghold of a retiring + population.</p> + + <p>What are the chief parts coming under the first of these + conditions?</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Scandinavian + and Slavonic areas, <i>i.e.</i> the countries of the Laplanders and + Finnlanders.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The countries beyond the Indo-Europeans of the Iranian + stock, <i>i.e.</i> the Dekkan, or the country of those natives of India + (whatever they may be) whose languages are not derived from the + Sanscrit.</p> + + <p>What are parts coming under the second of these conditions?</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The Basque districts of the Pyrenees, where the language + represents that of the aborigines of Spain anterior to the conquest of + the Roman.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The Albanians.—Such the doctrine of the + <i>continuity</i> of an <i>ante</i>-Indo-European population, from Cape + Comorin to Lapland, and from Lapland to the Pyrenees. There is + <i>some</i> philological evidence of this: whether there is <i>enough</i> + is another matter.</p> + + <p>This view, which on its <i>philological</i> side has been taken up by + Rask, Kayser, and the chief Scandinavian scholars, and which, whether + right or wrong, is the idea of a bold and comprehensive mind, as well as + a powerful instrument of criticism in the way of a provisional theory, + has also been adopted on its <i>physiological</i> side by the chief + Scandinavian anatomists and palæontologists—Retzius, Eschricht, + Niilson, and others. Skulls differing in shape from the Celtic skulls of + Gaul, and from the Gothic skulls of Germany and Scandinavia, have been + found in considerable numbers; and generally in burial-places of an + apparently greater antiquity than those which contain typical Celtic, or + typical Gothic crania. Hence there is some <i>anatomical</i> as well as + philological evidence: whether there is enough is another question.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span></p> + +<h3>PART III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">SOUNDS, LETTERS, PRONUNCIATION, SPELLING.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">GENERAL NATURE OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect196">§ 196</a>. To two points connected with the subject + of the following Chapter, the attention of the reader is requested.</p> + + <p>I. In the comparison of sounds the ear is liable to be misled by the + eye.</p> + + <p>The syllables <i>ka</i> and <i>ga</i> are similar syllables. The vowel + is in each the same, and the consonant is but slightly different. Now the + words <i>ka</i> and <i>ga</i> are more allied to each other than the + words <i>ka</i> and <i>ba</i>, <i>ka</i> and <i>ta</i>, &c., because + the consonantal sounds of <i>k</i> and <i>g</i> are more allied than the + consonantal sounds of <i>k</i> and <i>b</i>, <i>k</i> and <i>t</i>.</p> + + <p>Comparing the syllables <i>ga</i> and <i>ka</i>, we see the affinity + between the sounds, and we see it at the first glance. It lies on the + surface, and strikes the ear at once.</p> + + <p>It is, however, very evident that ways might be devised, or might + arise from accident, of concealing the likeness between the two sounds, + or, at any rate, of making it less palpable. One of such ways would be a + faulty mode of spelling. If instead of <i>ga</i> we wrote <i>gha</i> the + following would be the effect: the syllable would appear less simple than + it really was; it would look as if it consisted of three parts instead of + two, and consequently its affinity to <i>ka</i> would seem less than it + really was. It is perfectly true that a little consideration would tell + us that, as long as the sound remained the same, the relation <!-- Page + 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>{142}</span>of the two + syllables remained the same; and that, if the contrary appeared to be the + case, the ear was misled by the eye. Still a little consideration would + be required. Now in the English language we have, amongst others, the + following modes of spelling that have a tendency to mislead:—</p> + + <p>The sounds of <i>ph</i> and of <i>f</i>, in <i>Philip</i> and + <i>fillip</i>, differ to the eye, but to the ear are identical. Here a + difference is simulated.</p> + + <p>The sounds of <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>, and of <i>th</i> in + <i>thine</i>, differ to the ear, but to the eye seem the same. Here a + difference is concealed.</p> + + <p>These last sounds appear to the eye to be double or compound. This is + not the case; they are simple single sounds, and not the sounds of + <i>t</i> followed by <i>h</i>, as the spelling leads us to imagine.</p> + + <p>II. Besides improper modes of spelling, there is another way of + concealing the true nature of sounds. If I say that <i>ka</i> and + <i>ga</i> are allied, the alliance is manifest; since I compare the + actual sounds. If I say <i>ka</i> and <i>gee</i> are allied, the alliance + is concealed; since I compare, not the actual sounds, but only the names + of the letters that express those sounds. Now in the English language we + have, amongst others, the following names of letters that have a tendency + to mislead:—</p> + + <p>The sounds <i>fa</i> and <i>va</i> are allied. The names <i>eff</i> + and <i>vee</i> conceal this alliance.</p> + + <p>The sounds <i>sa</i> and <i>za</i> are allied. The names <i>ess</i> + and <i>zed</i> conceal the alliance.</p> + + <p>In comparing sounds it is advisable to have nothing to do either with + letters or names of letters. Compare the sounds themselves.</p> + + <p>In many cases it is sufficient, in comparing consonants, to compare + syllables that contain those consonants; <i>e.g.</i>, to determine the + relations of <i>p</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, we say <i>pa</i>, + <i>ba</i>, <i>fa</i>, <i>va</i>; or for those of <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>, + we say <i>sa</i>, <i>za</i>. Here we compare <i>syllables</i>, each + consonant being followed by a vowel. At times this is insufficient. We + are often obliged to isolate the consonant from its vowel, and bring our + organs to utter (or half utter) imperfect sounds of <i>p'</i>, <i>b'</i>, + <i>t'</i>, <i>d'</i>. In doing this we isolate the consonant. <!-- Page + 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>{143}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect197">§ 197</a>. Let any of the <i>vowels</i> (for + instance, the <i>a</i> in <i>father</i>) be sounded. The lips, the + tongue, and the parts within the throat remain in the same position: and + as long as these remain in the same position the sound is that of the + vowel under consideration. Let, however, a change take place in the + position of the organs of sound; let, for instance, the lips be closed, + or the tongue be applied to the front part of the mouth: in that case the + vowel sound is cut short. It undergoes a change. It terminates in a sound + that is different, according to the state of those organs whereof the + position has been changed. If, on the vowel in question, the lips be + closed, there then arises an imperfect sound of <i>b</i> or <i>p</i>. If, + on the other hand, the tongue be applied to the front teeth, or to the + fore part of the palate, the sound is one (more or less imperfect) of + <i>t</i> or <i>d</i>. This fact illustrates the difference between the + vowels and the consonants. It may be verified by pronouncing the <i>a</i> + in <i>fate</i>, <i>ee</i> in <i>feet</i>, <i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>, + <i>o</i> in <i>note</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>It is a further condition in the formation of a vowel sound, that the + passage of the breath be uninterrupted. In the sound of the <i>l'</i> in + <i>lo</i> (isolated from its vowel) the sound is as continuous as it is + with the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>. Between, however, the consonant + <i>l</i> and the vowel <i>a</i> there is this difference: with <i>a</i>, + the passage of the breath is uninterrupted; with <i>l</i>, the tongue is + applied to the palate, breaking or arresting the passage of the + breath.</p> + + <p><a name="sect198">§ 198</a>. The primary division of our articulate + sounds is into vowels and consonants. The latter are again divided into + liquids (<i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>) and mutes (<i>p</i>, + <i>b</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>s</i>, + <i>z</i>, &c.) <i>Definitions</i> for the different sorts of + articulate sounds have still to be laid down. In place of these, we have + general assertions concerning the properties and qualities of the + respective classes. Concerning the <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'vowels'.">consonants</span> as a class, we may + predicate one thing concerning the liquids, and concerning the mutes, + another. What the nature of these assertions is, will be seen after the + explanation of certain terms.</p> + + <p><a name="sect199">§ 199</a>. <i>Sharp and flat.</i>—Take the + sounds of <i>p</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>s</i>; isolate them + from their vowels, and pronounce them. The sound is the sound of a + whisper. <!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page144"></a>{144}</span></p> + + <p>Let <i>b</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>z</i>, be similarly + treated. The sound is no whisper, but one at the natural tone of our + voice.</p> + + <p>Now <i>p</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>s</i> (with some others + that will be brought forward anon) are <i>sharp</i>, whilst <i>b</i>, + <i>v</i>, &c. are <i>flat</i>. Instead of <i>sharp</i>, some say + <i>hard</i>, and instead of <i>flat</i>, some say <i>soft</i>. The + Sanskrit terms <i>sonant</i> and <i>surd</i> are, in a scientific point + of view, the least exceptionable. They have, however, the disadvantage of + being pedantic. The <i>tenues</i> of the classics (as far as they go) are + sharp, the <i>mediæ</i> flat.</p> + + <p><i>Continuous and explosive.</i>—Isolate the sounds of <i>b</i>, + <i>p</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>g</i>. Pronounce them. You + have no power of prolonging the sounds, or of resting upon them. They + escape with the breath, and they escape at once.</p> + + <p>It is not so with <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>sh</i>, <i>zh</i>. Here the + breath is transmitted by degrees, and the sound can be drawn out and + prolonged for an indefinite space of time. Now <i>b</i>, <i>p</i>, + <i>t</i>, &c. are explosive <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, &c. + continuous.</p> + + <p><a name="sect200">§ 200</a>. Concerning the vowels, we may predicate + <i>a</i>) that they are all continuous, <i>b</i>) that they are all + flat.</p> + + <p>Concerning the liquids, we may predicate <i>a</i>) that they are all + continuous, <i>b</i>) that they are all flat.</p> + + <p>Concerning the mutes, we may predicate <i>a</i>) that one half of them + is flat, and the other half sharp, and <i>b</i>) that some are + continuous, and that others are explosive.</p> + + <p><a name="sect201">§ 201</a>.—The letter <i>h</i> is no + articulate sound, but only a breathing.</p> + + <p>For the semivowels and the diphthongs, see the sequel.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 145 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145"></a>{145}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">SYSTEM OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect202">§ 202</a>.—The attention of the reader is now + directed to the following <i>foreign</i> vowel sounds.</p> + + <p>1. <i>é fermé</i>, of the French.—This is a sound allied to, but + different from, the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>, and the <i>ee</i> in + <i>feet</i>. It is intermediate to the two.</p> + + <p>2. <i>u</i> of the French, <i>ü</i> of the Germans, <i>y</i> of the + Danes.—This sound is intermediate to the <i>ee</i> in <i>feet</i>, + and the <i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>o chiuso</i>, of the Italians.—Intermediate to the + <i>o</i> in <i>note</i>, and the <i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>.</p> + + <p>For these sounds we have the following sequences: <i>a</i> in + <i>fate</i>, <i>é fermé</i>, <i>ee</i> in <i>feet</i>, <i>ü</i> in + <i>übel</i> (German), <i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>, <i>o chiuso</i>, <i>o</i> + in <i>note</i>. And this is the true order of alliance among the vowels; + <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>, and <i>o</i> in <i>note</i>, being the extremes; + the other sounds being transitional or intermediate. As the English + orthography is at once singular and faulty, it exhibits the relationship + but imperfectly.</p> + + <p><a name="sect203">§ 203</a>. <i>The system of the + mutes.</i>—Preliminary to the consideration of the system of the + mutes, let it be observed:—</p> + + <p>1. that the <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i> is a simple single sound, + different from the <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>, and that it may be + expressed by the sign þ.</p> + + <p>2. That the <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i> is a simple single sound, + different from the <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>, and that it may be expressed + by the sign ð.</p> + + <p>3. That the <i>sh</i> in <i>shine</i> is a simple single sound, and + that it may be expressed by the sign <span class="grk">σ</span> + (Greek <span title="sigma" class="grk" + >σῖγμα</span>).</p> + + <p>4. That the <i>z</i> in <i>azure</i>, <i>glazier</i> (French + <i>j</i>), is a simple single sound, and that it may be expressed by the + sign <span class="grk">ζ</span> (Greek <span title="zêta" class="grk" + >ζῆτα</span>). <!-- Page 146 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page146"></a>{146}</span></p> + + <p>5. That in the Laplandic, and possibly in many other languages, there + are two peculiar sounds, different from any in English, German, and + French, &c., and that they may respectively be expressed by the sign + <i><span class="grk">κ</span></i> and the sign <i><span + class="grk">γ</span></i> (Greek <span title="kappa" class="grk" + >κάππα</span> and <span title="gamma" class="grk" + >γάμμα</span>).</p> + + <p>With these preliminary notices we may exhibit the system of the + sixteen mutes; having previously determined the meaning of two fresh + terms, and bearing in mind what was said concerning the words sharp and + flat, continuous and explosive.</p> + + <p><i>Lene and aspirate.</i>—From the sound of <i>p</i> in + <i>pat</i>, the sound of <i>f</i> in <i>fat</i> differs in a certain + degree. This difference is not owing to a difference in their sharpness + or flatness. Each is sharp. Neither is it owing to a difference in their + continuity or explosiveness; although, at the first glance, such might + appear to be the case. <i>F</i> is continuous, whilst <i>p</i> is + explosive. <i>S</i>, however, is continuous, and <i>s</i>, in respect to + the difference under consideration, is classed not with <i>f</i> the + continuous sound but with <i>p</i> the explosive one. I am unable to + account for the difference between <i>p</i> and <i>f</i>. It exists: it + is visible. It has been expressed by a term. <i>P</i> is called + <i>lene</i>, <i>f</i> is called <i>aspirate</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>As <i>f</i> is to <i>p</i> so is <i>v</i> to <i>b</i>.</p> + <p>As <i>v</i> is to <i>b</i> so is <i>þ</i> to <i>t</i>.</p> + <p>As <i>þ</i> is to <i>t</i> so is <i>ð</i> to <i>d</i>.</p> + <p>As <i>ð</i> is to <i>d</i> so is <i><span class="grk">κ</span></i> to <i>k</i>.</p> + <p>As <i><span class="grk">κ</span></i> is to <i>k</i> so is <i><span class="grk">γ</span></i> to <i>g</i>.</p> + <p>As <i><span class="grk">γ</span></i> is to <i>g</i> so is <i><span class="grk">σ</span></i> to <i>s</i>.</p> + <p>As <i><span class="grk">σ</span></i> is to <i>s</i> so is <i><span class="grk">ζ</span></i> to <i>z</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Hence <i>p</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>g</i>, + <i>s</i>, <i>z</i>, are <i>lene</i>; <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>þ</i>, + <i>ð</i>, <i><span class="grk">κ</span></i>, <i><span + class="grk">γ</span></i>, <i><span class="grk">σ</span></i>, + <i><span class="grk">ζ</span></i>, are <i>aspirate</i>. Also + <i>p</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>þ</i>, <i>k</i>, <i><span + class="grk">κ</span></i>, <i>s</i>, <i><span + class="grk">σ</span></i>, are <i>sharp</i>, whilst <i>b</i>, + <i>v</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>ð</i>, <i>g</i>, <i><span + class="grk">γ</span></i>, <i>z</i>, <i><span + class="grk">ζ</span></i>, are <i>flat</i>; so that there is a double + series of relationship capable of being expressed as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Classification of mute consonants" title="Classification of mute consonants"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> <i>Lene</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black" colspan="2"> <i>Aspirate</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> <i>Sharp</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> <i>Flat</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Sharp</i>.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Flat</i>.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Sharp</i>.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Flat</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Lene</i>.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Aspirate</i>.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Lene</i>.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Aspirate</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>p</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>b</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>f</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>v</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>p</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>f</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>b</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>v</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>t</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>d</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>þ</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>ð</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>t</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>þ</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>d</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>ð</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>k</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>g</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i><span class="grk">κ</span></i></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i><span class="grk">γ</span></i></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>k</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i><span class="grk">κ</span></i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>g</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i><span class="grk">γ</span></i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>z</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i><span class="grk">σ</span></i></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i><span class="grk">ζ</span></i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i><span class="grk">σ</span></i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>z</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i><span class="grk">ζ</span></i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 147 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page147"></a>{147}</span></p> + + <p>I am not familiar enough with the early grammarians to know when the + terms <i>lene</i> and <i>aspirate</i> were first used. They were the + Latin equivalents to the Greek words <span title="psilon" class="grk" + >ψίλον</span> (<i>psilon</i>) and <span + title="dasu" class="grk">δάσυ</span> + (<i>dasy</i>) respectively. The Greek terms are preferable. <i>They</i> + convey no determinate idea, whereas the Latin terms convey a false one. + The origin of the word aspirate I imagine to be as follows. The Latin + language, wanting both the sound of the Greek <i>theta</i>, and the sign + to express it (<i><span class="grk">θ</span></i>) rendered it by + <i>th</i>. This orthography engenders the false notion that <i><span + class="grk">θ</span></i> differed from <i><span + class="grk">τ</span></i> by the addition of the aspirate <i>h</i>. To + guard against similar false notions, I rarely hereafter use the word + aspirate without qualifying it by the addition of the adjective + <i>so-called</i>.</p> + + <p>All the so-called aspirates are continuous; and, with the exception of + <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>, all the lenes are explosive.</p> + + <p>I believe that in the fact of each mute appearing in a fourfold form + (<i>i.e.</i> sharp, or flat, lene, or (so-called) aspirate), lies the + essential character of the mutes as opposed to the liquids.</p> + + <p><i>Y</i> and <i>w</i>.—These sounds, respectively intermediate + to <i><span class="grk">γ</span></i> and <i>i</i> (the <i>ee</i> in + <i>feet</i>), and to <i><span class="grk">υ</span></i> and + <i>u</i> (<i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>), form a transition from the vowels to + the consonants.</p> + + <p><a name="sect204">§ 204</a>. It has been seen that the sixteen mutes + are reducible to four series. Of these series, <i>p</i>, <i>t</i>, + <i>k</i>, <i>s</i>, may respectively be taken as the types. Of the + liquids it may be predicated as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. That <i>m</i> is allied to the series <i>p</i>.—The + combination <i>inp</i> has a tendency to become <i>imp</i>.</p> + + <p>2. That <i>n</i> is allied to the series <i>t</i>.—The + combination <i>imt</i> has a tendency to become either <i>impt</i>, or + <i>int</i>.</p> + + <p>3. That <i>l</i> is allied to the series <i>k</i>.—The evidence + of this lies deep in comparative philology.</p> + + <p>4. That <i>r</i> is allied to the series <i>s</i>.—The evidence + of this is of the same nature with that of the preceding assertion.</p> + + <p>The series <i>p</i> and <i>k</i> have this peculiarity.—They are + connected with the vowels through <i>w</i> and <i>u</i> (<i>oo</i>), and + through <i>y</i> and <i>i</i> (<i>ee</i>) respectively.</p> + + <p><a name="sect205">§ 205</a>. The French word <i>roi</i> and the + English words <i>oil</i>, <!-- Page 148 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page148"></a>{148}</span><i>house</i>, are specimens of a fresh + class of articulations; <i>viz.</i>, of compound vowel sounds or + <i>diphthongs</i>. The diphthong <i>oi</i> is the vowel <i>o</i> + modified, plus the <i>semi</i>vowel <i>y</i> (not the <i>vowel</i> + <i>i</i>) modified. The diphthongal sound in <i>roi</i> is the vowel + <i>o</i> modified, <i>plus</i> the semivowel <i>w</i> (not the vowel + <i>u</i> or <i>oo</i>) modified. In <i>roi</i> the semivowel element + precedes, in <i>oil</i> it follows. In <i>roi</i> it is the semivowel + allied to series <i>p</i>; in <i>oil</i> it is the semivowel allied to + series <i>k</i>. <i>The nature of the modification that the component + parts of a diphthong undergo has yet to be determined</i>; although it is + certain there is one. If it were not so, the articulations would be + <i>double</i>, not <i>compound</i>.</p> + + <p>The words quoted indicate the nature of the diphthongal system.</p> + + <p>1. Diphthongs with the semivowel <i>w</i>, <i>a</i>) <i>preceding</i>, + as in the French word <i>roi</i>, <i>b</i>) <i>following</i>, as in the + English word <i>new</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Diphthongs with the semivowel <i>y</i>, <i>a</i>) <i>preceding</i>, + as is common in the languages of the Lithuanic and Slavonic stocks, + <i>b</i>) <i>following</i>, as in the word <i>oil</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Triphthongs with a semivowel both <i>preceding</i> and + <i>following</i>.</p> + + <p>The diphthongs in English are four; <i>ow</i> as in <i>house</i>, + <i>ew</i> as in <i>new</i>, <i>oi</i> as in <i>oil</i>, <i>i</i> as in + <i>bite</i>, <i>fight</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect206">§ 206</a>. <i>Chest</i>, <i>jest</i>.—Here we + have compound consonantal sounds. The <i>ch</i> in <i>chest</i> is + <i>t</i> + <i>sh</i> (<span class="grk">σ</span>), the <i>j</i> in + <i>jest</i> is <i>d</i> + <i>zh</i> (<span class="grk">ζ</span>). I + believe that in these combinations one or both the elements, <i>viz.</i>, + <i>t</i> and <i>sh</i>, <i>d</i> and <i>zh</i>, are modified; but I am + unable to state the exact nature of this modification.</p> + + <p><a name="sect207">§ 207</a>. <i>Ng.</i>—The sound of the + <i>ng</i> in <i>sing</i>, <i>king</i>, <i>throng</i>, when at the end of + a word, or of <i>singer</i>, <i>ringing</i>, &c. in the middle of a + word, is not the natural sound of the combination <i>n</i> and <i>g</i>, + each letter retaining its natural power and sound; but a simple single + sound, of which the combination <i>ng</i> is a conventional mode of + expressing.</p> + + <p><a name="sect208">§ 208</a>. Other terms, chiefly relating to the + vowels, have still to be explained. The <i>é</i> of the French has been + called <i>fermé</i>, or <i>close</i> (Italian, <i>chiuso</i>). Its + opposite, the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>, is <i>open</i>.</p> + + <p>Compared with <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>, and the <i>o</i> in + <i>note</i>, <i>a</i> in <i>father</i>, <!-- Page 149 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page149"></a>{149}</span>and the <i>aw</i> in + <i>bawl</i>, are <i>broad</i>, the vowels of <i>note</i> and <i>fate</i> + being <i>slender</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect209">§ 209</a>. In <i>fat</i>, the vowel is, according to + common parlance, <i>short</i>; in <i>fate</i>, it is <i>long</i>. Here we + have the introduction of two fresh terms. For the words <i>long</i> and + <i>short</i>, I would fain substitute <i>independent</i> and + <i>dependent</i>. If from the word <i>fate</i> I separate the final + consonantal sound, the syllable, <i>fa</i> remains. In this syllable the + <i>a</i> has precisely the sound that it had before. It remains + unaltered. The removal of the consonant has in nowise modified its sound + or power. It is not so with the vowel in the word <i>fat</i>. If from + this I remove the consonant following, and so leave the <i>a</i> at the + end of the syllable, instead of in the middle, I must do one of two + things: I must sound it either as the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>, or else as + the <i>a</i> in <i>father</i>. Its (so-called) short sound it cannot + retain, unless it be supported by a consonant following. For this reason + it is <i>dependent</i>. The same is the case with all the so-called short + sounds, <i>viz.</i>, the <i>e</i> in <i>bed</i>, <i>i</i> in <i>fit</i>, + <i>u</i> in <i>bull</i>, <i>o</i> in <i>not</i>, <i>u</i> in + <i>but</i>.</p> + + <p>To the preceding remarks the following statements may be added.</p> + + <p>1. That the words <i>independent</i> and <i>dependent</i> correspond + with the terms <i>perfect</i> and <i>imperfect</i> of the Hebrew + grammarians.</p> + + <p>2. That the Hebrew grammars give us the truest notions respecting + these particular properties of vowels.</p> + + <p>The following sentences are copied from Lee's Hebrew Grammar, Art. 33, + 34:—"By <i>perfect vowels</i> is meant, vowels which, being + preceded by a consonant" (<i>or without being so preceded</i>), "will + constitute a complete syllable, as <span lang="he" class="heb" title="BA" + ><bdo dir="rtl">בָּ</bdo></span>‎ + <i>bā</i>. By <i>imperfect vowels</i> is meant those vowels which + are not generally" (<i>never</i>) "found to constitute syllables without + either the addition of a consonant or of an accent. Such syllables, + therefore, must be either like <span lang="he" class="heb" title="BDA" + ><bdo dir="rtl">בּדַ</bdo></span>‎ + <i>bad</i>, or <span lang="he" class="heb" title="BA" ><bdo + dir="rtl">בֲּ</bdo></span>‎ <i>bā</i>, + <i>i.e.</i>, followed by a consonant, or accompanied by an accent." For + further remarks on this subject, see the chapter on accent.</p> + + <p><a name="sect210">§ 210</a>. Before <i>i</i>, <i>e</i>, and <i>y</i> + of the English alphabet, and before <i>ü</i> and <i>ö</i> German, the + letters <i>c</i> and <i>g</i> have the tendency to assume the sound and + power of <i>s</i> or <i>z</i>, of <i>sh</i> or <i>zh</i>, of <i>ch</i> or + <i>j</i>; <!-- Page 150 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page150"></a>{150}</span>in other words, of becoming either + <i>s</i> or some sound allied to <i>s</i>. Compared with <i>a</i>, + <i>o</i>, and <i>u</i> (as in <i>gat</i>, <i>got</i>, <i>gun</i>), which + are <i>full</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>y</i>, are <i>small</i> + vowels.</p> + + <p>It not every vowel that is susceptible of every modification. <i>I</i> + (<i>ee</i>) and <i>u</i> (<i>oo</i>) are incapable of becoming broad. + <i>E</i> in <i>bed</i> (as I have convinced myself), although both broad + and slender, is incapable of becoming independent. For the <i>u</i> in + <i>but</i>, and for the <i>ö</i> of certain foreign languages, I have no + satisfactory systematic position.</p> + + <p><a name="sect211">§ 211</a>. <i>Vowel System.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="System of vowels" title="System of vowels"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>Broad.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <i>Slender.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>Independent.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Independent.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Dependent.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> <i>a</i>, in <i>father</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>a</i>, in <i>fate</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i>, in <i>fat</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>e fermé</i>, <i>long</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>e fermé</i>, <i>short</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> <i>e</i>, in <i>meine</i>, Germ.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>e</i>, in <i>bed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>ee</i>, in <i>feet</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i</i>, in <i>pit</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>ü</i>, of the German, <i>long</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> the same, <i>short</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>oo</i>, in <i>book</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ou</i>, in <i>could</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>o chiuso</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> the same, <i>short</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:3px double black"> <i>aw</i>, in <i>bawl</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>o</i>, in <i>note</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i>, in <i>note</i>.</td></tr> + +</table> + + <p>From these, the semivowels <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> make a transition to + the consonants <i>v</i> and the so-called aspirate of <i>g</i> (<span + class="grk">γ</span>, not being in English), respectively.</p> + + <p><a name="sect212">§ 212</a>. <i>System of Consonants.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="System of consonants" title="System of consonants"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>Liquids.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black" colspan="4"> <i>Mutes.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Semivowels.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black" colspan="2"> <i>Lene.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black" colspan="2"> <i>Aspirate.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Sharp.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Flat.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Sharp.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>Flat.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>m</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>p</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'v'."><i>b</i></span> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>f</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>v</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>w</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>n</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>t</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>d</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>þ</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>ð</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>l</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>k</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>g</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">κ</span></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <span class="grk">γ</span></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>y</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <i>r</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>s</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>z</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">σ</span></td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:3px double black"> <span class="grk">ζ</span></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect213">§ 213</a>. Concerning the vowel system I venture no + assertion. The consonantal system I conceive to have been exhibited above + in its whole fulness. The number of mutes, <i>specifically</i> distinct, + I consider to be sixteen and no more: the number of liquids, four. What + then are the powers of the numerous letters in alphabets like those of + Arabia and Armenia? What <!-- Page 151 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page151"></a>{151}</span>is the German <i>ch</i>, and Irish + <i>gh</i>? <i>Varieties</i> of one or other of the sounds exhibited + above, and not articulations specifically distinct.</p> + + <p><a name="sect214">§ 214</a>. There is a <i>difference between a + connexion in phonetics and a connexion in grammar</i>.—Phonetics is + a word expressive of the subject-matter of the present chapter. The + present chapter determines (amongst other things) the systematic relation + of articulate sounds. The word <i>phônæticos</i> (<span + title="phônêtichos" class="grk" + >φωνήτιχος</span>) + signifies <i>appertaining to articulate sounds</i>. It is evident that + between sounds like <i>b</i> and <i>v</i>, <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>, there + is a connexion in phonetics. Now in the grammar of languages there is + often a change, or a permutation of letters: <i>e.g.</i>, in the words + <i>tooth</i>, <i>teeth</i>, the vowel, in <i>price</i>, <i>prize</i>, the + consonant, is changed. Here there is a connexion in grammar.</p> + + <p>That the letters most closely allied in phonetics should be most + frequently interchanged in grammar, is what, on <i>à priori</i> grounds, + we most naturally are led to expect. And that such is <i>often</i> the + case, the study of languages tells us. That, however, it is always so, + would be a hasty and an erroneous assertion. The Greek language changes + <i>p</i> into <i>f</i>. Here the connexion in phonetics and the connexion + in language closely coincide. The Welsh language changes <i>p</i> into + <i>m</i>. Here the connexion in phonetics and the connexion in language + do <i>not</i> closely coincide.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 152 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page152"></a>{152}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF CERTAIN COMBINATIONS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect215">§ 215</a>. Certain combinations of articulate sounds + are incapable of being pronounced. The following rule is one that, in the + forthcoming pages, will frequently be referred to. <i>Two (or more) + </i>mutes<i>, of different degrees of sharpness and flatness, are + incapable of coming together in the same syllable.</i> For instance, + <i>b</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>z</i>, &c. being flat, and + <i>p</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>s</i>, &c. being sharp, + such combinations as <i>abt</i>, <i>avt</i>, <i>apd</i>, <i>afd</i>, + <i>agt</i>, <i>akd</i>, <i>atz</i>, <i>ads</i>, &c., are + unpronounceable. <i>Spelt</i>, indeed, they may be; but attempts at + pronunciation end in a <i>change</i> of the combination. In this case + either the flat letter is changed to its sharp equivalent (<i>b</i> to + <i>p</i>, <i>d</i> to <i>t</i>, &c.) or <i>vice versâ</i> (<i>p</i> + to <i>b</i>, <i>t</i> to <i>d</i>). The combinations <i>abt</i>, and + <i>agt</i>, to be pronounced, must become either <i>apt</i> or + <i>abd</i>, or else <i>akt</i> or <i>agd</i>.</p> + + <p>For determining which of the two letters shall be changed, in other + words, whether it shall be the first that accommodates itself to the + second, or the second that accommodates itself to the first, there are no + general rules. This is settled by the particular habit of the language in + consideration.</p> + + <p>The word <i>mutes</i> in the second sentence of this section must be + dwelt on. It is only with the <i>mutes</i> that there is an impossibility + of pronouncing the heterogeneous combinations above mentioned. The + liquids and the vowels are flat; but the liquids and vowels, although + flat, may be followed by a sharp consonant. If this were not the case, + the combinations <i>ap</i>, <i>at</i>, <i>alp</i>, <i>alt</i>, &c. + would be unpronounceable.</p> + + <p>The semivowels, although flat, admit of being followed by a sharp + consonant.</p> + + <p>The law exhibited above may be called the law of accommodation. <!-- + Page 153 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page153"></a>{153}</span></p> + + <p>Combinations like <i>gt</i>, <i>kd</i>, &c., may be called + incompatible combinations.</p> + + <p><a name="sect216">§ 216</a>. <i>Unstable combinations.</i>—That + certain sounds in combination with others have a tendency to undergo + changes, may be collected from the observation of our own language, as we + find it spoken by those around us, or by ourselves. The <i>ew</i> in + <i>new</i> is a sample of what may be called an unsteady or unstable + combination. There is a natural tendency to change it either into + <i>oo</i> (<i>noo</i>) or <i>yoo</i> (<i>nyoo</i>); perhaps also into + <i>yew</i> (<i>nyew</i>).</p> + + <p><a name="sect217">§ 217</a>. <i>Effect of the semivowel </i>y<i> on + certain letters when they precede it.</i>—Taken by itself the + semivowel <i>y</i>, followed by a vowel (<i>ya</i>, <i>yee</i>, + <i>yo</i>, <i>you</i>, &c.), forms a stable combination. Not so, + however, if it be preceded by a consonant, of the series <i>t</i>, + <i>k</i>, or <i>s</i>, as <i>tya</i>, <i>tyo</i>; <i>dya</i>, <i>dyo</i>; + <i>kya</i>, <i>kyo</i>; <i>sya</i>, <i>syo</i>. There then arises an + unstable combination. <i>Sya</i> and <i>syo</i> we pronounce as + <i>sha</i> and <i>sho</i>; <i>tya</i> and <i>tyo</i> we pronounce as + <i>cha</i> and <i>ja</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>tsh</i>, <i>dzh</i>.). This we + may verify from our pronunciation of words like <i>sure</i>, + <i>picture</i>, <i>verdure</i> (<i>shoor</i>, <i>pictshoor</i>, + <i>verdzhoor</i>), having previously remarked that the <i>u</i> in those + words is not sounded as <i>oo</i> but as <i>yoo</i>. The effect of the + semivowel <i>y</i>, taken with instability of the combination <i>ew</i>, + accounts for the tendency to pronounce <i>dew</i> as if written + <i>jew</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect218">§ 218</a>. <i>The evolution of new + sounds.</i>—To an English ear the sound of the German <i>ch</i> + falls strange. To an English organ it is at first difficult to pronounce. + The same is the case with the German vowels <i>ö</i> and <i>ü</i> and + with the French sounds <i>u</i>, <i>eu</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>To a German, however, and a Frenchman, the sound of the English + <i>th</i> (either in <i>thin</i> or <i>thine</i>) is equally a matter of + difficulty.</p> + + <p>The reason of this lies in the fact of the respective sounds being + absent in the German, French, and English languages; since sounds are + easy or hard to pronounce just in proportion as we have been familiarised + with them.</p> + + <p>There is no instance of a new sound being introduced at once into a + language. Where they originate at all, they are <i>evolved</i>, not + imported. <!-- Page 154 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page154"></a>{154}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect219">§ 219</a>. <i>Evolution of sounds.</i>—Let + there be a language where there is no such a sound as that of <i>z</i>, + but where there is the sound of <i>s</i>. The sound of <i>z</i> may be + evolved under (amongst others) the following conditions. 1. Let there be + a number of words ending in the flat mutes; as <i>slab</i>, <i>stag</i>, + <i>stud</i>, &c. 2. Let a certain form (the plural number or the + genitive case) be formed by the addition of <i>is</i> or <i>es</i>; as + <i>slabis</i>, <i>stages</i>, <i>studes</i>, &c. 3. Let the tendency + that words have to contract eject the intermediate vowel, <i>e</i> or + <i>i</i>, so that the <i>s</i> of the inflexion (a <i>sharp</i> mute) and + the <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, &c. of the original word + (<i>flat</i> mutes) be brought into juxta-position, <i>slabs</i>, + <i>studs</i>, <i>stags</i>. There is then an incompatible termination, + and one of two changes must take place; either <i>b</i>, <i>d</i>, or + <i>g</i> must become <i>p</i>, <i>t</i>, or <i>k</i> (<i>slaps</i>, + <i>staks</i>, <i>stuts</i>); or <i>s</i> must become <i>z</i> + (<i>stagz</i>, <i>studz</i>, <i>slabz</i>). In this latter case <i>z</i> + is evolved. Again,</p> + + <p>Let there be a language wherein there are no such sounds as <i>sh</i>, + <i>ch</i> (<i>tsh</i>), or <i>j</i> (<i>dzh</i>); but where there are the + sounds of <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>y</i>.</p> + + <p>Let a change affect the unstable combinations <i>sy</i>, <i>ty</i>, + <i>dy</i>. From this will arise the evolved sounds of <i>sh</i>, + <i>ch</i>, and <i>j</i>.</p> + + <p>The phenomena of evolution help to determine the pronunciation of dead + languages.</p> + + <p><a name="sect220">§ 220</a>. <i>On the value of a sufficient system of + sounds.</i>—In certain imaginable cases, a language may be + materially affected by the paucity of its elementary articulate + sounds.</p> + + <p>In a given language let there be the absence of the sound <i>z</i>, + the other conditions being those noted in the case of the words + <i>stag</i>, <i>slab</i>, <i>stud</i>, &c. Let the intermediate vowel + be ejected. Then, instead of the <i>s</i> being changed into an evolved + <i>z</i>, let the other alternative take place; so that the words become + <i>staks</i>, <i>slaps</i>, <i>stuts</i>. In this latter case we have an + alteration of the original word, brought about by the insufficiency of + the system of articulate sounds.</p> + + <p><a name="sect221">§ 221</a>. <i>Double consonants rare.</i>—It + cannot be too clearly understood that in words like <i>pitted</i>, + <i>stabbing</i>, <i>massy</i>, &c. there is no real reduplication of + the sounds of <i>t</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>s</i>, respectively. Between the + words <i>pitted</i> (as with the small-pox) and <i>pitied</i> (as being + an object of pity) there is a difference in <!-- Page 155 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page155"></a>{155}</span>spelling only. In + speech the words are identical. <i>The reduplication of the consonant is + in English, and the generality of languages, a conventional mode of + expressing upon paper the shortness (dependence) of the vowel that + precedes.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect222">§ 222</a>. Real reduplications of consonants, + <i>i.e.</i>, reduplications of their <i>sound</i>, are, in all languages, + extremely rare. I am fully aware of certain statements made respecting + the Laplandic and Finlandic languages, <i>viz.</i>, that doubled + consonants are, in them, of common occurrence. Notwithstanding this, I + have an impression that it is generally under one condition that true + reduplication takes place. In compound and derived words, where the + original root <i>ends</i>, and the superadded affix <i>begins</i> with + the same letter, there is a reduplication of the sound, and not + otherwise. In the word <i>soulless</i>, the <i>l</i> is doubled to the + ear as well as to the eye; and it is a false pronunciation to call it + <i>souless</i> (<i>soless</i>). In the "Deformed Transformed" it is made + to rhyme with <i>no less</i>, improperly.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Clay, not dead but soulless,</p> + <p class="i2">Though no mortal man would choose thee,</p> + <p>An immortal no less</p> + <p class="i2">Deigns not to refuse thee."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the following words, all of which are compounds, we have true + specimens of the doubled consonant.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Doubled consonants" title="Doubled consonants"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>n</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> is doubled in</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>unnatural</i>, <i>innate</i>, <i>oneness</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>l</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>soulless</i>, <i>civil-list</i>, <i>palely</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>k</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>book-case</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>t</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>seaport-town</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>It must not, however, be concealed, that, in the mouths even of + correct speakers, one of the doubled sounds is often dropped.</p> + + <p><a name="sect223">§ 223</a>. <i>True aspirates rare.</i>—The + criticism applied to words like <i>pitted</i>, &c., applies also to + words like <i>Philip</i>, <i>thin</i>, <i>thine</i>, &c. There is + therein no sound of <i>h</i>. How the so-called aspirates differ from + their corresponding lenes has not yet been determined. That it is + <i>not</i> by the addition of <i>h</i> is evident. <i>Ph</i> and + <i>th</i> are conventional modes of spelling simple single sounds, which + might better be expressed by simple single signs. <!-- Page 156 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page156"></a>{156}</span></p> + + <p>In our own language the <i>true</i> aspirates, like the true + duplications, are found only in compound words; and there they are often + slurred in the pronunciation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="True aspirates" title="True aspirates"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> We find</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>p</i> and <i>h</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> in the words</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>haphazard</i>, <i>upholder</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>b</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>abhorrent</i>, <i>cub-hunting</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>f</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>knife-handle</i>, <i>offhand</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>v</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>stave-head</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>d</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>adhesive</i>, <i>childhood</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>t</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>nuthook</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>th</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>withhold</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>k</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>inkhorn</i>, <i>bakehouse</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>g</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>gig-horse</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>s</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>race-horse</i>, <i>falsehood</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>z</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>exhibit</i>, <i>exhort</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>r</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>perhaps</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>l</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>well-head</i>, <i>foolhardy</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>m</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Amherst</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>n</i> and <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>unhinge</i>, <i>inherent</i>, <i>unhappy</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Now in certain languages the <i>true</i> aspirates are of common + occurrence, <i>i.e.</i>, sounds like the <i>t</i> in <i>nuthook</i>, the + <i>ph</i> in <i>haphazard</i>, &c., are as frequent as the sounds of + <i>p</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>s</i>, &c. In the spelling of these sounds by + means of the English we are hampered by the circumstance of <i>th</i> and + <i>ph</i> being already used in a different sense.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 157 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page157"></a>{157}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">EUPHONY; THE PERMUTATION AND THE TRANSITION OF LETTERS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect224">§ 224</a>. 1. Let there be two syllables, of which + the one ends in <i>m</i>, and the other begins with <i>r</i>, as we have + in the syllables <i>num-</i> and <i>-rus</i> of the Latin word + <i>numerus</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Let an ejection of the intervening letters bring these two + syllables into immediate contact, <i>numrus</i>. The <i>m</i> and + <i>r</i> form an unstable combination. To remedy this there is a tendency + (mark, not an absolute necessity) to insert an intervening sound.</p> + + <p>In English, the form which the Latin word <i>numerus</i> takes is + <i>num</i>b<i>er</i>; in Spanish, <i>nom</i>b<i>re</i>. The <i>b</i> + makes no part of the original word, but has been inserted for the sake of + euphony; or, to speak more properly, by a euphonic process. The word + euphony is derived from <span title="eu" class="grk" + >εὖ</span> (<i>well</i>), and <span title="phônê" class="grk" + >φώνη</span> (<i>fônæ</i>, a voice). The province of + euphony has not been very accurately determined.</p> + + <p><a name="sect225">§ 225</a>. In the word <i>number</i>, <i>nombre</i>, + the letter inserted was <i>b</i>; and for <i>b</i> being the particular + letter employed, there is a reason derived from the <i>system</i> of + articulate sounds.</p> + + <p>1. That the letter inserted should be a consonant is evident. The + <i>vowel</i> <i>e</i> (in <i>num</i>e<i>rus</i>) had been previously + ejected.</p> + + <p>2. That it should be a mute is evident. A liquid would have given the + unstable or unpronounceable combinations <i>mnr</i>, <i>mlr</i>, + <i>mrr</i>, <i>mmr</i>.</p> + + <p>3. That it should be a consonant, either of series <i>b</i> or of + series <i>s</i>, was natural; it being series <i>b</i> and series + <i>s</i> with which <i>m</i> and <i>r</i> are respectively connected.</p> + + <p>4. That it should be a consonant of series <i>b</i>, rather than one + of series <i>s</i>, we collect from the fact that <i>msr</i> + (<i>numsrus</i>) or <i>mzr</i> (<i>numzrus</i>) give inharmonious, and, + consequently, unstable combinations. <!-- Page 158 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page158"></a>{158}</span></p> + + <p>5. That of the <i>b</i> series, it should be <i>b</i> or <i>v</i> + (flat) rather than <i>p</i> or <i>f</i> (sharp), we infer from the fact + of <i>m</i> and <i>r</i> both being flat.</p> + + <p>6. Of <i>v</i> and <i>b</i>, the latter alone gives a stable + combination, so that we have the Spanish form <i>nom</i>b<i>re</i>, and + not <i>nom</i>v<i>re</i>.</p> + + <p>In this we have an illustration of the use of attending to the nature + and connections of articulate sounds in general.</p> + + <p><a name="sect226">§ 226</a>. The affinity of <i>m</i> for the series + <i>b</i>, of <i>n</i> for the series <i>t</i>, gives occasion to further + euphonic changes. The combinations <i>mt</i>, <i>md</i>, <i>mþ</i>, + <i>mð</i>, are unstable. The syllables <i>emt</i>, <i>emd</i>, are liable + to one of two modifications. Either <i>p</i> or <i>b</i> will be + inserted, and so make them <i>empt</i> (as in <i>tempt</i>), <i>embd</i> + (as in <i>Embden</i>), or else the <i>m</i> will become <i>n</i>, forming + the syllable <i>ent</i>, <i>end</i>, <i>enþ</i>, <i>enð</i>.</p> + + <p>Similar tendencies, in a certain degree, affect the combinations + <i>enp</i>, <i>enb</i>. They are liable to become <i>emp</i>, or + <i>emb</i>. Any one may see that the word <i>enperor</i> embarrasses the + utterance.</p> + + <p><a name="sect227">§ 227</a>. The combination <i>tupt</i> is stable, so + also is the combination <i>tuft</i>. But the combination <i>tupth</i> is + unstable: since the <i>p</i> is lene, the <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'f'."><i>þ</i></span> is a (so-called) aspirate. + Hence arises a process of accommodation by which the word becomes either + <i>tupt</i> or <i>tufth</i> (<i>tufþ</i>).</p> + + <p>In respect to the unstable combination <i>tupth</i>, we may observe + this, <i>viz.</i> that the ways of altering it are two. Either the first + letter may be accommodated to the second, <i>tufþ</i>, or the second may + be accommodated to the first, <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'tuft'." + ><i>tupt</i></span>. Which of these two changes shall take place is + determined by the particular habit of the language. In Greek we add to + the radical syllable <span title="tup" class="grk" + >τυπ</span>-, the inflectional syllable -<span + title="thên" class="grk">θην</span>. The <i>first</i> + letter, <span class="grk">π</span>, is accommodated to the second, + <span class="grk">θ</span>, and the word becomes <span + title="tuphthên" class="grk">τυφθην</span> + (<i>tyfþæn</i>), as in <span title="etuphthên" class="grk" + >ἐτύφθην</span> (<i>etyfþæn</i>). In + English we add to the radical syllable <i>stag</i>, the inflectional + syllable <i>s</i>. Here the <i>second</i> letter is accommodated to the + first, and the resulting word is not <i>staks</i>, but <i>stagz</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect228">§ 228</a>. The Irish Gaelic, above most other + languages, illustrates a euphonic principle that modifies the vowels of a + word. The vowels <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>, are full, whilst <i>i</i>, + <i>e</i>, <i>y</i>, are small. Now if to a syllable containing a small + vowel, as <i>buil</i>, there be added <!-- Page 159 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page159"></a>{159}</span>a syllable containing a + broad one, as <i>-am</i>, a change takes place. Either the first syllable + is accommodated to the second, or the second to the first; so that the + vowels respectively contained in them are either both full or both small. + Hence arises, in respect to the word quoted, either the form + <i>bu</i>a<i>l</i>a<i>m</i>, or else the form + <i>bu</i>i<i>l</i>i<i>m</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect229">§ 229</a>. In the words <i>give</i> and <i>gave</i> + we have a change of tense expressed by a change of vowel. In the words + <i>price</i> and <i>prize</i> a change of meaning is expressed by a + change of consonant. In <i>clothe</i> and <i>clad</i> there is a change + both of a vowel and of a consonant. In the words <i>to use</i> and <i>a + use</i> there is a similar change, although it is not expressed by the + spelling. To the ear the verb <i>to use</i> ends in <i>z</i>, although + not to the eye. The following are instances of the permutation of + letters.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Permutation of Vowels.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Permutation of vowels" title="Permutation of vowels"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ĕ</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>man</i>, <i>men</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>oo</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>stand</i>, <i>stood</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>u</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>dare</i>, <i>durst</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ē</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>was</i>, <i>were</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ea</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>speak</i>, <i>spoken</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ea=ĕ</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ea=ē</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>breath</i>, <i>breathe</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ee</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ĕ</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>deep</i>, <i>depth</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ea</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>bear</i>, <i>bore</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>spin</i>, <i>span</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>u</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>spin</i>, <i>spun</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i=ei</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>smite</i>, <i>smote</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i=ei</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ĭ</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>smite</i>, <i>smitten</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>give</i>, <i>gave</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i=ei</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>a</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>rise</i>, <i>raise</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ĭ</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>e</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>sit</i>, <i>set</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ow</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ew</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>blow</i>, <i>blew</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>e</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>strong</i>, <i>strength</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>oo</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ee</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>tooth</i>, <i>teeth</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>top</i>, <i>tip</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>e</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>old</i>, <i>elder</i>; <i>tell</i>, <i>told</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ŏ</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>e</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>brother</i>, <i>brethren</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ō=oo</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>do</i>, <i>did</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o=oo</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o=ŭ</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>do</i>, <i>done</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>oo</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>o</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>choose</i>, <i>chose</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 160 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page160"></a>{160}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Permutation of Consonants.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Permutation of Consonants" title="Permutation of Consonants"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>f</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>v</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>life</i>, <i>live</i>; <i>calf</i>, <i>calves</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þ</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ð</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>breath</i>, <i>to breathe</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'þ'."><i>ð</i></span></td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>d</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>seethe</i>, <i>sod</i>; <i>clothe</i>, <i>clad</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>d</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>t</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>build</i>, <i>built</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>s</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>z</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>use</i>, <i>to use</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>s</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>r</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>was</i>, <i>were</i>; <i>lose</i>, <i>forlorn</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In <i>have</i> and <i>had</i> we have the <i>ejection</i> of a sound; + in <i>work</i> and <i>wrought</i>, the <i>transposition</i> of one. + Important changes are undergone by the sounds <i>k</i>, <i>g</i>, and the + allied ones <i>nk</i>, <i>ng</i>, <i>y</i>, as will be seen in the + chapter on verbs.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Permutation of Combinations.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Permutation of Combinations" title="Permutation of Combinations"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ie</i>=<i>i</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> as </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>grind</i>, <i>ground</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ow</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>i</i>=<i>ei</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> as </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>mouse</i>, <i>mice</i>; <i>cow</i>, <i>kine</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ink</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>augh</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> as </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>drink</i>, <i>draught</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ing</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ough</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> as </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>bring</i>, <i>brought</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <i>y</i> (formerly <i>g</i>),</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ough</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> as </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>buy</i>, <i>bought</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>igh</i>=<i>ei</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ough</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> as </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>fight</i>, <i>fought</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>eek</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> to</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>ough</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> as </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>seek</i>, <i>sought</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>It must be noticed that the list above is far from being an exhaustive + one. The expression too of the changes undergone has been rendered + difficult on account of the imperfection of our orthography. The whole + section has been written in illustration of the meaning of the word + <i>permutation</i>, rather than for any specific object in grammar.</p> + + <p><a name="sect230">§ 230</a>. In all the words above the change of + sound has been brought about by the grammatical inflection of the word + wherein it occurs. This is the case with the words <i>life</i> and + <i>live</i>, and with all the rest. With the German word <i>leben</i>, + compared with the corresponding word <i>live</i>, in English, the change + is similar. It is brought about, however, not by a grammatical + inflection, but by a difference of time, and by a difference of place. + This indicates the distinction between the permutation of letters and the + transition of letters. In dealing with permutations, we compare different + parts of speech; in dealing with transitions, we compare different + languages, or different stages of a single language.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 161 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page161"></a>{161}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE FORMATION OF SYLLABLES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect231">§ 231</a>. In respect to the formation of syllables, + I am aware of no more than one point that requires any especial + consideration.</p> + + <p>In certain words, of more than one syllable, it is difficult to say to + which syllable an intervening consonant belongs. For instance, does the + <i>v</i> in <i>river</i>, and the <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'e'."><i>v</i></span> in <i>fever</i>, belong to + the first or the second syllable? Are the words to be divided thus, + <i>ri-ver</i>, <i>fe-ver</i>? or thus, <i>riv-er</i>, <i>fev-er</i>?</p> + + <p>The solution of the question lies by no means on the surface.</p> + + <p>In the first place, the case is capable of being viewed in two points + of view—an etymological and a phonetic one.</p> + + <p>That the <i>c</i> and <i>r</i> in <i>become</i>, <i>berhymed</i>, + &c. belong to the second syllable, we determine at once by taking the + words to pieces; whereby we get the words <i>come</i> and <i>rhymed</i> + in an isolated independent form. But this fact, although it settles the + point in etymology, leaves it as it was in phonetics; since it in nowise + follows, that, because the <i>c</i> in the <i>simple</i> word <i>come</i> + is exclusively attached to the letter that follows it, it is, in the + <i>compound</i> word <i>become</i>, exclusively attached to it also.</p> + + <p>To the following point of structure in the consonantal sounds the + reader's attention is particularly directed.</p> + + <p>1. Let the vowel <i>a</i> (as in <i>fate</i>) be sounded.—2. Let + it be followed by the consonant <i>p</i>, so as to form the syllable + <i>āp</i>. To form the sound of <i>p</i>, it will be found that the + lips close on the sound of <i>a</i>, and arrest it. Now, if the lips be + left to themselves they will not <i>remain</i> closed on the sound, but + will open again, in a slight degree indeed, but in a degree sufficient to + cause a kind of vibration, or, at any rate, to allow an <!-- Page 162 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page162"></a>{162}</span>escape of the + remainder of the current of breath by which the sound was originally + formed. To re-open in a slight degree is the natural tendency of the lips + in the case exhibited above.</p> + + <p>Now, by an effort, let this tendency to re-open be counteracted. Let + the remaining current of breath be cut short. We have, then, only this, + <i>viz.</i>, so much of the syllable <i>āp</i> as can be formed by + the <i>closure</i> of the lips. All that portion of it that is caused by + their re-opening is deficient. The resulting sound seems truncated, cut + short, or incomplete. It is the sound of <i>p</i>, <i>minus</i> the + remnant of breath. All of the sound <i>p</i> that is now left is formed, + not by the <i>escape</i> of the breath, but by the <i>arrest</i> of + it.</p> + + <p>The <i>p</i> in <i>āp</i> is a <i>final</i> sound. With initial + sounds the case is different. Let the lips be <i>closed</i>, and let an + attempt be made to form the syllable <i>pa</i> by suddenly opening them. + The sound appears incomplete; but its incompleteness is at the + <i>beginning</i> of the sound, and not at the end of it. In the natural + course of things there would have been a current of breath + <i>preceding</i>, and this current would have given a vibration, now + wanting. All the sound that is formed here is formed, not by the + <i>arrest</i> of breath, but by the <i>escape</i> of it.</p> + + <p>I feel that this account of the mechanism of the apparently simple + sound <i>p</i>, labours under all the difficulties that attend the + <i>description</i> of a sound; and for this reason I again request the + reader to satisfy himself either of its truth or its inaccuracy, before + he proceeds to the conclusions that will be drawn from it.</p> + + <p>The account, however, being recognised, we have in the current natural + sound of <i>p</i> two elements:—</p> + + <p>1. That formed by the current of air and the closure of the lips, as + in <i>āp</i>. This may be called the sound of breath + <i>arrested</i>.</p> + + <p>2. That formed by the current of air and the opening of the lips, as + in <i>pā</i>. This may be called the sound of breath + <i>escaping</i>.</p> + + <p>Now what may be said of <i>p</i> may be said of all the other + consonants, the words <i>tongue</i>, <i>teeth</i>, &c. being used + instead of <i>lips</i>, according to the case. <!-- Page 163 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page163"></a>{163}</span></p> + + <p>Let the sound of breath arrested be expressed by <span + class="grk">π</span>, and that of breath escaping be expressed by + <span class="grk">ϖ</span>, the two together form the current + natural sound <i>p</i> (<span class="grk">π</span>+<span + class="grk">ϖ</span>=<i>p</i>).</p> + + <p>Thus <i>āp</i> (as quoted above) is <i>p</i> - <span + class="grk">ϖ</span>, or <span class="grk">π</span>; whilst + <i>pa</i> (sounded similarly) is <i>p</i> - <span + class="grk">π</span>, or <span class="grk">ϖ</span>.</p> + + <p>In the formation of syllables, I consider that the sound of breath + arrested belongs to the first, and the sound of breath escaping to the + second syllable; that each sound being expressed by a separate sign, the + word <i>happy</i> is divided thus, <i>ha<span + class="grk">π</span>-<span class="grk">ϖ</span>y</i>; and that + such is the case with all consonants between two syllables. The + <i>whole</i> consonant belongs neither to one syllable nor the other. + Half of it belongs to each. The reduplication of the <i>p</i> in + <i>happy</i>, the <i>t</i> in <i>pitted</i>, &c, is a mere point of + spelling, of which more will be said in the chapter on orthography.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 164 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page164"></a>{164}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON QUANTITY.</p> + + <p><a name="sect232">§ 232</a>. The dependent vowels, as the <i>a</i> in + <i>fat</i>, <i>i</i> in <i>fit</i>, <i>u</i> in <i>but</i>, <i>o</i> in + <i>not</i>, have this character; <i>viz.</i> they are all uttered with + rapidity, and pass quickly in the enunciation, the voice not resting on + them. This rapidity of utterance becomes more evident when we contrast + with them the prolonged sounds of the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>, <i>ee</i> + in <i>feet</i>, <i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>, <i>o</i> in <i>note</i>; + wherein the utterance is retarded, and wherein the voice rests, delays, + or is prolonged. The <i>f</i> and <i>t</i> of <i>fate</i> are separated + by a longer interval than the <i>f</i> and <i>t</i> of <i>fat</i>; and + the same is the case with <i>fit</i>, <i>feet</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Let the <i>n</i> and the <i>t</i> of <i>not</i> be each as 1, the + <i>o</i> also being as 1: then each letter, consonant or vowel, shall + constitute ⅓ of the whole word.</p> + + <p>Let, however, the <i>n</i> and <i>t</i> of <i>note</i> be each as 1, + the <i>o</i> being as 2. Then, instead of each consonant constituting + ⅓ of the whole word, it shall constitute but ¼.</p> + + <p>Upon the comparative extent to which the voice is prolonged, the + division of vowels and syllables into <i>long</i> and <i>short</i> has + been established: the <i>o</i> in <i>note</i> being long, the <i>o</i> in + <i>not</i> being short. And the longness or shortness of a vowel or + syllable is said to be its quantity.</p> + + <p><a name="sect233">§ 233</a>. The division of <i>vowels</i> into long + and short coincides <i>nearly</i> with the division of them into + independent and dependent. Mark the word <i>vowels</i>, and mark the word + <i>nearly</i>. In the length and shortness of vowels there are degrees. + This is especially the case with the broad vowels. The <i>a</i> in + <i>father</i> is capable of being pronounced either very quickly, or very + slowly. It may be attend most rapidly and yet preserve its broad + character, <i>i.e.</i>, become neither the <i>a</i> in <i>fat</i>, nor + the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>. <!-- Page 165 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page165"></a>{165}</span></p> + + <p>In the independence and dependence of vowels there are no degrees.</p> + + <p>Subject to the views laid down in the next section, the vowel + <i>ee</i> in <i>seeing</i> is long, and it is certainly independent. + Whether the <i>syllable see-</i> be long is another question.</p> + + <p>1. All long vowels are independent, but all independent vowels are not + long.</p> + + <p>2. All dependent vowels are short, but all short vowels are not + dependent.</p> + + <p>Clear notions upon these matters are necessary for determining the + structure of the English and classical metres.</p> + + <p><a name="sect234">§ 234</a>. The qualified manner in which it was + stated that the <i>vowel</i> in the word <i>seeing</i> was long, and the + attention directed to the word <i>vowels</i> in the preceding section, + arose from a distinction, that is now about to be drawn, between the + length of <i>vowels</i> and the length of <i>syllables</i>.</p> + + <p>The independent vowel in the syllable <i>see-</i> is long; and long it + remains, whether it stand as it is, or be followed by a consonant, as in + <i>seen</i>, or by a vowel, as in <i>see-ing</i>.</p> + + <p>The dependent vowel in the word <i>sit</i> is short. If followed by a + vowel it becomes unpronounceable, except as the <i>ea</i> in <i>seat</i> + or the <i>i</i> in <i>sight</i>. By a consonant, however, it may be + followed, and still retain its dependent character and also its + shortness. Such is the power it has in the word quoted, <i>sit</i>. + Followed by a <i>second</i> consonant, it still retains its shortness, + <i>e.g.</i>, <i>sits</i>. Whatever the comparative length of the + <i>syllables</i>, <i>see</i> and <i>seen</i>, <i>sit</i> and <i>sits</i>, + may be, the length of their respective <i>vowels</i> is the same.</p> + + <p>Now, if we determine the character of the syllable by the character of + the vowel, all syllables are short wherein there is a short vowel, and + all are long wherein there is a long one. Measured by the quantity of the + vowel the word <i>sits</i> is short, and the syllable <i>see-</i> in + <i>seeing</i> is long.</p> + + <p>But it is well known that this view is not the view commonly taken of + the syllables <i>see</i> (in <i>seeing</i>) and <i>sits</i>. It is well + known, that, in the eyes of a classical scholar, the <i>see</i> (in + <i>seeing</i>) is short, and that in the word <i>sits</i> the <i>i</i> is + long. The classic differs from the Englishman thus,—<i>He measures + his <!-- Page 166 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page166"></a>{166}</span>quantity, not by the length of the vowel + but, by the length of the syllable taken altogether.</i> The perception + of this distinction enables us to comprehend the following + statements.</p> + + <p>I. That vowels long by nature may <i>appear</i> to become short by + position, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + + <p>II. That, by a laxity of language, the <i>vowel</i> may be said to + have changed its quantity, whilst it is the <i>syllable</i> alone that + has been altered.</p> + + <p>III. That, if one person measures his quantities by the vowels, and + another by the syllables, what is short to the one, shall be long to the + other, and <i>vice versâ</i>. The same is the case with nations.</p> + + <p>IV. That one of the most essential differences between the English and + the classical languages is that the quantities (as far as they go) of the + first are measured by the vowel, those of the latter by the syllable. To + a Roman the word <i>monument</i> consists of two short syllables and one + long one; to an Englishman it contains three short syllables.</p> + + <p>These remarks are appreciated when we consider the comparative + characters of the classical and the English prosody.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 167 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page167"></a>{167}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON ACCENT.</p> + + <p><a name="sect235">§ 235</a>. In the word <i>tyrant</i> there is an + emphasis, or stress, upon the first syllable. In the word <i>presume</i> + there is an emphasis, or stress, on the second syllable. This emphasis, + or stress, is called <i>Accent</i>. The circumstance of a syllable + bearing an accent is sometimes expressed by a mark (´); in which case the + word is said to be accentuated, <i>i.e.</i>, to have the accent signified + in writing.</p> + + <p>Words accented on the last syllable—<i>Brigáde</i>, + <i>preténce</i>, <i>harpoón</i>, <i>reliéve</i>, <i>detér</i>, + <i>assúme</i>, <i>besoúght</i>, <i>beréft</i>, <i>befóre</i>, + <i>abroád</i>, <i>abóde</i>, <i>abstrúse</i>, <i>intermíx</i>, + <i>superádd</i>, <i>cavaliér</i>.</p> + + <p>Words accented on the last syllable but one—<i>An´chor</i>, + <i>ar´gue</i>, <i>hásten</i>, <i>fáther</i>, <i>fóxes</i>, + <i>smíting</i>, <i>húsband</i>, <i>márket</i>, <i>vápour</i>, + <i>bárefoot</i>, <i>archángel</i>, <i>bespátter</i>, <i>disáble</i>, + <i>terrífic</i>.</p> + + <p>Words accented on the last syllable but two—<i>Régular</i>, + <i>an´tidote</i>, <i>for´tify</i>, <i>suscéptible</i>, + <i>incontrovértible</i>.</p> + + <p>Words accented on the last syllable but three + (rare)—<i>Réceptacle</i>, <i>régulating</i>, <i>tálkativeness</i>, + <i>ábsolutely</i>, <i>lúminary</i>, <i>inévitable</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>A great number of words are distinguished by the accent alone. The + following list is from Nares' Orthoepy, a work to which the reader is + referred.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Words distinguished by accent" title="Words distinguished by accent"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> An <i>áttribute</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> To <i>attríbute</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> The month <i>Aúgust</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> An <i>augúst</i> person.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> A <i>com´pact</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Compáct</i> (close).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> To <i>con´jure</i> (magically). </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Conjúre</i> (enjoin).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Des´ert</i>, wilderness. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Desért</i>, merit.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Inválid</i>, not valid. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Invalíd</i>, a sickly person.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Mínute</i>, 60 seconds. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Minúte</i>, small.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Súpine</i>, part of speech. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Supíne</i>, careless, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 168 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page168"></a>{168}</span></p> + + <p>That class of words that by a change of accent are converted from + nouns into verbs (<i>súrvey</i>, <i>survéy</i>, <i>cóntrast</i>, + <i>contrást</i>, &c.) will be noticed more at large in the Chapter on + Derivation.</p> + + <p><a name="sect236">§ 236</a>. In words like <i>thínking</i>, + <i>fóxes</i>, <i>lon´ger</i>, <i>len´gthen</i>, &c. we have two + parts; first the original word, the root, or the radical part, as + <i>think</i>, <i>fox</i>, <i>long</i>, <i>length</i>, &c.; and next, + the inflectional, or the subordinate part, <i>-ing</i>, <i>-es</i>, + <i>-er</i>, <i>-en</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>To assert as a universal rule that the <i>accent is always on the + root, and never on the subordinate part of a word</i>, is too much. + Although in the <i>English</i> language such an assertion (with one + exception) is found true; by the French and other languages it is + invalidated.</p> + + <p>In words like <i>len´g-then-ing</i>, we have a <i>second</i> + inflectional or subordinate syllable; and the accent remains in its + original place, <i>absolutely, but not relatively</i>. <i>It is all the + farther from the end of the word.</i> Besides indicating the propriety of + determining the place of the accent by counting from the end, rather than + the beginning of a word, this circumstance indicates something else.</p> + + <p>Imagine the English participles to be declined, and to possess cases, + formed by the addition of fresh syllables. In this case the word + <i>len´gthening</i> would become a quadri-syllable. But to throw the + accent to the fourth syllable from the end is inconvenient. Hence a + necessity of removing it from the radical, and placing it on an + inflectional syllable.</p> + + <p>The German word <i>lében</i> (to <i>live</i>) illustrates the + foregoing sentence. <i>Léb-</i> is the root, + <i>léb-end</i>=<i>living</i>, from whence <i>lebéndig</i>=<i>lively</i> + (with the accent on an inflectional syllable), although this last word + might without inconvenience have been accented on the first syllable; + that being only the third from the end.</p> + + <p>Confusion between the radical and inflectional syllables of a word, + arising from the situation of the accent, may work the deterioration of a + language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect237">§ 237</a>. In <i>týrant</i> and <i>presúme</i>, we + deal with single words; and in each <i>word</i> we determine which + <i>syllable</i> is accented. <!-- Page 169 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page169"></a>{169}</span>Contrasted with the sort of accent that + follows, this may be called a <i>verbal</i> accent.</p> + + <p>In the line,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Better for <i>us</i>, perhaps, it might appear,</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>(<span class="sc">Pope's</span> <i>Essay on Man</i>, <span class="scac">I.</span> 169.)</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>the pronoun <i>us</i> is strongly brought forward. An especial stress + or emphasis is laid upon it, denoting that <i>there are other beings to + whom it might not appear</i>, &c. This is collected from the context. + Here there is a <i>logical</i> accent. "When one word in a sentence is + distinguished by a stress, as more important than the rest, we may say + that it is <i>emphatical</i>, or that an <i>emphasis</i> is laid upon it. + When one syllable in a word is distinguished by a stress, and more + audible than the rest, we say that it is accented, or that an accent is + put upon it. Accent, therefore, is to syllables what emphasis is to + sentences; it distinguishes one from the crowd, and brings it forward to + observation."—(Nares' Orthoepy, Part II. Chap. I.)</p> + + <p><a name="sect238">§ 238</a>. Accent plays an important part in + determining the nature of certain compound words—For this, see the + Chapter on Composition.</p> + + <p>It also plays an important part in determining the nature of the + English metres—See Prosody.</p> + + <p>Thirdly (the subject of the present section), it plays an important + part in all systems of orthography.</p> + + <p>The quotation from Professor Lee's Hebrew Grammar, in p. <a + href="#page149">149</a>, is referred to; and a particular attention to a + somewhat difficult subject is requisite.</p> + + <p>The <i>u</i> in the word <i>monument</i> is what a classic would call + <i>short</i>.</p> + + <p>The second <i>syllable</i> in the word <i>monument</i> is what a + classical scholar would call <i>short</i>. The vowel is <i>short</i>, and + the syllable taken altogether is <i>short</i>. Herein it agrees with the + first syllable <i>mon-</i>. It differs, however, from the syllable + <i>mon-</i> in being destitute of an accent, <i>mónument</i>. With the + third syllable <i>-ment</i>, it agrees in the eyes of an Englishman, but + differs in the eyes of a scholar. The vowels <i>u</i> and <i>e</i> are + equally short, and, as the Englishman measures by the vowel <!-- Page 170 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170"></a>{170}</span>the syllables + <i>-u</i> and <i>-ment</i> are both short. Not so, however, with the + scholar. He measures by the syllable and determines that the <i>e</i>, + although naturally a short vowel, is made <i>long</i> by position. + However, in being each destitute of an accent the syllables <i>-u</i> and + <i>-ment</i> agree. Be it remarked a second time that the accent in + <i>mónument</i> lies on the first syllable.</p> + + <p>Now the <i>-u</i> in <i>mónument</i> although <i>short</i>, is not + <i>dependent</i>.</p> + + <p>If, however, the syllable <i>-nu</i> take an accent; that is, if the + place of the accent be removed from the first to the second syllable, the + vowel <i>u</i> still being kept short, we have a word which we spell + thus, <i>monumment</i>. Now the <i>u</i> in <i>monumment</i> is not only + short, but dependent. It is upon this effect of an accent that the + quotation from Lee's Hebrew Grammar, p. <a href="#page149">149</a>, + especially bears.</p> + + <p>And now two questions arise:—1. How is it that the accent has + the effect of rendering such a syllable as the <i>u</i> in + <i>monumment</i> dependent? 2. Why do we in spelling such a syllable + double the consonant?</p> + + <p>An accent falling upon a syllable must, of necessity, do one of two + things: it must affect the vowel, or it must affect the consonant. If it + affect the vowel, the vowel becomes the predominant part of the syllable, + as in <i>mónooment</i>; but, if it affect the consonant, the consonant + becomes the predominant part of the syllable, as <i>monum´ment</i>.</p> + + <p>In words like <i>monumment</i> the consonant is, strictly speaking, as + single as it is in <i>monument</i>, or <i>monooment</i>. Its + <i>absolute</i> sound is the same. Not so its <i>relative</i> sound. This + is exaggerated by two circumstances:—1, The comparative shortness + of the vowel <i>u</i>; 2, the fact of the accent falling on it. The + increased relative importance of the letter <i>m</i> in the word + <i>monumment</i> is mistaken for a reduplication of the sound. This is + the reason why in most languages the shortness of a vowel is expressed by + the doubling of the consonant following; this doubling being no true + reduplication of the sound, but a mere orthographical + conventionality.</p> + + <p><a name="sect239">§ 239</a>. Accent and quantity, as may have been + collected from pp. <a href="#page164">164</a>-167, do <i>not</i> + coincide. Nothing shows this more <!-- Page 171 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page171"></a>{171}</span>clearly than words like + the adjective <i>augúst</i>, and the substantive <i>Aúgust</i> (the + month), where the quantity remains the same, although the accent is + different. The following quotation from Mr. Guest's English Rhythms is + made for the sake of four things:—</p> + + <p>1. Of showing that the generality of writers have the credit of + confusing accent with quantity—</p> + + <p>2. Of showing that there is a reason for such a confusion having + existed—</p> + + <p>3. Of indicating the propriety of the expressions in italics—It + is not stated that the consonant <i>c</i> is doubled, but that it is + added to the first syllable. The difference lies, not in its + reduplication, but in its distribution.</p> + + <p>4. Of taking a slight exception—A syllable (accented or + unaccented) must be either independent or dependent; if the latter, then + in most immediate contact with the consonant that follows.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Besides the increase of loudness, and the sharper tone which + distinguishes the accented syllable, there is also a tendency to dwell + upon it, or, in other words, to lengthen its quantity. We cannot increase + the loudness or the sharpness of a tone without a certain degree of + muscular action: and to put the muscles in motion requires time. It would + seem that the time required for producing a perceptible increase in the + loudness or sharpness of a tone is greater than that of pronouncing some + of our shorter syllables. If we attempt, for instance, to throw the + accent on the first syllable of the word <i>become</i>, we must either + lengthen the vowel, and pronounce the word <i>bee-come</i>, <i>or add the + adjoining consonant to the first syllable, and so pronounce the word</i> + <i>bec-ome</i>. We often find it convenient to lengthen the quantity even + of the longer syllables, when we wish to give them a very strong and + marked accent. Hence, no doubt, arose the vulgar notion, that accent + always lengthens the quantity of a syllable.</p> + + <p>"It is astonishing how widely this notion has misled men, whose + judgment, in most other matters of criticism, it would be very unsafe to + question. Our earlier writers, almost to a man, confound accent with + quantity."—B. i. C. iv.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 172 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page172"></a>{172}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOEPY.</p> + + <p><a name="sect240">§ 240</a>. The present chapter is one, not upon the + details of the pronunciation of the English language, but upon the + principles of orthoepy. For the details of pronunciation the reader is + referred to Nares' Orthoepy, and to the common pronouncing dictionaries, + with the preliminary recommendation to use them with caution. + <i>Orthoepy</i>, a word derived from the Greek <i>orthon</i> + (<i>upright</i>), and <i>epos</i> (<i>a word</i>), signifies the right + utterance of words. Orthoepy differs from orthography by determining how + words are spoken, whereas orthography decides how they are spelt. The one + is a question of speech, the other a question of spelling. Orthography + presupposes orthoepy.</p> + + <p><a name="sect241">§ 241</a>. Of pronunciation there are two kinds, the + colloquial and the rhetorical. In common conversation we pronounce the + <i>i</i> in <i>wind</i>, like the <i>i</i> in <i>bit</i>; in rehearsing, + or in declamation, however, we pronounce it like the <i>i</i> in + <i>bite</i>; that is, we give it a diphthongal sound. In reading the + Scriptures we say <i>blesséd</i>; in current speech we say <i>blest</i>. + It is the same with many words occurring in poetry.</p> + + <p><a name="sect242">§ 242</a>. Errors in pronunciation are capable of + being classified. In the first place, they may be arranged according to + their situation. The man who pronounces the verb <i>to survéy</i>, as if + it was <i>súrvey</i> (that is, with the accent on the wrong syllable), + errs in respect to the accentuation of the word; the situation, or seat + of his error, being the accent. To say <i>orātor</i> instead of + <i>orător</i> is to err in respect to the quantity of the word, the + seat of the error being in the quantity; and to pronounce the <i>a</i> in + <i>father</i>, as it is pronounced in Yorkshire, or the <i>s</i> in + <i>sound</i>, as it is pronounced in Devonshire (that is, as <i>z</i>), + is to err in <!-- Page 173 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page173"></a>{173}</span>the matter of the articulate sounds. To + mispronounce a word because it is misspelt<a name="NtA34" + href="#Nt34"><sup>[34]</sup></a> is only indirectly an error of orthoepy. + It is an error, not so much of orthoepy, as of orthography; and to give a + wrong inflection to a word is not bad pronunciation but bad grammar. For + practical purposes, however, many words that are really points of grammar + and of orthography, may be dealt with as points of orthoepy.</p> + + <p>That the preceding classification is natural I am induced to believe + by the following circumstances. Errors in the way of articulation + generally arise from a source different from those of accent and of + quantity. Errors in accent and quantity are generally referable to + insufficient grammatical or etymological knowledge, whilst the errors of + articulation betray a provincial dialect.</p> + + <p>The misdivision of syllables, an orthoepical error of a fourth kind, + has in the English, and perhaps in other languages, given rise to a + peculiar class of words. There have been those who have written <i>a + nambassador</i> for <i>an ambassador</i>, misdividing the syllables, and + misdistributing the sound of the letter <i>n</i>. The double form + (<i>a</i> and <i>an</i>) of the English indefinite article, encourages + this misdivision. Now, in certain words an error of this kind has had a + permanent influence. The English word <i>nag</i> is, in Danish, + <i>ög</i>; the <i>n</i>, in English, having originally belonged to the + indefinite <i>an</i>, which preceded it. The words, instead of being + divided thus, <i>an ag</i>, were divided thus, <i>a nag</i>, and the + fault became perpetuated. That the Danish is the true form we collect, + firstly, from the ease with which the English form is accounted for, and, + secondly, from the old Saxon form <i>ehu</i>, Latin <i>equus</i>. In + <i>adder</i> we have the process reversed. The true form is + <i>nadder</i>, old English; <i>natter</i>, German. Here the <i>n</i> is + taken from the substantive and added to the article. In <i>newt</i> and + <i>eft</i> we have each form. The list of words of this sort can be + increased.</p> + + <p><a name="sect243">§ 243</a>. In the second place, faults of + pronunciation may be arranged according to their cause.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 174 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page174"></a>{174}</span></p> + + <p>1. <i>The fault of incompetent enunciation.</i>—A person who + says <i>sick</i> for <i>thick</i>, or <i>elebben</i> for <i>eleven</i>, + does so, not because he knows no better, but because he cannot enounce + the right sounds of <i>th</i> and <i>v</i>. He is <i>incompetent</i> to + it. His error is not one of ignorance. It is an acoustic or a phonetic + defect. As such it differs from—</p> + + <p>2. <i>The fault of erroneous enunciation.</i>—This is the error + of a person who talks of <i>jocholate</i> instead of <i>chocolate</i>. It + is not that he <i>cannot</i> pronounce rightly, but that he mistakes the + nature of the sound required. Still more the person who calls <i>a + hedge</i> <i>a nedge</i>, and <i>an edge</i> <i>a hedge</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect244">§ 244</a>. Incompetent enunciation, and erroneous + enunciation are, however, only the proximate and immediate causes of bad + orthoepy. Amongst the remote causes (the immediate causes of + <i>erroneous</i> enunciation) are the following.</p> + + <p>I. <i>Undefined notions as to the language to which a word + belongs.</i>—The flower called <i>anemone</i> is variously + pronounced. Those who know Greek say <i>anemōne</i>, speaking as if + the word was written <i>anemohny</i>. The mass say, <i>anemŏne</i>, + speaking as if the word was written <i>anemmony</i>. Now, the doubt here + is as to the language of the word. If it be Greek, it is + <i>anemōne</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Haima rhodon tiktei, ta de dakrua tan anemônan" class="grk">Ἁῖμα ῥοδὸν τίκτει, τὰ δὲ δάκρυα τᾶν ἀνεμῶναν</span>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Bion.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>And if it be English, it is (on the score of analogy) as undoubtedly + <i>anémmony</i>. The pronunciation of the word in point is determined + when we have determined the language of it.</p> + + <p>II. <i>Mistakes as to fact, the language of a word being + determined.</i>—To know the word <i>anemōne</i> to be Greek, + and to use it as a Greek word, but to call it <i>anemŏny</i>, is + not to be undecided as to a matter of language, but to be ignorant as to + a matter of quantity.</p> + + <p>III. <i>Neglect of analogy.</i>—Each and all of the following + words, <i>orator</i>, <i>theatre</i>, <i>senator</i>, &c. are in the + Latin language, from whence they are derived, accented on the second + syllable; as <i>orátor</i>, <i>theátre</i>, <i>senátor</i>. In English, + on the contrary, they are accented on the first; as <i>órator</i>, + <i>théatre</i>, <!-- Page 175 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page175"></a>{175}</span><i>sénator</i>. The same is the case with + many other words similarly derived. They similarly suffer a change of + accent. So many words do this, that it is the rule in English for words + to throw their accent from the second syllable (counting from the end of + the word) to the third. It was on the strength of this rule,—in + other words, on the analogies of <i>orator</i>, &c., that the English + pronunciation of the Greek word <span title="anemônê" class="grk" + >ἀνεμώνη</span> was stated to be + <i>anémmone</i>. Now, to take a word derived from the Latin, and to look + to its original quantity only, without consulting the analogies of other + words similarly derived, is to be neglectful of the analogies of our own + language, and attentive to the quantities of a foreign one.</p> + + <p>These, amongst others, the immediate causes of erroneous enunciation, + have been adduced not for the sake of exhausting, but for the sake of + illustrating the subject.</p> + + <p><a name="sect245">§ 245</a>. In matters of orthoepy it is the usual + custom to appeal to one of the following standards.</p> + + <p>I. <i>The authority of scholars.</i>—This is of value up to a + certain point only. The fittest person for determining the classical + pronunciation of a word like <i>anemone</i> is the classical scholar; but + the mere classical scholar is far from being the fittest person to + determine the analogies that such a word follows in English.</p> + + <p>II. <i>The usage of educated bodies, such as the bar, the pulpit, the + senate, </i>&c.<i></i>—These are recommended by two + circumstances: 1. The chance that each member of them is sufficiently a + scholar in foreign tongues to determine the original pronunciation of + derived words, and sufficiently a critic in his own language to be aware + of the analogies that are in operation. 2. The quantity of imitators + that, irrespective of the worth of his pronunciation, each individual can + carry with him. On this latter ground the stage is a sort of + standard.</p> + + <p>The objection to the authority of educated bodies is its + impracticability. It is only the usage of the component individuals that + can be determined. Of these many may carry with them the dialects of + their provinces, so that, although good standards on points of accent and + quantity, they are bad ones upon points of articulation. <!-- Page 176 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page176"></a>{176}</span></p> + + <p>III. <i>The authority of societies constituted with the express + purpose of taking cognizance of the language of the + country.</i>—These, although recognized in Italy and other parts of + the Continent, have only been proposed in Great Britain. Their inefficacy + arises from the inutility of attempting to fix that which, like language, + is essentially fluctuating.</p> + + <p>IV. <i>The authority of the written language.</i>—The value of + this may be collected from the chapter on orthography.</p> + + <p>V. These, amongst others, the standards that have been appealed to, + are adduced not for the sake of exhausting the subject, but to show the + unsatisfactory nature of authority in matters of speech.</p> + + <p><a name="sect246">§ 246</a>. For a person, on a point of + pronunciation, to trust to his own judgment, he must be capable, with + every word that he doubts about, of discussing three + questions:—</p> + + <p>I. <i>The abstract or theoretical propriety of a certain + pronunciation.</i>—To determine this he must have a sufficient + knowledge of foreign tongues and a sufficient knowledge of English + analogies. He must also have some test by which he can determine to what + language an equivocal word belongs. Of tests for this purpose, one, + amongst others, is the following:—Let it be asked whether the word + <i>lens</i> (in Optics) is English or Latin; whether it is to be + considered as a naturalised word or a strange one. The following fact + will give an answer. There is of the word <i>lens</i> a plural number, + and this plural number is the English form <i>lenses</i>, and not the + Latin form <i>lentes</i>. The existence of an English inflection proves + that the word to which it belongs is English, although its absence does + not prove the contrary. That the word <i>anemone</i> is English (and + consequently pronounced <i>anemŏne</i>) we know from the plural + form, which is not <i>anemonæ</i>, but <i>anemones</i>.</p> + + <p>II. <i>The preference of one pronunciation over another on the score + of utility.</i>—The word <i>ascetic</i>, for certain orthographical + reasons, notwithstanding its origin from the Greek word <i>askeó</i>, is + called <i>assetic</i>. From similar reasons there is a tendency to call + the word <i>sceptic</i>, <i>septic</i>. Theoretical propriety (and, be it + observed, the analogy of <i>ascetic</i> has not been overlooked) is in + <!-- Page 177 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page177"></a>{177}</span>favour of the word being sounded + <i>skeptic</i>. The tendency of language, however, is the other way. Now, + the tendency of language and the theoretical propriety being equal, there + is an advantage (a point of utility) in saying <i>skeptic</i>, which + turns the scale. By sounding the <i>k</i> we distinguish the word + <i>skeptic</i> from <i>septic</i>. By this the language gains a point in + perspicuity, so that we can talk of the <i>anti-skeptic</i> writings of + Bishop Warburton and of the <i>anti-septic</i> properties of + charcoal.</p> + + <p>III. <i>The tendencies of language</i>.—From p. 153, we see that + the combination <i>ew</i> is an unstable combination, that it has a + tendency to become <i>yoo</i>, and that the <i>y</i> in <i>yoo</i> has a + tendency to change a <i>d</i> preceding into <i>j</i>; in other words, we + see the reason why, by many persons, <i>dew</i> is pronounced + <i>jew</i>.</p> + + <p>It is generally an easier matter to say how a word will be sounded a + hundred years hence, than to determine its present pronunciation. + Theoretical propriety is in favour of <i>dew</i>, so also is the view in + the way of utility. Notwithstanding this, posterity will say <i>jew</i>, + for the tendencies of language are paramount to all other influences.</p> + + <p>We may now judge of the relative value of the three lines of criticism + exhibited above. Other things being equal, the language should have the + advantage of the doubt, and the utility of a given pronunciation should + prevail over its theoretical propriety. Where, however, the tendencies + are overwhelming, we can only choose whether, in doubtful words, we shall + speak like our ancestors, or like our posterity.<a name="NtA35" + href="#Nt35"><sup>[35]</sup></a></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 178 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page178"></a>{178}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.</p> + + <p><a name="sect247">§ 247</a>. Orthoepy determines the correct + pronunciation of words, and deals with a language as it is <i>spoken</i>; + orthography determines the correct spelling of words, and deals with a + language as it is <i>written</i>. The term is derived from the Greek + words <i>orthos</i> (<i>upright</i>), and <i>graphé</i>, or <i>grafæ</i> + (<i>writing</i>). Orthography is less essential to language than + orthoepy; since all languages are spoken, whilst but a few languages are + written. Orthography presupposes orthoepy. Orthography addresses itself + to the eye, orthoepy to the ear. Orthoepy deals with the articulate + sounds that constitute syllables and words; orthography treats of the + signs by which such articulate sounds are expressed in writing. A + <i>letter</i> is the sign of an articulate (and, in the case of <i>h</i>, + of an inarticulate) sound.</p> + + <p>A full and perfect system of orthography consists in two + things:—1. The possession of a sufficient and consistent alphabet. + 2. The right application of such an alphabet. This position may be + illustrated more fully.</p> + + <p><a name="sect248">§ 248</a>. First, in respect to a full and perfect + alphabet. Let there be in a certain language, simple single articulate + sounds, to the number of forty, whilst the simple single signs, or + letters, expressive of them, amount to no more than <i>thirty</i>. In + this case the alphabet is insufficient. It is not full enough: since ten + of the simple single articulate sounds have no corresponding signs + whereby they may be expressed. In our own language, the sounds (amongst + others) of <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>, and of <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>, + are simple and single, whilst there is no sign equally simple and single + to spell them with.</p> + + <p>An alphabet, however, may be sufficient, and yet imperfect. It may err + on the score of inconsistency. Let there be in a <!-- Page 179 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page179"></a>{179}</span>given language two + simple single sounds, for instance, the <i>p</i> in <i>pate</i>, and the + <i>f</i> in <i>fate</i>. Let these sounds stand in a given relation to + each other. Let a given sign, for instance, <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎ (as is actually + the case in Hebrew), stand for the <i>p</i> in <i>pate</i>; and let a + second sign be required for the <i>f</i> in <i>fate</i>. Concerning the + nature of this latter sign, two views may be taken. One framer of the + alphabet, perceiving that the two sounds are mere modifications of each + other, may argue that no new sign (or letter) is at all necessary, but + that the sound of <i>f</i> in <i>fate</i> may be expressed by a mere + modification of the sign (or letter) <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎, and may be + written thus <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo + dir="rtl">פּ</bdo></span>‎, or thus <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎´ or + <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo + dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎', &c.; upon the principle + that, like sounds should be expressed by like signs. The other framer of + the alphabet, contemplating the difference between the two sounds, rather + than the likeness, may propose, not a mere modification of the sign <span + lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo + dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎, but a letter altogether new, + such as <i>f</i>, or <span class="grk">φ</span>, &c., upon the + principle that sounds of a given degree of dissimilitude should be + expressed by signs of a different degree of dissimilitude.</p> + + <p>Hitherto the expression of the sounds in point is a matter of + convenience only. No question has been raised as to its consistency or + inconsistency. This begins under conditions like the following:—Let + there be in the language in point the sounds of the <i>t</i> in + <i>tin</i>, and of the <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>; which (it may be + remembered) are precisely in the same relation to each other as the + <i>p</i> in <i>pate</i> and the <i>f</i> in <i>fate</i>. Let each of + these sounds have a sign (or letter) expressive of it. Upon the nature of + these signs, or letters, will depend the nature of the sign or letter + required for the <i>f</i> in <i>fate</i>. If the letter expressing the + <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i> be a mere modification of the letter expressing + the <i>t</i> in <i>tin</i>, then must the letter expressive of the + <i>f</i> in <i>fate</i> be a mere modification of the letter expressing + the <i>p</i> in <i>pate</i>, and <i>vice versâ</i>. If this be not the + case, the alphabet is inconsistent.</p> + + <p>In the English alphabet we have (amongst others) the following + inconsistency:—The sound of the <i>f</i> in <i>fate</i>, in a + certain relation to the sound of the <i>p</i> in <i>pate</i>, is + expressed by a totally distinct sign; whereas, the sound of the <i>th</i> + in <i>thin</i> (similarly related to the <i>t</i> in <i>tin</i>) is + expressed by no new sign, but by a mere modification of <i>t</i>; viz., + <i>th</i>. <!-- Page 180 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page180"></a>{180}</span></p> + + <p>A third element in the faultiness of an alphabet is the fault of + erroneous representation. The best illustration of this we get from the + Hebrew alphabet, where the sounds of <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="T" ><bdo dir="rtl">ת</bdo></span>‎ and <span + lang="he" class="heb" title="T`" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ט</bdo></span>‎, mere <i>varieties</i> of each + other, are represented by distinct and dissimilar signs, whilst <span + lang="he" class="heb" title="T" ><bdo + dir="rtl">ת</bdo></span>‎ and <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="T" ><bdo dir="rtl">תּ</bdo></span>‎, sounds + <i>specifically</i> distinct, are expressed by a mere modification of the + same sign, or letter.</p> + + <p><a name="sect249">§ 249</a>. <i>The right application of an + alphabet.</i>—An alphabet may be both sufficient and consistent, + accurate in its representation of the alliances between articulate + sounds, and in nowise redundant; and yet, withal, it may be so wrongly + applied as to be defective. Of defect in the use or application of the + letters of an alphabet, the three main causes are the + following:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Unsteadiness in the power of letters.</i>—Of this there + are two kinds. In the first, there is one sound with two (or more) ways + of expressing it. Such is the sound of the letter <i>f</i> in English. In + words of Anglo-Saxon origin it is spelt with a single simple sign, as in + <i>fill</i>; whilst in Greek words it is denoted by a combination, as in + <i>Philip</i>. The reverse of this takes place with the letter <i>g</i>; + here a single sign has a double power; in <i>gibbet</i> it is sounded as + <i>j</i>, and in <i>gibberish</i> as <i>g</i> in <i>got</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>The aim at secondary objects.</i>—The natural aim of + orthography, of spelling, or of writing (for the three terms mean the + same thing), is to express the <i>sounds</i> of a language. Syllables and + words it takes as they meet the ear, it translates them by appropriate + signs, and so paints them, as it were, to the eye. That this is the + natural and primary object is self-evident; but beyond this natural and + primary object there is, with the orthographical systems of most + languages, a secondary one, <i>viz.</i> the attempt to combine with the + representation of the sound of a given word the representation of its + history and origin.</p> + + <p>The sound of the <i>c</i>, in <i>city</i>, is the sound that we + naturally spell with the letter <i>s</i>, and if the expression of this + sound was the <i>only</i> object of our orthographists, the word would be + spelt accordingly (<i>sity</i>). The following facts, however, traverse + <!-- Page 181 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page181"></a>{181}</span>this simple view of the matter. The word + is a derived word; it is transplanted into our own language from the + Latin, where it is spelt with a <i>c</i> (<i>civitas</i>); and to change + this <i>c</i> into <i>s</i> conceals the origin and history of the word. + For this reason the <i>c</i> is retained, although, as far as the mere + expression of sounds (the primary object in orthography) is concerned, + the letter is a superfluity. In cases like the one adduced the + orthography is bent to a secondary end, and is traversed by the + etymology.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Obsoleteness.</i>—It is very evident that modes of + spelling which at one time may have been correct, may, by a change of + pronunciation, become incorrect; so that orthography becomes obsolete + whenever there takes place a change of speech without a correspondent + change of spelling.</p> + + <p><a name="sect250">§ 250</a>. <i>Difference between the change of a + sound and the original false expression of a sound.</i>—The letter + <i>u</i> is a simple single sign. The sound of <i>ow</i>, in <i>town</i>, + is a diphthongal, or a double, sound. Now, in Anglo-Saxon, the modern + word <i>town</i> is spelt <i>tún</i>. In this case one of two things must + have taken place: either the word must have changed its sound, or the + Anglo-Saxons must have expressed it falsely and improperly.</p> + + <p><a name="sect251">§ 251</a>. From the foregoing sections we arrive at + the theory of a full and perfect alphabet and orthography, of which a few + (amongst many others) of the chief conditions are as follow:—</p> + + <p>1. That for every simple single sound, incapable of being represented + by a combination of letters, there be a simple single sign.</p> + + <p>2. That sounds within a determined degree of likeness be represented + by signs within a determined degree of likeness; whilst sounds beyond a + certain degree of likeness be represented by distinct and different + signs, <i>and that uniformly</i>.</p> + + <p>3. That no sound have more than one sign to express it.</p> + + <p>4. That no sign express more than one sound.</p> + + <p>5. That the primary aim of orthography be to express the sounds of + words, and not their histories. <!-- Page 182 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page182"></a>{182}</span></p> + + <p>6. That changes of speech be followed by corresponding changes of + spelling.</p> + + <p>With these principles in our mind we may measure the imperfections of + our own and of other alphabets.</p> + + <p><a name="sect252">§ 252</a>. Previous to considering the sufficiency + or insufficiency of the English alphabet, it is necessary to enumerate + the elementary articulate sounds of the language. The enumeration of + these is, strictly speaking, a point, not of orthography, but of + orthoepy. It is, however, so intimately connected with the former that + the present chapter seems its proper place. The vowels belonging to the + English language are the <i>twelve</i> following:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="English vowels" title="English vowels"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> That of</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> in</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>father</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>fat</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>fate</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 4. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>aw</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>bawl</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 5. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>o</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>not</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 6. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>o</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>note</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td><td class="spacsingle"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 7. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> That of </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>e</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> in</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>bed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 8. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>i</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>pit</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 9. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>ee</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>feet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 10. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>u</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>bull</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 11. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>oo</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>fool</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 12. </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>u</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>duck</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>For the relations of these see Chapter II.</p> + + <p>The diphthongal sounds are <i>four</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="English diphthongs" title="English diphthongs"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> That of</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>ou</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> in</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>house</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>ew</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>new</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>oi</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>oil</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 4.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>i</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>bite</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>This last sound being most incorrectly expressed by the single letter + <i>i</i>.</p> + + <p>The consonantal sounds are, 1. the two semivowels; 2. the four + liquids; 3. fourteen out of the sixteen mutes; 4. <i>ch</i> in + <i>chest</i>, and <i>j</i> in <i>jest</i>, compound sibilants; 5. + <i>ng</i>, as in <i>king</i>; 6. the aspirate <i>h</i>. In all, + twenty-four.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="English consonants" title="English consonants"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>w</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> as in</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>wet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>y</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>yet</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>m</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>man</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 4.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>n</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>not</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 5.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>l</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>let</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 6.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>r</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>run</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 7.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>p</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>pate</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> +<!-- Page 183 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page183"></a>{183}</span> + 8.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>b</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>ban</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 9.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>f</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>fan</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 10.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>v</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>van</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 11.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>t</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>tin</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 12.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>d</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>din</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td><td class="spacsingle"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 13.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>th</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>thin</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 14.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>th</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>thine</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 15.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>g</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>gun</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 16.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>k</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>kind</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 17.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>s</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>sin</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 18.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>z</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>zeal</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 19.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>sh</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>shine</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 20.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>z</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>azure</i>, <i>glazier</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 21.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>ch</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>chest</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 22.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>j</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>jest</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 23.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>ng</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>king</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 24.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>h</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>hot</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Some writers would add to these the additional sound of the <i>é + fermé</i> of the French; believing that the vowel in words like + <i>their</i> and <i>vein</i> has a different sound from the vowel in + words like <i>there</i> and <i>vain</i>. For my own part I cannot detect + such a difference either in my own speech or that of my neighbours; + although I am far from denying that in certain <i>dialects</i> of our + language such may have been the case. The following is an extract from + the Danish grammar for Englishmen, by Professor Rask, whose eye, in the + matter in question, seems to have misled his ear: "The <i>é fermé</i>, or + <i>close é</i>, is very frequent in Danish, but scarcely perceptible in + English; unless in such words as, <i>their</i>, <i>vein</i>, <i>veil</i>, + which appear to sound a little different from <i>there</i>, <i>vain</i>, + <i>vale</i>."</p> + + <p>The vowels being twelve, the diphthongs four, and the consonantal + sounds twenty-four, we have altogether as many as forty sounds, some + being so closely allied to each other as to be mere modifications, and + others being combinations rather than simple sounds; all, however, + agreeing in requiring to be expressed by letters or by combinations of + letters, and to be distinguished from each other.</p> + + <p>Now, although every sound specifically distinct should be expressed by + a distinct sign, it does not follow that mere modifications or varieties + (especially if they be within certain limits) should be so expressed. In + the Greek language sounds as like as the <i>o</i> in <i>not</i> and the + <i>o</i> in <i>note</i> are expressed by signs as unlike as <span + class="grk">ο</span> and <span class="grk">ω</span>; that + is, by the letters <i>omicron</i> and <i>omega</i> respectively; and so + it is with <span class="grk">ε</span> and <span + class="grk">η</span>. All that can be said in this case is, that it + is the character of the Greek alphabet to represent a difference which + the English neglects.</p> + + <p>With respect to the diphthongs it is incorrect, uncommon, and + inconvenient to represent them by simple single signs, rather than by + combinations. In the English language the sounds <!-- Page 184 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page184"></a>{184}</span>of <i>ou</i>, + <i>ew</i>, and <i>oi</i>, are properly spelt with two letters. Not so, + however, of <i>i</i> in <i>bite</i>.</p> + + <p>The compound sibilants may also be expressed not by single signs, but + by the combinations <i>tsh</i> and <i>dzh</i>; although, for certain + reasons, such a mode of spelling is inconvenient. With these views we may + appreciate,</p> + + <p>I. <i>The insufficiency of the English alphabet.</i></p> + + <p>A. <i>In respect to the vowels.</i>—Notwithstanding the fact + that the sounds of the <i>a</i> in <i>father</i>, <i>fate</i>, and + <i>fat</i>, and of the <i>o</i> and the <i>aw</i> in <i>note</i>, + <i>not</i>, and <i>bawl</i>, are modifications of <i>a</i> and <i>o</i> + respectively, we have still <i>six</i> vowel sounds specifically + distinct, for which (<i>y</i> being a consonant rather than a vowel) we + have but <i>five</i> signs. The <i>u</i> in <i>duck</i>, specifically + distinct from the <i>u</i> in <i>bull</i>, has no specifically distinct + sign to represent it.</p> + + <p>B. <i>In respect to the consonants.</i>—The <i>th</i> in + <i>thin</i>, the <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>, the <i>sh</i> in + <i>shine</i>, the <i>z</i> in <i>azure</i>, and the <i>ng</i> in + <i>king</i>, five sounds specifically distinct, and five sounds perfectly + simple require corresponding signs, which they have not.</p> + + <p>II. <i>Its inconsistency.</i>—The <i>f</i> in <i>fan</i>, and + the <i>v</i> in <i>van</i> sounds in a certain degree of relationship to + <i>p</i> and <i>b</i>, are expressed by signs as unlike as <i>f</i> is + unlike <i>p</i>, and as <i>v</i> is unlike <i>b</i>. The sound of the + <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>, the <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>, the <i>sh</i> in + <i>shine</i>, similarly related to <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>s</i>, are + expressed by signs as like <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, and <i>s</i>, + respectively, as <i>th</i> and <i>sh</i>.</p> + + <p>The compound sibilant sound of <i>j</i> in <i>jest</i> is spelt with + the single sign <i>j</i>, whilst the compound sibilant sound in + <i>chest</i> is spelt with the combination <i>ch</i>.</p> + + <p> III. <i>Erroneousness.</i>—The sound of the <i>ee</i> in + <i>feet</i> is considered the long (independent) sound of the <i>e</i> in + <i>bed</i>; whereas it is the long (independent) sound of the <i>i</i> in + <i>pit</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>i</i> in <i>bite</i> is considered as the long (independent) + sound of the <i>i</i> in <i>pit</i>; whereas it is a diphthongal + sound.</p> + + <p>The <i>u</i> in <i>duck</i> is looked upon as a modification of the + <i>u</i> in <i>bull</i>; whereas it is a specifically distinct sound.</p> + + <p>The <i>ou</i> in <i>house</i> and the <i>oi</i> in <i>oil</i> are + looked upon as the compounds of <i>o</i> and <i>i</i> and of <i>o</i> and + <i>u</i> respectively; whereas the latter element of them is not <i>i</i> + and <i>u</i>, but <i>y</i> and <i>w</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i> and the <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i> are + dealt with as one <!-- Page 185 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page185"></a>{185}</span>and the same sound; whereas they are + sounds specifically distinct.</p> + + <p>The <i>ch</i> in <i>chest</i> is dealt with as a modification of + <i>c</i> (either with the power of <i>k</i> or of <i>s</i>); whereas its + elements are <i>t</i> and <i>sh</i>.</p> + + <p>IV. <i>Redundancy.</i>—As far as the representation of sounds is + concerned the letter <i>c</i> is superfluous. In words like + <i>citizen</i> it may be replaced by <i>s</i>; in words like <i>cat</i> + by <i>k</i>. In <i>ch</i>, as in <i>chest</i>, it has no proper place. In + <i>ch</i>, as in <i>mechanical</i>, it may be replaced by <i>k</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Q</i> is superfluous, <i>cw</i> or <i>kw</i> being its + equivalent.</p> + + <p><i>X</i> also is superfluous, <i>ks</i>, <i>gz</i>, or <i>z</i>, being + equivalent to it.</p> + + <p>The diphthongal forms <i>æ</i> and <i>œ</i>, as in <i>Æneas</i> + and <i>Crœsus</i>, except in the way of etymology, are superfluous + and redundant.</p> + + <p>V. <i>Unsteadiness.</i>—Here we have (amongst many other + examples), 1. The consonant <i>c</i> with the double power of <i>s</i> + and <i>k</i>; 2. <i>g</i> with its sound in <i>gun</i> and also with its + sound in <i>gin</i>; 3. <i>x</i> with its sounds in <i>Alexander</i>, + <i>apoplexy</i>, <i>Xenophon</i>.</p> + + <p>In the foregoing examples a single sign has a double power; in the + words <i>Philip</i> and <i>filip</i>, &c., a single sound has a + double sign.</p> + + <p>In respect to the degree wherein the English orthography is made + subservient to etymology, it is sufficient to repeat the statement that + the <i>c</i>, <i>æ</i>, and <i>œ</i> are retained in the alphabet + for etymological purposes only.</p> + + <p>The defects noticed in the preceding sections are <i>absolute</i> + defects, and would exist, as they do at present, were there no language + in the world except the English. This is not the case with those that are + now about to be noticed; for them, indeed, the word <i>defect</i> is + somewhat too strong a term. They may more properly be termed + inconveniences.</p> + + <p>Compared with the languages of the rest of the world the use of many + letters in the English alphabet is <i>singular</i>. The letter <i>i</i> + (when long or independent) is, with the exception of England, generally + sounded as <i>ee</i>. With Englishmen it has a diphthongal power. The + inconvenience of this is the necessity that it imposes upon us, in + studying foreign languages, of <!-- Page 186 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page186"></a>{186}</span>unlearning the sound which we give it in + our own, and of learning the sound which it bears in the language + studied. So it is (amongst many others) with the letter <i>j</i>. In + English this has the sound of <i>dzh</i>, in French of <i>zh</i>, and in + German of <i>y</i>. From singularity in the use of letters arises + inconvenience in the study of foreign tongues.</p> + + <p>In using <i>j</i> as <i>dzh</i> there is a second objection. It is not + only inconvenient, but it is theoretically incorrect. The letter <i>j</i> + was originally a modification of the vowel <i>i</i>. The Germans, who + used it as the semivowel <i>y</i>, have perverted it from its original + power less than the English have done, who sound it <i>dzh</i>.</p> + + <p>With these views we may appreciate, of the English alphabet and + orthography,</p> + + <p>I). <i>Its convenience or inconvenience in respect to learning foreign + tongues.</i>—The sound given to the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i> is + singular. Other nations sound it as <i>a</i> in <i>father</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to the <i>e</i>, long (or independent), is singular. + Other nations sound it either as <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>, or as <i>é + fermé</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to the <i>i</i> in <i>bite</i> is singular. Other + nations sound it as <i>ee</i> in <i>feet</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to the <i>oo</i> in <i>fool</i> is singular. Other + nations sound it as the <i>o</i> in <i>note</i>, or as the <i>ó + chiuso</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to the <i>u</i> in <i>duck</i> is singular. Other + nations sound it as the <i>u</i> in <i>bull</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to the <i>ou</i> in <i>house</i> is singular. Other + nations, more correctly, represent it by <i>au</i> or <i>aw</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to the <i>w</i> in <i>wet</i> is somewhat singular, + but is also correct and convenient. With many nations it is not found at + all, whilst with those where it occurs it has the sound (there or + thereabouts) of <i>v</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to <i>y</i> is somewhat singular. In Danish it has a + vowel power. In German the semivowel sound is spelt with <i>j</i>.</p> + + <p>The sound given to <i>z</i> is not the sound which it has in German + and Italian; but its power in English is convenient and correct.</p> + + <p>The sound given to <i>ch</i> in <i>chest</i> is singular. In other + languages it has generally a guttural sound; in French that of <!-- Page + 187 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page187"></a>{187}</span><i>sh</i>. + The English usage is more correct than the French, but less correct than + the German.</p> + + <p>The sound given to <i>j</i> (as said before) is singular.</p> + + <p>II.) <i>The historical propriety of certain letters.</i>—The use + of <i>i</i> with a diphthongal power is not only singular and + inconvenient, but also historically incorrect. The Greek <i>iota</i>, + from whence it originates, has the sound of <i>i</i> and <i>ee</i>, as in + <i>pit</i> and <i>feet</i>.</p> + + <p>The <i>y</i>, sounded as in <i>yet</i>, is historically incorrect. It + grew out of the Greek <span class="grk">υ</span>, a vowel, and no + semivowel. The Danes still use it as such, that is, with the power of the + German <i>ü</i>.</p> + + <p>The use of <i>j</i> for <i>dzh</i> is historically incorrect.</p> + + <p>The use of <i>c</i> for <i>k</i> in words derived from the Greek, as + <i>mechanical</i>, <i>ascetic</i>, &c., is historically incorrect. + The form <i>c</i> is the representative of <span + class="grk">γ</span> and <span class="grk">σ</span> and not + of the Greek <i>kappa</i>.</p> + + <p>In remodelling alphabets the question of historical propriety should + be recognized. Other reasons for the use of a particular letter in a + particular sense being equal, the historical propriety should decide the + question. The above examples are illustrative, not exhaustive.</p> + + <p><a name="sect253">§ 253</a>. <i>On certain conventional modes of + spelling.</i>—In the Greek language the sounds of <i>o</i> in + <i>not</i> and of <i>o</i> in <i>note</i> (although allied) are expressed + by the unlike signs or letters <span class="grk">ο</span> and + <span class="grk">ω</span>, respectively. In most other languages + the difference between the sounds is considered too slight to require for + its expression signs so distinct and dissimilar. In some languages the + difference is neglected altogether. In many, however, it is expressed, + and that by some modification of the original letter.</p> + + <p>Let the sign (ˉ) denote that the vowel over which it stands is + long, or independent, whilst the sign (˘) indicates shortness, or + dependence. In such a case, instead of writing <i>not</i> and <i>n<span + class="grk">ω</span>t</i>, like the Greeks, we may write + <i>nŏt</i> and <i>nōt</i>, the sign serving for a fresh + letter. Herein the expression of the nature of the sound is natural, + because the natural use of (ˉ) and (˘) is to express length + or shortness, dependence or independence. Now, supposing the broad sound + of <i>o</i> <!-- Page 188 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page188"></a>{188}</span>to be already represented, it is very + evident that, of the other two sounds of <i>o</i>, the one must be long + (independent), and the other short (dependent); and as it is only + necessary to express one of these conditions, we may, if we choose, use + the sign (ˉ) alone; its presence denoting length, and its absence + shortness (independence or dependence).</p> + + <p>As signs of this kind, one mark is as good as another; and instead of + (ˉ) we may, if we choose, substitute such a mark as (´) (and write + <i>nót</i>=<i>nōt</i>=<i>n<span + class="grk">ω</span>t</i>=<i>nōte)</i>; provided only that + the sign (´) expresses no other condition or affection of a sound. This + use of the mark (´), <i>viz.</i> as a sign that the vowel over which it + is placed is long (independent), is common in many languages. But is this + use of (´) natural? For a reason that the reader has anticipated, it is + not natural, but conventional. It is used elsewhere not as the sign of + <i>quantity</i>, but as the sign of <i>accent</i>; consequently, being + placed over a letter, and being interpreted according to its natural + meaning, it gives the idea, not that the syllable is long, but that it is + emphatic or accented. Its use as a sign of quantity is an orthographical + expedient, or a conventional mode of spelling.</p> + + <p>The English language abounds in orthographical expedients; the mode of + expressing the quantity of the vowels being particularly numerous. To + begin with these:</p> + + <p>The reduplication of a vowel where there is but one syllable (as in + <i>feet</i>, <i>cool</i>), is an orthographical expedient. It merely + means that the syllable is long (or independent).</p> + + <p>The juxta-position of two different vowels, where there is but one + syllable (as in <i>plain</i>, <i>moan</i>), is an orthographical + expedient. It generally means the same as the reduplication of a vowel, + <i>i.e.</i>, that the syllable is long (independent).</p> + + <p>The addition of the <i>e</i> mute, as in <i>plane</i>, <i>whale</i> + (whatever may have been its origin), is, at present, but an + orthographical expedient. It denotes the lengthening of the syllable.</p> + + <p>The reduplication of the consonant after a vowel, as in + <i>spotted</i>, <i>torrent</i>, is in most cases but an orthographical + expedient. It merely denotes that the preceding vowel is short + (dependent). <!-- Page 189 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page189"></a>{189}</span></p> + + <p>The use of <i>ph</i> for <i>f</i> in <i>Philip</i>, is an + orthographical expedient, founded upon etymological reasons.</p> + + <p>The use of <i>th</i> for the simple sound of the first consonant in + <i>thin</i> and <i>thine</i>, is an orthographical expedient. The + combination must be dealt with as a single letter.</p> + + <p><i>X</i>, however, and <i>q</i> are not orthographical expedients. + They are orthographical compendiums.</p> + + <p>The above instances have been adduced as illustrations only. Further + details will be found hereafter. For many of them we can give a reason + (for instance, for the reduplication of a consonant to express the + shortness of the preceding vowel), and of many of them we can give an + historical account (see Chapter X.).</p> + + <p><a name="sect254">§ 254</a>. The mischief of orthographical expedients + is this:—When a sign, or letter, is used in a <i>conventional</i>, + it precludes us from using it (at least without further explanation) in + its <i>natural</i> sense: <i>e.g.</i>, the double <i>o</i> in <i>mood</i> + constitutes but one syllable. If in a foreign language we had, + immediately succeeding each other, first the syllable <i>mo</i>, and next + the syllable <i>od</i>, we should have to spell it <i>mo-od</i>, or + <i>möod</i> or <i>mo-ỏd</i>, &c. Again, it is only by our + knowledge of the language that the <i>th</i> in <i>nuthook</i>, is not + pronounced like the <i>th</i> in <i>burthen</i>. In the languages of + India the true sound of <i>t</i> + <i>h</i> is common. This, however, we + cannot spell naturally because the combination <i>th</i> conveys to us + another notion. Hence such combinations as <i>thh</i>, or + <i>t‛</i>, &c., in writing Hindoo words.</p> + + <p>A second mischief of orthographical conventionalities, is the wrong + notions that they engender, the eye misleading the ear. That <i>th</i> is + really <i>t</i> + <i>h</i>, no one would have believed had it not been + for the spelling.</p> + + <p><a name="sect255">§ 255</a>. The present section is the partial + application of the preceding observations. It is a running commentary + upon the orthographical part of Dr. Johnson's Grammar. Presuming a + knowledge of the detail of the English orthography, it attempts an + explanation of some of its leading characters. Many of these it possesses + in common with other tongues. Several are peculiar to itself. <!-- Page + 190 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page190"></a>{190}</span></p> + + <p>"<i>A</i>, sounded as <i>aw</i>, or as a modification of + <i>o</i>."—<i>A</i>, as in <i>father</i>, and <i>o</i>, as in + <i>note</i> (as may be seen in p. <a href="#page150">150</a>), form the + extremities of the vowel system. Notwithstanding this, the two sounds + often interchange. The orthographical systems of most languages bear + witness to this. In French the <i>au</i> in <i>autel</i> has the sound of + <i>o</i>; in Danish <i>aa</i>=<i>o</i> (<i>baade</i> being pronounced + <i>bohde</i>); in Swedish <i>å</i> has the same power. In Old English the + forms <i>hond</i>, <i>strond</i>, &c., occur, instead of <i>hand</i>, + strand, &c. In Anglo-Saxon, brád, stán, &c., correspond to the + English forms <i>broad</i>, <i>stone</i>. I am not able to say whether + <i>a</i> changes oftenest to <i>o</i>, or <i>o</i> to <i>a</i>. The form + <i>hond</i> is older than the form <i>hand</i>. In the word <i>salt</i>, + however, the <i>a</i> was pronounced as the <i>a</i> in <i>fat</i> before + it was pronounced (as at present) like the <i>o</i> in <i>not</i>. If + this were not the case it would never have been spelt with an <i>a</i>. + In the words <i>launch</i> and <i>haunch</i>, by some called + <i>lanch</i>, <i>hanch</i>, and by others <i>lawnch</i>, <i>hawnch</i>, + we find a present tendency to interchange these sounds.</p> + + <p>The change from <i>a</i> to <i>o</i> takes place most especially + before the liquid <i>l</i>, <i>wall</i>, <i>call</i>, <i>fall</i>. When + the liquid <i>l</i> is followed by another consonant, it (<i>viz.</i> + <i>l</i>) is generally sunk in pronunciation, <i>falcon</i>, + <i>salmon</i>, &c., pronounced <i>faucon</i>, <i>sammon</i>, or + <i>saumon</i>. The reason of this lies in the following fact, + <i>viz.</i>, <i>that syllables wherein there are, at the same time, two + final consonants and a long vowel, have a tendency to become shortened by + one of two processes, viz., either by ejecting one of the consonants, or + by shortening the vowel</i>. That the <i>l</i> in <i>falcon</i> is + affected not by the change of <i>a</i> to <i>o</i>, but by the change of + a short vowel to a long, or of a slender one to a broad one, is shown in + the tendency which the common people have to say <i>hode</i> for + <i>hold</i>, as well as by the Scotch form <i>gowd</i> for <i>gold</i>. + This fact bears upon the difficult problem in the Greek (and in other + languages), <i>viz.</i>, whether the <i>lengthening</i> of the vowel in + words like <i><span title="odous" class="grk" + >ὀδοὺς</span></i> (compared with + <i><span title="odontos" class="grk" + >ὀδόντος</span></i>), is the + cause or the effect of the rejection of the consonant.</p> + + <p>"<i>E</i> is long, as in <i>scene</i>; or short, as in + <i>cellar</i>."'—<i>Johnson.</i> It has been stated before that the + (so-called) long sound of <i>e</i> is non-existent, and the <i>e</i> in + <i>scene</i>, is the (so-called) long sound of the <i>i</i> in + <i>pit</i>. <!-- Page 191 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page191"></a>{191}</span></p> + + <p>For the power of <i>e</i> in <i>since</i> and <i>once</i>, see the + remarks on <i>s</i>.</p> + + <p>For the power of <i>e</i> in <i>hedge</i> and <i>oblige</i>, see the + remarks on <i>g</i>.</p> + + <p>The power of <i>e</i> mute in words like <i>cane</i>, <i>bane</i>, + <i>tune</i>, <i>robe</i>, <i>pope</i>, <i>fire</i>, <i>cure</i>, + <i>tube</i>, has already been noticed. It serves to denote the length of + the preceding vowel. For this purpose it is retained; but it was not for + this purpose that it was invented. Originally it expressed a sound, and + it is only by a change of language that it has come, as it were by + accident, to be an orthographical expedient.</p> + + <p>Let a word consist of two syllables. Let the latter end in a vowel. + Let there be between the vowel of the first and the vowel of the second + syllable, one consonant and no more, <i>e. g.</i>, <i>namæ</i>. Let the + consonant belong to the root of the word; and let the first syllable of + the word be the essential and the radical part of it. Let this same + syllable (as the essential and radical part of it) have an accent. The + chances are that, under such circumstances, the vowel of the first + syllable will be long (independent), just as the chances are that a vowel + followed by two consonants will be short. Let a change in language affect + the <i>final</i> vowel, so that a word which was originally pronounced + <i>nama</i>, should become, first, <i>namë</i>, and afterwards + <i>nām</i>, <i>naim</i>, or <i>næm</i>; the vowel being sounded as + the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>. Let the final <i>e</i>, although lost in + pronunciation, be retained in the spelling. The chances are that, the + above conditions being given, such an <i>e</i> (final and mute) shall, + whenever it occurs, occur at the end of a long syllable. The next process + is for a succeeding generation to mistake a coincidence for a sign, and + to imagine that an <i>e</i> mute expresses the length of syllable.</p> + + <p>I consider this to be the key to the use of the <i>e</i> mute in all + words where it is preceded by one consonant only.</p> + + <p>From the circumstance that the French and the English are the only + nations wherein the <i>e</i> mute is part and parcel of the orthography, + it has been hastily imagined that the employment of it is to be + attributed to the Norman Conquest. The truth, however, is, that we find + it equally in words of Saxon and of Norman origin.</p> + + <p>The fact that, in certain words, an <i>e</i> mute is preceded by <!-- + Page 192 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page192"></a>{192}</span>two + consonants and by a short vowel, does not militate against the view given + above.</p> + + <p>"<i>I</i> has a sound, long, as in <i>fine</i>, and short, as in + <i>fin</i>. That is eminently observable in <i>i</i>, which may be + likewise remarked in other letters, that the short sound is not the long + sound contracted, but a sound wholly different."—<i>Johnson.</i> + This extract has been made in order to add the authority of Johnson to + the statement so often repeated already; <i>viz.</i>, that the <i>i</i> + in <i>bite</i> is not the long sound of the <i>i</i> in <i>bit</i>.</p> + + <p>For the sound of <i>u</i> in <i>guest</i>, <i>prorogue</i>, + <i>guard</i>, see the remarks on <i>g</i>.</p> + + <p>As a vowel, <i>y</i> is wholly superfluous. It is a current remark + that more words end in <i>y</i> (<i>fortify</i>, <i>pretty</i>) than in + any other letter. This is true only in respect to their spelling. As a + matter of <i>speech</i>, the <i>y</i> final has always the sound either + of the <i>ee</i> in <i>feet</i>, or of the <i>i</i> in <i>bite</i>. Such + is the case with the words <i>fortify</i> and <i>pretty</i>, quoted + above. For some reason or other, the vowel <i>e</i> is never, in English, + written at the end of words, unless when it is mute; whilst <i>i</i> is + never written at all. Instead of <i>cri</i>, we write <i>cry</i>, &c. + This is a peculiarity of our orthography, for which I have no + satisfactory reason. It <i>may</i> be, that with words ending in + <i>e</i>, <i>y</i> is written for the sake of showing that the vowel is + not mute, but sounded. Again, the adjectives ending in <i>y</i> as + <i>any</i>, and the adverbs in <i>ly</i>, as <i>manly</i>, in the older + stages of our language ended, not in <i>y</i>, but in <i>ig</i> + (<i>manlig</i>, <i>ænig</i>); so that the present <i>y</i>, in such + words, may be less the equivalent of <i>i</i> than the compendium of + <i>ig</i>. I venture this indication with no particular confidence.</p> + + <p>The <i>b</i> in <i>debtor</i>, <i>subtile</i>, <i>doubt</i>, agrees + with the <i>b</i> in <i>lamb</i>, <i>limb</i>, <i>dumb</i>, <i>thumb</i>, + <i>womb</i>, in being mute. It differs, however, in another respect. The + words <i>debtor</i>, <i>subtle</i>, <i>doubt</i>, are of classical, the + words <i>lamb</i>, <i>limb</i>, <i>dumb</i>, &c., are of Saxon, + origin. In <i>debtor</i>, &c., the <i>b</i> was, undoubtedly, at one + time, pronounced, since it belonged to a different syllable; + <i>debitor</i>, <i>subtilis</i>, <i>dubito</i>, being the original forms. + I am far from being certain that with the other words, <i>lamb</i>, + &c., this was the case. With them the <i>b</i> belonged (if it + belonged to the word at all) to the same syllable as the <i>m</i>. I + think, <!-- Page 193 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page193"></a>{193}</span>however, that instead of this being the + case, the <i>b</i>, in <i>speech</i>, never made a part of the word at + all; that it belongs now, and that it always belonged, to the + <i>written</i> language only; and that it was inserted in the spelling + upon what may be called the principle of imitation. For a further + illustration of this, see the remarks on the word <i>could</i>.</p> + + <p>"<i>Ch</i> has a sound which is analysed into <i>tsh</i>, as + <i>church</i>, <i>chin</i>, <i>crutch</i>. <i>C</i> might be omitted in + the language without loss, since one of its sounds might be supplied by + <i>s</i>, and the other by <i>k</i>, but that it preserves to the eye the + etymology of words, as <i>face</i> from <i>facies</i>, <i>captive</i> + from <i>captivus</i>"—<i>Johnson.</i></p> + + <p>Before <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i> (that is, before a full vowel), + <i>c</i> is sounded as <i>k</i>; before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, and <i>y</i> + (that is, before a small vowel), it has the power of <i>s</i>. This + change of sound according to the nature of the vowel following, is so far + from being the peculiarity of the English, that it is common in all + languages; except that sometimes <i>c</i>, instead of becoming <i>s</i>, + becomes <i>ts</i>, <i>tsh</i>, <i>ksh</i>, in other words, some other + sibilant; <i>but always a sibilant</i>. A reference to p. <a + href="#page153">153</a> will explain this change. At a certain time, + <i>k</i> (written <i>c</i>, as is the case in Latin) becomes changed by + the vowel following into <i>ksh</i>, and from thence into <i>s</i>, + <i>ts</i>, or <i>tsh</i>. That the syllables <i>cit</i>, <i>cyt</i>, + <i>cet</i>, were at one time pronounced <i>kit</i>, <i>kyt</i>, + <i>ket</i>, we believe: 1. from the circumstance that if it were not so, + they would have been spelt with an <i>s</i>; 2. from the comparison of + the Greek and Latin languages, where the words <i>cete</i>, + <i>circus</i>, <i>cystis</i>, Latin, are <span title="kêtê, kirkos" class="grk" + >κητὴ, + κίρκος</span>, <span title="kustis" class="grk" + >κύστις</span>, Greek.</p> + + <p>In the words <i>mechanical</i>, <i>choler</i>, &c., derived from + the Greek, it must not be imagined that the <i>c</i> represents the Greek + <i>kappa</i> or <span class="grk">κ</span>. The combination + <i>c</i> + <i>h</i> is to be dealt with as a single letter. Thus it was + that the Romans, who had in their language neither the sound of <span + class="grk">χ</span>, nor the sign <span class="grk">κ</span>, + rendered the Greek <i>chi</i> (<span class="grk">χ</span>), just as + by <i>th</i> they rendered <span class="grk">θ</span>, and by + <i>ph</i>, <span class="grk">φ</span>.</p> + + <p>The faulty representation of the Greek <span class="grk">χ</span> + has given rise to a faulty representation of the Greek <span + class="grk">κ</span>, as in <i>ascetic</i>, from <span + title="askêtikos" class="grk" + >ἀσκήτικος</span>.</p> + + <p>"<i>C</i>, according to the English orthography, never ends a <!-- + Page 194 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page194"></a>{194}</span>word; + therefore we write <i>stick</i>, <i>block</i>, which were originally + <i>sticke</i>, <i>blocke</i>. In such words <i>c</i> is now + mute."—<i>Johnson.</i> Just as there was a prejudice against + <i>i</i> or <i>e</i> ending a word there seems to have been one in the + case of <i>c</i>. In the word <i>Frederick</i> there are three modes of + spelling: 1. Frederic; 2. Frederik; 3. Frederick. Of these three it is + the last only that seems, to an Englishman, natural. The form Frederic + seems exceptionable, because the last letter is <i>c</i>, whilst Frederik + is objected to because <i>k</i> comes in immediate contact with the short + vowel.</p> + + <p>Now the reason against <i>c</i> ending a word seems this. From what + has been remarked above, <i>c</i> seems, in and of itself, to have no + power at all. Whether it shall be sounded as <i>k</i> or as <i>s</i> + seems undetermined, except by the nature of the vowel following. If the + vowel following be small, <i>c</i>=<i>s</i>, if full, <i>c</i>=<i>k</i>. + But <i>c</i> followed by nothing is equivocal and ambiguous. Now <i>c</i> + final is <i>c</i> followed by nothing; and therefore <i>c</i> equivocal, + ambiguous, indefinite, undetermined. This is the reason why <i>c</i> is + never final. Let there be such words as <i>sticke</i> and <i>blocke</i>. + Let the <i>k</i> be taken away. The words remain <i>stice</i>, + <i>bloce</i>. The <i>k</i> being taken away, there is a danger of calling + them <i>stise</i>, <i>blose</i>.</p> + + <p>A verbal exception being taken, the statement of Dr. Johnson, that in + words like <i>stick</i> and <i>block</i> the <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'k'."><i>c</i></span> is mute, is objectionable. + The mute letter is not so much the <i>c</i> as the <i>k</i>.</p> + + <p>"<i>G</i> at the end of a word is always hard, as <i>ring</i>, + <i>sing</i>."—<i>Johnson.</i> A verbal exception may be taken here. + <i>Ng</i>, is not a combination of the sounds of <i>n</i>+<i>g</i>, but + the representation of a simple single sound; so that, as in the case of + <i>th</i> and <i>sh</i>, the two letters must be dealt with as a single + one.</p> + + <p>"<i>G</i> before <i>n</i> is mute, as <i>gnash</i>, <i>sign</i>, + <i>foreign</i>."—<i>Johnson.</i> The three words quoted above are + not in the same predicament. In words like <i>gnash</i> the <i>g</i> has + been silently dropped on the score of euphony (see remarks on <i>k</i>); + in <i>sign</i> and <i>foreign</i> the <i>g</i> has not been dropped, but + changed. It has taken the allied sound of the semivowel <i>y</i>, and so, + with the preceding vowel, constitutes a diphthong. <!-- Page 195 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page195"></a>{195}</span></p> + + <p>Before <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i> (full vowels), <i>g</i> has the + sound, as in <i>gay</i>, <i>go</i>, <i>gun</i>: before <i>e</i>, + <i>i</i>, <i>y</i>, that of <i>gem</i>, <i>giant</i>.</p> + + <p>At the end of a word (that is, followed by nothing at all), or + followed by a consonant, it has the same sound that it has before + <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>—<i>agog</i>, <i>grand</i>. This shows + that such is its natural sound. In <i>hedge</i> and <i>oblige</i> the + <i>e</i> mute serves to show that the <i>g</i> is to be pronounced as + <i>j</i>.</p> + + <p>Let there be the word <i>rŏg</i>. Let the vowel be lengthened. + Let this lengthening be expressed by the addition of <i>e</i> mute, + <i>roge</i>. There is now a risk of the word being called <i>roje</i>. + This is avoided by inserting <i>u</i>, as in <i>prorogue</i>. Why, + however, is it that the <i>u</i> runs no chance of being pronounced, and + the word of being sounded <i>prorogwé</i>? The reason for this lies in + three facts. 1. The affinities between the sounds of <i>ga</i> and + <i>ka</i>. 2. The fact that <i>qu</i> is merely <i>kw</i>. 3. The fact + that in <i>qu</i>, followed by another vowel, as in <i>quoit</i> + (pronounced <i>koyt</i>), <i>antique</i>, &c., the <i>u</i> is + altogether omitted in pronunciation. In other words, the analogy of + <i>qu</i> is extended to <i>gu</i>.</p> + + <p>For the varied sounds of <i>gh</i> in <i>plough</i>, <i>tough</i>, + <i>enough</i> (<i>enow</i>), <i>through</i>, we must remember that the + original sound of <i>gh</i> was a hard guttural, as is at present the + case in Scotland, and between <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>v</i>, + <i>w</i>, there are frequent interchanges.</p> + + <p>"<i>H</i> is a note of aspiration."—It is under the notion that + <i>th</i>, <i>ph</i>, <i>sh</i>, as in <i>thin</i>, <i>thine</i>, + <i>Philip</i>, <i>shine</i>, are aspirated sounds, that <i>h</i> is + admitted in the spelling. As has been repeatedly stated, <i>th</i>, + <i>ph</i>, <i>sh</i> are to be treated as single signs or letters.</p> + + <p>"<i>J</i>, consonant, sounds uniformly like the soft <i>g</i> + (<i>i.e.</i>, as in <i>gem</i>), and is, therefore, a letter useless, + except in etymology, as <i>ejaculation</i>, <i>jester</i>, <i>jocund</i>, + <i>juice</i>."—<i>Johnson.</i> It may be added that it never occurs + in words of Saxon origin, and that in the single word <i>Allelujah</i> it + has the sound of <i>y</i>, as in the German.</p> + + <p><i>K</i> never comes before <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i>, or before a + consonant. It is used before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>y</i>, where <i>c</i> + would, according to the English analogy, be liable to be sounded as + <i>s</i>; as in <i>kept</i>, <i>king</i>, <i>skirt</i>. These words, if + written <i>cept</i>, <i>cing</i>, <i>scirt</i>, would run the risk of + being sounded <i>sept</i>, <i>sing</i>, <i>sirt</i>. Broadly speaking, + <i>k</i> is never <!-- Page 196 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page196"></a>{196}</span>used except where <i>c</i> would be + inconvenient. The reason of this lies in the fact of there being no such + letter as <i>k</i> in the Latin language. Hence arose in the eyes of the + etymologist the propriety of retaining, in all words derived from the + Latin (<i>crown</i>, <i>concave</i>, <i>concupiscence</i>, &c.), the + letter <i>c</i>, to the exclusion of <i>k</i>. Besides this, the + Anglo-Saxon alphabet, being taken from the Roman, excluded <i>k</i>, so + that <i>c</i> was written even before the small vowels, <i>a</i>, + <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>y</i>; as <i>cyning</i>, or <i>cining</i>, <i>a + king</i>. <i>C</i> then supplants <i>k</i> upon etymological grounds + only. In the languages derived from the Latin this dislike to the use of + <i>k</i> leads to several orthographical inconveniences. As the tendency + of <i>c</i>, before <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>y</i>, to be sounded as + <i>s</i> (or as a sound allied to <i>s</i>), is the same in those + languages as in others; and as in those languages, as in others, there + frequently occur such sounds as <i>kit</i>, <i>ket</i>, <i>kin</i>, + &c., a difficulty arises as to the spelling. If spelt <i>cit</i>, + <i>cet</i>, &c., there is the risk of their being sounded <i>sit</i>, + <i>set</i>. To remedy this, an <i>h</i> is interposed—<i>chit</i>, + <i>chet</i>, &c. This, however, only substitutes one difficulty for + another, since <i>ch</i> is, in all probability, already used with a + different sound, <i>e.g.</i>, that of <i>sh</i>, as in French, or that of + <i>k</i> guttural, as in German. The Spanish orthography is thus + hampered. Unwilling to spell the word <i>chimera</i> (pronounced + <i>kimera</i>) with a <i>k</i>; unable to spell it with either <i>c</i> + or <i>ch</i>, it writes the word <i>quimæra</i>. This distaste for + <i>k</i> is an orthographical prejudice. Even in the way of etymology it + is but partially advantageous, since in the other Gothic languages, where + the alphabet is less rigidly Latin, the words that in English are spelt + with a <i>c</i>, are there written with <i>k</i>,—<i>kam</i>, + German; <i>komme</i>, Danish; <i>skrapa</i>, Swedish;=<i>came</i>, + <i>come</i>, <i>scrape</i>.</p> + + <p>The use of <i>k</i> final, as in <i>stick</i>, &c., has been + noticed in p. <a href="#page194">194</a>.</p> + + <p>"<i>Skeptic</i>, for so it should be written, not + <i>sceptic</i>."—<i>Johnson.</i> Quoted for the sake of adding + authority to the statement made in p. <a href="#page193">193</a>, + <i>viz.</i>, that the Greek <i>kappa</i> is to be represented not by + <i>c</i>, but by <i>k</i>.</p> + + <p>"<i>K</i> is never doubled, but <i>c</i> is used before it to shorten + the vowel by a double consonant, as <i>cŏckle</i>, + <i>pĭckle</i>."—<i>Johnson.</i> <!-- Page 197 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page197"></a>{197}</span>This is referable to + the statement that <i>k</i> is never used where <i>c</i> is + admissible.</p> + + <p>"<i>K</i> is used before <i>n</i>, <i>knell</i>, <i>knot</i>, but + totally loses its sound."—<i>Johnson.</i> This, however, is not the + ease in the allied languages; in German and Danish, in words like + <i>knecht</i>, <i>knive</i>, the <i>k</i> is sounded. This teaches us + that such was once the case in English. Hence we learn that in the words + <i>knife</i>, <i>knight</i> (and also in <i>gnaw</i>, <i>gnash</i>), we + have an antiquated or obsolete orthography.</p> + + <p>For the ejection of the sound of <i>l</i> in <i>calf</i>, + <i>salmon</i>, <i>falcon</i>, &c. see under <i>a</i>. For the + <i>l</i> in <i>could</i>, see that word.</p> + + <p>"<i>N</i> is sometimes mute after <i>m</i>, as <i>damn</i>, + <i>condemn</i>, <i>hymn</i>."—<i>Johnson.</i> In all these words + the <i>n</i> originally belonged to a succeeding syllable, <i>dam-no</i>, + <i>condem-no</i>, <i>hym-nus</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Q</i>, accurately speaking, is neither a letter, nor an + abbreviation. It is always followed by <i>u</i>, as <i>queen</i>, + <i>quilt</i>, and the two letters <i>qu</i> must be looked upon as a + single sign, equivalent to (but scarcely an abbreviation) of <i>kw</i>. + <i>Q</i> is not=<i>k</i> alone. The combination <i>qu</i>, is never + sounded <i>koo</i>. Neither is <i>kw</i>. If it were so, there would be + in the word <i>queen</i> (currently speaking) <i>three</i> sounds of + <i>u</i>, <i>viz.</i>, two belonging to <i>q</i> (=<i>kw</i>), and one + belonging to <i>u</i> itself. <i>W</i> being considered as=2 <i>u</i>: + <i>q</i>=<i>k</i> + ½ <i>w</i>. This view of <i>q</i> bears upon the + theory of words like <i>prorogue</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>The reader is referred to p. 152. There he is told that, when a word + ends in a flat consonant, <i>b</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, the + plural termination is not the sound of <i>s</i>, but that of <i>z</i> + (<i>stagz</i>, <i>dogz</i>); although <i>s</i> be the letter + <i>written</i>. Such also is the case with words ending in the vowels or + the liquids (<i>peaz</i>, <i>beanz</i>, <i>hillz</i>, not <i>peace</i>, + <i>beance</i>, <i>hillce</i>). This fact influences our orthography. The + majority of words ending in <i>s</i> are found to be plural numbers, or + else (what is the same thing in respect to form) either genitive cases, + or verbs of the third person singular; whilst in the majority of these + the <i>s</i> is sounded as <i>z</i>. Hence, the inference from analogy + that <i>s</i> single, at the end of words, is sounded as <i>z</i>. Now + this fact hampers the orthography of those words wherein <i>s</i> final + retains its natural sound, as <i>since</i>, <i>once</i>, <i>mass</i>, + <i>mace</i>; for let these be <!-- Page 198 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page198"></a>{198}</span>written <i>sins</i>, <i>ons</i>, + <i>mas</i>, the chances are that they will be pronounced <i>sinz</i>, + <i>onz</i>, <i>maz</i>. To remedy this, the <i>s</i> may be doubled, as + in <i>mass</i>. This, however, can be done in a few cases only. It cannot + be done conveniently where the vowel is long, the effect of a double + consonant being to denote that the preceding vowel is short. Neither can + it be done conveniently after a consonant, such combinations as + <i>sinss</i>, &c., being unsightly. This throws the grammarian upon + the use of <i>c</i>, which, as stated above, has, in certain situations, + the power of <i>s</i>. To write, however, simply <i>sinc</i>, or + <i>onc</i>, would induce the risk of the words being sounded <i>sink</i>, + <i>onk</i>. To obviate this, <i>e</i> is added, which has the double + effect of not requiring to be sounded (being mute), and of showing that + the <i>c</i> has the sound of <i>s</i> (being small).</p> + + <p>"It is the peculiar quality of <i>s</i> that it may be sounded before + all consonants, except <i>x</i> and <i>z</i>, in which <i>s</i> is + comprised, <i>x</i> being only <i>ks</i>, and <i>z</i> only a hard + [flat] or gross <i>s</i>. This <i>s</i> is therefore termed by + grammarians <i>suæ potestatis litera</i>, the reason of which the learned + Dr. Clarke erroneously supposed to be, that in some words it might be + doubled at pleasure."—<i>Johnson.</i> A reference to the current + Greek Grammars will indicate another reason for <span + class="grk">σ</span> being called <i>suæ potestatis litera</i>. It + will there be seen that, whilst <span class="grk">π</span>, <span + class="grk">β</span>, <span class="grk">φ</span>—<span + class="grk">κ</span>, <span class="grk">γ</span>, <span + class="grk">χ</span>—<span class="grk">τ</span>, <span + class="grk">δ</span>, <span class="grk">θ</span>—are + grouped together, as <i>tenues</i>, <i>mediæ</i>, and <i>aspiratæ</i>, + and as <i>inter se cognatæ</i>, <span class="grk">σ</span> stands + by itself; <span class="grk">ζ</span> its media (flat sound) being + treated as a double letter, and <i>sh</i>, its so-called aspirate, being + non-existent in the Greek language.</p> + + <p>The sound of <i>ti</i> before a vowel, as in <i>salvation</i>, is + explained in p. <a href="#page153">153</a>.</p> + + <p>"<i>Th</i> has two sounds; the one soft [flat], as <i>thus</i>, + <i>whether</i>; the other hard [sharp], as <i>thing</i>, <i>think</i>. + The sound is soft [flat] in all words between two vowels, as + <i>father</i>, <i>whether</i>; and between <i>r</i> and a vowel, as + <i>burthen</i>."—<i>Johnson.</i> The reason of the latter statement + lies in the fact of both the vowels and <i>r</i> being <i>flat</i> (see + p. <a href="#page152">152</a>), and so exerting a flattening influence + upon the sounds in contact with them.</p> + + <p>In the substantives <i>breath</i> and <i>cloth</i>, the <i>th</i> is + sharp (<i>i.e.</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>); in the verbs + <i>breathe</i> and <i>clothe</i>, the <i>th</i> is flat (<i>i.e.</i>, + <!-- Page 199 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page199"></a>{199}</span>as <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>).—A + great number of substantives may be made verbs by changing the sound of + their final consonant. However, with the words <i>breathe</i> and + <i>clothe</i>, a second change has taken place, <i>viz.</i>, the vowel + has been lengthened. Now of these two changes, <i>viz.</i>, the + lengthening of the vowel, and the flattening of the consonant, which is + the one represented by the <i>e</i> mute, in <i>clothe</i> and + <i>breathe</i>, as compared with <i>cloth</i> and <i>breath</i>? I + imagine the former. Hence an exception is taken to the following + statement of Dr. Johnson:—"When it (<i>th</i>) is softened + [flattened] at the end of a word, an <i>e</i> silent must be added, as + <i>breath</i>, <i>breathe</i>, <i>cloth</i>, <i>clothe</i>."</p> + + <p>The sounds of the <i>s</i> in <i>sure</i>, of the <i>t</i> in + <i>picture</i> (when pronounced <i>pictshure</i>), and of the <i>z</i> in + <i>azure</i> and <i>glazier</i>, are explained in p. <a + href="#page153">153</a>.</p> + + <p>The present chapter is intended not to exhaust the list, but to + illustrate the character of those orthographical expedients which + insufficient alphabets, changes in language, and the influences of + etymology engender both in the English and in other tongues.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 200 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page200"></a>{200}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.</p> + + <p><a name="sect256">§ 256</a>. The preceding chapter has exhibited the + theory of a full and perfect alphabet; it has shown how far the English + alphabet falls short of such a standard; and, above all, it has exhibited + the various conventional modes of spelling which the insufficiency of + alphabets, combined with other causes, has engendered. The present + chapter gives a <i>history</i> of our alphabet, whereby many of its + defects are <i>accounted for</i>. These defects, it may be said, once for + all, the English alphabet shares with those of the rest of the world; + although, with the doubtful exception of the French, it possesses them in + a higher degree than any.</p> + + <p>With few, if any, exceptions, all the modes of writing in the world + originate, directly or indirectly, from the Phœnician, Hebrew, or + Semitic alphabet. This is easily accounted for when we call to + mind,—1. The fact that the Greek, the Latin, and the Arabian + alphabets, are all founded upon this; and, 2. The great influence of the + nations speaking those three languages. The present sketch, however, is + given only for the sake of accounting for defects.</p> + + <p><a name="sect257">§ 257</a>. <i>Phœnician, Hebrew, or Semitic + Period.</i>—At a certain period the alphabet of Palestine, + Phœnicia, and the neighbouring languages of the Semitic tribes, + consisted of twenty-two separate and distinct letters. For these see the + Hebrew Grammars and the Phœnicia of Gesenius.</p> + + <p>The chances are, that, let a language possess as few elementary + articulate sounds as possible, an alphabet of only twenty-two letters + will be insufficient. Now, in the particular case of the languages in + point, the number of elementary sounds, as we infer from the present + Arabic, was above the average. <!-- Page 201 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page201"></a>{201}</span>It may safely be asserted, that the + original Semitic alphabet was <i>insufficient</i> for even the Semitic + languages.</p> + + <p>It was, moreover, <i>inconsistent</i>: since sounds as like as those + of <i>teth</i> and <i>tau</i> (mere variations of each other) were + expressed by signs as unlike as <span lang="he" class="heb" title="T`" + ><bdo dir="rtl">ט</bdo></span>‎ and <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="T" ><bdo dir="rtl">ת</bdo></span>‎; + whilst sounds as unlike as those of <i>beth</i> with a point, and + <i>beth</i> without a point (<i>b</i> and <i>v</i>), were expressed (if + expressed at all) by signs as like as <span lang="he" class="heb" + title="B" ><bdo dir="rtl">ב</bdo></span>‎ and <span + lang="he" class="heb" title="B" ><bdo + dir="rtl">בּ</bdo></span>‎.</p> + + <p>In this state it was imported into Greece. Now, as it rarely happens + that any two languages have precisely the same elementary articulate + sounds, so it rarely happens that an alphabet can be transplanted from + one tongue to another, and be found, at once, to coincide.</p> + + <p>The Greeks had, in all probability, sounds which were wanting in + Palestine and Phœnicia. In Palestine and Phœnicia it is + certain that there were sounds wanting in Greece.</p> + + <p>Of the twenty-two Phœnician letters the Greeks took but + twenty-one. The eighteenth letter, <i>tsadi</i>, <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="TS" ><bdo dir="rtl">ץ</bdo></span>‎, was + never imported into Europe.</p> + + <p><a name="sect258">§ 258</a>. <i>Greek Period.</i>—Compared with + the Semitic, the <i>Old</i> Greek alphabet ran thus:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Hebrew and Old Greek alphabets" title="Hebrew and Old Greek alphabets"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Hebrew.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Greek.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="'" ><bdo dir="rtl">א</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Α</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="B" ><bdo dir="rtl">ב</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Β</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="G" ><bdo dir="rtl">ג</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Γ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 4.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="D" ><bdo dir="rtl">ד</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Δ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 5.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="H" ><bdo dir="rtl">ה</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Ε</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 6.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="W" ><bdo dir="rtl">ו</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Ϝ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 7.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="Z" ><bdo dir="rtl">ז</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Ζ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 8.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="CH" ><bdo dir="rtl">ח</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Η</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 9.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="T`" ><bdo dir="rtl">ט</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Θ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 10.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="Y" ><bdo dir="rtl">י</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Ι</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 11.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="K" ><bdo dir="rtl">כ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Κ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 12.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="L" ><bdo dir="rtl">ל</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Λ</span>.</td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Hebrew.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Greek.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 13.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="M" ><bdo dir="rtl">מ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Μ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 14.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="N" ><bdo dir="rtl">נ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Ν</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 15.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="S" ><bdo dir="rtl">ס</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Σ</span>?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 16.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="`" ><bdo dir="rtl">ע</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Ο</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 17.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Π</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 18.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="TS" ><bdo dir="rtl">צ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 19.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="Q" ><bdo dir="rtl">ק</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> A letter called<br />koppa, afterwards<br />ejected.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 20.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="R" ><bdo dir="rtl">ר</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Ρ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 21.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="SH" ><bdo dir="rtl">ש</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Μ</span> afterwards <span class="grk">Σ</span>?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 22.</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="T" ><bdo dir="rtl">ת</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <span class="grk">Τ</span>.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Such the order and form of the Greek and Hebrew letters. Here it may + be remarked, that, of each alphabet, it is only the modern forms that are + compared; the likeness in the <i>shape</i> of the letters may be seen by + comparing them in their <!-- Page 202 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page202"></a>{202}</span>older stages. Of these the exhibition, in + a work like the present, is inconvenient. They may, however, be studied + in the work already referred to in the <i>Phœnicia</i> of Gesenius. + The <i>names</i> of the letters are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Names of Hebrew and Greek letters" title="Names of Hebrew and Greek letters"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Hebrew.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Greek.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Aleph </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Alpha.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Beth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bæta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gimel </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gamma.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 4.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Daleth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Delta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 5.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> He </td><td class="qspcsingle"> E, <i>psilon</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 6.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaw </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Digamma</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 7.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Zayn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Zæta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 8.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Heth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Hæta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 9.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Teth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Thæta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 10.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Yod </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Iôta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 11.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Kaph </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Kappa.</td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Hebrew.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Greek.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 12.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lamed </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Lambda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 13.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mem </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Mu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 14.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Nun </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Nu.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 15.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Samech </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sigma?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 16.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Ayn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> O.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 17.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'Pi'.">Pe</span> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'Phi'.">Pi</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 18.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tsadi </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 19.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Kof </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Koppa, <i>Archaic</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 20.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Resh </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Rho.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 21.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sin </td><td class="qspcsingle"> San, <i>Doric</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 22.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tau </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Tau.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect259">§ 259</a>. The Asiatic alphabet of Phœnicia + and Palestine is now adapted to the European language of Greece. The + first change took place in the manner of writing. The Orientals wrote + from right to left; the Greeks from left to right. Besides this, the + following principles, applicable whenever the alphabet of one language is + transferred to another, were recognised:—</p> + + <p>1. Letters for which there was no use were left behind. This was the + case, as seen above, with the eighteenth letter, <i>tsadi</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Letters expressive of sounds for which there was no precise + equivalent in Greek, were used with other powers. This was the case with + letters 5, 8, 16, and probably with some others.</p> + + <p>3. Letters of which the original sound, in the course of time, became + changed, were allowed, as it were, to drop out of the alphabet. This was + the case with 6 and 19.</p> + + <p>4. For such simple single elementary articulate sounds as there was no + sign or letter representant, new signs, or letters, were invented. This + principle gave to the Greek alphabet the new signs <span + class="grk">φ</span>, <span class="grk">χ</span>, <span + class="grk">υ</span>, <span class="grk">ω</span>.</p> + + <p>5. The new signs were not mere modifications of the older <!-- Page + 203 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page203"></a>{203}</span>ones (as + was the case with <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo + dir="rtl">פּ</bdo></span>‎, <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎, + <span lang="he" class="heb" title="B" ><bdo + dir="rtl">בּ</bdo></span>‎, <span lang="he" + class="heb" title="B" ><bdo dir="rtl">ב</bdo></span>‎, + &c. in Hebrew), but new, distinct, and independent letters.</p> + + <p>In all this there was an improvement. The faults of the newer Greek + alphabet consisted in the admission of the compendium <span + class="grk">ψ</span>=<i>ps</i>, and the retention of the fifteenth + letter (<i>samech</i>, <i>xi</i>), with the power of <i>ks</i>, it being + also a compendium.</p> + + <p><a name="sect260">§ 260</a>. <i>The Italian or old Latin + period.</i>—That it was either from the original Phœnician, + or from the <i>old</i> Greek, that the Italian alphabets were imported, + we learn from the existence in them of the letters <i>f</i> and <i>q</i>, + corresponding respectively to the sixth and nineteenth letters; these + having, in the second stage of the Greek alphabet, been ejected.</p> + + <p><a name="sect261">§ 261</a>. The first alphabet imported into Italy + was the Etruscan. In this the <span class="grk">β</span>, <span + class="grk">δ</span>, and <span class="grk">ο</span> were + ejected, their sounds (as it is stated) not being found in the Etruscan + language. Be it observed, that the sounds both of <span + class="grk">β</span> and <span class="grk">δ</span> are + <i>flat</i>. Just as in the Devonshire dialect the flat sounds (<i>z</i>, + <i>v</i>, &c.) have the preponderance, so, in the Etruscan, does + there seem to have been a preponderating quantity of the sharp sounds. + This prepares us for a change, the effects whereof exist in almost all + the alphabets of Europe. In Greek and Hebrew the third letter + (<i>gimel</i>, <i>gamma</i>) had the power of the flat mute <i>g</i>, as + in <i>gun</i>. In the Etruscan it had the power of <i>k</i>. In this use + of the third letter the Romans followed the Etruscans: but, as they had + also in their language the sound of <i>g</i> (as in <i>gun</i>), they + used, up to the Second Punic War, the third letter (<i>viz.</i> + <i>c</i>), to denote both sounds. In the Duillian column we have <span + class="sc">Macestratos</span>, <span class="sc">Carthacinienses</span>.<a + name="NtA36" href="#Nt36"><sup>[36]</sup></a> Afterwards, however, the + separate sign (or letter) <i>g</i> was invented, being originally a mere + modification of <i>c</i>. The <i>place</i> of <i>g</i> in the alphabet is + involved in the history of <i>z</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect262">§ 262</a>. The Roman alphabet had a double origin. + For the first two centuries after the foundation of the city the alphabet + used was the Etruscan, derived directly from the Greek, and from the + <i>old</i> Greek. This accounts for the presence of <i>f</i> and + <i>q</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 204 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page204"></a>{204}</span></p> + + <p>Afterwards, however, the Romans modified their alphabet by the + alphabet of the Italian Greeks; these Italian Greeks using the late Greek + alphabet. This accounts for the presence of <i>v</i>, originating in the + Greek <i>ypsilon</i>.</p> + + <p>In accommodating the Greek alphabet to their own language, the Latins + recognised the following principles:—</p> + + <p>I. The ejection of such letters as were not wanted. Thus it was that + the seventh letter (<i>zayn</i>, <i>zæta</i>) was thrown out of the + alphabet, and the new letter, <i>g</i>, put in its place. Subsequently, + <i>z</i> was restored for the sake of spelling Greek words, but was + placed at the end of the alphabet. Thus also it was, that <i>thæta</i>, + <i>kappa</i> (<i>c</i> being equivalent to <i>k</i>), and the fifteenth + letter, were ejected, while <span class="grk">ψ</span> and <span + class="grk">χ</span> were never admitted. In after-times the + fifteenth letter (now <i>xi</i>) was restored, for the same reason that + <i>z</i> was restored, and, like <i>z</i>, was placed at the end of the + alphabet.</p> + + <p>II. The use of the imported letters with a new power. Hence the sixth + letter took the sound, not of <i>v</i> or <i>w</i>, but of <i>f</i>; and + the eighth of <i>h</i>.</p> + + <p>Beyond this the Romans made but slight alterations. In ejecting + <i>kappa</i>, <i>thæta</i> and <i>chi</i>, they did mischief. The same in + changing the power of <i>c</i>. The representation of <span + class="grk">φ</span> by <i>ph</i>, and of <span + class="grk">θ</span> by <i>th</i> was highly erroneous. The + retention of <i>x</i> and <i>q</i> was unnecessary. <i>V</i> and + <i>j</i>, two letters whereby the alphabet was really enriched, were mere + modifications of <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> respectively. <i>Y</i> also seems + a modification of <i>v</i>.</p> + + <p>Neither the Latin, Greek, nor Hebrew orthographies were much warped to + etymological purposes.</p> + + <p>It should be observed, that in the Latin the letters have no longer + any names (like <i>beth</i>, <i>bæta</i>), except such as are derived + from their powers (<i>be</i>, <i>ce</i>).</p> + + <p>It may now be seen that with a language containing such sounds as the + <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i> and <i>thine</i>, and the <i>ch</i> in the + German <i>auch</i>, it is to their advantage to derive their alphabet + from the Greek; whilst, with a language containing such sounds as + <i>h</i> and <i>v</i>, it is to their advantage to derive it from the + Latin.</p> + + <p>It may also be seen, that, without due alterations and <!-- Page 205 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page205"></a>{205}</span>additions, the + alphabet of one country will not serve as the alphabet of another.</p> + + <p><a name="sect263">§ 263</a>. <i>The Mœso-Gothic + alphabet.</i>—In the third century the classical alphabets were + applied to a Gothic language. I use the word alphabets because the + Mœso-Gothic letters borrowed from both the Latin and the Greek. + Their form and order may be seen in Hickes' Thesaurus and in Lye's + Grammar. With the Greek they agree in the following particulars.</p> + + <p>1. In the sound of the third letter being not that of <span + class="grk">κ</span> (<i>c</i>), but of the <i>g</i> in + <i>gun</i>.</p> + + <p>2. In retaining <i>kappa</i> and <i>chi</i>.</p> + + <p>3. In expressing the simple single sound of <i>th</i> by a simple + single sign. This sign, however, has neither the shape nor alphabetical + position of the Greek <i>thæta</i>.</p> + + <p>With the Latin they agree, 1. in possessing letters equivalent to + <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>, <i>q</i>, <i>y</i>.</p> + + <p>2. In placing <i>z</i> at the end of the alphabet.</p> + + <p>The Mœso-Gothic alphabet seems to have been formed on eclectic + principles, and on principles sufficiently bold. Neither was its + application traversed by etymological views. I cannot trace its + influence, except, perhaps, in the case of the Anglo-Saxon letters + <i>þ</i> and <i>ƿ</i>, upon any other alphabet; nor does it seem to + have been acted upon by any earlier Gothic alphabet.</p> + + <p><a name="sect264">§ 264</a>. <i>The Anglo-Saxon + alphabet.</i>—What sort of an alphabet the Gothic languages possess + we know: what sort of alphabet they require, we can determine. For the + following sounds (amongst others) current in the Gothic, either one or + both of the classical languages are deficient in corresponding signs.</p> + + <p>1. The <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>.—A sign in Greek (<span + class="grk">θ</span>), but none in Latin.</p> + + <p>2. The <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>.—A sign neither in Greek nor + Latin.</p> + + <p>3. The <i>ch</i> in the German <i>auch</i>.—A sign in Greek + (<span class="grk">χ</span>), but none in Latin.</p> + + <p>4. The flat sound of the same, or the probable sound of the <i>h</i> + in <i>þurh</i>, <i>leoht</i>, <i>&c</i>., Anglo-Saxon.—A sign + neither in Greek nor Latin. <!-- Page 206 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page206"></a>{206}</span></p> + + <p>5. The <i>sh</i> in <i>shine</i>.—A sign neither in Greek nor + Latin.</p> + + <p>6. The <i>z</i> in <i>azure</i>.—A sign neither in Greek nor + Latin.</p> + + <p>7. The <i>ch</i> in <i>chest</i>.—A sign neither in Greek nor + Latin, unless we suppose that at the time when the Anglo-Saxon alphabet + was formed, the Latin <i>c</i> in words like <i>civitas</i> had the + power, which it has in the present Italian, of <i>ch</i>.</p> + + <p>8. The <i>j</i> in <i>jest</i>.—A sign neither in Greek nor + Latin, unless we admit the same supposition in respect to <i>g</i>, that + has been indicated in respect to <i>c</i>.</p> + + <p>9. The sound of the <i>kj</i>; in the Norwegian <i>kjenner</i>; + <i>viz.</i>, that (thereabouts) of <i>ksh</i>.—A sign neither in + Latin nor Greek.</p> + + <p>10. The English sound of <i>w</i>.—A sign neither in Latin nor + Greek.</p> + + <p>11. The sound of the German <i>ü</i>, Danish <i>y</i>.—No sign + in Latin; probably one in Greek, <i>viz.</i>, <span + class="grk">υ</span>.</p> + + <p>12. Signs for distinguishing the long and short vowels, as <span + class="grk">ε</span> and <span class="grk">η</span>, <span + class="grk">ο</span> and <span + class="grk">ω</span>.—Wanting in Latin, but existing in + Greek.</p> + + <p>In all these points the classical alphabets (one or both) were + deficient. To make up for their insufficiency one of two things was + necessary, either to coin new letters, or to use conventional + combinations of the old.</p> + + <p>In the Anglo-Saxon alphabet (derived from the Latin) we have the + following features:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>C</i> used to the exclusion of <i>k</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The absence of the letter <i>j</i>, either with the power of + <i>y</i>, as in German, of <i>zh</i>, as in French, or of <i>dzh</i>, as + in English.</p> + + <p>3. The absence of <i>q</i>; a useful omission, <i>cw</i> serving + instead.</p> + + <p>4. The absence of <i>v</i>; <i>u</i>, either single or double, being + used instead.</p> + + <p>5. The use of <i>y</i> as a vowel, and of <i>e</i> as <i>y</i>.</p> + + <p>6. The absence of <i>z</i>.</p> + + <p>7. Use of <i>uu</i>, as <i>w</i>, or <i>v</i>: Old Saxon.</p> + + <p>8. The use, in certain conditions, of <i>f</i> for <i>v</i>.</p> + + <p>9. The presence of the simple single signs <i>þ</i> and <i>ð</i>, for + the <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>, and the <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>.</p> + + <p>Of the Anglo-Saxon alphabet we may safely say that it was + <i>insufficient</i>. The points wherein the Latin alphabet was <!-- Page + 207 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page207"></a>{207}</span>improved + in its adaptation to the Gothic tongues, are, 1. the admission of + <i>þ</i> and <i>ð</i>; 2. the evolution of <i>w</i> out of <i>u</i>. Upon + this latter circumstance, and on <i>k</i> and <i>z</i>, I make the + following extract from the Latin Dedication of Otfrid's + Krist:—"Hujus enim linguæ barbaries, ut est inculta et + indisciplinabilis, atque insueta capi regulari freno grammaticæ artis, + sic etiam in multis dictis scriptu est difficilis propter literarum aut + congeriem, aut incognitam sonoritatem. Nam interdum tria <i>u u u</i> ut + puto quærit in sono; priores duo consonantes, ut mihi videtur, tertium + vocali sono manente," And, further, in respect to other orthographical + difficulties:—"Interdum vero nec <i>a</i>, nec <i>e</i>, nec + <i>i</i>, nec <i>u</i>, vocalium sonos præcanere potui, ibi <i>y</i> + Grecum mihi videbatur ascribi. Et etiam hoc elementum lingua hæc + horrescit interdum; nulli se characteri aliquotiens in quodam sono nisi + difficile jungens. <i>K</i> et <i>z</i> sæpius hæc lingua extra usum + Latinitatis utitur; quæ grammatici inter litteras dicunt esse superfluas. + Ob stridorem autem dentium interdum ut puto in hac lingua <i>z</i> + utuntur, <i>k</i> autem propter faucium sonoritatem."</p> + + <p><a name="sect265">§ 265</a>. <i>The Anglo-Norman + Period.</i>—Between the Latin alphabet, as applied to the + Anglo-Saxon, and the Latin alphabet, as applied to the Norman-French, + there are certain points of difference. In the first place, the + sound-system of the languages (like the French) derived from the Latin, + bore a greater resemblance to that of the Romans, than was to be found + amongst the Gothic tongues. Secondly, the alphabets of the languages in + point were more exclusively Latin. In the present French, Italian, + Spanish, and Portuguese, there is an exclusion of the <i>k</i>. This is + not the case with the Anglo-Norman. Like the Latins, the Anglo-Normans + considered that the sound of the Greek <span class="grk">θ</span> + was represented by <i>th</i>: not, however, having this sound in their + language, there was no corresponding sign in their alphabet. The greatest + mischief done by the Norman influence was the ejection from the English + alphabet of <i>þ</i> and <i>ð</i>. In other respects the alphabet was + improved. The letters <i>z</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>j</i>, were either imported + or more currently recognised. The letter <i>y</i> took a semi-vowel + power, having been previously represented by <i>e</i>; <!-- Page 208 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page208"></a>{208}</span>itself having + the power of <i>i</i>. The mode of spelling the compound sibilant with + <i>ch</i> was evolved. My notions concerning this mode of spelling are as + follows:—At a given period the sound of <i>ce</i> in + <i>ceaster</i>, originally that of <i>ke</i>, had become, first, that of + <i>ksh</i>, and, secondly, that of <i>tsh</i>; still it was spelt + <i>ce</i>, the <i>e</i>, in the eyes of the Anglo-Saxons, having the + power of <i>y</i>. In the eyes also of the Anglo-Saxons the compound + sound of <i>ksh</i>, or <i>tsh</i>, would differ from that of <i>k</i> by + the addition of <i>y</i>: this, it may be said, was the Anglo-Saxon view + of the matter. The Anglo-Norman view was different. Modified by the part + that, in the combination <i>th</i>, was played by the aspirate <i>h</i>, + it was conceived by the Anglo-Normans, that <i>ksh</i>, or <i>tsh</i>, + differed from <i>k</i>, not by the addition of <i>y</i> (expressed by + <i>e</i>), but by that of <i>h</i>. Hence the combination <i>ch</i> as + sounded in <i>chest</i>. The same was the case with <i>sh</i>. This + latter statement is a point in the history, not so much of an alphabet, + as of an orthography.</p> + + <p>The preceding sketch, as has been said more than once before, has been + given with one view only, <i>viz.</i>, that of accounting for defective + modes of spelling. The history of almost all alphabets is the same. + Originally either insufficient, erroneous, or inconsistent, they are + transplanted from one language to a different, due alterations and + additions rarely being made.</p> + + <p><a name="sect266">§ 266</a>. The reduplication of the consonant + following, to express the shortness (dependence) of the preceding vowel, + is as old as the classical languages: <i>terra</i>, <span + title="thalassa" class="grk" + >θάλασσα</span>. The + following extract from the Ormulum (written in the thirteenth century) is + the fullest recognition of the practice that I have met with. The extract + is from Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And whase wilenn shall þis boc,</p> + <p class="i2">Efft oþerr siþe writenn,</p> + <p>Himm bidde iec þatt hett write rihht,</p> + <p class="i2">Swa sum þiss boc himm tæcheþþ;</p> + <p>All þwerrt utt affterr þatt itt iss</p> + <p class="i2">Oppo þiss firrste bisne,</p> + <p>Wiþþ all swilc rime als her iss sett,</p> + <p class="i2">Wiþþ alse fele wordess:</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> +<!-- Page 209 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page209"></a>{209}</span> + <p>And tatt he loke wel þatt he</p> + <p class="i2"><i>An boc-staff write twiggess</i>,<a name="NtA37" href="#Nt37"><sup>[37]</sup></a></p> + <p>Eggwhær þær itt uppo þiss boc</p> + <p class="i2">Iss writenn o þatt wise:</p> + <p>Loke he well þatt hett write swa,</p> + <p class="i2">Forr he ne magg noht elless,</p> + <p>On Englissh writenn rihht te word,</p> + <p class="i2">Þatt wite he wel to soþe.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Concerning the various other orthographical expedients, such as the + reduplication of the vowel to express its length (<i>mood</i>), &c., + I can give no satisfactory detailed history. The influence of the + Anglo-Norman, a language derived from the Latin, established, in its + fullest force, the recognition of the etymological principle.</p> + + <p><a name="sect267">§ 267</a>. "I cannot trace the influence of the + Mœso-Gothic alphabet, except, perhaps, in the case of the + Anglo-Saxon letters <i>þ</i> and <i>ƿ</i>, upon any other alphabet; + <i>nor does it seem to have been itself acted upon by any earlier Gothic + alphabet</i>." (See p. 205.) The reason for the remark in Italics was as + follows: In the Icelandic language the word <i>run</i> signifies a + <i>letter</i>, and the word <i>runa</i> a <i>furrow</i>, or <i>line</i>. + It has also some secondary meanings, which it is unnecessary to give in + detail. Upon a vast number of inscriptions, some upon rocks, some upon + stones of a defined shape, we find an alphabet different (at least, + apparently so) from that of the Greeks, Latins, and Hebrews, and also + unlike that of any modern nation. In this alphabet there is a marked + deficiency of curved or rounded lines, and an exclusive preponderance of + straight ones. As it was engraved rather than written, this is what we + naturally expect. These letters are called Runes, and the alphabet which + they constitute is called the Runic alphabet. Sometimes, by an extension + of meaning, the Old Norse language, wherein they most frequently occur, + is called the Runic language. This is as incorrect as to call a language + an alphabetic language. To say, however, the Runic stage of a language is + neither inaccurate nor inconvenient. The Runic alphabet, whether borrowed + or invented by the early Goths, is of greater antiquity <!-- Page 210 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page210"></a>{210}</span>than either + the oldest Teutonic or the Mœso-Gothic alphabets. The forms, names, + and order of the letters may be seen in Hickes' Thesaurus, in Olai Wormii + Literatura Runica, in Rask's Icelandic Grammar, and in W. Grimm's + Deutsche Runer.</p> + + <p>The original number of the Runic letters is sixteen; expressing the + sounds of <i>f</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>þ</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>k</i>, + <i>h</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>b</i>, + <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>y</i>. To these are added four spurious Runes, + denoting <i>c</i>, <i>x</i>, <i>æ</i>, <i>ö</i>, and eight pointed Runes + after the fashion of the pointed letters in Hebrew. In all this we see + the influence of the imported alphabet upon the original Runes, rather + than that of the original Runes upon the imported alphabet. It should, + however, be remarked, that in the Runic alphabet the sound of <i>th</i> + in <i>thin</i> is expressed by a simple sign, and that by a sign not + unlike the Anglo-Saxon þ.</p> + + <p><a name="sect268">§ 268</a>. <i>The Order of the + Alphabet.</i>—In the history of our alphabet, we have had the + history of the changes in the arrangement, as well as of the changes in + the number and power of its letters. The following question now presents + itself: <i>viz.</i>, Is there in the order of the letters any + <i>natural</i> arrangement, or is the original as well as the present + succession of letters arbitrary and accidental? In the year 1835 I + conceived, that in the order of the Hebrew alphabet I had discovered a + very artificial arrangement. I also imagined that this artificial + arrangement had been detected by no one besides myself. Two years + afterwards a friend<a name="NtA38" href="#Nt38"><sup>[38]</sup></a> + stated to me that he had made a similar observation, and in 1839 + appeared, in Mr. Donaldson's New Cratylus, the quotation with which the + present section will be concluded. The three views in the main coincide; + and, as each has been formed independently (Mr. Donaldson's being the + first recorded), they give the satisfactory result of three separate + investigations coinciding in a theory essentially the same. The order of + the Hebrew alphabet is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Order of Hebrew alphabet" title="Order of Hebrew alphabet"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top; border-right:1px solid black"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Name.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sound.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Aleph</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Either a vowel or a breathing.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Beth</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> B.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> +<!-- Page 211 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page211"></a>{211}</span> + 3.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gimel</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> G. as in <i>gun</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 4.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Daleth</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> D.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 5.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>He</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Either a vowel or an aspirate.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 6.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Vaw</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> V.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 7.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Zayn</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Z.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 8.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Kheth</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a variety of K.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 9.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Teth</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a variety of T.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 10.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Yod</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> I.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 11.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Caph</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> K.</td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:top;"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Name.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sound.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 12.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Lamed</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> L.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 13.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Mem</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> M.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 14.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nun</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> N.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 15.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Samech</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> a variety of S.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 16.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Ayn</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Either a vowel or—?</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 17.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Pe</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> P.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 18.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Tsadi</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> TS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 19.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Koph</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> a variety of K.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 20.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Resh</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> R.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 21.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sin</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> S.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 22.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Tau</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> T.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Let <i>beth</i>, <i>vaw</i>, and <i>pe</i> (<i>b</i>, <i>v</i>, + <i>p</i>) constitute a series called series P. Let <i>gimel</i>, + <i>kheth</i>, and <i>koph</i> (<i>g</i>, <i>kh</i>, <i>k`</i>) constitute + a series called series K. Let <i>daleth</i>, <i>teth</i>, and <i>tau</i> + (<i>d</i>, <i>t`</i>, <i>t</i>) constitute a series called series T. Let + <i>aleph</i>, <i>he</i>, and <i>ayn</i> constitute a series called the + vowel series. Let the first four letters be taken in their order.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. <i>Aleph</i> of the vowel series.</p> + <p>2. <i>Beth</i> of series P.</p> + <p>3. <i>Gimel</i> of series K.</p> + <p>4. <i>Daleth</i> of series T.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Herein the consonant of series B comes next to the letter of the vowel + series; that of series K follows; and, in the last place, comes the + letter of series D. After this the order changes: <i>daleth</i> being + followed by <i>he</i> of the vowel series.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>5. <i>He</i> of the vowel series.</p> + <p>6. <i>Vaw</i> of series P.</p> + <p>7. <i>Zayn</i> ——</p> + <p>8. <i>Kheth</i> of series K.</p> + <p>9. <i>Teth</i> of series T.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In this second sequence the <i>relative</i> positions of <i>v</i>, + <i>kh</i>, and <i>t`</i> are the same in respect to each other, and the + same in respect to the vowel series. The sequence itself is broken by the + letter <i>zayn</i>, but it is remarkable that the principle of the + sequence is the same. Series P follows the vowel, and series T is + farthest from it. After this the system becomes but fragmentary. Still, + even now, <i>pe</i>, of series P, follows <i>ayn</i>; <i>tau</i>, of <!-- + Page 212 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page212"></a>{212}</span>series D, is farthest from it; and + <i>koph</i>, of series K, is intermediate. I am satisfied that we have in + the Hebrew alphabet, and in all alphabets derived from it (consequently + in the English), if not a system, the rudiments of a system, and that the + system is of the sort indicated above; in other words, that the order of + the alphabet is a <i>circulating order</i>.</p> + + <p>In Mr. Donaldson's hands this view is not only a fact, but an + instrument of criticism:—"The fact is, in our opinion, the original + Semitic alphabet contained only sixteen letters. This appears from the + organic arrangement of their characters. The remaining sixteen letters + appear in the following order:—<i>aleph</i>, <i>beth</i>, + <i>gimel</i>, <i>daleth</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>vaw</i>, <i>kheth</i>, + <i>teth</i>, <i>lamed</i>, <i>mem</i>, <i>nun</i>, <i>samech</i>, + <i>ayn</i>, <i>pe</i>, <i>koph</i>, <i>tau</i>. If we examine this order + more minutely, we shall see that it is not arbitrary or accidental, but + strictly organic, according to the Semitic articulation. We have four + classes, each consisting of four letters: the first and second classes + consist each of three mutes, preceded by a breathing; the third of the + three liquids and the sibilant, which, perhaps, closed the oldest + alphabet of all; and the fourth contains the three supernumerary mutes, + preceded by a breathing. We place the characters first + vertically:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Analysis of Hebrew alphabet by breathings" title="Analysis of Hebrew alphabet by breathings"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Aleph </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="'" ><bdo dir="rtl">א</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> First breathing</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Beth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="B" ><bdo dir="rtl">ב</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> B</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <i>Media.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Gimel </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="G" ><bdo dir="rtl">ג</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> G</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Daleth</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="D" ><bdo dir="rtl">ד</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> D</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> He </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="H" ><bdo dir="rtl">ה</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Second breathing.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Vaw </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="W" ><bdo dir="rtl">ו</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bh </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <i>Aspirate.</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Kheth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="CH" ><bdo dir="rtl">ח</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Teth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="T`" ><bdo dir="rtl">ט</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Lamed </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="L" ><bdo dir="rtl">ל</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> L</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <i>Liquids.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Mem </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="M" ><bdo dir="rtl">מ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> M</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Nun </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="N" ><bdo dir="rtl">נ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> N</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Samech </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="S" ><bdo dir="rtl">ס</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> S <i>The Sibilant</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Ayn </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="`" ><bdo dir="rtl">ע</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="3"> Third breathing.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Pe </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> P</td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"><a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:8ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="3"> <i>Tenues.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Koph </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="Q" ><bdo dir="rtl">ק</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> K</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Tau </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="T" ><bdo dir="rtl">ת</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="qspcsingle"> T</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In the horizontal arrangement we shall, for the sake of greater + simplicity, omit the liquids and the sibilant, and then we have <!-- Page + 213 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page213"></a>{213}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Analysis of Hebrew alphabet by organs" title="Analysis of Hebrew alphabet by organs"> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Breathings.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Labials.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Palatals.</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Linguals.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="rightbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="'" ><bdo dir="rtl">א</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="rightbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="B" ><bdo dir="rtl">ב</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="rightbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="G" ><bdo dir="rtl">ג</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="leftbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="D" ><bdo dir="rtl">ד</bdo></span>‎</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rightbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="H" ><bdo dir="rtl">ה</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="rightbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="W" ><bdo dir="rtl">ו</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="rightbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="CH" ><bdo dir="rtl">ח</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="leftbotbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="T`" ><bdo dir="rtl">ט</bdo></span>‎</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="`" ><bdo dir="rtl">ע</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="P" ><bdo dir="rtl">פ</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="Q" ><bdo dir="rtl">ק</bdo></span>‎ </td><td class="leftbsing" style="text-align:center"> <span lang="he" class="heb" title="T" ><bdo dir="rtl">ת</bdo></span>‎</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In this we see, that, while the horizontal lines give us the + arrangement of the mutes according to the breathings, the vertical + columns exhibit them arranged according to the organ by which they are + produced. Such a classification is obviously artificial."</p> + + <p><a name="sect269">§ 269</a>. <i>Parallel and equivalent + orthographies.</i>—Let there be in two given languages the sound of + <i>k</i>, as in <i>kin</i>. Let each of these languages represent it by + the same letter, <i>k</i>. In this case, the two orthographies are + identical. Let, however, one nation represent it by <i>k</i>, and another + by <i>c</i>. In this case the orthographies are not identical, but + parallel. The same is the case with combinations. Let one nation (say the + Anglo-Saxon) represent the sound of <i>y</i> (in <i>ye</i>) by <i>e</i>, + whilst another nation (the Norse) represents it by <i>j</i>. What the + Anglo-Saxon spells <i>ceaster</i>, the Northman spells <i>kjaster</i>; + and what the Northman spells <i>kjære</i>, the Anglo-Saxon spells + <i>ceære</i>. Let the sound of this <i>ce</i> and <i>kj</i> undergo a + change, and become <i>ksh</i>; <i>kjære</i> and <i>ceære</i>, being + pronounced <i>kshære</i>. The view of the Northman and Anglo-Saxon will + be the same; each will consider that the compound sound differs from the + simple one by the addition of the sound of <i>y</i>; that sound being + expressed in one nation by <i>e</i>, and in the other by <i>j</i>. In + this case the two expressions of the compound sound are parallel, its + elements being considered the same, although the signs by which those + elements are expressed are different.</p> + + <p>Let, however, a different view of the compound sound be taken. Let it + be thought that the sound of <i>ksh</i> differs from that of <i>k</i>, + not by the addition of the sound of <i>y</i>, but by that of <i>h</i>; + and so let it be spelt <i>kh</i> or <i>ch</i>. In this case the + orthographies <i>kh</i> and <i>kj</i> (or <i>ce</i>) are not parallel, + but equivalent. They express the same sound, but they do not denote the + same elements. The same sound is, very possibly, expressed by the + Anglo-Saxon <i>ce</i>, the Norwegian <i>kj</i>, and the English + <i>ch</i>. In this case <i>ce</i> and <i>kj</i> are parallel, <i>ce</i> + and <i>ch</i> equivalent, orthographies.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 214 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page214"></a>{214}</span></p> + +<h3>PART IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ETYMOLOGY.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE PROVINCE OF ETYMOLOGY.</p> + + <p><a name="sect270">§ 270</a>. The word etymology, derived from the + Greek, in the current language of scholars and grammarians, has a double + meaning. At times it is used in a wide, and at times in a restricted, + sense. What follows is an exhibition of the province or department of + etymology.</p> + + <p>If in the English language we take such a word as <i>fathers</i>, we + are enabled to divide it into two parts; in other words, to reduce it + into two elements. By comparing it with the word <i>father</i>, we see + that the <i>s</i> is neither part nor parcel of the original word. The + word <i>fathers</i> is a word capable of being analysed; <i>father</i> + being the original primitive word, and <i>s</i> the secondary superadded + termination. From the word <i>father</i>, the word <i>fathers</i> is + derived, or (changing the expression) deduced, or descended. What has + been said of the word <i>fathers</i> may also be said of <i>fatherly</i>, + <i>fatherlike</i>, <i>fatherless</i>, &c. Now, from the word + <i>father</i>, all these words (<i>fathers</i>, <i>fatherly</i>, + <i>fatherlike</i> and <i>fatherless</i>) differ in form, and (not, + however, necessarily) in meaning. To become such a word as + <i>fathers</i>, &c., the word <i>father</i> is changed. Of changes of + this sort, it is the province of etymology to take cognizance.</p> + + <p>Compared with the form <i>fathers</i>, the word <i>father</i> is the + older form of the two. The word <i>father</i> is a word current in this + the nineteenth century. The same word was current in <!-- Page 215 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page215"></a>{215}</span>the first + century, although under a different form, and in a different language. + Thus, in the Latin language, the form was <i>pater</i>; and earlier + still, there is the Sanskrit form <i>pitr</i>. Now, just as the word + <i>father</i>, compared with <i>fathers</i>, is original and primitive, + so is <i>pater</i>, compared with <i>father</i>, original and primitive. + The difference is, that in respect to <i>father</i> and <i>fathers</i>, + the change that takes place, takes place within the same language, whilst + the change that takes place between <i>pater</i> and <i>father</i> takes + place within different languages. Of changes of this latter kind it is + the province of etymology to take cognizance.</p> + + <p>In its widest signification, etymology takes cognizance <i>of the + changes of the form of words</i>. However, as the etymology that compares + the forms <i>fathers</i> and <i>father</i> is different from the + etymology that compares <i>father</i> and <i>pater</i>, we have, of + etymology, two sorts: one dealing with the changes of form that words + undergo in one and the same language (<i>father</i>, <i>fathers</i>), the + other dealing with the changes that words undergo in passing from one + language to another (<i>pater</i>, <i>father</i>).</p> + + <p>The first of these sorts may be called etymology in the limited sense + of the word, or the etymology of the grammarian. In this case it is + opposed to orthoepy, orthography, syntax, and the other parts of grammar. + This is the etymology of the ensuing pages.</p> + + <p>The second may be called etymology in the wide sense of the word, + historical etymology, or comparative etymology.</p> + + <p>It must be again repeated that the two sorts of etymology agree in one + point, viz., in taking cognizance of the <i>changes of form that words + undergo</i>. Whether the change arise from grammatical reasons, as + <i>father</i>, <i>fathers</i>, or from a change of language taking place + in the lapse of time, as <i>pater</i>, <i>father</i>, is a matter of + indifference.</p> + + <p>In the Latin <i>pater</i>, and in the English <i>father</i>, we have + one of two things, either two words descended or derived from each other, + or two words descended or derived from a common original source.</p> + + <p>In <i>fathers</i> we have a formation deduced from the radical word + <i>father</i>. <!-- Page 216 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page216"></a>{216}</span></p> + + <p>In <i>fatherlike</i> we have a compound word capable of being analysed + into the two primitive words, 1. <i>father</i>; 2. <i>like</i>.</p> + + <p>With these preliminaries we may appreciate (or criticise) Dr. + Johnson's explanation of the word etymology.</p> + + <p>"<span class="sc">Etymology</span>, <span class="sc">n. s.</span> + (<i>etymologia</i>, Lat.) <span title="etumos" class="grk" + >ἔτυμος</span> (<i>etymos</i>) + <i>true</i>, and <span title="logos" class="grk" + >λόγος</span> (<i>logos</i>) <i>a + word</i>.</p> + + <p>"1. <i>The descent or derivation of a word from its original; the + deduction of formations from the radical word; the analysis of compounds + into primitives.</i></p> + + <p>"2. <i>The part of grammar which delivers the inflections of nouns and + verbs.</i>"</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 217 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page217"></a>{217}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON GENDER.</p> + + <p><a name="sect271">§ 271</a>. The nature of gender is best exhibited by + reference to those languages wherein the distinction of gender is most + conspicuous. Such a language, amongst others, is the Latin.</p> + + <p>How far is there such a thing as gender in the English language? This + depends upon the meaning that we attach to the word gender.</p> + + <p>In the Latin language, where there are confessedly genders, we have + the words <i>taurus</i>, meaning a <i>bull</i>, and <i>vacca</i>, meaning + a <i>cow</i>. Here the natural distinction of sex is expressed by + <i>wholly</i> different words. With this we have corresponding modes of + expression in English: <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Sex expressed by different words" title="Sex expressed by different words"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Male.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Female.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bachelor </td><td class="spacsingle"> Spinster.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Boar </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sow.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Boy </td><td class="spacsingle"> Girl.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Brother </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sister.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Buck </td><td class="spacsingle"> Doe.</td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Male.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Female.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Horse </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mare.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ram </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ewe.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Son </td><td class="spacsingle"> Daughter.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Uncle </td><td class="spacsingle"> Aunt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Father </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mother, &c.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The mode, however, of expressing different sexes by <i>wholly</i> + different words is not a matter of gender. The words <i>boy</i> and + <i>girl</i> bear no <i>etymological</i> relation to each other; neither + being derived from the other, nor in any way connected with it.</p> + + <p><a name="sect272">§ 272</a>. Neither are words like + <i>cock-sparrow</i>, <i>man-servant</i>, <i>he-goat</i>, &c., as + compared with <i>hen-sparrow</i>, <i>maid-servant</i>, <i>she-goat</i>, + &c., specimens of gender. Here a difference of sex is indicated by + the addition of a fresh term, from which is formed a compound word.</p> + + <p><a name="sect273">§ 273</a>. In the Latin words <i>genitrix</i>=<i>a + mother</i>, and <i>genitor</i>=<i>a father</i>, we have a nearer approach + to gender. Here the difference of sex is expressed by a difference of + termination; <!-- Page 218 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page218"></a>{218}</span>the words <i>genitor</i> and + <i>genitrix</i> being in a true etymological relation, <i>i. e.</i>, + either derived from each other, or from some common source. With this we + have, in English corresponding modes of expression: <i>e. g.</i>,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Sex expressed by -ess" title="Sex expressed by -ess"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Male.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Female.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Actor </td><td class="spacsingle"> Actress.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Arbiter </td><td class="spacsingle"> Arbitress.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Baron </td><td class="spacsingle"> Baroness.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Benefactor</td><td class="spacsingle"> Benefactress.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Count </td><td class="spacsingle"> Countess.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Duke </td><td class="spacsingle"> Duchess.</td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Male.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Female.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lion </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lioness.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Peer </td><td class="spacsingle"> Peeress.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Poet </td><td class="spacsingle"> Poetess.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sorcerer </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sorceress.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Songster </td><td class="spacsingle"> Songstress.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tiger </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tigress.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>This, however, in strict grammatical language, is an approach to + gender rather than gender itself. Its difference from true grammatical + gender is as follows:—</p> + + <p>Let the Latin words <i>genitor</i> and <i>genitrix</i> be + declined:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of genitor and genitrix" title="Declension of genitor and genitrix"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitrix.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>is</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>is</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>i</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>i</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>em</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>em</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitrix.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>es</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>es</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>um</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>um</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>ibus</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>ibus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>es</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>es</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitor-<i>es</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Genitric-<i>es</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The syllables in italics are the signs of the cases and numbers. Now + these signs are the same in each word, the difference of meaning (or sex) + not affecting them.</p> + + <p><a name="sect274">§ 274</a>. Contrast, however, with the words + <i>genitor</i> and <i>genitrix</i> the words <i>domina</i>=<i>a + mistress</i>, and <i>dominus</i>=<i>a master</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Declension of domina and dominus" title="Declension of domina and dominus"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>us</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>æ</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>i</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>æ</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>o</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>am</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>um</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>e</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>æ</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>i</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>arum</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>orum</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>abus</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>is</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>as</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>os</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Voc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>æ</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Domin-<i>i</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 219 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page219"></a>{219}</span></p> + + <p>Here the letters in italics, or the signs of the cases and numbers, + are different, the difference being brought about by the difference of + gender. Now it is very evident that, if <i>genitrix</i> be a specimen of + gender, <i>domina</i> is something more.</p> + + <p>As terms, to be useful, must be limited, it may be laid down, as a + sort of definition, that <i>there is no gender where there is no + affection of the declension</i>: consequently, that, although we have, in + English, words corresponding to <i>genitrix</i> and <i>genitor</i>, we + have no true genders until we find words corresponding to <i>dominus</i> + and <i>domina</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect275">§ 275</a>. The second element in the notion of + gender, although I will not venture to call it an essential one, is the + following:—In the words <i>domina</i> and <i>dominus</i>, + <i>mistress</i> and <i>master</i>, there is a <i>natural</i> distinction + of sex; the one being masculine, or male, the other feminine, or female. + In the words <i>sword</i> and <i>lance</i> there is <i>no natural</i> + distinction of sex. Notwithstanding this, the word <i>hasta</i>, in + Latin, is as much a feminine gender as <i>domina</i>, whilst + <i>gladius</i>=<i>a sword</i> is, like <i>dominus</i>, a masculine noun. + From this we see that, in languages wherein there are true genders, a + fictitious or conventional sex is attributed even to inanimate objects. + Sex is a natural distinction, gender a grammatical one.</p> + + <p><a name="sect276">§ 276</a>. "Although we have, in English, words + corresponding to <i>genitrix</i> and <i>genitor</i>, we have no true + genders until we find <i>words corresponding to dominus and + domina</i>."—The sentence was intentionally worded with caution. + Words like <i>dominus</i> and <i>domina</i>, that is, words where the + declension is affected by the sex, <i>are</i> to be found.</p> + + <p>The pronoun <i>him</i>, from the Anglo-Saxon and English <i>he</i>, as + compared with the pronoun <i>her</i>, from the Anglo-Saxon <i>heò</i>, is + affected in its declension by the difference of sex, and is a true, + though fragmentary, specimen of gender: for be it observed, that as both + words are in the same case and number, the difference in form must be + referred to a difference of sex expressed by gender. The same is the case + with the form <i>his</i> as compared with <i>her</i>.</p> + + <p>The pronoun <i>it</i> (originally <i>hit</i>), as compared with + <i>he</i>, is a specimen of gender. <!-- Page 220 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page220"></a>{220}</span></p> + + <p>The relative <i>what</i>, as compared with the masculine <i>who</i>, + is a specimen of gender.</p> + + <p>The forms <i>it</i> (for <i>hit</i>) and <i>he</i> are as much genders + as <i>hic</i> and <i>hæc</i>, and the forms <i>hic</i> and <i>hæc</i> are + as much genders as <i>dominus</i> and <i>domina</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect277">§ 277</a>. The formation of the neuter gender by the + addition of <i>-t</i>, in words like <i>wha-t</i>, <i>i-t</i>, and + <i>tha-t</i>, occurs in other Indo-European languages. The <i>-t</i> in + <i>tha-t</i> is the <i>-d</i> in <i>istu-d</i>, Latin, and the <i>-t</i> + in <i>ta-t</i>, Sanskrit. Except, however, in the Gothic tongues, the + inflection <i>-t</i> is confined to the <i>pronouns</i>. In the Gothic + this is not the case. Throughout all those languages where there is a + neuter form for <i>adjectives</i> at all, that form is either <i>-t</i>, + or a sound derived from it:—Mœso-Gothic, <i>blind-ata</i>; + Old High German, <i>plint-ez</i>; Icelandic, <i>blind-t</i>; German, + <i>blind-es</i>=<i>blind</i>, <i>cæc-um</i>.—See Bopp's Comparative + Grammar, Eastwick and Wilson's translation, p. 171.</p> + + <p><i>Which</i>, as seen below, is <i>not</i> the neuter of + <i>who</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect278">§ 278</a>. Just as there are in English fragments of + a gender modifying the declension, so are there, also, fragments of the + second element of gender; <i>viz.</i>, the attribution of sex to objects + naturally destitute of it. <i>The sun in </i>his<i> glory</i>, <i>the + moon in </i>her<i> wane</i>, are examples of this. A sailor calls his + ship <i>she</i>. A husbandman, according to Mr. Cobbett, does the same + with his <i>plough</i> and working implements:—"In speaking of a + <i>ship</i> we say <i>she</i> and <i>her</i>. And you know that our + country-folks in Hampshire call almost everything <i>he</i> or + <i>she</i>. It is curious to observe that country labourers give the + feminine appellation to those things only which are more closely + identified with themselves, and by the qualities or conditions of which + their own efforts, and their character as workmen, are affected. The + mower calls his <i>scythe</i> a <i>she</i>, the ploughman calls his + <i>plough</i> a <i>she</i>; but a prong, or a shovel, or a harrow, which + passes promiscuously from hand to hand, and which is appropriated to no + particular labourer, is called a <i>he</i>."—<i>English + Grammar</i>, Letter V.</p> + + <p>Now, although Mr. Cobbett's statements may account for a sailor + calling his ship <i>she</i>, they will not account for the custom of + giving to the sun a masculine, and to the moon a <!-- Page 221 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page221"></a>{221}</span>feminine, pronoun, as + is done in the expressions quoted at the head of this section; still less + will it account for the circumstance of the Germans reversing the gender, + and making the <i>sun</i> feminine, and the <i>moon</i> masculine.</p> + + <p>Let there be a period in the history of a nation wherein the sun and + moon are dealt with, not as inanimate masses of matter, but as animated + divinities. Let there, in other words, be a period in the history of a + nation wherein dead things are personified, and wherein there is a + mythology. Let an object like the <i>sun</i> be deemed a male, and an + object like the <i>moon</i> a female, deity.</p> + + <p>The Germans say the <i>sun in </i>her<i> glory</i>; the <i>moon in + </i>his<i> wane</i>. This difference between the usage of the two + languages, like so many others, is explained by the influence of the + classical languages upon the English.—"<i>Mundilfori had two + children; a son, Mâni (Moon), and a daughter, Sôl (Sun).</i>"—Such + is an extract (taken second-hand from Grimm, vol. iii. p. 349) out of an + Icelandic mythological work, <i>viz.</i>, the prose Edda. In the + classical languages, however, <i>Phœbus</i> and <i>Sol</i> are + masculine, and <i>Luna</i> and <i>Diana</i> feminine. Hence it is that, + although in Anglo-Saxon and Old-Saxon the <i>sun</i> is <i>feminine</i>, + it is in English masculine.</p> + + <p><i>Philosophy</i>, <i>charity</i>, &c., or the names of abstract + qualities personified, take a conventional sex, and are feminine from + their being feminine in Latin.</p> + + <p>As in these words there is no change of form, the consideration of + them is a point of rhetoric, rather than of etymology.</p> + + <p>Upon phrases like <i>Cock Robin</i>, <i>Robin Redbreast</i>, <i>Jenny + Wren</i>, expressive of sex, much information may be collected from + Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii. p. 359.</p> + + <p><a name="sect279">§ 279</a>. The remainder of this chapter is devoted + to miscellaneous remarks upon the true and apparent genders of the + English language.</p> + + <p>1. With the false genders like <i>baron</i>, <i>baroness</i>, it is a + general rule that the feminine form is derived from the masculine, and + not the masculine from the feminine; as <i>peer</i>, <i>peeress</i>. The + words <i>widower</i>, <i>gander</i>, and <i>drake</i> are exceptions. For + <!-- Page 222 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page222"></a>{222}</span>the word <i>wizard</i>, from <i>witch</i>, + see the section on augmentative forms.</p> + + <p>2. The termination <i>-ess</i>, in which so large a portion of our + feminine substantives terminate, is not of Saxon but of classical origin, + being derived from the termination <i>-ix</i>, <i>genitrix</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The words <i>shepherdess</i>, <i>huntress</i>, and <i>hostess</i> + are faulty; the radical part of the word being Germanic, and the + secondary part classical: indeed, in strict English grammar, the + termination <i>-ess</i> has no place at all. It is a classic, not a + Gothic, element.</p> + + <p>4. The termination <i>-inn</i>, so current in German, as the + equivalent to <i>-ess</i>, and as a feminine affix (<i>freund</i>=<i>a + friend</i>; <i>freundinn</i>=<i>a female friend</i>), is found only in + one or two words in English.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>There were five <i>carlins</i> in the south</p> + <p class="i2">That fell upon a scheme,</p> + <p>To send a lad to London town</p> + <p class="i2">To bring them tidings hame.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Burns.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Carlin</i> means an <i>old woman</i>: Icelandic, <i>kerling</i>; + Sw., <i>käring</i>; Dan. <i>kælling</i>. Root, <i>carl</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Vixen</i> is a true feminine derivative from <i>fox</i>. German, + <i>füchsinn</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Bruin</i>=<i>the bear</i>, may be either a female form, as in Old + High German <i>përo</i>=<i>a he-bear</i>, <i>pirinn</i>=<i>a + she-bear</i>, or it may be the Norse form <i>björn</i>=<i>a bear</i>, + male or female.</p> + + <p>Words like <i>margravine</i> and <i>landgravine</i> prove nothing, + being scarcely naturalised.</p> + + <p>5. The termination <i>-str</i>, as in <i>webster</i>, <i>songster</i>, + and <i>baxter</i>, was originally a feminine affix. Thus, in + Anglo-Saxon,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Feminine affix in Anglo-Saxon" title="Feminine affix in Anglo-Saxon"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Sangere, <i>a male singer</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="6"> <a href="images/$rbrace.png"><img src="images/$rbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="6"> were opposed to </td><td class="qspcsingle" rowspan="6"> <a href="images/$lbrace.png"><img src="images/$lbrace.png" class="middle" style="height:16ex; width:0.75em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Sangëstre, <i>a female singer</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Bäcere, <i>a male baker</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Bacestre, <i>a female baker</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiðelere, <i>a male fiddler</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fiðelstre, <i>a female fiddler</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Vebbere, <i>a male weaver</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Vëbbëstre, <i>a female weaver</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Rædere, <i>a male reader</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Rædestre, <i>a female reader</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Seamere, <i>a male seamer</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Seamestre, <i>a female seamer</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The same is the case in the present Dutch of Holland: <i>e.g.</i>, + <i>spookster</i>=<i>a female fortune-teller</i>; <i>bakster</i>=<i>a <!-- + Page 223 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page223"></a>{223}</span>baking-woman</i>; <i>waschster</i>=<i>a + washerwoman</i>. (Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. p. 339.) The word + <i>spinster</i> still retains its original feminine force.</p> + + <p>6. The words <i>songstress</i> and <i>seamstress</i>, besides being, + as far as concerns the intermixture of languages, in the predicament of + <i>shepherdess</i>, have, moreover, a double feminine termination; 1st. + <i>-str</i>, of Germanic, 2nd. <i>-ess</i>, of classical, origin.</p> + + <p>7. In the word <i>heroine</i> we have a Greek termination, just as + <i>-ix</i> is a Latin, and <i>-inn</i> a German one. It must not, + however, be considered as derived from <i>hero</i>, by any process of the + English language, but be dealt with as a separate importation from the + Greek language.</p> + + <p>8. The form <i>deaconess</i> is not wholly unexceptionable; since the + termination <i>-ess</i> is of Latin, the root <i>deacon</i> of Greek + origin: this Greek origin being rendered all the more conspicuous by the + spelling, <i>deacon</i> (from <i>diaconos</i>), as compared with the + Latin <i>decanus</i>.</p> + + <p>9. The circumstance of <i>prince</i> ending in the sound of <i>s</i>, + works a change in the accent of the word. As <i>s</i> is the final + letter, it is necessary, in forming the plural number, and the genitive + case, to add, not the simple letter <i>s</i>, as in <i>peers</i>, + <i>priests</i>, &c., but the syllable <i>-es</i>. This makes the + plural number and genitive case the same as the feminine form. Hence the + feminine form is accented <i>princéss</i>, while <i>peéress</i>, + <i>príestess</i>, &c., carry the accent on the first syllable. + <i>Princéss</i> is remarkable as being the only word in English where the + accent lies on the subordinate syllable.</p> + + <p>10. It is uncertain whether <i>kit</i>, as compared with <i>cat</i>, + be a feminine form or a diminutive form; in other words, whether it mean + a <i>female cat</i> or a <i>young cat</i>.—See the Chapter on the + Diminutives.</p> + + <p>11. <i>Goose</i>, <i>gander</i>.—One peculiarity in this pair of + words has already been indicated. In the older forms of the word + <i>goose</i>, such as <span title="chên" class="grk" + >χὴν</span>, Greek; <i>anser</i>, Latin; <i>gans</i>, + German, as well as in the derived form <i>gander</i>, we have the proofs + that, originally, there belonged to the word the sound of the letter + <i>n</i>. In the forms <span title="odous" class="grk" + >ὀδοὺς</span>, <span title="odontos" class="grk" + >ὀδόντος</span>, Greek; + <i>dens</i>, <i>dentis</i>, Latin; <i>zahn</i>, <!-- Page 224 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page224"></a>{224}</span>German; <i>tooth</i>, + English, we find the analogy that accounts for the ejection of the + <i>n</i>, and the lengthening of the vowel preceding. With respect, + however, to the <i>d</i> in <i>gander</i>, it is not easy to say whether + it is inserted in one word or omitted in the other. Neither can we give + the precise power of the <i>-er</i>. The following forms (taken from + Grimm, iii. p. 341) occur in the different Gothic dialects. <i>Gans</i>, + fem.; <i>ganazzo</i>, masc., Old High German—<i>gôs</i>, f.; + <i>gandra</i>, m., Anglo-Saxon—<i>gâs</i>, Icelandic, f.; + <i>gaas</i>, Danish, f.; <i>gassi</i>, Icelandic, m.; <i>gasse</i>, + Danish, m.—<i>ganser</i>, <i>ganserer</i>, <i>gansart</i>, + <i>gänserich</i>, <i>gander</i>, masculine forms in different New German + dialects.</p> + + <p>12. Observe, the form <i>gänserich</i> has a masculine termination. + The word <i>täuberich</i>, in provincial New German, has the same form + and the same power. It denotes a <i>male dove</i>; <i>taube</i>, in + German, signifying a <i>dove</i>. In <i>gänserich</i> and + <i>täuberich</i>, we find preserved the termination <i>-rich</i> (or + <i>-rik</i>), with a masculine power. Of this termination we have a + remnant, in English, preserved in the curious word <i>drake</i>. To + <i>duck</i> the word <i>drake</i> has no etymological relation + whatsoever. It is derived from a word with which it has but one letter in + common; <i>viz.</i> the Latin <i>anas</i>=<i>a duck</i>. Of this the root + is <i>anat-</i>, as seen in the genitive case <i>anatis</i>. In Old High + German we find the form <i>anetrekho</i>=<i>a drake</i>; in provincial + New High German there is <i>enterich</i> and <i>äntrecht</i>, from whence + come the English and Low German form <i>drake</i>. (Grimm, Deutsche + Grammatik, iii. p. 341.)</p> + + <p>13. <i>Peacock</i>, <i>peahen</i>, <i>bridegroom</i>.—In these + compounds, it is not the words <i>pea</i> and <i>bride</i> that are + rendered masculine or feminine by the addition of <i>cock</i>, + <i>hen</i>, and <i>groom</i>, but it is the words <i>cock</i>, + <i>hen</i>, and <i>groom</i> that are modified by prefixing <i>pea</i> + and <i>bride</i>. For an appreciation of this distinction, see the + Chapter on Composition.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 225 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page225"></a>{225}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE NUMBERS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect280">§ 280</a>. In the Greek language the word + <i>patær</i> signifies a father, speaking of <i>one</i>, whilst + <i>patere</i> signifies <i>two fathers</i>, speaking of a pair, and + thirdly, <i>pateres</i> signifies <i>fathers</i>, speaking of any number + beyond two. The three words, <i>patær</i>, <i>patere</i>, and + <i>pateres</i>, are said to be in different numbers, the difference of + meaning being expressed by a difference of form. These numbers have + names. The number that speaks of <i>one</i> is the singular, the number + that speaks of <i>two</i> is the <i>dual</i> (from the Latin word + <i>duo</i>=<i>two</i>), and the number that speaks of <i>more than + two</i> is the <i>plural</i>.</p> + + <p>All languages have numbers, but all languages have not them to the + same extent. The Hebrew has a dual, but it is restricted to nouns only + (in Greek being extended to verbs). It has, moreover, this peculiarity; + it applies, for the most part, only to things which are naturally double, + as <i>the two eyes</i>, <i>the two hands</i>, &c. The Latin has no + dual number at all, except the natural dual in the words <i>ambo</i> and + <i>duo</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect281">§ 281</a>. The question presents itself,—to + what extent have we numbers in English? Like the Greek, Hebrew, and + Latin, we have a singular and a plural. Like the Latin, and unlike the + Greek and Hebrew, we have no dual.</p> + + <p>§ Different from the question, to what degree have we numbers? is the + question,—over what extent of our language have we numbers? This + distinction has already been foreshadowed or indicated. The Greeks, who + said <i>typtô</i>=<i>I beat</i>, <i>typteton</i>=<i>ye two beat</i>, + <i>typtomen</i>=<i>we beat</i>, had a dual number for their verbs as well + as their nouns; while the Hebrew dual was limited to the nouns only. In + the Greek, then, the dual <!-- Page 226 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page226"></a>{226}</span>number is spread over a greater extent of + the language than in the Hebrew.</p> + + <p>There is no dual in the present English. It has been seen, however, + that in the Anglo-Saxon there <i>was</i> a dual. But the Anglo-Saxon + dual, being restricted to the personal pronouns (<i>wit</i>=<i>we + two</i>; <i>git</i>=<i>ye two</i>), was not co-extensive with the Greek + dual.</p> + + <p>There is no dual in the present German. In the ancient German there + was one.</p> + + <p>In the present Danish and Swedish there is no dual. In the Old Norse + and in the present Icelandic a dual number is to be found.</p> + + <p>From this we learn that the dual number is one of those inflections + that languages drop as they become modern.</p> + + <p>The numbers, then, in the present English are two, the singular and + the plural. Over what extent of language have we a plural? The Latins + say, <i>bonus pater</i>=<i>a good father</i>; <i>boni patres</i>=<i>good + fathers</i>. In the Latin, the adjective <i>bonus</i> changes its form + with the change of number of the substantive that it accompanies. In + English it is only the substantive that is changed. Hence we see that in + the Latin language the numbers were extended to adjectives, whereas in + English they are confined to the substantives and pronouns. Compared with + the Anglo-Saxon, the present English is in the same relation as it is + with the Latin. In the Anglo-Saxon there were plural forms for the + adjectives.</p> + + <p>For the forms <i>selves</i> and <i>others</i>, see the Syntax. For the + present, it is sufficient to foreshadow a remark which will be made on + the word <i>self</i>, <i>viz.</i> that whether it be a pronoun, a + substantive, or an adjective, is a disputed point.</p> + + <p>Words like <i>wheat</i>, <i>pitch</i>, <i>gold</i>, &c., where the + idea is naturally singular; words like <i>bellows</i>, <i>scissors</i>, + <i>lungs</i>, &c., where the idea is naturally plural; and words like + <i>deer</i>, <i>sheep</i>, where the same form serves for the singular + and plural, inasmuch as there takes place no change of form, are not + under the province of etymology.</p> + + <p><a name="sect282">§ 282</a>. The current rule is, that the plural + number is formed from the singular by adding <i>s</i>, as <i>father</i>, + <i>fathers</i>. <!-- Page 227 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page227"></a>{227}</span>However, if the reader will revert to the + Section upon the sharp and flat Mutes, where it is stated that mutes of + different degrees of sharpness and flatness cannot come together in the + same syllable, he will find occasion to take to the current rule a verbal + exception. The letter added to the word <i>father</i>, making it + <i>fathers</i>, is <i>s</i> to the eye only. To the ear it is <i>z</i>. + The word sounds <i>fatherz</i>. If the <i>s</i> retained its sound, the + spelling would be <i>fatherce</i>. In <i>stags</i>, <i>lads</i>, &c., + the sound is <i>stagz</i>, <i>ladz</i>. The rule, then, for the formation + of the English plurals, rigorously expressed, is as follows.—<i>The + plural is formed from the singular, by adding to words ending in a vowel, + a liquid or flat mute, the flat lene sibilant (z); and to words ending in + a sharp mute, the sharp lene sibilant (s): e.g.</i> (the <i>sound</i> of + the word being expressed), <i>pea</i>, <i>peaz</i>; <i>tree</i>, + <i>treez</i>; <i>day</i>, <i>dayz</i>; <i>hill</i>, <i>hillz</i>; + <i>hen</i>, <i>henz</i>; <i>gig</i>, <i>gigz</i>; <i>trap</i>, + <i>traps</i>; <i>pit</i>, <i>pits</i>; <i>stack</i>, <i>stacks</i>. Upon + the formation of the English plural some further remarks are + necessary.</p> + + <p>I. In the case of words ending in <i>b</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>d</i>, the + <i>th</i> in <i>thine</i>=ð, or <i>g</i>, a change either of the final + flat consonant, or of the sharp <i>s</i> affixed, was not a matter of + choice, but of necessity; the combinations <i>abs</i>, <i>avs</i>, + <i>ads</i>, <i>aðs</i>, <i>ags</i>, being unpronounceable. See the + Section on the Law of Accommodation.</p> + + <p>II. Whether the first of the two mutes should be accommodated to the + second (<i>aps</i>, <i>afs</i>, <i>ats</i>, <i>aþs</i>, <i>asks</i>), or + the second to the first (<i>abz</i>, <i>avz</i>, <i>aðz</i>, <i>agz</i>), + is determined by the habit of the particular language in question; and, + with a few apparent exceptions (mark the word <i>apparent</i>), it is the + rule of the English language to accommodate the second sound to the + first, and not <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + + <p>III. Such combinations as <i>peas</i>, <i>trees</i>, <i>hills</i>, + <i>hens</i>, &c. (the <i>s</i> preserving its original power, and + being sounded as if written <i>peace</i>, <i>treece</i>, <i>hillce</i>, + <i>hence</i>), being pronounceable, the change from <i>s</i> to <i>z</i>, + in words so ending, is <i>not</i> a matter determined by the necessity of + the case, but by the habit of the English language.</p> + + <p>IV. Although the vast majority of our plurals ends, not in <i>s</i>, + but in <i>z</i>, the original addition was not <i>z</i>, but <i>s</i>. + This we <!-- Page 228 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page228"></a>{228}</span>infer from three facts: 1. From the + spelling; 2. from the fact of the sound of <i>z</i> being either rare or + non-existent in Anglo-Saxon; 3. from the sufficiency of the causes to + bring about the change.</p> + + <p>It may now be seen that some slight variations in the form of our + plurals are either mere points of orthography, or else capable of being + explained on very simple euphonic principles.</p> + + <p><a name="sect283">§ 283</a>. <i>Boxes, churches, judges, lashes, + kisses, blazes, princes.</i>—Here there is the addition, not of the + mere letter <i>s</i>, but of the syllable <i>-es</i>. As <i>s</i> cannot + be immediately added to <i>s</i>, the intervention of a vowel becomes + necessary; and that all the words whose plural is formed in <i>-es</i> + really end either in the sounds of <i>s</i>, or in the allied sounds of + <i>z</i>, <i>sh</i>, or <i>zh</i>, may be seen by analysis; since + <i>x</i>=<i>ks</i>, <i>ch</i>=<i>tsh</i>, and <i>j</i> or + <i>ge</i>=<i>dzh</i>, whilst <i>ce</i>, in <i>prince</i>, is a mere point + of orthography for <i>s</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Monarchs, heresiarchs.</i>—Here the <i>ch</i> equals not + <i>tsh</i>, but <i>k</i>, so that there is no need of being told that + they do not follow the analogy of <i>church</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Cargoes, echoes.</i>—From <i>cargo</i> and <i>echo</i>, with + the addition of <i>e</i>; an orthographical expedient for the sake of + denoting the length of the vowel <i>o</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Beauty, beauties; key, keys.</i>—Like the word + <i>cargoes</i>, &c., these forms are points, not of etymology, but of + orthography.</p> + + <p><a name="sect284">§ 284</a>. "A few <i>apparent</i> + exceptions."—These words are taken from Observation II. in the + present section. The apparent exceptions to the rule there laid down are + the words <i>loaf</i>, <i>wife</i>, and a few others, whose plural is not + sounded <i>loafs</i>, <i>wifs</i> (<i>loafce</i>, <i>wifce</i>), but + <i>loavz</i>, <i>wivz</i> (written <i>loaves</i>, <i>wives</i>). Here it + seems as if <i>z</i> had been added to the singular; and, contrary to + rule, the final letter of the original word been accommodated to the + <i>z</i>, instead of the <i>z</i> being accommodated to the final + syllable of the word, and so becoming <i>s</i>. It is, however, very + probable that instead of the plural form being changed, it is the + singular that has been modified. In the Anglo-Saxon the <i>f</i> at the + end of words (as in the present Swedish) had the power of <i>v</i>. In + the allied language the words in point are spelt with the <i>flat</i> + mute, as <i>weib</i>, <i>laub</i>, <i>kalb</i>, <i>halb</i>, <i>stab</i>, + <!-- Page 229 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page229"></a>{229}</span>German. The same is the case with + <i>leaf</i>, <i>leaves</i>; <i>calf</i>, <i>calves</i>; <i>half</i>, + <i>halves</i>; <i>staff</i>, <i>staves</i>; <i>beef</i>, <i>beeves</i>: + this last word being Anglo-Norman.</p> + + <p><i>Pence.</i>—The peculiarity of this word consists in having a + <i>flat</i> liquid followed by the sharp sibilant <i>s</i> (spelt + <i>ce</i>), contrary to the rule given above. In the first place, it is a + contracted form from <i>pennies</i>; in the second place, its sense is + collective rather than plural; in the third place, the use of the sharp + sibilant lene distinguishes it from <i>lens</i>, sounded <i>lenz</i>. + That its sense is collective rather than plural (a distinction to which + the reader's attention is directed), we learn from the word + <i>sixpence</i>, which, compared with <i>sixpences</i>, is no plural, but + a singular form.</p> + + <p><i>Dice.</i>—In respect to its form, peculiar for the reason + that <i>pence</i> is peculiar. We find the sound of <i>s</i> after a + vowel, where that of <i>z</i> is expected. This distinguishes <i>dice</i> + for play, from <i>dies</i> (<i>diez</i>) for coining. <i>Dice</i>, + perhaps, like <i>pence</i>, is collective rather than plural.</p> + + <p>In <i>geese</i>, <i>lice</i>, and <i>mice</i>, we have, apparently, + the same phenomenon as in <i>dice</i>, viz., a sharp sibilant (<i>s</i>) + where a <i>flat</i> one (<i>z</i>) is expected. The <i>s</i>, however, in + these words is not the sign of the plural, but the last letter of the + original word.</p> + + <p><i>Alms.</i>—This is no true plural form. The <i>s</i> belongs + to the original word, Anglo-Saxon, <i>ælmesse</i>; Greek, <span + title="eleêmosunê" class="grk" + >ἐλεημοσύνη</span>; + just as the <i>s</i> in <i>goose</i> does. How far the word, although a + true singular in its form, may have a collective signification, and + require its verb to be plural, is a point not of etymology, but of + syntax. The same is the case with the word <i>riches</i>, from the French + <i>richesse</i>. In <i>riches</i> the last syllable being sounded as + <i>ez</i>, increases its liability to pass for a plural.</p> + + <p><i>News</i>, <i>means</i>, <i>pains.</i>—These, the reverse of + <i>alms</i> and <i>riches</i>, are true plural forms. How far, in sense, + they are singular is a point not of etymology, but of syntax.</p> + + <p><i>Mathematics</i>, <i>metaphysics</i>, <i>politics</i>, + <i>ethics</i>, <i>optics</i>, <i>physics.</i>—The following is an + exhibition of my hypothesis respecting these words, to which I invite the + reader's criticism. All the words in point are of Greek origin, and all + are derived from a Greek adjective. Each is the name of some department + of <!-- Page 230 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page230"></a>{230}</span>study, of some art, or of some science. As + the words are Greek, so also are the sciences which they denote, either + of Greek origin, or else such as flourished in Greece. Let the arts and + sciences of Greece be expressed, in Greek, rather by a substantive and an + adjective combined, than by a simple substantive; for instance, let it be + the habit of the language to say <i>the musical art</i>, rather than + <i>music</i>. Let the Greek for <i>art</i> be a word in the feminine + gender; <i>e.g.</i>, <span title="technê" class="grk" + >τέχνη</span> (<i>tekhnæ</i>), so that the + <i>musical art</i> be <span title="hê mousikê technê" class="grk" + >ἡ μουσίκη + τέχνη</span> (<i>hæ mousikæ tekhnæ</i>). Let, in + the progress of language (as was actually the case in Greece), the + article and substantive be omitted, so that, for the <i>musical art</i>, + or for <i>music</i>, there stand only the feminine adjective, <span + title="mousikê" class="grk" + >μουσίκη</span>. Let there be, + upon a given art or science, a series of books, or treatises; the Greek + for <i>book</i>, or <i>treatise</i>, being a neuter substantive, <span + title="biblion" class="grk" + >βίβλιον</span> (<i>biblion</i>). + Let the substantive meaning <i>treatise</i> be, in the course of + language, omitted, so that whilst the science of physics is called <span + title="phusikê" class="grk" + >φυσίκη</span> (<i>fysikæ</i>), + <i>physic</i>, from <span title="hê phusikê technê" class="grk">ἡ + φυσίκη + τέχνη</span>, a series of treatises (or even + chapters) upon the science shall be called <span title="phusika" class="grk" + >φύσικα</span> (<i>fysika</i>) or + physics. Now all this was what happened in Greece. The science was + denoted by a feminine adjective singular, as <span title="phusikê" class="grk" + >φυσίκη</span> (<i>fysicæ</i>), and + the treatises upon it, by the neuter adjective plural, as <span + title="phusika" class="grk" + >φύσικα</span> (<i>fysica</i>). The + treatises of Aristotle are generally so named. To apply this, I conceive, + that in the middle ages a science of Greek origin might have its name + drawn from two sources, viz., from the name of the art or science, or + from the name of the books wherein it was treated. In the first case it + had a singular form, as <i>physic</i>, <i>logic</i>; in the second place + a plural form, as <i>mathematics</i>, <i>metaphysics</i>, + <i>optics</i>.</p> + + <p>In what number these words, having a collective sense, require their + verbs to be, is a point of syntax.</p> + + <p><a name="sect285">§ 285</a>. The plural form <i>children</i> + (<i>child-er-en</i>) requires particular notice.</p> + + <p>In the first place it is a double plural: the <i>-en</i> being the + <i>-en</i> in <i>oxen</i>, whilst the simpler form <i>child-er</i> occurs + in the old English, and in certain provincial dialects.</p> + + <p>Now, what is the <i>-er</i> in <i>child-er</i>?</p> + + <p>In Icelandic, no plural termination is commoner than <!-- Page 231 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231"></a>{231}</span>that in + <i>-r</i>; as <i>geisl-ar</i>=<i>flashes</i>, + <i>tung-ur</i>=<i>tongues</i>, &c. Nevertheless, it is not the + Icelandic that explains the plural form in question.</p> + + <p>Besides the word <i>childer</i>, we collect from the other Gothic + tongue the following forms in <i>-r</i>.—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Gothic plurals in -r" title="Gothic plurals in -r"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Hus-er, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Houses</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> Old High German.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Chalp-ir,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Calves</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lemp-ir,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Lambs</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Plet-ir,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Blades of grass</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eig-ir, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Eggs</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> ditto.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>and others, the peculiarity of which is the fact of their all being + <i>of the neuter gender</i>. The particular Gothic dialect wherein they + occur most frequently is the Dutch of Holland.</p> + + <p>Now, the theory respecting the form so propounded by Grimm (D. G. iii. + p. 270) is as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. The <i>-r</i> represents an earlier <i>-s</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Which was, originally, no sign of a plural number, but merely a + neuter derivative affix, common to the singular as well as to the plural + number.</p> + + <p>3. In this form it appears in the Mœso-Gothic: + <i>ag-is</i>=<i>fear</i> (whence <i>ague</i>=<i>shivering</i>), + <i>hat-is</i>=<i>hate</i>, <i>rigv-is</i>=<i>smoke</i> (<i>reek</i>). In + none of these words is the <i>-s</i> radical, and in none is it limited + to the singular number.</p> + + <p>To these views Bopp adds, that the termination in question is the + Sanskrit <i>-as</i>, a neuter affix; as in + <i>têj-as</i>=<i>splendour</i>, <i>strength</i>, from <i>tij</i>=to + <i>sharpen</i>.—V. G. pp. 141-259, Eastwick's and Wilson's + translation.</p> + + <p>To these doctrines of Grimm and Bopp, it should be added, that the + reason why a singular derivational affix should become the sign of the + plural number, lies, most probably, in the <i>collective</i> nature of + the words in which it occurs: <i>Husir</i>=<i>a collection of houses</i>, + <i>eigir</i>=<i>a collection of eggs, eggery </i>or<i> eyry</i>. For + further observations on the power of <i>-r</i>, and for reasons for + believing it to be the same as in the words <i>Jew-r-y</i>, + <i>yeoman-r-y</i>, see a paper of Mr. Guest's, Philol. Trans., May 26, + 1843. There we find the remarkable form <i>lamb-r-en</i>, from Wicliffe, + Joh. xxi. <i>Lamb-r-en</i> : <i>lamb</i> :: <i>child-r-en</i> : + <i>child</i>. <!-- Page 232 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page232"></a>{232}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect286">§ 286</a>. <i>The form in -en.</i>—In the + Anglo-Saxon no termination of the plural number is more common than + <i>-n</i>: <i>tungan</i>, tongues; <i>steorran</i>, stars. Of this + termination we have evident remains in the words <i>oxen</i>, + <i>hosen</i>, <i>shoon</i>, <i>eyne</i>, words more or less antiquated. + This, perhaps, is <i>no</i> true plural. In <i>welk-in</i>=<i>the + clouds</i>, the original singular form is lost.</p> + + <p><a name="sect287">§ 287</a>. <i>Men, feet, teeth, mice, lice, + geese.</i>—In these we have some of the oldest words in the + language. If these were, to a certainty, true plurals, we should have an + appearance somewhat corresponding to the weak and strong tenses of verbs; + <i>viz.</i>, one series of plurals formed by a change of the vowel, and + another by the addition of the sibilant. The word <i>kye</i>, used in + Scotland for <i>cows</i>, is of the same class. The list in Anglo-Saxon + of words of this kind is different from that of the present English.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon plurals by vowel change" title="Anglo-Saxon plurals by vowel change"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Freónd </td><td class="spacsingle"> Frýnd </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Friends.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Feónd </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fynd </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Foes.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Niht </td><td class="spacsingle"> Niht </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Nights.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bóc </td><td class="spacsingle"> Béc </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Books.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Burh </td><td class="spacsingle"> Byrig </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Burghs.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bróc </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bréc </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Breeches.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Turf </td><td class="spacsingle"> Týrf </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Turves.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect288">§ 288</a>. <i>Brethren.</i>—Here there are two + changes. 1. The alteration of the vowel. 2. The addition of <i>-en.</i> + Mr. Guest quotes the forms <i>brethre</i> and <i>brothre</i> from the Old + English. The sense is collective rather than plural.</p> + + <p><i>Peasen</i>=<i>pulse</i>.—As <i>children</i> is a double form + of one sort (<i>r</i> + <i>en</i>), so is <i>peasen</i> a double form of + another (<i>s</i> + <i>en</i>); <i>pea</i>, <i>pea-s</i>, + <i>pea-s-en</i>. Wallis speaks to the <i>singular</i> power of the form + in <i>-s</i>:—"Dicunt nonnulli <i>a pease</i>, pluraliter + <i>peasen</i>; at melius, singulariter <i>a pea</i>, pluraliter + <i>pease</i>:"—P. 77. He might have added, that, theoretically, + <i>pease</i> was the proper singular form; as shown by the Latin + <i>pis-um</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Pullen</i>=poultry.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Lussurioso.</i>—What? three-and-twenty years in law?</p> + + <p><i>Vendice.</i>—I have known those who have been five-and-fifty, + and all about <i>pullen</i> and pigs.—<i>Revenger's Tragedy</i>, + iv. 1.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 233 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page233"></a>{233}</span></p> + + <p>If this were a plural form, it would be a very anomalous one. The + <i>-en</i>, however, is no more a sign of the plural than is the + <i>-es</i> in <i>rich-es</i> (<i>richesse</i>). The proper form is in + <i>-ain</i> or <i>-eyn</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i30">A false theefe,</p> + <p>That came like a false fox, my <i>pullain</i> to kill and mischeefe.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Gammer Gurton's Needle</i>, v. 2.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Chickens.</i>—A third variety of the double inflection + (<i>en</i> + <i>s</i>), with the additional peculiarity of the form + <i>chicken</i> being used, at present, almost exclusively in the singular + number, although, originally, it was, probably, the plural of + <i>chick</i>. So Wallis considered it:—"At olim etiam per + <i>-en</i> vel <i>-yn</i> formabant pluralia: quorum pauca admodum adhuc + retinemus. Ut, <i>an ox</i>, <i>a chick</i>, pluraliter <i>oxen</i>, + <i>chicken</i> (sunt qui dicunt in singulari <i>chicken</i>, et in + plurali <i>chickens</i>)."—(P. 77). <i>Chick</i>, <i>chick-en</i>, + <i>chick-en-s</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Fern.</i>—According to Wallis the <i>-n</i> in <i>fer-n</i> + is the <i>-en</i> in <i>oxen</i>, in other words, a plural + termination:—"A <i>fere</i> (<i>filix</i>) pluraliter <i>fern</i> + (verum nunc plerumque <i>fern</i> utroque numero dicitur, sed et in + plurali <i>ferns</i>); nam <i>fere</i> et <i>feres</i> prope obsoleta + sunt."—(P. 77.) Subject to this view, the word <i>fer-n-s</i> would + exhibit the same phenomenon as the word <i>chicke-n-s</i>. It is + doubtful, however, whether Wallis's view be correct. A reason for + believing the <i>-n</i> to be radical is presented by the Anglo-Saxon + form <i>fearn</i>, and the Old High German, <i>varam</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Women.</i>—Pronounced <i>wimmen</i>, as opposed to the + singular form <i>woomman</i>. Probably an instance of accommodation.</p> + + <p><i>Houses.</i>—Pronounced <i>houz-ez</i>. The same peculiarity + in the case of <i>s</i> and <i>z</i>, as occurs between <i>f</i> and + <i>v</i> in words like <i>life</i>, <i>lives</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Paths, youths.</i>—Pronounced <i>padhz</i>, <i>yoodhz</i>. + The same peculiarity in the case of <i>þ</i> and <i>ð</i>, as occurs + between <i>s</i> and <i>z</i> in the words <i>house</i>, <i>houses</i>. + "Finita in <i>f</i> plerumque alleviantur in plurali numero, substituendo + <i>v</i>; ut <i>wife</i>, <i>wives</i>, &c. Eademque alleviatio est + etiam in <i>s</i> et <i>th</i>, quamvis retento charactere, in + <i>house</i>, <i>cloth</i>, <i>path</i>."—P. 79.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 234 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page234"></a>{234}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE CASES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect289">§ 289</a>. The extent to which there are, in the + English language, cases, depends on the meaning which we attach to the + word case. In the sentence <i>a house of a father</i>, the idea expressed + by the words <i>of a father</i>, is an idea of relation between them and + the word <i>house</i>. This idea is an idea of property or possession. + The relation between the words <i>father</i> and <i>house</i> may be + called the possessive relation. This relation, or connexion, between the + two words is expressed by the preposition <i>of</i>.</p> + + <p>In <i>a fathers house</i> the idea is, there or thereabouts, the same; + the relation or connexion between the two words being the same. The + expression, however, differs. In <i>a father's house</i> the relation, or + connexion, is expressed, not by a preposition, but by a change of form, + <i>father</i> becoming <i>father's</i>.</p> + + <p><i>He gave the house to a father.</i>—Here the words + <i>father</i> and <i>house</i> stand in another sort of relationship; the + relationship being expressed by the preposition <i>to</i>. The idea <i>to + a father</i> differs from the idea <i>of a father</i>, in being expressed + in one way only; <i>viz.</i>, by the preposition. There is no second mode + of expressing it by a change of form, as was done with + <i>father's</i>.</p> + + <p><i>The father taught the child.</i>—Here there is neither + preposition nor change of form. The connexion between the words + <i>father</i> and <i>child</i> is expressed by the arrangement only.</p> + + <p>Now if the relation alone between two words constitutes a case, the + words or sentences, <i>child</i>; <i>to a father</i>; <i>of a father</i>; + and <i>father's</i>, are all equally cases; of which one may be <!-- Page + 235 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page235"></a>{235}</span>called the + accusative, another the dative, a third the genitive, and so on.</p> + + <p>Perhaps, however, the relationship alone does not constitute a case. + Perhaps there is a necessity of either the addition of a preposition (as + in <i>of a father</i>), or of a change in form (as in <i>father's</i>). + In this case (although <i>child</i> be not so) <i>father's</i>, <i>of a + father</i>, and <i>to a father</i>, are all equally cases.</p> + + <p>Now it is a remark, at least as old as Dr. Beattie,<a name="NtA39" + href="#Nt39"><sup>[39]</sup></a> that if the use of a preposition + constitute a case, there must be as many cases in a language as there are + prepositions, and that "<i>above a man</i>, <i>beneath a man</i>, + <i>beyond a man</i>, <i>round about a man</i>, <i>within a man</i>, + <i>without a man</i>, shall be cases, as well as <i>of a man</i>, <i>to a + man</i>, and <i>with a man</i>."</p> + + <p>For etymological purposes it is necessary to limit the meaning of the + word case; and, as a sort of definition, it may be laid down that + <i>where there is no change of form there is no case</i>. With this + remark, the English language may be compared with the Latin.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Cases in Latin and English" title="Cases in Latin and English"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Latin.</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>English.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Pater</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a father.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Patris</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a father's.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Patri</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>to a father.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Patrem</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a father.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Abl.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Patre</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>from a father.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Here, since in the Latin language there are five changes of form, + whilst in English there are but <i>two</i>, there are (as far, at least, + as the word <i>pater</i> and <i>father</i> are concerned) three more + cases in Latin than in English. It does not, however, follow that because + in <i>father</i> we have but two cases, there may not be other words + wherein there are more than two.</p> + + <p><i>In order to constitute a case there must be a change of + form.</i>—This statement is a matter of definition. A second + question, however, arises out of it; <i>viz.</i>, whether <i>every change + of form constitute a case</i>? In the Greek language there are the words + <span title="erin" class="grk">ἔριν</span> + (<i>erin</i>), and <span title="erida" class="grk" + >ἔριδα</span> (<i>erida</i>). Unlike the + words <i>father</i> and <i>father's</i> these two words have precisely + the same meaning. Each is called an accusative; and each, <!-- Page 236 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page236"></a>{236}</span>consequently, + is said to be in the same case with the other. This indicates the + statement, that in order to constitute a case there must be not <i>only a + change of form</i>, <i>but also a change of meaning</i>. Whether such a + limitation of the word be convenient, is a question for the general + grammarian. At present we merely state that there <i>is no change of case + unless there be a change of form</i>. Hence, in respect to the word + <i>patribus</i> (and others like it), which is sometimes translated + <i>from fathers</i>, and at other times <i>to fathers</i>, we must say, + not that in the one case the word is ablative and in the other dative, + but that a certain case is used with a certain latitude of meaning. This + remark bears on the word <i>her</i> in English. In <i>her book</i> the + sense is that of the case currently called genitive. In <i>it moved + her</i>, the sense is that of the case currently called the accusative. + If we adhere, however, to what we have laid down, we must take exceptions + to this mode of speaking. It is not that out of the single form + <i>her</i> we can get two cases, but that a certain form has two powers; + one that of the Latin genitive, and another that of the Latin + accusative.</p> + + <p><a name="sect290">§ 290</a>. This leads to an interesting question, + <i>viz.</i>, what notions are sufficiently allied to be expressed + <i>by</i> the same form, and <i>in</i> the same case? The word + <i>her</i>, in its two senses, may, perhaps, be dealt with as a single + case, because the notions conveyed by the genitive and accusative are, + perhaps, sufficiently allied to be expressed by the same word. Are the + notions, however, <i>of a mistress</i>, and <i>mistresses</i>, so allied? + I think not; and yet in the Latin language the same form, <i>dominæ</i>, + expresses both. Of <i>dominæ</i>=<i>of a mistress</i>, and of + <i>dominæ</i>=<i>mistresses</i>, we cannot say that there is one and the + same case with a latitude of meaning. The words were, perhaps, once + different. And this leads to the distinction between <i>a real and an + accidental identity of form</i>.</p> + + <p>In the language of the Anglo-Saxons the genitive cases of the words + <i>smith</i> (<i>smið</i>), <i>end</i> (<i>ende</i>), and <i>day</i> + (<i>dæg</i>), were, respectively, <i>smithes</i> (<i>smiðes</i>), + <i>endes</i>, and <i>dayes</i> (<i>dæges</i>); whilst the nominative + plurals were, respectively, <i>smithas</i> (<i>smiðas</i>), <i>endas</i>, + and <i>dayas</i> (<i>dægas</i>). A process of change took place, by which + the vowel of the last syllable in each <!-- Page 237 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page237"></a>{237}</span>word was ejected. The + result was, that the forms of the genitive singular and the nominative + plural, originally different, became one and the same; so that the + identity of the two cases is an accident.</p> + + <p>This fact relieves the English grammarian from a difficulty. The + nominative plural and the genitive singular are, in the present language + of England, identical; the apostrophe in <i>father's</i> being a mere + matter of orthography. However, there was <i>once</i> a difference. This + modifies the previous statement, which may now stand thus:—<i>for a + change of case there must be a change of form existing or + presumed</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect291">§ 291</a>. <i>The number of our cases and the extent + of language over which they spread.</i>—In the English language + there is undoubtedly a <i>nominative</i> case. This occurs in + substantives, adjectives, and pronouns (<i>father</i>, <i>good</i>, + <i>he</i>) equally. It is found in both numbers.</p> + + <p><i>Accusative.</i>—Some call this the objective case. The words + <i>him</i> (singular) and <i>them</i> (plural) (whatever they may have + been originally) are now true accusatives. The accusative case is found + in pronouns only. <i>Thee</i>, <i>me</i>, <i>us</i>, and <i>you</i> are, + to a certain extent, true accusatives.</p> + + <p>They are accusative thus far: 1. They are not derived from any other + case. 2. They are distinguished from the forms <i>I</i>, <i>my</i>, + &c. 3. Their meaning is accusative. Nevertheless, they are only + imperfect accusatives. They have no sign of case, and are distinguished + by negative characters only.</p> + + <p>One word of English is probably a true accusative in the strict sense + of the term, <i>viz.</i>, the word <i>twain</i>=<i>two</i>. The <i>-n</i> + in <i>twai-n</i> is the <i>-n</i> in <i>hine</i>=<i>him</i> and + <i>hwone</i>=<i>whom</i>. This we see from the following + inflection:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S Declension of Twégen" title="A-S Declension of Twégen"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N. and Ac.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Twá, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Twégen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Twá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Abl. and Dat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> Twám, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Twǽm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> Twegra, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Twega.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Although nominative as well as accusative, I have little doubt as to + the original character of <i>twégen</i> being accusative. The <!-- Page + 238 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238"></a>{238}</span><i>-n</i> + is by no means radical; besides which, it <i>is</i> the sign of an + accusative case, and is <i>not</i> the sign of a nominative.</p> + + <p><i>Note.</i>—The words <i>him</i> and <i>them</i> are true + accusatives in even a less degree than <i>thee</i>, <i>me</i>, <i>us</i>, + and <i>you</i>. The Anglo-Saxon equivalents to the Latin words <i>eos</i> + and <i>illos</i> were <i>hi</i> (or <i>hig</i>) and <i>þá</i> (or + <i>þæge</i>); in other words, the sign of the accusative was other than + the sound of <i>-m</i>. The case which <i>really</i> ended in <i>-m</i> + was the so-called dative; so that the Anglo-Saxon forms <i>him</i> (or + <i>heom</i>) and <i>þám</i>=the Latin <i>iis</i> and <i>illis</i>.</p> + + <p>This fact explains the meaning of the words, <i>whatever they may have + been originally</i>, in a preceding sentence. It also indicates a fresh + element in the criticism and nomenclature of the grammarian; <i>viz.</i>, + the extent to which the <i>history</i> of a form regulates its position + as an inflection.</p> + + <p><i>Dative.</i>—In the antiquated word <i>whilom</i> (<i>at + times</i>), we have a remnant of the old dative in <i>-m</i>. The + <i>sense</i> of the word is adverbial; its form, however, is that of a + dative case.</p> + + <p><i>Genitive.</i>—Some call this the possessive case. It is found + in substantives and pronouns (<i>father's</i>, <i>his</i>), but not in + adjectives. It is formed like the nominative plural, by the addition of + the lene sibilant (<i>father</i>, <i>fathers</i>; <i>buck</i>, + <i>bucks</i>); or if the word end in <i>s</i>, by that of <i>es</i> + (<i>boxes</i>, <i>judges</i>, &c.) It is found in both numbers: + <i>the men's hearts</i>; <i>the children's bread</i>. In the plural + number, however, it is rare; so rare, indeed, that wherever the plural + ends in <i>s</i> (as it almost always does), there is no genitive. If it + were not so, we should have such words as <i>fatherses</i>, + <i>foxeses</i>, <i>princesseses</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Instrumental.</i>—The following extracts from Rask's + Anglo-Saxon Grammar, teach us that there exist in the present English two + powers of the word spelt <i>t-h-e</i>, or of the so-called definite + article.</p> + + <p>"The demonstrative pronouns are <i>þæt</i>, <i>se</i>, <i>seó</i> + (<i>id</i>, <i>is</i>, <i>ea</i>), which are also used for the article; + and <i>þis</i>, <i>þes</i>, <i>þeós</i> (<i>hoc</i>, <i>hic</i>, + <i>hæc</i>). They are thus declined:— <!-- Page 239 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page239"></a>{239}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon Demonstratives" title="Anglo-Saxon Demonstratives"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>N.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þæt </td><td class="spacsingle"> se </td><td class="spacsingle"> seó </td><td class="spacsingle"> þis </td><td class="spacsingle"> þes </td><td class="spacsingle"> þeós.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>A.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þæt </td><td class="spacsingle"> þone </td><td class="spacsingle"> þá </td><td class="spacsingle"> þis </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisne </td><td class="spacsingle"> þás.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:5em" alt="brace" /></a></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:6em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Abl.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> þý </td><td class="spacsingle"> þǽre </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> þise </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>D.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> þám </td><td class="spacsingle"> þǽre </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> þisum </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>G.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> þæs </td><td class="spacsingle"> þǽre </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="2"> þises </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="3"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em" colspan="3"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:9em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> <i>N. and A.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.5em" colspan="2"> þá </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.5em" colspan="2"> þás.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> <i>Abl. and D.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.5em" colspan="2"> þám </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.5em" colspan="2"> þisum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> <i>G.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.5em" colspan="2"> þára. </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.5em" colspan="2"> þissa.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>"The indeclinable <i>þe</i> is often used instead of <i>þæt</i>, + <i>se</i>, <i>seo</i>, in all cases, but especially with a relative + signification, and, in later times, as an article. Hence the English + article <i>the</i>.</p> + + <p>"<i>þy</i> seems justly to be received as a proper <i>ablativus + instrumenti</i>, as it occurs often in this character, even in the + masculine gender; as, <i>mid þy áþe</i>=<i>with that oath</i> (Inæ Reges, + 53). And in the same place in the dative, <i>on þǽm áþe</i>=<i>in + that oath</i>."—Pp. 56, 57.</p> + + <p>Hence the <i>the</i> that has originated out of the Anglo-Saxon + <i>þý</i> is one word; the <i>the</i> that has originated out of the + Anglo-Saxon <i>þe</i>, another. The latter is the common article: the + former the <i>the</i> in expressions like <i>all the more</i>, <i>all the + better</i>=<i>more by all that</i>, <i>better by all that</i>, and the + Latin phrases <i>eo majus</i>, <i>eo melius</i>.</p> + + <p>That <i>why</i> is in the same case with the instrumental <i>the</i> + (=<i>þy</i>) may be seen from the following Anglo-Saxon inflection of the + interrogative pronoun:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon Interrogative" title="Anglo-Saxon Interrogative"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hwæt </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hwá.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>A.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hwæt </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hwone (hwæne).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:9em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Abl.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:4.5em" colspan="2"> <i>Hwi</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>D.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:4.5em" colspan="2"> Hwám (hwæ'm)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>G.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:4.5em" colspan="2"> Hwæs.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Hence, then, in <i>the</i> and <i>why</i> we have instrumental + ablatives, or, simply, <i>instrumentals</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect292">§ 292</a>. <i>The determination of + cases.</i>—How do we determine cases? In other words, why do we + call <i>him</i> and <i>them</i> <!-- Page 240 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page240"></a>{240}</span>accusatives rather than datives or + genitives? By one of two means; <i>viz.</i>, either by the sense or the + form.</p> + + <p>Suppose that in the English language there were ten thousand dative + cases and as many accusatives. Suppose, also, that all the dative cases + ended in <i>-m</i>, and all the accusatives in some other letter. It is + very evident that, whatever might be the meaning of the words <i>him</i> + and <i>them</i> their form would be dative. In this case the meaning + being accusative, and the form dative, we should doubt which test to + take.</p> + + <p>My own opinion is, that it would be convenient to determine cases by + the <i>form</i> of the word <i>alone</i>; so that, even if a word had a + dative sense only once, where it had an accusative sense ten thousand + times, such a word should be said to be in the dative case. Now, as + stated above, the words <i>him</i> and <i>them</i> (to which we may add + <i>whom</i>) were once dative cases; <i>-m</i> in Anglo-Saxon being the + sign of the dative case. In the time of the Anglo-Saxons their sense + coincided with their form. At present they are dative forms with an + accusative meaning. Still, as the word <i>give</i> takes after it a + dative case, we have, even now, in the sentence, <i>give it him</i>, + <i>give it them</i>, remnants of the old dative sense. To say <i>give it + to him</i>, <i>to them</i>, is unnecessary and pedantic: neither do I + object to the expression, <i>whom shall I give it</i>? If ever the + <i>formal</i> test become generally recognised and consistently adhered + to, <i>him</i>, <i>them</i>, and <i>whom</i> will be called datives with + a latitude of meaning; and then the only true and unequivocal accusatives + in the English language will be the forms <i>you</i>, <i>thee</i>, + <i>us</i>, <i>me</i>, and <i>twain</i>.</p> + + <p><i>My</i>, an accusative form (<i>meh</i>, <i>me</i>, <i>mec</i>), has + now a genitive sense. The same may be said of <i>thy</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Me</i>, originally an accusative form (both <i>me</i> and <i>my</i> + can grow out of <i>mec</i> and <i>meh</i>), had, even with the + Anglo-Saxons, a dative sense. <i>Give it me</i> is correct English. The + same may be said of <i>thee</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Him</i>, a dative form, has now an accusative sense.</p> + + <p><i>Her.</i>—For this word, as well as for further details on + <i>me</i> and <i>my</i>, see the Chapters on the Personal and + Demonstrative Pronouns. <!-- Page 241 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page241"></a>{241}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect293">§ 293</a>. When all traces of the original dative + signification are effaced, and when all the dative cases in a language + are similarly affected, an accusative case may be said to have originated + out of a dative.</p> + + <p><a name="sect294">§ 294</a>. Thus far the question has been concerning + the immediate origin of cases: their remote origin is a different + matter.</p> + + <p>The word <i>um</i> occurs in Icelandic. In Danish and Swedish it is + <i>om</i>; in the Germanic languages <i>omme</i>, <i>umbi</i>, + <i>umpi</i>, <i>ymbe</i>, and also <i>um</i>. Its meaning is <i>at</i>, + <i>on</i>, <i>about</i>. The word <i>whilom</i> is the substantive + <i>while</i>=<i>a time</i> or <i>pause</i> (Dan. <i>hvile</i>=<i>to + rest</i>), with the addition of the preposition <i>om</i>. That the + particular dative form in <i>om</i> has arisen out of the noun + <i>plus</i> the preposition is a safe assertion. I am not prepared, + however, to account for the formation of all the cases in this + manner.</p> + + <p><a name="sect295">§ 295</a>. <i>Analysis of cases.</i>—In the + word <i>children's</i> we are enabled to separate the word into three + parts. 1. The root <i>child</i>. 2. The plural signs <i>r</i> and + <i>en</i>. 3. The sign of the genitive case, <i>s</i>. In this case the + word is said to be analysed, since we not only take it to pieces, but + also give the respective powers of each of its elements; stating which + denotes the case, and which the number. Although it is too much to say + that the analysis of every case of every number can be thus effected, it + ought always to be attempted.</p> + + <p><a name="sect296">§ 296</a>. <i>The true nature of the genitive form + in s.</i>—It is a common notion that the genitive form + <i>father's</i> is contracted from <i>father his</i>. The expression in + our liturgy, <i>for Jesus Christ his sake</i>, which is merely a + pleonastic one, is the only foundation for this assertion. As the idea, + however, is not only one of the commonest, but also one of the greatest + errors in etymology, the following three statements are given for the + sake of contradiction to it.</p> + + <p>1. The expression the <i>Queen's Majesty</i> is not capable of being + reduced to the <i>Queen his Majesty</i>.</p> + + <p>2. In the form <i>his</i> itself, the <i>s</i> has precisely the power + that it has in <i>father's</i>, &c. Now <i>his</i> cannot be said to + arise out of <i>he</i> + <i>his</i>.</p> + + <p>3. In all the languages of the vast Indo-European tribe, except the + Celtic, the genitive ends in <i>s</i>, just as it does in <!-- Page 242 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page242"></a>{242}</span>English; so + that even if the words <i>father his</i> would account for the English + word <i>father's</i>, it would not account for the Sanskrit genitive + <i>pad-as</i>, of a foot; the Zend <i>dughdhar-s</i>, of a daughter; the + Lithuanic <i>dugter-s</i>; the Greek <span title="odont-os" class="grk" + >ὀδόντ-ος</span>; the Latin + <i>dent-is</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>For further remarks upon the English genitive, see the Cambridge + Philological Museum, vol. ii. p. 246.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 243 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page243"></a>{243}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect297">§ 297</a>. <i>I, we, us, me, thou, + ye.</i>—These constitute the true personal pronouns. From + <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, and <i>it</i>, they differ in being destitute of + gender.</p> + + <p>These latter words are demonstrative rather than personal, so that + there are in English true personal pronouns for the first two persons + only.</p> + + <p>In other languages the current pronouns of the third person are, as in + English, demonstrative rather than personal.</p> + + <p>The usual declension of the personal pronouns is exceptionable. + <i>I</i> and <i>me</i>, <i>thou</i> and <i>ye</i>, stand in no + etymological relations to each other. The true view of the words is, that + they are not irregular but defective. <i>I</i> has no <i>oblique</i>, and + <i>me</i> no nominative case. And so with respect to the rest.</p> + + <p><i>I</i>, in German <i>ich</i>, Icelandic <i>ek</i>, corresponds with + <span title="egô" class="grk">ἐγὼ</span>, and + <i>ego</i> of the classical languages; <i>ego</i> and <span title="egô" class="grk" + >ἐγὼ</span> being, like <i>I</i>, defective in the + oblique cases.</p> + + <p><i>My</i>, as stated above, is a form originally accusative, but now + used in a genitive sense.</p> + + <p><i>Me.</i>—In Anglo-Saxon this was called a dative form. The + fact seems to be that both <i>my</i> and <i>me</i> grow out of an + accusative form, <i>meh</i>, <i>mec</i>.</p> + + <p>That the sound of <i>k</i> originally belonged to the pronouns + <i>me</i> and <i>thee</i>, we learn not only from the Anglo-Saxons + <i>mec</i>, <i>þec</i>, <i>meh</i>, <i>þeh</i>, but from the Icelandic + <i>mik</i>, <i>þik</i>, and the German <i>mich</i>, <i>dich</i>. This + accounts for the form <i>my</i>; since <i>y</i>=<i>ey</i>, and the sounds + of <i>y</i> and <i>g</i> are allied. That both <i>me</i> and <i>my</i> + can be evolved from <i>mik</i>, we see in the present Scandinavian + languages, where, very often even in the same district, <i>mig</i> is + pronounced both <i>mey</i> and <i>mee</i>. <!-- Page 244 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page244"></a>{244}</span></p> + + <p><i>We</i> and <i>our</i>.—These words are not in the condition + of <i>I</i> and <i>me</i>. Although the fact be obscured, they are really + in an etymological relation to each other. This we infer from the + alliance between the sounds of <i>w</i> and <i>ou</i>, and from the + Danish forms <i>vi</i> (<i>we</i>), <i>vor</i> (<i>our</i>). It may be + doubted, however, whether <i>our</i> be a true genitive rather than an + adjectival form. In the form <i>ours</i> we find it playing the part, not + of a case, but of an independent word. Upon this, however, too much + stress cannot be laid. In Danish it takes a neuter form: + <i>vor</i>=<i>noster</i>; <i>vort</i>=<i>nostrum</i>. From this I + conceive that it agrees, not with the Latin genitive <i>nostrûm</i>, but + with the adjective <i>noster</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Us, we, our.</i>—Even <i>us</i> is in an etymological + relation to <i>we</i>. That <i>we</i> and <i>our</i> are so, has just + been shown. Now in Anglo-Saxon there were two forms of <i>our</i>, + <i>viz</i>., <i>úre</i> (=<i>nostrûm</i>), and <i>user</i> + (=<i>noster</i>). This connects <i>we</i> and <i>us</i> through + <i>our</i>.</p> + + <p>From these preliminary notices we have the changes in form of the true + personal pronouns, as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Personal pronouns" title="Personal pronouns"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> <span class="sc">1st Person</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="4"> <i>1st Term.</i> (<i>for nominative singular</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I.</i> Undeclined.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="4"> <i>2nd Term.</i> (<i>for the singular number</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> Acc. <i>Me</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> Gen. <i>My</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> Form in <i>n</i>—<i>Mine</i>. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="4"> <i>3rd Term.</i> (<i>for the plural number</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> Nom. <i>We</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> Acc. <i>Us</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> Form in <i>r</i>—<i>Our</i>, <i>ours</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> <br /><span class="sc">2nd Person.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="4"> <i>1st Term.</i> (<i>for the singular number</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> Nom. <i>Thou</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> Acc. <i>Thee</i>. Gen. <i>Thy</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> Form in <i>n</i>—<i>Thine</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" colspan="4"> <i>2nd Term.</i> (<i>for the plural number</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> Nom. <i>Ye</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> Acc. <i>You</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> Form in <i>r</i>—<i>Your</i>, <i>yours</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect298">§ 298</a>. <i>We</i> and <i>me</i> have been dealt + with as distinct words. But it is only for practical purposes that they + can be considered to be thus separate; since the sounds of <i>m</i> and + <i>w</i> are allied, and in Sanskrit the singular form <i>ma</i>=<i>I</i> + is looked upon as part of the same word with <i>vayam</i>=<i>we</i>. The + same is the case with the Greek <span title="me" class="grk" + >με</span> (<i>me</i>), and the plural form <span + title="hêmeis" class="grk">ἡμεῖς</span> + (<i>hæmeis</i>)=<i>we</i>.</p> + + <p><i>You.</i>—As far as the practice of the present mode of speech + <!-- Page 245 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page245"></a>{245}</span>is concerned, the word <i>you</i> is a + <i>nominative</i> form; since we say <i>you move</i>, <i>you are + moving</i>, <i>you were speaking</i>.</p> + + <p>Why should it not be treated as such? There is no absolute reason why + it should not. All that can be said is, that the historical reason and + the logical reason are at variance. The Anglo-Saxon form for <i>you</i> + was <i>eow</i>, for <i>ye</i>, <i>ge</i>. Neither bear any sign of case + at all, so that, form for form, they are equally and indifferently + nominative and accusative, as the habit of language may make them. Hence, + it, perhaps, is more logical to say that a certain form (<i>you</i>) is + used <i>either</i> as a nominative or accusative, than to say that the + accusative case is used instead of a nominative. It is clear that + <i>you</i> can be used instead of <i>ye</i> only so far as it is + nominative in power.</p> + + <p><i>Ye.</i>—As far as the evidence of such expressions as <i>get + on with ye</i> is concerned, the word <i>ye</i> is an accusative form. + The reasons why it should or should not be treated as such are involved + in the previous paragraph.</p> + + <p><i>Me.</i>—Carrying out the views just laid down, and admitting + <i>you</i> to be a nominative, or <i>quasi</i>-nominative case, we may + extend the reasoning to the word <i>me</i>, and call it also a secondary + nominative; inasmuch as such phrases as <i>it is me</i>=<i>it is I</i> + are common.</p> + + <p>Now to call such expressions incorrect English is to assume the point. + No one says that <i>c'est moi</i> is bad French, and that <i>c'est je</i> + is good. The fact is, that the whole question is a question of degree. + Has or has not the custom been sufficiently prevalent to have transferred + the forms <i>me</i>, <i>ye</i>, and <i>you</i> from one case to another, + as it is admitted to have done with the forms <i>him</i> and <i>whom</i>, + once dative, but now accusative?</p> + + <p><i>Observe.</i>—That the expression <i>it is me</i>=<i>it is + I</i> will not justify the use of <i>it is him</i>, <i>it is + her</i>=<i>it is he</i> and <i>it is she</i>. <i>Me</i>, <i>ye</i>, + <i>you</i>, are what may be called <i>indifferent</i> forms, <i>i. e.</i> + nominative as much as accusative, and accusative as much as nominative. + <i>Him</i> and <i>her</i>, on the other hand, are not indifferent. The + <i>-m</i> and <i>-r</i> are respectively the signs of cases other than + the nominative.</p> + + <p>Again: the reasons which allow the form <i>you</i> to be <!-- Page 246 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page246"></a>{246}</span>considered as + a nominative plural, on the strength of its being used for <i>ye</i>, + will not allow it to be considered a nominative singular on the strength + of its being used for <i>thou</i>. It is submitted to the reader, that in + phrases like <i>you are speaking</i>, &c., even when applied to a + single individual, the idea is really plural; in other words, that the + courtesy consists in treating <i>one</i> person as <i>more than one</i>, + and addressing him as such, rather than in using a plural form in a + singular sense. It is certain that, grammatically considered, + <i>you</i>=<i>thou</i> is a plural, since the verb with which it agrees + is plural:—<i>you are speaking</i>, not <i>you art + speaking</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 247 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page247"></a>{247}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE TRUE REFLECTIVE PRONOUN IN THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES, AND ON ITS ABSENCE IN ENGLISH.</p> + + <p><a name="sect299">§ 299</a>. A true reflective pronoun is wanting in + English. In other words, there are no equivalents to the Latin pronominal + forms <i>sui</i>, <i>sibi</i>, <i>se</i>.</p> + + <p>Nor yet are there any equivalents in English to the so-called + adjectival forms <i>suus</i>, <i>sua</i>, <i>suum</i>: since <i>his</i> + and <i>her</i> are the equivalents to <i>ejus</i> and <i>illius</i>, and + are not adjectives but genitive cases.</p> + + <p>At the first view, this last sentence seems unnecessary. It might seem + superfluous to state, that, if there were no such primitive form as + <i>se</i> (or its equivalent), there could be no such secondary form as + <i>suus</i> (or its equivalent).</p> + + <p>Such, however, is not the case. <i>Suus</i> might exist in the + language, and yet <i>se</i> be absent; in other words, the derivative + form might have continued whilst the original one had become extinct.</p> + + <p>Such is really the case with the <i>Old</i> Frisian. The reflective + personal form, the equivalent to <i>se</i>, is lost, whilst the + reflective possessive form, the equivalent to <i>suus</i>, is found. In + the <i>Modern</i> Frisian, however, both forms are lost; as they also are + in the present English.</p> + + <p>The history of the reflective pronoun in the Gothic tongues is as + follows:—</p> + + <p><i>In Mœso-Gothic.</i>—Found in three cases, <i>seina</i>, + <i>sis</i>, <i>sik</i>=<i>sui</i>, <i>sibi</i>, <i>se</i>.</p> + + <p><i>In Old Norse.</i>—Ditto. <i>Sin</i>, <i>ser</i>, + <i>sik</i>=<i>sui</i>, <i>sibi</i>, <i>se</i>.</p> + + <p><i>In Old High German.</i>—The dative form lost; there being no + such word as <i>sir</i>=<i>sis</i>=<i>sibi</i>. Besides this, the + genitive <!-- Page 248 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page248"></a>{248}</span>or possessive form <i>sin</i> is used only + in the masculine and neuter genders.</p> + + <p><i>In Old Frisian.</i>—As stated above, there is here no + equivalent to <i>se</i>; whilst there <i>is</i> the form + <i>sin</i>=<i>suus</i>.</p> + + <p><i>In Old Saxon.</i>—The equivalent to <i>se</i>, <i>sibi</i>, + and <i>sui</i> very rare. The equivalent to <i>suus</i> not common, but + commoner than in Anglo-Saxon.</p> + + <p><i>In Anglo-Saxon.</i>—No instance of the equivalent to + <i>se</i> at all. The forms <i>sinne</i>=<i>suum</i>, and + <i>sinum</i>=<i>suo</i>, occur in Beowulf. In Cædmon cases of + <i>sin</i>=<i>suus</i> are more frequent. Still the usual form is + <i>his</i>=<i>ejus</i>.</p> + + <p>In the Dutch, Danish, and Swedish, the true reflectives, both personal + and possessive, occur; so that the modern Frisian and English stand alone + in respect to the entire absence of them.—Deutsche Grammatik, iv. + 321-348.</p> + + <p>The statement concerning the absence of the true reflective in + English, although negative, has an important philological bearing on more + points than one.</p> + + <p>1. It renders the use of the word <i>self</i> much more necessary than + it would be otherwise.</p> + + <p>2. It renders us unable to draw a distinction between the meanings of + the Latin words <i>suus</i> and <i>ejus</i>.</p> + + <p>3. It precludes the possibility of the evolution of a middle voice + like that of the Old Norse, where <i>kalla-sc</i>=<i>kalla-sik</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 249 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249"></a>{249}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect300">§ 300</a>. The demonstrative pronouns are, 1. + <i>He</i>, <i>it</i>. 2. <i>She</i>. 3. <i>This</i>, <i>that</i>. 4. + <i>The</i>.</p> + + <p><i>He</i>, <i>she</i>, and <i>it</i>, generally looked on as personal, + are here treated as demonstrative pronouns, for the following + reasons.</p> + + <p>1. The personal pronouns form an extremely natural class, if the + pronouns of the two first persons (and <i>se</i> when found in the + language) be taken by themselves. This is not the case if they be taken + along with <i>he</i>, <i>it</i>, and <i>she</i>. The absence of gender, + the peculiarity in their declension, and their defectiveness are marked + characters wherein they agree with each other, but not with any other + words.</p> + + <p>2. The idea expressed by <i>he</i>, <i>it</i>, and <i>she</i> is + naturally that of demonstrativeness. In the Latin language <i>is</i>, + <i>ea</i>, <i>id</i>; <i>ille</i>, <i>illa</i>, <i>illud</i>; <i>hic</i>, + <i>hæc</i>, <i>hoc</i>, are demonstrative pronouns in sense, as well as + in declension.</p> + + <p>3. The plural forms <i>they</i>, <i>them</i>, in the present English, + are the plural forms of the root of <i>that</i>, a true demonstrative + pronoun; so that even if <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, and <i>it</i> could be + treated as personal pronouns, it could only be in their so-called + singular number.</p> + + <p>4. The word <i>she</i> has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon <i>seó</i>. + Now <i>seó</i> was in Anglo-Saxon the feminine form of the definite + article; the definite article being a demonstrative pronoun.</p> + + <p>Compared with the Anglo-Saxon the present English stands as + follows:—</p> + + <p><i>She.</i>—The Anglo-Saxon form <i>heó</i>, being lost to the + language, is replaced by the feminine article <i>seó</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Her.</i>—This is a case, not of the present <i>she</i>, but + of the Anglo-Saxon <i>heó</i>: so that <i>she</i> may be said to be + defective in <!-- Page 250 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page250"></a>{250}</span>the oblique cases and <i>her</i> to be + defective in the nominative.</p> + + <p><i>Him.</i>—A true dative form, which has replaced the + Anglo-Saxon <i>hine</i>. When used as a dative, it was neuter as well as + masculine.</p> + + <p><i>His.</i>—Originally neuter as well as masculine. Now as a + neuter, replaced by <i>its</i>—"et quidem ipsa vox <i>his</i>, ut + et interrogativum <i>whose</i>, nihil aliud sunt quam <i>hee's</i>, + <i>who's</i>, ubi <i>s</i> omnino idem præstat quod in aliis possessivis. + Similiter autem <i>his</i> pro <i>hee's</i> eodem errore quo nonnunquam + <i>bin</i> pro <i>been</i>; item <i>whose</i> pro <i>who's</i> eodem + errore quo <i>done</i>, <i>gone</i>, <i>knowne</i>, <i>growne</i>, + &c., pro <i>doen</i>, <i>goen</i>, <i>knowen</i>, vel <i>do'n</i>, + <i>go'n</i>, <i>know'n</i>, <i>grow'n</i>; utrobique contra analogiam + linguæ; sed usu defenditur."—Wallis, c. v.</p> + + <p><i>It.</i>—Changed from the Anglo-Saxon <i>hit</i>, by the + ejection of <i>h</i>. The <i>t</i> is no part of the original word, but a + sign of the neuter gender, forming it regularly from <i>he</i>. The same + neuter sign is preserved in the Latin <i>id</i> and <i>illud</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Its.</i>—In the course of time the nature of the neuter sign + <i>t</i>, in <i>it</i>, the form being found in but a few words, became + misunderstood. Instead of being looked on as an affix, it passed for part + of the original word. Hence was formed from <i>it</i> the anomalous + genitive <i>its</i>, superseding the Saxon <i>his</i>. The same was the + case with—</p> + + <p><i>Hers.</i>—The <i>r</i> is no part of the original word, but + the sign of the dative case. These formations are of value in the history + of cases.</p> + + <p><i>They</i>, <i>their</i>, <i>them</i>.—When <i>hit</i> had been + changed into <i>it</i>, when <i>heó</i> had been replaced by <i>she</i>, + and when the single form <i>the</i>, as an article, had come to serve for + all the cases of all the genders, two circumstances took place: 1. The + forms <i>þám</i> and <i>þára</i> as definite articles became superfluous; + and, 2. The connexion between the plural forms <i>hí</i>, <i>heom</i>, + <i>heora</i>, and the singular forms <i>he</i> and <i>it</i>, grew + indistinct. These were conditions favourable to the use of the forms + <i>they</i>, <i>them</i>, and <i>their</i>, instead of <i>hí</i>, + <i>heom</i>, <i>heora</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Theirs.</i>—In the same predicament with <i>hers</i> and + <i>its</i>; either the case of an adjective, or a case formed from a + case. <!-- Page 251 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page251"></a>{251}</span></p> + + <p><i>Than</i> or <i>then</i>, and <i>there</i>.—Although now + adverbs, they were once demonstrative pronouns, in a certain case and in + a certain gender.—<i>Than</i> and <i>then</i> masculine accusative + and singular, <i>there</i> feminine dative and singular.</p> + + <p>An exhibition of the Anglo-Saxon declension is the best explanation of + the English. Be it observed, that the cases marked in italics are found + in the present language.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">I.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">Se, <i>seó</i>.</p> + + <p>Of this word we meet two forms only, both of the singular number, and + both in the nominative case; <i>viz.</i> masc. <i>se</i>; fem. <i>seó</i> + (the). The neuter gender and the other cases of the article were taken + from the pronoun <i>þæt</i> (that).</p> + +<p class="cenhead">II.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>þæt</i> (that, the), and <i>þis</i> (this).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon þæt and þis" title="Anglo-Saxon þæt and þis"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Neut.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Neut.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Sing.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Nom.</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þæt</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þis</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þes </td><td class="spacsingle"> þeós.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Acc.</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þæt</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þone</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þâ. </td><td class="spacsingle"> þis </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisne </td><td class="spacsingle"> þás.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Abl.</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þy</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þy</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þǽre</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þise</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þise </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dat.</td><td class="spacsingle"> þám </td><td class="spacsingle"> þám </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þǽre</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisum</td><td class="spacsingle"> þisum </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gen.</td><td class="spacsingle"> þæs </td><td class="spacsingle"> þæs </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þǽre</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> þises</td><td class="spacsingle"> þises </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Plur.</td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> Nom. Acc. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þá</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þás</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> Abl. Dat. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þám</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þisum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> Gen. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>þára</i>. </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þissa.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">III.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Hit</i> (it), <i>he</i> (he), <i>heó</i> (she).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon hit, he, heó" title="Anglo-Saxon hit, he, heó"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Sing.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Nom. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>hit</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>he</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> heó.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Acc. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>hit</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> hine </td><td class="spacsingle"> hí.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Dat. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>him</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>him</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>hire</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> Gen. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>his</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>his</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>hire</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:0.75ex; width:8em" alt="brace" /></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Plur.</td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> Nom. Acc. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> hi</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> Dat. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> him (heom).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> Gen. </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="2"> hira (heora).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">IV.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>þe</i> (the)—Undeclined, and used for all cases and genders.</p> + + <p><a name="sect301">§ 301</a>. <i>These.</i>—Here observe— + <!-- Page 252 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page252"></a>{252}</span></p> + + <p>1st. That the <i>s</i> is no inflection, but a radical part of the + word, like the <i>s</i> in <i>geese</i>.</p> + + <p>2nd. That the Anglo-Saxon form is <i>þâs</i>.</p> + + <p>These facts create difficulties in respect to the word <i>these</i>. + Mr. Guest's view is, perhaps, the best; <i>viz.</i> that the plural + element of the word is the letter <i>e</i>, and that this <i>-e</i> is + the old English and Anglo-Saxon adjective plural; so that <i>thes-e</i> + is formed from <i>thes</i>, as <i>gode</i> (=<i>boni</i>) is formed from + <i>god</i> (=<i>bonus</i>).</p> + + <p>The nominative plural in the Old English ended in <i>e</i>; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon adjective nominative" title="Anglo-Saxon adjective nominative"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>M.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>F.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>M.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>F.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>N.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>God</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>god</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>god</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> <i>gode</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In Old English MSS. this plural in <i>-e</i> is general. It occurs not + only in adjectives and pronouns as a regular inflection, but even as a + plural of the genitive <i>his</i>, that word being treated as a + nominative singular; so that <i>hise</i> is formed from <i>his</i>, as + <i>sui</i> from <i>suus</i>, or as <i>eji</i> might have been formed from + <i>ejus</i>; provided that in the Latin language this last word had been + mistaken for a nominative singular. The following examples are Mr. + Guest's.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>1. In these lay a gret multitude of <i>syke</i> men, <i>blinde</i>, + crokid, and <i>drye</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wicliffe</i>, Jon. v.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>2. In all the orders foure is non that can</p> + <p class="i4">So much of dalliance and faire language,</p> + <p class="i4">He hadde ymade ful many a marriage—</p> + <p class="i4">His tippet was ay farsed ful of knives,</p> + <p class="i4">And pinnes for to given <i>faire</i> wives.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Chau.</i>, Prol.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>3. And <i>al</i> the cuntre of Judee wente out to him, and <i>alle</i> + men of Jerusalem.—<i>Wiclif</i>, Mark i.</p> + + <p>4. He ghyueth lif to <i>alle</i> men, and brething, and <i>alle</i> + thingis; and made of von <i>al</i> kynde of men to inhabit on <i>al</i> + the face of the erthe.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Dedis of Apostlis, + xvii.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>5. That fadres sone which <i>alle</i> thinges wrought;</p> + <p class="i4">And <i>all</i>, that wrought is with a skilful thought,</p> + <p class="i4">The Gost that from the fader gan procede,</p> + <p class="i4">Hath souled hem.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Chau.</i>, The Second Nonnes Tale.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> +<!-- Page 253 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253"></a>{253}</span> + <p>6. And <i>alle</i> we that ben in this aray</p> + <p class="i4">And maken <i>all</i> this lamentation,</p> + <p class="i4">We losten <i>alle</i> our husbondes at that toun.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Chau.</i>, The Knightes Tale.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>7. A <i>good</i> man bryngeth forth <i>gode</i> thingis of <i>good</i> + tresore.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Matt. xii.</p> + + <p>8. So every <i>good</i> tree maketh <i>gode</i> fruytis, but an yvel + tree maketh yvel fruytes. A <i>good</i> tree may not mak yvel fruytis, + neither an yvel tree may make <i>gode</i> fruytis. Every tree that maketh + not <i>good</i> fruyt schal be cut down.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Matt. + vii.</p> + + <p>9. Men loveden more darknessis than light for her werkes weren + <i>yvele</i>, for ech man that doeth <i>yvel</i>, hateth the + light.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Jon. iii.</p> + + <p>10. And <i>othere</i> seedis felden among thornes wexen up and + strangliden hem, and <i>othere</i> seedis felden into good lond and gaven + fruyt, sum an hundred fold, <i>another</i> sixty fold, an <i>other</i> + thritty fold, &c.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Matt. xiii.</p> + + <p>11. Yet the while he spake to the puple lo <i>his</i> mother and + <i>hise</i> brethren stonden withoute forth.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Matt. + xii.</p> + + <p>12. And <i>hise</i> disciplis camen and token <i>his</i> + body.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Matt. xiv.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>13. Whan <i>thise</i> Bretons tuo were fled out of <i>this</i> lond</p> + <p class="i4">Ine toke his feaute of alle, &c.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4"><i>Rob. Brunne</i>, p. 3.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>14. <i>This</i> is thilk disciple that bereth witnessyng of + <i>these</i> thingis, and wroot them.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, John + xxi.</p> + + <p>15. Seye to us in what powers thou doist <i>these</i> thingis, and who + is he that gaf to thee <i>this</i> power.—<i>Wicliffe</i>, Luke + xx.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect302">§ 302</a>. <i>Those.</i>—Perhaps the + Anglo-Saxon <i>þá</i> with <i>s</i> added. Perhaps the <i>þás</i> from + <i>þis</i> with its power altered. Rask, in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, + writes "from þis we find, in the plural, þæs for þás. From which + afterwards, with a distinction in signification, <i>these</i> and + <i>those</i>." The English form <i>they</i> is illustrated by the + Anglo-Saxon form <i>ðage</i>=<i>þá</i>. The whole doctrine of the forms + in question has yet to assume a satisfactory shape.</p> + + <p>The present declension of the demonstrative pronouns is as + follows:—</p> + +<p class="cenhead">I.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>The</i>—Undeclined.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 254 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254"></a>{254}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">II.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>She</i>—Defective in the oblique cases.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">III.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>He</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Modern he" title="Modern he"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> He </td><td class="spacsingle"> It (from <i>hit</i>) </td><td class="spacsingle"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Him </td><td class="spacsingle"> It </td><td class="spacsingle"> Her.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Him </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> Her.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> His </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> Her.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Secondary Gen.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> Its </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hers.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="3"> No plural form.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">IV.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>That.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Modern that" title="Modern that"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Neut.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Masc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Fem.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> That </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> That </td><td class="spacsingle"> Than,<a name="NtA40" href="#Nt40"><sup>[40]</sup></a> then </td><td class="spacsingle"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> There.<a href="#Nt40"><sup>[40]</sup></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" colspan="3"> <a href="images/$ubrace.png"><img src="images/$ubrace.png" class="middle" style="height:1ex; width:14em" alt="brace" /></a> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Plur.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> They.<a name="NtA41" href="#Nt41"><sup>[41]</sup></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Them.<a href="#Nt41"><sup>[41]</sup></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Their.<a href="#Nt41"><sup>[41]</sup></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" colspan="2"> <i>Secondary Gen.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Theirs.<a href="#Nt41"><sup>[41]</sup></a></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">V.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Singular</i>, This. <i>Plural</i>, These.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">VI.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Those</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 255 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page255"></a>{255}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND CERTAIN OTHER PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect303">§ 303</a>. In the relative and interrogative + pronouns, <i>who</i>, <i>what</i>, <i>whom</i>, <i>whose</i>, we have, + expressed by a change of form, a neuter gender, <i>what</i>; a dative + case, <i>whom</i>; and a genitive case, <i>whose</i>: the true power of + the <i>s</i> (<i>viz.</i> as the sign of a case) being obscured by the + orthographical addition of the <i>e</i> mute.</p> + + <p>To these may be added, 1. the adverb <i>why</i>, originally the + ablative form <i>hvi</i> (<i>quo modo? quâ viâ?</i>). 2. The adverb + <i>where</i>, a feminine dative, like <i>there</i>. 3. <i>When</i>, a + masculine accusative (in Anglo-Saxon <i>hwæne</i>), and analogous to + <i>then</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect304">§ 304</a>. The following points in the history of + the demonstrative and relative pronouns are taken from Grimm's Deutsche + Grammatik, vol. iii. pp. 1, 2, 3.</p> + + <p>Throughout the Indo-European tribe the interrogative or relative idea + is expressed by <i>k</i>, or by a modification of <i>k</i>; e.g., + <i>qu</i>, <i>hv</i>, or <i>h</i>; as Sanskrit, <i>kas</i>, who; + <i>kataras</i>, which of two; <i>katama</i>, which of + many.—Lithuanic, <i>kas</i>, who; <i>koks</i>, of what sort; + <i>kokelys</i>, how great; <i>kaip</i>, how.—Slavonic: <i>kto</i>, + who, Russian and Polish; <i>kdo</i>, who, Bohemian; <i>kotory</i>, which, + Russian; <i>kolik</i>, how great.—<i>Quot</i>, <i>qualis</i>, + <i>quantus</i>, Latin.—<span title="Kosos" class="grk" + >Κόσος</span>, <span title="koios" class="grk" + >κοῖος</span>, <span title="kote" class="grk" + >κότε</span>, Ionic Greek; in the other + dialects, however, <span title="poteros" class="grk" + >πότερος</span>, <span + title="posos" class="grk">πόσος</span>, + &c.—Gothic: <i>hvas</i>, who, Mœso-Gothic; <i>huer</i>, + Old High German; <i>hvaþar</i>, which of two, Mœso-Gothic; + <i>huëdar</i>, Old High German; <i>hvem</i>, <i>hvad</i>, <i>huanne</i>, + <i>huar</i>, Norse; <i>what</i>, <i>why</i>, <i>which</i>, <i>where</i>, + &c., English.</p> + + <p>Throughout the Indo-European tribe the demonstrative idea is expressed + by <i>t</i>, or by a modification of it; as, Sanskrit, <i>tat</i>, that; + <i>tata-ras</i>, such a one out of two.—Lithuanic, <i>tas</i>, he; + <i>toks</i>, such; <i>tokelys</i>, so great; <i>taip</i>, + so.—Slavonic, <i>t'</i> or <!-- Page 256 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page256"></a>{256}</span><i>ta</i>, he; + <i>taku</i>, such; <i>tako</i>, so.—<i>Tot</i>, <i>talis</i>, + <i>tantum</i>, Latin.—<span title="Tosos" class="grk" + >Τόσος</span>, <span title="toios" class="grk" + >τοῖος</span>, <span title="tote" class="grk" + >τότε</span>, Greek; <i>this</i>, <i>that</i>, + <i>thus</i>, English, &c.</p> + + <p>The two sounds in the Danish words <i>hvi</i>, <i>hvad</i>, &c., + and the two sounds in the English, <i>what</i>, <i>when</i> (Anglo-Saxon, + <i>hwæt</i>, <i>hwæne</i>), account for the forms <i>why</i> and + <i>how</i>. In the first the <i>w</i> alone, in the second the <i>h</i> + alone, is sounded. The Danish for why is <i>hvi</i>, pronounced + <i>vi</i>; in Swedish the word is <i>hu</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect305">§ 305</a>. The following remarks (some of them not + strictly etymological) apply to a few of the remaining pronouns. For + further details, see Grimm, D. G. iii. 4.</p> + + <p><i>Same.</i>—Wanting in Anglo-Saxon, where it was replaced by + the word <i>ylca</i>, <i>ylce</i>. Probably derived from the Norse.</p> + + <p><i>Self.</i>—In <i>myself</i>, <i>thyself</i>, <i>herself</i>, + <i>ourselves</i>, <i>yourselves</i>, a substantive (or with a + substantival power), and preceded by a genitive case. In <i>himself</i> + and <i>themselves</i> an adjective (or with an adjectival power), and + preceded by an accusative case. <i>Itself</i> is equivocal, since we + cannot say whether its elements are <i>it</i> and <i>self</i>, or + <i>its</i> and <i>self</i>; the <i>s</i> having been dropped in + utterance. It is very evident that either the form like <i>himself</i>, + or the form like <i>thyself</i>, is exceptionable; in other words, that + the use of the word is inconsistent. As this inconsistency is as old as + the Anglo-Saxons, the history of the word gives us no elucidation. In + favour of the forms like <i>myself</i> (<i>self</i> being a substantive), + are the following facts:—</p> + + <p>1. The plural word <i>selves</i>, a substantival, and not an + adjectival form.</p> + + <p>2. The Middle High German phrases, <i>mîn lîp</i>, <i>dîn lîp</i>, + <i>my body</i>, <i>thy body</i>, equivalent in sense to <i>myself</i>, + <i>thyself</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The circumstance that if <i>self</i> be dealt with as a + substantive, such phrases as <i>my own self</i>, <i>his own great + self</i>, &c., can be used; whereby the language is a gainer.</p> + + <p>"Vox <i>self</i>, pluraliter <i>selves</i>, quamvis etiam pronomen a + quibusdam censeatur (quoniam ut plurimum per Latinum <i>ipse</i> + redditur), est tamen plane nomen substantivum, cui quidem vix aliquod + apud Latinos substantivum respondet; proxime tamen accedet vox + <i>persona</i> vel <i>propria persona</i>, ut <i>my self</i>, <i>thy + self</i>, <i>our selves</i>, <i>your selves</i>, &c. (<i>ego + ipse</i>, <i>tu ipse</i>, <i>nos ipsi</i>, <!-- Page 257 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page257"></a>{257}</span><i>vos ipsi</i>, + &c.), ad verbum <i>mea persona</i>, <i>tua persona</i>, &c. + Fateor tamen <i>himself</i>, <i>itself</i>, <i>themselves</i> vulgo dici + pro <i>his-self</i>, <i>its-self</i>, <i>theirselves</i>; at (interposito + <i>own</i>) <i>his own self</i>, &c., <i>ipsius propria persona</i>, + &c."—Wallis, c. vii.</p> + + <p>4. The fact that many persons actually say <i>hisself</i> and + <i>theirselves</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Whit.</i>—As in the phrase <i>not a whit</i>. This enters in + the compound pronouns <i>aught</i> and <i>naught</i>.</p> + + <p><i>One.</i>—As in the phrase <i>one does so and so</i>. From the + French <i>on</i>. Observe that this is from the Latin <i>homo</i>, in Old + French <i>hom</i>, <i>om</i>. In the Germanic tongues <i>man</i> is used + in the same sense: <i>man sagt</i>=<i>one says</i>=<i>on dit</i>. + <i>One</i>, like <i>self</i> and <i>other</i>, is so far a substantive, + that it is inflected. Gen. sing, <i>one's own self</i>: plural, <i>my + wife and little ones are well</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Derived pronouns.</i>—<i>Any</i>, in Anglo-Saxon, + <i>ænig</i>. In Old High German we have <i>einîc</i>=<i>any</i>, and + <i>einac</i>=<i>single</i>. In Anglo-Saxon <i>ânega</i> means + <i>single</i>. In Middle High German <i>einec</i> is always + <i>single</i>. In New High German <i>einig</i> means, 1. <i>a certain + person</i> (<i>quidam</i>), 2. <i>agreeing</i>; <i>einzig</i>, meaning + <i>single</i>. In Dutch <i>ênech</i> has both meanings. This indicates + the word <i>án</i>, <i>one</i>, as the root of the word in + question.—Grimm, D. G. iii. 9.</p> + + <p><i>Compound pronouns.</i>—<i>Which</i>, as has been already + stated more than once, is most incorrectly called the neuter of + <i>who</i>. Instead of being a neuter, it is a compound word. The + adjective <i>leiks</i>, <i>like</i>, is preserved in the + Mœso-Gothic words <i>galeiks</i>, and <i>missaleiks</i>. In Old + High German the form is <i>lih</i>, in Anglo-Saxon <i>lic</i>. Hence we + have Mœso-Gothic, <i>hvêleiks</i>; Old High German, <i>huëlih</i>; + Anglo-Saxon, <i>huilic</i> and <i>hvilc</i>; Old Frisian, <i>hwelik</i>; + Danish, <i>hvilk-en</i>; German, <i>welch</i>; Scotch, <i>whilk</i>; + English, <i>which</i>. (Grimm, D. G., iii. 47). The same is the case + with—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Such.</i>—Mœso-Gothic, <i>svaleiks</i>; Old High + German, <i>sôlih</i>; Old Saxon, <i>sulîc</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>svilc</i>; + German, <i>solch</i>; English, <i>such</i>. (Grimm, D. G. iii. 48). + Rask's derivation of the Anglo-Saxon <i>swilc</i> from <i>swa-ylc</i>, is + exceptionable.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Thilk.</i>—An old English word, found in the provincial + dialects, as <i>thick</i>, <i>thuck</i>, <i>theck</i>, and hastily + derived by Tyrwhitt, <!-- Page 258 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page258"></a>{258}</span>Ritson, and Weber, from <i>së ylca</i>, is + found in the following forms: Mœso-Gothic, <i>þêleiks</i>; Norse, + <i>þvilikr</i>. (Grimm, iii. 49.)</p> + + <p>3. <i>Ilk.</i>—Found in the Scotch, and always preceded by the + article; <i>the ilk</i>, or <i>that ilk</i>, meaning <i>the same</i>. In + Anglo-Saxon this word is <i>ylca</i>, preceded also by the article <i>se + ylca</i>, <i>seó ylce</i>, <i>þæt ylce</i>. In English, as seen above, + the word is replaced by <i>same</i>. In no other Gothic dialect does it + occur. According to Grimm, this is no simple word, but a compound one, of + which some such word as <i>ei</i> is the first, and <i>lîc</i> the second + element. (Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 50.)</p> + + <p><i>Aught.</i>—In Mœso-Gothic is found the particle + <i>aiv</i>, <i>ever</i>, but only in negative propositions; <i>ni</i> + (<i>not</i>) preceding it. Its Old High German form is <i>êo</i>, + <i>io</i>; in Middle High German, <i>ie</i> in New High German, + <i>je</i>; in Old Saxon, <i>io</i>; in Anglo-Saxon, <i>â</i>; in Norse, + <i>æ</i>. Combined with this particle the word <i>whit</i> (<i>thing</i>) + gives the following forms: Old High German, <i>éowiht</i>; Anglo-Saxon, + <i>âviht</i>; Old Frisian, <i>âwet</i>; English, <i>aught</i>. The word + <i>naught</i> is <i>aught</i> preceded by the negative particle. + (Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 52.)</p> + + <p><i>Each.</i>—The particle <i>gi</i> enters, like the particle in + the composition of pronouns. Old High German, <i>êogalîher</i>, every + one; <i>êocalih</i>, all; Middle High German, <i>iegelich</i>; New High + German, <i>jeglich</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>ælc</i>; English, <i>each</i>; + the <i>l</i> being dropped, as in <i>which<i> and </i>such</i>. + <i>Ælc</i>, as the original of the English <i>each</i> and the Scotch + <i>ilka,</i><a name="NtA42" href="#Nt42"><sup>[42]</sup></a> must by no + means be confounded with the word <i>ylce</i>, <i>the same</i>. (Grimm, + D. G. iii. 54.)</p> + + <p><i>Every</i>, in Old English, <i>everich</i>, <i>everech</i>, + <i>everilk one</i>, is <i>ælc</i>, preceded by the particle <i>ever</i>. + (Grimm, D. G. iii. 54.)</p> + + <p><i>Either.</i>—Old High German, <i>êogahuëdar</i>; Middle High + German, <i>iegewëder</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>æghväðer</i>, <i>ægðer</i>; Old + Frisian, <i>eider</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Neither.</i>—The same, with the negative article prefixed. + <i>Neither</i> : <i>either</i> :: <i>naught</i> : <i>aught</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Other</i>, <i>whether</i>.—These words, although derived + forms, being simpler than some that have preceded, might fairly <!-- Page + 259 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page259"></a>{259}</span>have been + dealt with before. They make, however, a transition from the present to + the succeeding chapter, and so find a place here.</p> + + <p>A. <i>First</i>, it may be stated of them that the idea which they + express is not that <i>of one out of many</i>, but that of <i>one out of + two</i>.</p> + + <p>1. In Sanskrit there are two forms, <sup>a</sup>) <i>kataras</i>, the + same word as <i>whether</i>, meaning <i>which out of two</i>; + <sup>b</sup>) <i>katamas</i>, <i>which out of many</i>. So also + <i>êkateras</i>, <i>one out of two</i>; <i>êkatamas</i>, <i>one out of + many</i>. In Greek, the Ionic form <span title="koteros" class="grk" + >κότερος</span> (<span + title="poteros" class="grk" + >πότερος</span>); in Latin, + <i>uter</i>, <i>neuter</i>, <i>alter</i>; and in Mœso-Gothic, + <i>hvathar</i>, have the same form and the same meaning.</p> + + <p>2. In the Scandinavian language the word <i>anden</i>, Dano-Saxon + <i>annar</i>, Iceland corresponds to the English word <i>second</i>, and + not the German <i>zweite:</i> e. g., <i>Karl den Anden</i>, <i>Charles + the Second</i>. Now <i>anthar</i> is the older form of <i>other</i>.</p> + + <p>B. <i>Secondly</i>, it may be stated of them, that the termination + <i>-er</i> is the same termination that we find in the comparative + degree.</p> + + <p>1. The idea expressed by the comparative degree is the comparison, not + of <i>many</i>, but of <i>two</i> things; <i>this is better than + that</i>.</p> + + <p>2. In all the Indo-European languages where there are pronouns in + <i>-ter</i>, there is also a comparative degree in <i>-ter</i>. See next + chapter.</p> + + <p>3. As the Sanskrit form <i>kataras</i> corresponds with the + comparative degree, where there is the comparison of <i>two things with + each other</i>; so the word <i>katamas</i> is a superlative form; and in + the superlative degree lies the comparison of <i>many</i> things with + each other.</p> + + <p>Hence <i>other</i> and <i>whether</i> (to which may be added + <i>either</i> and <i>neither</i>) are pronouns with the comparative + form.</p> + + <p><i>Other</i> has the additional peculiarity of possessing the plural + form <i>others</i>. Hence, like <i>self</i>, it is, in the strictest + sense, a substantival pronoun.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 260 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page260"></a>{260}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON CERTAIN FORMS IN -ER.</p> + + <p><a name="sect306">§ 306</a>. Preparatory to the consideration of the + degrees of comparison, it is necessary to make some remarks upon a + certain class of words, which, with considerable differences of + signification, all agree in one fact, viz., all terminate in <i>-er</i>, + or <i>t-er</i>.</p> + + <p>1. Certain pronouns, as <i>ei-th-er</i>, <i>n-ei-th-er</i>, + <i>whe-th-er</i>, <i>o-th-er</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Certain prepositions and adverbs, as <i>ov-er</i>, <i>und-er</i>, + <i>af-t-er</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Certain adjectives, with the form of the comparative, but the power + of the positive degree; as <i>upp-er</i>, <i>und-er</i>, <i>inn-er</i>, + <i>out-er</i>, <i>hind-er</i>.</p> + + <p>4. All adjectives of the comparative degree; as <i>wis-er</i>, + <i>strong-er</i>, <i>bett-er</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Now what is the idea common to all these words, expressed by the sign + <i>-er</i>, and connecting the four divisions into one class? It is not + the mere idea of comparison; although it is the comparative degree, to + the expression of which the affix in question is more particularly + applied. Bopp, who has best generalised the view of these forms, + considers the fundamental idea to be that of <i>duality</i>. In the + comparative degree we have a relation between one object and <i>some</i> + other object like it, or a relation between two single elements of + comparison: <i>A is wiser than B</i>. In the superlative degree we have a + relation between one object and <i>all</i> others like it, or a relation + between one single and one complex element of comparison: <i>A is wiser + than B, C, D</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>"As in comparatives a relation between <i>two</i>, and in superlatives + a relation between <i>many</i>, lies at the bottom, it is <!-- Page 261 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page261"></a>{261}</span>natural that + their suffixes should be transferred to other words, whose chief notion + is individualised through that of duality or + plurality."—Vergleichende Grammatik, § 292, Eastwick's and Wilson's + Translation.</p> + + <p>The most important proofs of the view adduced by Bopp are,—</p> + + <p>1. The Sanskrit forms <i>kataras</i>=<i>which of two persons?</i> a + comparative form; <i>katamas</i>=<i>which of more than two persons?</i> a + superlative form. Similarly, <i>êkataras</i>=<i>one of two persons</i>; + <i>êkatamas</i>=<i>one of more than two persons</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The Greek forms, <span title="hekateros" class="grk" + >ἑκάτερος</span>=<i>each + or either out of two persons</i>; <span title="hekastos" class="grk" + >ἕκαστος</span>=<i>each or + any out of more than two persons</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect307">§ 307</a>. The more important of the specific + modifications of the general idea involved in the comparison of two + objects are,—</p> + + <p>1. Contrariety; as in <i>inner</i>, <i>outer</i>, <i>under</i>, + <i>upper</i>, <i>over</i>. In Latin the words for <i>right</i> and + <i>left</i> end in <i>-er</i>,—<i>dexter</i>, <i>sinister</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Choice in the way of an alternative; as <i>either</i>, + <i>neither</i>, <i>whether</i>, <i>other</i>.</p> + + <p>An extension of the reasoning probably explains forms like the Greek + <span title="ampho-ter-os" class="grk" + >ἀμφό-τερ-ος</span>, + and the <i>plural</i> possessive forms <span title="nô'i-ter-os" class="grk" + >νωΐ-τερ-ος</span>, <span + title="hême-ter-os" class="grk" + >ἡμέ-τερ-ος</span>, + &c, which, like our own forms in <i>-r</i>, (<i>ou-r</i>, + <i>you-r</i>) correspond in termination with the comparative degree + (<span title="sophô-ter-os" class="grk" + >σοφώ-τερ-ος</span>, + <i>wiser</i>). Words, also, like <i>hither</i> and <i>thither</i> are + instances of what is probably the effect of a similar association of + ideas.</p> + + <p><a name="sect308">§ 308</a>. A confirmation of Bopp's view is afforded + by the Laplandic languages. Herein the distinction between <i>one of + two</i> and <i>one of more than two</i> is expressed by affixes; and + these affixes are the signs of the comparative and superlative: + <i>gi</i>=<i>who</i>; <i>gua-bba</i>=<i>who of two</i>; + <i>gutte-mush</i>=<i>who of many</i>.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Gi</i>=<i>who</i>, so that <i>guabba</i> may be called its + comparative form.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Gutte</i> also=<i>who</i>, so that <i>guttemush</i> may be + called its superlative.</p> + + <p>3. Precisely as the words <i>guabba</i> and <i>guttemush</i> are + formed, so also are the regular degrees of adjectives. <!-- Page 262 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page262"></a>{262}</span></p> + + <p><i>a.</i> <i>Nuorra</i>=<i>young</i>; <i>nuor-ab</i>=<i>younger</i>; + <i>nuora-mush</i>=<i>youngest</i>.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>Bahha</i>=<i>bad</i>; <i>baha-b</i>=<i>worse</i>; + <i>baha-mush</i>=<i>worst</i>.</p> + + <p>The following extracts from Stockfleth's Lappish Grammar were probably + written without any reference to the Sanskrit or Greek. "<i>Guabba</i>, + of which the form and meaning are comparative, appears to have originated + in a combination of the pronoun <i>gi</i>, and the comparative affix + <i>-abbo</i>."—"<i>Guttemush</i>, of which the form and meaning are + superlative, is similarly derived from the pronoun <i>gutte</i>, and the + superlative affix <i>-mush</i>."—Grammatik i det Lappiske Sprog, + §§ 192, 193.</p> + + <p><a name="sect309">§ 309</a>. <i>Either</i>, <i>neither</i>, + <i>other</i>, <i>whether</i>.—It has just been stated that the + general fundamental idea common to all these forms is that of <i>choice + between one of two objects in the way of an alternative</i>. Thus far the + termination <i>-er</i> in <i>either</i>, &c., is the termination + <i>-er</i> in the true comparatives, <i>brav-er</i>, <i>wis-er</i>, + &c. <i>Either</i> and <i>neither</i> are common pronouns. + <i>Other</i>, like <i>one</i>, is a pronoun capable of taking the plural + form of a substantive (<i>others</i>), and also that of the genitive case + (<i>the other's money</i>, <i>the other's bread</i>). <i>Whether</i> is a + pronoun in the almost obsolete form <i>whether (=which) of the two do you + prefer</i>, and a conjunction in sentences like <i>whether will you do + this or not?</i> The use of the form <i>others</i> is recent. "<i>They + are taken out of the way as all other.</i>"—Job. "<i>And leave + their riches for other.</i>"—Psalms.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 263 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page263"></a>{263}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect310">§ 310</a>. The proper preliminary to the study of + the comparative and quasi-comparative forms in English is the history of + the inflection or inflections by which they are expressed. There is no + part of our grammar where it is more necessary to extend our view beyond + the common limit of the Gothic stock of languages, than here.</p> + + <p>In the Sanskrit language the signs of the comparative degree are + two:—1. <i>-tara</i>, as <i>punya</i>=<i>pure</i>; + <i>punya-tara</i>=<i>purer</i>; 2. <i>-îyas</i>, as + <i>kśipra</i>=<i>swift</i>; <i>kśêpîyas</i>=<i>swifter</i>. + Of these the first is the most in use.</p> + + <p>The same forms occur in the Zend; as <i>husko</i>=<i>dry</i>; + <i>huskô-tara</i>=<i>drier</i>; <i>-îyas</i>, however, is changed into + <i>-is</i>.</p> + + <p>In the classical languages we have the same forms. 1. in <i>uter</i>, + <i>neuter</i>, <i>alter</i>, <span title="poteros" class="grk" + >πότερος</span>, <span + title="leptoteros" class="grk" + >λεπτότερος</span>. + 2. In the adverb <i>magis</i>, Lat. In Bohemian and Polish, <i>-ssj</i> + and <i>-szy</i> correspond with the Sanskrit forms <i>-îyas</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus we collect, that, expressive of the comparative degree, there are + two parallel forms; <i>viz.</i>, the form in <i>tr</i>, and the form in + <i>s</i>; of which one is the most in use in one language, and the other + in another.</p> + + <p><a name="sect311">§ 311</a>. Before we consider the Gothic forms of + the comparative, it may be advisable to note two changes to which it is + liable. 1. The change of <i>s</i> into <i>r</i>; the Latin word + <i>meliorem</i> being supposed to have been originally <i>meliosem</i>, + and the <i>s</i> in <i>nigrius</i>, <i>firmius</i>, &c., being + considered not so much the sign of the neuter gender as the old + comparative <i>s</i> in its oldest form. 2. The ejection of <i>t</i>, as + in the Latin words <i>inferus</i>, <i>superus</i>, compared with the + Greek <span title="leptoteros" class="grk" + >λεπτότερος</span> + (<i>leptoteros</i>). <!-- Page 264 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page264"></a>{264}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect312">§ 312</a>. Now, of the two parallel forms, the + Gothic one was the form <i>s</i>; the words <i>other</i> and + <i>whether</i> only preserving the form <i>tr</i>. And here comes the + application of the remarks that have just gone before. The vast majority + of our comparatives end in <i>r</i>, and so seem to come from <i>tr</i> + rather than from <i>s</i>. This, however, is not the case. The <i>r</i> + in words like <i>sweeter</i> is derived, not from + <i>tar</i>—<i>t</i>, but from <i>s</i>, changed into <i>r</i>. In + Mœso-Gothic the comparative ended in <i>s</i> (<i>z</i>); in Old + High German the <i>s</i> has become <i>r</i>: Mœso-Gothic + <i>aldiza</i>, <i>batiza</i>, <i>sutiza</i>; Old High German, + <i>altiro</i>, <i>betsiro</i>, <i>suatsiro</i>; English, <i>older</i>, + <i>better</i>, <i>sweeter</i>.</p> + + <p>The importance of a knowledge of the form in <i>s</i> is appreciated + when we learn that, even in the present English, there are vestiges of + it.</p> + + <p><a name="sect313">§ 313</a>. <i>Comparison of + adverbs.</i>—<i>The sun shines bright.</i>—Herein the word + <i>bright</i> means <i>brightly</i>; and although the use of the latter + word would have been the more elegant, the expression is not + ungrammatical; the word <i>bright</i> being looked upon as an adjectival + adverb.</p> + + <p><i>The sun shines to-day brighter than it did yesterday, and to-morrow + it will shine brightest.</i>—Here also the sense is adverbial; from + whence we get the fact, that adverbs take degrees of comparison.</p> + + <p>Now let the root <i>mag-</i>, as in <i>magnus</i>, <span title="megas" class="grk" + >μέγας</span>, and <i>mikil</i> (Norse), + give the idea of greatness. In the Latin language we have from it two + comparative forms: 1. the adjectival comparative + <i>major</i>=<i>greater</i>; 2. the adverbial comparative + <i>magis</i>=<i>more</i> (<i>plus</i>). The same takes place in + Mœso-Gothic: <i>maiza</i> means <i>greater</i>, and is adjectival; + <i>mais</i> means <i>more</i>, and is adverbial. The Anglo-Saxon forms + are more instructive still; <i>e.g.</i>, <i>þäs þe mâ</i>=<i>all the + more</i>, <i>þäs þe bet</i>=<i>all the better</i>, have a comparative + sense, but not a comparative form, the sign <i>r</i> being absent. Now, + compared with <i>major</i>, and subject to the remarks that have gone + before, the Latin <i>magis</i> is the older form. With <i>mâ</i> and + <i>bet</i>, compared with <i>more</i> and <i>better</i>, this may or may + not be the case. <i>Mâ</i> and <i>bet</i> may each be one of two forms; + 1. a positive used in a comparative sense; 2. a true comparative, which + has lost <!-- Page 265 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page265"></a>{265}</span>its termination. The present section has + been written not for the sake of exhausting the subject, but to show that + in the comparative degree there were often two forms; of which one, the + adverbial, was either more antiquated, or more imperfect than the other: + a fact bearing upon some of the forthcoming trains of etymological + reasoning.</p> + + <p><a name="sect314">§ 314</a>. <i>Change of vowel.</i>—By + reference to Rask's Grammar, § 128, it may be seen that in the + Anglo-Saxon there were, for the comparative and superlative degrees, two + forms; <i>viz.</i> <i>-or</i> and <i>-re</i>, and <i>-ost</i> and + <i>-este</i>, respectively.</p> + + <p>By reference to p. <a href="#page159">159</a> of the present volume, + it may be seen that the fulness or smallness of a vowel in a given + syllable may work a change in the nature of the vowel in a syllable + adjoining. In the Anglo-Saxon the following words exhibit a change of + vowel.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S comparatives with vowel change" title="A-S comparatives with vowel change"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Positive.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Comparative.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Superlative.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lang, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lengre, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lengest. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Long.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Strang, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Strengre, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Strengest. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Strong.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Geong, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gyngre, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gyngest. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Young.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sceort, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scyrtre, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scyrtest. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Short.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Heáh, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hyrre, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hyhst. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>High.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eald, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Yldre, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Yldest. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Of this change, the word last quoted is a still-existing specimen, as + <i>old</i>, <i>elder</i> and <i>older</i>, <i>eldest</i> and + <i>oldest</i>. Between the two forms there is a difference in meaning, + <i>elder</i> being used as a substantive, and having a plural form, + <i>elders</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect315">§ 315</a>. The previous section has stated that in + Anglo-Saxon there were two forms for the comparative and superlative + degrees, one in <i>-re</i> and <i>-este</i>, the other in <i>-or</i> and + <i>-ost</i>, respectively. Now the first of these was the form taken by + adjectives; as <i>se scearpre sweord</i>=<i>the sharper sword</i>, and + <i>se scearpeste <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'sword'." + >sweord</span></i>=<i>the sharpest sword</i>. The second, on the other + hand, was the form taken by adverbs; as, <i>se sweord scyrð + scearpor</i>=<i>the sword cuts sharper</i>, and <i>se sweord scyrð + scearpost</i>=<i>the sword cuts sharpest</i>.</p> + + <p>The adjectival form has, as seen above, a tendency to make the vowel + of the preceding syllable small: <i>old</i>, <i>elder</i>. <!-- Page 266 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page266"></a>{266}</span></p> + + <p>The adverbial form has a tendency to make the vowel of the preceding + syllable full.</p> + + <p>Of this effect on the part of the adverbial form the adverbial + comparative <i>rather</i> is a specimen. We pronounce the <i>a</i> as in + <i>father</i>, or full. Nevertheless, the positive form is small, the + <i>a</i> being pronounced as the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>.</p> + + <p>The word <i>rather</i> means <i>quick</i>, <i>easy</i>=the classical + root <span title="rhad-" class="grk">ῥαδ-</span> in + <span title="rhadios" class="grk" + >ῥάδιος</span>. What we do + <i>quickly</i> and <i>willingly</i> we do <i>preferably</i>. Now if the + word <i>rather</i> were an adjective, the vowel of the comparative would + be sounded as the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i>. As it is, however, it is + adverbial, and as such is properly sounded as the <i>a</i> in + <i>father</i>.</p> + + <p>The difference between the action of the small vowel in <i>-re</i>, + and of the full in <i>-or</i>, effects this difference.</p> + + <p><a name="sect316">§ 316</a>. <i>Excess of expression.</i>—Of + this two samples have already been given: 1. in words like + <i>songstress</i>; 2. in words like <i>children</i>. This may be called + <i>excess of expression</i>; the feminine gender, in words like + <i>songstress</i>, and the plural number, in words like <i>children</i>, + being expressed twice over. In the vulgarism <i>betterer</i> for + <i>better</i>, and in the antiquated forms <i>worser</i> for + <i>worse</i>, and <i>lesser</i> for <i>less</i>, we have, in the case of + the comparatives, as elsewhere, an excess of expression. In the Old High + German we have the forms <i>betsërôro</i>, <i>mêrôro</i>, + <i>êrërëra</i>=<i>better</i>, <i>more</i>, <i>ere</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect317">§ 317</a>. <i>Better.</i>—Although in the + superlative form <i>best</i> there is a slight variation from the strict + form of that degree, the word <i>better</i> is perfectly regular. So far, + then, from truth are the current statements that the comparison of the + words <i>good</i>, <i>better</i>, and <i>best</i> is irregular. The + inflection is not irregular, but defective. As the statement that applies + to <i>good</i>, <i>better</i>, and <i>best</i> applies to many words + besides, it will be well in this place, once for all, to exhibit it in + full.</p> + + <p><a name="sect318">§ 318</a>. <i>Difference between a sequence in logic + and a sequence in etymology.</i>—The ideas or notions of + <i>thou</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thee</i>, are ideas between which there is a + metaphysical or logical connexion. The train of such ideas may be said to + form a sequence and such a sequence may be called a logical one.</p> + + <p>The forms (or words) <i>thou</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thee</i>, are forms + or words <!-- Page 267 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page267"></a>{267}</span>between which there is a formal or an + etymological connexion. A train of such words may be called a sequence, + and such a sequence may be called an etymological one.</p> + + <p>In the case of <i>thou</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>thee</i>, the etymological + sequence tallies with the logical one.</p> + + <p>The ideas of <i>I</i>, <i>my</i>, and <i>me</i> are also in a logical + sequence: but the forms <i>I</i>, <i>my</i>, and <i>me</i> are not + altogether in an etymological one.</p> + + <p>In the case of <i>I</i>, <i>my</i>, <i>me</i>, the etymological + sequence does <i>not</i> tally (or tallies imperfectly) with the logical + one.</p> + + <p>This is only another way of saying that between the words <i>I</i> and + <i>me</i> there is no connexion in etymology.</p> + + <p>It is also only another way of saying, that, in the oblique cases, + <i>I</i>, and, in the nominative case, <i>me</i>, are defective.</p> + + <p>Now the same is the case with <i>good</i>, <i>better</i>, <i>bad</i>, + <i>worse</i>, &c. <i>Good</i> and <i>bad</i> are defective in the + comparative and superlative degrees; <i>better</i> and <i>worse</i> are + defective in the positive; whilst between <i>good</i> and <i>better</i>, + <i>bad</i> and <i>worse</i>, there is a sequence in logic, but no + sequence in etymology.</p> + + <p>To return, however, to the word <i>better</i>; no absolute positive + degree is found in any of the allied languages, and in none of the allied + languages is there found any comparative form of <i>good</i>. Its root + occurs in the following adverbial forms: Mœso-Gothic, <i>bats</i>; + Old High German, <i>pats</i>; Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon, <i>bet</i>; + Middle High German, <i>baz</i>; Middle Dutch, <i>bat</i>, + <i>bet</i>.—Grimm, D. G. iii. 604.</p> + + <p><a name="sect319">§ 319</a>. <i>Worse.</i>—Mœso-Gothic, + <i>vairsiza</i>; Old High German, <i>wirsiro</i>; Middle High German, + <i>wirser</i>; Old Saxon, <i>wirso</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>vyrsa</i>; Old + Norse, <i>vërri</i>; Danish, <i>værre</i>; and Swedish, <i>värre</i>. + Such are the adjectival forms. The adverbial forms are Mœso-Gothic, + <i>vairs</i>; Old High German, <i>virs</i>; Middle High German, + <i>wirs</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>vyrs</i>: Old Norse, <i>vërr</i>; Danish, + <i>værre</i>; Swedish, <i>värre</i>.—Grimm, D. G. iii. 606. Whether + the present form in English be originally adjectival or adverbial is + indifferent; since, as soon as the final <i>a</i> of <i>vyrsa</i> was + omitted, the two words would be the same. The forms, however, + <i>vairsiza</i>, <i>wirser</i>, <i>worse</i>, and <i>vërri</i>, make the + word one of the most perplexing in the language. <!-- Page 268 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page268"></a>{268}</span></p> + + <p>If the form <i>worse</i> be taken without respect to the rest, the + view of the matter is simply that in the termination <i>s</i> we have a + remnant of the Mœso-Gothic forms, like <i>sutiza</i>, &c., in + other words, the old comparative in <i>s</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wirser</i> and <i>vairsiza</i> traverse this view. They indicate + the likelihood of the <i>s</i> being no sign of the degree, but a part of + the original word. Otherwise the <i>r</i> in <i>wirser</i>, and the + <i>z</i> in <i>vairsiza</i>, denote an excess of expression.</p> + + <p>The analogies of <i>songstress</i>, <i>children</i>, and + <i>betsërôro</i> show that excess of expression frequently occurs.</p> + + <p>The analogy of <i>mâ</i> and <i>bet</i> show that <i>worse</i> may + possibly be a positive form.</p> + + <p>The word <i>vërri</i> indicates the belief that the <i>s</i> is no + part of the root.</p> + + <p>Finally the euphonic processes of the Scandinavian languages tell us + that, even had there been an <i>s</i>, it would, in all probability, have + been ejected. These difficulties verify the statement that the word + <i>worse</i> is one of the most perplexing in the language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect320">§ 320</a>. <i>Much</i>, <i>more</i>.—Here, + although the words be unlike each other, there is a true etymological + relation. Mœso-Gothic, <i>mikils</i>; Old High German, + <i>mihhil</i>; Old Saxon, <i>mikil</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>mycel</i>; Old + Norse, <i>mickill</i>; Scotch, <i>muckle</i> and <i>mickle</i> (all + ending in <i>l</i>): Danish, <i>megen</i>, m.; <i>meget</i>, n.; Swedish, + <i>mycken</i>, m.; <i>myckett</i>, n. (where no <i>l</i> is found). Such + is the adjectival form of the positive, rarely found in the Modern Gothic + languages, being replaced in German by <i>gross</i>, in English by + <i>great</i>, in Danish by <i>stor</i>. The adverbial forms are + <i>miök</i> and <i>miög</i>, Norse; <i>much</i>, English. It is + remarkable that this last form is not found in Anglo-Saxon, being + replaced by <i>sâre</i>, Germ, <i>sehr</i>.—Grimm, D. G. iii. + 608.</p> + + <p>The adverbial and the Norse forms indicate that the <i>l</i> is no + part of the original word. Comparison with other Indo-European languages + gives us the same circumstance: Sanskrit, <i>maha</i>; Latin, + <i>mag-nus</i>; Greek, <span title="megas" class="grk" + >μέγας</span> (<i>megas</i>).</p> + + <p>There is in Mœso-Gothic the comparative form <i>máiza</i>, and + there is no objection to presuming a longer form, <i>magiza</i>; since in + the Greek form <span title="meizôn" class="grk" + >μείζων</span>, compared with <span + title="megas" class="grk">μέγας</span>, + there <!-- Page 269 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page269"></a>{269}</span>is a similar disappearance of the + <i>g</i>. In the Old High German we find <i>mêro</i>, corresponding with + <i>máiza</i>, Mœso-Gothic, and with <i>more</i>, English.</p> + + <p><i>Mickle</i> (replaced by <i>great</i>) expresses size; <i>much</i>, + quantity; <i>many</i>, number. The words <i>more</i> and <i>most</i> + apply equally to number and quantity. I am not prepared either to assert + or to deny that <i>many</i>, in Anglo-Saxon <i>mænig</i>, is from the + same root with <i>much</i>. Of the word <i>mâ</i> notice has already been + taken. Its later form, <i>moe</i>, occurs as late as Queen Elizabeth, + with an adjectival as well as an adverbial sense.</p> + + <p><a name="sect321">§ 321</a>. <i>Little</i>, <i>less</i>.—Like + <i>much</i> and <i>more</i>, these words are in an etymological relation + to each other. Mœso-Gothic, <i>leitils</i>; Old High German, + <i>luzil</i>; Old Saxon, <i>luttil</i>; Anglo-Saxon, <i>lytel</i>; Middle + High German, <i>lützel</i>; Old Norse, <i>lîtill</i>. In these forms we + have the letter <i>l</i>. Old High German Provincial, <i>luzíc</i>; Old + Frisian, <i>litich</i>; Middle Dutch, <i>luttik</i>; Swedish, + <i>liten</i>; Danish, <i>liden</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 611. + From these we find that the <i>l</i> is either no part of the original + word, or one that is easily got rid of. In Swedish and Danish there are + the forms <i>lille</i> and <i>liden</i>; whilst in the neuter form, + <i>lidt</i>, the <i>d</i> is unpronounced. Even the word <i>liden</i> the + Danes have a tendency to pronounce <i>leen</i>. My own notion is that + these changes leave it possible for <i>less</i> to be derived from the + root of <i>little</i>. According to Grimm, the Anglo-Saxon <i>lässa</i> + is the Gothic <i>lasivôza</i>, the comparative of + <i>lasivs</i>=<i>weak</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 611. In + Anglo-Saxon there was the adjectival form <i>læssa</i>, and the adverbial + form <i>læs</i>. In either case we have the form <i>s</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect322">§ 322</a>. <i>Near</i>, + <i>nearer</i>.—Anglo-Saxon, <i>neah</i>; comparative, + <i>nearre</i>, <i>near</i>, <i>nyr</i>; superlative, <i>nyhst</i>, + <i>nehst</i>. Observe, in the Anglo-Saxon positive and superlative, the + absence of the <i>r</i>. This shows that the English positive <i>near</i> + is the Anglo-Saxon comparative <i>nearre</i>, and that in the secondary + comparative <i>nearer</i>, we have an excess of expression. It may be, + however, that the <i>r</i> in <i>near</i> is a mere point of orthography, + and that it is not pronounced. The fact that in the English language the + words <i>father</i> and <i>farther</i> are, for the most part, pronounced + alike, is the key to the forms <i>near</i> and <i>nearer</i>. <!-- Page + 270 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page270"></a>{270}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect323">§ 323</a>. <i>Farther.</i>—Anglo-Saxon + <i>feor</i>, <i>fyrre</i>, <i>fyrrest</i>. The <i>th</i> seems euphonic, + inserted by the same process that gives the <span + class="grk">δ</span> in <span title="andros" class="grk" + >ἄνδρος</span>.</p> + + <p><i>Further.</i>—Confounded with <i>farther</i>, although in + reality from a different word, <i>fore</i>. Old High German, + <i>furdir</i>; New High German, <i>der vordere</i>; Anglo-Saxon, + <i>fyrðre</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect324">§ 324</a>. <i>Former.</i>—A comparative formed + from the superlative; <i>forma</i> being such. Consequently, an instance + of excess of expression, combined with irregularity.</p> + + <p>Languages have a comparative without a superlative degree; no + <i>language has a superlative degree without having also a comparative + one</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect325">§ 325</a>. In Mœso-Gothic <i>spêdists</i> + means <i>last</i>, and <i>spêdiza</i>=<i>later</i>. Of the word + <i>spêdists</i> two views may be taken. According to one it is the + positive degree with the addition of <i>st</i>; according to the other, + it is the comparative degree with the addition only of <i>t</i>. Now, + Grimm and others lay down as a rule, that the superlative is formed, not + directly from the positive, but indirectly through the comparative.</p> + + <p>With the exception of <i>worse</i> and <i>less</i>, all the English + comparatives end in <i>r</i>: yet no superlative ends in <i>rt</i>, the + form being, not <i>wise</i>, <i>wiser</i>, <i>wisert</i>, but + <i>wise</i>, <i>wiser</i>, <i>wisest</i>. This fact, without invalidating + the notion just laid down, gives additional importance to the comparative + forms in <i>s</i>; since it is from these, before they have changed to + <i>r</i>, that we must suppose the superlatives to have been derived. The + theory being admitted, we can, by approximation, determine the + comparative antiquity of the superlative degree. It was introduced into + the Indo-European tongues after the establishment of the comparative, and + before the change of <i>-s</i> into <i>-r</i>. I give no opinion as to + the truth of this theory.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 271 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271"></a>{271}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect326">§ 326</a>. The history of the superlative form, + accurately parallel with what has been stated of the comparative, is as + follows:—</p> + + <p>In Sanskrit there is, 1. the form <i>tama</i>, 2. the form + <i>ishta</i>; the first being the commonest. The same is the case in the + Zend.</p> + + <p>Each of these appears again in the Greek. The first, as <span + title="tat" class="grk">τατ</span> (<i>tat</i>), in <span + title="leptotatos" class="grk" + >λεπτότατος</span> + (<i>leptotatos</i>); the second, as <span title="ist" class="grk" + >ιστ</span> (<i>ist</i>), in <span title="oiktistos" class="grk" + >οἴκτιστος</span> + (<i>oiktistos</i>). For certain reasons, Grimm thinks that the tat stands + for <i>tamt</i>, or <i>tant</i>.</p> + + <p>In Latin, words like <i>intimus</i>, <i>extimus</i>, <i>ultimus</i>, + preserve <i>im</i>; whilst <i>venustus</i>, <i>vetustus</i>, and + <i>robustus</i>, are considered as positives, preserving the superlative + form <i>-st</i>.</p> + + <p>Just as in <i>inferus</i> and <i>nuperus</i>, there was the ejection + of the <i>t</i> in the comparative <i>ter</i>, so in <i>infimus</i>, + <i>nigerrimus</i>, &c., is there the ejection of the same letter in + the superlative <i>tim</i>.</p> + + <p>This gives us, as signs of the superlative, 1. <i>tm</i>; 2. + <i>st</i>; 3. <i>m</i>, <i>t</i> being lost; 4. <i>t</i>, <i>m</i> being + lost.</p> + + <p>Of the first and last of these, there are amongst the <i>true</i> + superlatives, in English, no specimens.</p> + + <p>Of the third, there is a specimen in the Anglo-Saxon <i>se forma</i>, + <i>the first</i>, from the root <i>fore</i>, as compared with the Latin + <i>primus</i>, and the Lithuanic <i>pirmas</i>.</p> + + <p>The second, <i>st</i> (<i>wise</i>, <i>wisest</i>), is the current + termination.</p> + + <p>Of the English superlatives, the only ones that demand a detailed + examination are those that are generally despatched without difficulty; + <i>viz.</i>, the words in <i>most</i>; such as <i>midmost</i>, + <i>foremost</i>, &c. The current view is the one adopted by Rask in + his Anglo-Saxon Grammar (§ 133), <i>viz.</i>, that they are <!-- Page 272 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page272"></a>{272}</span>compound + words, formed from simple ones by the addition of the superlative term + <i>most</i>. Grimm's view is opposed to this. In appreciating Grimm's + view, we must bear in mind the phenomena of <i>excess of expression</i>; + at the same time we must not depart from the current theory without duly + considering the fact stated by Rask; which is, that we have in Icelandic + the forms <i>nærmeir</i>, <i>fjærmeir</i>, &c., <i>nearer</i>, and + <i>farther</i>, most unequivocally compounded of <i>near</i> and + <i>more</i>, and of <i>far</i> and <i>more</i>.</p> + + <p>Let especial notice be taken of the Mœso-Gothic forms + <i>fruma</i>, first; <i>aftuma</i>, last; and of the Anglo-Saxon forms + <i>forma</i>, <i>aftema</i>, aftermost; <i>ufema</i>, upmost; + <i>hindema</i>, hindmost; <i>midema</i>, midmost; <i>innema</i>, inmost; + <i>ûtema</i>, outmost; <i>siðema</i>, last; <i>latema</i>, last; + <i>niðema</i>, nethermost. These account for the <i>m</i>.</p> + + <p>Add to this, with an excess of expression, the letters <i>st</i>. This + accounts for the whole form, as <i>mid-m-ost</i>, <i>in-m-ost</i>, + &c. Such is Grimm's view.</p> + + <p><i>Furthermost</i>, <i>innermost</i>, <i>hindermost</i>.—Here + there is a true addition of <i>most</i>, and an excess of inflection, a + superlative form being added to a word in the comparative degree.</p> + + <p><i>Former.</i>—Here, as stated before, a comparative sign is + added to a word in the superlative degree.</p> + + <p><a name="sect327">§ 327</a>. The combination <i>st</i> occurs in other + words besides those of the superlative degree; amongst others, in certain + adverbs and prepositions, as <i>among</i>, <i>amongst</i>; <i>while</i>, + <i>whilst</i>; <i>between</i>, <i>betwixt</i>.—Its power here has + not been well explained.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 273 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page273"></a>{273}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect328">§ 328</a>. In one sense the cardinal numbers form no + part of a work on etymology. They are single words, apparently simple, + and, as such, appertaining to a dictionary rather than to a grammar.</p> + + <p>In another sense they are strictly etymological. They are the basis of + the ordinals, which are formed from them by derivation. Furthermore, some + of them either have, or are supposed to have, certain peculiarities of + form which can be accounted for only by considering them derivatives, and + that of a very peculiar kind.</p> + + <p><a name="sect329">§ 329</a>. It is an ethnological fact, that the + numerals are essentially the same throughout the whole Indo-European + class of languages. The English <i>three</i> is the Latin <i>tres</i>, + the Sanskrit <i>tri</i>, &c. In the Indo-European languages the + numerals agree, even when many common terms differ.</p> + + <p>And it is also an ethnological fact, that in a great many other groups + of languages the numerals differ, even when many of the common terms + agree. This is the case with many of the African and American dialects. + Languages alike in the common terms for common objects differ in respect + to the numerals.</p> + + <p>What is the reason for this inconsistency in the similarity or + dissimilarity of the numerals as compared with the similarity or + dissimilarity of other words? I believe that the following distinction + leads the way to it:—</p> + + <p>The word <i>two</i>=2, absolutely and unequivocally, and in a primary + manner.</p> + + <p>The word <i>pair</i> also=2; but not absolutely, not unequivocally, + and only in a secondary manner. <!-- Page 274 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page274"></a>{274}</span></p> + + <p>Hence the distinction between absolute terms expressive of number, and + secondary terms expressive of number.</p> + + <p>When languages separate from a common stock before the use of certain + words is fixed as <i>absolute</i>, there is room for considerable + latitude in the choice of numerals; <i>e.g.</i>, whilst with one tribe + the word <i>pair</i>=<i>two</i>, another tribe may use the word + <i>couple</i>, a third <i>brace</i>, and so on. In this case dialects + that agree in other respects may differ in respect to their numerals.</p> + + <p>When, on the other hand, languages separate from a common stock after + the meaning of such a word as <i>two</i> has been fixed absolutely, there + is no room for latitude; and the numerals agree where the remainder of + the language differs.</p> + + <p>1. <i>One</i>=<i>unus</i>, Latin; <span title="heis" class="grk" + >ἑῖς</span> (<span title="hen" class="grk" + >ἓν</span>), Greek.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Two</i>=<i>duo</i>, <span title="duo" class="grk" + >δύο</span>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Three</i>=<i>tres</i>, <span title="treis" class="grk" + >τρεῖς</span>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Four</i>=<i>quatuor</i>, <span title="tettara" class="grk" + >τέτταρα</span>. This is apparently + problematical. Nevertheless, the assumed changes can be verified by the + following forms:—</p> + + <p><span class="grk">α</span>. <i>Fidvor</i>, Mœso-Gothic. To + be compared with <i>quatuor</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">β</span>. <span title="Pisures" class="grk" + >Πίσυρες</span>, Æolic. + Illustrates the change between <span class="grk">τ</span>- and <span + class="grk">π</span>- (allied to <i>f-</i>), within the pale of the + classical languages.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Five</i>=<i>quinque</i>, <span title="pente" class="grk" + >πέντε</span>. Verified by the following + forms:—</p> + + <p><span class="grk">α</span>. <span title="Pempe" class="grk" + >Πέμπε</span>, Æolic Greek.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">β</span>. <i>Pump</i>, Welsh. These account for + the change from the <i>n</i> + <i>t</i> in <span title="pente" class="grk" + >πέντε</span> to <i>m</i> + <i>p</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">γ</span>. <i>Fimf</i>, Mœso-Gothic; + <i>fünf</i>, Modern High German.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">δ</span>. <i>Fem</i>, Norse.</p> + + <p>The change from the <span class="grk">π</span>- of <span + title="pente" class="grk">πέντε</span> to the + <i>qu-</i> of <i>quinque</i> is the change so often quoted by Latin and + Celtic scholars between <i>p</i> and <i>k</i>: <span title="hippos" class="grk" + >ἵππος</span>, <span title="hikkos" class="grk" + >ἵκκος</span>, <i>equus</i>.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Six</i>=<span title="hex" class="grk">ἓξ</span>, + <i>sex</i>.</p> + + <p>7. <i>Seven</i>=<span title="hepta" class="grk" + >ἑπτὰ</span>, <i>septem</i>.</p> + + <p>This form is difficult. The Mœso-Gothic form is <i>sibun</i>, + without a <i>-t-</i>; the Norse, <i>syv</i>, without either <i>-t-</i> or + <i>-n</i> (=<i>-m</i>). A doubtful explanation of the form <i>seven</i>, + &c., will be found in the following chapter. <!-- Page 275 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page275"></a>{275}</span></p> + + <p>8. <i>Eight</i>=<span title="oktô" class="grk" + >ὀκτὼ</span>, <i>octo</i>.</p> + + <p>9. <i>Nine</i>=<span title="ennea" class="grk" + >ἐννέα</span>, <i>novem</i>. The + Mœso-Gothic form is <i>nigun</i>, the Icelandic <i>niu</i>. In the + Latin <i>novem</i> the <i>v</i>=the <i>g</i> of <i>nigun</i>. In the + English and Greek it is wanting. The explanation of the <i>-n</i> and + <i>-m</i> will be found in the following chapter.</p> + + <p>10. <i>Ten</i>=<span title="deka" class="grk" + >δέκα</span>, <i>decem</i>. The + Mœso-Gothic form is <i>tihun</i>; wherein the <i>h</i>=the <i>c</i> + of <i>decem</i> and the <span class="grk">κ</span> of <span + title="deka" class="grk">δέκα</span>. The + Icelandic form is <i>tiu</i>, and, like <span title="deka" class="grk" + >δέκα</span>, is without the <i>-n</i> (or + <i>-m</i>). The hypothesis as to the <i>-m</i> or <i>-n</i> will be given + in the next chapter.</p> + + <p>11. <i>Eleven.</i> By no means the equivalent to <i>undecim</i>=1 + + 10.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">α</span>. The <i>e</i> is + <i>ein</i>=<i>one</i>. <i>Ein</i>lif, <i>ein</i>-lef, <i>ei</i>lef, + <i>ei</i>lf, <i>e</i>lf, Old High German; <i>and</i>lova, Old Frisian; + <i>end</i>-leofan, <i>end</i>lufan, Anglo-Saxon. This is universally + admitted.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">β</span>. The <i>-lev-</i> is a modification of + the root <i>laib-an</i>=<i>manere</i>=<i>to stay</i>=<i>to be over</i>. + Hence <i>eleven</i>=<i>one over</i> (<i>ten</i>). This is <i>not</i> + universally admitted.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">γ</span>. The <i>-n</i> has not been well + accounted for. It is peculiar to the Low Germanic + dialects.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 946.</p> + + <p>12. <i>Twelve</i>=the root <i>two</i> + the root <i>laib</i>=<i>two + over</i> (<i>ten</i>). <i>Tvalif</i>, Mœso-Gothic; <i>zuelif</i>, + Old High German; <i>toll</i>, Swedish. The same doubts that apply to the + doctrine of the <i>-lv-</i> in <i>eleven</i> representing the root + <i>-laib</i>, apply to the <i>-lv-</i> in <i>twelve</i>.—Deutsche + Grammatik, ii. 946.</p> + + <p>13. <i>Thirteen</i>=3 + 10. So on till twenty.</p> + + <p>30. <i>Thirty</i>=3 × 10, or three decads. This difference in the + decimal power of the syllables <i>-teen</i> and <i>-ty</i> is illustrated + by—</p> + + <p><span class="grk">α</span>. The Mœso-Gothic.—Here we + find the root <i>tig-</i> used as a true substantive, equivalent in form + as well as power to the Greek <span title="dek-as" class="grk" + >δέκ-ας</span>. <i>Tváim tigum + þusandjom</i>=<i>duobus decadibus myriadum</i>. (Luke xiv. 31.) <i>Jêrê + þrijê tigivé</i>=<i>annorum duarum decadum.</i> (Luke iii. 23.) <i>þrins + tiguns silubrinaize</i>=<i>tres decadas argenteorum.</i> (Matthew xxvii. + 3, 9.)—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 948. <!-- Page 276 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page276"></a>{276}</span></p> + + <p><span class="grk">β</span>. The Icelandic.—"The numbers + from 20 to 100 are formed by means of the numeral substantive, + <i>tigr</i>, declined like <i>viðr</i>, and naturally taking the word + which it numerically determines in the genitive case.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Icelandic use of Tigr" title="Icelandic use of Tigr"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Nom.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fjórir tigir manna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>four tens of men</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Gen.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fjögurra tiga manna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>of four tens of men</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Dat.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fjórum tigum manna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>to four tens of men</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Acc.</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> Fjóra tiga manna </td><td class="qspcsingle"> = <i>four tens of men</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>"This is the form of the inflection in the best and oldest MSS. A + little later was adopted the <i>indeclinable</i> form <i>tigi</i>, which + was used adjectivally."—Det Oldnorske Sprogs Grammatik, af P. A. + Munch, og C. B. Unger, Christiania, 1847.</p> + + <p><a name="sect330">§ 330</a>. Generally speaking, the greater part of + the numerals are undeclined, even in inflected languages. As far as + <i>number</i> goes, this is necessary.</p> + + <p><i>One</i> is naturally and exclusively singular.</p> + + <p><i>Two</i> is naturally dual.</p> + + <p>The rest are naturally and exclusively plural.</p> + + <p>As to the inflection of gender and cases, there is no reason why all + the numerals should not be as fully inflected as the Latin <i>unus</i>, + <i>una</i>, <i>unum</i>, <i>unius</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 277 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page277"></a>{277}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE ORDINAL NUMBERS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect331">§ 331</a>. The remarks at the close of the last + chapter but one indicated the fact that superlative forms were found + beyond the superlative degree. The present chapter shows that they are + certainly found in some, and possibly in all of the ordinal numbers.</p> + + <p><i>First.</i>—In Mœso-Gothic, <i>fruma</i>, + <i>frumist</i>; in Anglo-Saxon, <i>forma</i>, <i>fyrmest</i>; in Old High + German, <i>vurist</i>; in Old Norse, <i>fyrst</i>; in New High German, + <i>erst</i>. In all these words, whether in <i>m</i>, in <i>mst</i>, or + in <i>st</i>, there is a superlative form. The same is the case with + <i>pratamas</i>, Sanskrit; <i>fratemas</i>, Zend; <span title="prôtos" class="grk" + >πρῶτος</span>, Greek; <i>primus</i>, + Latin; <i>primas</i>, Lithuanic. Considering that, <i>compared with the + other ordinals</i>, the ordinal of <i>one</i> is a sort of superlative, + this is not at all surprising.</p> + + <p>Between the words <i>one</i> and <i>first</i> there is no etymological + relation. This is the case in most languages. <i>Unus</i>, <i>primus</i>, + <span title="heis" class="grk">ἑῖς</span>, <span + title="prôtos" class="grk" + >πρῶτος</span>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect332">§ 332</a>. <i>Second.</i>—Between this word + and its cardinal, <i>two</i>, there is no etymological connexion. This is + the case in many, if not in most, languages. In Latin the cardinal is + <i>duo</i>, and the ordinal <i>secundus</i>, a gerund of <i>sequor</i>, + and meaning <i>the following</i>. In Anglo-Saxon the form was <i>se + oðer</i>=<i>the other</i>. In the present German, the ordinal is + <i>zweite</i>, a word etymologically connected with the cardinal + <i>zwei</i>=<i>two</i>.</p> + + <p>Old High German, <i>andar</i>; Old Saxon, <i>othar</i>; Old Frisian, + <i>other</i>; Middle Dutch, <i>ander</i>. In all these words we have the + comparative form <i>-ter</i>; and considering that, <i>compared with the + word first</i>, the word <i>second</i> is a sort of <!-- Page 278 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page278"></a>{278}</span>comparative, + there is nothing in the circumstance to surprise us. The Greek forms + <span title="deuteros" class="grk" + >δεύτερος</span> and + <span title="heteros" class="grk" + >ἕτερος</span>, the Latin + <i>alter</i>, and the Lithuanic <i>antras</i>, are the same.</p> + + <p><a name="sect333">§ 333</a>. With the third ordinal number begin + difficulties: 1. in respect to their form; 2. in respect to the idea + conveyed by them.</p> + + <p>1. Comparing <i>third</i>, <i>fourth</i>, <i>fifth</i>, &c., with + <i>three</i>, <i>four</i>, and <i>five</i>, the formation of the ordinal + from the cardinal form may seem simply to consist in the addition of + <i>d</i> or <i>th</i>. Such, however, is far from being the case.</p> + + <p>2. Arguing from the nature of the first two ordinals, namely, the + words <i>first</i> and <i>second</i>, of which one has been called a + superlative and the other a comparative, it may seem a simple matter to + associate, in regard to the rest, the idea of ordinalism with the idea of + comparison. A plain distinction, however, will show that the case of the + first two ordinals is peculiar. <i>First</i> is a superlative, not as + compared with its cardinal, <i>one</i>, but as compared with the other + numerals. <i>Second</i>, or <i>other</i>, is a comparative, not as + compared with its cardinal, <i>two</i>, but as compared with the numeral + <i>one</i>. Now it is very evident, that, if the other ordinals be either + comparatives or superlatives, they must be so, not as compared with one + another, but as compared with their respective cardinals. <i>Sixth</i>, + to be anything like a superlative, must be so when compared with + <i>six</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect334">§ 334</a>. Now there are, in etymology, two ways of + determining the affinity of ideas. The first is the metaphysical, the + second the empirical, method.</p> + + <p><i>This is better than that</i>, is a sentence which the pure + metaphysician may deal with. He may first determine that there is in it + the idea of comparison; and next that the comparison is the comparison + between <i>two</i> objects, and no more than two. This idea he may + compare with others. He may determine, that, with a sentence like <i>this + is one and that is the other</i>, it has something in common; since both + assert something concerning <i>one out of two objects</i>. Upon this + connexion in sense he is at liberty to reason. He is at liberty to + conceive that in certain languages words expressive <!-- Page 279 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page279"></a>{279}</span>of allied + ideas may also be allied in form. Whether such be really the case, he + leaves to etymologists to decide.</p> + + <p>The pure etymologist proceeds differently. He assumes the connexion in + meaning from the connexion in form. All that he at first observes is, + that words like <i>other</i> and <i>better</i> have one and the same + termination. For this identity he attempts to give a reason, and finds + that he can best account for it by presuming some affinity in sense. + Whether there be such an affinity, he leaves to the metaphysician to + decide. This is the empirical method.</p> + + <p>At times the two methods coincide, and ideas evidently allied are + expressed by forms evidently allied.</p> + + <p>At times the connexion between the ideas is evident; but the connexion + between the forms obscure: and <i>vice versâ</i>. Oftener, however, the + case is as it is with the subjects of the present chapter. Are the ideas + of ordinalism in number, and of superlativeness in degree, allied? The + metaphysical view, taken by itself, gives us but unsatisfactory evidence; + whilst the empirical view, taken by itself, does the same. The two views, + however, taken together, give us evidence of the kind called cumulative, + which is weak or strong according to its degree.</p> + + <p>Compared with <i>three</i>, <i>four</i>, &c., all the ordinals are + formed by the addition of <i>th</i>, or <i>t</i>; and <i>th</i>, + <i>ð</i>, <i>t</i>, or <i>d</i>, is the ordinal sign, not only in + English, but in the other Gothic languages. But, as stated before, this + is not the whole of the question.</p> + + <p>The letter <i>t</i> is found, with a similar power, 1. In Latin, as in + <i>tertius</i>, <i>quartus</i>, <i>quintus</i>, <i>sextus</i>; 2. Greek, + as in <span title="tritos" class="grk" + >τρίτος</span> (<i>tritos</i>), <span + title="tetartos" class="grk" + >τέταρτος</span> + (<i>tetartos</i>), <span title="pemptos" class="grk" + >πέμπτος</span> (<i>pemptos</i>), + <span title="hektos" class="grk" + >ἕκτος</span> (<i>hectos</i>), <span + title="ennatos" class="grk" + >ἔννατος</span> (<i>ennatos</i>), + <span title="dekatos" class="grk" + >δέκατος</span> + (<i>dekatos</i>); 3. Sanskrit, as in <i>tritiyas</i>, + <i>ćatuŕtas</i>, <i>shasht´as</i>=<i>third</i>, + <i>fourth</i>, <i>sixth</i>; 4. In Zend, as in <i>thrityas</i>=<i>the + third</i>, <i>haptathas</i>=<i>the seventh</i>; 5. In Lithuanic, as + <i>ketwirtas</i>=<i>fourth</i>, <i>penktas</i>=<i>fifth</i>, + <i>szesztas</i>=<i>sixth</i>; 6. In Old Slavonic, as in + <i>cétvertyi</i>=<i>fourth</i>, <i>pjatyi</i>=<i>fifth</i>, + <i>shestyi</i>=<i>sixth</i>, <i>devjatyi</i>=<i>ninth</i>, + <i>desjatyi</i>=<i>tenth</i>. Speaking more generally, it is found, with + a similar force, throughout the Indo-European stock.</p> + + <p>The following forms indicate a fresh train of reasoning. <!-- Page 280 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page280"></a>{280}</span>The Greek + <span title="hepta" class="grk">ἑπτὰ</span> + (<i>hepta</i>), and Icelandic <i>sjau</i>, have been compared with the + Latin <i>septem</i> and the Anglo-Saxon <i>seofon</i>. In the Greek and + Icelandic there is the absence, in the Latin and Anglo-Saxon the + presence, of a final liquid (<i>m</i> or <i>n</i>).</p> + + <p>Again, the Greek forms <span title="ennea" class="grk" + >ἐννέα</span> (<i>ennea</i>), and the Icelandic + <i>níu</i>=<i>nine</i>, have been compared with the Latin <i>novem</i> + and the Gothic <i>nigun</i>.</p> + + <p>Thirdly, the Greek <span title="deka" class="grk" + >δέκα</span> (<i>deka</i>), and the Icelandic + <i>tíu</i>, have been compared with the Latin <i>decem</i> and the Gothic + <i>tihun</i>=<i>ten</i>.</p> + + <p>These three examples indicate the same circumstance; <i>viz.</i> that + the <i>m</i> or <i>n</i>, in <i>seven</i>, <i>nine</i>, and <i>ten</i>, + is no part of the original word.</p> + + <p><a name="sect335">§ 335</a>. The following hypotheses account for + these phenomena; <i>viz.</i> that the termination of the ordinals is the + superlative termination <i>-tam</i>: that in some words, like the Latin + <i>septimus,</i> the whole form is preserved; that in some, as in <span + title="tetartos" class="grk" + >τέταρτος</span>=<i>fourth</i>, + the <i>t</i> only remains; and that in others, as in <i>decimus</i>, the + <i>m</i> alone remains. Finally, that in <i>seven</i>, <i>nine</i>, and + <i>ten</i>, the final liquid, although now belonging to the cardinal, was + once the characteristic of the ordinal number. For a fuller exhibition of + these views, see Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 640.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 281 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page281"></a>{281}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE ARTICLES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect336">§ 336</a>. In the generality of grammars the + definite article <i>the</i>, and the indefinite article <i>an</i>, are + the very first parts of speech that are considered. This is + exceptionable. So far are they from being essential to language, that, in + many dialects, they are wholly wanting. In Greek there is no indefinite, + in Latin there is neither an indefinite nor a definite article. In the + former language they say <span title="anêr tis" class="grk" + >ἀνήρ τις</span>=<i>a certain + man</i>: in the Latin the words <i>filius patris</i> mean equally <i>the + son of the father</i>, <i>a son of a father</i>, <i>a son of the + father</i>, or <i>the son of a father</i>. In Mœso-Gothic and in + Old Norse, there is an equal absence of the indefinite article; or, at + any rate, if there be one at all, it is a different word from what occurs + in English. In these the Greek <span title="tis" class="grk" + >τις</span> is expressed by the Gothic root + <i>sum</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, as it is very evident that, as far as the sense is concerned, the + words <i>some man</i>, <i>a certain man</i>, and <i>a man</i>, are, there + or thereabouts, the same, an exception may be taken to the statement that + in Greek and Mœso-Gothic there is no indefinite article. It may, in + the present state of the argument, be fairly said that the words + <i>sum</i> and <span title="tis" class="grk">τις</span> + are pronouns with a certain sense, and that <i>a</i> and <i>an</i> are no + more; consequently, that in Greek the indefinite article is <span + title="tis" class="grk">τις</span>, in Mœso-Gothic + <i>sum</i>, and in English <i>a</i> or <i>an</i>,</p> + + <p>A distinction, however, may be made. In the expression <span + title="anêr tis" class="grk">ἀνήρ + τις</span> (<i>anær tis</i>)=<i>a certain man</i>, or + <i>a man</i>, and in the expression <i>sum mann</i>, the words <i>sum</i> + and <span title="tis" class="grk">τις</span> preserve + their natural and original meaning; whilst in <i>a man</i> and <i>an + ox</i> the words <i>a</i> and <i>an</i> are used in a secondary sense. + These words, as is currently known, are one and the same, the <i>n</i>, + in the form <i>a</i>, being ejected through a euphonic process. They are, + moreover, the same words with the numeral <i>one</i>; <!-- Page 282 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page282"></a>{282}</span>Anglo-Saxon, + <i>án</i>; Scotch, <i>ane</i>. Now, between the words <i>a man</i> and + <i>one man</i>, there is a difference in meaning; the first expression + being the most indefinite. Hence comes the difference between the English + and the Mœso-Gothic expressions. In the one the word <i>sum</i> has + a natural, in the other the word <i>an</i> has a secondary power.</p> + + <p>The same reasoning applies to the word <i>the</i>. Compared with <i>a + man</i>, the words <i>the man</i> are very definite. Compared, however, + with the words <i>that man</i>, they are the contrary. Now, just as + <i>an</i> and <i>a</i> have arisen out of the numeral <i>one</i>, so has + <i>the</i> arisen out of the demonstrative pronoun <i>þæt</i>, or at + least from some common root. It will be remembered that in Anglo-Saxon + there was a form <i>þe</i>, undeclined, and common to all the cases of + all the numbers.</p> + + <p>In no language in its oldest stage is there ever a word giving, in its + primary sense, the ideas of <i>a</i> and <i>the</i>. As tongues become + modern, some noun with a <i>similar</i> sense is used to express them. In + the course of time a change of form takes place, corresponding to the + change of meaning; <i>e. g.</i>, <i>one</i> becomes <i>an</i>, and + afterwards <i>a</i>. Then it is that articles become looked upon as + separate parts of speech, and are dealt with accordingly. No invalidation + of this statement is drawn from the Greek language. Although the first + page of the etymology gives us <span title="ho" class="grk" + >ὁ</span>, <span title="hê" class="grk">ἡ</span>, <span + title="to" class="grk">τὸ</span> (<i>ho</i>, <i>hæ</i>, + <i>to</i>), as the definite articles, the corresponding page in the + syntax informs us, that, in the oldest stage of the language, <span + title="ho" class="grk">ὁ</span> (<i>ho</i>)=<i>the</i>, had the + power of <span title="houtos" class="grk" + >οὗτος</span> + (<i>howtos</i>)=<i>this</i>.</p> + + <p>The origin of the articles seems uniform. In German <i>ein</i>, in + Danish <i>en</i>, stand to <i>one</i> in the same relation that <i>an</i> + does. The French <i>un</i>, Italian and Spanish <i>uno</i>, are similarly + related to <i>unus</i>=<i>one</i>.</p> + + <p>And as, in English <i>the</i>, in German <i>der</i>, in Danish + <i>den</i>, come from the demonstrative pronouns, so in the classical + languages are the French <i>le</i>, the Italian <i>il</i> and <i>lo</i>, + and the Spanish <i>el</i>, derived from the Latin demonstrative, + <i>ille</i>.</p> + + <p>In his Outlines of Logic, the present writer has given reasons for + considering the word <i>no</i> (as in <i>no man</i>) an article.</p> + + <p>That <i>the</i>, in expressions like <i>all the more</i>, <i>all the + better</i>, &c., is no article, has already been shown.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 283 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page283"></a>{283}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DIMINUTIVES, AUGMENTATIVES, AND PATRONYMICS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect337">§ 337</a>. Compared with the words <i>lamb</i>, + <i>man</i>, and <i>hill</i>, the words <i>lambkin</i>, <i>mannikin</i>, + and <i>hillock</i> convey the idea of comparative smallness or + diminution. Now, as the word <i>hillock</i>=<i>a little hill</i> differs + in form from <i>hill</i> we have in English a series of diminutive forms, + or diminutives.</p> + + <p>The English diminutives may be arranged according to a variety of + principles. Amongst others:</p> + + <p>1. <i>According to their form.</i>—The word <i>hillock</i> is + derived from <i>hill</i>, by the addition of a syllable. The word + <i>tip</i> is derived from <i>top</i>, by the change of a vowel.</p> + + <p>2. <i>According to their meaning.</i>—In the word <i>hillock</i> + there is the simple expression of comparative smallness in size. In the + word <i>doggie</i> for <i>dog</i>, <i>lassie</i> for <i>lass</i>, the + addition of the <i>-ie</i> makes the word not so much a diminutive as a + term of tenderness or endearment. The idea of smallness, accompanied, + perhaps, with that of neatness, generally carries with it the idea of + approbation. The word <i>clean</i> in English, means, in German, + <i>little</i>=<i>kleine</i>. The feeling of protection which is extended + to small objects engenders the notion of endearment. In Middle High + German we have <i>vaterlìn</i>=<i>little father</i>, + <i>mütterlìn</i>=<i>little mother</i>. In Middle High German there is the + diminutive <i>sunnelìn</i>; and the French <i>soleil</i> is from the + Latin form <i>solillus</i>. In Slavonic the word <i>slunze</i>=<i>sun</i> + is a diminutive form.</p> + + <p>The Greek word <span title="meiôsis" class="grk" + >μείωσις</span> + (<i>meiôsis</i>) means diminution; the Greek word <span + title="hupokorisma" class="grk" + >ὑποκόρισμα</span> + means an endearing expression. Hence we get names for the two kinds of + diminutives; <i>viz.</i>, the term <i>meiotic</i> for the true + diminutives, and the term <i>hypocoristic</i> for the diminutives of + endearment.—Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 664. <!-- Page 284 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page284"></a>{284}</span></p> + + <p>3. <i>According to their historical origin.</i>—The syllable + <i>-ock</i>, as in <i>hillock</i>, is of Anglo-Saxon and Gothic origin. + The <i>-et</i>, as in <i>lancet</i>, is of French and classical + origin.</p> + + <p>4. <i>According as they affect proper names or common + names.</i>—<i>Hawkin</i>, <i>Perkin</i>, <i>Wilkin</i>, &c. In + these words we have the diminutives of <i>Hal</i>, <i>Peter</i>, + <i>Will</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect338">§ 338</a>. The diminutive forms of Gothic origin are + the first to be considered.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Those formed by a change of vowel.</i>—<i>Tip</i>, from + <i>top</i>. The relation of the feminine to the masculine is allied to + the ideas conveyed by many diminutives. Hence in the word <i>kit</i>, + from <i>cat</i>, it is doubtful whether there be meant a female cat or a + little cat. <i>Kid</i> is a diminutive form of <i>goat</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Those formed by the addition of a letter or + letters.</i>—Of the diminutive characteristics thus formed the + commonest, beginning from the simpler forms, are</p> + + <p><i>Ie.</i>—Almost peculiar to the Lowland Scotch; as + <i>daddie</i>, <i>lassie</i>, <i>minnie</i>, <i>wifie</i>, <i>mousie</i>, + <i>doggie</i>, <i>boatie</i>, &c.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. + 686.</p> + + <p><i>Ock.</i>—<i>Bullock</i>, <i>hillock</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Kin.</i>—<i>Lambkin</i>, <i>mannikin</i>, <i>ladikin</i>, + &c. As is seen above, common in proper names.</p> + + <p><i>En.</i>—<i>Chicken</i>, <i>kitten</i>, from <i>cock</i>, + <i>cat</i>. The notion of diminution, if indeed that be the notion + originally conveyed, lies not in the <i>-en</i>, but in the vowel. In the + word <i>chicken</i>, from <i>cock</i>, observe the effect of the small + vowel on the <i>c</i>.</p> + + <p>The consideration of words like <i>duckling</i> and <i>gosling</i> is + purposely deferred.</p> + + <p>The chief diminutive of classical origin is—</p> + + <p><i>Et</i>, as in <i>trumpet</i>, <i>lancet</i>, <i>pocket</i>; the + word <i>pock</i>, as in <i>meal-pock</i>=<i>a meal-bag</i>, being found + in the Scottish. From the French <i>-ette</i>, as in <i>caissette</i>, + <i>poulette</i>.</p> + + <p>The forms <i>-rel</i>, as in <i>cockerel</i>, <i>pickerel</i>, and + <i>-let</i>, as in <i>streamlet</i>, require a separate consideration. + The first has nothing to do with the Italian forms <i>acquerella</i> and + <i>coserella</i>—themselves, perhaps, of Gothic, rather than of + classical origin.</p> + + <p>In the Old High-German there are a multitude of diminutive forms in + <i>-l</i>; as <i>ouga</i>=<i>an eye</i>, <i>ougili</i>=<i>a little + eye</i>, <i>lied</i>=<i>a song</i>, <i>liedel</i>=<i>a little song</i>. + "In Austria and Bavaria <!-- Page 285 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page285"></a>{285}</span>are the forms <i>mannel</i>, + <i>weibel</i>, <i>hundel</i>, &c., or <i>mannl</i>, <i>weibl</i>, + <i>hundl</i>, &c. In some districts there is an <i>r</i> before the + <i>l</i>, as <i>madarl</i>=<i>a little maid</i>, <i>muadarl</i>=<i>a + little mother</i>, <i>briadarl</i>=<i>a little brother</i>, &c. This + is occasioned by the false analogy of the diminutives of the derived form + in <i>r</i>."—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. p. 674. This indicates the + nature of words like <i>cockerel</i>.</p> + + <p>Even in English the diminutive power of <i>-el</i> can be traced in + the following words:—</p> + + <p><i>Soare</i>=a deer in its third year. <i>Sor-rel</i>=a deer in its + second year.—See <i>Love's Labour Lost</i>, with the note.</p> + + <p><i>Tiercel</i>=a small sort of hawk, one-third less (<i>tierce</i>) + than the common kind.</p> + + <p><i>Kantle</i>=<i>small corner</i>, from <i>cant</i>=<i>a + corner</i>.—<i>Henry IV.</i></p> + + <p><i>Hurdle</i>; in Dutch <i>horde</i>; German, <i>hurde</i>. + <i>Hording</i>, without the <i>-l</i>, is used in an allied sense by + builders in English.</p> + + <p>In the words in point we must assume an earlier form, <i>cocker</i> + and <i>piker</i>, to which the diminutive form <i>-el</i> is affixed. If + this be true, we have, in English, representatives of the diminutive form + <i>-l</i>, so common in the High Germanic dialects. <i>Wolfer</i>=<i>a + wolf</i>, <i>hunker</i>=<i>a haunch</i>, <i>flitcher</i>=<i>a flitch</i>, + <i>teamer</i>=<i>a team</i>, <i>fresher</i>=<i>a frog</i>,—these + are north country forms of the present English.<a name="NtA43" + href="#Nt43"><sup>[43]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The termination <i>-let</i>, as in <i>streamlet</i>, seems to be + double, and to consist of the Gothic diminutive <i>-l</i>, and the French + diminutive <i>-t</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect339">§ 339</a>. <i>Augmentatives.</i>—Compared with + <i>capello</i>=<i>a hat</i>, the Italian word <i>capellone</i>=<i>a great + hat</i> is an augmentative. The augmentative forms, pre-eminently common + in the Italian language, often carry with them a depreciating sense.</p> + + <p>The termination <i>-rd</i> (in Old High German, <i>-hart</i>), as in + <i>drunkard</i>, <i>braggart</i>, <i>laggard</i>, <i>stinkard</i>, + carries with it this idea of depreciation. In <i>buzzard</i>, and + <i>reynard</i>, the name of the <i>fox</i>, it is simply augmentative. In + <i>wizard</i>, from <i>witch</i>, it has the power of a masculine + form.</p> + + <p>The termination <i>-rd</i>, taken from the Gothic, appears in <!-- + Page 286 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page286"></a>{286}</span>the + modern languages of classical origin: French, <i>vieillard</i>; Spanish, + <i>codardo</i>. From these we get at, second-hand, the word + <i>coward</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 707.</p> + + <p>The word <i>sweetheart</i> is a derived word of this sort, rather than + a compound word; since in Old High German and Middle High German, we have + the corresponding form <i>liebhart</i>. Now the form for <i>heart</i> is + in German not <i>hart</i>, but <i>herz</i>.</p> + + <p>Words like <i>braggadocio</i>, <i>trombone</i>, <i>balloon</i>, being + words of foreign origin, prove nothing as to the further existence of + augmentative forms in English.</p> + + <p><a name="sect340">§ 340</a>. <i>Patronymics.</i>—In the Greek + language the notion of lineal descent, in other words, the relation of + the son to the father, is expressed by a particular termination; as, + <span title="Pêleus" class="grk" + >Πηλεὺς</span> (<i>Peleus</i>), <span + title="Pêleidês" class="grk" + >Πηλείδης</span> + (<i>Peleidæs</i>), the son of Peleus. It is very evident that this mode + of expression is very different from either the English form + <i>Johnson</i>, or Gaelic <i>MacDonald</i>. In these last-named words, + the words <i>son</i> and <i>Mac</i> mean the same thing; so that + <i>Johnson</i> and <i>MacDonald</i> are not derived, but compound words. + This Greek way of expressing descent is peculiar, and the words wherein + it occurs are classed together by the peculiar name <i>patronymic</i>, + from <i>patær</i>=<i>a father</i>, and <i>onoma</i>=<i>a name</i>. Is + there anything in English corresponding to the Greek patronymics? It was + for the sake of this question that the consideration of the termination + <i>-ling</i>, as in <i>duckling</i>, &c., was deferred.</p> + + <p>The termination <i>-ling</i>, like the terminations <i>-rel</i> and + <i>-let</i>, is compound. Its simpler form is <i>-ing</i>. This, from + being affixed to the derived forms in <i>-l</i>, has become + <i>-ling</i>.</p> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon the <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'terminations'." + >termination</span> <i>-ing</i> is as truly patronymic as <span + title="-idês" class="grk">-ιδης</span> is in Greek. + In the Bible-translation the son of Elisha is called <i>Elising</i>. In + the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle occur such genealogies as the + following:—<i>Ida wæs Eopping, Eoppa Êsing, Êsa Inging, Inga + Angenviting, Angenvit Alocing, Aloc Beonocing, Beonoc Branding, Brand + Bældæging, Bældæg Vódening, Vóden Friðowulfing, Friðowulf Finning, Finn + Godwulfing, Godwulf Geating</i>=Ida was the son of Eoppa, Eoppa of Esing, + Esing of Inga, Inga of Angenvit, <!-- Page 287 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page287"></a>{287}</span>Angenvit of Aloc, Aloc + of Beonoc, Beonoc of Brand, Brand of Bældag, Bældag of Woden, Woden of + Friðowulf, Friðowulf of Finn, Finn of Godwulf, Godwulf of Geat.—In + Greek, <span title="Ida ên Eoppeidês, Eoppa Êseidês, Êsa Ingeidês, Inga Angenphiteidês" class="grk" + >Ἴδα ἦν + Ἐοππείδης, + Ἔοππα + Ἠσείδης, + Ἤσα + Ἰγγείδης, + Ἴγγα + Ἀγγενφιτείδης</span>, + &c. In the plural number these forms denote the <i>race of</i>; as + <i>Scyldingas</i>=<i>the Scyldings</i>, or the race of <i>Scyld</i>, + &c. Edgar Atheling means Edgar of the race of the nobles. The primary + of <i>-ing</i> and <i>-l-ing</i> is descent or relationship; from these + comes the idea of youth and endearment, and thence the true diminutive + idea. In <i>darling</i>, <i>stripling</i>, <i>duckling</i>, + <i>gosling</i> (pr. <i>gesling</i>), <i>kitling</i> (pr. for + <i>kitten</i>), <i>nestling</i>, <i>yearling</i>, <i>chickling</i>, + <i>fatling</i>, <i>fledgling</i>, <i>firstling</i>, the idea of descent + still remains. In <i>hireling</i> the idea of diminution is accompanied + with the idea of contempt. In <i>changeling</i> we have a Gothic + termination and a classical root. See, for the full exposition of this + view, Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 349-364, iii. 682.</p> + + <p>In the opening speech of Marlow's Jew of Malta we have the following + lines:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Here have I pursed their paltry <i>silverlings</i>.</p> + <p>Fie! what a trouble 'tis to count this trash!</p> + <p>Well fare the Arabs, that so richly pay</p> + <p>For what they traffick in with wedge of gold.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The word <i>silverlings</i> has troubled the commentators. <i>Burst + their silverbins</i> has been proposed as the true reading. The word, + however, is a true diminutive, as <i>siluparlinc</i>, + <i>silarbarling</i>=<i>a small silver coin</i>, Old High German.</p> + + <p>A good chapter on the English diminutives may be seen in the Cambridge + Philological Museum, vol. i. p. 679.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 288 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page288"></a>{288}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">GENTILE FORMS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect341">§ 341</a>. These have been illustrated by Mr. Guest + in the Transactions of the Philological Society.</p> + + <p>The only word in the present English that requires explanation is the + name of the principality <i>Wales</i>.</p> + + <p>1. The form is plural, however much the meaning may be singular; so + that the <i>-s</i> in <i>Wale-s</i> is the <i>-s</i> in <i>fathers</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p>2. It has grown out of the Anglo-Saxon from + <i>wealhas</i>=<i>foreigners</i>, the name by which the Welsh are spoken + of by the Germans of England, just as the Italians are called Welsh by + the Germans of Germany: <i>wal-nuts</i>=<i>foreign nuts</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The transfer of the name of the <i>people</i> inhabiting a certain + country to the <i>country</i> so inhabited, was one of the commonest + processes in both Anglo-Saxon and Old English.—Guest, Phil. + Trans.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 289 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page289"></a>{289}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE CONNEXION BETWEEN THE NOUN AND VERB, AND ON THE INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD.</p> + + <p><a name="sect342">§ 342</a>. In order to understand clearly the use of + the so-called infinitive mood in English, it is necessary to bear in mind + two facts, one a matter of logic, the other a matter of history.</p> + + <p>In the way of logic, the difference between a noun and a verb is less + marked than it is in the way of grammar.</p> + + <p>Grammatically, the contrast is considerable. The inflection of nouns + expresses the ideas of sex as denoted by gender, and of relation in place + as denoted by cases. That of verbs rarely expresses sex, and never + position. On the other hand, however, it expresses what no noun ever does + or can express; <i>e.g.</i>, the relation of the agent to the individual + speaking, by means of person; the time in which acts take place, by means + of tense; and the conditions of their occurrence, by means of mood.</p> + + <p>The idea of number is the only one that, on a superficial view, is + common to these two important parts of speech.</p> + + <p>Logically, the contrast is inconsiderable. A noun denotes an object of + which either the senses or the intellect can take cognizance, and a verb + does no more. <i>To move</i>=<i>motion</i>, <i>to rise</i>=<i>rising</i>, + <i>to err</i>=<i>error</i>, <i>to forgive</i>=<i>forgiveness</i>. The + only difference between the two parts of speech is this, that, whereas a + noun may express any object whatever, verbs can only express those + objects which consist in an action. And it is this superadded idea of + action that superadds to the verb the phenomena of tense, mood, person, + and voice; in other words, the phenomena of conjugation.</p> + + <p><a name="sect343">§ 343</a>. A noun is a word capable of declension + only. A <!-- Page 290 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page290"></a>{290}</span>verb is a word capable of declension and + conjugation also. The fact of verbs being declined as well as conjugated + must be remembered. The participle has the declension of a noun + adjective, the infinite mood the declension of a noun substantive. + Gerunds and supines, in languages where they occur, are only names for + certain cases of the verb.</p> + + <p>Although in all languages the verb is equally capable of declension, + it is not equally declined. The Greeks, for instance, used forms like</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Greek verb declension" title="Greek verb declension"> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> <span title="to phthonein" class="grk">τὸ φθονεῖν</span></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>invidia</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> <span title="tou phthonein" class="grk">τοῦ φθονεῖν</span></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>invidiæ</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> <span title="en tôi phthonein" class="grk">ἐν τῷ φθονεῖν</span></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>in invidia</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>oftener than the Romans. The fact of there being an article in Greek + may account for this.</p> + + <p><a name="sect344">§ 344</a>. Returning, however, to the illustration + of the substantival character of the so-called infinitive mood, we may + easily see—</p> + + <p><span class="grk">α</span>. The name of any action may be used + without any mention of the agent. Thus, we may speak of the simple fact + of <i>walking</i> or <i>moving</i>, independently of any specification of + the <i>walker</i> or <i>mover</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">β</span>. That, when actions are spoken of thus + indefinitely, the idea of either person or number has no place in the + conception; from which it follows that the so-called infinitive mood must + be at once impersonal, and without the distinction of singular, dual, and + plural.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">γ</span>. That, nevertheless, the ideas of + time and relation in space <i>have</i> place in the conception. We can + think of a person being <i>in the act of striking a blow</i>, of his + <i>having been in the act of striking a blow</i>, or of his <i>being + about to be in the act of striking a blow</i>. We can also think of a + person being <i>in the act of doing a good action</i>, or of his being + <i>from the act of doing a good action</i>.</p> + + <p>This has been written to show that verbs of languages in general are + as naturally declinable as nouns. What follows will show that the verbs + of the Gothic languages in particular were actually declined, and that + fragments of this declension remain in the present English.</p> + + <p><a name="sect345">§ 345</a>. The inflection of the verb in its + impersonal (or <!-- Page 291 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page291"></a>{291}</span>infinitive form) consisted, in full, of + three cases, a nominative (or accusative), a dative, and a genitive. The + genitive is put last, because its occurrence in the Gothic language is + the least constant.</p> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon the nominative (or accusative) ended in -an:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S infinitive" title="A-S infinitive"> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Lufian</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>to love</i></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>amare</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Bærnan</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>to burn</i></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>urere</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Syllan</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>to give</i></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>dare</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Be it observed, that the <i>-en</i> in words like <i>strengthen</i>, + &c., is a derivational termination, and by no means a representation + of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive + inflection is lost in the present English, except in certain provincial + dialects.</p> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon the dative of the infinitive verb ended in <i>-nne</i>, + and was (as a matter of syntax) generally, perhaps always, preceded by + the preposition <i>to</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S dative infinitive" title="A-S dative infinitive"> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> To lufienne</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>ad amandum</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> To bærnenne</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>ad urendum</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> To syllanne</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>ad dandum</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The genitive, ending in <i>-es</i>, occurs only in Old High German and + Modern High German, <i>plâsannes</i>, <i>weinnenes</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect346">§ 346</a>. With these preliminaries we can take a + clear view of the English infinitives. They exist under two forms, and + are referable to a double origin.</p> + + <p>1. The independent form.—This is used after the words + <i>can</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>will</i>, and some others, as, + <i>I can speak</i>, <i>I may go</i>, <i>I shall come</i>, <i>I will + move</i>. Here there is no preposition, and the origin of the infinitive + is from the form in <i>-an</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The prepositional form.—This is used after the majority of + English verbs, as <i>I wish to speak</i>, <i>I mean to go</i>, <i>I + intend to come</i>, <i>I determine to move</i>. Here we have the + preposition <i>to</i> and the origin of the infinitive is from the form + in <i>-nne</i>.</p> + + <p>Expressions like <i>to err</i>=<i>error</i>, <i>to + forgive</i>=<i>forgiveness</i>, in lines like</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>To err is human, to forgive divine,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>are very remarkable. They exhibit the phenomena of a nominative case + having grown not only out of a dative but out of a dative <i>plus</i> its + governing preposition.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 292 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page292"></a>{292}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON DERIVED VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect347">§ 347</a>. Of number, person, mood, tense, and + conjugation, special notice is taken in their respective chapters. Of the + divisions of verbs into active and passive, transitive and intransitive, + unless there be an accompanying change of form, etymology takes no + cognisance. The forces of the auxiliary verbs, and the tenses to which + they are equivalent, are also points of syntax rather than of + etymology.</p> + + <p>Four classes, however, of derived verbs, as opposed to simple, + especially deserve notice.</p> + + <p>I. Those ending in <i>-en</i>; as <i>soften</i>, <i>whiten</i>, + <i>strengthen</i>, &c. Here it has been already remarked that the + <i>-en</i> is a derivational affix; and not a representative of the + Anglo-Saxon infinitive form <i>-an</i> (as <i>lufian</i>, + <i>bærnan</i>=<i>to love</i>, <i>to burn</i>), and the Old English + <i>-en</i> (as <i>tellen</i>, <i>loven</i>).</p> + + <p>II. Transitive verbs derived from intransitives by a change of the + vowel of the root.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="English transitive verbs derived from intransitives" title="English transitive verbs derived from intransitives"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Primitive Intransitive Form.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Derived Transitive Form.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Rise </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Raise.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Lie </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Lay.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sit </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Set.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Fall </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Fell.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Drink </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Drench.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon these words were more numerous than they are at + present. The following list is taken from the Cambridge Philological + Museum, ii. 386.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S transitive verbs derived from intransitives" title="A-S transitive verbs derived from intransitives"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Intrans. Infinitive.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Trans. Infinitive.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Yrnan, <i>to run</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ærnan, <i>to make to run</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Byrnan, <i>to burn</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bærnan, <i>to make to burn</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 293 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page293"></a>{293}</span> + Drincan, <i>to drink</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Drencan, <i>to drench</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sincan, <i>to sink</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sencan, <i>to make to sink</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Liegan, <i>to lie</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lecgan, <i>to lay</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sittan, <i>to sit</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Settan, <i>to set</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Drífan, <i>to drift</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dræfan, <i>to drive</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fëallan, <i>to fall</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fyllan, <i>to fell</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wëallan, <i>to boil</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wyllan, <i>to make to boil</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Flëogan, <i>to fly</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> A-fligan, <i>to put to flight</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bëogan, <i>to bow</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bígan, <i>to bend</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Faran, <i>to go</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Feran, <i>to convey</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wacan, <i>to wake</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Weccan, <i>to awaken</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>All these intransitives form their præterite by a change of vowel, as + <i>sink</i>, <i>sank</i>; all the transitives by the addition of <i>d</i> + or <i>t</i>, as <i>fell</i>, <i>fell'd</i>.</p> + + <p>III. Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent; as <i>to + survéy</i>, from a <i>súrvey</i>. For a fuller list see the Chapter on + Derivation. Walker attributes the change of accent to the influence of + the participial termination <i>-ing</i>. All words thus affected are of + foreign origin.</p> + + <p>IV. Verbs formed from nouns by changing a final sharp consonant into + its corresponding flat one; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Verbs formed from nouns by changing final consonant" title="Verbs formed from nouns by changing final consonant"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>The</i> use </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>to</i> use, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>pronounced</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> uze.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>The</i> breath </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>to</i> breathe </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> breadhe.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>The</i> cloth </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>to</i> clothe </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="qspcsingle"> clodhe.</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 294 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page294"></a>{294}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE PERSONS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect348">§ 348</a>. Compared with the Latin, the Greek, the + Mœso-Gothic, and almost all the ancient languages, there is, in + English, in respect to the persons of the verbs, but a very slight amount + of inflection. This may be seen by comparing the English word <i>call</i> + with the Latin <i>voco.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Comparison of Voco and Call" title="Comparison of Voco and Call"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1. Voc-<i>o</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Voc-<i>amus</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Call. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Call.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Voc-as. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Voc-<i>atis</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Call-est. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Call.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. Voc-at. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Voc-<i>ant</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a name="NtA44" href="#Nt44"><sup>[44]</sup></a>Call-eth. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Call.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Here the Latins have different forms for each different person, whilst + the English have forms for two only; and even of these one + (<i>callest</i>) is becoming obsolete. With the forms of <i>voco</i> + marked in italics there is, in the current English, nothing + correspondent.</p> + + <p>In the word <i>am</i>, as compared with <i>are</i> and <i>art</i>, we + find a sign of the first person singular.</p> + + <p>In the old forms <i>tellen</i>, <i>weren</i>, &c., we have a sign + of the plural number.</p> + + <p>In the Modern English, the Old English, and the Anglo-Saxon, the + peculiarities of our personal inflections are very great. This may be + seen from the following tables of comparison:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Overview of Present Tenses" title="Overview of Present Tenses"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"> <i>Present Tense, Indicative Mood.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"> <i>Mœso-Gothic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>1st person.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>2nd person.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>3rd person.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkja. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkeis. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkeiþ—<i>seek.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkjam. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkeiþ. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkjand.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> +<!-- Page 295 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page295"></a>{295}</span> + <i>Old High German.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Prennu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Prennîs. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Prennit—<i>burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Prennames. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Prennat. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Prennant.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> <i>Icelandic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Kalla. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Kallar. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Kallar—<i>call.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Köllum. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Kalliþ. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Kalla.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> <i>Old Saxon.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkju. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkîs. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkîd—<i>seek.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkjad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkjad. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sôkjad.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> <i>Anglo-Saxon.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Lufige. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lufast. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lufað.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lufiað. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lufiað. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lufiað.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> <i>Old English.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Love. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lovest. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Loveth.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Loven. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Loven. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Loven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> <i>Modern English.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> Love. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lovest. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Loveth (or Loves).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Love. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Love. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Love.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Herein remark; 1. the Anglo-Saxon addition of <i>t</i> in the second + person singular; 2. the identity in form of the three persons of the + plural number; 3. the change of <i>-að</i> into <i>-en</i> in the Old + English plural; 4. the total absence of plural forms in the Modern + English; 5. the change of the <i>th</i> into <i>s</i>, in <i>loveth</i> + and <i>loves</i>. These are points bearing especially upon the history of + the English persons. The following points indicate a more general + question.</p> + + <p>1. The full form <i>prennames</i> in the newer Old High German, as + compared with <i>sókjam</i> in the <i>old</i> Mœso-Gothic.</p> + + <p>2. The appearance of the <i>r</i> in Icelandic.</p> + + <p>3. The difference between the Old Saxon and the Anglo-Saxon in the + second person singular; the final <i>t</i> being absent in Old Saxon.</p> + + <p>4. The respective powers of <span class="scac">M</span> in the first, + of <span class="scac">S</span> in the second, and of <span + class="scac">T</span> (or its allied sounds) in the third persons + singular; <!-- Page 296 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page296"></a>{296}</span>of <span class="scac">MES</span> in the + first, of <span class="scac">T</span> (or its allied sounds) in the + second, and of <span class="scac">ND</span> in the third persons plural. + In this we have a regular expression of the persons by means of regular + signs; and this the history of the personal terminations verifies.</p> + + <p><a name="sect349">§ 349</a>. <i>First person singular.</i>—That + the original sign of this person was <span class="scac">M</span> we learn + from the following forms: <i>dadâmi</i>, Sanskrit; <i>dadhâmi</i>, Zend; + <i><span title="didômi" class="grk" + >δίδωμι</span></i>, Greek; <i>dumi</i>, + Lithuanic; <i>damy</i>, Slavonic=<i>I give</i>. The Latin language + preserves it in <i>sum</i> and <i>inquam</i>, and in the first persons of + tenses, like <i>legam</i>, <i>legebam</i>, <i>legerem</i>, + <i>legissem</i>. The form <i>im</i>=<i>I am</i> occurs in + Mœso-Gothic; and the words <i>stom</i>=<i>I stand</i>, + <i>lirnem</i>=<i>I shall learn</i>, in Old High German. The word + <i>am</i> is a fragmentary specimen of it in our own language.</p> + + <p><i>Plural.</i>—The original sign <span class="scac">MES</span>. + <i>Dadmas</i>, Sanskrit; <i><span title="didomes" class="grk" + >δίδομες</span></i>, + afterwards <i><span title="didomen" class="grk" + >δίδομεν</span></i>, Greek; + <i>damus</i>, Latin=<i>we give</i>. The current form in Old High + German.</p> + + <p>These forms in <span class="scac">M</span> may or may not be derived + from the pronoun of the first person; <i>mâ</i>, Sanskrit; <i>me</i>, + Latin, English, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Second person singular.</i>—The original sign <span + class="scac">S</span>. <i>Dadasi</i>, Sanskrit; <span title="didôs" class="grk" + >δίδως</span>, Greek; <i>das</i>, Latin; + <i>dasi</i>, Slavonic. Preserved in the Gothic languages.</p> + + <p><i>Plural.</i>—The original sign <span class="scac">T</span>, or + an allied sound. <i>Dadyata</i>, Sanskrit; <i>daidhyâta</i>, Zend; <span + title="didote" class="grk" + >δίδοτε</span>, Greek; + <i>datis</i>, Latin; <i>d[ou]kite</i>, Lithuanic; <i>dashdite</i>, + Slavonic=<i>ye give</i>. Current in the Gothic languages.</p> + + <p>These forms in <span class="scac">T</span> and <span + class="scac">S</span> may or may not be derived from the pronoun of the + second person; <i>tva</i>, Sanskrit; <span title="su" class="grk" + >σὺ</span>, Greek; <i>thou</i>, English.</p> + + <p><i>Third person singular.</i>—-The original sign <span + class="scac">T</span>. <i>Dadati</i>, Sanskrit; <i>dadhâiti</i>, Zend; + <span title="didôti" class="grk" + >δίδωτι</span>, Old Greek; <i>dat</i>, + Latin; <i>d[ou]sti</i>, Lithuanic; <i>dasty</i>, Slavonic=<i>he + gives</i>. Preserved in the Gothic languages.</p> + + <p><i>Plural.</i>—The original sign <span class="scac">NT</span>. + <i>Dadenti</i>, Zend; <span title="didonti" class="grk" + >δίδοντι</span>, afterwards <span + title="didousi" class="grk" + >διδοῦσι</span>, Greek; + <i>dant</i>, Latin=<i>they give</i>. In Mœso-Gothic and Old High + German.</p> + + <p>The preceding examples are from Grimm and Bopp. To them add the Welsh + form <i>carant</i>=<i>they love</i>, and the Persian + <i>budend</i>=<i>they are</i>. <!-- Page 297 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page297"></a>{297}</span></p> + + <p>The forms in <span class="scac">T</span> and <span + class="scac">NT</span> may or may not be derived from the demonstrative + pronoun <i>ta</i>, Saxon; <span title="to" class="grk" + >τὸ</span>, Greek; <i>that</i>, English, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect350">§ 350</a>. The present state of the personal + inflection in English, so different from that of the older languages, has + been brought about by two processes.</p> + + <p>I. <i>Change of form.</i>—<sup>a</sup>) The ejection of + <i>-es</i> in <i>-mes</i>, as in <i>sôkjam</i> and <i>köllum</i>, + compared with <i>prennames</i>; <sup>b</sup>) the ejection of <i>-m</i>, + as in the first person singular, almost throughout; <sup>c</sup>) the + change of <i>-s</i> into <i>-r</i>, as in the Norse <i>kallar</i>, + compared with the Germanic <i>sôkeis</i>; <sup>d</sup>) the ejection of + <i>-d</i> from <i>-nd</i>, as in <i>loven</i> (if this be the true + explanation of that form) compared with <i>prennant</i>; <sup>e</sup>) + the ejection of <i>-nd</i>, as in <i>kalla</i>; <sup>f</sup>) the + addition of <i>-t</i>, as in <i>lufast</i> and <i>lovest</i>. In all + these cases we have a change of form.</p> + + <p>II. <i>Confusion or extension.</i>—In vulgarisms like <i>I + goes</i>, <i>I is</i>, one person is used instead of another. In + vulgarisms like <i>I are</i>, <i>we goes</i>, one number is used instead + of another. In vulgarisms like <i>I be tired</i>, or <i>if I am + tired</i>, one mood is used instead of another. In vulgarisms like <i>I + give</i> for <i>I gave</i>, one tense is used for another. In all this + there is confusion. There is also extension: since, in the phrase <i>I + is</i>, the third person is used instead of the first; in other words, it + is used with an extension of its natural meaning. It has the power of the + third person + that of the first. In the course of time one person may + entirely supplant, supersede, or replace another. The application of this + is as follows:—</p> + + <p>The only person of the plural number originally ending in ð is the + second; as <i>sókeiþ</i>, <i>prennat</i>, <i>kalliþ</i>, <i>lufiað</i>; + the original ending of the first person being <i>-mes</i>, or <i>-m</i>, + as <i>prennames</i>, <i>sôkjam</i>, <i>köllum</i>. Now, in Anglo-Saxon, + the <i>first</i> person ends in ð, as <i>lufiað</i>. Has <i>-m</i>, or + <i>-mes</i>, changed to ð, or has the second person superseded the first? + The latter alternative seems the likelier.</p> + + <p><a name="sect351">§ 351</a>. The detail of the persons seems to be as + follows:—</p> + + <p><i>I call</i>, first person singular.—The word <i>call</i> is + not one person more than another. It is the simple verb, wholly + uninflected. It is very probable that the first person was the <!-- Page + 298 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page298"></a>{298}</span>one where + the characteristic termination was first lost. In the Modern Norse + language it is replaced by the second: <i>Jeg taler</i>=<i>I speak</i>, + Danish.</p> + + <p><i>Thou callest</i>, second person singular.—The final <i>-t</i> + appears throughout the Anglo-Saxon, although wanting in Old Saxon. In Old + High German it begins to appear in Otfrid, and is general in Notker. In + Middle High German and New High German it is universal.—Deutsche + Grammatik, i. 1041. 857.</p> + + <p><i>He calleth</i>, or <i>he calls</i>, third person + singular.—The <i>-s</i> in <i>calls</i> is the <i>-th</i> in + <i>calleth</i>, changed. The Norse form <i>kallar</i> either derives its + <i>-r</i> from the <i>-th</i> by way of change, or else the form is that + of the second person replacing the first.</p> + + <p><i>Lufiað</i>, Anglo-Saxon, first person plural.—The second + person in the place of the first. The same in Old Saxon.</p> + + <p><i>Lufiað</i>, Anglo-Saxon, third person plural.—Possibly + changed from <span class="scac">-ND</span>, as in <i>sôkjand</i>. More + probably the second person.</p> + + <p><i>Loven</i>, Old English.—For all the persons of the plural. + This form may be accounted for in three ways: 1. The <i>-m</i> of the + Mœso-Gothic and High Old German became <i>-n</i>; as it is in the + Middle and Modern German, where all traces of the original <i>-m</i> are + lost. In this case the first person has replaced the other two. 2. The + <i>-nd</i> may have become <i>-n</i>; in which case it is the third + person that replaces the others. 3. The indicative form <i>loven</i> may + have arisen out of a subjunctive one; since there was in Anglo-Saxon the + form <i>lufion</i>, or <i>lufian</i>, subjunctive. In the Modern Norse + languages the third person replaces the other two: <i>Vi tale</i>, <i>I + tale</i>, <i>de tale</i>=<i>we talk</i>, <i>ye talk</i>, <i>they + talk</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect352">§ 352</a>. <i>The person in</i> <span + class="scac">-T</span>.—<i>Art</i>, <i>wast</i>, <i>wert</i>, + <i>shalt</i>, <i>wilt</i>. Here the second person singular ends, not in + <i>-st</i>, but in <i>-t</i>. A reason for this (though not wholly + satisfactory) we find in the Mœso-Gothic and the Icelandic.</p> + + <p>In those languages the form of the person changes with the tense, and + the second singular of the præterite tense of one conjugation is, not + <i>-s</i>, but <i>-t</i>; as Mœso-Gothic, <i>svôr</i>=<i>I + swore</i>, <i>svôrt</i>=<i>thou swarest</i>, <i>gráip</i>=<i>I + griped</i>, <i>gráipt</i>=<i>thou gripedst</i>; Icelandic, + <i>brannt</i>=<i>thou burnest</i>, <i>gaft</i>=<i>thou</i> <!-- Page 299 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page299"></a>{299}</span><i>gavest</i>. + In the same languages ten verbs are conjugated like præterites. Of these, + in each language, <i>skal</i> is one.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Moeso-Gothic conjugation of Skal" title="Moeso-Gothic conjugation of Skal"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"> <i>Mœso-Gothic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Dual.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1. Skal. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skulu. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skulum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Skalt. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skuluts. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skuluþ.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. Skall. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skuluts. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skulun.</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Icelandic conjugation of Skall" title="Icelandic conjugation of Skall"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <br /><i>Icelandic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1. Skall. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skulum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Skalt. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skuluð.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. Skal. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Skulu.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect353">§ 353</a>. <i>Thou spakest, thou brakest, thou + sungest.</i><a name="NtA45" href="#Nt45"><sup>[45]</sup></a>—In + these forms there is a slight though natural anomaly. They belong to the + class of verbs which form their præterite by changing the vowel of the + present; as <i>sing</i>, <i>sang</i>, &c. Now, all words of this sort + in Anglo-Saxon formed their second singular præterite, not in <i>-st</i>, + but in <i>-e</i>; as <i>þú funde</i>=<i>thou foundest</i>, <i>þú + sunge</i>=<i>thou sungest</i>. The English termination is derived from + the present. Observe that this applies only to the præterites formed by + changing the vowel. <i>Thou loved'st</i> is Anglo-Saxon as well as + English, <i>viz.</i>, <i>þú lufodest</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect354">§ 354</a>. In the northern dialects of the + Anglo-Saxon the -ð of plurals like <i>lufiað</i>=<i>we love</i> becomes + <i>-s</i>. In the Scottish this change was still more prevalent:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The Scottes come that to this day</p> + <p><i>Havys</i>, and Scotland haldyn ay.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Wintoun</span>, 11. 9. 73.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>James I. of England ends nearly all his plurals in <i>-s</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 300 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300"></a>{300}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE NUMBERS OF VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect355">§ 355</a>. The inflection of the present tense, not + only in Anglo-Saxon, but in several other languages as well, has been + given in the preceding chapter. As compared with the present plural + forms, <i>we love</i>, <i>ye love</i>, <i>they love</i>, both the + Anglo-Saxon <i>we lufiað</i>, <i>ge lufiað</i>, <i>hi lufiað</i>, and the + Old English <i>we loven</i>, <i>ye loven</i>, <i>they loven</i>, have a + peculiar termination for the plural number which the present language + wants. In other words, the Anglo-Saxon and the Old English have a plural + <i>personal</i> characteristic, whilst the Modern English has nothing to + correspond with it.</p> + + <p>The word <i>personal</i> is printed in italics. It does not follow, + that, because there is no plural <i>personal</i> characteristic, there is + also no plural characteristic.</p> + + <p>There is no reason against the inflection of the word <i>love</i> + running thus—<i>I love</i>, <i>thou lovest</i>, <i>he loves</i>; + <i>we lave</i>, <i>ye lave</i>, <i>they lave</i>; in other words, there + is no reason against the vowel of the root being changed with the number. + In such a case there would be no <i>personal</i> inflection, though there + would be a plural, or a <i>numeral</i>, inflection.</p> + + <p>Now, in Anglo-Saxon, with a great number of verbs such a plural + inflection not only actually takes place, but takes place most regularly. + It takes place, however, in the past tense only. And this is the case in + all the Gothic languages as well as in Anglo-Saxon. Amongst the rest, + in—</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Mœso-Gothic.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Moeso-Gothic past tense plurals" title="Moeso-Gothic past tense plurals"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Skáin, <i>I shone</i>; skinum, <i>we shone</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Smáit, <i>I smote</i>; smitum, <i>we smote</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Káus, <i>I chose</i>; kusum, <i>we chose</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Láug, <i>I lied</i>; lugum, <i>we lied</i>.</td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Gab, <i>I gave</i>; gêbum, <i>we gave</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> At, <i>I ete</i>; étum, <i>we ete</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Stal, <i>I stole</i>; stêlum, <i>we stole</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Qvam, <i>I came</i>; qvêmum, <i>we came</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 301 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page301"></a>{301}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Anglo-Saxon.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon past tense plurals" title="Anglo-Saxon past tense plurals"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Arn, <i>I ran</i>; urnon, <i>we run</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ongan, <i>I began</i>; ongunnon, <i>we begun</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Span, <i>I span</i>; spunnon, <i>we spun</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sang, <i>I sang</i>; sungon, <i>we sung</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Swang, <i>I swang</i>; <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'swangon'.">swungon</span>, <i>we swung</i>.</td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dranc, <i>I drank</i>; druncon, <i>we drunk</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sanc, <i>I sank</i>; suncon, <i>we sunk</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sprang, <i>I sprang</i>; sprungon, <i>we sprung</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Swam, <i>I swam</i>; swummon, <i>we swum</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Rang, <i>I rang</i>; rungon, <i>we rung</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In all the Anglo-Saxon words, it may be remarked that the change is + from <i>a</i> to <i>u</i>, and that both the vowels are short, or + dependent. Also, that the vowel of the present tense is <i>i</i> short; + as <i>swim</i>, <i>sing</i>, &c. The Anglo-Saxon form of <i>run</i> + is <i>yrnan</i>.</p> + + <p>In the following words the change is from the Anglo-Saxon <i>á</i> to + the Anglo-Saxon <i>ī</i>. In English, the regularity of the change + is obscured by a change of pronunciation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Anglo-Saxon past tense change of a to i" title="Anglo-Saxon past tense change of a to i"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> Bát, <i>I bit</i>; biton, <i>we bit</i>. +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"> Smát, <i>I smote</i>; smiton, <i>we smit</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>From these examples the reader has himself drawn his inference; + <i>viz.</i> that words like</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="So-called double forms of past tense" title="So-called double forms of past tense"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Began, begun.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Ran, run.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Span, spun.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Sang, sung.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <a name="NtA46" href="#Nt46"><sup>[46]</sup></a><i>Swang, swung.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Sprang, sprung.</i></td></tr> + +</table></td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Sank, sunk.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Swam, swum.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Rang, rung.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="#Nt46"><sup>[46]</sup></a><i>Bat, bit.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Smote, smit.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Drank, drunk, &c.,</i></td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>generally called double forms of the past tense, were originally + different numbers of the same tense, the forms in <i>u</i>, as + <i>swum</i>, and the forms in <i>i</i>, <i>bit</i>, being plural.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 302 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page302"></a>{302}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON MOODS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect356">§ 356</a>. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive has already + been considered.</p> + + <p><a name="sect357">§ 357</a>. Between the second plural imperative, and + the second plural indicative, <i>speak ye</i> and <i>ye speak</i>, there + is no difference of form. Between the second singular imperative + <i>speak</i>, and the second singular indicative, <i>speakest</i>, there + is a difference in form. Still, as the imperative form <i>speak</i> is + distinguished from the indicative form <i>speakest</i> by the negation of + a character rather than by the possession of one, it cannot be said that + there is in English any imperative mood.</p> + + <p><a name="sect358">§ 358</a>. <i>If he speak</i>, as opposed to <i>if + he speaks</i>, is characterised by a negative sign only, and consequently + is no true example of a subjunctive. <i>Be</i>, as opposed to <i>am</i>, + in the sentence <i>if it be so</i>, is an uninflected word used in a + limited sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive.</p> + + <p>The only true subjunctive inflection in the English language is that + of <i>were</i> and <i>wert</i>, as opposed to the indicative forms + <i>was</i> and <i>wast</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Subjunctive of Was" title="Subjunctive of Was"> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black" colspan="2"> <i>Indicative.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="2"> <i>Subjunctive.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Plural.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Singular.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1. I was. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> We were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> If I were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> If we were.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Thou wast. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Ye were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> If thou wert. </td><td class="spacsingle"> If ye were.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. He was. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> They were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> If he were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> If they were.</td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303"></a>{303}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON TENSES IN GENERAL.</p> + + <p><a name="sect359">§ 359</a>. The nature of tenses in general is best + exhibited by reference to the Greek; since in that language they are more + numerous, and more strongly marked than elsewhere.</p> + + <p><i>I strike, I struck.</i>—Of these words, the first implies an + action taking place at the time of speaking, the second marks an action + that has already taken place.</p> + + <p>These two notions of present and of past time, being expressed by a + change of form, are true tenses. They are however, the only true tenses + in our language. In <i>I was beating</i>, <i>I have beaten</i>, <i>I had + beaten</i>, and <i>I shall beat</i>, a difference of time is expressed; + but as it is expressed by a combination of words, and not by a change of + form, no true tenses are constituted.</p> + + <p>In Greek the case is different. <span title="Tuptô" class="grk" + >Τύπτω</span> (<i>typtô</i>)=<i>I beat</i>; <span + title="etupton" class="grk" + >ἔτυπτον</span> + (<i>etypton</i>)=<i>I was beating</i>; <span title="tupsô" class="grk" + >τύψω</span> (<i>typsô</i>)=<i>I shall beat</i>; + <span title="etupsa" class="grk" + >ἔτυψα</span> (<i>etypsa</i>)=<i>I beat</i>; + <span title="tetupha" class="grk" + >τέτυφα</span> (<i>tetyfa</i>)=<i>I have + beaten</i>; <span title="etetuphein" class="grk" + >ἐτετύφειν</span> + (<i>etetyfein</i>)=<i>I had beaten</i>. In these words we have, of the + same mood, the same voice, and the same conjugation, six different + tenses;<a name="NtA47" href="#Nt47"><sup>[47]</sup></a> whereas, in + English, there are but two. The forms <span title="tetupha" class="grk" + >τέτυφα</span> and <span title="etupsa" class="grk" + >ἔτυψα</span> are so strongly marked, that + we recognise them wheresoever they occur. The first is formed by a + reduplication of the initial <span class="grk">τ</span>, and, + consequently, may be called the reduplicate form. As a tense it is called + the perfect. In the form <span title="etupsa" class="grk" + >ἔτυψα</span> an <span + class="grk">ε</span> is prefixed, and an <span + class="grk">σ</span> is added. In the allied language of Italy <!-- + Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page304"></a>{304}</span>the + <span class="grk">ε</span> disappears, whilst the <span + class="grk">σ</span> (<i>s</i>) remains. <span title="Etupsa" class="grk" + >Ἔτυψα</span> is said to be an aorist tense. + <i>Scripsi</i> : <i>scribo</i> :: <span title="etupsa" class="grk" + >ἔτυψα</span> : <span title="tuptô" class="grk" + >τύπτω</span>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect360">§ 360</a>. Now in the Latin language a confusion + takes place between these two tenses. Both forms exist. They are used, + however, indiscriminately. The aorist form has, besides its own, the + sense of the perfect. The perfect has, besides its own, the sense of the + aorist. In the following pair of quotations, <i>vixi</i>, the aorist + form, is translated <i>I have lived</i>, while <i>tetigit</i>, the + perfect form, is translated <i>he touched</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Vixi</i>, et quem dederat cursum Fortuna peregi;</p> + <p>Et nunc magna mei sub terras ibit imago.—<i>Æn.</i> iv.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ut primum alatis <i>tetigit</i> magalia plantis.—<i>Æn.</i> iv.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>When a difference of form has ceased to express a difference of + meaning, it has become superfluous. This is the case with the two forms + in question. One of them may be dispensed with; and the consequence is, + that, although in the Latin language both the perfect and the aorist + forms are found, they are, with few exceptions, never found in the same + word. Wherever there is the perfect, the aorist is wanting, and <i>vice + versâ</i>. The two ideas <i>I have struck</i> and <i>I struck</i> are + merged into the notion of past time in general, and are expressed by one + of two forms, sometimes by that of the Greek perfect, and sometimes by + that of the Greek aorist. On account of this the grammarians have cut + down the number of Latin tenses to <i>five</i>; forms like <i>cucurri</i> + and <i>vixi</i> being dealt with as one and the same tense. The true view + is, that in <i>curro</i> the aorist form is replaced by the perfect, and + in <i>vixi</i> the perfect form is replaced by the aorist.</p> + + <p><a name="sect361">§ 361</a>. In the present English there is no + undoubted perfect or reduplicate form. The form <i>moved</i> corresponds + in meaning not with <span title="tetupha" class="grk" + >τέτυφα</span> and <i>momordi</i>, but + with <span title="etupsa" class="grk" + >ἔτυψα</span> and <i>vixi</i>. Its sense is + that of <span title="etupsa" class="grk" + >ἔτυψα</span>, and not that of <span + title="tetupha" class="grk" + >τέτυφα</span>. The notion given by + <span title="tetupha" class="grk" + >τέτυφα</span> we express by the + circumlocution <i>I have beaten</i>. We have no such form as + <i>bebeat</i> or <i>memove</i>. In the Mœso-Gothic, however, there + was a true reduplicate form; in other words, a perfect tense as well as + an aorist. It <!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page305"></a>{305}</span>is by the possession of this form that the + verbs of the first six conjugations are characterized.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Moeso-Gothic reduplicate form" title="Moeso-Gothic reduplicate form"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1st.</td><td class="spacsingle"> Falþa,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I fold</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fáifalþ,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have folded</i>, or <i>I folded</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Halda,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I feed</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Háihald,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have fed</i>, or <i>I fed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Haha, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I hang</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Háihah,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have hanged</i>, or <i>I hanged</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2nd.</td><td class="spacsingle"> Háita,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I call</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Háiháit,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have called</i>, or <i>I called</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Láika,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I play</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Láiláik,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have played</i>, or <i>I played</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3d. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hláupa,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I run</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hláiláup,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have run</i>, or <i>I ran</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 4th.</td><td class="spacsingle"> Slêpa,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I sleep</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sáizlêp,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have slept</i>, or <i>I slept</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 5th.</td><td class="spacsingle"> Láia, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I laugh</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Láilô,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have laughed</i>, or <i>I laught</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sáija,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I sow</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sáisô,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have sown</i>, or <i>I sowed</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 6th </td><td class="spacsingle"> Grêta,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I weep</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gáigrôt,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have wept</i>, or <i>I wept</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Têka, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I touch</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Táitôk,</td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>I have touched</i>, or <i>I touched</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, the perfect forms have, besides + their own, an aorist sense, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + + <p>In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, few (if any) words are found in + both forms.</p> + + <p>In Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, the two forms are dealt with as a + single tense; <i>láilô</i> being called the præterite of <i>láia</i>, and + <i>svôr</i> the præterite of <i>svara</i>. The true view, however, is + that in Mœso-Gothic, as in Latin, there are two past tenses, each + having a certain latitude of meaning, and each, in certain words, + replacing the other.</p> + + <p>The reduplicate form, in other words, the perfect tense, is current in + none of the Gothic languages except the Mœso-Gothic. A trace of it + is found in the Anglo-Saxon of the seventh century in the word + <i>heht</i>, which is considered to be <i>hê-ht</i>, the + Mœso-Gothic <i>háiháit</i>, <i>vocavi</i>. This statement is taken + from the Cambridge Philological Museum, ii. 378. <i>Did</i> from + <i>do</i> is also considered to be a reduplicate form.</p> + + <p><a name="sect362">§ 362</a>. In the English language the tense + corresponding with the Greek aorist and the Latin forms like <i>vixi</i>, + is formed after two modes; 1, as in <i>fell</i>, <i>sang</i>, and + <i>took</i>, from <i>fall</i>, <i>sing</i>, and <i>take</i>, by changing + the vowel of the present: 2, as in <i>moved</i> and <i>wept</i>, from + <i>move</i> and <i>weep</i>, by the addition of <i>d</i> or <i>t</i>; the + <i>d</i> or <i>t</i> not being found in the original word, but being a + fresh element added to it. In forms, on the contrary, like <i>sang</i> + and <i>fell</i>, no addition being made, no new element appears. The <!-- + Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page306"></a>{306}</span>vowel, indeed, is changed, but nothing is + added. Verbs, then, of the first sort, may be said to form their + præterites out of themselves; whilst verbs of the second sort require + something from without. To speak in a metaphor, words like <i>sang</i> + and <i>fell</i> are comparatively independent. Be this as it may, the + German grammarians call the tenses formed by a change of vowel the strong + tenses, the strong verbs, the strong conjugation, or the strong order; + and those formed by the addition of <i>d</i> or <i>t</i>, the weak + tenses, the weak verbs, the weak conjugation, or the weak order. + <i>Bound</i>, <i>spoke</i>, <i>gave</i>, <i>lay</i>, &c., are strong; + <i>moved</i>, <i>favoured</i>, <i>instructed</i>, &c., are weak. For + the proof that the division of verbs into weak and strong is a natural + division, see the Chapter on Conjugation.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 307 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page307"></a>{307}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE STRONG TENSES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect363">§ 363</a>. The strong præterites are formed from the + present by changing the vowel, as <i>sing</i>, <i>sang</i>, <i>speak</i>, + <i>spoke</i>.</p> + + <p>The first point in the history of these tenses that the reader is + required to be aware of, is stated in the Chapter upon the Numbers, viz., + that, in Anglo-Saxon, several præterites change, in their plural, the + vowel of their singular; as</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S strong præterite" title="A-S strong præterite"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Ic sang, <i>I sang</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> We sungon, <i>we sung</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Þu sunge, <i>thou sungest</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ge sungon, <i>ye sung</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> He sang, <i>he sang</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hi sungon, <i>they sung</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>As a general rule, the second singular has the same vowel with the + plural persons, as <i>burne</i>, <i>thou burntest</i>, plural + <i>burnon</i>, <i>we burnt</i>.</p> + + <p>The bearing of this fact upon the præterites has been indicated in p. + <a href="#page300">300</a>. In a great number of words we have a double + form, as <i>ran</i> and <i>run</i>, <i>sang</i> and <i>sung</i>, + <i>drank</i> and <i>drunk</i>, &c. One of these forms is derived from + the singular, and the other from the plural. I cannot say at what period + the difference of form ceased to denote a difference of sense.</p> + + <p>In cases where but one form is preserved, that form is not necessarily + the singular one. For instance, Ic f<i>a</i>nd, <i>I found</i>, we + f<i>u</i>ndon, <i>we found</i>, are the Anglo-Saxon forms. Now the + present word <i>found</i> comes, not from the singular <i>fand</i>, but + from the plural <i>fund</i>; although in the Lowland Scotch dialect and + in the old writers, the singular form occurs.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Donald Caird finds orra things,</p> + <p>Where Allan Gregor <i>fand</i> the tings.—Scott.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Even in the present English it will be found convenient to <!-- Page + 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page308"></a>{308}</span>call the + forms like <i>sang</i> and <i>drank</i> the singular, and those like + <i>sung</i> and <i>bound</i> the plural forms.</p> + + <p>Be it observed, that, though this fact accounts for most of our double + forms, it will not account for all. In the Anglo-Saxon, Ic sprǽc, + <i>I spake</i>, we sprǽcon, <i>we spake</i>. There is no change of + number to account for the two forms <i>spake</i> and <i>spoke</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>First Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect364">§ 364</a>. Contains the two words <i>fall</i> and + <i>fell</i>, <i>hold</i> and <i>held</i>, where the sound of <i>o</i> is + changed into that of <i>ĕ</i>. Here must be noticed the natural + tendency of <i>a</i> to become <i>o</i>; since the forms in Anglo-Saxon + are, <i>Ic fealle</i>, I fall; <i>Ic feoll</i>, I fell; <i>Ic healde</i>, + I hold; <i>Ic heold</i>, I held.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Second Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect365">§ 365</a>. Here the præterite ends in <i>-ew</i>. + Words of this class are distinguished from those of the third Class by + the different form of the present tense.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Strong verbs, second class" title="Strong verbs, second class"> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="nspcsingle"> <i>Præterite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Draw </td><td class="spacsingle"> Drew.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Slay </td><td class="spacsingle"> Slew.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fly </td><td class="spacsingle"> Flew.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In these words the <i>w</i> has grown out of a <i>g</i>, as may be + seen from the Anglo-Saxon forms. The word <i>see</i> (<i>saw</i>) belongs + to this class: since, in Anglo-Saxon, we find the forms <i>geseáh</i> and + <i>gesegen</i>, and in the Swedish the præterite form is <i>saag</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Third Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect366">§ 366</a>. Here an <i>o</i> before <i>w</i>, in the + present, becomes <i>e</i> before <i>w</i> in the præterite; as</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Strong verbs, third class" title="Strong verbs, third class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præterite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Blow. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Blew.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Crow. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Crew.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Throw. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Threw.</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præterite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Know. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Knew.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Grow. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Grew.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Fourth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect367">§ 367</a>. Contains the single word <i>let</i>, + where a short <i>e</i> in the <!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page309"></a>{309}</span>present remains unchanged in the + præterite. In the Anglo-Saxon the present form was <i>Ic læte</i>, the + præterite <i>Ic lét</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Fifth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect368">§ 368</a>. Contains the single word <i>beat</i>, + where a long <i>e</i> remains unchanged. In Anglo-Saxon the forms were + <i>Ic beate</i>, <i>Ic beot</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Sixth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect369">§ 369</a>. Present <i>come</i>, præterite + <i>came</i>, participle <i>come</i>. In Anglo-Saxon, <i>cume</i>, + <i>com</i>, <i>cumen</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Seventh Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect370">§ 370</a>. In this class we have the sounds of the + <i>ee</i>, in <i>feet</i>, and of the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i> (spelt + <i>ea</i> or <i>a</i>), changed into <i>o</i> or <i>oo</i>. As several + words in this class have a second form in <i>a</i>, the præterite in + <i>o</i> or <i>oo</i> will be called the primary, the præterite in + <i>a</i> the secondary form.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Strong verbs, seventh class" title="Strong verbs, seventh class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Primary Præterite.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Secondary Præterite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Heave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a name="NtA48" href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>Hove </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cleave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Clove </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>Clave.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Weave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Wove </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Freeze </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Froze </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Steal </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Stole </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>Stale.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Speak </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Spoke </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Spake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Swear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Swore </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sware.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bore </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bare.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Tore </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>Tare.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>Shore </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Wore </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>Ware.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Break </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Broke </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Brake.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Shook </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Take </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Took </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Forsake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Forsook </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Stand </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Stood </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Quoth </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Get </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Got </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt48"><sup>[48]</sup></a>Gat.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The præterite of <i>stand</i> was originally long. This we collect + <!-- Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page310"></a>{310}</span>from the spelling, and from the + Anglo-Saxon form <i>stód</i>. The process that ejects the <i>nd</i> is + the same process that, in Greek, converts <span title="odont-os" class="grk" + >ὀδόντ-ος</span> into <span + title="odous" class="grk" + >ὀδούς</span>.</p> + + <p>All the words with secondary forms will appear again in the eighth + class.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Eighth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect371">§ 371</a>. In this class the sound of the <i>ee</i> + in <i>feet</i>, and the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i> (spelt <i>ea</i>), is + changed into <i>a</i>. Several words of this class have secondary forms. + Further details may be seen in the remarks that come after the following + list of verbs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Strong verbs, eighth class" title="Strong verbs, eighth class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i></td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Primary Præterite.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Secondary Præterite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Speak </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Spake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Spoke.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Break </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Brake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Broke.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cleave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a name="NtA49" href="#Nt49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>Clave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Clove.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Steal </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>Stale </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Stole.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eat </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Ate </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Seethe </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>Sod.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tread </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>Trad </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Trod.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bare </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bore.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Tare </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Tore.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Swear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sware </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Swore.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>Ware </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Wore.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bid </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bade </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sit </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sate </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Give </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Gave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lie </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Lay </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Get </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt49"><sup>[49]</sup></a>Gat </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Got.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Here observe,—1. That in <i>speak</i>, <i>cleave</i>, + <i>steal</i>, the <i>ea</i> has the same power with the <i>ee</i> in + <i>freeze</i> and <i>seethe</i>; so that it may be dealt with as the long + (or independent) sound of the <i>i</i> in <i>bid</i>, <i>sit</i>, + <i>give</i>.</p> + + <p>2. That the same view may be taken of the <i>ea</i> in <i>break</i>, + although the word by some persons is pronounced <i>brake</i>. + <i>Gabrika</i>, <i>gabrak</i>, Mœso-Gothic; <i>briku</i>, + <i>brak</i>, Old Saxon; <i>brece</i>, <i>brac</i>, Anglo-Saxon. Also of + <i>bear</i>, <i>tear</i>, <i>swear</i>, <i>wear</i>. In the provincial + dialects these words are even now pronounced <i>beer</i>, <i>teer</i>, + <i>sweer</i>. The forms in the allied languages are, in <!-- Page 311 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page311"></a>{311}</span>respect to + these last-mentioned words, less confirmatory; Mœso-Gothic, + <i>svara</i>, <i>báira</i>; Old High German, <i>sverju</i>, + <i>piru</i>.</p> + + <p>3. That the <i>ea</i> in <i>tread</i> was originally long; + Anglo-Saxon, <i>tredan</i>, <i>trede</i>, <i>trǽd</i>, + <i>treden</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Lie.</i>—Here the sound is diphthongal, having grown out + of the Anglo-Saxon forms <i>licgan</i>, <i>lǽg</i>, + <i>legen</i>.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Sat.</i>—The original præterite was long. This we collect + from the spelling <i>sate</i>, and from the Anglo-Saxon + <i>sǽt</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Ninth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect372">§ 372</a>. <i>A</i>, as in <i>fate</i>, is changed + either into the <i>o</i> in <i>note</i>, or the <i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>. + Here it should be noticed that, unlike <i>break</i> and <i>swear</i>, + &c., there is no tendency to sound the <i>a</i> of the present as + <i>ee</i>, neither is there, as was the case with <i>clove</i> and + <i>spoke</i>, any tendency to secondary forms in <i>a</i>. A partial + reason for this lies in the original nature of the vowel. The original + vowel in <i>speak</i> was <i>e</i>. If this was the <i>é fermé</i> of the + French, it was a sound from which the <i>a</i> in <i>fate</i> and the + <i>ee</i> in <i>feet</i> might equally have been evolved. The vowel sound + of the verbs of the present class was that of <i>a</i> for the present + and that of <i>ó</i> for the præterite forms; as <i>wace</i>, <i>wóc</i>, + <i>grafe</i>, <i>gróf</i>. Now of these two sounds it may be said that + the <i>a</i> has no tendency to become the <i>ee</i> in <i>feet</i>, and + that the <i>ó</i> has no tendency to become the <i>a</i> in + <i>fate</i>.</p> + + <p>The sounds that are evolved from the accentuated <i>ó</i>, are the + <i>o</i> in <i>note</i> and the <i>oo</i> in <i>book</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Strong verbs, ninth class" title="Strong verbs, ninth class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> <i>Præterite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Awake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Awoke.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Woke.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lade </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a name="NtA50" href="#Nt50"><sup>[50]</sup></a>Lode.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Grave </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="#Nt50"><sup>[50]</sup></a>Grove.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Take </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Took.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Shook.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Forsake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Forsook.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shape </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="#Nt50"><sup>[50]</sup></a>Shope.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Tenth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect373">§ 373</a>. Containing the single word <i>strike</i>, + <i>struck</i>, <i>stricken</i>. It is only in the Middle High German, the + Middle Dutch, the New High German, the Modern Dutch, and the English, + that <!-- Page 312 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page312"></a>{312}</span>this word is found in its præterite forms. + These are, in Middle High German, <i>streich</i>; New High German, + <i>strich</i>; Middle Dutch, <i>strêc</i>; Modern Dutch, <i>strîk</i>. + Originally it must have been referable to the ninth class.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Eleventh Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect374">§ 374</a>. In this class we first find the secondary + forms accounted for by the difference of form between the singular and + plural numbers. The change is from the <i>i</i> in <i>bite</i> to the + <i>o</i> in <i>note</i>, and the <i>i</i> in <i>pit</i>. Sometimes it is + from the <i>i</i> in <i>bit</i> to the <i>a</i> in <i>bat</i>. The + Anglo-Saxon conjugation (<span class="scac">A</span>) may be compared + with the present English (<span class="scac">B</span>).</p> + +<p class="cenhead">A.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S Strong verbs, eleventh class" title="A-S Strong verbs, eleventh class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præterite sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præterite plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Scine (<i>shine</i>) </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sceán (<i>I shone</i>) </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scinon (<i>we shone</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Arise (<i>arise</i>) </td><td class="spacsingle"> Arás (<i>I arose</i>) </td><td class="spacsingle"> Arison (<i>we arose</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Smite (<i>smite</i>) </td><td class="spacsingle"> Smát (<i>I smote</i>) </td><td class="spacsingle"> Smiton (<i>we smite</i>).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead">B.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Strong verbs, eleventh class" title="Strong verbs, eleventh class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præt.—Sing. form.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præt.—Pl. form.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Rise </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Rose </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a name="NtA51" href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Ris.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Abide </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Abode </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shine </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Shone </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Smite </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Smote </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Smit.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ride </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Rode </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Rid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Stride </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Strode </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Strid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Slide </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Slode </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Slid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Glide </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Glode </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Chide </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Chode </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Drive </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Drove </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Driv.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Thrive </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Throve </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Thriv.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Strive </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Strove </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Write </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Wrote </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Writ.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Climb </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Clomb </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Slit </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Slat </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Slit.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bite </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt51"><sup>[51]</sup></a>Bat </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bit.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>On this list we may make the following observations and + statements.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 313 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page313"></a>{313}</span></p> + + <p>1. That, with the exception of the word <i>slit</i>, the <i>i</i> is + sounded as a diphthong.</p> + + <p>2. That, with the exception of <i>bat</i> and <i>slat</i>, it is + changed into <i>o</i> in the singular and into <i>ĭ</i> in the + plural forms.</p> + + <p>3. That, with the exception of <i>shone</i>, the <i>o</i> is always + long (or independent).</p> + + <p>4. That, even with the word <i>shone</i>, the <i>o</i> was originally + long. This is known from the final <i>-e</i> mute, and from the + Anglo-Saxon form <i>scéan</i>; Mœso-Gothic, <i>skáin</i>; Old + Norse, <i>skein</i>.</p> + + <p>5. That the <i>o</i>, in English, represents an <i>á</i> in + Anglo-Saxon.</p> + + <p>6. That the statement last made shows that even <i>bat</i> and + <i>slat</i> were once in the same condition with <i>arose</i> and + <i>smote</i>, the Anglo-Saxon forms being <i>arás</i>, <i>smát</i>, + <i>bát</i>, <i>slát</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Twelfth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect375">§ 375</a>. In this class <i>i</i> is generally + short; originally it was always so. In the singular form it becomes + <i>ă</i>, in the plural, <i>ŭ</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Strong verbs, twelfth class" title="Strong verbs, twelfth class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præt.—Sing. form.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præt.—Pl. form.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Swim </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Swam </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Swum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Begin </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Began </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Begun.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Spin </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a name="NtA52" href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Span </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Spun.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Win </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Wan </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a name="NtA53" href="#Nt53"><sup>[53]</sup></a>Won.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Sing </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Swing </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Swang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Swung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Spring </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sprang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sprung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Sting </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Stang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Stung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Ring </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Rang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Rung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Wring </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Wrang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Wrung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Fling </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Flang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Flung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Cling </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Clung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <a href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Hing </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Hang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Hung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> String </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Strang </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Strung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Sling </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Slung.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Sink </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sank </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Sunk.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Drink </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Drank </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Drunk.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Shrink </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Shrank </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Shrunk.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Stink </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt52"><sup>[52]</sup></a>Stank </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Stunk.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Swink </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Slink </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Slunk.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Swell </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Swoll </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> +<!-- Page 314 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page314"></a>{314}</span> + Melt </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a name="NtA54" href="#Nt54"><sup>[54]</sup></a>Molt </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Help </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt54"><sup>[54]</sup></a>Holp </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Delve </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt54"><sup>[54]</sup></a>Dolv </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Dig </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Dug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Stick </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt54"><sup>[54]</sup></a>Stack </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Stuck.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Run </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Ran </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Run.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Burst </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Burst.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Bind </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Band </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Bound.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Find </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3.6em"> <a href="#Nt54"><sup>[54]</sup></a>Fand </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Found.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Grind </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Ground.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em"> Wind </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:5em"> Wound.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Upon this list we make the following observations and + statements:—</p> + + <p>1. That, with the exceptions of <i>bind</i>, <i>find</i>, + <i>grind</i>, and <i>wind</i>, the vowels are short (or dependent) + throughout.</p> + + <p>2. That, with the exception of <i>run</i> and <i>burst</i>, the vowel + of the present tense is either the <i>i</i> or <i>e</i>.</p> + + <p>3. That <i>i</i> short changes into <i>a</i> for the singular, and + into <i>u</i> for the plural forms.</p> + + <p>4. That <i>e</i> changes into <i>o</i> in the singular forms; these + being the only ones preserved.</p> + + <p>5. That the <i>i</i> in <i>bind</i>, &c., changes into <i>ou</i> + in the plural forms; the only ones current.</p> + + <p>6. That the vowel before <i>m</i> or <i>n</i> is, with the single + exception of <i>run</i>, always <i>i</i>.</p> + + <p>7. That the vowel before <i>l</i> and <i>r</i> is, with the single + exception of <i>burst</i>, always <i>e</i>.</p> + + <p>8. That, where the <i>i</i> is sounded as in <i>bind</i>, the + combination following is <i>-nd</i>.</p> + + <p>9. That <i>ng</i> being considered as a modification of <i>k</i> (the + Norse and Mœso-Gothic forms being <i>drecka</i> and + <i>drikjan</i>), it may be stated that <i>i</i> short, in the twelfth + class, precedes either a liquid or a mute of series <i>k</i>.</p> + + <p>From these observations, even on the English forms only, we find thus + much regularity; and from these observations, even on the English forms + only, we may lay down a rule like the following: <i>viz.</i> that + <i>i</i> or <i>u</i>, short, before the consonants <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, + <!-- Page 315 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page315"></a>{315}</span>or <i>ck</i>, is changed into <i>a</i> for + the singular, and into <i>u</i> for the plural forms; that <i>i</i> long, + or diphthongal, becomes <i>ou</i>; that <i>e</i> before <i>l</i> becomes + <i>o</i>; and that <i>u</i> before <i>r</i> remains unchanged.</p> + + <p>This statement, however, is nothing like so general as the one that, + after a comparison of the older forms and the allied languages, we are + enabled to make. Here we are taught,</p> + + <p>1. That, in the words <i>bind</i>, &c., the <i>i</i> was once + pronounced as in <i>till</i>, <i>fill</i>; in other words, that it was + the simple short vowel, and not the diphthong <i>ey</i>; or at least that + it was treated as such.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="-ind verbs in allied languages" title="-ind verbs in allied languages"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center" colspan="4"> <i>Mœso-Gothic.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Binda </td><td class="spacsingle"> Band </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bundum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bundans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bivinda </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bivand </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bivundum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bivundums.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Finþa </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fanþ </td><td class="spacsingle"> Funþum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Funþans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> <i>Anglo-Saxon.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bind </td><td class="spacsingle"> Band </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bundon </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bunden.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Finde </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fand </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fundon </td><td class="spacsingle"> Funden.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Grinde </td><td class="spacsingle"> Grand </td><td class="spacsingle"> Grundon </td><td class="spacsingle"> Grunden.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Winde </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wand </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wundon </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wunden.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; padding-top:1em" colspan="4"> <i>Old Norse.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Finn </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fann </td><td class="spacsingle"> Funðum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Funninn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bind </td><td class="spacsingle"> Batt </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bundum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bundinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Vind </td><td class="spacsingle"> Vatt </td><td class="spacsingle"> Undum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Undinn.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>When the vowel <i>ĭ</i> of the present took the sound of the + <i>i</i> in <i>bite</i>, the <i>ŭ</i> in the præterite became the + <i>ou</i> in <i>mouse</i>. From this we see that the words <i>bind</i>, + &c., are naturally subject to the same changes with <i>spin</i>, + &c., and that, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, they are so still.</p> + + <p>2. That the <i>e</i> in <i>swell</i>, &c., was once + <i>ĭ</i>. This we collect from the following + forms:—<i>hilpa</i>, Mœso-Gothic; <i>hilfu</i>, Old High + German; <i>hilpu</i>, Old Saxon; <i>hilpe</i>, Middle High German; + <i>hilpe</i>, Old Frisian. <i>Suillu</i>=<i>swell</i>, Old High German. + <i>Tilfu</i>=<i>delve</i>, Old High German; <i>dilbu</i>, Old Saxon. + <i>Smilzu</i>, Old High German=<i>smelt</i> or <i>melt</i>. This shows + that originally the vowel <i>i</i> ran throughout, but that before + <i>l</i> and <i>r</i> it was changed into <i>e</i>. This change took + place at different periods in different dialects. The Old Saxon preserved + the <!-- Page 316 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page316"></a>{316}</span><i>i</i> longer than the Anglo-Saxon. It + is found even in the <i>middle</i> High German; in the <i>new</i> it has + become <i>e</i>; as <i>schwelle</i>, <i>schmelze</i>. In one word + <i>milk</i>, the original <i>i</i> is still preserved; although in + Anglo-Saxon it was <i>e</i>; as <i>melce</i>, <i>mealc</i>=<i>milked</i>, + <i>mulcon</i>. In the Norse the change from <i>i</i> to <i>e</i> took + place full soon, as <i>svëll</i>=<i>swells</i>. The Norse language is in + this respect important.</p> + + <p>3. That the <i>o</i> in <i>swoll</i>, <i>holp</i>, was originally + <i>a</i>; as</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The o in swoll, etc. was originally a" title="The o in swoll, etc. was originally a"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Hilpa </td><td class="spacsingle"> Halp </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hulpum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mœso-Gothic.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Suillu </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sual </td><td class="spacsingle"> Suullumês </td><td class="spacsingle"> Old High German.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Hilfu </td><td class="spacsingle"> Half </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hulfumês </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em"> Ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tilfu </td><td class="spacsingle"> Talf </td><td class="spacsingle"> Tulfumês </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em"> Ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Hilpe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Halp </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hulpun </td><td class="spacsingle"> Middle High German.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dilbe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dalp </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dulbun </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em"> Ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Hilpe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Halp </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hulpon </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em"> Ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Svëll </td><td class="spacsingle"> Svall </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sullum </td><td class="spacsingle"> Old Norse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Melte </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mealt </td><td class="spacsingle"> Multon </td><td class="spacsingle"> Anglo-Saxon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Helpe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Haelp </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hulpon </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em"> Ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Delfe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dealf </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dulfon </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:3em"> Ditto.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>4. That a change between <i>a</i> and <i>o</i> took place by times. + The Anglo-Saxon præterite of <i>swelle</i> is <i>sweoll</i>; whilst + <i>ongon</i>, <i>bond</i>, <i>song</i>, <i>gelomp</i>, are found in the + same language for <i>ongan</i>, <i>band</i>, <i>sang</i>, + <i>gelamp</i>.—Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, p. 90.</p> + + <p>5. That <i>run</i> is only an apparent exception, the older form being + <i>rinn</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The rain <i>rinns</i> down through Merriland town;</p> + <p class="i2">So doth it down the Pa.—<i>Old Ballad.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The Anglo-Saxon form is <i>yrnan</i>; in the præterite <i>arn</i>, + <i>urnon</i>. A transposition has since taken place. The word <i>run</i> + seems to have been originally no present, but a præterite form.</p> + + <p>6. That <i>burst</i> is only an apparent exception. Before <i>r</i>, + <i>ĕ</i>, <i>ĭ</i>, <i>ŭ</i>, are pronounced alike. We + draw no distinction between the vowels in <i>pert</i>, <i>flirt</i>, + <i>hurt</i>. The Anglo-Saxon forms are, <i>berste</i>, <i>byrst</i>, + <i>bærse</i>, <i>burston</i>, <i>borsten</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Thirteenth Class.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect376">§ 376</a>. Contains the single word <i>choose</i>, + in the præterite <i>chose</i>; in Anglo-Saxon, <i>ceóse</i>, + <i>ceás</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 317 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page317"></a>{317}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE WEAK TENSES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect377">§ 377</a>. The præterite tense of the weak verbs is + formed by the addition of <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>. If necessary, the + syllable <i>-ed</i> is substituted for <i>-d</i>.</p> + + <p>The current statement that the syllable <i>-ed</i>, rather than the + letter <i>-d</i>, is the sign of the præterite tense, is true only in + regard to the written language. In <i>stabbed</i>, <i>moved</i>, + <i>bragged</i>, <i>whizzed</i>, <i>judged</i>, <i>filled</i>, + <i>slurred</i>, <i>slammed</i>, <i>shunned</i>, <i>barred</i>, + <i>strewed</i>, the <i>e</i> is a point of spelling only. In + <i>language</i>, except in declamation, there is no second vowel sound. + The <i>-d</i> comes in immediate contact with the final letter of the + original word, and the number of syllables remains the same as it was + before.</p> + + <p>When, however, the original word ends in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>, as + <i>slight</i> or <i>brand</i>, then, and then only (and that not always), + is there the addition of the syllable <i>-ed</i>; as in <i>slighted</i>, + <i>branded</i>. This is necessary, since the combinations <i>slightt</i> + and <i>brandd</i> are unpronounceable.</p> + + <p>Whether the addition be <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i> depends upon the + flatness or sharpness of the preceding letter.</p> + + <p>After <i>b</i>, <i>v</i>, <i>th</i> (as in <i>clothe</i>), <i>g</i>, + or <i>z</i>, the addition is <i>-d</i>. This is a matter of necessity. We + say <i>stabd</i>, <i>môvd</i>, <i>clôthd</i>, <i>braggd</i>, + <i>whizzd</i>, because <i>stabt</i>, <i>môvt</i>, <i>clotht</i>, + <i>braggt</i>, <i>whizzt</i>, are unpronounceable.</p> + + <p>After <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>, <i>r</i>, <i>w</i>, <i>y</i>, or a + vowel, the addition is also <i>-d</i>. This is the habit of the English + language. <i>Filt</i>, <i>slurt</i>, <i>strayt</i>, &c., are as + pronounceable as <i>filld</i>, <i>slurrd</i>, <i>strayd</i>, &c. It + is the habit, however, of the English language to prefer the latter + forms. All this, as the reader has probably observed, is merely the + reasoning concerning the <i>s</i>, in words like <!-- Page 318 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page318"></a>{318}</span><i>father's</i>, + &c., applied to another letter and to another part of speech.</p> + + <p>For some historical notices respecting the use of <i>-d</i>, + <i>-t</i>, and <i>-ed</i>, in the spelling of the English præterites and + participles, the reader is referred to the Cambridge Philological Museum, + vol. i. p. 655.</p> + + <p><a name="sect378">§ 378</a>. The verbs of the weak conjugation fall + into three classes. In the first there is the simple addition of + <i>-d</i>, <i>-t</i>, or <i>-ed</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Weak verbs, first class" title="Weak verbs, first class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Serve, served.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cry, cried.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Betray, betrayed.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Expel, expelled.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Accuse, accused.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Instruct, instructed.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Invite, invited.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Waste, wasted.</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dip, dipped (<i>dipt</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Slip, slipped (<i>slipt</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Step, stepped (<i>stept</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Look, looked (<i>lookt</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Pluck, plucked (<i>pluckt</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Toss, tossed (<i>tost</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Push, pushed (<i>pusht</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Confess, confessed (<i>confest</i>)</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>To this class belong the greater part of the weak verbs and all verbs + of foreign origin.</p> + + <p><a name="sect379">§ 379</a>. In the second class, besides the addition + of <i>-t</i> or <i>-d</i>, the vowel is <i>shortened</i>. It also + contains those words which end in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>, and at the same + time have a short vowel in the præterite. Such, amongst others, are + <i>cut</i>, <i>cost</i>, &c., where the two tenses are alike, and + <i>bend</i>, <i>rend</i>, &c., where the præterite is formed from the + present by changing <i>-d</i> into <i>-t</i>, as <i>bent</i>, + <i>rent</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>In the following list, the words ending in <i>-p</i> are remarkable; + since, in Anglo-Saxon, each of them had, instead of a weak, a strong + præterite.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Weak verbs, second class" title="Weak verbs, second class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Leave, left.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cleave, cleft.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bereave, bereft.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Deal, deăl<i>t</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Feel, fel<i>t</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dream, dreăm<i>t</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lean, leăn<i>t</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Learn, learn<i>t</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Creep, crept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sleep, slept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Leap, lept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Keep, kept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Weep, wept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sweep, swept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lose, lost.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Flee, fled.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In this class we sometimes find <i>-t</i> where the <i>-d</i> is + expected; the forms being <i>left</i> and <i>dealt</i>, instead of + <i>leaved</i> and <i>dealed</i>. <!-- Page 319 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page319"></a>{319}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect380">§ 380</a>. Third class.—In the second class + the vowel of the present tense was <i>shortened</i> in the præterite. In + the third class it is <i>changed</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Weak verbs, third class" title="Weak verbs, third class"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tell, told.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Will, would.</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sell, sold.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shall, should.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>To this class belong the remarkable præterites of the verbs + <i>seek</i>, <i>beseech</i>, <i>catch</i>, <i>teach</i>, <i>bring</i>, + <i>think</i>, and <i>buy</i>, <i>viz.</i>, <i>sought</i>, + <i>besought</i>, <i>caught</i>, <i>taught</i>, <i>brought</i>, + <i>thought</i>, and <i>bought</i>. In all these, the final consonant is + either <i>g</i> or <i>k</i>, or else a sound allied to those mutes. When + the tendency of these sounds to become <i>h</i> and <i>y</i>, as well as + to undergo farther changes, is remembered, the forms in point cease to + seem anomalous. In <i>wrought</i>, from <i>work</i>, there is a + transposition. In <i>laid</i> and <i>said</i> the present forms make a + show of regularity which they have not. The true original forms should be + <i>legde</i> and <i>sægde</i>, the infinitives being <i>lecgan</i>, + <i>secgan</i>. In these words the <i>i</i> represents the semivowel + <i>y</i>, into which the original <i>g</i> was changed. The Anglo-Saxon + forms of the other words are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="A-S forms of -ght verbs" title="A-S forms of -ght verbs"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Byegan, bóhte.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sècan, sóhte.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wyrcan, wórhte.</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bringan, bróhte.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Þencan, þóhte.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect381">§ 381</a>. Out of the three classes into which the + weak verbs in Anglo-Saxon are divided, only one takes a vowel before the + <i>d</i> or <i>t</i>. The other two add the syllables <i>-te</i>, or + <i>-de</i>, to the last letter of the original word. The vowel that, in + one out of the three Anglo-Saxon classes, precedes <i>d</i> is <i>o</i>. + Thus we have <i>lufian</i>, <i>lufode</i>; <i>clypian</i>, + <i>clypode</i>. In the other two classes the forms are respectively + <i>bærnan</i>, <i>bærnde</i>; and <i>tellan</i>, <i>tealde</i>, no vowel + being found. The participle, however, as stated above, ended, not in + <i>-de</i> or <i>-te</i>, but in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>; and in two out + of the three classes it was preceded by a vowel, <i>gelufod</i>, + <i>bærned</i>, <i>geteald</i>. Now in those conjugations where no vowel + preceded the <i>d</i> of the præterite, and where the original word ended + in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>, a difficulty, which has already been + indicated, arose. To add the sign of the præterite to a word like + <i>eard-ian</i> (<i>to dwell</i>) was an easy matter, inasmuch as <!-- + Page 320 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page320"></a>{320}</span><i>eardian</i> was a word belonging to the + first class, and in the first class the præterite was formed in + <i>-ode</i>. Here the vowel <i>o</i> kept the two d's from coming in + contact. With words, however, like <i>métan</i> and <i>sendan</i>, this + was not the case. Here no vowel intervened; so that the natural præterite + forms were <i>met-te</i>, <i>send-de</i>, combinations wherein one of the + letters ran every chance of being dropped in the pronunciation. Hence, + with the exception of the verbs in the first class, words ending in + <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i> in the root admitted no additional <i>d</i> or + <i>t</i> in the præterite. This difficulty, existing in the present + English as it existed in the Anglo-Saxon, modifies the præterites of most + words ending in <i>-t</i> or <i>-d</i>.</p> + + <p>In several words there is the actual addition of the syllable + <i>-ed</i>; in other words <i>d</i> is separated from the last letter of + the original word by the addition of a vowel; as <i>ended</i>, + <i>instructed</i>, &c. Of this <i>e</i> two views may be taken.</p> + + <p>1. It may be derived from the original <i>o</i> in <i>-ode</i>, the + termination of the first class in Anglo-Saxon. This is the opinion which + we form when the word in question is known to have belonged to the + Anglo-Saxon language, and, in it, to the first class. <i>Ended</i>, + <i>planted</i>, <i>warded</i>, <i>hated</i>, <i>heeded</i>, are (amongst + others) words of this sort; their Anglo-Saxon forms being <i>endode</i>, + <i>plantode</i>, <i>weardode</i>, <i>hatode</i>, and <i>eahtode</i>, from + <i>endian</i>, <i>plantian</i>, <i>weardian</i>, <i>hatian</i>, and + <i>eahtian</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The form may be looked upon, not as that of the præterite, but as + that of the participle in a transferred sense. This is the view when we + have two forms, one with the vowel, and the other without it, as + <i>bended</i> and <i>bent</i>, <i>wended</i> and <i>went</i>, + <i>plighted</i> and <i>plight</i>.</p> + + <p>A. In several words the final <i>-d</i> is changed into <i>-t</i>, as + <i>bend</i>, <i>bent</i>; <i>rend</i>, <i>rent</i>; <i>send</i>, + <i>sent</i>; <i>gild</i>, <i>gilt</i>; <i>build</i>, <i>built</i>; + <i>spend</i>, <i>spent</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>B. In several words the vowel of the root is changed; as <i>feed</i>, + <i>fed</i>; <i>bleed</i>, <i>bled</i>; <i>breed</i>, <i>bred</i>; + <i>meet</i>, <i>met</i>; <i>speed</i>, <i>sped</i>; <i>rēad</i>, + <i>rĕad</i>, &c. Words of this last-named class cause + occasional difficulty to the grammarian. No addition is made to the root, + and, in this circumstance, they agree with the strong verbs. Moreover, + there is a change of the vowel. <!-- Page 321 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page321"></a>{321}</span>In this circumstance also they agree with + the strong verbs. Hence with forms like <i>fed</i> and <i>led</i> we are + in doubt as to the conjugation. This doubt we have three means of + settling, as may be shown by the word <i>beat</i>.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> <i>By the form of the participle.</i>—The <i>-en</i> + in <i>beaten</i> shows that the word <i>beat</i> is strong.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>By the nature of the vowel.</i>—The weak form of + <i>to beat</i> would be <i>bet</i>, or <i>beăt</i>, after the + analogy of <i>feed</i> and <i>rēad</i>. By some persons the word is + pronounced <i>bet</i>, and with those who do so the word is weak.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> <i>By a knowledge of the older forms.</i>—The + Anglo-Saxon form is <i>beáte</i>, <i>beot</i>. There is no such a weak + form as <i>beáte</i>, <i>bætte</i>. The præterite of <i>sendan</i> is + <i>sende</i>, weak. There is in Anglo-Saxon no such form as <i>sand</i>, + strong.</p> + + <p>In all this we see a series of expedients for separating the præterite + form from the present, when the root ends with the same sound with which + the affix begins.</p> + + <p>The addition of the vowel takes place only in verbs of the first + class.</p> + + <p>The change from a long vowel to a short one, as in <i>feed</i>, + <i>fed</i>, &c., can only take place where there is a long vowel to + be changed.</p> + + <p>Where the vowels are short, and, at the same time, the word ends in + <i>-d</i>, the <i>-d</i> of the present may become <i>-t</i> in the + præterite. Such is the case with <i>bend</i>, <i>bent</i>.</p> + + <p>When there is no long vowel to shorten, and no <i>-d</i> to change + into <i>-t</i>, the two tenses, of necessity, remain alike; such is the + case with <i>cut</i>, <i>cost</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Words like <i>planted</i>, <i>heeded</i>, &c., belong to the first + class. Words like <i>feed</i>, <i>lead</i>, to the second class. + <i>Bend</i> and <i>cut</i> belong also to the second class; they belong + to it, however, by what may be termed an etymological fiction. The vowel + would be changed if it could.</p> + + <p><a name="sect382">§ 382</a>. <i>Made, had.</i>—In these words + there is nothing remarkable but the ejection of a consonant. The + Anglo-Saxon forms are <i>macode</i> and <i>hæfde</i>, respectively. The + words, however, in regard to the amount of change, are not upon a par. + The <i>f</i> in <i>hæfde</i> was probably sounded as <i>v</i>. Now + <i>v</i> <!-- Page 322 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page322"></a>{322}</span>is a letter excessively liable to be + ejected, which <i>k</i> is not. <i>K</i>, before it is ejected, is + generally changed into either <i>g</i> or <i>y</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Would, should, could.</i>—It must not be imagined that + <i>could</i> is in the same predicament with these words. In <i>will</i> + and <i>shall</i> the <i>-l</i> is part of the original word. This is not + the case with <i>can</i>. For the form <i>could</i>, see the Chapter upon + Irregularity.</p> + + <p><i>Aught.</i>—In Anglo-Saxon <i>áhte</i>, the præterite of the + present form <i>áh</i>, plural <i>ágan</i>.—As late as the time of + Elizabeth we find <i>owe</i> used for <i>own</i>. The present form + <i>own</i> seems to have arisen from the plural <i>ágen</i>. <i>Aught</i> + is the præterite of the Anglo-Saxon <i>áh</i>; <i>owed</i> of the English + <i>owe</i>=<i>debeo</i>; <i>owned</i> of the English + <i>own</i>=<i>possideo</i>. The word <i>own</i>, in the expression <i>to + own to a thing</i>, has a totally different origin. It comes from the + Anglo-Saxon <i>an</i> (plural, <i>unnon</i>)=<i>I give</i>, or + <i>grant</i>=<i>concedo</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Durst.</i>—The verb <i>dare</i> is both transitive and + intransitive. We can say either <i>I dare do such a thing</i>, or <i>I + dare</i> (<i>challenge</i>) <i>such a man to do it</i>. This, in the + present tense, is unequivocally correct. In the past the double power of + the word <i>dare</i> is ambiguous; still it is, to my mind at least, + allowable. We can certainly say <i>I dared him to accept my + challenge</i>; and we can, perhaps, say <i>I dared venture on the + expedition</i>. In this last sentence, however, <i>durst</i> is the + preferable expression.</p> + + <p>Now, although <i>dare</i> is both transitive and intransitive, + <i>durst</i> is only intransitive. It never agrees with the Latin word + <i>provoco</i>; only with the Latin word <i>audeo</i>. Moreover, the word + <i>durst</i> has both a present and a past sense. The difficulty which it + presents consists in the presence of the <i>-st</i>, letters + characteristic of the second person singular, but here found in all the + persons alike; as <i>I durst</i>, <i>they durst</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>The Mœso-Gothic forms are <i>dar</i>, <i>dart?</i> <i>dar</i>, + <i>daúrum</i>, <i>daúruþ</i>, <i>daúrun</i>, for the persons of the + present tense; and <i>daúrsta</i>, <i>daúrstês</i>, <i>daúrsta</i>, + &c., for those of the præterite. The same is the case throughout the + Germanic languages. No <i>-s</i>, however, appears in the Scandinavian; + the præterites being <i>þorði</i> and <i>törde</i>, Icelandic and Danish. + The Anglo-Saxon is <i>dear</i>=<i>I dare</i>, <i>dearst</i>=<i>thou + darest</i>, <i>durron</i>=<i>we</i>, <!-- Page 323 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page323"></a>{323}</span><i>ye</i>, or <i>they + dare</i>; subjunctive, <i>durre</i>, <i>dorste</i>, <i>dorston</i>. Old + Saxon, present, <i>dar</i>; præterite <i>dursta</i>. The + Mœso-Gothic tense, <i>daúrsta</i>, instead of <i>daúrda</i>, shows + the antiquity of this form in <i>-s</i>.</p> + + <p>The readiest mode of accounting for the form in question is to suppose + that the second singular has been extended over all the other persons. + This view, however, is traversed by the absence of the <i>-s</i> in the + Mœso-Gothic present. The form there (real or presumed) is not + <i>darst</i>, but <i>dart</i>. Of this latter form, however, it must be + remarked that its existence is hypothetical.</p> + + <p>In Matthew xxvi. 67, of the Mœso-Gothic Gospel of Ulphilas, is + found the form <i>kaúpastêdun</i>, instead of <i>kaúpatidédun</i>, the + præterite plural of <i>kaúpatjan</i>=<i>to beat</i>. Here there is a + similar insertion of the <i>-s</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, i. 848, + 852, 853.</p> + + <p>The <i>-s</i> in <i>durst</i> has still to be satisfactorily accounted + for.</p> + + <p><i>Must.</i>—A form common to all persons, numbers, and tenses. + That neither the <i>-s</i> nor the <i>-t</i> are part of the original + root, is indicated by the Scandinavian form <i>maae</i> (Danish), + pronounced <i>moh</i>; præterite <i>maatte</i>.</p> + + <p>The readiest mode of accounting for the <i>-s</i> in <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'most'."><i>must</i></span>, is + to presume that it belongs to the second singular, extended to the other + persons, <i>mo-est</i>=<i>must</i>. Irrespective, however, of other + objections, this view is traversed by the forms <i>môtan</i>, + Mœso-Gothic (an infinitive), and <i>mót</i>, Mœso-Gothic, Old + Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon (a first person present). These neutralise the + evidence given by the Danish form <i>maae</i>, and indicate that the + <i>-t</i> is truly a part of the original root.</p> + + <p>Now, the <i>-t</i> being considered as part of the root, the <i>-s</i> + cannot be derived from the second singular; inasmuch as it precedes, + instead of following the <i>-t</i>.</p> + + <p>At one time, for want of a better theory, I conceived, that in the + word in point (and also in <i>durst</i> and a few others), we had traces + of the Scandinavian passive. This notion I have, for evident reasons, + abandoned.</p> + + <p>In p. <a href="#page298">298</a> it was stated that the + Mœso-Gothic termination of the second singular of the strong + præterites was <i>-t</i>. It is <!-- Page 324 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page324"></a>{324}</span>here mentioned that <i>must</i> is a + præterite form. Now the final letter of the root <i>mot</i>, and the sign + of the second singular of the strong præterite, are the same, <i>-t</i>. + Now, as <i>-t</i> cannot be immediately added to <i>t</i>, the natural + form of the second singular <i>mót-t</i> is impracticable. Hence, before + the <i>-t</i> of the second person, the <i>-t</i> of the root is changed, + so that, instead of <i>máimáit-t</i>, <i>bigat-t</i>, <i>fáifalþ-t</i>, + <i>láilot-t</i>, &c., we have <i>máimáis-t</i>, <i>bigas-t</i>, + <i>fáifals-t</i>, <i>láilos-t</i>, &c., Mœso-Gothic.—See + Deutsche Grammatik, 844.</p> + + <p>The euphonic reason for the <i>-s</i>, in <i>must</i>, is sufficient + to show that it is in a different predicament from <i>durst</i>.</p> + + <p>The provincial form <i>mun</i>, there or thereabouts equivalent in + meaning to <i>must</i>, has no etymological connexion with this last + named word. It is a distinct word, in Scandinavian <i>monne</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Wist.</i>—In its present form a regular præterite from + <i>wiss</i>=<i>know</i>. The difficulties of this word arise from the + parallel forms <i>wit</i> (as in <i>to wit</i>), and + <i>wot</i>=<i>knew</i>. The following are the forms of this peculiar + word:—</p> + + <p>In Mœso-Gothic, 1 sing. pres. ind. <i>váit</i>; 2. do., + <i>váist</i>; 1. pl. <i>vitum</i>; præterite 1. s. <i>vissa</i>; 2 + <i>vissêss</i>; 1. pl. <i>vissêdum</i>. From the form <i>váist</i> we see + that the second singular is formed after the manner of <i>must</i>; that + is, <i>váist</i> stands instead of <i>váit-t</i>. From the form + <i>vissêdum</i> we see that the præterite is not strong, but weak; + therefore that <i>vissa</i> is euphonic for <i>vista</i>.</p> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon.—<i>Wât</i>, <i>wâst</i>, <i>witon</i>, + <i>wiste</i> and <i>wisse</i>, <i>wiston</i>.—Here the double + forms, <i>wiste</i> and <i>wisse</i>, verify the statement concerning the + Mœso-Gothic <i>vissa</i>.</p> + + <p>In Icelandic.—<i>Veit</i>, <i>veizt</i>, <i>vitum</i>, + <i>vissi</i>. Danish <i>ved</i>, <i>vide</i>, <i>vidste</i>. Observe the + form <i>vidste</i>; since, in it, the <i>-d</i> of the root (in spelling, + at least), is preserved. The <i>-t</i> of the Anglo-Saxon <i>wiste</i> is + the <i>-t</i>, not of the root, but of the inflection.</p> + + <p>In respect to the four forms in question, <i>viz.</i>, <i>wit</i>, + <i>wot</i>, <i>wiss</i>, <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'wsst'." + ><i>wist</i></span>; the first seems to be the root; the second a strong + præterite regularly formed, but used (like <span title="oida" class="grk" + >οἶδα</span> in Greek) with a present sense; + the third a weak præterite, of which the <i>-t</i> has been ejected by a + euphonic process, used also with a <!-- Page 325 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page325"></a>{325}</span>present sense; the + fourth is a second singular from <i>wiss</i> after the manner of + <i>wert</i> from <i>were</i>, a second singular from <i>wit</i> after the + manner of <i>must</i>, a secondary præterite from <i>wiss</i>, or + finally, the form <i>wisse</i>, anterior to the operation of the euphonic + process that ejected the <i>-t</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Do.</i>—In the phrase <i>this will do</i>=<i>this will answer + the purpose</i>, the word <i>do</i> is wholly different from the word + <i>do</i>, meaning <i>to act</i>. In the first case it is equivalent to + the Latin <i>valere</i>; in the second to the Latin <i>facere</i>. Of the + first the Anglo-Saxon inflection is <i>deáh</i>, <i>dugon</i>, + <i>dohte</i>, <i>dohtest</i>, &c. Of the second it is <i>dó</i>, + <i>dóð</i>, <i>dyde</i>, &c. I doubt whether the præterite + did<i>,</i> as equivalent to <i>valebat</i>=<i>was good for</i>, is + correct. In the phrase <i>it did for him</i>=<i>it finished him</i>, + either meaning may be allowed.</p> + + <p>In the present Danish they write <i>duger</i>, but say <i>duer</i>: as + <i>duger et noget?</i>=<i>Is it worth anything?</i> pronounced <i>dooer + deh note?</i> This accounts for the ejection of the <i>g</i>. The + Anglo-Saxon form <i>deah</i> does the same.</p> + + <p>In respect to the præterite of <i>do</i>=<i>facio</i>, difficulties + present themselves.</p> + + <p>Is the word weak?—This is the view that arises from the form + <i>did</i>. The participle <i>done</i> traverses this view.</p> + + <p>Is the word strong?—In favour of this notion we have the English + participle <i>done</i>, and the præterite second singular in Old High + German <i>tâti</i>. Against it are the Old Saxon <i>dédos</i>, and the + Anglo-Saxon <i>dydest</i>, as second singulars.</p> + + <p>Is there a reduplication?—If this were the case, we might assume + such a form as <i>dôan</i>, <i>dáidô</i>, for the Mœso-Gothic. This + view, however, is traversed by the substantival forms <i>dêds</i>, + Mœso-Gothic; <i>tât</i>, Old High German; <i>dæd</i>, Anglo-Saxon; + which show that the second <i>-d</i> is part of the original word.</p> + + <p>The true nature of the form <i>did</i> has yet to be + exhibited.—See Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1041.</p> + + <p><i>Mind—mind and do so and so.</i>—In this sentence the + word <i>mind</i> is wholly different from the noun <i>mind</i>. The + Anglo-Saxon forms are <i>geman</i>, <i>gemanst</i>, <i>gemunon</i>, + without the <i>-d</i>; this letter occurring only in the præterite tense + (<i>gemunde</i>, <!-- Page 326 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page326"></a>{326}</span><i>gemundon</i>), of which it is the sign. + <i>Mind</i> is, then, a præterite form with a present sense; whilst + <i>minded</i> (as in <i>he minded his business</i>) is an instance of + excess of inflection; in other words, it is a præterite formed from a + præterite.</p> + + <p>A præterite formed upon a præterite may also be called a secondary + præterite; just as the word <i>theirs</i>, derived from <i>their</i> (a + case formed from a case), is called a secondary genitive.</p> + + <p>In like manner the present form <i>mind</i> is not a genuine present, + but a præterite with a present sense; <i>its form being taken as the + test</i>. Presents of this sort may be called transformed præterites.</p> + + <p>It is very evident that the præterites most likely to become present + are those of the strong class. In the first place, the fact of their + being præterite is less marked. The word <i>tell</i> carries with it + fewer marks of its tense than the word <i>moved</i>. In the second place + they can more conveniently give rise to secondary præterites. A weak + præterite already ends in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>. If this be used as a + present, a second <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i> must be appended.</p> + + <p>Hence it is that all the transposed præterites in the Gothic tongues + were, before they took the present sense, not weak, but strong. The word + in question, <i>mind</i> (from whence <i>minded</i>), is only an apparent + exception to this statement.</p> + + <p>Now the words <i>shall</i>, <i>can</i>, <i>owe</i> (whence + <i>aught</i>), <i>dare</i>, <i>may</i>, <i>man</i> (of the Anglo-Saxon + <i>geman</i>, the origin of <i>mind</i>), are, (irrespective of their + other peculiarities), for certain etymological reasons, looked upon as + præterite forms with a present sense.</p> + + <p>And the words <i>should</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>aught</i>, <i>dared</i> + (or <i>durst</i>), <i>must</i>, <i>wist</i>, <i>might</i>, <i>mind</i>, + are, for certain etymological reasons, looked upon as secondary + præterites.</p> + + <p>This fact alters our view of the form <i>minded</i>. Instead of being + a secondary præterite, it is a tertiary one. <i>Geman</i> (the apparent + present) being dealt with as a strong præterite with a present sense, + <i>mind</i> (from the Anglo-Saxon <i>gemunde</i>) is the secondary + præterite, and <i>minded</i> (from the English <i>mind</i>) is a tertiary + præterite. To analyse the word, the <!-- Page 327 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page327"></a>{327}</span>præterite is first + formed by the vowel <i>a</i>, then by the addition of <i>-d</i>, and, + thirdly, by the termination <i>-ed</i>; <i>man</i>, <i>mind</i>, + <i>minded</i>.</p> + + <p>The proof of this we collect from the second persons singular, + Mœso-Gothic. The second singular præterite of the strong class is + <i>-t</i>; of the weak class, <i>-es</i>; of the present, both weak and + strong, <i>-s</i>. Now the second singular of the words in point is + <i>skal-t</i>, <i>kan-t</i>, <i>áih-t</i>, <i>dar-t?</i> <i>mag-t</i>, + <i>man-t</i>, respectively.—Deutsche Grammatik, i. 852.</p> + + <p>Besides this, in Anglo-Saxon, the plural forms are those of the strong + præterites. See Rask, p. 79.</p> + + <p><i>Yode.</i>—The obsolete præterite of <i>go</i>, now replaced + by <i>went</i>, the præterite of <i>wend</i>. Regular, except that the + initial <i>g</i> has become <i>y</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 328 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page328"></a>{328}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON CONJUGATION.</p> + + <p><a name="sect383">§ 383</a>. The current statement respecting verbs + like <i>sing</i> and <i>fall</i>, &c., is that they are irregular. + How far this is the case may be seen from a review of the twelve classes + in Mœso-Gothic, where the change of the vowel is subject to fewer + irregularities than elsewhere. In the first six conjugations the + præterite is replaced by a perfect tense. Consequently, there is a + reduplication. Of these the fifth and sixth superadd to the reduplication + a change of the vowel.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Moeso-Gothic strong verb classes" title="Moeso-Gothic strong verb classes"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom" colspan="2"> <i>Past.<a name="NtA55" href="#Nt55"><sup>[55]</sup></a></i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Past Participle.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Sing.</i></td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Plural.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 1.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Salta </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Sáisalt </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Sáisaltum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Saltans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Leap.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 2.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Háita </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Háiháit </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Háiháitum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Háitans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Call.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 3.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Hláupa </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Hláiláup </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Hláiláupum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Hláupans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Run.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 4.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Slêpa </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Sáizlêp </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Sáislêpum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Slêpans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Sleep.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 5.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Láia </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Láilô </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Láilôum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Láilans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Laugh.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 6.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Grêta </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gáigrôt </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gáigrôtum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Grêtans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Weep.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 7.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Svara </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Svôr </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Svôrum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Svarans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Swear.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 8.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Greipa </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gráip </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gripum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gripans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Gripe.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 9.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Biuda </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Báuþ </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Budum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Budans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Offer.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 10.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Giba </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gab </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gêbum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Gibans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Give.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 11.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Stila </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Stal </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Stêlum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Stulans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Stole.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 12.</td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Rinna </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Rann </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Runnum </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> Runnans </td><td class="spacsingle" style="vertical-align:bottom"> <i>Run.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Exhibited in a tabular form, the changes of the vowels in + Mœso-Gothic are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Moeso-Gothic strong verb vowel changes" title="Moeso-Gothic strong verb vowel changes"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Prs.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Pst. S.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Pst. Pl.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Part.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 1. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 2. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ái </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ái </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ái </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ái</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> +<!-- Page 329 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page329"></a>{329}</span> + 3. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> áu </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> áu </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> áu </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> áu</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 4. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 5. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ái </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ô </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ô </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 6. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ô </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ô </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Prs.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Pst. S.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Pst. Pl.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Part.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 7. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ô </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ô </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 8. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ei </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ái </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> i </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> i</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 9. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> iu </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> áu </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> u </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> u</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 10. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> i </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> i</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 11. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> i </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> ê </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> u</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right"> 12. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> i </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> a </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> u </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em"> u</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect384">§ 384</a>. Such is the arrangement of the strong + verbs in Mœso-Gothic, with which the arrangement of the strong + verbs in the other Gothic languages may or may not coincide.</p> + + <p>For a full and perfect coincidence three things are + necessary:—1. the coincidence of form; 2. the coincidence of + distribution; 3. the coincidence of order.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Coincidence of form.</i>.—Compared with the + Mœso-Gothic <i>rinna</i>, <i>rann</i>, <i>runnum</i>, + <i>runnans</i>, the Old High German inflection coincides most rigidly; + <i>e.g.</i>, <i>rinnu</i>, <i>ran</i>, <i>runnumês</i>, <i>runnanê</i>. + The vowel is the same in the two languages, and it is similarly changed + in each. It is very evident that this might be otherwise. The + Mœso-Gothic <i>i</i> might have become <i>e</i>, or the <i>u</i> + might have become <i>o</i>. In this case, the formula for the two + languages would not have been the same. Instead of <i>i, a, u, u</i> (see + the tabular arrangement), serving for the Old High German as well as the + Mœso-Gothic, the formula would have been, for the + Mœso-Gothic, <i>i, a, u, u</i>, and for the Old High German <i>e, + a, u, u</i>, or <i>i, a, o, o</i>. The forms in this latter case would + have been equivalent, but not the same.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Coincidence of distribution.</i>—A given number of words + in the Mœso-Gothic form their præterites by changing <i>i</i> into + <i>a</i>; in other words, a given number of verbs in Mœso-Gothic + are inflected like <i>rinna</i> and <i>rann</i>. The same is the case + with the Old High German. Now if these words are the same in the two + languages, the Mœso-Gothic and the Old High German (as far as the + agreement extends) coincide in the distribution of their verbs; that is, + the same words are arranged in the same class, or (changing the phrase) + are distributed alike.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Coincidence of order.</i>—The conjugation to which the + Mœso-Gothic words <i>rinna</i> and <i>rann</i> belong is the + twelfth. The same is the case in Old High German. It might, <!-- Page 330 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page330"></a>{330}</span>however, have + been the case that in Old High German the class corresponding with the + twelfth in Mœso-Gothic was the first, second, third, or any + other.</p> + + <p>Now a coincidence of form, a coincidence of distribution, and a + coincidence of order, in all the classes of all the Gothic languages, is + more than can be expected. If such were the case, the tenses would be + identical throughout.</p> + + <p>Coincidence of form is infringed upon by the simple tendency of sounds + to change. <i>Hilpa</i> in Mœso-Gothic is <i>helpe</i> in + Anglo-Saxon: <i>hulpans</i> in Mœso-Gothic is <i>holfanêr</i> in + Old High German, and <i>holpen</i> in Anglo-Saxon. A change, however, of + this sort is insufficient to affect the arrangement. <i>Helpan</i>, in + Anglo-Saxon, is placed in the same class with <i>spinnan</i>; and all + that can be said is, that the Mœso-Gothic <i>i</i> is, in + Anglo-Saxon, represented not by <i>i</i> exclusively, but sometimes by + <i>i</i> and sometimes by <i>ĕ</i>.</p> + + <p>Coincidence of distribution is of great etymological importance. A + word may in one stage of a language take the form of one conjugation, and + in another that of another. The word <i>climban</i> is, in Anglo-Saxon, + placed in the same conjugation with <i>drincan</i>, &c. For this + there was a reason; <i>viz.</i>, the fact of the <i>i</i> being short. + For the <i>i</i> being short there was a reason also. The <i>b</i> + preceded the vowel <i>a</i>, and consequently was sounded. This was the + case whether the word was divided <i>clim-ban</i> or <i>climb-an</i>. + <i>An</i>, however, was no part of the original word, but only the sign + of the infinitive mood. As such it became ejected. The letter <i>b</i> + then came at the end of the word; but as the combination <i>mb</i>, + followed by nothing was unstable, <i>b</i> was soon lost in + pronunciation. Now <i>b</i> being lost, the vowel which was once short + became lengthened, or rather it became the sound of the diphthong + <i>ei</i>; so that the word was no longer called <i>clĭmb</i>, but + <i>clime</i>. Now the words that follow the analogy of <i>spin</i>, + <i>span</i> ,&c. (and consequently constitute the twelfth class), do + so, not because the vowel is <i>i</i>, but because it is a short + <i>i</i>; and when the <i>i</i> is sounded like a diphthong, the + præterite is formed differently. The Anglo-Saxon præterite of + <i>climban</i> was sounded <i>clŏmm</i>, and rhymed to <i>from</i>; + the English præterite (when strong) of <!-- Page 331 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page331"></a>{331}</span><i>climb</i> is sounded + <i>clōmbe</i>, rhyming to <i>roam</i>. The word <i>climb</i>, which + was once classed with <i>spin</i> and <i>sing</i>, is now to be classed + with <i>arise</i> and <i>smite</i>; in other words, it is distributed + differently.</p> + + <p>Coincidence in the order of the classes is violated when a class which + was (for instance) the third in one language becomes, in another language + the fourth, &c. In Mœso-Gothic the class containing the words + <i>smeita</i>, <i>smáit</i>, <i>smitum</i>, <i>smitans</i>, is the + eighth. This is a natural place for it. In the class preceding it, the + vowel is the same in both numbers. In the classes that follow it, the + vowel is changed in the plural. The number of classes that in + Mœso-Gothic change the vowel is five; <i>viz.</i>, the eighth, + ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth. Of these the eighth is the first. + The classes where the change in question takes place form a natural + subdivision, of which the eighth class stands at the head. Now in + Anglo-Saxon the vowel is not changed so much as in the Mœso-Gothic. + In words like <i>choose</i>, <i>give</i>, and <i>steal</i>, the vowel + remains unaltered in the plural. In Mœso-Gothic, however, these + words are, respectively, of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh classes. It is + not till we get to the eleventh that the Anglo-Saxon plurals take a fresh + vowel. As the presence or absence of a change of vowel naturally + regulates the order of the classes, the eighth class in Mœso-Gothic + becomes the eleventh in Anglo-Saxon. If it were not so, the classes where + a change took place in the plural would be separated from each other.</p> + + <p>The later the stage of the language, the less complete the coincidence + in the classes.</p> + + <p>Of the present arrangement, the twelfth class coincides most + throughout the Gothic languages.</p> + + <p>In the word <i>climb</i>, a reason was given for its having changed + from the twelfth class to the eleventh class. This, in the present state + of our knowledge, cannot always be done.</p> + + <p>These statements are made lest the reader should expect to find + between the English and the Anglo-Saxon classification anything more than + a partial coincidence. A detailed exhibition of the English conjugations + would form a work of <!-- Page 332 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page332"></a>{332}</span>itself. Moreover, the present classes of + the strong verbs must, to a great degree, be considered as + provisional.</p> + + <p>Observe, that it is the <i>classes</i> of the strong verbs that are + provisional. With the great divisions into weak and strong, the case is + far otherwise. The general assertions which will be made in p. <a + href="#page333">333</a>, respecting the strong conjugation, show most + cogently that the division is a natural one.</p> + + <p><a name="sect385">§ 385</a>. Preliminary, however, to making them, the + reader's attention is directed to the following list of verbs. In the + present English they all form the præterite in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>; in + Anglo-Saxon, they all form it by a change of the vowel. In other words + they are weak verbs that were once strong.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Weak verbs which were once strong" title="Weak verbs which were once strong"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"> <i>Præterites.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black" colspan="2"> <i>English.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <i>Anglo-Saxon.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Præterite.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Present.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Præterite.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wreak </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Wreaked. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wrece </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wrǽc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fret </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Fretted. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Frete </td><td class="spacsingle"> Frǽt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Mete </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Meted. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mete </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mǽt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shear </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Sheared. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scere </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scear.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Braid </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Braided. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Brede </td><td class="spacsingle"> Brǽd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Knead </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Kneaded. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cnede </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cnǽd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dread </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Dreaded. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Drǽde </td><td class="spacsingle"> Dred.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sleep </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Slept. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Slápe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Slep.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fold </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Folded. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fealde </td><td class="spacsingle"> Feold.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wield </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Wielded. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wealde </td><td class="spacsingle"> Weold.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wax </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Waxed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Weaxe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Weox.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Leap </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Leapt. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hleápe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hleop.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sweep </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Swept. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Swápe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sweop.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Weep </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Wept. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wepe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Weop.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sow </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Sowed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sáwe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Seow.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bake </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Baked. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bace </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bók.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Gnaw </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Gnawed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gnage </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gnóh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Laugh </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Laughed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hlihhe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hlóh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wade </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Waded. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wade </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wód.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lade </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Laded. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hlade </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hlód.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Grave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Graved. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Grafe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gróf.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shave </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Shaved. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scafe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scóf.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Step </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Stepped. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Steppe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Stóp.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Wash </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Washed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wacse </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wócs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bellow </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Bellowed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Belge </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bealh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 333 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page333"></a>{333}</span> + Swallow </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Swallowed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Swelge </td><td class="spacsingle"> Swealh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Mourn </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Mourned. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Murne </td><td class="spacsingle"> Mearn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Spurn </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Spurned. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Spurne </td><td class="spacsingle"> Spearn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Carve </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Carved. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ceorfe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Cearf.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Starve </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Starved. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Steorfe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Stærf.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Thresh </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Threshed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Þersce </td><td class="spacsingle"> Þærse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Hew </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Hewed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Heawe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Heow.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Flow </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Flowed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Flówe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fleow.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Row </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Rowed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Rówe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Reow.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Creep </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Crept. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Creópe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Creáp.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dive </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Dived. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deófe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Deáf.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Shove </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Shoved. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Scéofe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sceáf.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Chew </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Chewed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ceówe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Ceáw.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Brew </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Brewed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Breówe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Breáw.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lock </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Locked. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Lûce </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leác.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Suck </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Sucked. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Sûce </td><td class="spacsingle"> Seác.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Reek </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Reeked. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Reóce </td><td class="spacsingle"> Reác.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Smoke </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Smoked. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Smeóce </td><td class="spacsingle"> Smeác.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Bow </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Bowed. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beóge </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beáh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lie </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Lied. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leóge </td><td class="spacsingle"> Leáh.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Gripe </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Griped. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Grípe </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gráp.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Span </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Spanned. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Spanne </td><td class="spacsingle"> Spén.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Eke </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Eked. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Eáce </td><td class="spacsingle"> Eóc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fare </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Fared. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fare </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fôr.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect386">§ 386</a>. The first of the general statements made + concerning strong verbs, with a view of proving that the order is + <i>natural</i>, shall be the one arising out of the preceding list of + præterites.</p> + + <p>I. Many strong verbs become weak; whilst no weak verb ever becomes + strong.</p> + + <p>II. All the strong verbs are of Saxon origin. None are classical.</p> + + <p>III. The greater number of them are strong throughout the Gothic + tongues.</p> + + <p>IV. No new word is ever, upon its importation, inflected according to + the strong conjugation. It is always weak. As early as <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1085, the French word <i>adouber</i>=<i>to + dubb</i>, was introduced into English. Its præterite was + <i>dubbade</i>.<a name="NtA56" href="#Nt56"><sup>[56]</sup></a></p> + +<p><!-- Page 334 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page334"></a>{334}</span></p> + + <p>V. All derived words are inflected weak. The intransitive forms + <i>drink</i> and <i>lie</i>, are strong; the transitive forms + <i>drench</i> and <i>lay</i>, are weak.</p> + + <p>The fourth statement will again be recurred to. The present object is + to show that the division into strong and weak is natural.</p> + + <p><a name="sect387">§ 387</a>. <i>Obsolete forms.</i>—Instead of + <i>lept</i>, <i>slept</i>, <i>mowed</i>, <i>snowed</i>, &c., we find, + in the provincial dialects and in the older writers, the strong forms + <i>lep</i>, <i>step</i>, <i>mew</i>, <i>snew</i>, &c. This is no more + than what we expect. Here there are two forms, and each form is of a + different conjugation.</p> + + <p><a name="sect388">§ 388</a>. <i>Double Forms.</i>—In <i>lep</i> + and <i>mew</i> we have two forms, of which one only is current. In + <i>swoll</i> and <i>swelled</i>, in <i>clomb</i> and <i>climbed</i>, and + in <i>hung</i> and <i>hanged</i>, we have two forms, of which both are + current. These latter are true double forms. Of double forms there are + two kinds.</p> + + <p>1. Those like <i>swoll</i> and <i>swelled</i>; where there is the same + tense, but a different conjugation.</p> + + <p>2. Those like <i>spoke</i> and <i>spake</i>; where the tense is the + same and the conjugation the same, but where the form is different.</p> + + <p>The bearings of these double forms (which, however, are points of + general rather than of English grammar) are as follows. Their number in a + given language may be very great, and the grammarian of a given language + may call them, not double forms of the same tense, but different tenses. + Let the number of words like <i>swoll</i> and <i>swelled</i> be + multiplied by 1000. The chances are, that, in the present state of + etymology, they would be called first præterites and second præterites. + The bearing of this remark upon the so-called aorists and futures of the + Greek language is evident. I think that a writer in the Cambridge + Philological Museum<a name="NtA57" href="#Nt57"><sup>[57]</sup></a> + indicates the true nature of those tenses. They are the same tense in a + different conjugation, and differ from <i>swoll</i> and <i>swelled</i> + only in the frequency of their occurrence.</p> + + <p>Difference of form, and difference of conjugation, may each simulate a + difference of tense.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 335 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page335"></a>{335}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">DEFECTIVENESS AND IRREGULARITY.</p> + + <p><a name="sect389">§ 389</a>. In <a href="#sect361">§ 361</a> the + distinction between irregularity and defectiveness was slightly + foreshadowed. In pp. <a href="#page243">243</a>, <a + href="#page267">267</a>, it was exhibited in its principles. In the + present chapter the difference is more urgently insisted on.</p> + + <p>The words that have hitherto served as illustrations are the personal + pronouns <i>I</i> and <i>me</i>, and the adjectives <i>good</i>, + <i>better</i>, and <i>best</i>. See the sections referred to above.</p> + + <p>The view of these words was as follows: <i>viz.</i>, that none of them + were irregular, but that they were all defective. <i>Me</i> wanted the + nominative, <i>I</i> the oblique cases. <i>Good</i> was without a + comparative, <i>better</i> and <i>best</i> had no positive degree.</p> + + <p>Now <i>me</i> and <i>better</i> may be said to make good the + defectiveness of <i>I</i> and <i>good</i>; and <i>I</i> and <i>good</i> + may be said to replace the forms wanting in <i>me</i> and <i>better</i>. + This gives us the principle of compensation. To introduce a new term, + <i>I</i> and <i>me</i>, <i>good</i> and <i>better</i>, may be said to be + complementary to each other.</p> + + <p>What applies to nouns applies to verbs also. <i>Go</i> and <i>went</i> + are not irregularities. <i>Go</i> is (at least in the present stage of + our language) defective in the past tense. <i>Went</i> (at least in its + current sense) is without a present. The two words, however, compensate + their mutual deficiencies, and are to each other complementary.</p> + + <p>The distinction between defectiveness and irregularity, is the first + instrument of criticism for coming to true views concerning the + proportion of the regular and irregular verbs.</p> + + <p>The second instrument of criticism in determining the irregular verbs, + is the meaning that we attach to terms. <!-- Page 336 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page336"></a>{336}</span></p> + + <p>It is very evident that it is in the power of the grammarian to raise + the number of etymological irregularities to any amount, by narrowing the + definition of the word irregular; in other words, by framing an exclusive + rule. The current rule of the common grammarians is that the præterite is + formed by the addition of <i>-t</i>, or <i>-d</i>, or <i>-ed</i>. Now + this position is sufficiently exclusive; since it proscribes not only the + whole class of strong verbs, but also words like <i>bent</i> and + <i>sent</i>, where <i>-t</i> exists, but where it does not exist as <i>an + addition</i>. The regular forms, it may be said, should be <i>bended</i> + and <i>sended</i>.</p> + + <p>Exclusive, however, as the rule in question is, it is plain that it + might be made more so. The regular forms might, by the <i>fiat</i> of a + rule, be restricted to those in <i>-d</i>. In this case words like + <i>wept</i> and <i>burnt</i> would be added to the already numerous list + of irregulars.</p> + + <p>Finally, a further limitation might be made, by laying down as a rule + that no word was regular, unless it ended in <i>-ed</i>.</p> + + <p>Thus much concerning the modes of making rules exclusive, and, + consequently, of raising the amount of irregularities. This is the last + art that the philosophic grammarian is ambitious of acquiring. True + etymology reduces irregularity by making the rules of grammar, not + exclusive, but general. The <i>quantum</i> of irregularity is in the + inverse proportion to the generality of our rules. In language itself + there is no irregularity. The word itself is only another name for our + ignorance of the processes that change words; and, as irregularity is in + the direct proportion to the exclusiveness of our rules, the + exclusiveness of our rules is in the direct proportion to our ignorance + of etymological processes.</p> + + <p>The explanation of some fresh terms will lead us towards (but not to) + the definition of the word irregular.</p> + + <p>I. <i>Vital and obsolete processes.</i>—The word <i>moved</i> is + formed from <i>move</i>, by the addition of <i>-d</i>. The addition of + <i>-d</i> is the process by which the present form is rendered præterite. + The word <i>fell</i> is formed from <i>fall</i>, by changing <i>a</i> + into <i>e</i>. The change of vowel is the process by which the present + form is <!-- Page 337 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page337"></a>{337}</span>rendered præterite. Of the two processes + the result is the same. In what respect do they differ?</p> + + <p>For the sake of illustration, let a new word be introduced into the + language. Let a præterite tense of it be formed. This præterite would be + formed, not by changing the vowel, but by adding <i>-d</i>. No new verb + ever takes a strong præterite. The like takes place with nouns. No new + substantive would form its plural, like <i>oxen</i> or <i>geese</i>, by + adding <i>-en</i>, or by changing the vowel. It would rather, like + <i>fathers</i> and <i>horses</i>, add the lene sibilant.</p> + + <p>Now, the processes that change <i>fall</i>, <i>ox</i>, and + <i>goose</i> into <i>fell</i>, <i>oxen</i>, and <i>geese</i>, inasmuch as + they cease to operate on the language in its present stage, are obsolete + processes; whilst those that change <i>move</i> into <i>moved</i>, and + <i>horse</i> into <i>horses</i>, operating on the language in its present + stage, are vital processes.</p> + + <p>A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include + all words whose forms could not be accounted for by the vital processes. + Such a definition would, in the present English, make words like + <i>bent</i>, <i>sought</i>, &c. (the euphonic processes being allowed + for), regular, and all the strong verbs irregular.</p> + + <p>The very fact of so natural a class as that of the strong verbs being + reduced to the condition of irregulars, invalidates such a definition as + this.</p> + + <p>II. <i>Processes of necessity as opposed to processes of + habit.</i>—The combinations <i>-pd-</i>, <i>-fd-</i>, <i>-kd-</i>, + <i>-sd-</i>, and some others, are unpronounceable. Hence words like + <i>step</i>, <i>quaff</i>, <i>back</i>, <i>kiss</i>, &c., take after + them the sound of <i>-t</i>: <i>stept</i>, <i>quafft</i>, &c. (the + <i>sound</i> being represented), being their præterites, instead of + <i>stepd</i>, <i>quaffd</i>. Here the change from <i>-d</i> (the natural + termination) to <i>-t</i> is a matter (or process) of necessity. It is + not so with words like <i>weep</i> and <i>wept</i>, &c. Here the + change of vowel is not necessary. <i>Weept</i> might have been said if + the habit of the language had permitted.</p> + + <p>A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include + all words whose natural form was modified by any euphonic process + whatever. In this case <i>stept</i> (modified by a <!-- Page 338 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page338"></a>{338}</span>process of necessity), + and <i>wept</i> (modified by a process of habit), would be equally + irregular.</p> + + <p>A less limited definition might account words regular as long as the + process by which they are deflected from their natural form was a process + of necessity. Those, however, which were modified by a process of habit + it would class with the irregulars.</p> + + <p>Definitions thus limited arise from ignorance of euphonic processes, + or rather from an ignorance of the generality of their operation.</p> + + <p>III. <i>Ordinary processes as opposed to extraordinary + processes.</i>—The whole scheme of language is analogical. A new + word introduced into a language takes the forms of its cases or tenses, + &c., from the forms of the cases or tenses, &c., of the old + words. The analogy is extended. Now few forms (if any) are so unique as + not to have some others corresponding with them; and few processes of + change are so unique as not to affect more words than one. The forms + <i>wept</i> and <i>slept</i> correspond with each other. They are brought + about by the same process; <i>viz.</i> by the shortening of the vowel in + <i>weep</i> and <i>sleep</i>. The analogy of <i>weep</i> is extended to + <i>sleep</i>, and <i>vice versâ</i>. Changing our expression, a common + influence affects both words. The alteration itself is an ultimate fact. + The extent of its influence is an instrument of classification. When + processes affect a considerable number of words, they may be called + ordinary processes; as opposed to extraordinary processes, which affect + one or few words.</p> + + <p>When a word stands by itself, with no other corresponding to it, we + confess our ignorance, and say that it is affected by an extraordinary + process, by a process peculiar to itself, or by a process to which we + know nothing similar.</p> + + <p>A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include + all words affected by extraordinary processes; the rest being considered + regular.</p> + + <p>IV. <i>Positive processes as opposed to ambiguous + processes.</i>—The words <i>wept</i> and <i>slept</i> are similarly + affected. Each is changed from <i>weep</i> and <i>sleep</i> respectively; + and we know that <!-- Page 339 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page339"></a>{339}</span>the process which affects the one is the + process that affects the other also. Here there is a positive + process.</p> + + <p>Reference is now made to words of a different sort. The nature of the + word <i>worse</i> is explained in p. <a href="#page267">267</a>, and the + reader is referred to the section. There the form is accounted for in two + ways, of which only one can be the true one. Of the two processes, each + might equally have brought about the present form. Which of the two it + was, we are unable to say. Here the process is ambiguous.</p> + + <p>A definition of the word irregular might be so framed as to include + all words affected by ambiguous processes.</p> + + <p>V. <i>Normal processes as opposed to processes of + confusion.</i>—Let a certain word come under class A. Let all words + under class A be similarly affected. Let a given word come under class A. + This word will be affected even as the rest of class A is affected. The + process affecting, and the change resulting, will be normal, regular, or + analogical.</p> + + <p>Let, however, a word, instead of really coming under class A, + <i>appear</i> to do so. Let it be dealt with accordingly. The analogy + then is a false one. The principle of imitation is a wrong one. The + process affecting is a process of confusion.</p> + + <p>Examples of this (a few amongst many) are words like + <i>songstress</i>, <i>theirs</i>, <i>minded</i>, where the words + <i>songstr-</i>, <i>their-</i>, and <i>mind-</i>, are dealt with as + roots, which they are not.</p> + + <p>Ambiguous processes, extraordinary processes, processes of + confusion—each, or all of these are legitimate reasons for calling + words irregular. The practice of etymologists will determine what + definition is most convenient.</p> + + <p>With extraordinary processes we know nothing about the word. With + ambiguous processes we are unable to make a choice. With processes of + confusion we see the analogy, but, at the same time, see that it is a + false one.</p> + + <p><a name="sect390">§ 390</a>. <i>Could.</i>—With all persons who + pronounce the <i>l</i> this word is truly irregular. The Anglo-Saxon form + is <i>cuðe</i>. The <i>-l</i> is inserted by a process of confusion.</p> + + <p><i>Can</i>, <i>cunne</i>, <i>canst</i>, <i>cunnon</i>, <i>cunnan</i>, + <i>cuðe</i>, <i>cuðon</i>, <i>cuð</i>—such are the remaining forms + in Anglo-Saxon. None of them <!-- Page 340 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page340"></a>{340}</span>account for the <i>-l</i>. The presence of + the <i>-l</i> makes the word <i>could</i> irregular. No reference to the + allied languages accounts for it.</p> + + <p>Notwithstanding this, the presence of the <i>-l</i> is accounted for. + In <i>would</i> and <i>should</i> the <i>-l</i> has a proper place. It is + part of the original words, <i>will</i> and <i>shall</i>. A false analogy + looked upon <i>could</i> in the same light. Hence a true irregularity; + <i>provided that the</i> <span class="scac">L</span> <i>be + pronounced</i>.</p> + + <p>The <span class="scac">L</span>, however, is pronounced by few, and + that only in pursuance to the spelling. This reduces the word + <i>could</i> to an irregularity, not of language, but only of + orthography.</p> + + <p>That the mere ejection of the <i>-n</i> in <i>can</i>, and that the + mere lengthening of the vowel, are not irregularities, we learn from a + knowledge of the processes that convert the Greek <span title="odontos" class="grk" + >ὀδόντος</span> + (<i>odontos</i>) into <span title="odous" class="grk" + >ὀδούς</span> (<i>odows</i>).</p> + + <p><a name="sect391">§ 391</a>. The verb <i>quoth</i> is truly defective. + It is found in only one tense, one number, and one person. It is the + third person singular of the præterite tense. It has the further + peculiarity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of saying <i>he quoth</i>, + we say <i>quoth he</i>. In Anglo-Saxon, however, it was not defective. It + was found in the other tenses, in the other number, and in other moods. + <i>Ic cweðe</i>, <i>þu cwyst</i>, <i>he cwyð</i>. <i>Ic cwæð</i>, <i>þú + cwæðe</i>, <i>he cwæð</i>, <i>we cwædon</i>, <i>ge cwædon</i>, <i>hi + cwædon</i>. Imperative, <i>cweð</i>. Participle, <i>gecweden</i>. In the + Scandinavian it is current in all its forms. There, however, it means, + not <i>to speak</i> but to <i>sing</i>. As far as its conjugation goes, + it is strong. As far as its class goes, it follows the form of + <i>speak</i>, <i>spoke</i>. Like speak, its Anglo-Saxon form is in + <i>æ</i>, as <i>cwæð</i>. Like one of the forms of <i>speak</i>, its + English form is in o, as <i>quoth</i>, <i>spoke</i>.</p> + + <p>The whole of the present chapter is indicative of the nature of + irregularity, and of the elements that should enter into the definition + of it, rather than exhaustive of the detail.</p> + + <p>The principle that I recognise for myself is to consider no word + irregular unless it can be proved so. This view includes the words + affected by ambiguous processes, and by processes of confusion, and no + others. The words affected by <!-- Page 341 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page341"></a>{341}</span>extraordinary processes form a provisional + class, which a future increase of our etymological knowledge may show to + be regular. <i>Worse</i> and <i>could</i> (its spelling being considered) + are the fairest specimens of our irregulars. The class, instead of + filling pages, is exceedingly limited.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 342 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page342"></a>{342}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE IMPERSONAL VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect392">§ 392</a>. <i>Meseems.</i>—Equivalent to <i>it + seems to me</i>; <i>mihi videtur</i>, <span title="phainetai moi" class="grk" + >φαίνεταί + μοι</span>. The verb <i>seems</i> is intransitive; + consequently the pronoun <i>me</i> has the power of a dative case. The + pronoun it is not required to accompany the verb.</p> + + <p><a name="sect393">§ 393</a>. <i>Methinks.</i>—In Anglo-Saxon + there are two forms; <i>þencan</i>=<i>to think</i>, and + <i>þincan</i>=<i>to seem</i>. It is from the latter form that the verb in + <i>methinks</i> comes. Such being the case, it is intransitive, and + consequently the pronoun <i>me</i> has the power of a dative case. The + pronoun <i>it</i> is not required to accompany the verb.</p> + + <p>Of this word we have also the past form <i>methought</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Methought I saw my late espoused wife</p> + <p>Brought to me, like Alcestis, from the grave.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Milton.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect394">§ 394</a>. <i>Me listeth</i>, or <i>me + lists</i>.—Equivalent to <i>it pleases me</i>=<i>me juvat</i>. + Anglo-Saxon <i>lystan</i>=<i>to wish</i>, <i>to choose</i>, also <i>to + please</i>, <i>to delight</i>; Norse, <i>lysta</i>. Unlike the other two, + the verb is transitive, so that the pronoun <i>me</i> has the power of an + accusative case. The pronoun <i>it</i> is not required to accompany the + verb.</p> + + <p>These three are the only true impersonal verbs in the English + language. They form a class by themselves, because no pronoun accompanies + them, as is the case with the equivalent expressions <i>it appears</i>, + <i>it pleases</i>, and with all the other verbs in the language.</p> + + <p>In the old language impersonal verbs, or rather the impersonal use of + verbs, was commoner than at present.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Him <i>oughten</i> now to have the lese pain.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Legend of Good Women</i>, 429.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 343 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page343"></a>{343}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Him <i>ought</i> not to be a tyrant.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Legend of Good Women</i>, 377.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Me mete.—<span class="sc">Chaucer.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Well me quemeth.—<i>Conf. Amantis.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the following lines the construction is, <i>it shall please your + Majesty</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>I'll muster up my friends to meet your Grace,</p> + <p>Where and what time your Majesty shall please.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Richard III</i>., iv. 4.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>See a paper of Mr. Guest's, Phil. Trans., vol. ii. 241.</p> + + <p>Strictly speaking, the impersonal verbs are a part of syntax rather + than of etymology.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 344 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page344"></a>{344}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect395">§ 395</a>. The verb substantive is generally dealt + with as an irregular verb. This is inaccurate. The true notion is that + the idea of <i>being</i> or <i>existing</i> is expressed by four + different verbs, each of which is defective in some of its parts. The + parts, however, that are wanting in one verb, are made up by the + inflections of one of the others. There is, for example, no præterite of + the verb <i>am</i>, and no present of the verb <i>was</i>. The absence, + however, of the present form of <i>was</i> is made up by the word + <i>am</i>, and the absence of the præterite form of <i>am</i> is made up + by the word <i>was</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect396">§ 396</a>. <i>Was.</i>—Defective, except in + the præterite tense, where it is found both in the indicative and + conjunctive.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The verb Was" title="The verb Was"> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black" colspan="2"> <i>Indicative.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <i>Conjunctive.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1. Was. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 1. Were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Were.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Wast. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Wert. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Were.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. Was. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> 3. Were. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Were.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In the older stages of the Gothic languages the word has both a full + conjugation and a regular one. In Anglo-Saxon it has an infinitive, a + participle present, and a participle past. In Mœso-Gothic it is + inflected throughout with <i>-s</i>; as <i>visa</i>, <i>vas</i>, + <i>vêsum</i>, <i>visans</i>. In that language it has the power of the + Latin <i>maneo</i> = <i>to remain</i>. The <i>-r</i> first appears in the + Old High German; <i>wisu</i>, <i>was</i>, <i>wârumês</i>, <i>wësaner</i>. + In Norse the <i>s</i> entirely disappears, and the word is inflected with + <i>r</i> throughout; <i>vera</i>, <i>var</i>, <i>vorum</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect397">§ 397</a>. <i>Be.</i>—Inflected in Anglo-Saxon + throughout the present tense, both indicative and subjunctive; found also + as an <!-- Page 345 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page345"></a>{345}</span>infinitive <i>beón</i>, as a gerund to + <i>beonne</i>, and as a participle <i>beonde</i>. In the present English + its inflection is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The verb Be" title="The verb Be"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="6"> <i>Present.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black" colspan="2"> <i>Indicative.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black" colspan="2"> <i>Conjunctive.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> <i>Imperative.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center; border-right:1px solid black"> <i>Plur.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Sing.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> <i>Plur.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 1. — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> Be. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Be. </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 2. Beest. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> Beest? </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Be. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Be. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Be.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> 3. — </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> Be. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black"> Be, Bin. </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> —</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="6"> <i>Infin.</i> To be. <i>Pres. P.</i> Being. <i>Past Part.</i> Been.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The line in Milton beginning <i>If thou beest he</i>—(P. L. b. + ii.), leads to the notion that the antiquated form <i>beest</i> is not + indicative, but conjunctive. Such, however, is not the case: <i>býst</i> + in Anglo-Saxon is indicative, the conjunctive form being + <i>beó</i>.—<i>And every thing that pretty bin</i> + (Cymbeline).—Here the word <i>bin</i> is the conjunctive plural, in + Anglo-Saxon <i>béon</i>; so that the words <i>every thing</i> are to be + considered equivalent to the plural form <i>all things</i>. The phrase in + Latin would stand thus, <i>quotquot pulcra sint</i>; in Greek thus, <span + title="ha an kala êi" class="grk">ἁ ἄν + κάλα ᾖ</span>. The <i>indicative</i> + plural is, in Anglo-Saxon, not <i>beón</i>, but <i>beóð</i> and + <i>beó</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect398">§ 398</a>. In the Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1051, it is + stated that the Anglo-Saxon forms <i>beó</i>, <i>bist</i>, <i>bið</i>, + <i>beoð</i>, or <i>beó</i>, have not a present, but a future sense; that + whilst <i>am</i> means <i>I am</i>, <i>beó</i> means <i>I shall be</i>; + and that in the older languages it is only where the form <i>am</i> is + not found that <i>be</i> has the power of a present form. The same root + occurs in the Slavonic and Lithuanic tongues with the same power; as, + <i>esmi</i>=<i>I am</i>; <i>búsu</i>=<i>I shall be</i>, + Lithuanic.—<i>Esmu</i>=<i>I am</i>; <i>buhshu</i>=<i>I shall + be</i>, Livonic.—<i>Jesm</i>=<i>I am</i>; <i>budu</i>=<i>I shall + be</i>, Slavonic.—<i>Gsem</i>=<i>I am</i>; <i>budu</i>=<i>I shall + be</i>, Bohemian. This, however, proves, not that there is in Anglo-Saxon + a future tense (or form), but that the word <i>beó</i> has a future + sense. There is no fresh tense where there is no fresh form.</p> + + <p>The following is a specimen of the future power of <i>beón</i> in + Anglo-Saxon:—"<i>Hi ne </i>beóð<i> na cílde, soðlice, on domesdæge, + ac </i>beóð<i> swa micele menn swa swa hi, migton beón gif hi full weoxon + on gewunlicre ylde.</i>"—Ælfric's Homilies. "They <i>will not</i> + be children, forsooth, on Domesday, but <i>will be</i> as much <!-- Page + 346 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page346"></a>{346}</span>(so + muckle) men as they might be if they were full grown (waxen) in customary + age."</p> + + <p><a name="sect399">§ 399</a>. If we consider the word <i>beón</i> like + the word <i>weorðan</i> (see below) to mean not so much <i>to be</i> as + to <i>become</i>, we get an element of the idea of futurity. Things which + are <i>becoming anything</i> have yet something further to either do or + suffer. Again, from the idea of futurity we get the idea of contingency, + and this explains the subjunctive power of <i>be</i>. In English we often + say <i>may</i> for <i>shall</i>, and the same was done in + Anglo-Saxon.—"<i>Ic ðe secge, heò is be ðam húse ðe Fegor hátte, + and nán man nis ðe hig wíte</i> (<i>shall, may know</i>) <i>ær ðám myclan + dóme</i>."—Ælfric's Homilies, 44.</p> + + <p><a name="sect400">§ 400</a>. <i>Am.</i>—Of this form it should + be stated, that the letter <i>-m</i> is no part of the original word. It + is the sign of the first person, just as it is in all the Indo-European + languages.</p> + + <p>It should also be stated, that, although the fact be obscured, and + although the changes be insufficiently accounted for, the forms + <i>am</i>, <i>art</i>, <i>are</i>, and <i>is</i>, are not, like <i>am</i> + and <i>was</i>, parts of different words, but forms of one and the same + word; in other terms, that, although between <i>am</i> and <i>be</i> + there is no etymological connexion, there is one between <i>am</i> and + <i>is</i>. This we collect from the comparison of the Indo-European + languages.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The verb Am in related languages" title="The verb Am in related languages"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> 1. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;padding-left:2.4em;"> 2. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> 3.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Sanskrit </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Asmi.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Asi.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Asti.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Zend </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Ahmi.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Ani.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Ashti</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Greek </td><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Eimi" class="grk">Εἰμι</span>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <span title="Eis" class="grk">Εἰς</span>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> <span title="Ei" class="grk">Εἰ</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Latin </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Sum.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Es.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Esti.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Lithuanic </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Esmi.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Essi.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Esti.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Old Slavonic </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Yesmy.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Yesi.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Yesty.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Mœso-Gothic </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Im.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Is.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Ist.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Old Saxon </td><td class="spacsingle"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <a name="NtA58" href="#Nt58"><sup>[58]</sup></a><i>Is.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Ist.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Anglo-Saxon </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Eom.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Eart.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Is.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Icelandic </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Em.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Ert.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Er.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> English </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Am</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2.4em;"> <i>Art.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Is.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In English and Anglo-Saxon the word is found in the <!-- Page 347 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page347"></a>{347}</span>present + indicative only. In English it is inflected through both numbers; in + Anglo-Saxon in the singular number only. The Anglo-Saxon plurals are + forms of the German <i>seyn</i>, a verb whereof we have, in the present + English, no vestiges.</p> + + <p><i>Worth.</i>—In the following lines of Scott, the word + <i>worth</i>=<i>is</i>, and is a fragment of the regular Anglo-Saxon verb + <i>weorðan</i>=<i>to be</i>, or <i>to become</i>; German, + <i>werden</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Woe <i>worth</i> the chase, woe <i>worth</i> the day,</p> + <p>That cost thy life, my gallant grey.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Lady of the Lake.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 348 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page348"></a>{348}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect401">§ 401</a>. The present participle, called also the + active participle and the participle in <i>-ing</i>, is formed from the + original word by adding <i>-ing</i>; as, <i>move</i>, <i>moving</i>. In + the older languages the termination was more marked, being <i>-nd</i>. + Like the Latin participle in <i>-ns</i>, it was originally declined. The + Mœso-Gothic and Old High German forms are <i>habands</i> and + <i>hapêntêr</i>=<i>having</i>, respectively. The <i>-s</i> in the one + language, and the <i>-êr</i> in the other, are the signs of the case and + gender. In the Old Saxon and Anglo-Saxon the forms are <i>-and</i> and + <i>-ande</i>; as <i>bindand</i>, <i>bindande</i>=<i>binding</i>. In all + the Norse languages, ancient and modern, the <i>-d</i> is preserved. So + it is in the Old Lowland Scotch, and in many of the modern provincial + dialects of England, where <i>strikand</i>, <i>goand</i>, is said for + <i>striking</i>, <i>going</i>. In Staffordshire, where the <i>-ing</i> is + pronounced <i>-ingg</i>, there is a fuller sound than that of the current + English. In Old English the form in <i>-nd</i> is predominant, in Middle + English, the use fluctuates, and in New English the termination + <i>-ing</i> is universal. In the Scotch of the modern writers we find the + form <i>-in</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The rising sun o'er Galston muirs</p> + <p class="i2">Wi' glorious light was glintin';</p> + <p>The hares were hirplin' down the furs,</p> + <p class="i2">The lav'rocks they were chantin'.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Burns'</span> <i>Holy Fair</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>It is with the oblique cases of the present participles of the + classical languages, rather than with the nominative, that we must + compare the corresponding participle in Gothic; <i>e.g.</i>, <!-- Page + 349 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page349"></a>{349}</span><span + title="echont-os" class="grk" + >ἔχοντ-ος</span> + (<i>ekhontos</i>), Greek; <i>habent-is</i>, Latin; <i>hapênt-êr</i>, Old + High German.</p> + + <p><a name="sect402">§ 402</a>. It has often been remarked that the + participle is used in many languages as a substantive. This is true in + Greek,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Ho prassôn" class="grk">Ὁ πράσσων</span>=<i>the actor</i>, when a male.</p> + <p><span title="Hê prassousa" class="grk">Ἡ πρασσοῦσα</span>=<i>the actor</i>, when a female.</p> + <p><span title="To pratton" class="grk">Τὸ πράττον</span>=<i>the active principle of a thing</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect403">§ 403</a>. But it is also stated, that, in the + English language, the participle is used as a substantive in a greater + degree than elsewhere, and that it is used in several cases and in both + numbers, <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Rising</i> early is healthy,</p> + <p>There is health <i>in rising</i> early.</p> + <p>This is the advantage <i>of rising</i> early.</p> + <p>The <i>risings</i> in the North, &c.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Archbishop Whately has some remarks on this substantival power in his + Logic.</p> + + <p>Some remarks of Mr. R. Taylor, in the Introduction to his edition of + Tooke's Diversions of Purley, modify this view. According to these, the + <i>-ing</i> in words like <i>rising</i> is not the <i>-ing</i> of the + present participle; neither has it originated in the Anglo-Saxon + <i>-end</i>. It is rather the <i>-ing</i> in words like <i>morning</i>, + which is anything but a participle of the non-existent verb <i>morn</i>, + and which has originated in the Anglo-Saxon substantival termination + <i>-ung</i>. Upon this Rask writes as follows:—"<i>Gitsung</i>, + <i>gewilnung</i>=<i>desire</i>; <i>swutelung</i>=<i>manifestation</i>; + <i>clænsung</i>=<i>a cleansing</i>; <i>sceawung</i>=<i>view</i>, + <i>contemplation</i>; <i>eorð beofung</i>=<i>an earthquake</i>; + <i>gesomnung</i>=<i>an assembly</i>. This termination is chiefly used in + forming substantives from verbs of the first class in <i>-ian</i>; as, + <i>hálgung</i>=<i>consecration</i>, from <i>hálgian</i>=<i>to + consecrate</i>. These verbs are all feminine."—Anglo-Saxon Grammar, + p. 107.</p> + + <p>Now, whatever may be the theory of the origin of the termination + <i>-ing</i> in old phrases like <i>rising early is healthy</i>, it cannot + apply to expressions of recent introduction. Here the direct origin in + <i>-ung</i> is out of the question. <!-- Page 350 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page350"></a>{350}</span></p> + + <p>The view, then, that remains to be taken of the forms in question is + this:</p> + + <p>1. That the older forms in <i>-ing</i> are substantival in origin, + and=the Anglo-Saxon <i>-ung</i>.</p> + + <p>2. That the latter ones are participial, and have been formed on a + false analogy.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 351 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page351"></a>{351}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE PAST PARTICIPLE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect404">§ 404</a>. The participle in <i>-en</i>.—In + the Anglo-Saxon this participle was declined like the adjectives. Like + the adjectives, it is, in the present English, undeclined.</p> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon it always ended in <i>-en</i>, as <i>sungen</i>, + <i>funden</i>, <i>bunden</i>. In English this <i>-en</i> is often + wanting, as <i>found</i>, <i>bound</i>; the word <i>bounden</i> being + antiquated. Words where the <i>-en</i> is wanting may be viewed in two + lights; 1, they may be looked upon as participles that have lost their + termination; 2, they may be considered as præterites with a participial + sense.</p> + + <p><a name="sect405">§ 405</a>. <i>Drank, drunk, drunken.</i>—With + all words wherein the vowel of the plural differs from that of the + singular, the participle takes the plural form. To say <i>I have + drunk</i>, is to use an ambiguous expression; since <i>drunk</i> may be + either a participle <i>minus</i> its termination, or a præterite with a + participial sense. To say <i>I have drank</i>, is to use a præterite for + a participle. To say <i>I have drunken</i>, is to use an unexceptionable + form.</p> + + <p>In all words with a double form, as <i>spake</i> and <i>spoke</i>, + <i>brake</i> and <i>broke</i>, <i>clave</i> and <i>clove</i>, the + participle follows the form in <i>o</i>, as <i>spoken</i>, <i>broken</i>, + <i>cloven</i>. <i>Spaken</i>, <i>braken</i>, <i>claven</i>, are + impossible forms. There are degrees in laxity of language, and to say + <i>the spear is broke</i> is better than to say <i>the spear is + brake</i>.</p> + + <p>These two statements bear upon the future history of the præterite. + That of the two forms <i>sang</i> and <i>sung</i>, one will, in the + course of language, become obsolete is nearly certain; and, as the plural + form is also that of the participle, it is the plural form which is most + likely to be the surviving one. <!-- Page 352 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page352"></a>{352}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect406">§ 406</a>. As a general rule, we find the participle + in <i>-en</i> wherever the præterite is strong; indeed, the participle in + <i>-en</i> may be called the strong participle, or the participle of the + strong conjugation. Still the two forms do not always coincide. In + <i>mow</i>, <i>mowed</i>, <i>mown</i>; <i>sow</i>, <i>sowed</i>, + <i>sown</i>; and several other words, we find the participle strong, and + the præterite weak. I remember no instances of the converse. This is only + another way of saying that the præterite has a greater tendency to pass + from strong to weak than the participle.</p> + + <p><a name="sect407">§ 407</a>. In the Latin language the change from + <i>s</i> to <i>r</i>, and <i>vice versâ</i>, is very common. We have the + double forms <i>arbor</i> and <i>arbos</i>, <i>honor</i> and + <i>honos</i>, &c. Of this change we have a few specimens in English. + The words <i>rear</i> and <i>raise</i>, as compared with each other, are + examples. In Anglo-Saxon a few words undergo a similar change in the + plural number of the strong præterites.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ceóse, <i>I choose</i>; ceás, <i>I chose</i>; curon, <i>we chose</i>; gecoren, <i>chosen</i>.</p> + <p>Forleóse, <i>I lose</i>; forleás, <i>I lost</i>; forluron, <i>we lost</i>; forloren, <i>lost</i>.</p> + <p>Hreose, <i>I rush</i>; hreás, <i>I rushed</i>; hruron, <i>we rushed</i>; gehroren, <i>rushed</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This accounts for the participial form <i>forlorn</i>, or <i>lost</i>, + in New High German <i>verloren</i>. In Milton's lines,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i40">—— the piercing air</p> + <p>Burns <i>frore</i>, and cold performs the effect of fire.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Paradise Lost</i>, b. ii.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>we have a form from the Anglo-Saxon participle + <i>gefroren</i>=<i>frozen</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect408">§ 408</a>. The participle in <i>-d</i>, <i>-t</i>, + or <i>-ed</i>.—In the Anglo-Saxon this participle was declined like + the adjective. Like the adjective, it is, in the present English, + undeclined.</p> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon it differed in form from the præterite, inasmuch as it + ended in <i>-ed</i>, or <i>-t</i>, whereas the præterite ended in + <i>-ode</i>, <i>-de</i>, or <i>-te</i>: as, <i>lufode</i>, <i>bærnde</i>, + <i>dypte</i>, præterites; <i>gelufod</i>, <i>bærned</i>, <i>dypt</i>, + participles.</p> + + <p>As the ejection of the <i>e</i> reduces words like <i>bærned</i> and + <i>bærnde</i> to the same form, it is easy to account for the present + <!-- Page 353 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page353"></a>{353}</span>identity of form between the weak + præterites and the participles in <i>-d</i>: <i>e. g.</i>, <i>I + moved</i>, <i>I have moved</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect409">§ 409</a>. In the older writers, and in works + written, like Thomson's Castle of Indolence, in imitation of them, we + find prefixed to the præterite participle the letter <i>y-</i>, as + <i>yclept</i>=<i>called</i>: <i>yclad</i>=<i>clothed</i>: + <i>ydrad</i>=<i>dreaded</i>.</p> + + <p>The following are the chief facts and the current opinion concerning + this prefix:—</p> + + <p>1. It has grown out of the fuller forms <i>ge-</i>: Anglo-Saxon, + <i>ge-</i>: Old Saxon, <i>gi-</i>: Mœso-Gothic, <i>ga-</i>: Old + High German, <i>ka-</i>, <i>cha-</i>, <i>ga-</i>, <i>ki-</i>, + <i>gi-</i>.</p> + + <p>2. It occurs in each and all of the Germanic languages of the Gothic + stock.</p> + + <p>3. It occurs, with a few fragmentary exceptions, in none of the + Scandinavian languages of the Gothic stock.</p> + + <p>4. In Anglo-Saxon it occasionally indicates a difference of sense; as + <i>hâten</i>=<i>called</i>, <i>ge</i>-hâten=<i>promised</i>, + <i>boren</i>=<i>borne</i>, <i>ge</i>-boren=<i>born</i>.</p> + + <p>5. It occurs in nouns as well as verbs.</p> + + <p>6. Its power, in the case of nouns, is generally some idea of + <i>association</i>, or <i>collection</i>.—Mœso-Gothic, + <i>sinþs</i>=<i>a journey</i>, <i>ga-sinþa</i>=<i>a companion</i>; Old + High German, <i>perc</i>=<i>hill</i>; <i>ki-perki</i> + (<i>ge-birge</i>)=<i>a range of hills</i>.</p> + + <p>7. But it has also a <i>frequentative</i> power; a frequentative power + which is, in all probability, secondary to its collective power: since + things which recur frequently recur with a tendency to collection or + association; Middle High German, <i>ge-rassel</i>=<i>rustling</i>; + <i>ge-rumpel</i>=<i>c-rumple</i>.</p> + + <p>8. And it has also the power of expressing the possession of a + quality.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="ge- indicating possession of a quality" title="ge- indicating possession of a quality"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Anglo-Saxon.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>English.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Anglo-Saxon.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Latin.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Feax </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Hair</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Ge</i>-feax </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Comatus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Heorte </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Heart</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Ge</i>-heort </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Cordatus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Stence </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Odour</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Ge</i>-stence </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Odorus</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>This power is also a collective, since every quality is associated + with the object that possesses it: <i>a sea with waves</i>=<i>a wavy + sea</i>. <!-- Page 354 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page354"></a>{354}</span></p> + + <p>9. Hence it is probable that the <i>ga-</i>, <i>ki-</i>, or + <i>gi-</i>, Gothic, is the <i>cum</i> of Latin languages. Such is Grimm's + view, as given in Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1016.</p> + + <p>Concerning this, it may be said that it is deficient in an essential + point. It does not show how the participle past is collective. + Undoubtedly it may be said that every such participle is in the condition + of words like <i>ge-feax</i> and <i>ge-heort</i>; <i>i. e.</i>, that they + imply an association between the object and the action or state. But this + does not seem to be Grimm's view; he rather suggests that the <i>ge-</i> + may have been a prefix to verbs in general, originally attached to all + their forms, but finally abandoned everywhere except in the case of the + participle. The theory of this prefix has yet to assume a satisfactory + form.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 355 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page355"></a>{355}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">COMPOSITION.</p> + + <p><a name="sect410">§ 410</a>. In the following words, amongst many + others, we have palpable and indubitable specimens of composition. + <i>Day-star</i>, <i>vine-yard</i>, <i>sun-beam</i>, <i>apple-tree</i>, + <i>ship-load</i>, <i>silver-smith</i>, &c. The words <i>palpable</i> + and <i>indubitable</i> have been used, because, in many cases, as will be + seen hereafter, it is difficult to determine whether a word be a true + compound or not.</p> + + <p>Now, in each of the compounds quoted above, it may be seen that it is + the second word which is qualified, or defined, by the first, and that it + is not the first which is qualified or defined, by the second. Of + <i>yards</i>, <i>beams</i>, <i>trees</i>, <i>loads</i>, <i>smiths</i>, + there may be many sorts, and, in order to determine what + <i>particular</i> sort of <i>yard</i>, <i>beam</i>, <i>tree</i>, + <i>load</i>, or <i>smith</i>, may be meant, the words <i>vine</i>, + <i>sun</i>, <i>apple</i>, <i>ship</i>, and <i>silver</i>, are prefixed. + In compound words it is the <i>first</i> term that defines or + particularises the second.</p> + + <p><a name="sect411">§ 411</a>. That the idea given by the word + <i>apple-tree</i> is not referable to the words <i>apple</i> and + <i>tree</i>, irrespective of the order in which they occur, may be seen + by reversing the position of them. The word <i>tree-apple</i>, although + not existing in the language, is as correct a word as <i>thorn-apple</i>. + In <i>tree-apple</i>, the particular sort of <i>apple</i> meant is + denoted by the word <i>tree</i>, and if there were in our gardens various + sorts of plants called <i>apples</i>, of which some grew along the ground + and others upon trees, such a word as <i>tree-apple</i> would be required + in order to be opposed to <i>earth-apple</i>, or <i>ground-apple</i>, or + some word of the kind.</p> + + <p>In the compound words <i>tree-apple</i> and <i>apple-tree</i>, we have + the same elements differently arranged. However, as the <!-- Page 356 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page356"></a>{356}</span>word + <i>tree-apple</i> is not current in the language, the class of compounds + indicated by it may seem to be merely imaginary. Nothing is farther from + being the case. A <i>tree-rose</i> is a rose of a particular sort. The + generality of roses being on <i>shrubs</i>, this grows on a <i>tree</i>. + Its peculiarity consists in this fact, and this particular character is + expressed by the word <i>tree</i> <i>prefixed</i>. A <i>rose-tree</i> is + a <i>tree</i> of a particular sort, distinguished from + <i>apple-trees</i>, and <i>trees</i> in general (in other words, + particularised or defined) by the word <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'tree'."><i>rose</i></span> <i>prefixed</i>.</p> + + <p>A <i>ground-nut</i> is a <i>nut</i> particularised by growing in the + ground. <i>A nut-ground</i> is a <i>ground</i> particularised by + producing nuts.</p> + + <p>A <i>finger-ring</i>, as distinguished from <i>ear-rings</i>, and from + <i>rings</i> in general (and so particularised), is a <i>ring</i> for the + <i>finger</i>. A <i>ring finger</i>, as distinguished from + <i>fore-fingers</i>, and from <i>fingers</i> in general (and so + particularised), is a <i>finger</i> whereon <i>rings</i> are worn.</p> + + <p><a name="sect412">§ 412</a>. At times this rule seems to be violated. + The words <i>spitfire</i> and <i>daredevil</i> seem exceptions to it. At + the first glance it seems, in the case of a <i>spitfire</i>, that what he + (or she) <i>spits</i> is <i>fire</i>; and that, in the case of a + <i>daredevil</i>, what he (or she) <i>dares</i> is the <i>devil</i>. In + this case the initial words <i>spit</i> and <i>dare</i>, are + particularised by the final ones <i>fire</i> and <i>devil</i>. The true + idea, however, confirms the original rule. A <i>spitfire</i> voids his + fire by spitting. A <i>daredevil</i>, in meeting the fiend, would not + shrink from him, but would defy him. A <i>spitfire</i> is not one who + spits fire, but one whose fire is <i>spit</i>. A <i>daredevil</i> is not + one who dares even the devil, but one by whom the devil is even + dared.</p> + + <p><a name="sect413">§ 413</a>. Of the two elements of a compound word, + which is the most important? In one sense the latter, in another sense + the former. The latter word is the most <i>essential</i>; since the + general idea of <i>trees</i> must exist before it can be defined or + particularised; so becoming the idea which we have in <i>apple-tree</i>, + <i>rose-tree</i>, &c. The former word, however, is the most + <i>influential</i>. It is by this that the original idea is qualified. + The latter word is the staple original element: the former is the + superadded influencing element. Compared with each <!-- Page 357 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page357"></a>{357}</span>other, the former + element is active, the latter passive. Etymologically speaking, the + former element, in English compounds, is the most important.</p> + + <p><a name="sect414">§ 414</a>. Most numerous are the observations that + bear upon the composition of words; <i>e.g.</i>, how nouns combine with + nouns, as in <i>sunbeam</i>; nouns with verbs, as in <i>daredevil</i>, + &c. It is thought sufficient in the present work to be content with, + 1. defining the meaning of the term composition; 2. explaining the nature + of some obscure compounds.</p> + + <p>Composition is the joining together, <i>in language</i>, of two + <i>different words</i>, and <i>treating the combination as a single + term</i>. Observe the words in italics.</p> + + <p><i>In language.</i>—A great number of our compounds, like the + word <i>merry-making</i>, are divided by the sign -, or the hyphen. It is + very plain that if all words <i>spelt</i> with a hyphen were to be + considered as compounds, the formation of them would be not a matter of + speech, or language, but one of writing or spelling. This distinguishes + compounds in language from mere printers' compounds.</p> + + <p><i>Different.</i>—In Old High German we find the form + <i>sëlp-sëlpo</i>. Here there is the junction of two words, but not the + junction of two <i>different</i> ones. This distinguishes composition + from gemination.—Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 405.</p> + + <p><i>Words.</i>—In <i>father-s</i>, <i>clear-er</i>, + <i>four-th</i>, &c., there is the addition of a letter or a syllable, + and it may be even of the part of a word. There is no addition, however, + of a whole word. This distinguishes composition from derivation.</p> + + <p><i>Treating the combination as a single term.</i>—In + determining, in certain cases, between derived words and compound words, + there is an occasional perplexity; the perplexity, however, is far + greater in determining between a compound word and <i>two words</i>. In + the eyes of one grammarian the term <i>mountain height</i> may be as + truly a compound word as <i>sunbeam</i>. In the eyes of another + grammarian it may be no compound word, but two words, just as <i>Alpine + height</i> is two words; <i>mountain</i> being dealt with as an + adjective. It is in the determination of this that the accent plays an + important part. This fact was foreshadowed in the Chapter upon Accents. + <!-- Page 358 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page358"></a>{358}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect415">§ 415</a>. The attention of the reader is drawn to + the following line, slightly altered, from Churchill:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>"Then rést, my friénd, <i>and spáre</i> thy précious bréath."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>On each of the syllables <i>rest</i>, <i>friend</i>, <i>spare</i>, + <i>prec-</i>, <i>breath</i>, there is an accent. Each of these syllables + must be compared with the one that precedes it; <i>rest</i> with + <i>then</i>, <i>friend</i> with <i>my</i>, and so on throughout the line. + Compared with the word <i>and</i>, the word <i>spare</i> is not only + accented, but the accent is conspicuous and prominent. There is so little + on <i>and</i>, and so much on <i>spare</i>, that the disparity of accent + is very manifest.</p> + + <p>Now, if in the place of <i>and</i>, there was some other word, a word + not so much accented as <i>spare</i>, but still more accented than + <i>and</i>, this disparity would be diminished, and the accents of the + two words might be said to be at <i>par</i>, or nearly so. As said + before, the line was slightly altered from Churchill, the real reading + being</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Then rést, my friénd, <i>spare, spare</i> thy précious breath.—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the true reading we actually find what had previously only been + supposed. In the words <i>spare, spare</i>, the accents are nearly at + <i>par</i>. Such the difference between accent at <i>par</i> and + disparity of accent.</p> + + <p>Good illustrations of the parity and disparity of accent may be drawn + from certain names of places. Let there be such a sentence as the + following: <i>the lime house near the bridge north of the new port.</i> + Compare the parity of accent on the separate words <i>lime</i> and + <i>house</i>, <i>bridge</i> and <i>north</i>, <i>new</i> and <i>port</i>, + with the disparity of accent in the compound words <i>Límehouse</i>, + <i>Brídgenorth</i>, and <i>Néwport</i>. The separate words <i>beef + steak</i>, where the accent is nearly at <i>par</i>, compared with the + compound word <i>sweépstakes</i>, where there is a great disparity of + accent, are further illustrations of the same difference.</p> + + <p><a name="sect416">§ 416</a>. The difference between a compound word + and two words is greatest where the first is an adjective. This we see in + comparing such terms as the following: <i>bláck bírd</i>, meaning a + <i>bird that is black</i>, with <i>bláckbird</i>=the Latin <i>merula</i>; + or <i>blúe béll</i>, meaning a <i>bell that is blue</i>, with + <i>blúebell</i>, the flower. <!-- Page 359 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page359"></a>{359}</span>Expressions like <i>a shárp edgéd + instrument</i>, meaning <i>an instrument that is sharp and has edges</i>, + as opposed to a <i>shárp-edged instrument</i>, meaning <i>an instrument + with sharp edges</i>, further exemplify this difference.</p> + + <p>Subject to four small classes of exceptions, it may be laid down, + that, in the English language, <i>there is no composition unless there is + either a change of form or a change of accent</i>.</p> + + <p>The reader is now informed, that unless, in what has gone before, he + has taken an exception to either a statement or an inference, he has + either seen beyond what has been already laid down by the author, or else + has read him with insufficient attention. This may be shown by drawing a + distinction between a compound form and a compound idea.</p> + + <p>In the words <i>a red house</i>, each word preserves its natural and + original meaning, and the statement is <i>that a house is red</i>. By a + parity of reasoning <i>a mad house</i> should mean a <i>house that is + mad</i>; and, provided that each word retain its natural meaning and its + natural accent, such is the fact. Let a <i>house</i> mean, as it often + does, a <i>family</i>. Then the phrase, <i>a mad house</i>, means that + the <i>house</i>, <i>or family</i>, <i>is mad</i>, just as a <i>red + house</i> means that the <i>house is red</i>. Such, however, is not the + current meaning of the word. Every one knows that <i>a mad house</i> + means <i>a house for mad men</i>; in which case it is treated as a + compound word, and has a marked accent on the first syllable, just as + <i>Límehouse</i> has. Now, compared with the word <i>red house</i>, + meaning a house of a <i>red colour</i>, and compared with the words + <i>mad house</i>, meaning a <i>deranged family</i>, the word + <i>mádhouse</i>, in its common sense, expresses a compound idea; as + opposed to two ideas, or a double idea. The word <i>beef steak</i> is + evidently a compound idea; but, as there is no disparity of accent, it is + not a compound word. Its sense is compound; its form is not compound, but + double. This indicates the objection anticipated, which is this: + <i>viz.</i>, that a definition, which would exclude such a word as + <i>beef steak</i> from the list of compounds, is, for that very reason, + exceptionable. I answer to this, that the term in question is a compound + idea, and not a compound form; in other words, that it is a compound in + logic, but not a compound in etymology. <!-- Page 360 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page360"></a>{360}</span>Now etymology, taking + cognisance of forms only, has nothing to do with ideas, except so far as + they influence forms.</p> + + <p>Such is the commentary upon the words, "<i>treating the combination as + a single term</i>;" in other words, such the difference between a + compound word and two words. The rule, being repeated, stands (subject to + the four classes of exceptions) thus: <i>There is no true composition + without either a change of form or a change of accent.</i> As I wish to + be clear upon this point, I shall illustrate the statement by its + application.</p> + + <p>The word <i>trée-rose</i> is often pronounced <i>trée róse</i>; that + is, with the accent at <i>par</i>. It is compound in the one case; it is + two words in the other.</p> + + <p>The words <i>mountain ash</i> and <i>mountain height</i> are generally + (perhaps always) pronounced with an equal accent on the syllables + <i>mount-</i> and <i>ash</i>, <i>mount-</i> and <i>height</i>, + respectively. In this case the word <i>mountain</i> must be dealt with as + an adjective, and the words considered as two. The word <i>moúntain + wave</i> is often pronounced with a visible diminution of accent on the + last syllable. In this case there is a disparity of accent, and the word + is compound.</p> + + <p><a name="sect417">§ 417</a>. The following quotation indicates a + further cause of perplexity in determining between compound words and two + words:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i12">1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A wet sheet and a blowing gale,</p> + <p class="i2">A breeze that follows fast;</p> + <p>That fills the white and swelling sail,</p> + <p class="i2">And bends the <i>gallant mast</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Allan Cunningham.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i12">2.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Britannia needs no bulwarks,</p> + <p class="i2">No towers along the steep;</p> + <p>Her march is o'er the <i>mountain-wave</i>,</p> + <p class="i2">Her home is on the deep.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Thomas Campbell.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>To speak first of the word (or words) <i>gallant mast</i>. If + <i>gallant</i> mean <i>brave</i>, there are <i>two words</i>. If the + words be two, there <!-- Page 361 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page361"></a>{361}</span>is a stronger accent on <i>mast</i>. If + the accent on <i>mast</i> be stronger, the rhyme with <i>fast</i> is more + complete; in other words, the metre favours the notion of the words being + considered as <i>two</i>. <i>Gallant-mast</i>, however, is a compound + word, with an especial nautical meaning. In this case the accent is + stronger on <i>gal-</i> and weaker on <i>-mast</i>. This, however, is not + the state of things that the metre favours. The same applies to + <i>mountain wave</i>. The same person who in prose would throw a stronger + accent on <i>mount-</i> and a weaker one on <i>wave</i> (so dealing with + the word as a compound), might, in poetry, make the words <i>two</i>, by + giving to the last syllable a parity of accent.</p> + + <p>The following quotation from Ben Jonson may be read in two ways; and + the accent may vary with the reading.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i12">1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Lay thy bow of pearl apart,</p> + <p>And thy <i>silver shining</i> quiver.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i12">2.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Lay thy bow of pearl apart,</p> + <p>And thy <i>silver-shining</i> quiver.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Cynthia's Revels.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect418">§ 418</a>. <i>On certain words wherein the fact of + their being compound is obscured.</i>—Composition is the addition + of a word to a word, derivation is the addition of letters or syllables + to a word. In a compound form each element has a separate and independent + existence; in a derived form, only one of the elements has such. Now it + is very possible that in an older stage of a language two words may + exist, may be put together, and may so form a compound; at the time in + point each word having a separate and independent existence: whilst, in a + later stage of language, only one of these words may have a separate and + independent existence, the other having become obsolete. In this case a + compound word would take the appearance of a derived one, since but one + of its elements could be exhibited as a separate and independent word. + Such is the case with, amongst others, the word <i>bishopric</i>. In the + present language the word <i>ric</i> has no separate and independent + existence. For all this, the word <!-- Page 362 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page362"></a>{362}</span>is a true compound, + since, in Anglo-Saxon, we have the noun <i>ríce</i> as a separate, + independent word, signifying <i>kingdom</i> or domain.</p> + + <p>Again, without becoming obsolete, a word may alter its form. This is + the case with most of our adjectives in <i>-ly</i>. At present they + appear derivative; their termination <i>-ly</i> having no separate and + independent existence. The older language, however, shows that they are + compounds; since <i>-ly</i> is nothing else than <i>-lic</i>, + Anglo-Saxon; <i>-lih</i>, Old High German; <i>-leiks</i>, + Mœso-Gothic;=<i>like</i>, or <i>similis</i>, and equally with it an + independent separate word.</p> + + <p>For the following words a separate independent root is presumed rather + than shown. It is presumed, however, on grounds that satisfy the + etymologist.</p> + + <p><i>Mis-</i>, as in <i>misdeed</i>, &c.—Mœso-Gothic, + <i>missô</i>=<i>in turns</i>; Old Norse, <i>â mis</i>=<i>alternately</i>; + Middle High German, <i>misse</i>=<i>mistake</i>. The original notion + <i>alternation</i>, thence <i>change</i>, thence <i>defect</i>. Compare + the Greek <span title="allôs" class="grk" + >ἄλλως</span>.—Grimm, Deutsche + Grammatik, ii. 470.</p> + + <p><i>Dom</i>, as in <i>wisdom</i>, &c.—The substantive + <i>dôm</i> presumed.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 491.</p> + + <p><i>Hood</i> and <i>head</i>, as in <i>Godhead</i>, <i>manhood</i>, + &c.—The substantive <i>háids</i>=<i>person</i>, <i>order</i>, + <i>kind</i>, presumed.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 497. Nothing to do + with the word <i>head</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Ship</i>, as in <i>friendship</i>.—Anglo-Saxon, <i>-scipe</i> + and <i>-sceäft</i>; German, <i>-schaft</i>; Mœso-Gothic, + <i>gaskafts</i>=<i>a creature</i>, or <i>creation</i>. The substantive + <i>skafts</i> or <i>skap</i> presumed. The <i>-skip</i> or <i>-scape</i> + in <i>landskip</i> is only an older form.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. + 522.</p> + + <p><i>Less</i>, as in <i>sleepless</i>, &c., has nothing to do with + <i>less</i>. Derived from <i>láus</i>, <i>lôs</i>, <i>destitute + of</i>=Latin, <i>expers</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 565.</p> + + <p>For the further details, which are very numerous, see the Deutsche + Grammatik, vol. iii.</p> + + <p><a name="sect419">§ 419</a>. "Subject to four classes of exceptions, + it may be laid down that <i>there is no true composition unless there is + either a change of form or a change of accent</i>."—Such is the + statement made in p. <a href="#page359">359</a>. The first class of + exceptions consists <!-- Page 363 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page363"></a>{363}</span>of those words where the natural tendency + to disparity of accent is traversed by some rule of euphony. For example, + let two words be put together, which at their point of contact form a + combination of sounds foreign to our habits of pronunciation. The rarity + of the combination will cause an effort in utterance. The effort in + utterance will cause an accent to be laid on the latter half of the + compound. This will equalize the accent, and abolish the disparity. The + word <i>monkshood</i>, the name of a flower (<i>aconitum napellus</i>), + where, to my ear at least, there is quite as much accent on the + <i>-hood</i> as on the <i>monks-</i>, may serve in the way of + illustration. Monks is one word, hood another. When joined together, the + <i>h-</i> of the <i>-hood</i> is put in immediate opposition with the + <i>-s</i> of the <i>monks-</i>. Hence the combination <i>monkshood</i>. + At the letters <i>s</i> and <i>h</i> is the point of contact. Now the + sound of <i>s</i> followed immediately by the sound of <i>h</i> is a true + aspirate. But true aspirates are rare in the English language. Being of + rare occurrence, the pronunciation of them is a matter of attention and + effort; and this attention and effort creates an accent which otherwise + would be absent. Hence words like <i>monkshóod</i>, <i>well-héad</i>, and + some others.</p> + + <p>Real reduplications of consonants, as in <i>hop-pole</i>, may have the + same parity of accent with the true aspirates: and for the same reasons. + They are rare combinations that require effort and attention.</p> + + <p>The second class of exceptions contains those words wherein between + the first element and the second there is so great a disparity, either in + the length of the vowel, or the length of the syllable <i>en masse</i>, + as to counteract the natural tendency of the first element to become + accented. One of the few specimens of this class (which after all may + consist of double words) is the term <i>upstánding</i>. Here it should be + remembered, that words like <i>hapházard</i>, <i>foolhárdy</i>, + <i>uphólder</i>, and <i>withhóld</i> come under the first class of the + exceptions.</p> + + <p>The third class of exceptions contains words like <i>perchánce</i> and + <i>perháps</i>. In all respects but one these are double words, just as + <i>by chance</i> is a double word. <i>Per</i>, however, differs from + <i>by</i> in having no separate existence. This sort of words <!-- Page + 364 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page364"></a>{364}</span>we owe to + the multiplicity of elements (classical and Gothic) in the English + language.</p> + + <p>To anticipate objections to the rule respecting the disparity of + accent, it may be well to state in fresh terms a fact already indicated, + viz., that the same combination of words may in one sense be compound, + and in the other double (or two). <i>An uphill game</i> gives us the + combination <i>up</i> + <i>hill</i> as a compound. <i>He ran up hill</i> + gives us the combination <i>up</i> + <i>hill</i> as two words. So it is + with <i>down</i> + <i>hill</i>, <i>down</i> + <i>right</i>, and other + words. <i>Man-servant</i>, <i>cock-sparrow</i>, &c., are double or + compound, as they are pronounced <i>mán-sérvant</i>, <i>mán-servant</i>, + <i>cóck-spárrow</i>, or <i>cóck-sparrow</i>.</p> + + <p>The fourth class is hypothetical. I can, however, imagine that certain + compounds may, if used almost exclusively in poetry, and with the accent + at <i>par</i>, become so accented even in the current language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect420">§ 420</a>. For a remark on the words <i>peacock</i>, + <i>peahen</i>, see the Chapter upon Gender.—If these words be + rendered masculine or feminine by the addition of the elements + <i>-cock</i> and <i>-hen</i>, the statements made in the beginning of the + present chapter are invalidated. Since, if the word <i>pea-</i> be + particularized, qualified, or defined by the words <i>-cock</i> and + <i>-hen</i>, the second term defines or particularises the first, which + is contrary to the rule of p. <a href="#page355">355</a>. The truth, + however, is, that the words <i>-cock</i> and <i>-hen</i> are defined by + the prefix <i>pea-</i>. Preparatory to the exhibition of this, let us + remember that the word <i>pea</i> (although now found in composition + only) is a true and independent substantive, the name of a species of + fowl, like <i>pheasant</i>, <i>partridge</i>, or any other appellation. + It is the Latin <i>pavo</i>, German <i>pfau</i>. Now, if the word + <i>peacock</i> mean a <i>pea</i> (<i>pfau</i> or <i>pavo</i>) that is a + male, then do <i>wood-cock</i>, <i>black-cock</i>, and + <i>bantam-cock</i>, mean <i>woods</i>, <i>blacks</i>, and <i>bantams</i> + that are male. Or if the word <i>peahen</i> mean a <i>pea</i> + (<i>pfau</i> or <i>pavo</i>) that is female, then do <i>moorhen</i> and + <i>guineahen</i> mean <i>moors</i> and <i>guineas</i> that are female. + Again, if a <i>peahen</i> mean a <i>pea</i> (<i>pfau</i> or <i>pavo</i>) + that is female, then does the compound <i>pheasant-hen</i> mean the same + as <i>hen-pheasant</i>; which is not the case. The fact is that + <i>peacock</i> means a <i>cock that is a pea</i> (<i>pfau</i> or + <i>pavo</i>); <!-- Page 365 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page365"></a>{365}</span><i>peahen</i> means a <i>hen that is a + pea</i> (<i>pfau</i> or <i>pavo</i>); and, finally, <i>peafowl</i> means + a <i>fowl that is a pea</i> (<i>pfau</i> or <i>pavo</i>). In the same way + <i>moorfowl</i> means, not a <i>moor that is connected with a fowl</i>, + but a <i>fowl that is connected with a moor</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect421">§ 421</a>. It must be clear, <i>ex vi termini</i>, + that in every compound word there are two parts; <i>i. e.</i>, the whole + or part of the original, and the whole or part of the superadded word. In + the most perfect forms of inflection there is a third element, + <i>viz.</i>, a vowel, consonant, or syllable that joins the first word + with the second.</p> + + <p>In the older forms of all the Gothic languages the presence of this + third element was the rule rather than the exception. In the present + English it exists in but few words.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The <i>-a-</i> in <i>black-a-moor</i> is possibly such a + connecting element.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> The <i>-in-</i> in <i>night-in-gale</i> is most probably + such a connecting element. Compare the German form <i>nacht-i-gale</i>, + and remember the tendency of vowels to take the sound of <i>-ng</i> + before <i>g</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect422">§ 422</a>. <i>Improper compounds.</i>—The + <i>-s-</i> in words like <i>Thur-s-day</i>, <i>hunt-s-man</i>, may be one + of two things.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> It may be the sign of the genitive case, so that + <i>Thursday</i>=<i>Thoris dies</i>. In this case the word is an improper + compound, since it is like the word <i>pater-familias</i> in Latin, in a + common state of syntactical construction.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> It may be a connecting sound, like the <i>-i-</i> in + <i>nacht-i-gale</i>. Reasons for this view occur in the following + fact:—</p> + + <p>In the Modern German languages the genitive case of feminine nouns + ends otherwise than in <i>-s</i>. Nevertheless, the sound of <i>-s-</i> + occurs in composition equally, whether the noun it follows be masculine + or feminine. This fact, as far as it goes, makes it convenient to + consider the sound in question as a connective rather than a case. + Probably, it is neither one nor the other exactly, but the effect of a + false analogy.</p> + + <p><a name="sect423">§ 423</a>. <i>Decomposites.</i>—"Composition + is the joining together of <i>two</i> words."—See p. <a + href="#page357">357</a>.</p> + + <p>In the first edition the sentence ran "<i>two or more</i>" words; + being so written to account for compounds like <i>mid-ship-man</i>, <!-- + Page 366 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page366"></a>{366}</span><i>gentle-man-like</i>, &c., where the + number of verbal elements seems to amount to three.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, the caution was unnecessary. Compound radicals like + <i>midship</i> and <i>gentleman</i>, are, for the purposes of + composition, single words. Compounds wherein one element is compound are + called decomposites.</p> + + <p><a name="sect424">§ 424</a>. The present chapter closes with the + notice of two classes of words. They are mentioned now, not because they + are compounds, but because they can be treated of here more conveniently + than elsewhere.</p> + + <p>There are a number of words which are never found by themselves; or, + if so found, have never the same sense that they have in combination. + Mark the word combination. The terms in question are points of + combination, not of composition: since they form not the parts of words, + but the parts of phrases. Such are the expressions <i>time and + tide</i>—<i>might and main</i>—<i>rede me my + riddle</i>—<i>pay your shot</i>—<i>rhyme and reason</i>, + &c. These words are evidently of the same class, though not of the + same species with <i>bishopric</i>, <i>colewort</i>, <i>spillikin</i>, + <i>gossip</i>, <i>mainswearer</i>, and the words quoted in p. <a + href="#page362">362</a>. These last-mentioned terms give us obsolete + words preserved in composition. The former give us obsolete words + preserved in combination.</p> + + <p>The other words are etymological curiosities. They may occur in any + language. The English, however, from the extent of its classical element, + is particularly abundant in them. It is a mere accident that they are all + compound words.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 367 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page367"></a>{367}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION.</p> + + <p><a name="sect425">§ 425</a>. Derivation, like <i>etymology</i>, is a + word used in a wide and in a limited sense. In the wide sense of the term + every word, except it be in the simple form of a root, is a derived word. + In this sense the cases, numbers, and genders of nouns, the persons, + moods, and tenses of verbs, the ordinal numbers, the diminutives, and + even the compound words, are alike matters of derivation. In the wide + sense of the term the word <i>fathers</i>, from <i>father</i>, is equally + in a state of derivation with the word <i>strength</i>, from + <i>strong</i>.</p> + + <p>In the use of the word, even in its limited sense, there is + considerable laxity and uncertainty.</p> + + <p><i>Gender, number, case.</i>—These have been called the + <i>accidents</i> of the noun, and these it has been agreed to separate + from derivation in its stricter sense, or from derivation properly so + called, and to class together under the name of declension. Nouns are + declined.</p> + + <p><i>Person, number, tense, voice.</i>—These have been called the + accidents of a verb, and these it has been agreed to separate from + derivation properly so called, and to class together under the name of + conjugation. Verbs are conjugated.</p> + + <p>Conjugation and declension constitute inflection. Nouns and verbs, + speaking generally, are inflected.</p> + + <p>Inflection, a part of derivation in its wider sense, is separated from + derivation properly so called, or from derivation in its limited + sense.</p> + + <p>The degrees of comparison, or certain derived forms of adjectives; the + ordinals, or certain derived forms of the numerals; the diminutives, + &c., or certain derived forms of the substantive, have been separated + from derivation properly <!-- Page 368 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page368"></a>{368}</span>so called. I am not certain, however, that + for so doing there is any better reason than mere convenience. By some + the decrees of comparison are considered as points of inflection.</p> + + <p>Derivation proper, the subject of the present chapter, comprises all + the changes that words undergo, which are not referable to some of the + preceding heads. As such, it is, in its details, a wider field than even + composition. The details, however, are not entered into.</p> + + <p><a name="sect426">§ 426</a>. Derivation proper may be divided + according to a variety of principles. Amongst others,</p> + + <p>I. <i>According to the evidence.</i>—In the evidence that a word + is not simple, but derived, there are at least two degrees.</p> + + <p>A. That the word <i>strength</i> is a derived word I collect to a + certainty from the word <i>strong</i>, an independent form, which I can + separate from it. Of the nature of the word <i>strength</i> there is the + clearest evidence, or evidence of the first degree.</p> + + <p>B. <i>Fowl, hail, nail, sail, tail, soul; </i>in Anglo-Saxon<i>, + fugel, hægel, nægel, segel, tægel, sawel.</i> —These words are by + the best grammarians considered as derivatives. Now, with these words I + can not do what was done with the word <i>strength</i>, I can not take + from them the part which I look upon as the derivational addition, and + after that leave an independent word. <i>Strength</i> - <i>th</i> is a + true word; <i>fowl</i> or <i>fugel</i> - <i>l</i> is no true word. If I + believe these latter words to be derivations at all, I do it because I + find in words like <i>handle</i>, &c., the <i>-l</i> as a + derivational addition. Yet, as the fact of a word being sometimes used as + a derivational addition does not preclude it from being at other times a + part of the root, the evidence that the words in question are not simple, + but derived, is not cogent. In other words, it is evidence of the second + degree.</p> + + <p>II. <i>According to the effect.</i>—The syllable <i>-en</i> in + the word <i>whiten</i> changes the noun <i>white</i> into a verb. This is + its effect. We may so classify as to arrange combinations like <i>-en</i> + (whose effect is to give the idea of the verb) in one order; whilst + combinations like <i>th</i> (whose effect is, as in the word + <i>strength</i>, to give the idea of abstraction) <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'from'.">form</span> another + order.</p> + + <p>III. <i>According to the form.</i>—Sometimes the derivational + <!-- Page 369 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page369"></a>{369}</span>element is a vowel (as the <i>-ie</i> in + <i>doggie</i>); sometimes a consonant combined: in other words, a + syllable (as the <i>-en</i> in <i>whiten</i>); sometimes a change of + vowel without any addition (as the <i>i</i> in <i>tip</i>, compared with + <i>top</i>); sometimes a change of consonant without any addition (as the + <i>z</i> in <i>prize</i>, compared with <i>price</i>; sometimes it is a + change of <i>accent</i>, like <i>a súrvey</i>, compared with <i>to + survéy</i>. To classify derivations in this manner is to classify them + according to their form. For the detail of the derivative forms, see + Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 89-405.</p> + + <p>IV. <i>According to the historical origin of the derivational + elements.</i>—For this see the Chapter upon Hybridism.</p> + + <p>V. <i>According to the number of the derivational + elements.</i>—In <i>fisher</i>, as compared with <i>fish</i>, there + is but one derivational affix. In <i>fishery</i>, as compared with + <i>fish</i>, the number of derivational elements is two.</p> + + <p><a name="sect427">§ 427</a>. The list (taken from Walker) of words + alluded to in p. <a href="#page293">293</a>, is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent" title="Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Nouns.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Verbs.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ábsent </td><td class="spacsingle"> absént.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ábstract </td><td class="spacsingle"> abstráct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Áccent </td><td class="spacsingle"> accént.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Áffix </td><td class="spacsingle"> affíx.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Aúgment </td><td class="spacsingle"> augmént.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cólleague</td><td class="spacsingle"> colléague.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cómpact </td><td class="spacsingle"> compáct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cómpound </td><td class="spacsingle"> compóund.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cómpress </td><td class="spacsingle"> compréss.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cóncert </td><td class="spacsingle"> concért.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cóncrete </td><td class="spacsingle"> concréte.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cónduct </td><td class="spacsingle"> condúct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cónfine </td><td class="spacsingle"> confíne.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cónflict </td><td class="spacsingle"> conflíct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cónserve </td><td class="spacsingle"> consérve.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cónsort </td><td class="spacsingle"> consórt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cóntract </td><td class="spacsingle"> contráct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cóntrast </td><td class="spacsingle"> contrást.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cónverse </td><td class="spacsingle"> convérse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Cónvert </td><td class="spacsingle"> convért.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Désert </td><td class="spacsingle"> desért.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Déscant </td><td class="spacsingle"> descánt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Dígest </td><td class="spacsingle"> digést.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Éssay </td><td class="spacsingle"> essáy.</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Nouns.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Verbs.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Éxtract </td><td class="spacsingle"> extráct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Férment </td><td class="spacsingle"> fermént.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fréquent </td><td class="spacsingle"> freqúent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ímport </td><td class="spacsingle"> impórt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Íncense </td><td class="spacsingle"> incénse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Ínsult </td><td class="spacsingle"> insúlt.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Óbject </td><td class="spacsingle"> objéct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Pérfume </td><td class="spacsingle"> perfúme.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Pérmit </td><td class="spacsingle"> permít.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Préfix </td><td class="spacsingle"> prefíx.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Prémise </td><td class="spacsingle"> premíse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Présage </td><td class="spacsingle"> preságe.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Présent </td><td class="spacsingle"> presént.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Próduce </td><td class="spacsingle"> prodúce.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Próject </td><td class="spacsingle"> projéct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Prótest </td><td class="spacsingle"> protést.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Rébel </td><td class="spacsingle"> rebél.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Récord </td><td class="spacsingle"> recórd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Réfuse </td><td class="spacsingle"> refúse.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Súbject </td><td class="spacsingle"> subjéct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Súrvey </td><td class="spacsingle"> survéy.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 370 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page370"></a>{370}</span> + Tórment </td><td class="spacsingle"> tormént.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tránsfer </td><td class="spacsingle"> transfér.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tránsport.</td><td class="spacsingle"> transpórt.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect428">§ 428</a>. <i>Churl</i>, <i>earl</i>, <i>owl</i>, + <i>fowl</i>, <i>hail</i>, <i>nail</i>, <i>sail</i>, <i>snail</i>, + <i>tail</i>, <i>hazel</i>, <i>needle</i>, <i>soul</i>, <i>teazle</i>, + <i>fair</i>, <i>beam</i>, <i>bottom</i>, <i>arm</i>, <i>team</i>, + <i>worm</i>, <i>heaven</i>, <i>morn</i>, <i>dust</i>, <i>ghost</i>, + <i>breast</i>, <i>rest</i>, <i>night</i>, <i>spright</i>, <i>blind</i>, + <i>harp</i>, <i>flax</i>, <i>fox</i>, <i>finch</i>, <i>stork</i>, &c. + All these words, for certain etymological reasons, are currently + considered, by the latest philologists, as derivatives. Notwithstanding + the general prevalence of a fuller form in the Anglo-Saxon, it is clear + that, in respect to the evidence, they come under division B.</p> + + <p><a name="sect429">§ 429</a>. Forms like <i>tip</i>, from <i>top</i>, + <i>price</i> and <i>prize</i>, &c., are of importance in general + etymology. Let it be received as a theory (as with some philologists is + really the case) that fragmentary sounds like the <i>-en</i> in + <i>whiten</i>, the <i>-th</i> in <i>strength</i>, &c., were once + <i>words</i>; or, changing the expression, let it be considered that all + derivation was once composition. Let this view be opposed. The first + words that are brought to militate against it are those like <i>tip</i> + and <i>prize</i>, where, instead of any <i>addition</i>, there is only + <i>a change</i>; and, consequently, no vestiges of an older <i>word</i>. + This argument, good as far as it goes, is rebutted in the following + manner. Let the word <i>top</i> have attached to it a second word, in + which second word there is a small vowel. Let this small vowel act upon + the full one in <i>top</i>, changing it to <i>tip</i>. After this, let + the second word be ejected. We then get the form <i>tip</i> by the law of + accommodation, and not as an immediate sign of derivation. The <i>i</i> + in <i>chick</i> (from <i>cock</i>) may be thus accounted for, the + <i>-en</i> in <i>chicken</i> being supposed to have exerted, first, an + influence of accommodation, and afterwards to have fallen off. The + <i>i</i> in <i>chick</i> may, however, be accounted for by simple + processes.</p> + + <p><a name="sect430">§ 430</a>. In words like <i>bishopric</i>, and many + others mentioned in the last chapter, we had compound words under the + appearance of derived ones; in words like <i>upmost</i>, and many others, + we have derivation under the appearance of composition.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 371 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page371"></a>{371}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ADVERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect431">§ 431</a>. <i>Adverbs.</i>—The adverbs are + capable of being classified after a variety of principles.</p> + + <p>Firstly, they may be divided according to their meaning. In this case + we speak of the adverbs of time, place, number, manner. This division is + logical rather than etymological.</p> + + <p>A division, however, which although logical bears upon etymology, is + the following:—</p> + + <p><i>Well, better, ill, worse.</i>—Here we have a class of adverbs + expressive of degree, or intensity. Adverbs of this kind are capable of + taking an inflection, <i>viz.</i>, that of the comparative and + superlative degrees.</p> + + <p><i>Now, then, here, there.</i>—In the idea expressed by these + words there are no degrees of intensity. Adverbs of this kind are + incapable of taking any inflection.</p> + + <p>Words like <i>better</i> and <i>worse</i> are adjectives or adverbs as + they are joined to nouns or verbs.</p> + + <p>Adverbs differ from nouns and verbs in being susceptible of one sort + of inflection only, <i>viz.</i>, that of degree.</p> + + <p>Secondly, adverbs may be divided according to their form and origin. + This is truly an etymological classification.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">A</span> <i>Better, worse.</i>—Here the + combination of sounds gives equally an adjective and an adverb. <i>This + book is better than that</i>—here <i>better</i> agrees with + <i>book</i>, and is therefore adjectival. <i>This looks better than + that</i>—here <i>better</i> qualifies <i>looks</i>, and is + therefore adverbial. Again; <i>to do a thing with violence</i> is + equivalent <i>to do a thing violently</i>. This shows how adverbs may + arise out of cases. In words like the English <i>better</i>, the Latin + <i>vi</i>=<i>violenter</i>, the Greek <span title="kalon" class="grk" + >κάλον</span>=<span title="kalôs" class="grk" + >κάλως</span>, we have <!-- Page 372 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page372"></a>{372}</span>adjectives in + their degrees, and substantives in their cases, with adverbial powers. In + other words, nouns are deflected from their natural sense to an adverbial + one. Adverbs of this kind are adverbs of deflection.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">B</span> <i>Brightly, bravely.</i>—Here an + adjective is rendered adverbial by the addition of the derivative + syllable <i>-ly</i>. Adverbs like <i>brightly</i>, &c., may (laxly + speaking) be called adverbs of derivation.</p> + + <p><span class="scac">C</span> <i>Now.</i>—This word has not + satisfactorily been shown to have originated as any other part of speech + but as an adverb. Words of this sort are adverbs absolute.</p> + + <p><i>When, now, well, worse, better.</i>—here the adverbial + expression consists in a single word, and is <i>simple</i>. + <i>To-day</i>, <i>yesterday</i>, <i>not at all</i>, + <i>somewhat</i>—here the adverbial expression consists of a + compound word, or a phrase. This indicates the division of adverbs into + simple and complex.</p> + + <p><a name="sect432">§ 432</a>. The adverbs of deflection (of the chief + importance in etymology) may be arranged after a variety of principles. + I. According to the part of speech from whence they originate. This is + often an adjective, often a substantive, at times a pronoun, occasionally + a preposition, rarely a verb. II. According to the part of the inflection + from whence they originate. This is often an ablative case, often a + neuter accusative, often a dative, occasionally a genitive.</p> + + <p>The following notices are miscellaneous rather than systematic.</p> + + <p><i>Else, unawares, eftsoons.</i>—These are the genitive forms of + adjectives. <i>By rights</i> is a word of the same sort.</p> + + <p><i>Once, twice, thrice.</i>—These are the genitive forms of + numerals.</p> + + <p><i>Needs</i> (as in <i>needs must go</i>) is the genitive case of a + substantive.</p> + + <p><i>Seldom.</i>—The old dative (singular or plural) of the + adjective <i>seld</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Whilom.</i>—The dative (singular or plural) of the + substantive <i>while</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Little, less, well.</i>—Neuter accusatives of adjectives. + <i>Bright</i>, in the <i>sun shines bright</i>, is a word of the same + class. The <!-- Page 373 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page373"></a>{373}</span>neuter accusative is a common source of + adverbs in all tongues.</p> + + <p><i>Athwart.</i>—A neuter accusative, and a word exhibiting the + Norse neuter in <i>-t</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect433">§ 433</a>. <i>Darkling.</i>—This is no + participle of a verb <i>darkle</i>, but an adverb of derivation, like + <i>unwaringun</i>=<i>unawares</i>, Old High German; + <i>stillinge</i>=<i>secretly</i>, Middle High German; + <i>blindlings</i>=<i>blindly</i>, New High German; + <i>darnungo</i>=<i>secretly</i>, Old Saxon; <i>nichtinge</i>=<i>by + night</i>, Middle Dutch; <i>blindeling</i>=<i>blindly</i>, New Dutch; + <i>bæclinga</i>=<i>backwards</i>, <i>handlunga</i>=<i>hand to hand</i>, + Anglo-Saxon; and, finally, <i>blindlins</i>, <i>backlins</i>, + <i>darklins</i>, <i>middlins</i>, <i>scantlins</i>, <i>stridelins</i>, + <i>stowlins</i>, in Lowland Scotch.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. + 236.</p> + + <p><a name="sect434">§ 434</a>. "Adverbs like <i>brightly</i> may (laxly + speaking) be called adverbs of derivation." Such the assertion made a few + paragraphs above. The first circumstance that strikes the reader is, that + the termination <i>-ly</i> is common both to adjectives and to adverbs. + This termination was once an independent word, <i>viz.</i>, <i>leik</i>. + Now, as <i>-ly</i> sprung out of the Anglo-Saxon <i>-lice</i>, and as + words like <i>early</i>, <i>dearly</i>, &c., were originally + <i>arlîce</i>, <i>deorlîce</i>, &c., and as <i>arlîce</i>, + <i>deorlîce</i>, &c., were adjectives, the adverbs in <i>-ly</i> are + (<i>strictly speaking</i>) adverbs, not of derivation, but of + deflection.</p> + + <p>It is highly probable that not only the adverbs of derivation, but + that also the absolute adverbs, may eventually be reduced to adverbs of + deflection. For <i>now</i>, see Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 249.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 374 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page374"></a>{374}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXIV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect435">§ 435</a>. It is a common practice for languages to + express by different modifications of the same root the three following + ideas:—</p> + + <p>1. The idea of rest <i>in</i> a place.</p> + + <p>2. The idea of motion <i>towards</i> a place.</p> + + <p>3. The idea of motion <i>from</i> a place.</p> + + <p>This habit gives us three correlative adverbs—one of position, + and two of direction.</p> + + <p><a name="sect436">§ 436</a>. It is also a common practice of language + to depart from the original expression of each particular idea, and to + interchange the signs by which they are expressed.</p> + + <p><a name="sect437">§ 437</a>. This may be seen in the following table, + illustrative of the forms <i>here</i>, <i>hither</i>, <i>hence</i>, and + taken from the Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 199.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Adverbs of place in related languages" title="Adverbs of place in related languages"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Mœso-Gothic</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þar, þaþ, þaþro, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>there, thither, thence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hêr, hiþ, hidrô, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>here, hither, hence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old High German</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> huâr, huara, huanana, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>where, whither, whence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> dâr, dara, danana, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>there, thither, thence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hear, hêra, hinana, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>here, hither, hence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old Saxon</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> huar, huar, huanan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>where, whither, whence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> thar, thar, thanan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>there, thither, thence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hêr, hër, hënan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>here, hither, hence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þar, þider, þonan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>there, thither, thence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hvar, hvider, hvonan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>where, whither, whence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hêr, hider, hënan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>here, hither, hence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old Norse</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> þar, þaðra, þaðan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>there, thither, thence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hvar, hvert, hvaðan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>where, whither, whence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hêr, hëðra, hëðan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>here, hither, hence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Middle High German</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> dâ, dan,dannen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>there, thither, thence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> wâ, war, wannen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>where, whither, whence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hie, hër, hennen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>here, hither, hence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 375 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page375"></a>{375}</span> + <i>Modern High German</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> da, dar, dannen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>there, thither, thence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> wo, wohin, wannen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>where, whither, whence</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> hier, her, hinnen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>here, hither, hence</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect438">§ 438</a>. These local terminations were commoner in + the earlier stages of language than at present. The following are from + the Mœso-Gothic:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Local terminations in Moeso-Gothic" title="Local terminations in Moeso-Gothic"> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Ïnnaþrô </td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>from within</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Ūtaþrô</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>from without</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Ïnnaþrô </td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>from above</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Fáirraþrô</td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>from afar</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> Allaþrô </td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<i>from all quarters</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Now a reason for the comparative frequency of these forms in + Mœso-Gothic lies in the fact of the Gospel of Ulphilas being a + translation from the Greek. The Greek forms in <span title="-then, esôthen, exôthen, anôthen, porrhôthen, pantothen" class="grk" + >-θεν, ἔσωθεν, + ἔξωθεν, + ἄνωθεν, + πόῤῥωθεν, + πάντοθεν</span>, were just the + forms to encourage such a formation as that in + <i>-þro</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 199, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect439">§ 439</a>. The <i>-ce</i> (=<i>es</i>) in + <i>hen-ce</i>, <i>when-ce</i>, <i>then-ce</i>, has yet to be + satisfactorily explained. The Old English is <i>whenn-es</i>, + <i>thenn-es</i>. As far, therefore, as the spelling is concerned, they + are in the same predicament with the word <i>once</i>, which is properly + <i>on-es</i>, the genitive of <i>one</i>. This statement, however, + explains only the peculiarity of their orthography; since it by no means + follows, that, because the <i>-s</i> in <i>ones</i> and the <i>-s</i> in + <i>whennes</i>, <i>thennes</i> are equally replaced by <i>-ce</i> in + orthography, they must equally have the same origin in etymology.</p> + + <p><a name="sect440">§ 440</a>. <i>Yonder.</i>—In the + Mœso-Gothic we have the following forms: <i>jáinar</i>, + <i>jáina</i>, <i>jáinþrô</i>=<i>illic</i>, <i>illuc</i>, <i>illinc</i>. + They do not, however, explain the form <i>yon-d-er</i>. It is not clear + whether the <i>d</i>=the <i>-d</i> in <i>jâind</i>, or the <i>þ</i> in + <i>jáinþro</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Anon</i>, as used by Shakspeare, in the sense of + <i>presently</i>.—The probable history of this word is as follows: + the first syllable contains a root akin to the root <i>yon</i>, + signifying <i>distance in place</i>. The second is a shortened form of + the Old High German and Middle High German, <i>-nt</i>, a termination + expressive, 1, of removal in space; 2, of removal in time; Old High + German, <i>ënont</i>, <i>ënnont</i>; Middle High German, <!-- Page 376 + --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page376"></a>{376}</span><i>ënentlig</i>, + <i>jenunt</i>=<i>beyond</i>. The transition from the idea of <i>place</i> + to that of <i>time</i> is shown in the Old High German, <i>nâhunt</i>, + and the Middle High German, <i>vërnent</i>=<i>lately</i>; the first from + the root <i>nigh</i>, the latter from the root <i>far</i>.—See + Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 215.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 377 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page377"></a>{377}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN.</p> + + <p><a name="sect441">§ 441</a>. The Anglo-Saxon adverbs are <i>whenne</i> + and <i>þenne</i>=<i>when</i>, <i>then</i>.</p> + + <p>The masculine accusative cases of the relative and demonstrative + pronoun are <i>hwæne</i> (<i>hwone</i>) and <i>þæne</i> + (<i>þone</i>).</p> + + <p>Notwithstanding the difference, the first form is a variety of the + second; so that the adverbs <i>when</i> and <i>then</i> are pronominal in + origin.</p> + + <p>As to the word <i>than</i>, the conjunction of comparison, it is a + variety of <i>then</i>; the notions of <i>order</i>, <i>sequence</i>, and + <i>comparison</i> being allied.</p> + + <p><i>This is good</i>: <i>then</i> (or <i>next in order</i>) <i>that is + good</i>, is an expression sufficiently similar to <i>this is better than + that</i> to have given rise to it.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 378 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page378"></a>{378}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXVI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect442">§ 442</a>. <i>Prepositions.</i>—Prepositions, + as such, are wholly unsusceptible of inflection. Other parts of speech, + in a state of inflection, may be used with a prepositional sense. This, + however, is not an inflection of prepositions.</p> + + <p>No word is ever made a preposition by the addition of a derivational<a + name="NtA59" href="#Nt59"><sup>[59]</sup></a> element. If it were not for + this, the practical classification of the prepositions, in respect to + their form, would coincide with that of the adverbs. As it is, there are + only the prepositions of deflection, and the absolute prepositions. On + another principle of division there are the simple prepositions + (<i>in</i>, <i>on</i>, &c.), and the complex prepositions + (<i>upon</i>, <i>roundabout</i>, <i>across</i>).</p> + + <p>The prepositions of deflection, when simple, originate chiefly in + adverbs, as <i>up</i>, <i>down</i>, <i>within</i>, <i>without</i>, + unless, indeed, we change the assertion, and say that the words in point + (and the others like them) are adverbs originating in prepositions. The + absence of characteristic terminations renders these decisions + difficult.</p> + + <p>The prepositions of deflection, when complex, originate chiefly in + nouns, accompanied by an absolute preposition; as <i>instead of</i> of + substantival, <i>between</i> of adjectival origin.</p> + + <p>The absolute prepositions, in the English language, are <i>in</i>, + <i>on</i>, <i>of</i>, <i>at</i>, <i>up</i>, <i>by</i>, <i>to</i>, + <i>for</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>till</i>, <i>with</i>, <i>through</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect443">§ 443</a>. <i>Conjunctions.</i>—Conjunctions, + like prepositions, are wholly unsusceptible of inflection. Like + prepositions they <!-- Page 379 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page379"></a>{379}</span>are never made by means of a derivational + element. Like prepositions they are either simple (as <i>and</i>, + <i>if</i>), or complex (as <i>also</i>, <i>nevertheless</i>).</p> + + <p>The conjunctions of deflection originate chiefly in imperative moods + (as <i>all</i> save <i>one</i>, <i>all</i> except <i>one</i>); + participles used like the ablative absolute in Latin (as <i>all</i> + saving <i>one</i>, <i>all</i> excepting <i>one</i>); adverbs (as + <i>so</i>); prepositions (as <i>for</i>); and relative neuters (as + <i>that</i>).</p> + + <p>The absolute conjunctions in the English language are <i>and</i>, + <i>or</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>if</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect444">§ 444</a>. <i>Yes, no.</i>—Although <i>not</i> + may be reduced to an adverb, <i>nor</i> to a conjunction, and <i>none</i> + to a noun, these two words (the direct affirmative, and the direct + negative) are referable to none of the current parts of speech. Accurate + grammar places them in a class by themselves.</p> + + <p><a name="sect445">§ 445</a>. <i>Particles.</i>—The word particle + is a collective term for all those parts of speech that are + <i>naturally</i> unsusceptible of inflection; comprising, 1, + interjections; 2, direct affirmatives; 3, direct negatives; 4, absolute + conjunctions; 5, absolute prepositions; 6, adverbs unsusceptible of + degrees of comparison; 7, inseparable prefixes.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 380 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page380"></a>{380}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXVII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS <b>MINE</b> AND <b>THINE</b>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect446">§ 446</a>. The inflection of pronouns has its + natural peculiarities in language; it has also its natural difficulties + in philology. These occur not in one language in particular, but in all + generally. The most common peculiarity in the grammar of pronouns is the + fact of what may be called their <i>convertibility</i>. Of this + <i>convertibility</i> the following statements serve as + illustration:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Of case.</i>—In our own language the words <i>my</i> and + <i>thy</i>, although at present possessives, were previously datives, + and, earlier still, accusatives. Again, the accusative <i>you</i> + replaces the nominative <i>ye</i>, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Of number.</i>—The words <i>thou</i> and <i>thee</i> are, + except in the mouths of Quakers, obsolete. The plural forms, <i>ye</i> + and <i>you</i>, have replaced them.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Of person.</i>—Laying aside the habit of the Germans and + other nations, of using the third person plural for the second singular + (as in expressions like <i>wie befinden sie sich</i> = <i>how do they + find themselves?</i> instead of <i>how do you find yourself?</i>) the + Greek language gives us examples of interchange in the way of persons in + the promiscuous use of <span title="nin, min, sphe" class="grk" + >νιν, μιν, σφε</span>, and <span + title="heautou" class="grk" + >ἑαυτοῦ</span>; whilst + <i>sich</i> and <i>sik</i> are used with a similar latitude in the Middle + High German and Scandinavian.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Of class.</i>—The demonstrative pronouns become</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>a.</i> Personal pronouns.</p> + <p><i>b.</i> Relative pronouns.</p> + <p><i>c.</i> Articles.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The reflective pronoun often becomes reciprocal. <!-- Page 381 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page381"></a>{381}</span></p> + + <p>These statements are made for the sake of illustrating, not of + exhausting, the subject. It follows, however, as an inference from them, + that the classification of pronouns is complicated. Even if we knew the + original power and derivation of every form of every pronoun in a + language, it would be far from an easy matter to determine therefrom the + paradigm that they should take in grammar. To place a word according to + its power in a late stage of language might confuse the study of an early + stage. To say that because a word was once in a given class, it should + always be so, would be to deny that in the present English <i>they</i>, + <i>these</i>, and <i>she</i> are personal pronouns at all.</p> + + <p>The two tests, then, of the grammatical place of a pronoun, its + <i>present power</i> and its <i>original power</i>, are often + conflicting.</p> + + <p>In the English language the point of most importance in this + department of grammar is the place of forms like <i>mine</i> and + <i>thine</i>; in other words, of the forms in <i>-n</i>. Are they + genitive cases of a personal pronoun, as <i>mei</i> and <i>tui</i> are + supposed to be in Latin, or are they possessive pronouns like <i>meus</i> + and <i>tuus</i>?</p> + + <p>Now, if we take up the common grammars of the English language <i>as + it is</i>, we find, that, whilst <i>my</i> and <i>thy</i> are dealt with + as genitive cases, <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> are considered + adjectives. In the Anglo-Saxon grammars, however, <i>min</i> and + <i>þin</i>, the older forms of <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i>, are treated + as genitives; of which <i>my</i> and <i>thy</i> have been dealt with as + abbreviated forms, and that by respectable scholars.</p> + + <p>Now, to prove from the syntax of the older English that in many cases + the two forms were convertible, and to answer that the words in question + are <i>either</i> genitive cases or adjectives, is lax philology; since + the real question is, <i>which of the two is the primary, and which the + secondary meaning?</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect447">§ 447</a>. The <i>à priori</i> view of the + likelihood of words like <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> being genitive + cases, must be determined by the comparison of three series of facts.</p> + + <p>1. The ideas expressed by the genitive case, with particular reference + to the two preponderating notions of possession and partition. <!-- Page + 382 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382"></a>{382}</span></p> + + <p>2. The circumstance of the particular notion of possession being, in + the case of the personal pronouns of the two first persons singular, + generally expressed by a form undoubtedly adjectival.</p> + + <p>3. The extent to which the idea of partition becomes merged in that of + possession, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect448">§ 448</a>. <i>The ideas of possession and partition + as expressed by genitive forms.</i>—If we take a hundred genitive + cases, and observe their construction, we shall find, that, with a vast + majority of them, the meaning is reducible to one of two heads; + <i>viz.</i>, the idea of possession or the idea of partition.</p> + + <p>Compared with these two powers all the others are inconsiderable, both + in number and importance; and if, as in the Greek and Latin languages, + they take up a large space in the grammars, it is from their exceptional + character rather than from their normal genitival signification.</p> + + <p>Again, if both the ideas of possession and partition may, and in many + cases must be, reduced to the more general idea of relation, this is a + point of grammatical phraseology by no means affecting the practical and + special bearings of the present division.</p> + + <p><a name="sect449">§ 449</a>. <i>The adjectival expression of the idea + of possession.</i>—All the world over, a property is a possession; + and <i>persons</i>, at least, may be said to be the owners of their + attributes. Whatever may be the nature of words like <i>mine</i> and + <i>thine</i>, the adjectival character of their Latin equivalents, + <i>meus</i> and <i>tuus</i>, is undoubted.</p> + + <p><i>The ideas of partition and possession merge into one + another.</i>—<i>A man's spade is the</i> possession <i>of a man; a + man's hand is the</i> part <i>of a man.</i> Nevertheless, when a man uses + his hand as the instrument of his will, the idea which arises from the + fact of its being <i>part</i> of his body is merged in the idea of the + possessorship which arises from the feeling of ownership or mastery which + is evinced in its subservience and application. Without following the + refinements to which the further investigation of these questions would + lead us, it is sufficient to suggest that the preponderance of the two + allied ideas of partition and possession is often determined by the <!-- + Page 383 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page383"></a>{383}</span>personality or the non-personality of the + subject, and that, when the subject is a person, the idea is chiefly + possessive; when a thing, partitive—<i>caput fluvii</i>=<i>the + head, which is a part, of a river</i>; <i>caput Toli</i>=<i>the head, + which is the possession, of Tolus</i>.</p> + + <p>But as persons may be degraded to the rank of things, and as things + may, by personification, be elevated to the level of persons, this + distinction, although real, may become apparently invalid. In phrases + like a <i>tributary to the Tiber</i>—<i>the criminal lost his + eye</i>—<i>this field belongs to that parish</i>—the ideas of + possessorship and partition, as allied ideas subordinate to the idea of + relationship in general, verify the interchange.</p> + + <p><a name="sect450">§ 450</a>. These observations should bring us to the + fact that there are two ideas which, more than any other, determine the + evolution of a genitive case—the idea of partition and the idea of + possession; <i>and that genitive cases are likely to be evolved just in + proportion as there is a necessity for the expression of these two + ideas</i>.—Let this be applied to the question of the à priori + probability of the evolution of a genitive case to the pronouns of the + first and second persons of the singular number.</p> + + <p><a name="sect451">§ 451</a>. <i>The idea of </i>possession<i>, and its + likelihood of determining the evolution of a genitive form to the + pronouns of the first and second person singular.</i> —It is less + likely to do so with such pronouns than with other words, inasmuch as it + is less necessary. It has been before observed, that the practice of most + languages shows a tendency to express the relation by adjectival + forms—<i>meus</i>, <i>tuus</i>.</p> + + <p>An objection against the conclusiveness of this argument will be + mentioned in the sequel.</p> + + <p><a name="sect452">§ 452</a>. <i>The idea of </i>partition<i>, and its + likelihood of determining the evolution of a genitive form, + &c.</i>—Less than with other words.</p> + + <p>A personal pronoun of the <i>singular</i> number is the name of a + unity, and, as such, the name of an object far less likely to be + separated into parts than the name of a collection. Phrases like, <i>some + of them</i>, <i>one of you</i>, <i>many of us</i>, <i>any of them</i>, + <i>few of us</i>, &c., have no analogues in the singular number, such + as <i>one of me</i>, <i>a few of thee</i>, &c. The partitive words + that can <!-- Page 384 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page384"></a>{384}</span>combine with singular pronouns are + comparatively few; <i>viz.</i>, <i>half</i>, <i>quarter</i>, <i>part</i>, + &c.: and they can all combine equally with plurals—<i>half of + us</i>, <i>a quarter of them</i>, <i>a part of you</i>, <i>a portion of + us</i>. The partition of a singular object with a pronominal name is of + rare occurrence in language.</p> + + <p>This last statement proves something more than appears at first sight. + It proves that no argument in favour of the so-called <i>singular</i> + genitives, like <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i>, can be drawn from the + admission (if made) of the existence of the true plural genitives + <i>ou-r</i>, <i>you-r</i>, <i>thei-r</i>. The two ideas are not in the + same predicament. We can say, <i>one of ten</i>, or <i>ten of twenty</i>; + but we cannot say <i>one of one</i>—<i>Wæs hira Matheus + sum</i>=<i>Matthew was one of them</i>; Andreas—<i>Your + noither</i>=<i>neither of you</i>; Amis and Ameloun—from Mr. Guest: + <i>Her eyder</i>=<i>either of them</i>; Octavian.—Besides this, the + form of the two numbers are neither identical, nor equally genitival; as + may be seen by contrasting <i>mi-n</i> and <i>thi-n</i> with <i>ou-r</i> + and <i>you-r</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect453">§ 453</a>. Such are the chief <i>à priori</i> + arguments against the genitival character of words like <i>mine</i> and + <i>thine</i>.</p> + + <p>Akin to these, and a point which precedes the <i>à posteriori</i> + evidence as to the nature of the words in question, is the determination + of the side on which lies the <i>onus probandi</i>. This question is + material; inasmuch as, although the present writer believes, for his own + part, that the forms under discussion are adjectival rather than + genitival, this is not the point upon which he insists. What he insists + upon is the fact of the genitival character of <i>mine</i> and + <i>thine</i> requiring a particular proof; which particular proof no one + has yet given: in other words, his position is that they are not to be + thought genitive until proved to be such.</p> + + <p>It has not been sufficiently considered that the <i>primâ facie</i> + evidence is against them. They have not the form of a genitive + case—indeed, they have a different one; and whoever assumes a + second form for a given case has the burden of proof on his side.</p> + + <p><a name="sect454">§ 454</a>. Against this circumstance of the + <i>-n</i> in <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i> being the sign of anything + rather than of a genitive case, and against the <i>primâ facie</i> + evidence afforded by it, the <!-- Page 385 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page385"></a>{385}</span>following facts may, or have been, adduced + as reasons on the other side. The appreciation of their value, either + taken singly or in the way of cumulative evidence, is submitted to the + reader. It will be seen that none of them are unexceptionable.</p> + + <p><a name="sect455">§ 455</a>. <i>The fact, that, if the words + </i>mine<i> and </i>thine<i> are not genitive cases, there is not a + genitive case at all.</i>—It is not necessary that there should be + one. Particular reasons in favour of the probability of personal pronouns + of the singular number being destitute of such a case have been already + adduced. <i>It is more likely that a word should be defective than that + it should have a separate form.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect456">§ 456</a>. <i>The analogy of the forms </i>mei<i> + and </i><span title="emou" class="grk" + >ἐμοῦ</span><i> in Latin and Greek.</i>—It + cannot be denied that this has some value. Nevertheless, the argument + deducible from it is anything but conclusive.</p> + + <p>1. It is by no means an indubitable fact that <i>mei</i> and <span + title="emou" class="grk">ἐμοῦ</span> are really + cases of the pronoun. The <i>extension</i> of a principle acknowledged in + the Greek language might make them the genitive cases of adjectives used + pronominally. Thus,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Greek adjectives used pronominally" title="Greek adjectives used pronominally"> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> <span title="To emon" class="grk">Τὸ ἐμὸν</span> </td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<span title="egô" class="grk">ἐγὼ</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> <span title="Tou emou" class="grk">Τοῦ ἐμοῦ</span></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<span title="emou" class="grk">ἐμοῦ</span>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> <span title="Tôi emôi" class="grk">Τῷ ἐμῷ</span></td><td class="nspcsingle"> =<span title="emoi" class="grk">ἐμοί</span>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Assume the omission of the article and the extension of the Greek + principle to the Latin language, and <span title="emou" class="grk" + >ἐμοῦ</span> and <i>mei</i> may be cases, not of + <span title="eme" class="grk">ἐμὲ</span> and <i>me</i>, + but of <span title="emos" class="grk">ἐμὸς</span> + and <i>meus</i>.</p> + + <p>2. In the classical languages the partitive power was expressed by the + genitive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"—— multaque pars mei</p> + <p>Vitabit Libitinam."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This is a reason for the evolution of a genitive power. Few such forms + exist in the Gothic; <i>part my</i> is not English, nor was <i>dæl + min</i> Anglo-Saxon,=<i>part of me</i>, or <i>pars mei</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect457">§ 457</a>. The following differences of form, are + found in the different Gothic languages, between the equivalents of + <i>mei</i> and <i>tui</i>, the so-called genitives of <i>ego</i> and + <i>tu</i>, and the equivalents of <i>meus</i> and <i>tuus</i>, the + so-called possessive adjectives. <!-- Page 386 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page386"></a>{386}</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Genitive pronouns amd possessive adjectives" title="Genitive pronouns amd possessive adjectives"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Mœso-Gothic</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> meina = <i>mei</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> as opposed to </td><td class="qspcsingle"> meins = <i>meus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> þeina = <i>tui</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> þeins = <i>tuus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Old High German</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mîn = <i>mei</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mîner = <i>meus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> dîn = <i>tui</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> dîner = <i>tuus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Old Norse</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> min = <i>mei</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> minn = <i>meus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> þin=<i>tui</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> þinn = <i>tuus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Middle Dutch</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mîns = <i>mei</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mîn = <i>meus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> dîns = <i>tui</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> dîn = <i>tuus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Modern High German</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> mein = <i>mei</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> meiner = <i>meus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> dein = <i>tui</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> deiner = <i>tuus</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>In this list, those languages where the two forms are alike are not + exhibited. This is the case with the Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon.</p> + + <p>In the above-noticed differences of form lie the best reasons for the + assumption of a genitive case, as the origin of an adjectival form; and, + undoubtedly, in those languages, where both forms occur, it is convenient + to consider one as a case and one as an adjective.</p> + + <p><a name="sect458">§ 458</a>. But this is not the present question. In + Anglo-Saxon there is but one form, <i>min</i> and <i>þin</i>=<i>mei</i> + and <i>meus</i>, <i>tui</i> and <i>tuus</i>, indifferently. Is this form + an oblique case or an adjective?</p> + + <p>This involves two sorts of evidence.</p> + + <p><a name="sect459">§ 459</a>. <i>Etymological + evidence.</i>—Assuming two <i>powers</i> for the words <i>min</i> + and <i>þin</i>, one genitive, and one adjectival, which is the original + one? or, going beyond the Anglo-Saxon, assuming that of two <i>forms</i> + like <i>meina</i> and <i>meins</i>, the one has been derived from the + other, which is the primitive, radical, primary, or original one?</p> + + <p>Men, from whom it is generally unsafe to differ, consider that the + adjectival form is the derived one; and, as far as forms like + <i>mîner</i>, as opposed to <i>mîn</i>, are concerned, the evidence of + the foregoing list is in their favour. But what is the case with the + Middle Dutch? The genitive <i>mîns</i> is evidently the derivative of + <i>mîn</i>.</p> + + <p>The reason why the forms like <i>mîner</i> seem derived is because + they are longer and more complex than the others. Nevertheless, it is by + no means an absolute rule in philology that the least compound form is + the oldest. A word may be <!-- Page 387 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page387"></a>{387}</span>adapted to a secondary meaning by a change + in its parts in the way of omission, as well as by a change in the way of + addition. Such is the general statement. Reasons for believing that in + the particular cases of the words in question such is the fact, will be + found hereafter.</p> + + <p>As to the question whether it is most likely for an adjective to be + derived from a case, or a case from an adjective, it may be said, that + philology furnishes instances both ways. <i>Ours</i> is a case derived, + in syntax at least, from an adjective. <i>Cujus</i> (as in <i>cujum + pecus</i>) and <i>sestertium</i> are Latin instances of a nominative case + being evolved from an oblique one.</p> + + <p><a name="sect460">§ 460</a>. <i>Syntactic evidence.</i>—If in + Anglo-Saxon we found such expressions as <i>dæl min</i>=<i>pars mei</i>, + <i>hælf þin</i>=<i>dimidium tui</i>, we should have a reason, as far as + it went, for believing in the existence of a genitive with a partitive + power. Such instances, however, have yet to be quoted; whilst, even if + quoted, they would not be <i>conclusive</i>. Expressions like <span + title="sos pothos" class="grk">σὸς + πόθος</span>=<i>desiderium tui</i>, <span + title="sê promêthiai" class="grk">σῆ + προμηθίᾳ</span> = + <i>providentiâ propter te</i>, show the extent to which the possessive + expression encroaches on the partitive.</p> + + <p>1. The words <i>min</i> or <i>þin</i>, with a power anything rather + than possessive, would not for that reason be proved (on the strength of + their meaning) to be genitive cases rather than possessive pronouns; + since such latitude in the power of the possessive pronoun is borne out + by the comparison of languages—<span title="pater hêmôn" class="grk" + >πατὲρ ἡμῶν</span> (not <span + title="hêmeteros" class="grk" + >ἡμέτερος</span>) in + Greek is <i>pater noster</i> (not <i>nostrum</i>) in Latin.</p> + + <p><a name="sect461">§ 461</a>. Again—as <i>min</i> and <i>þin</i> + are declined like adjectives, even as <i>meus</i> and <i>tuus</i> are so + declined, we have means of ascertaining their nature from the form they + take in certain constructions; thus, <i>min</i>ra=<i>me</i>orum, and + <i>min</i>re=<i>me</i>æ, are the genitive plural and the dative singular + respectively. Thus, too, the Anglo-Saxon for <i>of thy eyes</i> should be + <i>eagena þinra</i>, and the Anglo-Saxon for <i>to my widow</i>, should + be <i>wuduwan minre</i>; just as in Latin, they would be <i>oculorum + tuorum</i>, and <i>viduæ meæ</i>.</p> + + <p>If, however, instead of this we find such expressions as <i>eagena + þin</i>, or <i>wuduwan min</i>, we find evidence in favour of a <!-- Page + 388 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page388"></a>{388}</span>genitive + case; for then the construction is not one of concord, but one of + government, and the words <i>þin</i> and <i>min</i> must be construed as + the Latin forms <i>tui</i> and <i>mei</i> would be in <i>oculorum + mei</i>, and <i>viduæ mei</i>; viz.: as genitive cases. Now, whether a + sufficient proportion of such constructions (real or apparent) exist or + not, they have not yet been brought forward.</p> + + <p>Such instances have yet to be quoted; whilst even if quoted, they + would not be conclusive.</p> + + <p><a name="sect462">§ 462</a>. A few references to the <i>Deutsche + Grammatik</i> will explain this.</p> + + <p>As early as the Mœso-Gothic stage of our language, we find + rudiments of the omission of the inflection. The possessive pronouns in + the <i>neuter singular</i> sometimes take the inflection, sometimes + appear as crude forms, <i>nim thata badi theinata</i>=<span title="aron sou ton krabbaton" class="grk" + >ἆρον σοῦ τὸν + κράββατον</span> (Mark + ii. 9.) opposed to <i>nim thata badi thein</i> two verses afterwards. So + also with <i>mein</i> and <i>meinata</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, iv. + 470. It is remarkable that this omission should begin with forms so + marked as those of the neuter (<i>-ata</i>). It has, perhaps, its origin + in the adverbial character of that gender.</p> + + <p><i>Old High German.</i>—Here the nominatives, both masculine and + feminine, lose the inflection, whilst the neuter retains it—<i>thin + dohter</i>, <i>sîn quenâ</i>, <i>min dohter</i>, <i>sinaz lîb</i>. In a + few cases, when the pronoun comes after, even the <i>oblique</i> cases + drop the inflection.—Deutsche Grammatik, 474-478.</p> + + <p><i>Middle High German.</i>—<i>Preceding</i> the noun, the + nominative of all genders is destitute of inflection; <i>sîn lîb</i>, + <i>mîn ere</i>, <i>dîn lîb</i>, &c. <i>Following</i> the nouns, the + oblique cases do the same; <i>ine herse sîn</i>.—Deutsche + Grammatik, 480. The influence of position should here be noticed. + Undoubtedly a place <i>after</i> the substantive influences the omission + of the inflection. This appears in its <i>maximum</i> in the Middle High + German. In Mœso-Gothic we have <i>mein leik</i> and <i>leik + meinata</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, 470.</p> + + <p><a name="sect463">§ 463</a>. Now by assuming (which is only a fair + assumption) the extension of the Middle High German omission of the + inflection to the Anglo-Saxon; and by supposing it to affect the words in + question in <i>all</i> positions (<i>i.e.</i>, both before and <!-- Page + 389 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page389"></a>{389}</span>after + their nouns), we explain these constructions by a process which, in the + mind of the present writer, is involved in fewer difficulties than the + opposite doctrine of a genitive case, in words where it is not wanted, + and with a termination which is foreign to it elsewhere.</p> + + <p>To suppose <i>two</i> adjectival forms, one inflected (<i>min</i>, + <i>minre</i>, &c.), and one uninflected, or common to all genders and + both numbers (<i>min</i>), is to suppose no more than is the case with + the uninflected <i>þe</i>, as compared with the inflected + <i>þæt</i>.—See pp. 251-253.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 390 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page390"></a>{390}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXXVIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WEAK PRÆTERITE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect464">§ 464</a>. The remote origin of the weak præterite + in <i>-d</i> or <i>-t</i>, has been considered by Grimm, in the Deutsche + Grammatik. He maintains that it is the <i>d</i> in <i>d-d</i>, the + reduplicate præterite of <i>do</i>. In all the Gothic languages the + termination of the past tense is either <i>-da</i>, <i>-ta</i>, + <i>-de</i>, <i>-ði</i>, <i>-d</i>, <i>-t</i>, or <i>-ed</i>, for the + singular, and <i>-don</i>, <i>-ton</i>, <i>-tûmês</i>, or <i>-ðum</i>, + for the plural; in other words, <i>d</i>, or an allied sound, appears + once, if not oftener. In the plural præterite of the Mœso-Gothic we + have something more, <i>viz.</i> the termination <i>-dêdum</i>; as + <i>nas-idêdum</i>, <i>nas-idêduþ</i>, <i>nas-idêdum</i>, from + <i>nas-ja</i>; <i>sôk-idêdum</i>, <i>sôk-idêduþ</i>, <i>sôk-idêdum</i> + from <i>sôk-ja</i>; <i>salb-ôdêdum</i>, <i>salb-ôdêduþ</i>, + <i>sâlb-ôdêdun</i>, from <i>salbô</i>. Here there is a second <i>d</i>. + The same takes place with the dual form <i>salb-ôdêduts</i>; and with the + subjunctive forms, <i>salb-ôdêdjan</i>, <i>salb-ôdêduts</i>, + <i>salb-ôdêdi</i>, <i>salb-ôdêdeits</i>, <i>salb-ôdêdeima</i>, + <i>salb-ôdêdeiþ</i>, <i>salb-ôdêdeina</i>. The English phrase, <i>we did + salve</i>, as compared with <i>salb-ôdêdum</i>, is confirmatory of + this.—Deutsche Grammatik, i. 1042.</p> + + <p><a name="sect465">§ 465</a>. Some remarks of Dr. Trithen's on the + Slavonic præterite, in the Transactions of the Philological Society, + induce me to identify the <i>d-</i> in words like <i>moved</i>, &c., + with the <i>-t</i> of the passive participles of the Latin language; as + found in mon-<i>it</i>-us, voc-<i>at</i>-us, rap-<i>t</i>-us, and + probably in Greek forms like <span title="tuph-th-eis" class="grk" + >τυφ-θ-είς</span>.</p> + + <p>l. The Slavonic præterite is commonly said to possess genders: in + other words, there is one form for speaking of a past action when done by + a male, and another for speaking of a past action when done by a + female.</p> + + <p>2. These forms are identical with those of the participles, masculine + or feminine, as the case may be. Indeed the præterite is a participle; + and the fact of its being so accounts for <!-- Page 391 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page391"></a>{391}</span>the apparently + remarkable fact of its inflection. If, instead of saying <i>ille + amavit</i>, the Latins said <i>ille amatus</i>, whilst instead of saying + <i>illa amavit</i> they said <i>illa amata</i>, they would exactly use + the grammar of the Slavonians.</p> + + <p>3. Hence, as one language, the Slavonic gives us the undoubted fact of + an active præterite growing out of a passive participle (unless, indeed, + we chose to say that both are derived from a common origin); and as the + English participle and præterite, when weak, are nearly identical, we + have reason for believing that the <i>d</i>, in the English active + præterite, is the <i>t</i> in the Latin passive participle.</p> + + <p><a name="sect466">§ 466</a>. The following extract exhibits Dr. + Trithen's remarks on the Slavonic verb:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"A peculiarity which distinguishes the grammar of all the Slavish + languages, consists in the use of the past participle, taken in an active + sense, for the purpose of expressing the præterite. This participle + generally ends in <i>l</i>; and much uncertainty prevails both as to its + origin and its relations, though the termination has been compared by + various philologists with similar affixes in the Sanscrit, and the + classical languages.</p> + + <p>"In the Old Slavish, or the language of the church, there are three + methods of expressing the past tense: one of them consists in the union + of the verb substantive with the participle; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Rek esm´</i> <i>chital esmi´</i></p> + <p><i>Rek esi´</i> <i>chital esi´</i></p> + <p><i>Rek est´</i> <i>chital est´</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"In the corresponding tense of the Slavonic dialect we have the verb + substantive placed before the participle:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Yasam imao</i> <i>mi´ smo</i> <i>imali</i></p> + <p><i>Ti si imao</i> <i>vi´ ste</i> <i>imali</i></p> + <p><i>On ye imao</i> <i>omi su</i> <i>imali</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"In the Polish it appears as a suffix:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Czytalem</i> <i>czytalismy</i></p> + <p><i>Czytales</i> <i>czytaliscie</i></p> + <p><i>Czytal</i> <i>czytalie</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"And in the Servian it follows the participle:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Igrao sam</i> <i>igrali smo</i></p> + <p><i>Igrao si</i> <i>igrali ste</i></p> + <p><i>Igrao ye</i> <i>igrali su</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"The ending <i>ao</i>, of <i>igrao</i> and <i>imao</i>, stands for the + Russian <i>al</i>, as in some English dialects <i>a'</i> is used for + <i>all</i>."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 392 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page392"></a>{392}</span></p> + +<h3>PART V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">SYNTAX.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">————</p> + +<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON SYNTAX IN GENERAL.</p> + + <p><a name="sect467">§ 467</a>. The word <i>syntax</i> is derived from + the Greek <i>syn</i> (<i>with</i> or <i>together</i>), and <i>taxis</i> + (<i>arrangement</i>). It relates to the arrangement, or putting together + of words. Two or more words must be used before there can be any + application of studied syntax.</p> + + <p>Much that is considered by the generality of grammarians as syntax, + can either be omitted altogether, or else be better studied under another + name.</p> + + <p><a name="sect468">§ 468</a>. To reduce a sentence to its elements, and + to show that these elements are, 1, the subject, 2, the predicate, 3, the + copula; to distinguish between simple terms and complex terms,—this + is the department of logic.</p> + + <p>To show the difference in force of expression, between such a sentence + as <i>great is Diana of the Ephesians</i>, and <i>Diana of the Ephesians + is great</i>, wherein the natural order of the subject and predicate is + reversed, is a point of rhetoric.</p> + + <p><i>I am moving.</i>—To state that such a combination as <i>I am + moving</i> is grammatical, is undoubtedly a point of syntax. Nevertheless + it is a point better explained in a separate treatise, than in a work + upon any particular language. The expression proves its correctness by + the simple fact of its universal intelligibility.</p> + + <p><i>I speaks.</i>—To state that such a combination as <i>I + speaks</i>, <!-- Page 393 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page393"></a>{393}</span>admitting that <i>I</i> is exclusively the + pronoun in the first person, and that <i>speaks</i> is exclusively the + verb in the third, is undoubtedly a point of syntax. Nevertheless, it is + a point which is better explained in a separate treatise, than in a work + upon any particular language. An expression so ungrammatical, involves a + contradiction in terms, which unassisted common sense can deal with. This + position will again be reverted to.</p> + + <p><i>There is to me a father.</i>—Here we have a circumlocution + equivalent to <i>I have a father</i>. In the English language the + circumlocution is unnatural. In the Latin it is common. To determine + this, is a matter of idiom rather than of syntax.</p> + + <p><i>I am speaking, I was reading.</i>—There was a stage in the + Gothic languages when these forms were either inadmissible, or rare. + Instead thereof, we had the present tense, <i>I speak</i>, and the past, + <i>I spoke</i>. The same is the case with the classical languages in the + classical stage. To determine the difference in idea between these pairs + of forms is a matter of metaphysics. To determine at what period each + idea came to have a separate mode of expression is a matter of the + <i>history</i> of language. For example, <i>vas láisands</i> appears in + Ulphilas (Matt. vii. 29). There, it appears as a rare form, and as a + literal translation of the Greek <span title="ên didaskôn" class="grk" + >ἦν + διδασκών</span> (<i>was + teaching</i>). The Greek form itself was, however, an unclassical + expression for <span title="edidaske" class="grk" + >ἐδίδασκε</span>. In + Anglo-Saxon this mode of speaking became common, and in English it is + commoner still.—Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 5. This is a point of idiom + involved with one of history.</p> + + <p><i>Swear by your sword—swear on your sword.</i>—Which of + these two expressions is right? This depends on what the speaker means. + If he mean <i>make your oath in the full remembrance of the trust you put + in your sword, and with the imprecation, therein implied, that it shall + fail you, or turn against you if you speak falsely</i>, the former + expression is the right one. But, if he mean swear <i>with your hand upon + your sword</i>, it is the latter which expresses his meaning. To take a + different view of this question, and to write as a rule that <!-- Page + 394 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page394"></a>{394}</span><i>verbs + of swearing are followed by the preposition on</i> (or <i>by</i>) is to + mistake the province of the grammar. Grammar tells no one what he should + wish to say. It only tells him how what he wishes to say should be + said.</p> + + <p>Much of the criticism on the use of <i>will</i> and <i>shall</i> is + faulty in this respect. <i>Will</i> expresses one idea of futurity, + <i>shall</i> another. The syntax of the two words is very nearly that of + any other two. That one of the words is oftenest used with a first + person, and the other with a second, is a fact, as will be seen + hereafter, connected with the nature of <i>things</i>, not of words.</p> + + <p><a name="sect469">§ 469</a>. The following question now occurs. If the + history of forms of speech be one thing, and the history of idioms + another; if this question be a part of logic, and that question a part of + rhetoric; and if such truly grammatical facts as government and concord + are, as matters of common sense, to be left uninvestigated and + unexplained, what remains as syntax? This is answered by the following + distinction. There are two sorts of syntax; theoretical and practical, + scientific and historical, pure and mixed. Of these, the first consists + in the analysis and proof of those rules which common practice applies + without investigation, and common sense appreciates, in a rough and gross + manner, from an appreciation of the results. This is the syntax of + government and concord, or of those points which find no place in the + present work, for the following reason—<i>they are either too easy + or too hard for it</i>. If explained scientifically they are matters of + close and minute reasoning; if exhibited empirically they are mere rules + for the memory. Besides this they are universal facts of languages in + general, and not the particular facts of any one language. Like other + universal facts they are capable of being expressed symbolically. That + the verb (A) agrees with its pronoun (B) is an immutable fact: or, + changing the mode of expression, we may say that language can only fulfil + its great primary object of intelligibility when A = B. And so on + throughout. A formal syntax thus exhibited, and even devised <i>à + priori</i>, is a philological possibility. And it is also the measure of + philological anomalies. <!-- Page 395 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page395"></a>{395}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect470">§ 470</a>. <i>Pure syntax.</i>—So much for one + sort of syntax; <i>viz.</i>, that portion of grammar which bears the same + relation to the practice of language, that the investigation of the + syllogism bears to the practice of reasoning. The positions concerning it + are by no means invalidated by such phrases as <i>I speaks</i> (for <i>I + speak</i>), &c. In cases like these there is no contradiction; since + the peculiarity of the expression consists not in joining two + incompatible persons, but in mistaking a third person for a + first—<i>and as far as the speaker is concerned, actually making it + so</i>. I must here anticipate some objections that may be raised to + these views, by stating that I am perfectly aware that they lead to a + conclusion which to most readers must appear startling and to some + monstrous, <i>viz.</i>, to the conclusion that <i>there is no such thing + as bad grammar at all</i>; <i>that everything is what the speaker chooses + to make it</i>; <i>that a speaker may choose to make any expression + whatever, provided it answer the purpose of language, and be + intelligible</i>; <i>that, in short, whatever is is right</i>. + Notwithstanding this view of the consequence I still am satisfied with + the truth of the premises. I may also add that the terms <i>pure</i> and + <i>mixed</i>, themselves suggestive of much thought on the subject which + they express, are not mine but Professor Sylvester's.</p> + + <p><a name="sect471">§ 471</a>. <i>Mixed syntax.</i>—That, + notwithstanding the previous limitations, there is still a considerable + amount of syntax in the English, as in all other languages, may be seen + from the sequel. If I undertook to indicate the essentials of mixed + syntax, I should say that they consisted in the explanation of + combinations <i>apparently</i> ungrammatical; in other words, that they + ascertained the results of those causes which disturb the regularity of + the pure syntax; that they measured the extent of the deviation; and that + they referred it to some principle of the human mind—so accounting + for it.</p> + + <p><i>I am going.</i>—Pure syntax explains this.</p> + + <p><i>I have gone.</i>—Pure syntax will not explain this. + Nevertheless, the expression is good English. The power, however, of both + <i>have</i> and <i>gone</i> is different from the usual power of those + words. This difference mixed syntax explains. <!-- Page 396 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page396"></a>{396}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect472">§ 472</a>. Mixed syntax requires two sorts of + knowledge—metaphysical, and historical.</p> + + <p>1. To account for such a fact in language as the expression <i>the man + as rides to market</i>, instead of the usual expression <i>the man who + rides to market</i>, is a question of what is commonly called + metaphysics. The idea of comparison is the idea common to the words + <i>as</i> and <i>who</i>.</p> + + <p>2. To account for such a fact in language as the expression <i>I have + ridden a horse</i> is a question of history. We must know that when there + was a sign of an accusative case in English the word <i>horse</i> had + that sign; in other words that the expression was, originally, <i>I have + a horse as a ridden thing</i>. These two views illustrate each other.</p> + + <p><a name="sect473">§ 473</a>. In the English, as in all other + languages, it is convenient to notice certain so-called figures of + speech. They always furnish convenient modes of expression, and + sometimes, as in the case of the one immediately about to be noticed, + <i>account</i> for facts.</p> + + <p><a name="sect474">§ 474</a>. <i>Personification.</i>—The ideas + of apposition and collectiveness account for the apparent violations of + the concord of number. The idea of personification applies to the concord + of gender. A masculine or feminine gender, characteristic of persons, may + be substituted for the neuter gender, characteristic of things. In this + case the term is said to be personified.</p> + + <p><i>The cities who aspired to liberty.</i>—A personification of + the idea expressed by <i>cities</i> is here necessary to justify the + expression.</p> + + <p><i>It</i>, the sign of the neuter gender, as applied to a male or + female <i>child</i>, is the reverse of the process.</p> + + <p><a name="sect475">§ 475</a>. <i>Ellipsis</i> (from the Greek + <i>elleipein</i>=<i>to fall short</i>), or a <i>falling short</i>, occurs + in sentences like <i>I sent to the bookseller's</i>. Here the word + <i>shop</i> or <i>house</i> is understood. Expressions like <i>to go on + all fours</i>, and <i>to eat of the fruit of the tree</i>, are reducible + to ellipses.</p> + + <p><a name="sect476">§ 476</a>. <i>Pleonasm</i> (from the Greek + <i>pleonazein</i>=<i>to be in excess</i>) occurs in sentences like <i>the + king, he reigns</i>. Here the word <i>he</i> is superabundant. In many + <i>pleonastic</i> <!-- Page 397 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page397"></a>{397}</span>expressions we may suppose an interruption + of the sentence, and afterwards an abrupt renewal of it; as <i>the + king</i>—<i>he reigns</i>.</p> + + <p>The fact of the word <i>he</i> neither qualifying nor explaining the + word <i>king</i>, distinguishes pleonasm from apposition.</p> + + <p>Pleonasm, as far as the view above is applicable, is reduced to what + is, apparently, its opposite, <i>viz.</i>, ellipsis.</p> + + <p><i>My banks, they are furnished</i>,—<i>the most straitest + sect</i>,—these are pleonastic expressions. In <i>the king, he + reigns</i>, the word <i>king</i> is in the same predicament as in <i>the + king, God bless him</i>.</p> + + <p>The double negative, allowed in Greek and Anglo-Saxon, but not + admissible in English, is pleonastic.</p> + + <p>The verb <i>do</i>, in <i>I do speak</i>, is <i>not</i> pleonastic. In + respect to the sense it adds intensity. In respect to the construction it + is not in apposition, but in the same predicament with verbs like + <i>must</i> and <i>should</i>, as in <i>I must go</i>, &c.; + <i>i. e.</i> it is a verb followed by an infinitive. This we know from + its power in those languages where the infinitive has a characteristic + sign; as, in German,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Die Augen <i>thaten</i> ihm winken.—<span class="sc">Goethe.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Besides this, <i>make</i> is similarly used in Old + English.—<i>But men make draw the branch thereof, and beren him to + be graffed at Babyloyne.</i>—Sir J. Mandeville.</p> + + <p><a name="sect477">§ 477</a>. <i>The figure zeugma.</i>—<i>They + wear a garment like that of the Scythians, but a language peculiar to + themselves.</i>—The verb, naturally applying to <i>garment</i> + only, is here used to govern <i>language</i>. This is called in Greek, + <i>zeugma</i> (junction).</p> + + <p><a name="sect478">§ 478</a>. <i>My paternal home was made desolate, + and he himself was sacrificed.</i>—The sense of this is plain; + <i>he</i> means <i>my father</i>. Yet no such substantive as + <i>father</i> has gone before. It is supplied, however, from the word + <i>paternal</i>. The sense indicated by <i>paternal</i> gives us a + subject to which <i>he</i> can refer. In other words, the word <i>he</i> + is understood, according to what is indicated, rather than according to + what is expressed. This figure in Greek is called <i>pros to + semainomenon</i> (<i>according to the thing indicated</i>). <!-- Page 398 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page398"></a>{398}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect479">§ 479</a>. <i>Apposition.</i>—<i>Cæsar, the + Roman emperor, invades Britain.</i>—Here the words <i>Roman + emperor</i> explain, or define, the word <i>Cæsar</i>; and the sentence, + filled up, might stand, <i>Cæsar, that is, the Roman emperor</i>, &c. + Again, the <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'word'." + >words</span> <i>Roman emperor</i> might be wholly ejected; or, if not + ejected, they might be thrown into a parenthesis. The practical bearing + of this fact is exhibited by changing the form of the sentence, and + inserting the conjunction <i>and</i>. In this case, instead of one + person, two are spoken of, and the verb <i>invades</i> must be changed + from the singular to the plural.</p> + + <p>Now the words <i>Roman emperor</i> are said to be in apposition to + <i>Cæsar</i>. They constitute, not an additional idea, but an explanation + of the original one. They are, as it were, <i>laid alongside</i> + (<i>appositi</i>) <i>of</i> the word <i>Cæsar</i>. Cases of doubtful + number, wherein two substantives precede a verb, and wherein it is + uncertain whether the verb should be singular or plural, are decided by + determining whether the substantives be in apposition or the contrary. No + matter how many nouns there may be, as long as it can be shown that they + are in apposition, the verb is in the singular number.</p> + + <p><a name="sect480">§ 480</a>. <i>Collectiveness as opposed to + plurality.</i>—In sentences like <i>the meeting</i> was + <i>large</i>, <i>the multitude</i> pursue <i>pleasure</i>, + <i>meeting</i>, and <i>multitude</i> are each collective nouns; that is, + although they present the idea of a single object, that object consists + of a plurality of individuals. Hence, <i>pursue</i> is put in the plural + number. To say, however, <i>the meeting were large</i> would sound + improper. The number of the verb that shall accompany a collective noun + depends upon whether the idea of the multiplicity of individuals, or that + of the unity of the aggregate, shall predominate.</p> + + <p><i>Sand and salt and a mass of iron is easier to bear than a man + without understanding.</i>—Let <i>sand and salt and a mass of + iron</i> be dealt with as a series of things the aggregate of which forms + a mixture, and the expression is allowable.</p> + + <p><i>The king and the lords and commons</i> forms <i>an excellent frame + of government</i>.—Here the expression is doubtful. Substitute + <i>with</i> for the first <i>and</i>, and there is no doubt as to the + propriety of the singular form <i>is</i>. <!-- Page 399 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page399"></a>{399}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect481">§ 481</a>. <i>The reduction of complex forms to + simple ones.</i>—Take, for instance, the current illustration, + viz., <i>the-king-of-Saxony's army</i>.—Here the assertion is, not + that the army belongs to <i>Saxony</i>, but that it belongs to the + <i>king of Saxony</i>; which words must, for the sake of taking a true + view of the construction, be dealt with as a single word in the + possessive case. Here two cases are dealt with as one; and a complex term + is treated as a single word.</p> + + <p>The same reasoning applies to phrases like <i>the two king + Williams</i>. If we say <i>the two kings William</i>, we must account for + the phrase by apposition.</p> + + <p><a name="sect482">§ 482</a>. <i>True notion of the part of speech in + use.</i>—In <i>he is gone</i>, the word <i>gone</i> must be + considered as equivalent to <i>absent</i>; that is, as an adjective. + Otherwise the expression is as incorrect as the expression <i>she is + eloped</i>. Strong participles are adjectival oftener than weak ones; + their form being common to many adjectives.</p> + + <p><i>True notion of the original form.</i>—In the phrase <i>I must + speak</i>, the word <i>speak</i> is an infinitive. In the phrase <i>I am + forced to speak</i>, the word <i>speak</i> is (in the present English) an + infinitive also. In one case, however, it is preceded by <i>to</i>; + whilst in the other, the particle <i>to</i> is absent. The reason for + this lies in the original difference of form. <i>Speak</i> - + <i>to</i>=the Anglo-Saxon <i>sprécan</i>, a simple infinitive; <i>to + speak</i>, or <i>speak + to</i>=the Anglo-Saxon <i>to sprécanne</i>, an + infinitive in the dative case.</p> + + <p><a name="sect483">§ 483</a>. <i>Convertibility.</i>—In the + English language, the greater part of the words may, as far as their form + is concerned, be one part of speech as well as another. Thus the + combinations <i>s-a-n-th</i>, or <i>f-r-e-n-k</i>, if they existed at + all, might exist as either nouns or verbs, as either substantives or + adjectives, as conjunctions, adverbs, or prepositions. This is not the + case in the Greek language. There, if a word be a substantive, it will + probably end in <i>-s</i>, if an infinitive verb, in <i>-ein</i>, &c. + The bearings of this difference between languages like the English and + languages like the Greek will soon appear.</p> + + <p>At present, it is sufficient to say that a word, <!-- Page 400 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page400"></a>{400}</span>originally one + part of speech (<i>e.g.</i> a noun), may become another (<i>e.g.</i> a + verb). This may be called the convertibility of words.</p> + + <p>There is an etymological convertibility, and a syntactic + convertibility; and although, in some cases, the line of demarcation is + not easily drawn between them, the distinction is intelligible and + convenient.</p> + + <p><a name="sect484">§ 484</a>. <i>Etymological + convertibility.</i>—The words <i>then</i> and <i>than</i>, now + adverbs or conjunctions, were once cases: in other words, they have been + converted from one part of speech to another. Or, they may even be said + to be cases, at the present moment; although only in an historical point + of view. For the practice of language, they are not only adverbs or + conjunctions, but they are adverbs or conjunctions exclusively.</p> + + <p><a name="sect485">§ 485</a>. <i>Syntactic + convertibility.</i>—The combination <i>to err</i>, is at this + moment an infinitive verb. Nevertheless it can be used as the equivalent + to the substantive <i>error</i>.</p> + + <p><i>To err is human</i>=<i>error is human</i>. Now this is an instance + of syntactic conversion. Of the two meanings, there is no doubt as to + which is the primary one; which primary meaning is part and parcel of the + language at this moment.</p> + + <p>The infinitive, when used as a substantive, can be used in a singular + form only.</p> + + <p><i>To err</i>=<i>error</i>; but we have no such form as <i>to + errs</i>=<i>errors</i>. Nor is it wanted. The infinitive, in a + substantival sense, always conveys a general statement, so that even when + singular, it has a plural power; just as <i>man is mortal</i>=<i>men are + mortal</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect486">§ 486</a>. <i>The adjective used as a + substantive.</i>—Of these, we have examples in expressions like the + <i>blacks of Africa</i>—<i>the bitters and sweets of + life</i>—<i>all fours were put to the ground</i>. These are true + instances of conversion, and are proved to be so by the fact of their + taking a plural form.</p> + + <p><i>Let the blind lead the blind</i> is not an instance of conversion. + The word <i>blind</i> in both instances remains an adjective, and is + shown to remain so by its being uninflected.</p> + + <p><a name="sect487">§ 487</a>. <i>Uninflected parts of speech, used as + substantive.</i>—When King Richard III. says, <i>none of your + ifs</i>, he uses the word <i>if</i> as a substantive=<i>expressions of + doubt</i>. <!-- Page 401 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page401"></a>{401}</span></p> + + <p>So in the expression <i>one long now</i>, the word + <i>now</i>=<i>present time</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect488">§ 488</a>. The convertibility of words in English is + very great; and it is so because the structure of the language favours + it. As few words have any peculiar signs expressive of their being + particular parts of speech, interchange is easy, and conversion follows + the logical association of ideas unimpeded.</p> + + <p><i>The convertibility of words is in the inverse ratio to the amount + of their inflection.</i></p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 402 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page402"></a>{402}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect489">§ 489</a>. The phenomena of convertibility have been + already explained.</p> + + <p>The remaining points connected with the syntax of substantives, are + chiefly points of either ellipsis, or apposition.</p> + + <p><i>Ellipsis of substantives.</i>—The historical view of phrases, + like <i>Rundell and Bridge's</i>, <i>St. Pauls'</i>, &c., shows that + this ellipsis is common to the English and the other Gothic languages. + Furthermore, it shows that it is met with in languages not of the Gothic + stock; and, finally, that the class of words to which it applies, is, + there or thereabouts, the same generally.</p> + + <p>A. 1. The words most commonly understood, are <i>house</i> and + <i>family</i>, or words reducible to them. In Latin, <i>Dianæ</i>=<i>ædem + Dianæ</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Country, retinue.</i>—Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Son</i>, <i>daughter</i>, <i>wife</i>, + <i>widow</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 262.—<span + title="Nêleus Kodrou" class="grk" + >Νηλεὺς + Κόδρου</span>, Greek.</p> + + <p>B. The following phrases are referable to a different class of + relations—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Right and left</i>—supply <i>hand</i>. This is, probably, + a real ellipsis. The words <i>right</i> and <i>left</i>, have not yet + become true substantives; inasmuch as they have no plural forms. In this + respect, they stand in contrast with <i>bitter</i> and <i>sweet</i>; + inasmuch as we can say <i>he has tasted both the bitters and sweets of + life</i>. Nevertheless, the expression can be refined on.</p> + + <p>2. <i>All fours.</i>—<i>To go on all fours.</i> No ellipsis. The + word <i>fours</i>, is a true substantive, as proved by its existence as a + plural.</p> + + <p>From expressions like <span title="potêrion psuchrou" class="grk" + >ποτήριον + ψυχροῦ</span> (Matt. xiv. 51), <!-- + Page 403 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page403"></a>{403}</span>from + the Greek, and <i>perfundit gelido</i> (understand <i>latice</i>), from + the Latin, we find that the present ellipsis was used with greater + latitude in the classical languages than our own.</p> + + <p><a name="sect490">§ 490</a>. <i>Proper names can only be used in the + singular number.</i>—This is a rule of logic, rather than of + grammar. When we say <i>the four Georges</i>, <i>the Pitts and + Camdens</i>, &c., the words that thus take a plural form, have ceased + to be proper names. They either mean—</p> + + <p>1. The persons called <i>George</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>2. Or, persons so like <i>George</i>, that they may be considered as + identical.</p> + + <p><a name="sect491">§ 491</a>. <i>Collocation.</i>—In the present + English, the genitive case always precedes the noun by which it is + governed—<i>the man's hat</i>=<i>hominis pileus</i>; never <i>the + hat man's</i>=<i>pileus hominis</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 404 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404"></a>{404}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect492">§ 492</a>. <i>Pleonasm.</i>—Pleonasm can take + place with adjectives only in the expression of the degrees of + comparison. Over and above the etymological signs of the comparative and + superlative degrees, there may be used the superlative words <i>more</i> + and <i>most</i>.</p> + + <p>And this pleonasm really occurs—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>The</i> more serener <i>spirit</i>.</p> + <p><i>The</i> most straitest <i>sect</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>These are instances of pleonasm in the strictest sense of the + term.</p> + + <p><a name="sect493">§ 493</a>. <i>Collocation.</i>—As a general + rule, the adjective precedes the substantive—<i>a good man</i>, not + <i>a man good</i>.</p> + + <p>When, however, the adjective is qualified by either the expression of + its degree, or accompanied by another adjective, it may follow the + substantive—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A man <i>just and good</i>.</p> + <p>A woman <i>wise and fair</i>.</p> + <p>A hero <i>devoted to his country</i>.</p> + <p>A patriot <i>disinterested to a great degree</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Single simple</i> adjectives thus placed after their substantive, + belong to the poetry of England, and especially to the ballad + poetry—<i>sighs profound</i>—<i>the leaves green</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect494">§ 494</a>. <i>Government.</i>—The only + adjective that governs a case, is the word <i>like</i>. In the + expression, <i>this is like him</i>, &c., the original power of the + dative remains. This we infer—</p> + + <p>1. From the fact that in most languages which have <!-- Page 405 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page405"></a>{405}</span>inflections to + a sufficient extent, the word meaning <i>like</i> governs a dative + case.</p> + + <p>2. That if ever we use in English any preposition at all to express + similitude, it is the preposition <i>to</i>—<i>like to me</i>, + <i>like to death</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Expressions like <i>full of meat</i>, <i>good for John</i>, are by no + means instances of the government of adjectives; the really governing + words being the prepositions <i>to</i> and <i>for</i> respectively.</p> + + <p>The most that can be said, in cases like these, is that particular + adjectives determine the use of particular prepositions—thus the + preposition <i>of</i>, generally follows the adjective <i>full</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect495">§ 495</a>. The positive degree preceded by the + adjective more, is equivalent to the comparative form—<i>e. g.</i>, + <i>more wise</i>=<i>wiser</i>.</p> + + <p>The reasons for employing one expression in preference to the other, + depend upon the nature of the particular word used.</p> + + <p>When the word is, at one and the same time, of Anglo-Saxon origin and + monosyllabic, there is no doubt about the preference to be given to the + form in <i>-er</i>. Thus, <i>wis-er</i> is preferable to <i>more + wise</i>.</p> + + <p>When, however, the word is compound, or trisyllabic, the combination + with the word <i>more</i>, is preferable.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Forms of comparative" title="Forms of comparative"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>more fruitful</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>fruitfuller</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>more villanous</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>villanouser</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>Between these two extremes, there are several intermediate forms + wherein the use of one rather than another, will depend upon the taste of + the writer. The question, however, is a question of euphony, rather than + of aught else. It is also illustrated by the principle of not multiplying + secondary elements. In such a word as <i>fruit-full-er</i>, there are two + additions to the root. The same is the case with the superlative, + <i>fruit-full-est</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect496">§ 496</a>. The 9th Chapter of Part IV., should be + read carefully. There, there is indicated a refinement upon the current + notions as to the power of the comparative degree, <!-- Page 406 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page406"></a>{406}</span>and reasons are given + for believing that the fundamental notion expressed by the comparative + inflexion is the idea of comparison or contrast between <i>two</i> + objects.</p> + + <p>In this case, it is better in speaking of only two objects to use the + comparative degree rather than the superlative—even when we use the + definite article <i>the</i>. Thus—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>This is <i>the better</i> of the two</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>is preferable to</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>This is <i>the best</i> of the two.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This principle is capable of an application more extensive than our + habits of speaking and writing will verify. Thus, to go to other parts of + speech, we should logically say—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Whether of the two</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>rather than</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Which of the two.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Either the father or the son,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>but not</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Either the father, the son, or the daughter.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This statement may be refined on. It is chiefly made for the sake of + giving fresh prominence to the idea of duality expressed by the + terminations <i>-er</i> and <i>-ter</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect497">§ 497</a>. The absence of inflection simplifies the + syntax of adjectives. Violations of concord are impossible. We could not + make an adjective disagree with its substantive if we wished.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 407 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page407"></a>{407}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect498">§ 498</a>. The syntax of substantives is, in + English, simple, from the paucity of its inflections, a condition which + is unfavourable towards the evolution of constructional complexities; the + most remarkable exception being the phenomenon of convertibility noticed + above.</p> + + <p>The same is the case with adjectives. The want of inflexion simplifies + their syntax equally with that of the substantives.</p> + + <p>But with the pronouns this is not the case. Here we have—</p> + + <p>1. Signs of gender; 2. Signs of case; 3. Signs of number, to a greater + extent, and with more peculiarities, than elsewhere.</p> + + <p>Furthermore, the pronouns exhibit in a great degree the phenomena of + conversion indicated in p. <a href="#page400">400</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect499">§ 499</a>. <i>Pleonasm in the syntax of + pronouns.</i>—In the following sentences the words in italics are + pleonastic.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. The king <i>he</i> is just.</p> + <p>2. I saw <i>her</i>, the queen.</p> + <p>3. The <i>men</i>, they were there.</p> + <p>4. The king, <i>his</i> crown.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Of these forms, the first is more common than the second and third, + and the fourth more common than the first.</p> + + <p><a name="sect500">§ 500</a>. The fourth has another element of + importance. It has given rise to the absurd notion that the genitive case + in <i>-s</i> (<i>father-s</i>) is a contraction from <i>his</i> + (<i>father his</i>).</p> + + <p>To say nothing about the inapplicability of this rule to feminine + genders, and plural numbers, the whole history of the Indo-Germanic + languages is against it. <!-- Page 408 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page408"></a>{408}</span></p> + + <p>1. We cannot reduce <i>the queen's majesty</i> to <i>the queen his + majesty</i>.</p> + + <p>2. We cannot reduce <i>the children's bread</i> to <i>the children his + bread</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The Anglo-Saxon forms are in <i>-es</i>, not in <i>his</i>.</p> + + <p>4. The word <i>his</i> itself must be accounted for; and that cannot + be done by assuming to be <i>he</i> + <i>his</i>.</p> + + <p>5. The <i>-s</i> in <i>father's</i> is the <i>-is</i> in + <i>patris</i>, and the -<span title="os" class="grk" + >ος</span> in <span title="pateros" class="grk" + >πατέρος</span>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect501">§ 501</a>. The preceding examples illustrate an + apparent paradox, <i>viz.</i>, the fact of pleonasm and ellipsis being + closely allied. <i>The king he is just</i>, dealt with as a <i>single</i> + sentence, is undoubtedly pleonastic. But it is not necessary to be + considered as a mere simple sentence. <i>The king</i>—may represent + a first sentence incomplete, whilst <i>he is just</i> represents a second + sentence in full. What is pleonasm in a single sentence, is ellipsis in a + double one.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 409 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page409"></a>{409}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE TRUE PERSONAL PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect502">§ 502</a>. <i>Personal pronouns.</i>—The use + of the second person plural instead of the second singular has been + noticed in p. <a href="#page246">246</a>. This use of one number for + another is current throughout the Gothic languages. A pronoun so used is + conveniently called the <i>pronomen reverentiæ</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect503">§ 503</a>. In English, however, there is a second + change over and above the change of number, <i>viz.</i> that of case. We + not only say <i>ye</i> instead of <i>thou</i>, but <i>you</i> instead of + <i>ye</i>.—(See p. <a href="#page245">245</a>).</p> + + <p>Mr. Guest remarks, "that at one time the two forms <i>ye</i> and + <i>you</i> seem to have been nearly changing place in our language.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>As I have made <i>ye</i> one, Lords, one remain;</p> + <p>So I grow stronger <i>you</i> more honour gain.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Henry VIII.</i> 4, 2.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>What gain <i>you</i> by forbidding it to teaze <i>ye</i>,</p> + <p>It now can neither trouble you nor please <i>ye</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Dryden.</span>"</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In German and the Danish the <i>pronomen reverentiæ</i> is got at by a + change, not of number, but of person—in other words, the pronoun of + the <i>third</i> person is used instead of that of the <i>second</i>; + just as if, in the English, we said <i>will they walk</i>=<i>will you + walk</i>, <i>will ye walk</i>, <i>wilt thou walk</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect504">§ 504</a>. <i>Dativus ethicus.</i>—In the + phrase</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Rob me the exchequer.—<i>Henry IV.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>the <i>me</i> is expletive, and is equivalent to <i>for me</i>. This + expletive use of the dative is conveniently called the <i>dativus + ethicus</i>. It occurs more frequently in the Latin than in the <!-- Page + 410 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page410"></a>{410}</span>English, + and more frequently in the Greek than in the Latin.</p> + + <p><a name="sect505">§ 505</a>. <i>The reflected personal + pronoun.</i>—In the English language there is no equivalent to the + Latin <i>se</i>, the German <i>sich</i>, and the Scandinavian <i>sik</i>, + and <i>sig</i>.</p> + + <p>It follows from this that the word <i>self</i> is used to a greater + extent than would otherwise be the case.</p> + + <p><i>I strike me</i> is awkward, but not ambiguous.</p> + + <p><i>Thou strikest thee</i> is awkward, but not ambiguous.</p> + + <p><i>He strikes him</i> is ambiguous; inasmuch as <i>him</i> may mean + either the <i>person who strikes</i> or some one else. In order to be + clear we add the word <i>self</i> when the idea is reflective. <i>He + strikes himself</i> is, at once, idiomatic, and unequivocal.</p> + + <p>So it is with the plural persons.</p> + + <p><i>We strike us</i> is awkward, but not ambiguous.</p> + + <p><i>Ye strike you</i> is the same.</p> + + <p><i>They strike them</i> is ambiguous.</p> + + <p>This shows the value of a reflective pronoun for the third person.</p> + + <p>As a general rule, therefore, whenever we use a verb reflectively we + use the word <i>self</i> in combination with the personal pronoun.</p> + + <p>Yet this was not always the case. The use of the simple personal + pronoun was current in Anglo-Saxon, and that, not only for the two first + persons, but for the third as well.</p> + + <p>The exceptions to this rule are either poetical expressions, or + imperative moods.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>He sat <i>him</i> down at a pillar's base.—<span class="sc">Byron.</span></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Sit thee down.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect506">§ 506</a>. <i>Reflective neuters.</i>—In the + phrase <i>I strike me</i> the verb <i>strike</i> is transitive; in other + words, the word <i>me</i> expresses the object of an action, and the + meaning is different from the meaning of the simple expression <i>I + strike</i>.</p> + + <p>In the phrase <i>I fear me</i> (used by Lord Campbell in his Lives of + the Chancellors), the verb <i>fear</i> is intransitive or neuter; in + other words, the word <i>me</i> (unless, indeed, <i>fear</i> mean + <i>terrify</i>) <!-- Page 411 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page411"></a>{411}</span>expresses no object of any action at all; + whilst the meaning is the same as in the simple expression <i>I + fear</i>.</p> + + <p>Here the reflective pronoun appears out of place, <i>i. e.</i>, after + a neuter or intransitive verb.</p> + + <p>Such a use, however, is but the fragment of an extensive system of + reflective verbs thus formed, developed in different degrees in the + different Gothic languages; but in all more than in the English.</p> + + <p><a name="sect507">§ 507</a>. <i>Equivocal reflectives.</i>—The + proper place of the reflective is <i>after</i> the verb.</p> + + <p>The proper place of the governing pronoun is, <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'is'.">in</span> the indicative and subjunctive + moods, <i>before</i> the verb.</p> + + <p>Hence in expressions like the preceding there is no doubt as to the + power of the pronoun.</p> + + <p>The imperative mood, however, sometimes presents a complication. Here + the governing person may follow the verb.</p> + + <p><i>Mount ye</i>=either <i>be mounted</i>, or <i>mount yourselves</i>. + In phrases like this, and in phrases</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Busk ye</i>, <i>busk ye</i>, my bonny, bonny bride,</p> + <p class="i2"><i>Busk ye</i>, <i>busk ye</i>, my winsome marrow,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>the construction is ambiguous. <i>Ye</i> may either be a nominative + case governing the verb <i>busk</i>, or an accusative case governed by + it.</p> + + <p>This is an instance of what may be called the <i>equivocal + reflective</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 412 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page412"></a>{412}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND THE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON.</p> + + <p><a name="sect508">§ 508</a>. Reasons have been given in p. <a + href="#page249">249</a>, for considering the so-called pronouns of the + third person (<i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>it</i>, <i>they</i>) + demonstrative rather than truly personal.</p> + + <p><a name="sect509">§ 509</a>. As <i>his</i>, and <i>her</i>, are + genitive cases (and not adjectives), there is no need of explaining such + combinations as <i>his mother</i>, <i>her father</i>, inasmuch as no + concord of gender is expected. The expressions are respectively + equivalent to</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Equivalent of his and her" title="Equivalent of his and her"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>mater ejus</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> not <i>mater sua</i>;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>pater ejus</i>,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> — <i>pater suus</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p><a name="sect510">§ 510</a>. From p. <a href="#page250">250</a>, it + may be seen that <i>its</i> is a secondary genitive, and it may be added, + that it is of late origin in the language. The Anglo-Saxon form was + <i>his</i>, the genitive of <i>he</i> for the neuter and masculine + equally. Hence, when, in the old writers, we meet <i>his</i>, where we + expect <i>its</i>, we must not suppose that any personification takes + place, but simply that the old genitive common to the two genders is used + in preference to the modern one limited to the neuter, and irregularly + formed. This has been illustrated by Mr. Guest.</p> + + <p>The following instances are the latest specimens of its use.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"The apoplexy is, as I take it, a kind of lethargy. I have read the + cause of <i>his</i> effects in Galen; <i>it</i> is a kind of + deafness."—2 <i>Henry IV.</i> i. 2.</p> + + <p>"If the salt have lost <i>his</i> flavour, wherewith shall it be + seasoned. <i>It</i> is neither fit for the land nor yet for the dunghill, + but men cast <i>it</i> out."—<i>Luke</i> xiv. 35.</p> + + <p>"Some affirm that every plant has <i>his</i> particular fly or + caterpillar, which it breeds and feeds."—<span + class="sc">Walton's</span> <i>Angler</i>.</p> + + <p>"This rule is not so general, but that <i>it</i> admitteth of + <i>his</i> exceptions."—<span class="sc">Carew.</span></p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 413 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page413"></a>{413}</span></p> + + <p>"The genitive <i>its</i> is of late introduction into our language. + Though used by our dramatists and many of their cotemporaries, it does + not occur in the versions of our Bible, the substitute being <i>his</i> + or the compound term <i>thereof</i>."—Phil. Trans., No. 25.</p> + + <p><a name="sect511">§ 511</a>. For the archaic and provincial use of + <i>him</i> and <i>he</i> for <i>it</i> see <i>ibid.</i>; remembering that + the two cases are different. <i>His</i> for <i>its</i> is an old form + retained: <i>him</i> and <i>he</i> for <i>it</i> are really changes of + gender.</p> + + <p><a name="sect512">§ 512</a>. <i>Take them things away.</i>—Here + we have <i>them</i> for <i>those</i>. The expression, although not to be + imitated, is explained by the originally demonstrative power of + <i>them</i>.</p> + + <p>Sometimes the expression is still more anomalous, and we hear the + so-called nominative case used instead of the accusative. In the + expression <i>take they things away</i>, the use of <i>they</i> for + <i>them</i> (itself for <i>those</i>) is similarly capable of being, down + to a certain period of our language, explained as an archaism. The + original accusative was <i>þa</i>, and <i>þo</i>: the form in <i>-m</i> + being dative.</p> + + <p><a name="sect513">§ 513</a>. <i>This</i> and <i>that</i>.—The + remarks upon the use of these words in certain expressions is brought at + once to the Latin scholar by the quotation of the two following lines + from Ovid, and the suggestion of a well-known rule in the Eton Latin + Grammar.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Quocunque aspicies nihil est nisi pontus et aer;</i></p> + <p class="i2"><i>Nubibus hic tumidus, fluctibus ille minax.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here <i>hic</i> (=<i>this</i> or <i>the one</i>) refers to the + antecedent last named (the <i>air</i>); whilst <i>ille</i> (=<i>that</i> + or <i>the other</i>) refers to the antecedent first named (the + <i>sea</i>).</p> + + <p>Now on the strength of this example, combined with others, it is laid + down as a rule in Latin that <i>hic</i> (<i>this</i>) refers to the + last-named antecedent, <i>ille</i> to the first-named.</p> + + <p><a name="sect514">§ 514</a>. What is the rule in English?</p> + + <p>Suppose we say <i>John's is a good sword and so is Charles's</i>; + <i>this cut through a thick rope, the other cut through an iron rod</i>. + Or instead of saying <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> we may say <i>the + one</i> and <i>the other</i>. It is clear that, in determining to which + of the <!-- Page 414 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page414"></a>{414}</span>two swords the respective demonstratives + refer, the meaning will not help us at all, so that our only recourse is + to the rules of grammar; and it is the opinion of the present writer that + the rules of grammar will help us just as little. The Latin rule is + adopted by scholars, but still it is a Latin rule rather than an English + one.</p> + + <p>The truth is, that it is a question which no authority can settle; and + all that grammar can tell us is (what we know without it) that + <i>this</i> refers to the name of the idea which is logically the most + close at hand, and <i>that</i> to the idea which is logically the most + distant.</p> + + <p>What constitutes nearness or distance of ideas, in other words, what + determines the sequence of ideas is another question. That the idea, + however, of sequence, and, consequently of logical proximity and logical + distance, is the fundamental idea in regard to the expressions in + question is evident from the very use of the words <i>this</i> and + <i>that</i>.</p> + + <p>Now the sequence of ideas is capable of being determined by two + tests.</p> + + <p>1. The idea to which the name was last given, or (changing the + expression) the name of the last idea may be the nearest idea in the + order of sequence, and, consequently, the idea referred to by the pronoun + of proximity. In this case the idea closest at hand to the writer of the + second line of the couplet quoted above was the idea of the + <i>atmosphere</i> (<i>aer</i>), and it was, consequently, expressed by + (<i>this</i>) <i>hic</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Or the idea to which the name was first given, or (changing the + expression) the name of the first idea may be the nearest idea in the + order of sequence, and consequently the idea referred to it by the + pronoun of proximity; inasmuch as the idea which occurs first is the most + prominent one, and what is prominent appears near. In this case, the idea + closest at hand to the writer of the second line of the couplet quoted + above would have been the idea of the <i>sea</i> (<i>pontus</i>), and it + would, consequently, have been the idea expressed by <i>this</i> + (<i>hic</i>).</p> + + <p>As Ovid, however, considered the idea at the end of the last half of + one sentence to be the idea nearest to the <!-- Page 415 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page415"></a>{415}</span>beginning of the next, + we have him expressing himself as he does. On the other hand, it is easy + to conceive a writer with whom the nearest idea is the idea that led the + way to the others.</p> + + <p>As I believe that one and the same individual may measure the sequence + of his ideas sometimes according to one of these principles, and + sometimes according to another, I believe that all rules about the + relations of <i>this</i> and <i>that</i> are arbitrary.</p> + + <p>It is just a matter of chance whether a thinker take up his line of + ideas by the end or by the beginning. The analogies of such expressions + as the following are in favour of <i>this</i>, in English, applying to + the <i>first</i> subject, <i>that</i> to the <i>second</i>; since the + word <i>attorney</i> takes the place of <i>this</i>, and applies to the + first name of the two, <i>i. e.</i>, to <i>Thurlow</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"It was a proud day for the bar when Lord North made Thurlow (1) and + (2) Wedderburn (1) Attorney (2) and Solicitor General."—<i>Mathias + from Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors.</i></p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 416 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page416"></a>{416}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE WORD SELF.</p> + + <p><a name="sect515">§ 515</a>. The undoubted constructions of the word + <i>self</i>, in the present state of the cultivated English, are + three-fold.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Government.</i>—In <i>my-self</i>, <i>thy-self</i>, + <i>our-selves</i>, and <i>your-selves</i>, the construction is that of a + common substantive with an adjective or genitive case. + <i>My-self</i>=<i>my individuality</i>, and is similarly + construed—<i>mea individualitas</i> (or <i>persona</i>), or <i>mei + individualitas</i> (or <i>persona</i>).</p> + + <p>2. <i>Apposition.</i>—In <i>him-self</i> and <i>them-selves</i>, + when accusative, the construction is that of a substantive in apposition + with a pronoun. <i>Him-self</i>=<i>him, the individual.</i></p> + + <p>3. <i>Composition.</i>—It is only, however, when <i>himself</i> + and <i>themselves</i>, are in the accusative case, that the construction + is appositional. When they are used as nominatives, it must be explained + on another principle. In phrases like</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>He <i>himself</i> was present.</p> + + <p>They <i>themselves</i> were present.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>There is neither apposition nor government; <i>him</i> and + <i>them</i>, being neither related to <i>my</i> and <i>thy</i>, so as to + be governed, nor yet to <i>he</i> and <i>they</i>, so as to form an + apposition. In order to come under one of these conditions, the phrases + should be either <i>he his self</i> (<i>they their selves</i>), or else + <i>he he self</i> (<i>they they selves</i>). In this difficulty, the only + logical view that can be taken of the matter, is to consider the words + <i>himself</i> and <i>themselves</i>, not as two words, but as a single + word compounded; and even then, the compound will be of an irregular + kind; inasmuch as the inflectional element <i>-m</i>, is dealt with as + part and parcel of the root.</p> + + <p><a name="sect516">§ 516</a>. <i>Her-self.</i>—The construction + here is ambiguous. It is one of the preceding constructions. Which, + however it is, <!-- Page 417 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page417"></a>{417}</span>is uncertain; since <i>her</i> may be + either a so-called genitive, like <i>my</i>, or an accusative like + <i>him</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Itself</i>—is also ambiguous. The <i>s</i> may represent the + <i>-s</i> in <i>its</i>, as well as the <i>s-</i> in <i>self</i>.</p> + + <p>This inconsistency is as old as the Anglo-Saxon stage of the English + language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect517">§ 517</a>. In the exhibition of the second + construction of the word <i>self</i> it was assumed that the case was a + case of apposition, and that <i>self</i> was substantival in character. + Nevertheless, this is by no means a necessary phenomenon. <i>Self</i> + might, as far as its power is determined by its construction alone, in + words like <i>himself</i> as easily be an adjective as a substantive. In + which case the construction would be a matter, not of apposition, but of + <i>agreement</i>. To illustrate this by the Latin language, + <i>himself</i>, might equal either <i>eum personam</i> (<i>him, the + person</i>), or <i>eum personalem</i> (<i>him personal</i>). The + evidence, however, of the forms like <i>myself</i>, as well as other + facts adduceable from comparative philology, prove the substantival + character of <i>self</i>. On the other hand, it ought not to be concealed + that another word, whereof the preponderance of the adjectival over the + substantival power is undoubted, is found in the Old English, with just + the same inconsistency as the word <i>self</i>; <i>i.e.</i>, sometimes in + government (like a substantive), and sometimes in either concord or + apposition, like a word which may be <i>either</i> substantive or + adjective. This word is <i>one</i>; the following illustrations of which + are from Mr. Guest.—<i>Phil. Trans. No. 22.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>In this world wote I no knight,</p> + <p>Who durst <i>his one</i> with hym fight.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Ipomedon</i>, 1690.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">þah ha <i>hire ane</i> were</p> + <p>Ayein so kene keisere and al his kine riche.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>St. Catherine</i>, 90.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">Though she <i>alone</i> were</p> + <p>Against so fierce a kaiser, and all his kingdom.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here <i>his one</i>, <i>her one</i>, mean <i>his singleness</i>, + <i>her singleness</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i10">He made his mone</p> + <p>Within a garden all <i>him one</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Gower</span>, <i>Confess. Amant.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 418 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page418"></a>{418}</span></p> + + <p>Here <i>him one</i> = <i>himself</i> in respect to its + construction.</p> + + <p><a name="sect518">§ 518</a>. As to the inflection of the word + <i>-self</i>, all its compounds are substantives; inasmuch as they all + take plural forms as far as certain logical limitations will allow them + to do so—<i>ourselves</i>, <i>yourselves</i>, + <i>themselves</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Myself</i>, <i>thyself</i>, <i>himself</i>, <i>itself</i>, and + <i>herself</i>, are naturally singular, and under no circumstances can + become plural.</p> + + <p><i>Themselves</i> is naturally plural, and under no circumstances can + become singular.</p> + + <p><i>Ourselves</i> and <i>yourselves</i> are naturally plural; yet under + certain circumstances they become singular.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> Just as men say <i>we</i> for <i>I</i>, so may they say + <i>our</i> for <i>my</i>.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> Just as men say <i>you</i> for <i>thou</i>, so may they say + <i>your</i> for <i>thy</i>.</p> + + <p>In respect to the inflection in the way of case, there are no logical + limitations whatever. There is nothing against the existence of a + genitive form <i>self's</i> except the habit of the English language not + to use one, founded on the little necessity for so doing.—<i>Are + you sure this is your own?</i> <i>Yes, I am sure it is my own self's.</i> + Such an expression is both logic and grammar.</p> + + <p>When an adjective intervenes between <i>self</i> and its personal + pronoun the construction is always in the way of government; in other + words, the personal pronoun is always put in the genitive case.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>His own self, <i>not</i> him own self.</p> + <p>Their own selves, <i>not</i> them own selves.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect519">§ 519</a>. The construction of <i>self</i> and a + personal pronoun with a verb may be noticed in this place. It is only in + the case of the two pronouns of the singular number that any doubt can + arise.</p> + + <p>1. When <i>myself</i> or <i>thyself</i> stands alone, the verb that + follows is in the third person—<i>myself is</i> (not <i>am</i>) + <i>weak</i>, <i>thyself is</i> (not <i>art</i>) <i>weak</i>. Here the + construction is just the same as in the proposition <i>my body is + weak</i>.</p> + + <p>2. When <i>myself</i> or <i>thyself</i> is preceded by <i>I</i> or + <i>thou</i>, the verb that follows is in the first person—<i>I, + myself, am</i> (not <i>is</i>) <i>weak</i>; <i>thou, thyself, art</i> + (not <i>is</i>) <i>weak</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 419 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page419"></a>{419}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect520">§ 520</a>. The possessive pronouns fall into two + classes. The first class contains the forms connected, partially in their + etymology and wholly in their syntax, with <i>my</i> and <i>thy</i>, + &c. The second class contains the forms connected, partially in their + etymology and wholly in their syntax, with <i>mine</i> and <i>thine</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p>The first class is the class of what may be called the <i>oblique</i> + possessives; the name being founded upon the etymological fact of their + being connected with the oblique cases of the pronominal + inflection.—<i>My</i>, <i>thy</i>, <i>his</i> (as in <i>his + book</i>), <i>her</i>, <i>its</i> (as in <i>its book</i>), <i>our</i>, + <i>your</i>, <i>their</i>. These are conveniently considered as the + equivalents to the Latin forms <i>mei</i>, <i>tui</i>, <i>ejus</i>, + <i>nostrum</i>, <i>vestrum</i>, <i>eorum</i>.</p> + + <p>The second class is the class of what may be called the + <i>absolute</i> possessives; the name being founded upon the syntactic + fact of their being able to form the term of a proposition by themselves; + as <i>whose is this?</i> <i>Mine</i> (not <i>my</i>).—<i>Mine</i>, + <i>thine</i>, <i>his</i> (as <i>in the book is his</i>), <i>hers</i>, + <i>ours</i>, <i>yours</i>, <i>theirs</i> are conveniently considered as + the equivalents to the Latin forms <i>meus, mea, meum</i>; <i>tuus, tua, + tuum</i>; <i>suus, sua, suum</i>; <i>noster, nostra, nostrum</i>; + <i>vester, vestra, vestrum</i>. How far either or both of these two + classes of pronouns are cases, or adjectives, is a point of etymology + that has already been noticed (Part IV., chap. 37).</p> + + <p>How far either or both are cases or adjectives is, in syntax, a matter + of indifference.</p> + + <p><a name="sect521">§ 521</a>. There is, however, a palpable difference + between the construction of <i>my</i> and <i>mine</i>. We cannot say + <i>this is mine hat</i>, and we cannot say <i>this hat is my</i>. + Nevertheless, this <!-- Page 420 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page420"></a>{420}</span>difference is not explained by any change + of construction from that of adjectives to that of cases. As far as the + syntax is concerned the construction of <i>my</i> and <i>mine</i> is + equally that of an adjective <i>agreeing</i> with a substantive, and of a + genitive (or possessive) case <i>governed</i> by a substantive.</p> + + <p>Now a common genitive case can be used in two ways; either as part of + a term, or as a whole term (<i>i. e.</i>, absolutely).—1. As part + of a term—<i>this is John's hat</i>. 2. As a whole + term—<i>this hat is John's</i>.</p> + + <p>And a common adjective can be used in two ways; either as part of a + term, or as a whole term (<i>i. e.</i>, absolutely).—1. As part of + a term—<i>these are good hats</i>. 2. As a whole + term—<i>these hats are good</i>.</p> + + <p>Now whether we consider <i>my</i>, and the words like it, as + adjectives or cases, they possess only <i>one</i> of the properties just + illustrated, <i>i. e.</i>, they can only be used as part of a + term—<i>this is my hat</i>; not <i>this hat is my</i>.</p> + + <p>And whether we consider <i>mine</i>, and the words like it, as + adjectives or cases, they possess only <i>one</i> of the properties just + illustrated, <i>i. e.</i>, they can only be used as whole terms, or + absolutely—<i>this hat is mine</i>; not <i>this is mine + hat</i>.</p> + + <p>For a full and perfect construction whether of an adjective or a + genitive case, the possessive pronouns present the phenomenon of being, + singly, incomplete, but, nevertheless, complimentary to each other when + taken in their two forms.</p> + + <p>In the absolute construction of a genitive case, the term is formed by + the single word only so far as the <i>expression</i> is concerned. A + substantive is always <i>understood</i> from what has + preceded.—<i>This discovery is Newton's</i>=<i>this discovery is + Newton's discovery.</i></p> + + <p>The same with adjectives.—<i>This weather is fine</i>=<i>this + weather is fine weather.</i></p> + + <p>And the same with absolute pronouns.—<i>This hat is + mine</i>=<i>this hat is my hat</i>; and <i>this is a hat of + mine</i>=<i>this is a hat of my hats</i>.</p> + + <p>In respect to all matters of syntax considered exclusively, it is so + thoroughly a matter of indifference whether a word be an adjective or a + genitive case that Wallis considers the <!-- Page 421 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page421"></a>{421}</span>forms in <i>-'s</i> + like <i>father's</i>, not as genitive cases but as adjectives. Looking to + the logic of the question alone he is right, and looking to the practical + syntax of the question he is right, also. He is only wrong on the + etymological side of the question.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Nomina substantiva apud nos nullum vel generum vel casuum discrimen + sortiuntur."—p. 76.</p> + + <p>"Duo sunt adjectivorum genera, a substantivis immediate descendentia, + quæ semper substantivis suis præponuntur. Primum quidem adjectivum + possessivum libet appellare. Fit autem a quovis substantivo, sive + singulari sive plurali, addito <i>-s</i>.—Ut <i>man's nature</i>, + <i>the nature of man</i>, natura humana vel hominis; <i>men's nature</i>, + natura humana vel hominum; <i>Virgil's poems</i>, <i>the poems of + Virgil</i>, poemata Virgilii vel Virgiliana."—p. 89.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 422 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page422"></a>{422}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect522">§ 522</a>. The word <i>that</i>, although + originally, when a demonstrative pronoun, a neuter singular, is now used + as a relative for all genders, and both numbers.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. He <i>that</i> spoke.—<i>Masculine gender.</i></p> + <p>2. She <i>that</i> spoke.—<i>Feminine gender.</i></p> + <p>3. They <i>that</i> fought.—<i>Plural number.</i></p> + <p>4. The man <i>that</i> I struck.—<i>Objective case.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect523">§ 523</a>. Etymologically, <i>which</i> is no true + neuter of <i>who</i>, but a compound word. It is used, however, with less + latitude than <i>that</i>. The beginning of the Lord's Prayer exhibits it + in combination with a masculine noun. Generally, however, it is confined + to the neuter gender; in which it is common to both numbers.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. The dagger <i>which</i> stabbed Cæsar.—<i>Nominative singular.</i></p> + <p>2. The daggers <i>which</i> stabbed Cæsar.—<i>Nominative plural.</i></p> + <p>3. The dagger <i>which</i> I grasp.—<i>Objective singular.</i></p> + <p>4. The daggers <i>which</i> I grasp.—<i>Objective plural.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect524">§ 524</a>. <i>Which</i> has so nearly replaced + <i>what</i> that the general use of this last word with its proper power, + as a neuter relative, is, in the present English, vulgar, + <i>e.g.</i>,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. The dagger <i>what</i> stabbed Cæsar.</p> + <p>2. The dagger <i>what</i> I grasp.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In one case, however, <i>what</i> is used as a true relative, + <i>viz.</i>, when the antecedent is either <i>this</i> or + <i>that</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>This is <i>what</i> I mean; <i>not</i>, this is <i>which</i> I mean.</p> + <p>That is <i>what</i> I mean; <i>not</i>, that is <i>which</i> I mean.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 423 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page423"></a>{423}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect525">§ 525</a>. The word <i>as</i>, properly a + conjunction, is occasionally used as a relative—<i>the man</i> as + <i>rides to market</i>.</p> + + <p>This expression is not to be imitated. It ought, however, to be + explained. <i>As</i> is a conjunction denoting comparison. The ideas of + comparison and equivalence are allied. The relative is <i>ex vi + termini</i> the equivalent, in one part of a sentence, to the antecedent + in another.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>(1) The man—(2) who speaks.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Here <i>who</i>=<i>man</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>(1) As white—(2) as snow.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Here <i>snow</i>=<i>white</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect526">§ 526</a>. It is necessary that the relative be in + the same <i>gender</i> as the antecedent—<i>the man + who</i>—<i>the woman who</i>—<i>the thing which</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect527">§ 527</a>. It is necessary that the relative be in + the same <i>number</i> with the antecedent. As, however, <i>who</i>, + <i>which</i>, <i>whom</i>, are equally singular and plural, and as + <i>what</i>, which is really singular, is not used as a relative, the + application of this law is limited to the word <i>whose</i>. Now + <i>whose</i> is, etymologically, a genitive case, and a genitive case of + the singular number. Hence the expression <i>the men whose daggers + stabbed Cæsar</i> can only be justified by considering that the word + <i>whose</i> is plural as well as singular. Such is the case. If not the + expression is as illogical as <i>homines</i> cujus <i>sicæ</i>, &c. + would be in Latin.</p> + + <p><a name="sect528">§ 528</a>. It is <i>not</i> necessary for the + relative to be in the same case with its antecedent.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. John, <i>who</i> trusts me, comes here.</p> + <p>2. John, <i>whom</i> I trust, comes here.</p> + <p>3. John, <i>whose</i> confidence I possess, comes here.</p> + <p>4. I trust John <i>who</i> trusts me.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect529">§ 529</a>. The reason why the relative must agree + with its antecedent in both number and gender, whilst it need not agree + with it in case, is found in the following observations.</p> + + <p>1. All sentences containing a relative contain two verbs—<i>John + who</i> (1) <i>trusts me</i> (2) <i>comes here</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Two verbs express two actions—(1) <i>trust</i> (2) + <i>come</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Whilst, however, the actions are two in number, the <!-- Page 424 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page424"></a>{424}</span>person or + thing which does, or suffers them is single—<i>John</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>He</i> (<i>she</i> or <i>it</i>) is single <i>ex vi termini</i>. + The relative expresses the <i>identity</i> between the subjects (or + objects) of the two actions. Thus <i>who</i>=<i>John</i>, or is another + name for John.</p> + + <p>5. Things and persons that are one and the same, are of one and the + same gender. The <i>John</i> who <i>trusts</i> is necessarily of the same + gender with the <i>John</i> who <i>comes</i>.</p> + + <p>6. Things and persons that are one and the same, are of one and the + same number. The number of <i>Johns</i> who <i>trust</i>, is the same as + the number of <i>Johns</i> who <i>come</i>. Both these elements of + concord are immutable.</p> + + <p>7. But a third element of concord is not immutable. The person or + thing that is an agent in the one part of the sentence, may be the object + of an action in the other. The <i>John</i> whom I <i>trust</i> may + <i>trust</i> me also. Hence</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>a.</i> I trust John—<i>John</i> the object.</p> + <p><i>b.</i> John trusts me—<i>John</i> the agent.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>As the relative is only the antecedent in another form, it may change + its case according to the construction.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. I trust John—(2) <i>John</i> trusts me.</p> + <p>2. I trust John—(2) <i>He</i> trusts me.</p> + <p>3. I trust John—(2) <i>Who</i> trusts me.</p> + <p>4. John trusts me—(2) I trust <i>John</i>.</p> + <p>5. John trusts me—(2) I trust <i>him</i>.</p> + <p>6. John trusts me—(2) I trust <i>whom</i>.</p> + <p>7. John trusts me—(2) <i>Whom</i> I trust.</p> + <p>8. John—(2) <i>Whom</i> I trust trusts me.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect530">§ 530</a>. <i>The books I want are + here.</i>—This is a specimen of a true ellipsis. In all such + phrases in <i>full</i>, there are <i>three</i> essential elements.</p> + + <p>1. The first proposition; as <i>the books are here</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The second proposition; as <i>I want</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The word which connects the two propositions, and without which, + they naturally make separate, independent, unconnected statements.</p> + + <p>Now, although true and unequivocal ellipses are scarce, <!-- Page 425 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425"></a>{425}</span>the preceding + is one of the most unequivocal kind—the word which connects the two + propositions being wanting.</p> + + <p><a name="sect531">§ 531</a>. One or two points connected with the + construction of those sentences wherein relative pronouns occur, are + necessary to be familiarly understood in order for us to see our way + clearly to certain real and apparent anomalies in the syntax of this + class of words.</p> + + <p>1. Every sentence wherein a relative occurs, is complex, <i>i.e.</i>, + it consists of two propositions—<i>the man who rides is + come</i>=(1) <i>the man is come</i>; (2) <i>who rides</i>. Here the + relative <i>who</i> has no meaning in itself, but takes a meaning from + the noun of the preceding clause.</p> + + <p>2. <i>The relative is the demonstrative or personal pronoun under + another form.</i>—The two propositions (1) <i>the man is come</i>; + (2) <i>who rides</i>=(1) <i>the man is come</i>; (2) <i>he rides</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>The demonstrative or personal pronoun is the substantive in + another form.</i>—The two propositions (1) <i>the man is come</i>; + (2) <i>he rides</i>=(1) <i>the man is come</i>; (2) <i>the man + rides</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Hence the relative is the equivalent to a demonstrative pronoun, or + to a substantive, indifferently.</p> + + <p>5. But the relative is the equivalent to the pronoun and substantive, + and <i>something more</i>. In sentences like</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The man is come—he rides—</p> + <p>The man is come—the man rides.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The identity between the person mentioned in the two propositions is + implied, not expressed. This the relative <i>expresses</i>; and hence its + use in languages.</p> + + <p>6. From these observations we get a practical rule for determining + doubtful constructions.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> Reduce the sentence to the several propositions (which are + never less than two) which it contains.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> Replace the relative by its equivalent personal or + demonstrative pronoun, or by its equivalent substantive.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> The case of the demonstrative or substantive, is the case of + the relative also.</p> + + <p>By applying this rule to such expressions as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i10">Satan, than <i>whom</i></p> + <p>None higher sat, thus spake</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 426 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page426"></a>{426}</span></p> + + <p>we find them, <i>according to the current etymology</i>, + incorrect—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Satan spake—none sat higher than he sat.</p> + <p>Satan spake—none sat higher than Satan sat.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Hence the expression should be,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i8">Satan than <i>who</i></p> + <p>None higher sat.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Observe.</i>—The words, <i>according to the current + etymology</i>, indicate an explanation which, rightly or wrongly, has + been urged in favour of expressions like the one in question, and which + will be noticed in a future chapter.</p> + + <p><a name="sect532">§ 532</a>. <i>Observe.</i>—That three + circumstances complicate the syntax of the relative pronoun.</p> + + <p>1. The elliptic form of the generality of the sentences wherein it + follows the word <i>than</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The influence of the oblique interrogation.</p> + + <p>3. The influence of an omitted relative.</p> + + <p><a name="sect533">§ 533</a>. This last finds place in the present + chapter.</p> + + <p><i>When the relative and antecedent are in different cases, and the + relative is omitted, the antecedent is sometimes put in the case of the + relative.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>He whom I accuse has entered.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Contracted according to p. 424.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>He I accuse has entered.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Changed, according to the present section,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Him I accuse has entered.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>And so (as shown by Mr. Guest, <i>Philological Transactions</i>), + Shakspeare has really written,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16"><i>Him</i> I accuse,</p> + <p>The city gates by this has entered.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Coriolanus</i>, v. 5.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire</p> + <p>Too high a fame, when <i>him</i> we serve's away.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Antony and Cleopatra</i>, iii. 1.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The reason of this is clear. The verb that determines <!-- Page 427 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page427"></a>{427}</span>the case of + the relative is brought in contact with the antecedent, and the case of + the antecedent is accommodated to the case of the relative.</p> + + <p>The Greek phrase, <span title="chrômai bibliois hois echô" class="grk" + >χρῶμαι + βιβλίοις + οἷς ἔχω</span>, is an instance of + the converse process.</p> + + <p><a name="sect534">§ 534</a>. <i>When there are two words in a clause, + each capable of being an antecedent, the relative refers to the + latter.</i></p> + + <p>1. <i>Solomon the son of David who slew Goliah.</i> This is + unexceptionable.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Solomon the son of David who built the temple.</i> This is + exceptionable.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, it is defensible, on the supposition that + <i>Solomon-the-son-of-David</i> is a single many-worded name.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 428 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page428"></a>{428}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.</p> + + <p><a name="sect535">§ 535</a>. Questions are of two sorts, direct and + oblique.</p> + + <p><i>Direct.</i>—Who is he?</p> + + <p><i>Oblique.</i>—Who do you say that he is?</p> + + <p>All difficulties about the cases of the interrogative pronoun may be + determined by framing an answer, and observing the case of the word with + which the interrogative coincides. Whatever be the case of this word will + also be the case of the interrogative.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i12">DIRECT.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Qu.</i> <i>Who</i> is this?—<i>Ans.</i> <i>I.</i></p> + <p><i>Qu.</i> <i>Whose</i> is this?—<i>Ans.</i> <i>His.</i></p> + <p><i>Qu.</i> <i>Whom</i> do you seek?—<i>Ans.</i> <i>Him.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i12">OBLIQUE.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Qu.</i> <i>Who</i> do you say that it is?—<i>Ans.</i> <i>He.</i></p> + <p><i>Qu.</i> <i>Whose</i> do you say that it is?—<i>Ans.</i> <i>His.</i></p> + <p><i>Qu.</i> <i>Whom</i> do you say that they seek?—<i>Ans.</i> <i>Him.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Note.</i>—The answer should always be made by means of a + pronoun, as, by so doing we distinguish the accusative case from the + nominative.</p> + + <p><i>Note.</i>—And, if necessary, it should be made in full. Thus + the full answer to <i>whom do you say that they seek?</i> is, <i>I say + that they seek him</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect536">§ 536</a>. Nevertheless, such expressions as <i>whom + do they say that it is?</i> are common, especially in oblique questions. + The following examples are Mr. Guest's.—<i>Philological + Transactions.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"And he axed hem and seide, <i>whom</i> seien the people that I am? + Thei answereden and seiden, Jon Baptist—and he seide to hem, But + <i>whom</i> seien ye that I am?"—<span class="sc">Wiclif</span>, + <i>Luke</i> ix.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page 429 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page429"></a>{429}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Tell me in sadness <i>whom</i> she is you love."</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, i. 1.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"And as John fulfilled his course, he said, <i>whom</i> think ye that + I am?"—<i>Acts</i> xiii. 25.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Two circumstances encourage this confusion. 1. The presence of a + second verb, which takes the appearance of a governing verb. 2. The + omission of a really oblique antecedent or relative. 3. The use of + accusative for nominative forms in the case of personal pronouns.</p> + + <p><a name="sect537">§ 537</a>. <i>The presence of a second verb</i>, + &c.—<i>Tell</i> me <i>whom</i> she <i>is</i>. Here <i>tell</i> + is made to govern <i>whom</i>, instead of <i>whom</i> being left, as + <i>who</i>, to agree with <i>she</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect538">§ 538</a>. <i>The omission</i>, &c.—Tell + me <i>whom</i> she is you <i>love</i>. Here the full construction + requires a second pronoun—tell me <i>who</i> she is <i>whom</i> you + <i>love</i>; or else, tell me <i>her whom</i> you love.</p> + + <p><a name="sect539">§ 539</a>. To the question, <i>who is</i> this? many + would answer not <i>I</i>, but <i>me</i>. This confusion of the case in + the answer favours a confusion of case in the question.</p> + + <p>It is clear that much of this reasoning applies to the relative powers + of <i>who</i>, as well as to the interrogative.</p> + + <p>But, it is possible that there may be no incorrectness at all: + insomuch as <i>whom</i> may have become a true nominative. Mr. Guest has + truly remarked that such is the case in the Scandinavian language, where + <i>hve-m</i>=<i>who</i>=<i>qui</i>.</p> + + <p>This view, if true, justifies the use of <i>whom</i> after the + conjunctions <i>than</i> and <i>as</i>; so that the + expression,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i6">Satan than <i>whom</i></p> + <p>None higher sat,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>may be right.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, it does not justify such expressions as—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>None sit higher than <i>me</i>.</p> + <p>None sit higher than <i>thee</i>.</p> + <p>None sit higher than <i>us</i>.</p> + <p>None sit higher than <i>her</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 430 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page430"></a>{430}</span></p> + + <p>The reason of this is clear. <i>Whom</i> is supposed to be admissible, + not because the sentence admits an accusative case; but because custom + has converted it into a nominative. For my own part, I doubt the + application of the Danish rule to the English language. Things may be + going that way, but they have not, as yet, gone far enough.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 431 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page431"></a>{431}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE RECIPROCAL CONSTRUCTION.</p> + + <p><a name="sect540">§ 540</a>. In all sentences containing the statement + of a reciprocal or mutual action there are in reality two assertions, + <i>viz.</i>, the assertion that A. <i>strikes</i> (or <i>loves</i>) B., + and the assertion that B. <i>strikes</i> (or <i>loves</i>) A.; the action + forming one, the reaction another. Hence, if the expressions exactly + coincided with the fact signified, there would always be two + propositions. This, however, is not the habit of language. Hence arises a + more compendious form of expression, giving origin to an ellipsis of a + peculiar kind. Phrases like <i>Eteocles and Polynices killed each + other</i> are elliptical, for <i>Eteocles and Polynices killed—each + the other</i>. Here the second proposition expands and explains the + first, whilst the first supplies the verb to the second. Each, however, + is elliptic. The first is without the object, the second without the + verb. That the verb must be in the plural (or dual) number, that one of + the nouns must be in the nominative case, and that the other must be + objective, is self-evident from the structure of the sentence; such being + the conditions of the expression of the idea. An aposiopesis takes place + after a plural verb, and then there follows a clause wherein the verb is + supplied from what went before.</p> + + <p><a name="sect541">§ 541</a>. This is the syntax. As to the power of + the words <i>each</i> and <i>one</i> in the expression (<i>each other</i> + and <i>one another</i>), I am not prepared to say that in the common + practice of the English language there is any distinction between them. A + distinction, however, if it existed would give strength to our language. + Where two persons performed a reciprocal action on another, the + expression might be <i>one another</i>; as <i>Eteocles and Polynices + killed one another</i>. Where more than two <!-- Page 432 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page432"></a>{432}</span>persons were engaged on + each side of a reciprocal action the expression might be <i>each + other</i>; as, <i>the ten champions praised each other</i>.</p> + + <p>This amount of perspicuity is attained, by different processes, in the + French, Spanish, and Scandinavian languages.</p> + + <p>1. French.—<i>Ils</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, A. and B.) <i>se + battaient—l'un l'autre</i>. <i>Ils</i> (A. B. C.) <i>se + battaient—les uns les autres</i>. In Spanish, <i>uno + otro</i>=<i>l'un l'autre</i>, and <i>unos otros</i>=<i>les uns les + autres</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Danish.—<i>Hin</i>ander=the French <i>l'un l'autre</i>; + whilst <i>hverandre</i>=<i>les uns les autres</i>.</p> + + <p>The Lapplandic, and, probably other languages, have the same elements + of perspicuity.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 433 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page433"></a>{433}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect542">§ 542</a>. Different nations have different methods + of expressing indeterminate propositions.</p> + + <p>Sometimes it is by the use of the passive voice. This is the common + method in Latin and Greek, and is also current in + English—<i>dicitur</i>, <span title="legetai" class="grk" + >λέγεται</span>, <i>it is + said</i>.</p> + + <p>Sometimes the verb is reflective—<i>si dice</i>=<i>it says + itself</i>, Italian.</p> + + <p>Sometimes the plural pronoun of the third person is used. This also is + an English locution—<i>they say</i>=<i>the world at large + says</i>.</p> + + <p>Finally, the use of some word=<i>man</i> is a common indeterminate + expression.</p> + + <p>The word <i>man</i> has an indeterminate sense in the Modern German; + as, <i>man sagt</i>=<i>they say</i>.</p> + + <p>The word <i>man</i> was also used indeterminately in the Old English, + although it is not so used in the Modern.—Deutsche Grammatik.</p> + + <p>In the Old English, the form <i>man</i> often lost the <i>-n</i>, and + became <i>me</i>.—Deutsche Grammatik. This form is also + extinct.</p> + + <p>The present indeterminate pronoun is <i>one</i>; as, <i>one + says</i>=<i>they say</i>=<i>it is said</i>=<i>man sagt</i>, German=<i>on + dit</i>, French=<i>si dice</i>, Italian.</p> + + <p>It has been stated in p. 257, that the indeterminate pronoun + <i>one</i> has no etymological connection with the numeral <i>one</i>; + but that it is derived from the French + <i>on</i>=<i>homme</i>=<i>homo</i>=<i>man</i>; and that it has replaced + the Old English, <i>man</i> or <i>me</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect543">§ 543</a>. Two other pronouns, or, to speak more in + accordance with the present habit of the English language, one <!-- Page + 434 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page434"></a>{434}</span>pronoun, + and one adverb of pronominal origin are also used indeterminately viz., + <i>it</i> and <i>there</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect544">§ 544</a>. <i>It</i> can be either the subject or + the predicate of a sentence,—<i>it is this</i>, <i>this is it</i>, + <i>I am it</i>, <i>it is I</i>. When <i>it</i> is the subject of a + proposition, the verb necessarily agrees with it, and can be of the + singular number only; no matter what be the number of the + predicate—<i>it is this</i>, <i>it is these</i>.</p> + + <p>When <i>it</i> is the predicate of a proposition, the number of the + verb depends upon the number of the subject. These points of universal + syntax are mentioned here for the sake of illustrating some anomalous + forms.</p> + + <p><a name="sect545">§ 545</a>. <i>There</i> can only be the predicate of + a subject. It differs from <i>it</i> in this respect. It follows also + that it must differ from <i>it</i> in never affecting the number of the + verb. This is determined by the nature of the subject—<i>there is + this</i>, <i>there are these</i>.</p> + + <p>When we say <i>there is these</i>, the analogy between the words <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'these'."><i>there</i></span> + and <i>it</i> misleads us; the expression being illogical.</p> + + <p>Furthermore, although a predicate, <i>there</i> always stands in the + beginning of propositions, <i>i.e.</i>, in the place of the subject. This + also misleads.</p> + + <p><a name="sect546">§ 546</a>. Although <i>it</i>, when the subject, + being itself singular, absolutely requires that its verb should be + singular also, there is a tendency to use it incorrectly, and to treat it + as a plural. Thus, in German, when the predicate is plural, the verb + joined to the singular form <i>es</i> (=<i>it</i>) is plural—<i>es + sind menschen</i>, literally translated=<i>it are men</i>; which, though + bad English, is good German.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 435 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page435"></a>{435}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE ARTICLES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect547">§ 547</a>. The rule of most practical importance + about the articles is the rule that determines when the article shall be + repeated as often as there is a fresh substantive, and when it shall + not.</p> + + <p>When two or more substantives following each other denote the same + object, the article precedes the first only. We say <i>the secretary and + treasurer</i> (or, <i>a secretary and treasurer</i>), when the two + offices are held by one person.</p> + + <p>When two or more substantives following each other denote different + objects, the article is repeated, and precedes each. We say <i>the</i> + (or <i>a</i>) <i>secretary and the</i> (or <i>a</i>) <i>treasurer</i>, + when the two offices are held by different persons.</p> + + <p>This rule is much neglected.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 436 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page436"></a>{436}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE NUMERALS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect548">§ 548</a>. The numeral <i>one</i> is naturally + single. All the rest are naturally plural.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless such expressions—<i>one two</i> (=<i>one collection + of two</i>), <i>two threes</i> (=<i>two collections of three</i>), are + legitimate. These are so because the sense of the word is changed. We may + talk of several <i>ones</i> just as we may talk of several <i>aces</i>; + and of <i>one two</i> just as of <i>one pair</i>.</p> + + <p>Expressions like <i>the thousandth-and-first</i> are incorrect. They + mean neither one thing nor another: 1001st being expressed by <i>the + thousand-and-first</i>, and 1000th + 1st being expressed by <i>the + thousandth and the first</i>.</p> + + <p>Here it may be noticed that, although I never found it to do so, the + word <i>odd</i> is capable of taking an ordinal form. The + <i>thousand-and-odd-th</i> is as good an expression as the + <i>thousand-and-eight-th</i>.</p> + + <p>The construction of phrases like the <i>thousand-and-first</i> is the + same construction as we find in the <i>king-of-Saxony's army</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect549">§ 549</a>. It is by no means a matter of + indifference whether we say the <i>two first</i> or the <i>first + two</i>.</p> + + <p>The captains of two different classes at school should be called the + <i>two first boys</i>. The first and second boys of the same class should + be called the <i>first two boys</i>. I believe that when this rule is + attended to, more is due to the printer than to the author: such, at + least, is the case with myself.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 437 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page437"></a>{437}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON VERBS IN GENERAL.</p> + + <p><a name="sect550">§ 550</a>. For the purposes of syntax it is + necessary to divide verbs into the five following divisions: transitive, + intransitive, auxiliary, substantive, and impersonal.</p> + + <p><i>Transitive verbs.</i>—In transitive verbs the action is never + a simple action. It always affects some object or other,—<i>I move + my limbs</i>; <i>I strike my enemy</i>. The presence of a transitive verb + implies also the presence of a noun; which noun is the name of the object + affected. A transitive verb, unaccompanied by a noun, either expressed or + understood, is a contradiction in terms. The absence of the nouns, in and + of itself, makes it intransitive. <i>I move</i> means, simply, <i>I am in + a state of moving</i>. <i>I strike</i> means, simply, <i>I am in the act + of striking</i>. Verbs like <i>move</i> and <i>strike</i> are naturally + transitive.</p> + + <p><i>Intransitive verbs.</i>—An act may take place, and yet no + object be affected by it. <i>To hunger</i>, <i>to thirst</i>, <i>to + sleep</i>, <i>to wake</i>, are verbs that indicate states of being, + rather than actions affecting objects. Verbs like <i>hunger</i>, and + <i>sleep</i>, are naturally intransitive.</p> + + <p>Many verbs, naturally transitive, may be used as + intransitive,—<i>e.g.</i>, <i>I move</i>, <i>I strike</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p>Many verbs, naturally intransitive, may be used as + transitives,—<i>e.g.</i>, <i>I walked the horse</i>=<i>I made the + horse walk</i>.</p> + + <p>This variation in the use of one and the same verb is of much + importance in the question of the government of verbs.</p> + + <p>A. Transitive verbs are naturally followed by some noun or other; and + that noun is <i>always</i> the name of something affected by them <i>as + an object</i>. <!-- Page 438 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page438"></a>{438}</span></p> + + <p>B. Intransitive verbs are not naturally followed by any noun at all; + and when they are so followed, the noun is <i>never</i> the name of + anything affected by them <i>as an object</i>.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, intransitive verbs may be followed by nouns denoting the + manner, degree, or instrumentality of their action,—<i>I walk with + my feet</i>=<i>incedo pedibus</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect551">§ 551</a>. <i>The auxiliary verbs</i> will be + noticed fully in Chapter XXIII.</p> + + <p><a name="sect552">§ 552</a>. The verb <i>substantive</i> has this + peculiarity, <i>viz.</i> that for all purposes of syntax it is no verb at + all. <i>I speak</i> may, logically, be reduced to <i>I am speaking</i>; + in which case it is only the <i>part</i> of a verb. Etymologically, + indeed, the verb substantive is a verb; inasmuch as it is inflected as + such: but for the purposes of construction, it is a copula only, + <i>i.e.</i>, it merely denotes the agreement or disagreement between the + subject and the predicate.</p> + + <p>This does not apply to the infinitive mood. The infinitive mood of the + so-called verb substantive is a noun; not, however, because it is a verb + substantive, but because it is an infinitive mood.</p> + + <p>For the <i>impersonal</i> verbs see Part IV., Chapter 27.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 439 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page439"></a>{439}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE CONCORD OF VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect553">§ 553</a>. The verb must agree with its subject in + person, <i>I walk</i>, not <i>I walks</i>: <i>he walks</i>, not <i>he + walk</i>.</p> + + <p>It must also agree with it in number,—<i>we walk</i>, not <i>we + walks</i>: <i>he walks</i>, not <i>he walk</i>.</p> + + <p>Clear as these rules are, they require some expansion before they + become sufficient to solve all the doubtful points of English syntax + connected with the concord of the verb.</p> + + <p>A. <i>It is I, your master, who command you.</i> Query? would <i>it is + I, your master, who commands you</i>, be correct? This is an example of a + disputed point of concord in respect to the person of the verb.</p> + + <p>B. <i>The wages of sin is death.</i> Query? would <i>the wages of sin + </i>are<i> death</i> be correct? This is an example of a disputed point + of concord in respect to the number of the verb.</p> + + <p><a name="sect554">§ 554</a>. In respect to the concord of person the + following rules will carry us through a portion of the difficulties.</p> + + <p><i>Rule.</i>—In sentences, where there is but one proposition, + when a noun and a pronoun of different persons are in apposition, the + verb agrees with the first of them,—<i>I, your master, command + you</i> (not <i>commands</i>): <i>your master, I, commands you</i> (not + <i>command</i>).</p> + + <p>To understand the nature of the difficulty, it is necessary to + remember that subjects may be extremely complex as well as perfectly + simple; and that a complex subject may contain, at one and the same time, + a noun substantive and a pronoun,—<i>I, the keeper</i>; <i>he, the + merchant</i>, &c.</p> + + <p>Now all noun-substantives are naturally of the third + person—<i>John speaks</i>, <i>the men run</i>, <i>the commander + gives orders</i>. Consequently the verb is of the third person also. <!-- + Page 440 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page440"></a>{440}</span></p> + + <p>But, the pronoun with which such a noun-substantive may be placed in + apposition, may be a pronoun of either person, the first or second: + <i>I</i> or <i>thou</i>—<i>I the commander</i>—<i>thou the + commander</i>.—In this case the construction requires + consideration. With which does the verb agree? with the substantive which + requires a third person? or with the pronoun which requires a first or + second?</p> + + <p>Undoubtedly the idea which comes first is the leading idea; and, + undoubtedly, the idea which explains, qualifies, or defines it, is the + subordinate idea: and, undoubtedly, it is the leading idea which + determines the construction of the verb. We may illustrate this from the + analogy of a similar construction in respect to number—<i>a man + with a horse and a gig meets me on the road</i>. Here the ideas are + three; nevertheless the verb is singular. No addition of subordinate + elements interferes with the construction that is determined by the + leading idea. In the expression <i>I, your master</i>, the ideas are two; + viz. the idea expressed by <i>I</i>, and the idea expressed by + <i>master</i>. Nevertheless, as the one only explains or defines the + other, the construction is the same as if the idea were single. <i>Your + master, I</i>, is in the same condition. The general statement is made + concerning the <i>master</i>, and it is intended to say what <i>he</i> + does. The word <i>I</i> merely defines the expression by stating who the + master is. Of the two expressions the latter is the awkwardest. The + construction, however, is the same for both.</p> + + <p>From the analysis of the structure of complex subjects of the kind in + question, combined with a rule concerning the position of the subject, + which will soon be laid down, I believe that, for all single + propositions, the foregoing rule is absolute.</p> + + <p><i>Rule.</i>—In all single propositions the verb agrees in + person with the noun (whether substantive or pronoun) which comes + first.</p> + + <p><a name="sect555">§ 555</a>. But the expression <i>it is I, your + master, who command</i> (or <i>commands</i>) <i>you</i>, is not a single + proposition. It is a sentence containing two propositions.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. <i>It is I.</i></p> + <p>2. <i>Who commands you.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 441 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page441"></a>{441}</span></p> + + <p>Here, the word <i>master</i> is, so to say, undistributed. It may + belong to either clause of the sentence, <i>i.e.</i>, the whole sentence + may be divided into</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Either—<i>it is I your master</i>—</p> + <p>Or—<i>your master who commands you</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This is the first point to observe. The next is that the verb in the + second clause (<i>command</i> or <i>commands</i>) is governed, not by + either the personal pronoun or the substantive, but by the relative, + <i>i.e.</i>, in the particular case before us, not by either <i>I</i> or + <i>master</i>, but by <i>who</i>.</p> + + <p>And this brings us to the following question—with which of the + two antecedents does the <i>relative</i> agree? with <i>I</i> or with + <i>master</i>?</p> + + <p>This may be answered by the two following rules:—</p> + + <p><i>Rule 1.</i>—When the two antecedents are in the same + proposition, the relative agrees with the first. Thus—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. It is <i>I</i> your <i>master</i>—</p> + <p>2. Who <i>command</i> you.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Rule 2.</i>—When the two antecedents are in different + propositions, the relative agrees with the second. Thus—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. It is <i>I</i>—</p> + <p>2. Your <i>master</i> who <i>commands</i> you.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This, however, is not all. What determines whether the two antecedents + shall be in the same or in different propositions? I believe that the + following rules for what may be called <i>the distribution of the + substantive antecedent</i> will bear criticism.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 1.</i> That when there is any natural connection between the + substantive antecedent and the verb governed by the relative, the + antecedent belongs to the second clause. Thus, in the expression just + quoted, the word <i>master</i> is logically connected with the word + <i>command</i>; and this fact makes the expression, <i>It is I your + master who commands you</i> the better of the two.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 2.</i> That when there is no natural connection between the + substantive antecedent and the verb governed by the <!-- Page 442 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442"></a>{442}</span>relative, the + antecedent belongs to the first clause. <i>It is I, John, who command</i> + (not <i>commands</i>) <i>you</i>.</p> + + <p>To recapitulate, the train of reasoning has been as + follows:—</p> + + <p>1. The person of the second verb is the person of the relative.</p> + + <p>2. The person of the relative is that of one of two antecedents.</p> + + <p>3. Of such two antecedents the relative agrees with the one which + stands in the same proposition with itself.</p> + + <p>4. Which position is determined by the connection or want of + connection between the substantive antecedent and the verb governed by + the relative.</p> + + <p>Respecting the person of the verb in the <i>first</i> proposition of a + complex sentence there is no doubt. <i>I, your master, who commands you + to make haste, am</i> (not <i>is</i>) <i>in a hurry</i>. Here, <i>I am in + a hurry</i> is the first proposition; <i>who commands you to make + haste</i>, the second.</p> + + <p>It is not difficult to see why the construction of sentences + consisting of two propositions is open to an amount of latitude which is + not admissible in the construction of single propositions. As long as the + different parts of a complex idea are contained within the limits of a + single proposition, their subordinate character is easily discerned. + When, however, they amount to whole propositions, they take the + appearance of being independent members of the sentence.</p> + + <p><a name="sect556">§ 556</a>. <i>The concord of number.</i>—It is + believed that the following three rules will carry us through all + difficulties of the kind just exhibited.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 1.</i> That the verb agrees with the subject, and with nothing + but the subject. The only way to justify such an expression as <i>the + wages of sin is death</i>, is to consider <i>death</i> not as the + subject, but as the predicate; in other words, to consider the + construction to be, <i>death is the wages of sin</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 2.</i> That, except in the case of the word <i>there</i> (p. + <a href="#page434">434</a>), the word which comes first is always the + subject, until the contrary be proved. <!-- Page 443 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page443"></a>{443}</span></p> + + <p><i>Rule 3.</i> That no number of connected singular nouns can govern a + plural verb, unless they be connected by a copulative conjunction. <i>The + sun </i>and<i> moon shine</i>,—<i>the sun</i> in conjunction with + <i>the moon shines</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect557">§ 557</a>. <i>Plural subjects with singular + predicates.</i>—The wages of sin <i>are</i> death.—Honest men + <i>are</i> the salt of the earth.</p> + + <p><i>Singular subjects with plural predicates.</i>—These + constructions are rarer than the preceding: inasmuch as two or more + persons (or things) are oftener spoken of as being equivalent to one, + than one person (or thing) is spoken of as being equivalent to two or + more.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Sixpence <i>is</i> twelve halfpennies.</p> + <p>He <i>is</i> all head and shoulders.</p> + <p>Vulnera totus <i>erat</i>.</p> + <p>Tu <i>es</i> deliciæ meæ.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Hektor, atar su moi essi patêr kai potnia mêtêr," class="grk">Ἕκτορ, ἀτὰρ σύ μοι ἐσσὶ πατὴρ καὶ πότνια μήτηρ,</span></p> + <p><span title="Êde kasignêtos, su de moi thaleros parakoitês" class="grk">Ἠδὲ κασίγνητος, σὺ δέ μοι θαλερὸς παρακοίτης</span>.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 444 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page444"></a>{444}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect558">§ 558</a>. The government of verbs is of two sorts, + (1.) <i>objective</i>, and (2.) <i>modal</i>.</p> + + <p>It is objective where the noun which follows the verb is the name of + some object affected by the action of the verb,—as <i>he strikes + me</i>; <i>he wounds the enemy</i>.</p> + + <p>It is modal when the noun which follows the verb is not the name of + any object affected by the verb, but the name of some object explaining + the manner in which the action of the verb takes place, the instrument + with which it is done, the end for which it is done, &c.</p> + + <p>The government of all transitive verbs is necessarily objective. It + may also be modal,—<i>I strike the enemy with the + sword</i>=<i>ferio hostem gladio</i>.</p> + + <p>The government of all intransitive verbs can only be modal,—<i>I + walk with the stick</i>. When we say, <i>I walk the horse</i>, the word + <i>walk</i> has changed its meaning, and signifies <i>make to walk</i>, + and is, by the very fact of its being followed by the name of an object, + converted from an intransitive into a transitive verb.</p> + + <p>The modal construction may also be called the <i>adverbial + construction</i>; because the effect of the noun is akin to that of an + adverb,—<i>I fight with bravery</i>=<i>I fight bravely</i>: <i>he + walks a king</i>=<i>he walks regally</i>. The modal (or adverbial) + construction (or government) sometimes takes the appearance of the + objective: inasmuch as intransitive verbs are frequently followed by a + substantive; which substantive is in the objective case. Nevertheless, + this is no proof of government. For a verb to be capable of governing an + objective case, it must be a verb signifying an action affecting an + object: and <!-- Page 445 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page445"></a>{445}</span>if there be no such object, there is no + room for any objective government. <i>To break the sleep of the + righteous</i>, is to <i>affect, by breaking, the sleep of the + righteous</i>: but, <i>to sleep the sleep of the righteous</i>, is not to + <i>affect by sleeping the sleep of the righteous</i>; since the act of + sleeping is an act that affects no object whatever. It is a <i>state</i>. + We may, indeed, give it the appearance of a transitive verb, as we do + when we say, <i>the opiate slept the patient</i>, meaning thereby, + <i>lulled to sleep</i>; but the transitive character is only + apparent.</p> + + <p><i>To sleep the sleep of the righteous</i> is to <i>sleep in agreement + with</i>—or <i>according to</i>—or <i>after the manner + of</i>—<i>the sleep of the righteous</i>, and the construction is + adverbial.</p> + + <p>In the grammars of the classical languages, the following rule is + exceptionable—<i>Quodvis verbum admittit accusativum nominis sibi + cognati</i>. It does so; but it governs the accusative case not + objectively but modally.</p> + + <p><a name="sect559">§ 559</a>. Modal verbs may be divided into a + multiplicity of divisions. Of such, it is not necessary in English to + give more than the following four:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Appositional.</i>—As, <i>she walks a queen</i>: <i>you + consider me safe</i>. The appositional construction is, in reality, a + matter of concord rather than of gender. It will be considered more fully + in the following section.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Traditive.</i>—As, <i>I give the book to you</i>=<i>do + librum tibi</i>. <i>I teach you the lesson</i>=<span title="didaskô se tên didaskalian" class="grk" + >διδάσκω σὲ + τὴν + διδασκάλιαν</span>. + In all traditive expressions there are three ideas; (1.) an agent, (2.) + an object, (3.) a person, or thing, to which the object is made over, or + transferred, by the agent. For this idea the term dative is too + restricted: since in Greek and some other languages, both the name of the + object conveyed, and the name of the person to whom it is conveyed are, + frequently, put in the accusative case.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Instrumental.</i>—As, <i>I fight with a sword</i>=<i>pugno + ense</i>=<i>feohte sweorde</i>,—Anglo-Saxon.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Emphatic.</i>—As, <i>he sleeps the sleep of the + righteous</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect560">§ 560</a>. <i>Verb and nominative case.</i>—No + verb governs a nominative case. The appositional construction + <i>seems</i> to require such a form of government; but the form is only + apparent. <!-- Page 446 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page446"></a>{446}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>It is I.</p> + <p>It is thou.</p> + <p>It is he, &c.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here, although the word <i>is</i> is <i>followed</i> by a nominative + case, it by no means governs one—at least not as a verb.</p> + + <p>It has been stated above that the so-called verb substantive is only a + verb for the purposes of etymology. In syntax, it is only a part of a + verb, <i>i. e.</i>, the copula.</p> + + <p>Now this fact changes the question of the construction in expressions + like <i>it is I</i>, &c., from a point of government to one of + concord. In the previous examples the words <i>it</i>, <i>is</i>, and + <i>I</i>, were, respectively, <i>subject</i>, <i>copula</i>, and + <i>predicate</i>; and, as it is the function of the copula to denote the + agreement between the predicate and the subject, the real point to + investigate is the nature of the concord between these two parts of a + proposition.</p> + + <p>Now the predicate need agree with the subject in case only.</p> + + <p>1. It has no necessary concord in gender—<i>she is a man in + courage</i>—<i>he is a woman in effeminacy</i>—<i>it is a + girl</i>.</p> + + <p>2. It has no necessary concord in number—<i>sin is the wages of + death</i>—<i>it is these that do the mischief</i>.</p> + + <p>3. It has no necessary concord in person—<i>I am he whom you + mean</i>.</p> + + <p>4. It <i>has</i>, however, a necessary concord in case. Nothing but a + nominative case can, by itself, constitute a term of either + kind—subject or predicate. Hence, both terms must be in the + nominative, and, consequently, both in the same case. Expressions like + <i>this is for me</i> are elliptic. The logical expression is <i>this is + a thing for me</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Rule.</i>—The predicate must be of the same case with its + subject.</p> + + <p>Hence—The copula instead of determining<a name="NtA60" + href="#Nt60"><sup>[60]</sup></a> a case expresses a concord.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 447 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page447"></a>{447}</span></p> + + <p><i>Rule 1.</i>—All words connected with a nominative case by the + copula (<i>i.e.</i>, the so-called verb-substantive) must be + nominative.—<i>It is I</i>; <i>I am safe</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 2.</i>—All words in apposition with a word so connected + must be nominative.—It is difficult to illustrate this from the + English language from our want of inflexions. In Latin, however, we say + <i>vocor Johannes</i>=<i>I am called John</i>, not <i>vocor Johannem</i>. + Here the logical equivalent is <i>ego sum vocatus + Johannes</i>—where—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Ego</i>, is nominative because it is the subject.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Vocatus</i> is nominative because it is the predicate agreeing + with the subject.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Johannes</i>, is nominative because it is part of the predicate, + and in apposition with <i>vocatus</i>.</p> + + <p>N.B. Although in precise language <i>Johannes</i> is said to agree + with <i>vocatus</i> rather than to be in apposition with it, the + expression, as it stands, is correct. Apposition is the agreement of + substantives, agreement the apposition of adjectives.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 3.</i>—All verbs which, when resolved into a copula and + participle, have their participle in apposition (or agreeing) with the + noun, are in the same condition as simple copulas—<i>she walks a + queen</i>=<i>she is walking a queen</i>=<i>illa est incedens + regina</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 4.</i>—The construction of a subject and copula preceded + by the conjunction <i>that</i>, is the same in respect to the predicate + by which they are followed as if the sentence were an isolated + proposition.</p> + + <p>This rule determines the propriety of the expression—<i>I + believe that it is he</i> as opposed to the expression <i>I believe that + it is him</i>.</p> + + <p><i>I believe</i>=<i>I am believing</i>, and forms one proposition.</p> + + <p><i>It is he</i>, forms a second.</p> + + <p><i>That</i>, connects the two; but belongs to neither.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 448 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page448"></a>{448}</span></p> + + <p>Now, as the relation between the subject and predicate of a + proposition cannot be affected by a word which does not belong to it, the + construction is the same as if the propositions were wholly separate.</p> + + <p>N.B. The question (in cases where the conjunction <i>that</i> is not + used), as to the greater propriety of the two expressions—<i>I + believe it to be him</i>—<i>I believe it to be he</i>—has yet + to be considered.</p> + + <p><a name="sect561">§ 561</a>. <i>The verb and genitive + case.</i>—No verb in the present English governs a genitive case. + In Anglo-Saxon certain verbs did: <i>e.g.</i>, <i>verbs of ruling</i> and + others—<i>weolde thises middangeardes</i>=<i>he ruled</i> + (<i>wealded</i>) <i>this earth's</i>. Genitive cases, too, governed by a + verb are common both in Latin and Greek. <i>To eat of the fruit of the + tree</i> is no genitive construction, however much it may be equivalent + to one. <i>Fruit</i> is in the objective case, and is governed not by the + verb but by the preposition <i>of</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect562">§ 562</a>. <i>The verb and accusative.</i>—All + transitive verbs govern an accusative case,—<i>he strikes me</i>, + <i>thee</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>it</i>, <i>us</i>, <i>you</i>, + <i>them</i>.</p> + + <p><i>The verb and dative case.</i>—The word <i>give</i>, and a few + others, govern a dative case. Phrases like <i>give it him</i>, <i>whom + shall I give it</i>, are perfectly correct, and have been explained + above. The prepositional construction <i>give it</i> to + <i>him</i>,—<i>to whom shall I give it?</i> is unnecessary. The + evidence of this is the same as in the construction of the adjective + <i>like</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect563">§ 563</a>. <i>The partitive + construction.</i>—Certain transitive verbs, the action whereof is + extended not to the whole, but only to a part of their object, are + followed by the preposition of and an objective case. <i>To eat of the + fruit of the tree</i>=<i>to eat a part</i> (or <i>some</i>) <i>of the + fruit of the tree</i>: <i>to drink of the water of the well</i>=<i>to + drink a part</i> (or <i>some</i>) <i>of the water of the well</i>. It is + not necessary, here, to suppose the ellipsis of the words <i>part</i> (or + <i>some</i>). The construction is a construction that has grown out of + the partitive power of the genitive case; for which case the preposition + <i>of</i>, followed by the objective, serves as an equivalent.</p> + + <p><a name="sect564">§ 564</a>. It has been already stated that forms + like <i>I believe</i> <!-- Page 449 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page449"></a>{449}</span><i>it to be him</i>, and forms like <i>I + believe it to be he</i>, had not been investigated. Of these, the former + is, logically, correct.</p> + + <p>Here, the word, <i>to be</i>, is, in respect to its power, a noun.</p> + + <p>As such, it is in the accusative case after the verb + <i>believe</i>.</p> + + <p>With this accusative infinitive, <i>it</i> agrees, as being part of + the same complex idea. And <i>him</i> does the same.</p> + + <p>In English we have two methods of expressing one idea; the method in + question, and the method by means of the conjunction, <i>that</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. <i>I believe it to be him.</i></p> + <p>2. <i>I believe that it is he.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the first example, <i>it</i> is the object; and <i>it-to-be-him</i> + forms one complex term.</p> + + <p>In the second, <i>he</i> agrees with <i>it</i>; and <i>it</i> is the + subject of a separate, though connected, proposition.</p> + + <p>Of these two forms the Latin language adopts but one, <i>viz.</i>, the + former,—<i>credo eum esse</i>, not <i>credo quod illud est + ille</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect565">§ 565</a>. <i>The expression</i> ob + differentiam.—The classical languages, although having but one of + the two previous forms, are enabled to effect a variation in the + application of it, which, although perhaps illogical, is convenient. When + the speaker means himself, the noun that follows, <i>esse</i>, or <span + title="einai" class="grk">εἶναι</span>, is + nominative,—<span title="phêmi einai despotês" class="grk" + >φημὶ εἶναι + δεσπότης</span>=<i>I say + that I am the master</i>: <i>ait fuisse celerrimus</i>=<i>he says that he + himself was the swiftest</i>—but, <span title="phêmi einai despotên" class="grk" + >φημὶ εἶναι + δεσπότην</span>=<i>I say that + he</i> (some one else) <i>is the master</i>; and <i>ait fuisse + celerrimum</i>=<i>he says that he</i> (some one else) <i>is the + swiftest</i>. This, though not adopted in English, is capable of being + adopted,—<i>He believes it to be he</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, the speaker) + <i>who invented the machine</i>; but, <i>he believes it to be him</i> + (that is, another person) <i>who invented it</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect566">§ 566</a>. When the substantive infinitive, <i>to + be</i>, is preceded by a passive participle, combined with the verb + substantive, the construction is nominative,—<i>it is believed to + be he who spoke</i>, not <i>it is believed to be him</i>.—Here + there are two propositions:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. It is believed.—</p> + <p>2. Who spoke.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 450 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page450"></a>{450}</span></p> + + <p>Now, here, <i>it</i> is the subject, and, as such, nominative. But it + is also the equivalent to <i>to be he</i>, which must be nominative as + well. <i>To be he is believed</i>=<i>esse-ille creditur</i>,—or, + changing the mode of proof,—</p> + + <p>1. <i>It</i> is the subject and nominative.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Believed</i> is part of the predicate; and, consequently, + nominative also.</p> + + <p>3. <i>To be he</i> is a subordinate part of the predicate, in + apposition with <i>believed</i>—<i>est creditum, nempe entitas + ejus</i>. Or, <i>to be he is believed</i>=<i>esse-ille est + creditum</i>.</p> + + <p>As a general expression for the syntax of copulas and appositional + constructions, the current rule, that <i>copulas and appositional verbs + must be followed by the same case by which they are preceded</i>, stands + good.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 451 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page451"></a>{451}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XVIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE PARTICIPLES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect567">§ 567</a>. The present participle, or the participle + in <i>-ing</i>, must be considered in respect to its relations with the + substantive in <i>-ing</i>. <i>Dying-day</i> is, probably, no more a + participle than <i>morning-walk</i>. In respect to the syntax of such + expressions as the forthcoming, I consider that they are <i>either</i> + participles or substantives.</p> + + <p>1. When substantives, they are in regimen, and govern a genitive + case—<i>What is the meaning of the lady's holding up her train?</i> + Here the word <i>holding</i>=<i>the act of holding</i>.—<i>Quid est + significatio elevationis pallæ de parte fœminæ.</i></p> + + <p>2. When participles, they are in apposition or concord, and would, if + inflected, appear in the same case with the substantive, or pronoun, + preceding them—<i>What is the meaning of the lady holding up her + train?</i> Here the word <i>holding</i>=<i>in the act of holding</i>, and + answers to the Latin <i>fœminæ elevantis</i>.—<i>Quid est + significatio fœminæ elevantis pallam?</i></p> + + <p>For the extent to which the view differs from that of Priestley, and + still more with that of Mr. Guest, see <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 25.</p> + + <p><a name="sect568">§ 568</a>. The past participle corresponds not with + the Greek form <span title="tuptomenos" class="grk" + >τυπτόμενος</span>, + but with the form <span title="tetummenos" class="grk" + >τετυμμένος</span>. + <i>I am beaten</i> is essentially a combination, expressive not of + present but of past time, just like the Latin <i>sum verberatus</i>. Its + Greek equivalent is not <span title="eimi tuptomenos" class="grk" + >εἰμὶ + τυπτόμενος</span>=<i>I + am a man in the act of being beaten</i>, but <span title="eimi tetummenos" class="grk" + >εἰμὶ + τετυμμένος</span>=<i>I + am a man who has been beaten</i>. It is past in respect to the action, + though present in respect to the state brought about by the action. This + essentially past element in the so-called present expression, <i>I am + beaten</i>, will be again referred to.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 452 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page452"></a>{452}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XIX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE MOODS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect569">§ 569</a>. The infinitive mood is a noun. The + current rule that <i>when two verbs come together the latter is placed in + the infinitive mood</i> means that one verb can govern another only by + converting it into a noun—<i>I begin to move</i>=<i>I begin the act + of moving</i>. Verbs, <i>as verbs</i>, can only come together in the way + of apposition—<i>I irritate</i>, <i>I beat</i>, <i>I talk at + him</i>, <i>I call him names</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect570">§ 570</a>. The construction, however, of English + infinitives is twofold. (1.) Objective. (2.) Gerundial.</p> + + <p>When one verb is followed by another without the preposition + <i>to</i>, the construction must be considered to have grown out of the + objective case, or from the form in <i>-an</i>.</p> + + <p>This is the case with the following words, and, probably, with + others.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Infinitives without to" title="Infinitives without to"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I may go, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>not</i></td><td class="qspcsingle"> I may <i>to</i> go.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I might go, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I might <i>to</i> go.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I can move, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I can <i>to</i> move.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I could move, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I could <i>to</i> move.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I will speak, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I will <i>to</i> speak.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I would speak,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I would <i>to</i> speak.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I shall wait, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I shall <i>to</i> wait.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I should wait,</td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I should <i>to</i> wait.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Let me go, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Let me <i>to</i> go.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> He let me go, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> He let me <i>to</i> go.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I do speak, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I do <i>to</i> speak.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I did speak, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I did <i>to</i> speak.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I dare go, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I dare <i>to</i> go.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> I durst go, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> —</td><td class="qspcsingle"> I durst <i>to</i> go.</td></tr> +</table> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Thou shalt not <i>see</i> thy brother's ox or his ass <i>fall</i> down + by the way.</p> + + <p>We <i>heard</i> him <i>say</i> I will destroy the temple.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 453 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page453"></a>{453}</span></p> + + <p>I <i>feel</i> the pain <i>abate</i>.</p> + + <p>He <i>bid</i> her <i>alight</i>.</p> + + <p>I would fain <i>have</i> any one <i>name</i> to me that tongue that + any one can speak as he should do by the rules of grammar.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>This, in the present English, is the rarer of the two + constructions.</p> + + <p>When a verb is followed by another, preceded by the preposition + <i>to</i>, the construction must be considered to have grown out of the + so-called gerund, <i>i.e.</i>, the form in <i>-nne</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, the + dative case—<i>I begin to move</i>. This is the case with the great + majority of English verbs.</p> + + <p>The following examples, from the Old English, of the gerundial + construction where we have, at present, the objective, are Mr. + Guest's.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. Eilrid <i>myght nought to stand</i> þam ageyn.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>R. Br.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>2. Whether feith schall <i>mowe to save</i> him?</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Wiclif</span>, <i>James</i> ii.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>3. My woful child what flight <i>maist thou to take</i>?</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Higgins</span>, <i>Lady Sabrine</i>, 4.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>4. Never to retourne no more,</p> + <p>Except he <i>would</i> his life <i>to loose</i> therfore.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Higgins</span>, <i>King Albanaet</i>, 6.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>5. He said he <i>could not to forsake</i> my love.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Higgins</span>, <i>Queen Elstride</i>, 20.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>6. The mayster <i>lette</i> X men and mo</p> + <p><i>To wende</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Octavian</i>, 381.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>7. And though we owe the fall of Troy requite,</p> + <p>Yet <i>let</i> revenge thereof from gods <i>to</i> lighte.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Higgins</span>, <i>King Albanaet</i>, 16.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>8. <i>I durst</i>, my lord, <i>to wager</i> she is honest.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Othello</i>, iv. 2.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>9. Whom, when on ground, she grovelling <i>saw to roll</i>,</p> + <p>She ran in haste, &c.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>F. Q.</i> iv. 7, 32.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 454 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page454"></a>{454}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect571">§ 571</a>. Imperatives have three peculiarities. + (1.) They can only, in English, be used in the second person: (2.) They + take pronouns after, instead of before, them: (3.) They often omit the + pronoun altogether.</p> + + <p><a name="sect572">§ 572</a>. For the syntax of subjunctives, see the + Chapter on Conjunctions.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 455 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page455"></a>{455}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XX.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE TENSES.</p> + + <p><a name="sect573">§ 573</a>. Notwithstanding its name, the present + tense in English, does not express a strictly <i>present</i> action. It + rather expresses an habitual one. <i>He speaks well</i>=<i>he is a good + speaker</i>. If a man means to say that he is in the act of speaking, he + says <i>I am speaking</i>.</p> + + <p>It has also, especially when combined with a subjunctive mood, a + future power—<i>I beat you</i> (=<i>I will beat you</i>) <i>if you + don't leave off</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect574">§ 574</a>. The English præterite is the equivalent, + not to the Greek perfect but the Greek aorist. <i>I beat</i>=<span + title="etupsa" class="grk">ἔτυψα</span> not + <span title="tetupha" class="grk" + >τέτυφα</span>. The true perfect is + expressed, in English, by the auxiliary <i>have</i> + the past + participle.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 456 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page456"></a>{456}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">SYNTAX OF THE PERSONS OF VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect575">§ 575</a>. For the impersonal verbs see Part IV. + Chapter 27.</p> + + <p><a name="sect576">§ 576</a>. <i>The concord of persons.</i>—A + difficulty that occurs frequently in the Latin language is rare in + English. In expressions like <i>ego et ille</i> followed by a verb, there + arises a question as to the person in which that verb should be used. Is + it to be in the first person in order to agree with <i>ego</i>, or in the + <i>third</i> in order to agree with <i>ille</i>? For the sake of laying + down a rule upon these and similar points, the classical grammarians + arrange the persons (as they do the genders) according to their + <i>dignity</i>, making the verb (or adjective if it be a question of + gender) agree with the most <i>worthy</i>. In respect to persons, the + first is more worthy than the second, and the second more worthy than the + third. Hence, the Latins said—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Ego</i> et <i>Balbus sustulimus</i> manus.</p> + <p><i>Tu</i> et <i>Balbus sustulistis</i> manus.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Now, in English, the plural form is the same for all three persons. + Hence we say <i>I and you are friends</i>, <i>you and I are friends</i>, + <i>I and he are friends</i>, &c., so that, for the practice of + language, the question as to the relative dignity of the three persons is + a matter of indifference.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, it <i>may</i> occur even in English. Whenever two or + more pronouns of different persons, and of the <i>singular</i> number, + follow each other <i>disjunctively</i>, the question of concord arises. + <i>I or you</i>,—<i>you or he</i>,—<i>he or I</i>. I believe + that, in these cases, the rule is as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. Whenever the words <i>either</i> or <i>neither</i> precede the <!-- + Page 457 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page457"></a>{457}</span>pronouns, the verb is in the third person. + <i>Either you or I is in the wrong</i>; <i>neither you nor I is in the + wrong</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Whenever the disjunctive is simple (<i>i. e.</i> unaccompanied with + the word <i>either</i> or <i>neither</i>) the verb agrees with the + <i>first</i> of the two pronouns.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>I</i> or <i>he am</i> in the wrong.</p> + <p><i>He</i> or <i>I is</i> in the wrong.</p> + <p><i>Thou</i> or <i>he art</i> in the wrong.</p> + <p><i>He</i> or <i>thou is</i> in the wrong.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The reasons for these rules will appear in the Chapter on + Conjunctions.</p> + + <p>Now, provided that they are correct, it is clear that the English + language knows nothing about the relative degrees of dignity between + these three pronouns; since its habit is to make the verb agree with the + one which is placed first—whatever may be the person. I am strongly + inclined to believe that the same is the case in Latin; in which case (in + the sentence <i>ego et Balbus sustulimus manus</i>) <i>sustulimus</i> + agrees, in person, with <i>ego</i>, not because the first person is the + worthiest, but because it comes first in the proposition. That the + greater supposed worth of the first person may be a reason for putting it + first in the proposition is likely enough.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 458 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page458"></a>{458}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE VOICES OF VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect577">§ 577</a>. In English there is neither a passive nor + a middle voice.</p> + + <p>The following couplet from Dryden's "Mac Flecnoe" exhibits a + construction which requires explanation:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>An ancient fabric, raised to'inform the sight,</p> + <p>There stood of yore, and Barbican <i>it hight</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here the word <i>hight</i>=<i>was called</i>, and seems to present an + instance of the participle being used in a passive sense without the + so-called verb substantive. Yet it does no such thing. The word is no + participle at all; but a simple preterite. Certain verbs are + <i>naturally</i> either passive or active, as one of two allied meanings + may predominate. <i>To be called</i> is passive; so is, <i>to be + beaten</i>. But, <i>to bear as a name</i> is active; so is, <i>to take a + beating</i>. The word, <i>hight</i>, is of the same class of verbs with + the Latin <i>vapulo</i>; and it is the same as the Latin word, + <i>cluo</i>.—<i>Barbican cluit</i>=<i>Barbican + audivit</i>=<i>Barbican it hight</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 459 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page459"></a>{459}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE AUXILIARY VERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect578">§ 578</a>. The auxiliary verbs, in English, play a + most important part in the syntax of the language. They may be classified + upon a variety of principles. The following, however, are all that need + here be applied.</p> + + <p>A. <i>Classification of auxiliaries according to their inflectional or + non-inflectional powers.</i>—Inflectional auxiliaries are those + that may either replace or be replaced by an inflection. Thus—<i>I + am struck</i>=the Latin <i>ferior</i>, and the Greek <span + title="tuptomai" class="grk" + >τύπτομαι</span>. These + auxiliaries are in the same relation to verbs that prepositions are to + nouns. The inflectional auxiliaries are,—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Have</i>; equivalent to an inflection in the way of + tense—<i>I have bitten=mo-mordi</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Shall</i>; ditto. <i>I shall call</i>=<i>voc-abo</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Will</i>; ditto. <i>I will call</i>=<i>voc-abo</i>.</p> + + <p>4. <i>May</i>; equivalent to an inflection in the way of mood. <i>I am + come that I may see</i>=<i>venio ut vid-eam</i>.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Be</i>; equivalent to an inflection in the way of voice. <i>To + be beaten</i>=<i>verberari</i>, <span title="tuptesthai" class="grk" + >τύπτεσθαι</span>.</p> + + <p>6. <i>Am, art, is, are</i>; ditto. Also equivalent to an inflection in + the way of tense. <i>I am moving</i>=<i>move-o</i>.</p> + + <p>7. <i>Was, were</i>; ditto, ditto. <i>I was beaten</i>=<span + title="e-tuphthên" class="grk" + >ἐ-τύφθην</span>. <i>I was + moving</i>=<i>move-bam</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Do</i>, <i>can</i>, <i>must</i>, and <i>let</i>, are + non-inflectional auxiliaries.</p> + + <p>B. <i>Classification of auxiliaries according to their non-auxiliary + significations.</i>—The power of the word <i>have</i> in the + combination of <i>I have a horse</i> is clear enough. It means + possession. The power of the same word in the combination <i>I have + been</i> is not so clear; nevertheless it is a power which has grown out + of the idea of possession. This shows that <!-- Page 460 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page460"></a>{460}</span>the power of a verb as + an auxiliary may be a modification of its original power; <i>i. e.</i>, + of the power it has in non-auxiliary constructions. Sometimes the + difference is very little: the word <i>let</i>, in <i>let us go</i>, has + its natural sense of permission unimpaired. Sometimes it is lost + altogether. <i>Can</i> and <i>may</i> exist only as auxiliaries.</p> + + <p>1. Auxiliary derived from the idea of + possession—<i>have</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Auxiliaries derived from the idea of existence—<i>be</i>, + <i>is</i>, <i>was</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destination, dependent + upon circumstances external to the agent—<i>shall</i>. There are + etymological reasons for believing that <i>shall</i> is no present tense, + but a perfect.</p> + + <p>4. Auxiliary derived from the idea of future destination, dependent + upon the volition of the agent—<i>will</i>. <i>Shall</i> is simply + predictive; <i>will</i> is predictive and promissive as well.</p> + + <p>5. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent upon + circumstances external to the agent—<i>may</i>.</p> + + <p>6. Auxiliary derived from the idea of power, dependent upon + circumstances internal to the agent—<i>can</i>. <i>May</i> is + simply permissive; <i>can</i> is potential. In respect to the idea of + power residing in the agent being the cause which determines a contingent + action, <i>can</i> is in the same relation to <i>may</i> as <i>will</i> + is to <i>shall</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"<i>May</i> et <i>can</i>, cum eorum præteritis imperfectis, + <i>might</i> et <i>could</i>, potentiam innuunt: cum hoc tamen + discrimine: <i>may</i> et <i>might</i> vel de jure vel saltem de rei + possibilitate dicuntur, at <i>can</i> et <i>could</i> de viribus + agentis."—<span class="sc">Wallis</span>, p. 107.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>7. Auxiliary derived from the idea of sufferance—<i>let</i>.</p> + + <p>8. Auxiliary derived from the idea of necessity—<i>must</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"<i>Must</i> necessitatem innuit. Debeo, oportet, necesse est urere, + <i>I must burn</i>. Aliquando sed rarius in præterito dicitur <i>must</i> + (quasi ex <i>must'd</i> seu <i>must't</i> contractum). Sic, si de + præterito dicatur, <i>he must</i> (seu <i>must't</i>) <i>be burnt</i>, + oportebat uri seu necesse habuit ut ureretur."—<span + class="sc">Wallis</span>, 107.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>9. Auxiliary derived from the idea of action—<i>do</i>.</p> + + <p>C. <i>Classification of auxiliary verbs in respect to their mode</i> + <!-- Page 461 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page461"></a>{461}</span><i>of construction.</i>—Auxiliary + verbs combine with others in three ways.</p> + + <p>1. <i>With participles.</i>—<i>a</i>) With the present, or + active, participle—<i>I am speaking</i>: <i>b</i>) With the past, + or passive, participle—<i>I am beaten</i>, <i>I have + beaten</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>With infinitives.</i>—<i>a</i>) With the objective + infinitive—<i>I can speak</i>: <i>b</i>) With the gerundial + infinitive—<i>I have to speak</i>.</p> + + <p>3. <i>With both infinitives and participles.</i>—<i>I shall have + done, I mean to have done.</i></p> + + <p>D. <i>Auxiliary verbs may be classified according to their + effect.</i>—Thus—<i>have</i> makes the combination in which + it appears equivalent to a tense; <i>be</i> to a passive form; <i>may</i> + to a sign of mood, &c.</p> + + <p>This sketch of the different lights under which auxiliary verbs may be + viewed, has been written for the sake of illustrating, rather than + exhausting, the subject.</p> + + <p><a name="sect579">§ 579</a>. The following is an exhibition of some of + the <i>times</i> in which an action may take place, as found in either + the English or other languages, expressed by the use of either an + inflection or a combination.</p> + + <p><i>Time considered in one point only</i>—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Present.</i>—An action taking place at the time of + speaking, and incomplete.—<i>I am beating</i>, <i>I am being + beaten</i>. <i>Not</i> expressed, in English, by the simple present + tense; since <i>I beat</i> means <i>I am in the habit of beating</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Aorist.</i>—An action that took place in past time, or + previous to the time of speaking, and which has no connection with the + time of speaking.—<i>I struck</i>, <i>I was stricken</i>. + Expressed, in English, by the præterite, in Greek by the aorist. The term + aorist, from the Greek <span title="a-oristos" class="grk" + >ἀ-όριστος</span>=<i>undefined</i>, + is a convenient name for this sort of time.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Future.</i>—An action that has neither taken place, nor is + taking place at the time of speaking, but which is stated as one which + <i>will</i> take place.—Expressed, in English, by the combination + of <i>will</i> or <i>shall</i> with an infinitive mood. In Latin and + Greek by an inflection. <i>I shall</i> (or <i>will</i>) <i>speak</i>, + <span title="lek-sô" class="grk" + >λέκ-σω</span>, <i>dica-m</i>. <!-- Page + 462 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page462"></a>{462}</span></p> + + <p>None of these expressions imply more than a single action; in other + words, they have no relation to any second action occurring + simultaneously with them, before them, or after them.—<i>I am + speaking now</i>, <i>I spoke yesterday</i>, <i>I shall speak + to-morrow</i>. Of course, the act of mentioning them is not considered as + an action related to them in the sense here meant.</p> + + <p>By considering past, present, or future actions not only by + themselves, but as related to other past, present, or future actions, we + get fresh varieties of expression. Thus, an act may have been going on, + when some other act, itself an act of past time, interrupted it. Here the + action agrees with a present action, in being incomplete; but it differs + from it in having been rendered incomplete by an action that has past. + This is exactly the case with the—</p> + + <p>4. <i>Imperfect.</i>—<i>I was reading when he entered.</i> Here + we have two acts; the act of <i>reading</i> and the act of + <i>entering</i>. Both are past as regards the time of speaking, but both + are present as regards each other. This is expressed, in English, by the + past tense of the verb substantive and the present participle, <i>I was + speaking</i>; and in Latin and Greek by the imperfect tense, + <i>dicebam</i>, <span title="etupton" class="grk" + >ἔτυπτον</span>.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Perfect.</i>—Action past, but connected with the present + by its effects or consequences.—<i>I </i>have<i> written, and here + is the letter.</i> Expressed in English by the auxiliary verb + <i>have</i>, followed by the <i>participle passive in the accusative case + and neuter gender of the singular number</i>. The Greek expresses this by + the reduplicate perfect: <span title="te-tupha" class="grk" + >τέ-τυφα</span>=<i>I have + beaten.</i></p> + + <p>6. <i>Pluperfect.</i>—Action past, but connected with a second + action, subsequent to it, <i>which is also past</i>.—<i>I + </i>had<i> written when he </i>came<i> in.</i></p> + + <p>7. <i>Future present.</i>—Action future as regards the time of + speaking, present as regards some future time.—<i>I shall </i>be + speaking<i> about this time to-morrow.</i></p> + + <p>8. <i>Future præterite.</i>—Action future as regards the time of + speaking, past as regards some future time.—<i>I shall </i>have + spoken<i> by this time to-morrow.</i> <!-- Page 463 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page463"></a>{463}</span></p> + + <p>These are the chief expressions which are simply determined by the + relations of actions to each other, and to the time of speaking, either + in the English or any other language. But over and above the simple idea + of <i>time</i>, there may be others superadded: thus, the phrase, I do + <i>speak</i> means, not only that <i>I am in the habit of speaking</i>, + but that I also <i>insist</i> upon it being understood that I am so.</p> + + <p>Again, an action that is mentioned as either taking place, or as + having taken place at a given time, may take place again and again. Hence + the idea of <i>habit</i> may arise out of the idea of either present time + or aorist time.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">α</span>. In English, the present form + expresses <i>habit</i>. See p. <a href="#page455">455</a>.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">β</span>. In Greek the aorist expresses + habit.</p> + + <p>Again, one tense, or one combination, may be used for another. <i>I + was speaking when he enters.</i></p> + + <p>The results of these facts may now be noticed:</p> + + <p>1. The <i>emphatic present and præterite.</i>—Expressed by + <i>do</i> (or <i>did</i>), as stated above. A man says <i>I do</i> (or + <i>did</i>) <i>speak</i>, <i>read</i>, &c., when, either directly or + by implication, it is asserted or implied that he does not. As a question + implies doubt, <i>do</i> is used in interrogations.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"<i>Do</i> et <i>did</i> indicant emphatice tempus præsens, et + præteritum imperfectum. <i>Uro</i>, <i>urebam</i>; <i>I burn</i>, <i>I + burned</i>: vel (emphatice) <i>I do burn</i>, <i>I did + burn</i>."—<span class="sc">Wallis</span>, p. 106.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>2. <i>The predictive future.</i>—<i>I shall be there + to-morrow.</i> This means simply that the speaker will be present. It + gives no clue to the circumstances that will determine his being so.</p> + + <p>3. The <i>promissive future.</i>—<i>I will be there + to-morrow.</i>—This means not only that the speaker will be + present, but that he <i>intends</i> being so. For further observations on + <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, see pp. <a href="#page471">471</a>-474.</p> + + <p>4. That the power of the present tense is, in English, not present, + but habitual, has already been twice stated.</p> + + <p><a name="sect580">§ 580</a>. <i>The representative expression of past + and future time.</i>—An action may be past; yet, for the sake of + bringing it more vividly before the hearers, we may make it present. <!-- + Page 464 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page464"></a>{464}</span><i>He + walks (</i>for<i> walked) up to him, and knocks (</i>for<i> knocked) him + down.</i> This denotes a single action; and is by no means the natural + habitual power of the English present. So, in respect to a future, <i>I + beat you if you don't leave off</i>, for <i>I will beat you</i>. This use + of the present tense is sometimes called the <i>historic</i> use of the + present tense. I find it more convenient to call it the representative + use; inasmuch as it is used more after the principles of painting than of + history; the former of which, necessarily, <i>represents</i> things as + present, the latter, more naturally, describes them as <i>past</i>.</p> + + <p>The use of the representative present to express simple actions is + unequivocally correct. To the expression, however, of complex actions it + gives an illogical character,—<i>As I was doing this he enters</i> + (for <i>entered</i>). Nevertheless, such a use of the present is a fact + in language, and we must take it as it occurs.</p> + + <p><a name="sect581">§ 581</a>. The present tense can be used instead of + the future; and that on the principle of representation. Can a future be + used for a present? No.</p> + + <p>The present tense can be used instead of the aorist; and that on the + principle of representation. Can a past tense, or combination, be used + for a present?</p> + + <p>In respect to the perfect tense there is no doubt. The answer is in + the affirmative. For all purposes of syntax a perfect tense, or a + combination equivalent to one, is a present tense. Contrast the + expression, <i>I come that I may see</i>; with the expression, <i>I came + that I might see</i>; <i>i.e.</i>, the present construction with the + aorist. Then, bring in the perfect construction, <i>I have come</i>. It + differs with the aorist, and agrees with the present. <i>I have come that + I may see.</i> The reason for this is clear. There is not only a present + element in all perfects, but for the purposes of syntax, the present + element predominates. Hence expressions like <i>I shall go</i>, need give + us no trouble; even though <i>shall</i> be considered as a perfect tense. + Suppose the root, <i>sk-ll</i> to mean <i>to be destined</i> (or + <i>fated</i>). Provided we consider the effects of the action to be + continued up to the time of speaking, we may say <i>I </i>have been<i> + destined to go</i>, just as well as we can say <i>I </i>am<i> destined to + go</i>. <!-- Page 465 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page465"></a>{465}</span></p> + + <p>The use of the aorist as a present (except so far as both the tenses + agree in their power of expressing <i>habitual</i> actions) is a more + difficult investigation. It bears upon such expressions as <i>I ought to + go</i>, &c., and will be taken up in <span class="correction" + title="Original reads '§ 475'.">p. <a href="#page475">475</a></span>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect582">§ 582</a>. Certain adverbs, <i>i.e.</i>, those of + time, require certain tenses. <i>I am then</i>, <i>I was now</i>, <i>I + was hereafter</i>, &c., are contradictory expressions. They are not + so much bad grammar as impossible nonsense. Nevertheless, we have in + Latin such expressions as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Ut <i>sumus</i> in ponto ter frigore constitit Ister."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here the connection of the present and perfect ideas explains the + apparent contradiction. The present state may be the result of a previous + one; so that a preterite element may be involved in a present expression. + <i>Ut sumus</i>=<i>since I have been where I am</i>.</p> + + <p>It is hardly necessary to remark that such expressions as <i>since I + am here</i> (where <i>since</i>=<i>inasmuch as</i>) do not come under + this class.</p> + + <p><a name="sect583">§ 583</a>. Two fresh varieties in the use of tenses + and auxiliary verbs may be arrived at by considering the following ideas, + which may be superadded to that of simple time.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Continuance in the case of future actions.</i>—A future + action may not only take place, but continue: thus, a man may, on a given + day, not only be called by a particular name, but may <i>keep</i> that + name. When Hesiod says that, notwithstanding certain changes which shall + have taken place, good shall <i>continue</i> to be mixed with bad, he + does not say, <span title="esthla michthêsetai kakoisin" class="grk" + >ἐσθλὰ + μιχθήσεται + κακοῖσιν</span>, but,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="All' empês kai toisi memixetai esthla kakoisin" class="grk">Ἀλλ' ἔμπης καὶ τοῖσι μεμίξεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν</span>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Opera et Dies.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Again,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Epeith' ho politês entetheis en katalogôi" class="grk">Ἔπειθ' ὁ πολίτης ἐντεθεὶς ἐν καταλόγῳ</span></p> + <p><span title="Oudeis kata spoudas metengraphêsetai" class="grk">Οὐδεὶς κατὰ σπουδὰς μετεγγραφήσεται</span>,</p> + <p><span title="All' hosper ên to prôtun engegrapsetai" class="grk">Ἀλλ' ὅσπερ ἦν τὸ πρῶτυν ἐγγεγράψεται</span>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Aristoph.</span> <i>Equites</i>, 1366.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 466 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page466"></a>{466}</span></p> + + <p>Here <span title="metengraphêsetai" class="grk" + >μετεγγραφήσεται</span> + means <i>change from one class to another</i>, <span + title="êngegrapsetai" class="grk" + >ἠγγεγράψεται</span> + <i>continuance in the same</i>.—See Mathiæ, ii. § 498.</p> + + <p>Upon the lines,—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Hothen pros andrôn husterôn keklêsetai" class="grk">Ὅθεν πρὸς ἀνδρῶν ὑστέρων κεκλήσεται</span></p> + <p><span title="Doureios hippos" class="grk">Δούρειος ἵππος</span>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Troades</i>, 13, 14.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Seidler remarks that <span title="klêthêsetai" class="grk" + >κληθήσεται</span>, + est <i>nomen accipiet</i>; <span title="keklêsetai" class="grk" + >κεκλήσεται</span>, + <i>nomen geret</i>.</p> + + <p>Now it is quite true that this Greek tense, the so-called + <i>paulo-post-futurum</i>, "bears the same relation to the other futures + as, among the tenses of past time, the perfectum does to the + aorist."—(Mathiæ.) And it is also true that it by no means answers + to the English <i>shall have been</i>. Yet the logical elements of both + are the same. In the English expression, the <i>past</i> power of the + perfect predominates, in the Greek its <i>present</i> power.</p> + + <p>2. <i>Habit in the case of past actions.</i>—<i>I had dined when + I rode out.</i> This may apply to a particular dinner, followed by a + particular ride. But it may also mean that when the speaker <i>had dined, + according to habit, he rode out, according to habit also</i>. This gives + us a variety of pluperfect; which is, in the French language, represented + by separate combination—<i>j'avais diné</i>, <i>j'eus diné</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect584">§ 584</a>. It is necessary to remember that the + connection between the present and the past time, which is involved in + the idea of a perfect tense (<span title="tetupha" class="grk" + >τέτυφα</span>), or perfect combination + (<i>I have beaten</i>), is of several sorts.</p> + + <p>It may consist in the <i>present proof</i> of the <i>past</i> + fact,—<i>I have written, and here is the evidence</i>.</p> + + <p>It may consist in the <i>present effects</i> of the <i>past</i> + fact,—<i>I have written, and here is the answer</i>.</p> + + <p>Without either enumerating or classifying these different kinds of + connexion, it is necessary to indicate two sorts of <i>inference</i> to + which they may give origin.</p> + + <p>1. <i>The inference of continuance.</i>—When a person says, <i>I + have learned my lesson</i>, we presume that he can say it, <i>i. e.</i>, + that, <i>he has a present knowledge of it</i>. Upon this principle <!-- + Page 467 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page467"></a>{467}</span><span + title="kektêmai" class="grk" + >κέκτημαι</span>=<i>I have + earned</i>=<i>I possess</i>. The past action is assumed to be continued + in its effects.</p> + + <p>2. <i>The inference of contrast.</i>—When a person says, <i>I + have been young</i>, we presume that he is so no longer. The action is + past, but it is continued up to the time of speaking by the contrast + which it supplies. Upon this principle, <i>fuit Ilium</i> means <i>Ilium + is no more</i>.</p> + + <p>In speaking, this difference can be expressed by a difference of + accent. <i>I </i>have<i> learned my lesson</i>, implies that <i>I don't + mean to learn it again</i>. <i>I have </i>learned<i> my lesson</i>, + implies that <i>I can say it</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect585">§ 585</a>. The construction of the auxiliary, + <i>may</i>, will be considered in the Chapter on Conjunctions; that of + <i>can</i>, <i>must</i>, and <i>let</i>, offer nothing remarkable. The + combination of the auxiliary, <i>have</i>, with the past participle + requires notice. It is, here, advisable to make the following + classifications.</p> + + <p>1. The combination with the participle of a <i>transitive + verb</i>.—<i>I have ridden the horse</i>; <i>thou hast broken the + sword</i>; <i>he has smitten the enemy</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The combination with the participle of an <i>intransitive</i> + verb,—<i>I have waited</i>; <i>thou hast hungered</i>; <i>he has + slept</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The combination with the participle of the verb + substantive,—<i>I have been</i>; <i>thou hast been</i>; <i>he has + been</i>.</p> + + <p>It is by examples of the first of these three divisions that the true + construction is to be shown.</p> + + <p>For an object of any sort to be in the possession of a person, it must + previously have existed. If I possess a horse, that horse must have had a + previous existence.</p> + + <p>Hence, in all expressions like <i>I have ridden a horse</i>, there are + two ideas, a past idea in the participle, and a present idea in the word + denoting possession.</p> + + <p>For an object of any sort, affected in a particular manner, to be in + the possession of a person, it must previously have been affected in the + manner required. If I possess a horse that has been ridden, the riding + must have taken place before I mention the fact of the ridden horse being + in my possession; inasmuch as I speak of it as a thing already + done,—the participle, <i>ridden</i>, being in the past tense. <!-- + Page 468 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page468"></a>{468}</span></p> + + <p><i>I have ridden a horse</i>=<i>I have a horse ridden</i>=<i>I have a + horse as a ridden horse</i>, or (changing the gender and dealing with the + word <i>horse</i> as a thing)=<i>I have a horse as a ridden + thing</i>.</p> + + <p>In this case the syntax is of the usual sort. (1) + <i>Have</i>=<i>own</i>=<i>habeo</i>=<i>teneo</i>; (2) <i>horse</i> is the + accusative case=<i>equum</i>; (3) <i>ridden</i> is a past participle + agreeing either with <i>horse</i>, or <i>with a word in apposition with + it understood</i>.</p> + + <p>Mark the words in italics. The word <i>ridden</i> does not agree with + <i>horse</i>, since it is of the neuter gender. Neither if we said <i>I + have ridden the horses</i>, would it agree with <i>horses</i>; since it + is of the singular number.</p> + + <p>The true construction is arrived at by supplying the word + <i>thing</i>. <i>I have a horse as a ridden thing</i>=<i>habeo equum + equitatum</i> (neuter). Here the construction is the same as <i>triste + lupus stabulis</i>.</p> + + <p><i>I have horses as a ridden thing</i>=<i>habeo equos equitatam</i> + (singular, neuter). Here the construction is—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"Triste ... maturis frugibus imbres,</p> + <p>Arboribus venti, nobis Amaryllides iræ."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>or in Greek—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Deinon gunaixin hai di' ôdinôn gonai" class="grk">Δεινὸν γυναιξὶν αἱ δι' ὠδίνων γοναί</span>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The classical writers supply instances of this use of <i>have</i>. + <i>Compertum habeo</i>, milites, verba viris virtutem non addere=<i>I + have discovered</i>=<i>I am in possession of the discovery</i>. Quæ cum + ita sint, satis de Cæsare hoc <i>dictum habeo</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The combination of <i>have</i> with an intransitive verb is + irreducible to the idea of possession: indeed, it is illogical. In <i>I + have waited</i>, we cannot make the idea expressed by the word + <i>waited</i> the object of the <i>verb</i> have or <i>possess</i>. The + expression has become a part of language by means of the extension of a + false analogy. It is an instance of an illegitimate imitation.</p> + + <p>3. The combination of <i>have</i> with <i>been</i> is more illogical + still, and is a stronger instance of the influence of an illegitimate + imitation. In German and Italian, where even <i>intransitive</i> verbs + are combined with the equivalents to the English <i>have</i> <!-- Page + 469 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page469"></a>{469}</span>(<i>haben</i> and <i>avere</i>), the verb + substantive is not so combined; on the contrary, the combinations are</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Italian; <i>io sono stato</i>=<i>I am been</i>.</p> + <p>German; <i>ich bin gewesen</i>=<i>ditto</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>which is logical.</p> + + <p><a name="sect586">§ 586</a>. <i>I am to speak.</i>—Three facts + explain this idiom.</p> + + <p>1. The idea of <i>direction towards an object</i> conveyed by the + dative case, and by combinations equivalent to it.</p> + + <p>2. The extent to which the ideas of necessity, obligation, or + intention are connected with the idea of <i>something that has to be + done</i>, or <i>something towards which some action has a + tendency</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The fact that expressions like the one in question historically + represent an original dative case, or its equivalent; since <i>to + speak</i> grows out of the Anglo-Saxon form <i>to sprecanne</i>, which, + although called a gerund, is really a dative case of the infinitive + mood.</p> + + <p>When Johnson (see Mr. Guest, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> No. 44) thought that, + in the phrase <i>he is to blame</i>, the word <i>blame</i> was a noun, if + he meant a noun in the way that <i>culpa</i> is a noun, his view was + wrong. But if he meant a noun in the way that <i>culpare</i>, <i>ad + culpandum</i>, are nouns, it was right.</p> + + <p><a name="sect587">§ 587</a>. <i>I am to blame.</i>—This idiom is + one degree more complex than the previous one; since <i>I am to + blame</i>=<i>I am to be blamed</i>. As early, however, as the Anglo-Saxon + period the gerunds were liable to be used in a passive sense: <i>he is to + lufigenne</i>=not <i>he is to love</i>, but <i>he is to be loved</i>.</p> + + <p>The principle of this confusion may be discovered by considering that + <i>an object to be blamed</i>, is <i>an object for some one to blame</i>, + <i>an object to be loved</i> is <i>an object for some one to + love</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect588">§ 588</a>. <i>Shall</i> and <i>will.</i>—The + simply predictive future verb is <i>shall</i>. Nevertheless, it is only + used in the first person. The second and third persons are expressed by + the promissive verb <i>will</i>.</p> + + <p>The promissive future verb is <i>will</i>. Nevertheless, it is only + used in the first person. The second and third persons are expressed by + the predictive verb <i>shall</i>. <!-- Page 470 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page470"></a>{470}</span></p> + + <p>"In <i>primis</i> personis <i>shall</i> simpliciter prædicentis est; + <i>will</i>, quasi promittentis aut minantis.</p> + + <p>"In secundis et tertiis personis, <i>shall</i> promittentis est aut + minantis: <i>will</i> simpliciter prædicentis.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Predictive future verb" title="Predictive future verb"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> "Uram</td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>I shall burn</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> Ures</td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Thou wilt burn</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> Uret</td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>He will burn</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> Uremus</td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>We shall burn</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> Uretis</td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Ye will burn</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> Urent</td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>They will burn</i>.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>nempe, hoc futurum prædico.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Promissive future verb" title="Promissive future verb"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="border-right:1px solid black; width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> "<i>I will burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> <i>Thou shalt burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> <i>He shall burn.</i></td></tr> +</table></td> +<td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"><table> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> <i>We will burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> <i>Ye shall burn.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="padding-left:0.6em"> <i>They shall burn.</i></td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>nempe, hoc futurum spondeo, vel faxo ut sit."</p> + + <p>Again—"<i>would</i> et <i>should</i> illud indicant quod erat + vel esset futurum: cum hoc tantum discrimine: <i>would</i> voluntatem + innuit, seu agentis propensionem: <i>should</i> simpliciter + futuritionem."—Wallis, p. 107.</p> + + <p><a name="sect589">§ 589</a>. Archdeacon Hare explains this by a + <i>usus ethicus</i>. "In fact, this was one of the artifices to which the + genius of the Greek language had recourse, to avoid speaking + presumptuously of the future: for there is an awful, irrepressible, and + almost instinctive consciousness of the uncertainty of the future, and of + our own powerlessness over it, which, in all cultivated languages, has + silently and imperceptibly modified the modes of expression with regard + to it: and from a double kind of <i>litotes</i>, the one belonging to + human nature generally, the other imposed by good-breeding on the + individual, and urging him to veil the manifestations of his will, we are + induced to frame all sorts of shifts for the sake of speaking with + becoming modesty. Another method, as we know, frequently adopted by the + Greeks was the use of the conditional moods: and as sentiments of this + kind always imply some degree of intellectual refinement, and strengthen + with its increase, this is called an Attic usage. The same name too has + often been given to the above-mentioned middle forms of the future; not + that in either case the practice was peculiar to the Attic dialect, but + that it was more general where the feelings which produced it were <!-- + Page 471 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page471"></a>{471}</span>strong and more distinct. Here again our + own language supplies us with an exact parallel: indeed this is the only + way of accounting for the singular mixture of the two verbs <i>shall</i> + and <i>will</i>, by which, as we have no auxiliary answering to the + German <i>werde</i>, we express the future tense. Our future, or at least + what answers to it, is, <i>I shall</i>, <i>thou wilt</i>, <i>he will</i>. + When speaking in the first person, we speak submissively: when speaking + to or of another, we speak courteously. In our older writers, for + instance in our translation of the Bible, <i>shall</i> is applied to all + three persons: we had not then reacht that stage of politeness which + shrinks from the appearance even of speaking compulsorily of another. On + the other hand the Scotch use <i>will</i> in the first person: that is, + as a nation they have not acquired that particular shade of good-breeding + which shrinks from thrusting itself<a name="NtA61" + href="#Nt61"><sup>[61]</sup></a> forward."</p> + +<p><!-- Page 472 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page472"></a>{472}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect590">§ 590</a>. <i>Notice of the use of </i>will<i> and + </i>shall<i>, by Professor De Morgan.</i>—"The matter to be + explained is the synonymous character of <i>will</i> in the first person + with <i>shall</i> in the second and third; and of <i>shall</i> in the + first person with <i>will</i> in the second and third: <i>shall</i> (1) + and <i>will</i> (2, 3) are called <i>predictive</i>: <i>shall</i> (2, 3) + and <i>will</i> (1) <i>promissive</i>. The suggestion now proposed will + require four distinctive names.</p> + + <p>"Archdeacon Hare's <i>usus ethicus</i> is taken from the brighter side + of human nature:—'When speaking in the first person we speak + submissively; when speaking to or of another, we speak courteously.' This + explains <i>I shall</i>, <i>thou wilt</i>; but I cannot think it explains + <i>I will</i>, <i>thou shalt</i>. It often happens <!-- Page 473 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page473"></a>{473}</span>that <i>you will</i>, + with a persuasive tone, is used courteously for something next to, if not + quite, <i>you shall</i>. The present explanation is taken from the darker + side; and it is to be feared that the <i>à priori</i> probabilities are + in its favour.</p> + + <p>"In introducing the common mode of stating the future tenses, grammar + has proceeded as if she were more than a formal science. She has no more + business to collect together <i>I shall</i>, <i>thou wilt</i>, <i>he + will</i>, than to do the same with <i>I rule</i>, <i>thou art ruled</i>, + <i>he is ruled</i>.</p> + + <p>"It seems to be the natural disposition of man to think of his own + volition in two of the following catagories, and of another man's in the + other two:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Compelling, non-compelling; restrained, non-restrained.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 474 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page474"></a>{474}</span></p> + + <p>"The <i>ego</i>, with reference to the <i>non-ego</i>, is apt, + thinking of himself, to propound the alternative, 'Shall I compel, or + shall I leave him to do as he likes?' so that, thinking of the other, the + alternative is, 'shall he be restrained, or shall he be left to his own + will?' Accordingly, the express introduction of his own will is likely to + have reference to compulsion, in case of opposition: the express + introduction of the will of another, is likely to mean no more than the + gracious permission of the <i>ego</i> to let <i>non-ego</i> do as he + likes. Correlatively, the suppression of reference to his own will, and + the adoption of a simply predictive form on the part of the <i>ego</i>, + is likely to be the mode with which, when the person is changed, he will + associate the idea of another having his own way; while the suppression + of reference to the will of the <i>non-ego</i> is likely to infer + restraint produced by the predominant will of the <i>ego</i>.</p> + + <p>"Occasionally, the will of the <i>non-ego</i> is referred to as under + restraint in modern times. To <i>I will not</i>, the answer is sometimes + <i>you shall</i>, meaning, in spite of the will—sometimes <i>you + will</i>, meaning that the will will be changed by fear or sense of the + inutility of resistance."<a name="NtA62" + href="#Nt62"><sup>[62]</sup></a></p> + + <p><a name="sect591">§ 591</a>. <i>I am beaten.</i>—This is a + present combination, and it is present on the strength of the verb + <i>am</i>, not on the strength of the participle <i>beaten</i>, which is + præterite.</p> + + <p>The following table exhibits the <i>expedients</i> on the part of the + different languages of the Gothic stock, since the loss of the proper + passive form of the Mœso-Gothic.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Passive verb expedients" title="Passive verb expedients"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Language.</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Latin <i>datur</i>. </td><td class="spacsingle"> Latin <i>datus est</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Mœso-Gothic</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> gibada, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ist, vas, varth gibans.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old High German</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> ist, wirdit kepan, </td><td class="spacsingle"> was, warth kepan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Notker</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> wirt keben, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ist keben.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Middle High German</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> wirt geben, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ist geben.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>New High German</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> wird gegeben, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ist gegeben worden.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old Saxon</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> is, wirtheth gebhan,</td><td class="spacsingle"> was, warth gebhan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Middle Dutch</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> es, blîft ghegheven,</td><td class="spacsingle"> waert, blêf ghegeven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>New Dutch</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> wordt gegeven, </td><td class="spacsingle"> es gegeven worden.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old Frisian</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> werth ejeven, </td><td class="spacsingle"> is ejeven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page 475 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page475"></a>{475}</span> + <i>Anglo-Saxon</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> weorded gifen, </td><td class="spacsingle"> is gifen.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>English</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> is given, </td><td class="spacsingle"> has been given.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Old Norse</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> er gefinn, </td><td class="spacsingle"> hefr verit gefinn.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Swedish</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> gifves, </td><td class="spacsingle"> har varit gifven.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Danish</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> bliver, vorder given,</td><td class="spacsingle"> har varet given.</td></tr> +</table> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 19.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect592">§ 592</a>. <i>Ought, would, &c., used as + presents.</i>—These words are not in the predicament of + <i>shall</i>.</p> + + <p>They are <i>present</i> in power, and <i>past</i> in form. So, + perhaps, is <i>shall</i>.</p> + + <p>But they are not, like <i>shall</i>, perfect forms; <i>i. e.</i>, they + have no natural present element in them.</p> + + <p>They are <i>aorist</i> præterites. Nevertheless, they have a present + sense.</p> + + <p>So had their equivalents in Greek: <span title="echrên" class="grk" + >ἐχρῆν</span>=<span title="chrê" class="grk" + >χρὴ</span>, <span title="edei" class="grk" + >ἔδει</span>=<span title="dei" class="grk" + >δεῖ</span>, <span title="prosêken" class="grk" + >προσῆκεν</span>=<span + title="prosêkei" class="grk" + >προσήκει</span>.</p> + + <p>In Latin, too, <i>would</i> was often not represented by either + <i>volo</i> or <i>volebam</i>, but by <i>velim</i>.</p> + + <p>I believe that the <i>usus ethicus</i> is at the bottom of this + construction.</p> + + <p>The assertion of <i>duty</i> or <i>obligation</i> is one of those + assertions which men like to soften in the expression: <i>should</i>, + <i>ought</i>.</p> + + <p>So is the expression of power, as denoted by <i>may</i> or + <i>can</i>—<i>might</i>, <i>could</i>.</p> + + <p>Very often when we say <i>you should</i> (or <i>ought to</i>) <i>do + this</i>, we leave to be added by implication—<i>but you do + not</i>.</p> + + <p>Very often when we say <i>I could</i> (or <i>might</i>) <i>do + this</i>, we leave to be added by implication—<i>but I do not exert + my power</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, if what is left undone be the <i>present</i> element in this + assertion, the duty to do it, or the power of doing it, constitutes a + past element in it; since the power (or duty) is, in relation to the + performance, a cause—insufficient, indeed, but still antecedent. + This hypothesis is suggested rather than asserted.</p> + + <p><a name="sect593">§ 593</a>. By substituting the words <i>I am + bound</i> for <i>I ought</i>, <!-- Page 476 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page476"></a>{476}</span>we may see the expedients to which this + present use of the præterite forces us.</p> + + <p><i>I</i> am bound <i>to do this</i> now = <i>I</i> owe <i>to do + this</i> now. However, we do not say <i>owe</i>, but <i>ought</i>.</p> + + <p>Hence, when we wish to say <i>I</i> was bound <i>to do this</i> two + years ago, we cannot say <i>I ought</i> (<i>owed</i>) <i>to do this</i>, + &c., since <i>ought</i> is already used in a present sense.</p> + + <p>We therefore say, instead, <i>I</i> ought to have done <i>this</i> two + years ago; which has a similar, but by no means an identical meaning.</p> + + <p><i>I was bound to pay two years ago, </i>means<i> two years ago I was + under an obligation to make a payment, either then or at some future + time.</i></p> + + <p><i>I was bound to have paid, </i>&c., means<i> I was under an + obligation to have made a payment.</i></p> + + <p>If we use the word <i>ought</i>, this difference cannot be + expressed.</p> + + <p>Common people sometimes say, <i>you had not ought to do so and so</i>; + and they have a reason for saying it.</p> + + <p>The Latin language is more logical. It says not <i>debet factum + fuisse</i>, but <i>debuit fieri</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 477 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page477"></a>{477}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXIV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect594">§ 594</a>. The syntax of the adverb is simpler than + that of any other part of speech, excepting, perhaps, that of the + adjective.</p> + + <p>Adverbs have no concord.</p> + + <p>Neither have they any government. They <i>seem</i>, indeed, to have + it, when they are in the comparative or superlative degree; but it is + merely apparent. In <i>this is better than that</i>, the word <i>that</i> + is governed neither by <i>better</i> nor by <i>than</i>. It is not + governed at all. It is a nominative case; the subject of a separate + proposition. <i>This is better</i> (<i>i. e.</i>, <i>more good</i>) + <i>than that is good</i>. Even if we admit such an expression as <i>he is + stronger than me</i> to be good English, there is no adverbial + government. <i>Than</i>, if it govern <i>me</i> at all, governs it as a + preposition.</p> + + <p>The position of an adverb is, in respect to matters of syntax, + pre-eminently parenthetic; <i>i. e.</i>, it may be omitted without + injuring the construction. <i>He is fighting—now</i>; <i>he was + fighting—then</i>; <i>he fights—bravely</i>; <i>I + am—almost—tired</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="sect595">§ 595</a>. By referring to the Chapter on the + Adverbs, we shall find that the neuter adjective is frequently converted + into an adverb by deflection. As any neuter adjective may be so + deflected, we may justify such expressions as <i>full</i> (for + <i>fully</i>) <i>as conspicuous</i>, and <i>peculiar</i> (for + <i>peculiarly</i>) <i>bad grace</i>, &c. We are not, however, bound + to imitate everything that we can justify.</p> + + <p><a name="sect596">§ 596</a>. The termination <i>-ly</i> was originally + adjectival. At present it is a derivational syllable by which we can + convert an adjective into an adverb: <i>brave</i>, <i>brave-ly</i>. <!-- + Page 478 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page478"></a>{478}</span>When, + however, the adjective ends in <i>-ly</i> already, the formation is + awkward. <i>I eat my daily bread</i> is unexceptionable English; <i>I eat + my bread daily</i> is exceptionable. One of two things must here take + place: the two syllables <i>-ly</i> are packed into one (the full + expression being <i>dai-li-ly</i>), or else the construction is that of a + neuter adjective deflected.</p> + + <p>Adverbs are convertible. <i>The then men</i>=<span title="hoi nun brotoi" class="grk" + >οἱ νῦν + βρότοι</span>, &c. This will be seen + more clearly in the Chapter on Conjunctions.</p> + + <p><a name="sect597">§ 597</a>. It has been remarked that in expressions + like <i>he sleeps the sleep of the righteous</i>, the construction is + adverbial. So it is in expressions like <i>he walked a mile</i>, <i>it + weighs a pound</i>. The ideas expressed by <i>mile</i> and <i>pound</i> + are not the names of anything that serves as either object or instrument + to the verb. They only denote the <i>manner</i> of the action, and define + the meaning of the verb.</p> + + <p><a name="sect598">§ 598</a>. <i>From whence, from + thence.</i>—This is an expression which, if it have not taken root + in our language, is likely to do so. It is an instance of excess of + expression in the way of syntax; the <i>-ce</i> denoting direction + <i>from</i> a place, and the preposition doing the same. It is not so + important to determine what this construction <i>is</i>, as to suggest + what it is <i>not</i>. It is <i>not</i> an instance of an adverb governed + by a preposition. If the two words be dealt with as logically separate, + <i>whence</i> (or <i>thence</i>) must be a noun=<i>which place</i> (or + <i>that place</i>); just as <i>from then till now</i>=<i>from that time + to this</i>. But if (which is the better view) the two words be dealt + with as one (<i>i. e.</i>, as an improper compound) the preposition + <i>from</i> has lost its natural power, and become the element of an + adverb.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 479 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page479"></a>{479}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON PREPOSITIONS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect599">§ 599</a>. All prepositions govern an oblique case. + If a word cease to do this, it ceases to be a preposition. In the first + of the two following sentences the word <i>up</i> is a preposition, in + the second an adverb.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. <i>I climbed up the tree.</i></p> + <p>2. <i>I climbed up.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>All prepositions in English precede the noun which they govern. <i>I + climbed up the tree</i>, never <i>I climbed the tree up</i>. This is a + matter not of government, but of collocation. It is the case in most + languages; and, from the frequency of its occurrence, the term + <i>pre-position</i> (or <i>prefix</i>) has originated. Nevertheless, it + is by no means a philological necessity. In many languages the + prepositions are <i>post-positive</i>, following their noun.</p> + + <p><a name="sect600">§ 600</a>. No preposition, in the present English, + governs a genitive case. This remark is made, because expressions like + the <i>part of the body</i>=<i>pars corporis</i>,—<i>a piece of the + bread</i>=<i>portio panis</i>, make it appear as if the preposition + <i>of</i> did so. The true expression is, that the preposition <i>of</i> + followed by an objective case, is equivalent, in many instances, to the + genitive case of the classical languages.</p> + + <p><a name="sect601">§ 601</a>. The writer, however, of a paper on + English preterites and genitives, in the Philological Museum (<span + class="scac">II.</span> 261) objects to the current doctrine concerning + such constructions as, <i>this is a picture of the king's</i>. Instead of + considering the sentence elliptic, and equivalent to <i>this is a picture + of</i> or (<i>from</i>) <i>the king's pictures</i>, he entertains the + following view,—"I confess, however, that I feel some doubt whether + this phrase is <!-- Page 480 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page480"></a>{480}</span>indeed to be regarded as elliptical, that + is, whether the phrase in room of which it is said to stand, was ever + actually in use. It has sometimes struck me that this may be a relict of + the old practice of using the genitive after nouns as well as before + them, only with the insertion of the preposition <i>of</i>. One of the + passages quoted above from 'Arnold's Chronicle,' supplies an instance of + a genitive so situated; and one cannot help thinking that it was the + notion that <i>of</i> governed the genitive, that led the old translators + of Virgil to call his poem <i>The Booke of Eneidos</i>, as it is termed + by Phaer, and Gawin Douglas, and in the translation printed by Caxton. + Hence it may be that we put the genitive after the noun in such cases, in + order to express those relations which are most appropriately expressed + by the genitive preceding it. <i>A picture of the king's</i> is something + very different from <i>the king's picture</i>: and so many other + relations are designated by <i>of</i> with the objective noun, that if we + wish to denote possession thereby, it leaves an ambiguity: so, for this + purpose, when we want to subjoin the name of the possessor to the thing + possest, we have recourse to the genitive, by prefixing which we are wont + to express the same idea. At all events as, if we were askt whose castle + Alnwick is, we should answer, <i>The Duke of Northumberland's</i>; so we + should also say, <i>What a grand castle that is of the Duke of + Northumberland's!</i> without at all taking into account whether he had + other castles besides: and our expression would be equally appropriate, + whether he had or not."</p> + + <p>Again, Mr. Guest quotes, amongst other passages, the + following:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Suffice this hill <i>of ours</i>—</p> + <p>They fought two houres <i>of the nightes</i>—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Yet neither class of examples is conclusive.</p> + + <p><i>Ours</i> does not necessarily mean <i>of us</i>. It may also mean + of <i>our hills</i>, <i>i. e.</i>, of <i>the hills of our choice</i>. + <i>Nightes</i> may mean <i>of the night's hours</i>. In the expression, + <i>what a grand castle</i>, &c., it is submitted to the reader that + we <i>do</i> take into our account other castles, which the Duke of + Northumberland <!-- Page 481 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page481"></a>{481}</span>may or may not have. <i>The Booke of + Eneidos</i> is a mistaken Latinism. As it does not seem to have been + sufficiently considered that the real case governed by <i>of</i> (as by + <i>de</i> in Latin) is the ablative, it is the opinion of the present + writer that no instance has yet been produced of <i>of</i> either + governing, or having governed a genitive case.</p> + + <p><a name="sect602">§ 602</a>. It is not so safe to say in the present + English that no preposition governs a dative. The expression <i>give it + him</i> is good English; and it is also equivalent to the Latin <i>da + ei</i>. But we may also say <i>give it to him</i>. Now the German + <i>zu</i>=<i>to</i> governs a dative case, and in Anglo-Saxon, the + preposition <i>to</i>, when prefixed to the infinitive mood, required the + case that followed it to be a dative.</p> + + <p><a name="sect603">§ 603</a>. When the infinitive mood is used as the + subject of a proposition, <i>i.e.</i>, as a nominative case, it is + impossible to allow to the preposition <i>to</i>, by which it is + preceded, any separate existence whatever,—<i>to + rise</i>=<i>rising</i>; <i>to err</i>=<i>error</i>. Here the preposition + must, for the purposes of syntax, be considered as incorporated with the + noun, just like an inseparable inflection. As such it may be preceded by + another preposition. The following example, although a Grecism, + illustrates this:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Yet not to have been dipt in Lethe's lake,</p> + <p>Could save the son of Thetis <i>from to die</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect604">§ 604</a>. Akin to this, but not the same, is the + so-called vulgarism, consisting of the use of the preposition <i>for</i>. + <i>I am ready to go=I am ready for going</i>=the so-called vulgarism, + <i>I am ready</i> for <i>to go</i>. Now, this expression differs from the + last in exhibiting, not only a <i>verbal</i> accumulation of + prepositions, but a <i>logical</i> accumulation as well: inasmuch as + <i>for</i> and <i>to</i> express like ideas.</p> + + <p><a name="sect605">§ 605</a>. Composition converts prepositions into + adverbs. Whether we say <i>upstanding</i> or <i>standing-up</i>, we + express the <i>manner</i> in which an action takes place, and not the + relation between two substantives. The so-called prepositional compounds + in Greek (<span title="anabainô, apothnêskô" class="grk" + >ἀναβαίνω, + ἀποθνήσκω</span>, + &c.) are all adverbial.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 482 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page482"></a>{482}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON CONJUNCTIONS.</p> + + <p><a name="sect606">§ 606</a>. A <span class="scac">CONJUNCTION</span> + is a part of speech which connects <i>propositions</i>,—<i>the day + is bright</i>, is one proposition. <i>The sun shines</i>, is another. + <i>The day is bright</i> because <i>the sun shines</i> is a pair of <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'prepositions'." + >propositions</span> connected by the conjunction, <i>because</i>.</p> + + <p>From this it follows, that whenever there is a conjunction, there are + two subjects, two copulas, and two predicates: <i>i.e.</i>, two + propositions in all their parts.</p> + + <p>But this may be expressed compendiously. <i>The sun shines</i>, <i>and + the moon shines</i>, may be expressed by the <i>sun and moon + shine</i>.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless, however compendious may be the expression, there are + always two propositions wherever there is one conjunction. A part of + speech that merely combines two words is a preposition—<i>the sun + along with the moon shines</i>.</p> + + <p>It is highly important to remember that conjunctions connect + propositions.</p> + + <p>It is also highly important to remember that many double propositions + may be expressed so compendiously as to look like one. When this takes + place, and any question arises as to the construction, they must be + exhibited in their fully expanded form; <i>i.e.</i>, the second subject, + the second predicate, and the second copula must be supplied. This can + always be done from the first proposition,—<i>he likes you better + than me</i>=<i>he likes you better than he likes me</i>. The compendious + expression of the second proposition is the first point of note in the + syntax of conjunctions.</p> + + <p><a name="sect607">§ 607</a>. The second point in the syntax of + conjunctions is the fact of their great convertibility. Most conjunctions + have been developed out of some other part of speech. <!-- Page 483 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page483"></a>{483}</span></p> + + <p>The conjunction of comparison, <i>than</i>, is derived from the adverb + of time, <i>then</i>; which is derived from the accusative singular of + the demonstrative pronoun.</p> + + <p>The conjunction, <i>that</i>, is derived also from a demonstrative + pronoun.</p> + + <p>The conjunction, <i>therefore</i>, is a demonstrative pronoun + a + preposition.</p> + + <p>The conjunction, <i>because</i>, is a substantive governed by a + preposition.</p> + + <p>One and the same word, in one and the same sentence, may be a + conjunction or preposition, as the case may be.</p> + + <p><i>All fled but John.</i>—If this mean <i>all fled</i> except + <i>John</i>, the word <i>but</i> is a preposition, the word <i>John</i> + is an accusative case, and the proposition is single. If, instead of + <i>John</i>, we had a personal pronoun, we should say <i>all fled but</i> + him.</p> + + <p><i>All fled but John.</i>—If this mean <i>all fled, but John did + not fly</i>, the word <i>but</i> is a conjunction, the word <i>John</i> + is a nominative case, and the propositions are two in number. If, instead + of <i>John</i>, we had a personal pronoun, we should say, <i>all fled + but</i> he.</p> + + <p>From the fact of the great convertibility of conjunctions it is often + necessary to determine whether a word be a conjunction or not. <i>If it + be a conjunction, it cannot govern a case. If it govern a case, it is no + conjunction but a preposition.</i> A conjunction cannot govern a case, + for the following reason,—the word that follows it <i>must</i> be + the subject of the second proposition, and, as such, a nominative + case.</p> + + <p><a name="sect608">§ 608</a>. The third point to determine in the + syntax of conjunctions is the certainty or uncertainty in the mind of the + speaker as to the facts expressed by the propositions which they serve to + connect.</p> + + <p>1. Each proposition may contain a certain, definite, absolute + fact—<i>the day is clear</i> because <i>the sun shines</i>. Here, + there is neither doubt nor contingency of either the <i>day being + clear</i>, or of the <i>sun shining</i>.</p> + + <p>2. Of two propositions one may be the condition of the + other—<i>the day will be clear</i> if <i>the sun shine</i>. Here, + although it is certain that <i>if the sun shine the day will be + clear</i>, there is <!-- Page 484 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page484"></a>{484}</span>no certainty of <i>the sun shining</i>. Of + the two propositions one only embodies a certain fact, and that is + certain only conditionally.</p> + + <p>Now an action, wherein there enters any notion of uncertainty, or + indefinitude, and is at the same time connected with another action, is + expressed, not by the indicative mood, but by the subjunctive. <i>If the + sun</i> shine (not <i>shines</i>) <i>the day will be clear</i>.</p> + + <p>Simple uncertainty will not constitute a subjunctive + construction,—<i>I am</i>, perhaps, <i>in the wrong</i>.</p> + + <p>Neither will simple connection,—<i>I am wrong</i> because <i>you + are right</i>.</p> + + <p>But, the two combined constitute the construction in + question,—<i>if I</i> be <i>wrong</i>, <i>you are right</i>.</p> + + <p>Now, a conjunction that connects two certain propositions may be said + to govern an indicative mood.</p> + + <p>And a conjunction that connects an uncertain proposition with a + certain one, may be said to govern a subjunctive mood.</p> + + <p><i>The government of mood is the only form of government of which + conjunctions are capable.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect609">§ 609</a>. Previous to the question of the + government of conjunctions in the way of mood, it is necessary to notice + certain points of agreement between them and the relative pronouns; + inasmuch as, in many cases, the relative pronoun exerts the same + government, in the way of determining the mood of the verb, as the + conjunction.</p> + + <p>Between the relative pronouns and conjunctions in general there is + this point of connection,—both join propositions. Wherever there is + a relative, there is a second proposition. So there is wherever there is + a conjunction.</p> + + <p>Between certain relative pronouns and those particular conjunctions + that govern a subjunctive mood there is also a point of connection. Both + suggest an element of uncertainty or indefinitude. This the relative + pronouns do, through the logical elements common to them and to the + interrogatives: these latter essentially suggesting the idea of doubt. + Wherever the person, or thing, connected with an action, and expressed by + a relative be indefinite, there is room for the use <!-- Page 485 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page485"></a>{485}</span>a subjunctive + mood. Thus—he that troubled you shall bear his judgment, + <i>whosoever</i> he <i>be</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect610">§ 610</a>. By considering the nature of such words + as <i>when</i>, their origin as relatives on the one hand, and their + conjunctional character on the other hand, we are prepared for finding a + relative element in words like <i>till</i>, <i>until</i>, <i>before</i>, + <i>as long as</i>, &c. These can all be expanded into expressions + like <i>until the time when</i>, <i>during the time when</i>, &c. + Hence, in an expression like <i>seek out his wickedness till thou</i> + find (not <i>findest</i>) <i>none</i>, the principle of the construction + is nearly the same as in <i>he that troubled you</i>, &c., or <i>vice + versâ</i>.<a name="NtA63" href="#Nt63"><sup>[63]</sup></a></p> + + <p><a name="sect611">§ 611</a>. In most conditional expressions the + subjunctive mood should follow the conjunction. All the following + expressions are conditional.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. <i>Except</i> I <i>be</i> by Silvia in the night,</p> + <p>There is no music in the nightingale.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Shakspeare.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>2. Let us go and sacrifice to the Lord our God, <i>lest</i> he + <i>fall</i> upon us with pestilence.—<i>Old Testament.</i></p> + +</blockquote> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>3.—— Revenge back on itself recoils.</p> + <p>Let it. I reck not, <i>so</i> it <i>light</i> well aimed.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">J. Milton.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>4. <i>If</i> this <i>be</i> the case.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Although</i> my house <i>be</i> not so with God.—<i>Old + Testament.</i></p> + + <p>6. He shall not eat of the holy thing <i>unless</i> he <i>wash</i> his + flesh with water.—<i>Old Testament.</i></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>Expressions like <i>except</i> and <i>unless</i> are equally + conditional with words like <i>if</i> and <i>provided that</i>, since + they are equivalent to <i>if—not</i>.</p> + + <p>Expressions like <i>though</i> and <i>although</i> are peculiar. They + join propositions, of which the one is a <i>primâ facie</i> reason + against the existence of the other: and this is the conditional element. + In the sentence,<i> if the children be so badly brought up, they are not + to be trusted</i>, the <i>bad bringing-up</i> is the reason <!-- Page 486 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page486"></a>{486}</span>for their + <i>being unfit to be trusted</i>; and, as far as the expression is + concerned, <i>is admitted to be so</i>. The only uncertainty lies in the + question as to the degree of the badness of the education. The inference + from it is unequivocal.</p> + + <p>But if, instead of saying <i>if</i>, we say <i>although</i>, and omit + the word <i>not</i>, so that the sentence run <i>although the children be + so badly brought up they are to be trusted</i>, we do two things: we + indicate the general relation of cause and effect that exists between + <i>bad bringing-up</i> and <i>unfitness for being trusted</i>, but we + also, at the same time, take an exception to it in the particular + instance before us. These remarks have been made for the sake of showing + the extent to which words like <i>though</i>, &c., are + conditional.</p> + + <p>It must be remembered, however, that conjunctions, like the ones + lately quoted, do not govern subjunctive moods because they are + conditional, but because, in the particular condition which they + accompany, there is an element of uncertainty.</p> + + <p><a name="sect612">§ 612</a>. This introduces a fresh question. + Conditional conjunctions are of two sorts:—</p> + + <p>1. Those which express a condition as an actual fact, and one admitted + as such by the speaker.</p> + + <p>2. Those which express a condition as a possible fact, and one which + the speaker either does not admit, or admits only in a qualified + manner.</p> + + <p>Since <i>the children</i> are <i>so badly brought up</i>, + &c.—This is an instance of the first construction. The speaker + admits as an actual fact the <i>bad bringing-up of the children</i>.</p> + + <p>If <i>the children</i> be <i>so badly brought-up</i>, + &c.—This is an instance of the second construction. The speaker + admits as a possible (perhaps, as a probable) fact the <i>bad bringing-up + of the children</i>: but he does not adopt it as an indubitable one.</p> + + <p><a name="sect613">§ 613</a>. Now, if every conjunction had a fixed + unvariable meaning, there would be no difficulty in determining whether a + condition was absolute, and beyond doubt, or possible, and liable to + doubt. But such is not the case.</p> + + <p><i>Although</i> may precede a proposition which is admitted as well as + one which is doubted. <!-- Page 487 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page487"></a>{487}</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>a.</i> Although <i>the children</i> are, &c.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> Although <i>the children</i> be, &c.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><i>If</i>, too, may precede propositions wherein there is no doubt + whatever implied: in other words it may be used instead of + <i>since</i>.</p> + + <p>In some languages this interchange goes farther than in others; in the + Greek, for instance, such is the case with <span title="ei" class="grk" + >εἰ</span>, to a very great extent indeed.</p> + + <p>Hence we must look to the meaning of the sentence in general, rather + than to the particular conjunction used.</p> + + <p>It is a philological fact (probably referable to the <i>usus + ethicus</i>) that <i>if</i> may stand instead of <i>since</i>.</p> + + <p>It is also a philological fact that when it does so it should be + followed by the indicative mood.</p> + + <p>This is written in the way of illustration. What applies to <i>if</i> + applies to other conjunctions as well.</p> + + <p><a name="sect614">§ 614</a>. As a point of practice, the following + method of determining the amount of doubt expressed in a conditional + proposition is useful:—</p> + + <p>Insert, immediately after the conjunction, one of the two following + phrases,—(1.) <i>as is the case</i>; (2.) <i>as may or may not be + the case</i>. By ascertaining which of these two supplements expresses + the meaning of the speaker, we ascertain the mood of the verb which + follows.</p> + + <p>When the first formula is one required, there is no element of doubt, + and the verb should be in the indicative mood. <i>If</i> (<i>as is the + case</i>), <i>he </i>is<i> gone, I must follow him</i>.</p> + + <p>When the second formula is the one required, there <i>is</i> an + element of doubt, and the verb should be in the subjunctive mood. + <i>If</i> (<i>as may or may not be the case</i>) <i>he </i>be<i> gone, I + must follow him</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect615">§ 615</a>. The use of the word <i>that</i> in + expressions like <i>I eat that I may live</i>, &c., is a modification + of the subjunctive construction, that is conveniently called + <i>potential</i>. It denotes that one act is done for the sake of + supplying the <i>power</i> or opportunity for the performance of + another.</p> + + <p>In English the word <i>that</i>, so used, cannot be said to govern a + mood, although generally followed by either <i>may</i> or <i>might</i>. + <!-- Page 488 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page488"></a>{488}</span>It should rather be said to require a + certain combination to follow it. The most important point connected with + the powers of <i>that</i> is the so-called <i>succession of + tenses</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect616">§ 616</a>. <i>The succession of + tenses.</i>—Whenever the conjunction <i>that</i> expresses + intention, and consequently connects two verbs, the second of which takes + place <i>after</i> the first, the verbs in question must be in the same + tense.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>I <i>do</i> this <i>that</i> I <i>may</i> gain by it.</p> + + <p>I <i>did</i> this <i>that</i> I <i>might</i> gain by it.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>In the Greek language this is expressed by a difference of mood; the + subjunctive being the construction equivalent to <i>may</i>, the optative + to <i>might</i>. The Latin idiom coincides with the English.</p> + + <p>A little consideration will show that this rule is absolute. For a man + <i>to be doing</i> one action (in present time) in order that some other + action may <i>follow</i> it (in past time) is to reverse the order of + cause and effect. To do anything in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 1851, + that something may result from it in 1850 is a contradiction; and so it + is to say <i>I </i>do<i> this </i>that<i> I </i>might<i> gain by + it</i>.</p> + + <p>The reasons against the converse construction are nearly, if not + equally cogent. To have done anything at any <i>previous</i> time in + order that a <i>present</i> effect may follow, is, <i>ipso facto</i>, to + convert a past act into a present one, or, to speak in the language of + the grammarian, to convert an aorist into a perfect. To say <i>I + </i>did<i> this</i> that <i>I may gain by it</i>, is to make, by the very + effect of the expression, either <i>may</i> equivalent to <i>might</i>, + or <i>did</i> equivalent to <i>have done</i>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>I </i>did<i> this</i> that <i>I </i>might<i> gain</i>.</p> + + <p><i>I </i>have done<i> this</i> that <i>I </i>may<i> gain</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>A clear perception of the logical necessity of the law of the + succession of tenses, is necessary for understanding the nature of + several anomalous passages in the classical writers. In the following, an + aorist is followed not by an optative, but by a subjunctive.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Ouk agathon polukoiraniê; heis koiranos estô," class="grk">Οὐκ ἀγαθὸν πολυκοιρανίη· ἑῖς κοίρανος ἔστω,</span></p> + <p><span title="Heis basileus, hôi edôke Kronou pais ankulomêteô" class="grk">Ἑῖς βασιλεὺς, ᾧ ἔδωκε Κρόνου παῖς ἀγκυλομήτεω</span></p> + <p><span title="Skêptron t' êde themistas, hina sphisin embasileuêi." class="grk">Σκῆπτρόν τ' ἠδὲ θέμιστας, ἵνα σφίσιν ἐμβασιλεύῃ.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 489 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page489"></a>{489}</span></p> + + <p>Here it is necessary to construe <span title="edôke" class="grk" + >ἔδωκε</span>, <i>has given and + continues to allow</i>, which is to construe it like a <i>perfect</i><a + name="NtA64" href="#Nt64"><sup>[64]</sup></a> tense. Upon similar + passages Mathiæ writes, "but frequently the conjunctive is used, although + the preceding word be in the time past, viz., when the verb which depends + upon the conjunction shows an action continued to the present time." That + means when the verb is really a perfect.</p> + + <p>In Latin, where the same form is both aorist and perfect, the + succession of tenses is a means of determining which of the two meanings + it conveys. <i>Veni ut videam</i>=<i>I have come that I may see.</i> + <i>Veni ut viderem</i>=<i>I came that I might see</i>.</p> + + <p>Arnold states, from Krüger and Zumpt, that even where the præterite + was clearly a perfect (<i>i. e.</i>, =<i>to have</i> with the + participle), the Roman ear was so accustomed to the <i>imperfect</i> + subjunctive, that it preferred such an expression <i>as diu dubitavi num + melius esset to diu dubitavi num melius sit</i>. The latter part of the + statement is sure enough; but it is by no means so sure that + <i>dubitavi</i>, and similar forms in similar constructions are perfects. + There is no reason for considering this to be the case in the present + instance. It seems to be so, because it is connected with <i>diu</i>; but + an action may last a long time, and yet not last up to the time of + speaking. <i>Diu dubitavi</i> probably expresses, <i>I doubted a long + time</i>, and leaves it to be inferred that <i>now I do not + doubt</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect617">§ 617</a>. It has been stated above that whilst the + Latin and English have a succession of <i>tenses</i>, the Greek language + <!-- Page 490 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page490"></a>{490}</span>exhibits what may be called a succession + of <i>moods</i>. This suggests inquiry. Is the difference real? If so, + how is it explained? If not, which of the two grammatical systems is + right?—the English and Latin on the one side, or the Greek on the + other? Should <span title="tuptoimi" class="grk" + >τύπτοιμι</span> be reduced to a + past tense, or <i>verberarem</i> be considered an optative mood.</p> + + <p>The present writer has no hesitation in stating his belief, that all + the phænomena explicable by the assumption of an optative mood are + equally explicable by an expansion of the subjunctive, and a different + distribution of its tenses.</p> + + <p>1. Let <span title="tupsô" class="grk" + >τύψω</span> be considered a subjunctive + <i>future</i> instead of a subjunctive aorist.</p> + + <p>2. Let <span title="tuôtoimi" class="grk" + >τύῶτοιμι</span> be considered + an <i>imperfect subjunctive</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Let <span title="tetuphoimi" class="grk" + >τετύφοιμι</span> be + considered a <i>pluperfect subjunctive</i>.</p> + + <p>4. Let <span title="tupsaimi" class="grk" + >τύψαιμι</span> be considered <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'on'.">an</span> aorist + <i>subjunctive</i>.</p> + + <p>Against this view there are two reasons:</p> + + <p>1. The double forms <span title="tupsaimi" class="grk" + >τύψαιμι</span> and <span + title="tupsoimi" class="grk" + >τύψοιμι</span>, one of which would + remain unplaced.</p> + + <p>2. The use of the optative and conjunctive in simple propositions, + as—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="ô pai, genoio patros eutuchesteros." class="grk">ὦ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυχέστερος.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The first reason I am not prepared to impugn. <i>Valeat quantum</i>, + &c. The second indicates a class of expressions which tense will + <i>not</i> explain, and which mood <i>will</i>. Yet this is not + conclusive. <i>Would that thou wert</i> is thoroughly optative: yet it is + expressed by a tense.</p> + + <p>The <i>form</i> of the so-called optatives proves nothing. Neither the + subjunctive nor the optative has any signs of <i>mood</i> at all, except + the negative one of the absence of the augment. Their signs are the signs + of <i>tense</i>.</p> + + <p>In favour of the view are the following reasons:—</p> + + <p>1. The analogy of other languages. The imperfect has a subjunctive in + Latin. So has the future.</p> + + <p>2. The undoubtedly future character of the so-called aorist + imperative. To give an order to do a thing in <i>past</i> time is a + philological contradiction. Forms like <span title="blepson" class="grk" + >βλέψον</span> <i>must</i> be future. + Though <span title="thes" class="grk">θὲς</span> and + <span title="tithei" class="grk" + >τίθει</span> differ in power, they both + mean an <!-- Page 491 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page491"></a>{491}</span>action subsequent to, or, at any rate, + simultaneous with the order given; certainly not one anterior to it.</p> + + <p><a name="sect618">§ 618</a>. <i>Be</i> may stand for <i>may be</i>. In + this case the preterite is not <i>were</i> but <i>might be</i>. The + sentence, <i>what</i> care <i>I how fair the lady</i> be, <i>if she be + not fair to her admirer</i>? is accurate. Here <i>be</i> = <i>may be</i>. + But, <i>what</i> cared <i>I how fair the lady</i> were, <i>if she were + not fair to her admirer</i>? is inaccurate. It ought to run + thus,—<i>what</i> cared <i>I how fair the lady</i> might be, <i>if + she were not fair to her admirer</i>?<a name="NtA65" + href="#Nt65"><sup>[65]</sup></a></p> + + <p><a name="sect619">§ 619</a>. <i>Disjunctives</i>.—Disjunctives + (<i>or</i>, <i>nor</i>) are of two sorts, real, and nominal.</p> + + <p><i>A king or queen always rules in England.</i> Here the disjunction + is real; <i>king</i> or <i>queen</i> being different names for different + objects. In all <i>real</i> disjunctions the inference is, that if one + out of two (or more) individuals (or classes) do not perform a certain + action, the other does.</p> + + <p><i>A sovereign or supreme ruler always rules in England.</i> Here the + disjunction is nominal; <i>sovereign</i> and <i>supreme governor</i> + being different names for the same object. In all nominal disjunctives + the inference is, that if an agent (or agents) do not perform a certain + action under one name, he does (or they do) it under another.</p> + + <p>Nominal disjunctives are called by Harris, <i>sub</i>disjunctives.</p> + + <p>In the English language there is no separate word to distinguish the + nominal from the real disjunctive. In Latin, <!-- Page 492 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page492"></a>{492}</span><i>vel</i> is + considered by Harris to be disjunctive, <i>sive</i> subdisjunctive. As a + periphrasis the combination <i>in other words</i> is subdisjunctive.</p> + + <p>Both nominal and real disjunctives agree in this,—whatever may + be the number of nouns which they connect, the construction of the verb + is the same as if there were but one—Henry <i>or</i> John, + <i>or</i> Thomas, <i>walks</i> (not <i>walk</i>); the sun, <i>or</i> + solar luminary, <i>shines</i> (not <i>shine</i>). The disjunctive + <i>isolates</i> the subject however much it may be placed in + juxtaposition with other nouns.</p> + + <p><a name="sect620">§ 620</a>. <i>Either, neither.</i>—Many + disjunctives imply an alternative. If it be not this person (or thing) + that performs a certain action (or exists in a certain state) it is some + other. If a person (or thing) do not perform a certain action (or exist + in a certain state), under one name, he (or it) does so under another. + This alternative is expressed by the word <i>either</i>.</p> + + <p>When the word <i>either</i> is connected immediately with the copula + of a proposition, it is, if not a true conjunction, at least <i>a part of + a conjunctional periphrasis</i>.—<i>This either is or is not + so.</i></p> + + <p>When it belongs more to one of the terms of a proposition than to the + copula, it is a pronoun,—<i>Either I or you is in the wrong</i>. + <i>It is either you or I.</i></p> + + <p>I use the words, <i>part of a conjunctional periphrasis</i>, because + the full conjunction is <i>either</i> + <i>or</i> (or <i>neither</i> + + <i>nor</i>); the essential conjunctions being the latter words. To these, + <i>either</i> (or <i>neither</i>) is superadded, indicating the + <i>manner</i> in which the disjunction expressed by <i>or</i> (or + <i>nor</i>) takes place; <i>i. e.</i>, they show that it takes place in + the manner of an alternative. Now, this superadded power is rather + adverbial than conjunctional.</p> + + <p><a name="sect621">§ 621</a>. From the pronominal character of the word + <i>either</i>, when it forms part of a term, and from the power of the + disjunctive, <i>or</i>, in <i>isolating</i> the subject of the verb, + combined with an assumption which will be explained hereafter, we get at + the principle of certain rules for doubtful constructions.</p> + + <p>In expressions like <i>either you or I is in the wrong</i>, we must + <!-- Page 493 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page493"></a>{493}</span>consider <i>either</i> not only as + <i>a</i> pronoun, but as <i>the leading</i> pronoun of the proposition; a + pronoun of which <i>or I</i> is an explanation; and, finally, as the + pronoun which determines the person of the verb. <i>Either you or I is + wrong</i>=<i>one of us</i> (<i>you or I</i>) <i>is wrong</i>.</p> + + <p>Then, as to expressions like <i>I, or you, am in the wrong</i>. Here, + <i>I</i> is the leading pronoun, which determines the person of the + verbs; the words, <i>or you</i>, being parenthetic, and subordinate. + These statements bear upon the rules of p. 457.</p> + + <p><a name="sect622">§ 622</a>. Will this principle justify such + expressions as <i>either they or we is in the wrong</i>?</p> + + <p>Or will it justify such expressions as <i>either he or they is in the + wrong</i>?</p> + + <p>Or will it justify such expressions as <i>I or they am in the + wrong</i>? In all which sentences one pronoun is plural.</p> + + <p>Perhaps not. The assumption that has been just alluded to, as helping + to explain certain doubtful constructions, is the following, <i>viz.</i>, + that in cases of apposition, disjunction, and complex terms, the + <i>first</i> word is the one which determines the character of the + sentence wherein it occurs. This is a practice of the English language, + which, in the opinion of the present writer, nothing but a very decided + preponderance of a difference in person, gender, or number, can overrule. + Such may fairly be considered to be the case in the three examples just + adduced; especially as there is also the secondary influence of the + conjunctional character of the word <i>either</i>. Thus, although we + say,—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>One of two parties, they or we, is in the wrong.</i></p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>We also say,—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Either they or we are in the wrong</i>.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>As for the other two expressions, they are in the same predicament, + with an additional reason for the use of the plural. It <i>contains</i> + the singular. The chief object of the present remarks has been less to + explain details than to give due prominence to the following leading + principles.</p> + + <p>1. That <i>either</i> (or <i>neither</i>) is<a name="NtA66" + href="#Nt66"><sup>[66]</sup></a> essentially singular in number.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 494 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page494"></a>{494}</span></p> + + <p>2. That it is, like any common noun, of the third person.</p> + + <p>3. That it is pronominal where it is in apposition with another + noun.</p> + + <p>4. That when it is the first word of the proposition it determines the + concord of the verb, unless its character of a noun of the singular + number and third person be disguised by the prominence of some plural + form, or some pronoun of the first or second person in the latter part of + the term.</p> + + <p>5. That in a simple disjunctive proposition (<i>i.e.</i>, one where + <i>either</i> does not occur) all nouns are subordinate to the first.</p> + + <p><a name="sect623">§ 623</a>. I believe that the use of <i>either</i> + is limited to <i>real</i> disjunctives; in other words, that we can say + <i>either a king or a queen always reigns in England</i>, but that we + cannot say <i>either a sovereign or a supreme ruler always reigns in + England</i>.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 495 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page495"></a>{495}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE SYNTAX OF THE NEGATIVE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect624">§ 624</a>. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, + the negative precedes it.—<i>Not to advance is to retreat.</i></p> + + <p>When the verb is not in the infinitive mood, the negative follows + it.—<i>He advanced not. I cannot.</i></p> + + <p>This rule is absolute. It only <i>seems</i> to precede the verb in + such expressions as <i>I do not advance</i>, <i>I cannot advance</i>, + <i>I have not advanced</i>, &c. However, the words <i>do</i>, + <i>can</i>, and <i>have</i>, are no infinitives; and it consequently + follows them. The word <i>advance</i> is an infinitive, and it + consequently precedes it. Wallis's rule makes an equivalent statement, + although differently. "Adverbium negandi <i>not</i> (non) verbo + postponitur (nempe auxiliari primo si adsit; aut si non adsit auxiliare, + verbo principali): aliis tamen orationis partibus præfigi + solet."—P. 113.</p> + + <p>That the negative is rarely used, except with an auxiliary, in other + words, that the presence of a negative converts a simple form like <i>it + burneth not</i> into the circumlocution it <i>does not burn</i>, is a + fact in the practice of the English language. The syntax is the same in + either expression.</p> + + <p><a name="sect625">§ 625</a>. What may be called the + <i>distribution</i> of the negative is pretty regular in English. Thus, + when the word <i>not</i> comes between an indicative, imperative, or + subjunctive mood and an infinitive verb, it almost always is taken with + the word which it <i>follows—I can not eat</i> may mean either <i>I + can—not eat</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, <i>I can abstain</i>), or <i>I can + not—eat</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, <i>I am unable to eat</i>); but, as + stated above, it <i>almost</i> always has the latter signification.</p> + + <p>But not <i>always</i>. In Byron's "Deformed Transformed" we find the + following lines:— <!-- Page 496 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page496"></a>{496}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Clay! not dead but soulless,</p> + <p class="i2">Though no mortal man would choose thee,</p> + <p>An immortal no less</p> + <p class="i2">Deigns <i>not to refuse</i> thee.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here <i>not to refuse</i>=<i>to accept</i>; and is probably a Grecism. + <i>To not refuse</i> would, perhaps, be better.</p> + + <p>The next expression is still more foreign to the English + idiom:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>For <i>not</i> to have been dipped in Lethe's lake</p> + <p><i>Could save</i> the son of Thetis from to die.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here <i>not</i> is to be taken with <i>could</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect626">§ 626</a>. In the present English, two negatives + make an affirmative. <i>I have not not seen him</i>=<i>I have seen + him</i>. In Greek this was not the case. <i>Duæ aut plures negativæ apud + Græcos vehementius negant</i> is a well-known rule. The Anglo-Saxon idiom + differed from the English and coincided with the Greek. The French + negative is only apparently double; words like <i>point</i>, <i>pas</i>, + mean not <i>not</i>, but <i>at all</i>. <i>Je ne parle pas</i> = <i>I not + speak at all</i>, not <i>I not speak no</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect627">§ 627</a>. <i>Questions of appeal.</i>—All + questions imply want of information; want of information may then imply + doubt; doubt, perplexity; and perplexity the absence of an alternative. + In this way, what are called, by Mr. Arnold,<a name="NtA67" + href="#Nt67"><sup>[67]</sup></a> <i>questions of appeal</i>, are, + practically speaking, negatives. <i>What should I do?</i> when asked in + extreme perplexity, means that nothing can well be done. In the following + passage we have the presence of a question instead of a + negative:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Or hear'st thou (<i>cluis</i>, Lat.) rather pure ætherial stream,</p> + <p>Whose fountain who (<i>no one</i>) shall tell?</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Paradise Lost.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect628">§ 628</a>. The following extract from the + Philological Museum (vol. ii.) illustrates a curious and minute + distinction, which the author shows to have been current when Wicliffe + wrote, but which was becoming obsolete when Sir Thomas More wrote. It is + an extract from that writer against Tyndall.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 497 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page497"></a>{497}</span></p> + + <p>"I would not here note by the way that Tyndall here translateth + <i>no</i> for <i>nay</i>, for it is but a trifle and mistaking of the + Englishe worde: saving that ye shoulde see that he whych in two so plain + Englishe wordes, and so common as in <i>naye</i> and <i>no</i> can not + tell when he should take the one and when the tother, is not for + translating into Englishe a man very mete. For the use of these two + wordes in aunswering a question is this. <i>No</i> aunswereth the + question framed by the affirmative. As for ensample if a manne should + aske Tindall himselfe: ys an heretike meete to translate Holy Scripture + into Englishe? lo to thys question if he will aunswere trew Englishe, he + must aunswere <i>nay</i> and not <i>no</i>. But and if the question be + asked hym thus lo: is not an heretike mete to translate Holy Scripture + into Englishe? To this question if he will aunswere trewe Englishe, he + must aunswere <i>no</i> and not <i>nay</i>. And a lyke difference is + there betwene these two adverbs <i>ye</i> and <i>yes</i>. For if the + question bee framed unto Tindall by the affirmative in thys fashion. If + an heretique falsely translate the New Testament into Englishe, to make + his false heresyes seem the word of Godde, be his bokes worthy to be + burned? To this questyon asked in thys wyse, yf he will aunswere true + Englishe, he must aunswere <i>ye</i> and not <i>yes</i>. But now if the + question be asked him thus lo; by the negative. If an heretike falsely + translate the Newe Testament into Englishe to make his false heresyes + seme the word of God, be not hys bokes well worthy to be burned? To thys + question in thys fashion framed if he will aunswere trewe Englishe he may + not aunswere <i>ye</i> but he must answere <i>yes</i>, and say yes marry + be they, bothe the translation and the translatour, and al that wyll hold + wyth them."</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 498 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page498"></a>{498}</span></p> + +<h3>CHAPTER XXVIII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect629">§ 629</a>. Broadly speaking, all adverbial + constructions are absolute. The term, however, is conveniently limited to + a particular combination of the noun, verb, and participle. When two + actions are connected with each other either by the fact of their + simultaneous occurrence, or as cause and effect, they may be expressed + within the limits of a single proposition, by expressing the one by means + of a verb, and the other by means of a noun and participle agreeing with + each other. <i>The door being open, the horse was stolen.</i></p> + + <p>Considering the nature of the connection between the two actions, we + find good grounds for expecting <i>à priori</i> that the participle will + be in the instrumental case, when such exists in the language; and when + not, in some case allied to it, <i>i.e.</i>, the ablative or dative.</p> + + <p>In Latin the ablative is the case that is used absolutely. <i>Sole + orto, claruit dies.</i></p> + + <p>In Anglo-Saxon the absolute case was the dative. This is logical.</p> + + <p>In the present English, however, the nominative is the absolute case. + <i>He made the best proverbs, him alone excepted</i>, is an expression of + Tillotson's. We should now write <i>he alone excepted</i>. The present + mode of expression is only to be justified by considering the nominative + form to be a dative one, just as in the expression <i>you are here</i>, + the word <i>you</i>, although an accusative, is considered as a + nominative. A real nominative absolute is as illogical as a real + accusative case governing a verb.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 499 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page499"></a>{499}</span></p> + +<h3>PART VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">ON THE PROSODY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect630">§ 630</a>. Prosody deals with metre; and with + accent, quantity and the articulate sounds, as subordinate to metre. For + these the reader is referred to Part III. Chapters 1. 6. 7.</p> + + <p><i>Metre</i> is a general term for the recurrence, within certain + intervals, of syllables similarly affected.</p> + + <p>Syllables may be similarly affected: 1. in respect to their + quantities; 2. in respect to their accents; 3. in respect to their + articulations.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Pălāi kўnægĕtoūntă kāi mĕtroūmĕnōn.</p> + <p><span title="Palai kunêgetounta kai metroumenon." class="grk">Πᾰλᾱι κῠνη̄γε̆τοῡντᾰ κᾱι με̆τροῡμε̆νο̄ν.</span>—<span class="sc">Soph.</span> <i>Ajax</i>, 3.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here there is the recurrence of similar quantities.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">2.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Lay of the Last Minstrel.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here there is the recurrence of similar accents.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">3.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The way was long, the wind was <i>cold</i>,</p> + <p>The minstrel was infirm and <i>old</i>.—<i>Ditto.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here, besides the recurrence of similar accents, there is a recurrence + of the same articulate sounds; <i>viz.</i> of <i>o</i> + <i>ld</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect631">§ 631</a>. Metres founded upon the periodic + recurrence of similar articulations are of two sorts.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Alliterative metres.</i>—In alliterative metres a certain + <!-- Page 500 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page500"></a>{500}</span>number of words, within a certain period, + must <i>begin</i> with a similar articulation.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>In Caines cynne</p> + <p>þone cwealm gewræc.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Cædmon.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Alliteration is the general character of all the <i>early</i> Gothic + metres. (See Rask's <i>Anglo-Saxon Grammar</i>, Rask, <i>On the Icelandic + Prosody</i>, and Conybeare, <i>On Anglo-Saxon Poetry</i>.)</p> + + <p>2. <i>Assonant metres.</i>—In assonant metres a certain number + of words, within a certain period, must <i>end</i> with a similar + articulation. All <i>rhymes</i> and all approaches to rhyme, form the + assonant metres. The word <i>assonant</i> has a limited as well as a + general sense.</p> + + <p><a name="sect632">§ 632</a>. All metre goes by the name of poetry, + although all poetry is not metrical. The Hebrew poetry (<i>see</i> Lowth, + <i>De Sacra Poesi Hebræorum</i>) is characterized by the recurrence of + similar <i>ideas</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect633">§ 633</a>. The metres of the classical languages + consist <i>essentially</i> in the recurrence of similar quantities; + accent also playing a part. The incompatibility of the classical metres + with the English prosody lies in the fact (stated at p. <a + href="#page166">166</a>), <i>that the classic writer measures quantity by + the length of the syllable taken altogether, while the Englishman + measures it by the length of the vowel alone</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect634">§ 634</a>. The English metres consist essentially of + the recurrence of similar accents; the recurrence of similar + articulations being sometimes (as in all rhyming poetry) superadded.</p> + + <p><a name="sect635">§ 635</a>. In the specimen of alliteration lately + quoted the only articulation that occurred was the letter <i>c</i>. It is + very evident that the <i>two</i>, the <i>three</i>, or the <i>four</i> + first letters, or even the whole syllable, might have coincided. Such is + the case with the following lines from Lord Byron:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Already doubled is the cape, the bay</p> + <p>Receives the <i>prow</i>, that <i>prou</i>dly <i>sp</i>urns the <i>sp</i>ray.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Alliteration, as an ornament, must be distinguished from alliteration + as the essential character of metre. Alliteration, as an ornament, is + liable to many varieties. <!-- Page 501 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page501"></a>{501}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect636">§ 636</a>. <i>Rhyme.</i>—In <i>English</i> + versification, <i>rhyme</i> is, next to accent, the most important + element. The true nature of a rhyme may best be exhibited after the + analysis of a syllable, and the exhibition of certain recurrent + combinations, that look like rhyme without being so.</p> + + <p>Let the syllable <i>told</i> be taken to pieces. For metrical purposes + it consists of three parts or elements: 1, the vowel (<i>o</i>); 2, the + part preceding the vowel (<i>t</i>); 3, the part following the vowel + (<i>ld</i>). The same may be done with the word <i>bold</i>. The two + words can now be compared with each other. The comparison shows that the + vowel is in each the same (<i>o</i>); that the part following the vowel + (<i>ld</i>) is the same; and, finally, that the part preceding the vowel + is <i>different</i> (<i>t</i> and <i>b</i>). This difference between the + part preceding the vowel is essential.</p> + + <p><i>Told</i>, compared with itself (<i>told</i>), is no rhyme, but an + <i>homœoteleuton</i> (<span title="homoios" class="grk" + >ὁμοῖος</span>, + <i>homoios</i>=<i>like</i>, and <span title="teleutê" class="grk" + >τελεύτη</span>, + <i>teleutæ</i>=<i>end</i>) or <i>like-ending</i>. It differs from a rhyme + in having the parts preceding the vowel alike. Absolute identity of + termination is not recognized in English poetry, except so far as it is + mistaken for rhyme.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The soft-flowing outline that steals from the <i>eye</i>,</p> + <p>Who threw o'er the surface? did you or did <i>I</i>?</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Whitehead.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here the difference in spelling simulates a difference in sound, and a + <i>homœoteleuton</i> takes the appearance of a rhyme.</p> + + <p><i>Bold</i> and <i>note</i>.—As compared with each other, these + words have two of the elements of a rhyme: <i>viz.</i> the identity of + the vowel, and the difference of the parts preceding it. They want, + however, the third essential, or the identity of the parts following; + <i>ld</i> being different from <i>t</i>. The coincidence, however, as far + as it goes, constitutes a point in metre. The words in question are + assonances in the limited sense of the term; and because the identity + lies in the <i>vowels</i>, they may be named vowel assonances. Vowel + assonances are recognized in (amongst others) the Spanish and + Scandinavian metrical systems. In English they occur only when they pass + as rhymes. <!-- Page 502 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page502"></a>{502}</span></p> + + <p><i>Bold</i> and <i>mild</i>.—Here also are two of the elements + of a rhyme, viz., the identity of the parts following the vowel + (<i>ld</i>), and the difference of the parts preceding (<i>b</i> and + <i>m</i>). The identity of the vowel (<i>o</i> being different from + <i>i</i>) is, however, wanting. The words in question are assonances in + the limited sense of the term, and consonantal assonances. Recognized in + the Scandinavian, they occur in English only when they pass as + rhymes.</p> + + <p>Rhymes may consist of a single syllable, as <i>told</i>, <i>bold</i>, + of two syllables, as <i>water</i>, <i>daughter</i>; of three, as + <i>cheerily</i>, <i>wearily</i>. Now, the rhyme begins where the + dissimilarity of parts immediately before the main vowel begins. Then + follows the vowel; and, lastly, the parts after the vowel. All the parts + after the vowel must be absolutely identical. Mere similarity is + insufficient.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Then come ere a <i>minute's</i> gone,</p> + <p class="i2">For the long summer day</p> + <p>Puts its wings, swift as <i>linnets'</i> on,</p> + <p class="i2">For flying away.—<span class="sc">Clare.</span><a name="NtA68" href="#Nt68"><sup>[68]</sup></a></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the lines just quoted there is no rhyme, but an assonance. The + identity of the parts after the main syllable is destroyed by the single + sound of <i>g in gone</i>.</p> + + <p>A rhyme, to be perfect, must fall on syllables equally + accented.—To make <i>sky</i> and the last syllable of + merri<i>ly</i> serve as rhymes, is to couple an accented syllable with an + unaccented one.</p> + + <p>A rhyme, to be perfect, must fall upon syllables absolutely + accented.—To make the last syllables of words like fligh<i>ty</i> + and merri<i>ly</i> serve as rhymes, is to couple together two unaccented + syllables.</p> + + <p>Hence there may be (as in the case of blank verse) accent without + rhyme; but there cannot be rhyme without accent.</p> + + <p>A rhyme consists in the combination of like and unlike + <i>sounds</i>.—Words like <i>I</i> and <i>eye</i> + (<i>homœoteleuta</i>), <i>ease</i> and <i>cease</i> (vowel + assonances), <i>love</i> and <i>grove</i> (consonantal assonances), are + printers' rhymes; or mere combinations of like and unlike letters.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 503 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page503"></a>{503}</span></p> + + <p>A rhyme, moreover, consists in the combination of like and unlike + <i>articulate</i> sounds. <i>Hit</i> and <i>it</i> are not rhymes, but + identical endings; the <i>h</i> being no articulation. To my ear, at + least, the pair of words, <i>hit</i> and <i>it</i>, comes under a + different class from the pair <i>hit</i> (or <i>it</i>) and + <i>pit</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect637">§ 637</a>. A full and perfect rhyme (the term being + stringently defined) consists in <i>the recurrence of one or more final + syllables equally and absolutely accented, wherein the vowel and the part + following the vowel shall be identical, whilst the part preceding the + vowel shall be different. It is also necessary that the part preceding + the vowel be articulate.</i><a name="NtA69" + href="#Nt69"><sup>[69]</sup></a></p> + + <p>The deviations from the above-given rule, so common in the poetry of + all languages, constitute not rhymes, but assonances, &c., that, by + poetic licence, are recognized as equivalents to rhymes.</p> + + <p><a name="sect638">§ 638</a>. <i>Measure.</i>—In lines like the + following, the accent occurs on every second syllable; in other words, + every accented syllable is accompanied by an unaccented one.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This accented syllable and its accompanying unaccented one constitute + a <i>measure</i>. The number of the syllables being two, the measure in + question is dissyllabic.</p> + + <p><a name="sect639">§ 639</a>. In lines like the following the accent + falls on every third syllable, so that the number of syllables to the + measure is three, and the measure is trisyllabic.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>At the clóse of the dáy when the hámlet is stíll.—<span class="sc">Beattie.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The primary division of the English measures is into the dissyllabic + and the trisyllabic.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 504 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page504"></a>{504}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect640">§ 640</a>. <i>Dissyllabic measures.</i>—The + words <i>týrant</i> and <i>presúme</i> are equally dissyllabic measures; + in one, however, the accent falls on the first, in the other on the + second syllable. This leads us to a farther division of the English + measures.</p> + + <p>A measure like <i>presúme</i> (where the accent lies on the second + syllable) may be repeated throughout a whole verse, or a whole series of + verses; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Then fáre thee wéll mine ówn dear lóve;</p> + <p class="i2">The wórld has nów for ús</p> + <p>No gréater gríef, no paín abóve,</p> + <p class="i2">The páin of párting thús.—<span class="sc">Moore.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here the accent falls on the second syllable of the measure.</p> + + <p>A measure like <i>týrant</i> (where the accent lies on the first + syllable) may be repeated throughout a whole verse, or a whole series of + verses; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Héed! O héed, my fátal stóry;</p> + <p class="i2">Í am Hósier's ínjured ghóst;</p> + <p>Cóme to séek for fáme and glóry,</p> + <p class="i2">Fór the glóry Í have lóst.—<span class="sc">Glover.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The number of dissyllabic measures is, of necessity, limited to + two.</p> + + <p><a name="sect641">§ 641</a>. <i>Trisyllabic measures.</i>—The + words <i>mérrily</i>, <i>disáble</i>, <i>cavaliér</i>, are equally + trisyllabic, but not similarly accented. Each constitutes a separate + measure, which may be continued through a whole verse, or a whole series + of verses; as,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">1.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Mérrily, mérrily, sháll I live nów,</p> + <p>Únder the blóssom that hángs on the bóugh.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Tempest.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i16">2.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>But váinly thou wárrest;</p> + <p>For thís is alóne in</p> + <p class="i2">Thy pówer to decláre:</p> + <p>That ín the dim fórest</p> + <p>Thou heárd'st a low moáning,</p> + <p class="i2">And sáw'st a bright lády surpássingly faír.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Christabel.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> +<!-- Page 505 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page505"></a>{505}</span> + <p>There's a beáuty for éver unfádingly bríght;</p> + <p>Like the lóng ruddy lápse of a súmmer-day's níght.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Lalla Rookh.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The number of trisyllabic measures is, of necessity, limited to + three.</p> + + <p><a name="sect642">§ 642</a>. The nature of measures may, as we have + already seen, be determined by the proportion of the accented and + unaccented syllables. It may also be determined by the proportion of the + long and short syllables.—In the one case we measure by the accent, + in the other by the quantity. Measures determined by the quantity are + called <i>feet</i>. The word <i>foot</i> being thus defined, we have no + <i>feet</i> in the English metres; since in English we determine our + measures by accent only.</p> + + <p>The classical grammarians express their feet by symbols; [ˉ] + denoting length, [˘] shortness. Forms like [˘ˉ + ˉ˘ ˉ˘˘ ˘ˉ˘ + ˘˘ˉ] &c., are the symbolical representations of the + classical feet.</p> + + <p>The classical grammarians have names for their feet; <i>e.g.</i>, + <i>iambic</i> is the name of [˘ˉ], <i>trochee</i> of + [ˉ˘], <i>dactyle</i> of [ˉ˘˘], + <i>amphibrachys</i> of [˘ˉ˘], <i>Anapæst</i> of + [˘˘ˉ], &c.</p> + + <p>The English grammarians have no symbols for their feet: since they + have no form for expressing the absence of the accent. Sometimes they + borrow the classical forms [˘] and [ˉ]. These, however, + being originally meant for the expression of <i>quantity</i>, confusion + arises from the use of them.</p> + + <p>Neither have the English grammarians names for their measures. + Sometimes, they borrow the classical terms <i>iambic</i>, <i>trochee</i>, + &c. These, however, being meant for the expression of + <i>quantity</i>, confusion arises from the use of them.</p> + + <p>As symbols for the English measures, I indicate the use of <i>a</i> as + denoting an accented, <i>x</i> an unaccented syllable; or else that of + + as denoting an accented, - an unaccented syllable. Finally, ´ may denote + the accent, ¨ the absence of it.</p> + + <p>As names for the English measures I have nothing to offer. At times it + is convenient to suppose that they have a definite order of arrangement, + and to call words like <i>týrant</i> the <i>first</i> measure, and words + like <i>presúme</i> the second measure. In like manner, <i>mérrily</i> is + measure 3; <i>disáble</i>, 4; and <i>cavaliér</i>, 5. As the number of + measures is (from the necessity of the case) limited, this can be done + conveniently. The classical <!-- Page 506 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page506"></a>{506}</span>names are never used with impunity. Their + adoption invariably engenders confusion. It is very true that, <i>mutatis + mutandis</i> (<i>i. e.</i>, accent being substituted for quantity), words + like <i>týrant</i> and <i>presúme</i> are trochees and iambics; but it is + also true that, with the common nomenclature, the full extent of the + change is rarely appreciated.</p> + + <p>Symbolically expressed, the following forms denote the following + measures:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Measures" title="Measures"> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> 1. + - </td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or ´ ¨</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or <i>a x</i> </td><td class="nspcsingle"> = <i>týrant</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> 2. - + </td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or ¨ ´</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or <i>x a</i> </td><td class="nspcsingle"> = <i>presúme</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> 3. + - -</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or ´ ¨ ¨</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or <i>a x x</i></td><td class="nspcsingle"> = <i>mérrily</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> 4. - + -</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or ¨ ´ ¨</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or <i>x a x</i></td><td class="nspcsingle"> = <i>disáble</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="nspcsingle"> 5. - - +</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or ¨ ¨ ´</td><td class="nspcsingle"> , or <i>x x a </i></td><td class="nspcsingle"> = <i>cavaliér</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>On these measures the following general assertions may be made; + <i>viz.</i></p> + + <p>That the dissyllabic measures are, in English, commoner than the + trisyllabic.</p> + + <p>That, of the dissyllabic measures, the second is commoner than the + first.</p> + + <p>That of the trisyllabic measures, No. 3 is the least common.</p> + + <p>That however much one measure may predominate in a series of verses, + it is rarely unmixed with others. In</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Týrants</i> swim sáfest in a púrple floód—</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Marlowe</span>—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>the measure <i>a x</i> appears in the place of <i>x a</i>. This is but + a single example of a very general fact, and of a subject liable to a + multiplicity of rules.</p> + + <p><a name="sect643">§ 643</a>. Grouped together according to certain + rules, measures constitute lines or verses; and grouped together + according to certain rules, lines constitute couplets, triplets, stanzas, + &c.</p> + + <p>The absence or the presence of rhyme constitutes blank verse, or + rhyming verse.</p> + + <p>The succession, or periodic return, of rhymes constitutes stanzas, or + continuous metre as the case may be.</p> + + <p>The quantity of rhymes in succession constitutes couplets, or + triplets.</p> + + <p>The quantity of <i>accents</i> in a line constitutes the nature of the + verse, taken by itself. <!-- Page 507 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page507"></a>{507}</span></p> + + <p>The succession, or periodic return, of verses of the same length has + the same effect with the succession, or periodic return, of rhymes; + <i>viz.</i>, it constitutes stanzas, or continuous metre, as the case may + be.</p> + + <p>This leads to the nomenclature of the English metres. Of these, none + in any of the trisyllabic measures have recognized and technical names; + neither have any that are referable to the measure <i>a x</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect644">§ 644</a>. Taking, however, those that are named, we + have the following list of terms.</p> + + <p>1. <i>Octosyllabics.</i>—Four measures <i>x a</i>, and (unless + the rhyme be double) eight syllables. Common in Sir W. Scott's + poetry.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The way was long the wind was cold.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Lay of the Last Minstrel.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>2. <i>Heroics.</i>—Five measures <i>x a</i>. This is the common + measure in narrative and didactic poetry.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>To err is human, to forgive divine.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>3. <i>Alexandrines.</i>—Six measures <i>x a</i>. This name is + said to be taken from the early romances on the deeds of Alexander the + Great.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>He lifted up his hand | that back againe did start.—<span class="sc">Spenser.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>4. <i>Service metre.</i>—Seven measures <i>x a</i>. This is the + common metre of the psalm-versions. Thence its name.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>But one request I made to him | that sits the skies above,</p> + <p>That I were freely out of debt | as I were out of love.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Sir John Suckling.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect645">§ 645</a>. Such are the names of certain lines or + verses taken by themselves. Combined or divided they form—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Heroic couplets.</i>—Heroics, in rhyming couplets, + successive.—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg1">'Tis hard to say if greater want of skill</p> + <p>Appear in writing or in judging ill.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Essay on Criticism.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The heroic couplet is called also <i>riding rhyme</i>; it being the + metre wherein Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (told by a party riding to + Canterbury) are chiefly written. <!-- Page 508 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page508"></a>{508}</span></p> + + <p>2. <i>Heroic triplets.</i>—Same as the preceding, except that + three rhymes come in succession.</p> + + <p>3. <i>Blank verse.</i>—Heroics without rhyme.</p> + + <p>4. <i>Elegiacs.</i>—The metre of Gray's Elegy. Heroics in + four-line stanzas with alternate rhymes.</p> + + <p>5. <i>Rhyme royal.</i>—Seven lines of heroics, with the last two + rhymes successive, and the first five recurring at intervals. Sometimes + the last line is an Alexandrine. There are varieties in this metre + according to the intervals of the first five rhymes:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>This Troilus in gift of curtesie</p> + <p class="i2">With hauke on hond, and with a huge rout</p> + <p>Of knights, rode and did her companie</p> + <p class="i2">Passing all the valey far without,</p> + <p class="i2">And ferther would have ridden out of doubt,</p> + <p>Full faine, and wo was him to gone so sone,</p> + <p>And tourne he must, and it was eke to doen.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="sc">Chaucer's</span> <i>Troilus</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>6. <i>Ottava rima.</i>—The metre in Italian for narrative + poetry. Eight lines of heroics; the first six rhyming alternately, the + last two in succession.—Byron's Don Juan in English, Orlando + Furioso, &c., in Italian.</p> + + <p>7. <i>Spenserian stanza.</i>—Eight lines of heroics closed by an + Alexandrine. There are varieties of this metre according to the interval + of the rhymes.</p> + + <p>8. <i>Terza rima.</i>—Taken from the Italian, where it is the + metre of Dante's Divina Commedia. Heroics with <i>three</i> rhymes + recurring at intervals.—Lord Byron's Prophecy of Dante.</p> + + <p>9. <i>Poulterer's measure.</i>—Alexandrines and service measures + alternately. Found in the poetry of Henry the Eighth's time.</p> + + <p>10. <i>Ballad metre.</i>—Stanzas of four lines; the first and + third having four, the second and fourth having three measures each. + Rhymes alternate.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Turn, gentle hermit of the dale,</p> + <p class="i2">And guide thy lonely way,</p> + <p>To where yon taper cheers the vale</p> + <p class="i2">With hospitable ray.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Edwin and Angelina.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 509 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page509"></a>{509}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect646">§ 646</a>. <i>Scansion.</i>—Let the stanza + just quoted be read as two lines, and it will be seen that a couplet of + ballad metre is equivalent to a line of service metre. Such, indeed, was + the origin of the ballad metre. Observe also the pause (marked |) both in + the Alexandrine and the service metres. This indicates a question as to + where lines <i>end</i>; in other words, how can we distinguish one long + line from two short ones.</p> + + <p>It may, perhaps, partake of the nature of a metrical fiction to + consider that (in all rhyming poetry) the length of the verse is + determined by the occurrence of the rhyme. Nevertheless, as the matter + cannot be left to the printer only, and as some definition is requisite, + the one in point is attended by as few inconveniences as any other. It + must not, however, be concealed that lines as short as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>It screamed and growled, | and cracked and howled—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>it treats as <i>two</i>; and that lines as long as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Where Virtue wants and Vice abounds,</p> + <p>And Wealth is but a baited hook—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>it reduces to a single verse.</p> + + <p><a name="sect647">§ 647</a>. In metres of measure <i>a x</i>, the + number of syllables is double the number of accents, unless the final + rhyme be single; in which case the syllables are the fewest.</p> + + <p>In metres of measure <i>x a</i> the number of syllables is double the + number of accents, unless the rhyme be double (or treble); in which case + the syllables are the most numerous.</p> + + <p>Now this view (which may be carried throughout the whole five + measures) of the proportion between the accents and the syllables, taken + with the fact that it is determined by the nature of the final syllable, + indicates a division of our metres into symmetrical (where the number of + the syllables is the multiple of the number of accents), and + unsymmetrical (where it is not so).</p> + + <p>For practical purposes, however, the length of the last measure may be + considered as indifferent, and the terms indicated may be reserved for + the forthcoming class of metres. <!-- Page 510 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page510"></a>{510}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect648">§ 648</a>. Of the metres in question, Coleridge's + Christabel and Byron's Siege of Corinth are the current specimens. In the + latter we have the couplet:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>He sát him dówn at a píllar's báse,</p> + <p>And dréw his hánd athwárt his fáce.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the second of these lines, the accents and the syllables are + symmetrical; which is not the case with the first. Now to every, or any, + accent in the second line an additional unaccented syllable may be added, + and the movement be still preserved. It is the fact of the accents and + syllables (irrespective of the latitude allowed to the final measure) + being here unsymmetrical (or, if symmetrical, only so by accident) that + gives to the metres in question their peculiar character. Added to this, + the change from <i>x x a</i>, to <i>x a x</i>, and <i>a x x</i>, is more + frequent than elsewhere. One point respecting them must be borne in mind; + <i>viz.</i>, that they are essentially trisyllabic metres from which + unaccented syllables are withdrawn, rather than dissyllabic ones wherein + unaccented syllables are inserted.</p> + + <p><a name="sect649">§ 649</a>. Of measures of one, and of measures of + four syllables the occurrence is rare, and perhaps equivocal.</p> + + <p><a name="sect650">§ 650</a>. The majority of English <i>words</i> are + of the form <i>a x</i>; that is, words like <i>týrant</i> are commoner + than words like <i>presúme</i>.</p> + + <p>The majority of English <i>metres</i> are of the form <i>x a</i>; that + is, lines like</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>are commoner than lines like</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Qúeen and húntress cháste and fáir.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The multitude of unaccentuated words like <i>the</i>, <i>from</i>, + &c., taken along with the fact that they <i>precede</i> the words + with which they agree, or which they govern, accounts for the apparent + antagonism between the formulæ of our <i>words</i> and the formulæ of our + <i>metres</i>. The contrast between a Swedish line of the form <i>a + x</i>, and its literal English version (<i>x a</i>), <!-- Page 511 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page511"></a>{511}</span>shows this. In + Swedish, the secondary part of the construction <i>follows</i>, in + English it <i>precedes</i>, the main word:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Swedish.</i> Vár<i>en</i> kómm<i>er</i>; fúgl<i>en</i> qvittr<i>ar</i>; skóv<i>en</i> lófv<i>as</i>;</p> + <p class="i20">sól<i>en</i> lér.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>English.</i> <i>The</i> spríng <i>is</i> cóme; <i>the</i> bírd <i>is</i> blýthe; <i>the</i> wóod <i>is</i> gréen;</p> + <p class="i20"><i>the</i> sún <i>is</i> bríght.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>This is quoted for the sake of showing the bearing of the etymology + and syntax of a language upon its prosody.</p> + + <p><a name="sect651">§ 651</a>. <i>The classical metres as read by + Englishmen.</i>—In p. <a href="#page500">500</a> it is stated that + "the metres of the classical languages consist essentially in the + recurrence of similar quantities; <i>accent playing a part</i>." Now + there are reasons for investigating the facts involved in this statement + more closely than has hitherto been done; since the following + circumstances make some inquiry into the extent of the differences + between the English and the classical systems of metre, an appropriate + element of a work upon the English language.</p> + + <p>1. The classical poets are authors preeminently familiarized to the + educated English reader.</p> + + <p>2. The notions imbibed from a study of the classical prosodies have + been unduly mixed up with those which should have been derived more + especially from the poetry of the Gothic nations.</p> + + <p>3. The attempt to introduce (so-called) Latin and Greek metres into + the Gothic tongues, has been partially successful on the Continent, and + not unattempted in Great Britain.</p> + + <p><a name="sect652">§ 652</a>. The first of these statements requires no + comment.</p> + + <p>The second, viz., "that the notions imbibed, &c." will bear some + illustration; an illustration which verifies the assertion made in p. <a + href="#page505">505</a>, that the English grammarians "sometimes borrow + the classical terms <i>iambic</i>, <i>trochee</i>," &c., and apply + them to their own metres.</p> + + <p>How is this done? In two ways, one of which is wholly incorrect, the + other partially correct, but inconvenient.</p> + + <p>To imagine that we have in English, for the practical purposes of + prosody, syllables <i>long in quantity</i> or <i>short in quantity</i>, + syllables capable of being arranged in groups <!-- Page 512 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page512"></a>{512}</span>constituting feet, and + feet adapted for the construction of hexametres, pentametres, sapphics, + and alcaics, just as the Latins and Greeks had, is wholly incorrect. The + English system of versification is founded, not upon the periodic + recurrence of similar <i>quantities</i>, but upon the periodic recurrence + of similar accents.</p> + + <p>The less incorrect method consists in giving up all ideas of the + existence of <i>quantity</i>, in the proper sense of the word, as an + essential element in English metre; whilst we admit <i>accent</i> as its + equivalent; in which case the presence of an accent is supposed to have + the same import as the lengthening and the absence of one, as the + shortening of a syllable; so that, <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, <i>a</i> is + the equivalent to [ˉ], and <i>x</i> to [˘].</p> + + <p>In this case the metrical notation for—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld—</p> + <p>Mérrily, mérrily, sháll I live nów—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>would be, not—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>x a, x a, x a, x a,</i></p> + <p><i>a x x, a x x, a x x, a</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>respectively, but—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>[˘ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˘ ˉ ˘ ˉ]</p> + <p>[ˉ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˉ]</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Again—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>As they splásh in the blóod of the slíppery streét,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>is not—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>x x a, x x a, x x a, x x a</i>,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>but</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>[˘ ˘ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˉ ˘ ˘ ˉ]</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect653">§ 653</a>. With this view there are a certain number + of classical <i>feet</i>, with their syllables affected in the way of + <i>quantity</i>, to which they are equivalent English <i>measures</i> + with their syllables affected in the way of <i>accent</i>. Thus if the + formula</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Classical and English Measures" title="Classical and English Measures"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">A</span>, [ˉ ˘] </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> be a classical,</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> the formula</td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>a x</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> is an English</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>trochee</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">B</span>, [˘ ˉ] </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>x a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>iambus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">C</span>, [ˉ ˘ ˘] </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>a x x</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>dactyle</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">D</span>, [˘ ˉ ˘] </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>x a x</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>amphibrachys</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">E</span>, [˘ ˘ ˉ] </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> <i>x x a</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:center"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>anapæst</i>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><!-- Page 513 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page513"></a>{513}</span></p> + + <p>And so on in respect to the larger groups of similarly affected + syllables which constitute whole lines and stanzas; verses like</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span class="scac">A.</span> Cóme to séek for fáme and glóry—</p> + <p><span class="scac">B.</span> The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld—</p> + <p><span class="scac">C.</span> Mérrily, mérrily sháll I live nów—</p> + <p><span class="scac">D.</span> But váinly thou wárrest—</p> + <p><span class="scac">E.</span> At the clóse of the dáy when the hámlet is stíll—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>are (<span class="scac">A</span>), trochaic; (<span + class="scac">B</span>), iambic; (<span class="scac">C</span>), dactylic; + (<span class="scac">D</span>), amphibrachych; and (<span + class="scac">E</span>), anapæstic, respectively.</p> + + <p>And so, with the exception of the word <i>amphibrachych</i> (which I + do not remember to have seen) the terms have been used. And so, with the + same exception, systems of versification have been classified.</p> + + <p><a name="sect654">§ 654</a>. <i>Reasons against the classical + nomenclature as applied to English metres.</i>—These lie in the two + following facts:—</p> + + <p>1. Certain English metres have often a very different character from + their supposed classical analogues.</p> + + <p>2. Certain classical <i>feet</i> have no English equivalents.</p> + + <p><a name="sect655">§ 655</a>. <i>Certain English metres have often a + very different metrical character, &c.</i>—Compare such a + so-called English anapæst as—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>As they splásh in the blóod of the slíppery stréet—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>with</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Dekaton men etos tod' epei Priamou." class="grk">Δεκατον μεν ετος τοδ' επει Πριαμου.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>For the latter line to have the same movement as the former, it must + be read thus—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Dekatón men etós to d' epéi Priamóu.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Now we well know that, whatever may be any English scholar's notions + of the Greek accents, this is not the way in which he reads Greek + anapæsts.</p> + + <p>Again the <i>trochaic</i> movement of the <i>iambic</i> senarius is a + point upon which the most exclusive Greek metrists have insisted; urging + the necessity of reading (for example) the first line in the + Hecuba—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Hǽko nékron keuthmóna kai skótou pýlas.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 514 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page514"></a>{514}</span></p> + + <p>rather than—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Hækó nekrón keuthmóna kai skotóu pylás.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect656">§ 656</a>. I have said that <i>certain English + metres have often a very different metrical character</i>, &c. I can + strengthen the reasons against the use of classical terms in English + prosody, by enlarging upon the word <i>often</i>. The frequency of the + occurrence of a difference of character between classical and English + metres similarly named is not a matter of <i>accident</i>, but is, in + many cases, a necessity arising out of the structure of the English + language as compared with that of the Greek and Latin—especially + the Greek.</p> + + <p>With the exception of the so-called second futures, there is no word + in Greek whereof the <i>last</i> syllable is accented. Hence, no English + line ending with an accented syllable can have a Greek equivalent. Accent + for accent—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Greek, Latin and English equivalents" title="Greek, Latin and English equivalents"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">GREEK.</span> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">LATIN.</span> </td><td class="qspcsingle"></td><td class="qspcsingle"> <span class="scac">ENGLISH.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Týpto</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Vóco</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Týrant</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Týptomen</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Scríbere</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Mérrily</i>,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Keuthmóna</i>, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Vidístis</i> </td><td class="qspcsingle"> =</td><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>Disáble</i>,</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>but no Greek word (with the exception of the so-called second futures + like <span title="nemô" class="grk" + >νεμῶ</span>=<i>nemô</i>) and (probably) no Latin + word at all, is accented like <i>presúme</i> and <i>cavalíer</i>.</p> + + <p>From this it follows that although the first three measures of such + so-called English anapæsts as—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>As they splásh in the blóod of the slíppery stréet,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>may be represented by Greek equivalents (<i>i. e.</i>, equivalents in + the way of accent)—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ep' omóisi feroúsi ta kleína—</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>a parallel to the last measure (<i>-ery stréet</i>) can only be got at + by one of two methods; <i>i. e.</i>, by making the verse end in a + so-called second future, or else in a vowel preceded by an accented + syllable, and cut off—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ep' omóisi feróusi ta kleína nemó—</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 515 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page515"></a>{515}</span></p> + + <p>or,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ep' omóisi feróusi ta kleína prosóp'.<a name="NtA70" href="#Nt70"><sup>[70]</sup></a></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Now it is clear that when, over and above the fact of certain Greek + metres having a different movement from their supposed English + equivalents, there is the additional circumstance of such an + incompatibility being less an accident than a necessary effect of + difference of character in the two languages, the use of terms suggestive + of a closer likeness than either does or ever can exist is to be + condemned; and this is the case with the words, <i>dactylic</i>, + <i>trochaic</i>, <i>iambic</i>, <i>anapæstic</i>, as applied to English + versification.</p> + + <p><a name="sect657">§ 657</a>. <i>Certain classical feet have no English + equivalents.</i>—Whoever has considered the principles of English + prosody, must have realized the important fact that, <i>ex vi termini, no + English measure can have either more or less than </i>one<i> accented + syllable</i>.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, the classical metrists have several measures in + both predicaments. Thus to go no farther than the trisyllabic feet, we + have the pyrrhic ([˘ ˘]) and tribrach ([˘ ˘ + ˘]) without a long syllable at all, and the spondee ([ˉ + ˉ]), amphimacer ([ˉ ˘ ˉ]), and molossus ([ˉ + ˉ ˉ]) with more than one long syllable. It follows, then that + (even <i>mutatis mutandis</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, with the accent considered as + the equivalent to the long syllable) English pyrrhics, English tribrachs, + English amphimacers, English spondees, and English molossi are, each and + all, prosodial impossibilities.</p> + + <p>It is submitted to the reader that the latter reason (based wholly + upon the limitations that arise out of the structure of language) + strengthens the objections of the previous section.</p> + + <p><a name="sect658">§ 658</a>. <i>The classical metres metrical even to + English readers.</i> The attention of the reader is directed to the + difficulty involved in the following (apparently or partially) + contradictory facts.</p> + + <p>1. Accent and quantity differ; and the metrical systems founded upon + them differ also.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 516 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page516"></a>{516}</span></p> + + <p>2. The classical systems are founded upon quantity.</p> + + <p>3. The English upon accent.</p> + + <p>4. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the difference of the principle upon + which they are constructed, the classical metres, even as read by + Englishmen, and read <i>accentually</i>, are metrical to English + ears.</p> + + <p><a name="sect659">§ 659</a>. Preliminary to the investigation of the + problem in question it is necessary to remark—</p> + + <p>1. That, the correctness or incorrectness of the English pronunciation + of the dead languages has nothing to do with the matter. Whether we read + Homer exactly, as Homer would read his own immortal poems, or whether we + read them in such a way as would be unintelligible to Homer reappearing + upon earth, is perfectly indifferent.</p> + + <p>2. That whether, as was indicated by the author of <span title="Metron ariston" class="grk" + >Μέτρον + ἄριστον</span>, we pronounce the + anapæst <i>pătŭlæ</i>, precisely as we pronounce the dactyle + <i>Tītўrĕ</i>, or draw a distinction between them is + also indifferent. However much, as is done in some of the schools, we may + say <i>scri-bere</i> rather than <i>scrib-ere</i>, or <i>am-or</i>, + rather than <i>a-mor</i>, under the notion that we are lengthening or + shortening certain syllables, one unsurmountable dilemma still remains, + viz., that the shorter we pronounce the vowel, the more we suggest the + notion of the consonant which follows it being doubled; whilst double + consonants <i>lengthen</i> the vowel which precedes them. Hence, whilst + it is certain that <i>patulæ</i> and <i>Tityre</i> may be pronounced (and + that without hurting the metre) so as to be both of the same + <i>quantity</i>, it is doubtful what that <i>quantity</i> is. Sound for + sound <i>Tĭtyre</i> may be as short as <i>pătulæ</i>. Sound + for sound <i>pāttulæ</i> may be as long as + <i>Tīttyre</i>.</p> + + <p>Hence, the only assumptions requisite are—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> That Englishmen do <i>not</i> read the classical metres + according to their quantities.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> That, nevertheless, they find metre in them.</p> + + <p><a name="sect660">§ 660</a>. <i>Why are the classical metres metrical + to English readers?</i>—Notwithstanding the extent to which + quantity differs from accent, there is no metre so exclusively founded + upon the former as to be without a certain amount of the <!-- Page 517 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page517"></a>{517}</span>latter; and in + the majority (at least) of the classical (and probably other) metres + <i>there is a sufficient amount of accentual elements to constitute + metre; even independent of the quantitative ones.</i></p> + + <p><a name="sect661">§ 661</a>. <i>Latitude in respect to the periodicity + of the recurrence of similarly accented syllables in + English.</i>—Metre (as stated in p. <a href="#page499">499</a>), + "is the recurrence, within certain intervals, of syllables similarly + affected."</p> + + <p>The particular way in which syllables are <i>affected</i> in English + metre is that of <i>accent</i>.</p> + + <p>The more regular the period at which similar accents recur the more + typical the metre.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless absolute regularity is not requisite.</p> + + <p>This leads to the difference between symmetrical and unsymmetrical + metres.</p> + + <p><a name="sect662">§ 662</a>. <i>Symmetrical metres.</i>—Allowing + for indifference of the number of syllables in the last measure, it is + evident that in all lines where the measures are dissyllabic the + syllables will be a multiple of the accents, <i>i. e.</i>, they will be + twice as numerous. Hence, with three accents there are six syllables; + with four accents, eight syllables, &c.</p> + + <p>Similarly, in all lines where the measures are trisyllabic the + syllables will also be multiples of the accents, <i>i. e.</i>, they will + be thrice as numerous. Hence, with three accents there will be nine + syllables, with four accents, twelve syllables, and with seven accents, + twenty-one syllables.</p> + + <p>Lines of this sort may be called symmetrical.</p> + + <p><a name="sect663">§ 663</a>. <i>Unsymmetrical metres.</i>—Lines, + where the syllables are <i>not</i> a multiple of the accents, may be + called unsymmetrical. Occasional specimens of such lines occur + interspersed amongst others of symmetrical character. Where this occurs + the general character of the versification may be considered as + symmetrical also.</p> + + <p>The case, however, is different where the whole character of the + versification is unsymmetrical, as it is in the greater part of + Coleridge's Christabel, and Byron's Siege of Corinth. <!-- Page 518 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page518"></a>{518}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>In the yéar since Jésus diéd for mén,</p> + <p>Eíghteen húndred yeárs and tén,</p> + <p>Wé were a gállant cómpaný,</p> + <p>Ríding o'er lánd and sáiling o'er séa.</p> + <p>Óh! but wé went mérrilý!</p> + <p>We fórded the ríver, and clómb the high híll,</p> + <p>Néver our steéds for a dáy stood stíll.</p> + <p>Whéther we láy in the cáve or the shéd,</p> + <p>Our sleép fell sóft on the hárdest béd;</p> + <p>Whéther we cóuch'd on our róugh capóte,</p> + <p>Or the róugher plánk of our glíding bóat;</p> + <p>Or strétch'd on the beách or our sáddles spréad</p> + <p>As a píllow beneáth the résting héad,</p> + <p>Frésh we wóke upón the mórrow.</p> + <p>Áll our thóughts and wórds had scópe,</p> + <p>Wé had héalth and wé had hópe,</p> + <p>Tóil and trável, bút no sórrow.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect664">§ 664</a>. <i>Many</i> (<i>perhaps all</i>) + <i>classical metres on a level with the unsymmetrical English + ones</i>.—The following is the notation of the extract in the + preceding section.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>x x a x a x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x a x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x x a x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x x a x a x x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x a x a x x</i></p> + <p><i>x a x x a x x a x x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x x a x x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x x a x x a x x a</i></p> + <p><i>x a x a x x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x x a x x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>x x a x a x x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>x a x x a x x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>x x a x x a x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x a x a x a x</i></p> + <p><i>a x a x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x a x a x a</i></p> + <p><i>a x a x a x a x</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Now many Latin metres present a recurrence of accent little more + irregular than the quotation just analysed. The following is the + accentual formula of the first two stanzas of the second ode of the first + Book of Horace. <!-- Page 519 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page519"></a>{519}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Accentual Formula of the Latin Sapphic.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Latin Sapphic" title="Latin Sapphic"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i>a a x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x a x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i>a x x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x a x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i>a x x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x a x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i> a x x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i>a x x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x a x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i>a x x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x a x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i>a x x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x a x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> </td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i> a x x a x</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Latin Asclepiad.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Horace, Od.</i> I. <span class="sc">i</span>., 1-6.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Latin Asclepiad" title="Latin Asclepiad"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i> x a x a x x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x x a x x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i> a x x a x x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x a x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i> a x a x a x x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x x a x x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i> a x a x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x x a x x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i> a x a x a x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x x a x x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle" style="text-align:right; border-right:1px solid black; width:50%"> <i> x a x a x x</i></td><td class="qspcsingle" style="width:50%"> <i>a x x a x a x</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Latin Hexameter.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Æn.</i> <span class="sc">i</span>., 1-5.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Latin Sapphic" title="Latin Sapphic"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a x x a x a x a x x a x x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>x a x x a x a x x x a x x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>a x x x a x a x x x a x x a x</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> <i>x a x x a x a x x x a x x a x.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>A longer list of examples would show us that, throughout the whole of + the classical metres the same accents recur, sometimes with less, and + sometimes with but very little more irregularity than they recur in the + <i>unsymmetrical</i> metres of our own language.</p> + + <p><a name="sect665">§ 665</a>. <i>Conversion of English into classical + metres.</i>—In the preface to his Translation of Aristophanes, Mr. + Walsh has shown (and, I believe, for the first time), that, by a + different distribution of lines, very fair hexameters may be made out of + the well-known lines on the Burial of Sir John Moore:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4">Not a drum was</p> + <p>Heard, not a funeral note as his corse to the rampart we hurried,</p> + <p class="i4">Not a soldier dis-</p> + <p>Charged his farewell shot o'er the grave where our hero we buried.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> +<!-- Page 520 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page520"></a>{520}</span> + <p class="i4">We buried him</p> + <p>Darkly at dead of night, the sods with our bayonets turning;</p> + <p class="i4">By the struggling</p> + <p>Moonbeams' misty light and the lantern dimly burning.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i4">Lightly they'll</p> + <p>Talk of the spirit that's gone, and o'er his cold ashes upbraid him,</p> + <p class="i4">But little he'll</p> + <p>Reck if they let him sleep on in the grave where a Briton has laid him.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect666">§ 666</a>. Again, such lines as + Coleridge's—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. Make réady my gráve clothes to-mórrow;</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>or Shelly's—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>2. Líquid Péneus was flówing,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>are the exact analogues of lines like—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. Jam lácte depúlsum leónem,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>and</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>2. Gráto Pýrrha sub ántro.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect667">§ 667</a>. The rationale of so remarkable a + phænomenon as <i>regularity of accent in verses considered to have been + composed with a view to quantity only</i> has yet to be investigated. + That it was necessary to the structure of the metres in question is + certain.</p> + + <p><a name="sect668">§ 668</a>. <i>Cæsura.</i>—The <i>cæsura</i> of + the classical metrists is the result of—</p> + + <p>1. The necessity in the classical metres (as just indicated) of an + accented syllable in certain parts of the verses.</p> + + <p>2. The nearly total absence in the classical languages of words with + an accent on the last syllable.</p> + + <p>From the joint effect of these two causes, it follows that in certain + parts of a verse no final syllable can occur, or (changing the + expression) no word can terminate.</p> + + <p>Thus, in a language consisting chiefly of dissyllables, of which the + first alone was accented, and in a metre which required the sixth + syllable to be accented, the fifth and seventh would each be at end of + words, and that simply because the sixth was not.</p> + + <p>Whilst in a language consisting chiefly of either dissyllables or + trisyllables, and in a metre of the same sort as before, <!-- Page 521 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page521"></a>{521}</span>if the fifth + were not final, the seventh would be so, or <i>vice versa</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect669">§ 669</a>. <i>Cæsura</i> means <i>cutting</i>. In a + language destitute of words accented on the last syllable, and in a metre + requiring the sixth syllable to be accented, a measure (foot) of either + the formula <i>x a</i>, or <i>x x a</i> (<i>i. e.</i>, a measure with the + accent at the end), except in the case of words of four or more + syllables, must always be either itself divided, or else cause the + division of the following measures—<i>division</i> meaning the + distribution of the syllables of the measure (foot) over two or more + words. Thus—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> If the accented syllable (the sixth) be the first of a word + of any length, the preceding one (the fifth) must be the final one of the + word which went before; in which case the first and last parts belong to + different words, and the measure (foot) is divided or <i>cut</i>.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> If the accented syllable (the sixth) be the second of a word + of three syllables, the succeeding one which is at the end of the word, + is the first part of the measure which follows; in which case the first + and last parts of the measure (foot) which follows the accented syllable + is divided or <i>cut</i>.</p> + + <p>As the <i>cæsura</i>, or the necessity for dividing certain measures + between two words, arises out of the structure of language, it only + occurs in tongues where there is a notable absence of words accented on + the last syllable. Consequently there is no cæsura<a name="NtA71" + href="#Nt71"><sup>[71]</sup></a> in the English.</p> + + <p><a name="sect670">§ 670</a>. As far as accent is concerned, the + classical poets write in <i>measures</i> rather than <i>feet</i>. See p. + <a href="#page505">505</a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 522 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page522"></a>{522}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect671">§ 671</a>. Although the idea of writing English + hexameters, &c., on the principle of an accent in a measure taking + the place of the long syllables in a foot, is chimerical; it is perfectly + practicable to write English verses upon the same <!-- Page 523 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page523"></a>{523}</span>principle which the + classics themselves have written on, <i>i.e.</i>, with accents recurring + within certain limits; in which case the so-called classical metre is + merely an unsymmetrical verse of a new kind. This may be either blank + verse or rhyme.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 524 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page524"></a>{524}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect672">§ 672</a>. The chief reason against the + naturalization of metres of the sort in question (over and above the + practical one of our having another kind in use already), lies in the + fact of their being perplexing to the readers who have <i>not</i> been + <!-- Page 525 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page525"></a>{525}</span>trained to classical cadences, whilst they + suggest and violate the idea of <i>quantity</i> to those who have.</p> + + <p><i>Why</i> his idea of quantity is violated may be seen in p. <a + href="#page165">165</a>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 526 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page526"></a>{526}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect673">§ 673</a>. <i>Convertible metres.</i>—Such a + line as—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ere her faithless sons betray'd her,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>may be read in two ways. We may either lay full stress upon the word + <i>ere</i>, and read—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ére her faíthless sóns betráy'd her;</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>or we may lay little or no stress upon either <i>ere</i> or + <i>her</i>, reserving the full accentuation for the syllable + <i>faith-</i> in <i>faithless</i>, in which case the reading would be</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ere her faíthless sóns betráy'd her.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Lines of this sort may be called examples of <i>convertible + metres</i>, since by changing the accent a dissyllabic line may be + converted into one partially trisyllabic, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + + <p>This property of convertibility is explained by the fact of + accentuation being <i>a relative quality</i>. In the example before us + <i>ere</i> is sufficiently strongly accented to stand in contrast to + <i>her</i>, but it is not sufficiently strongly accented to stand upon a + par with the <i>faith-</i> in <i>faithless</i> if decidedly + pronounced.</p> + + <p>The real character of convertible lines is determined from the + character of the lines with which they are associated. <!-- Page 527 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page527"></a>{527}</span>That the + second mode of reading the line in question is the proper one, may be + shown by reference to the stanza wherein it occurs.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Let Érin remémber her dáys of óld,</p> + <p class="i2">Ere her faíthless sóns betráy'd her,</p> + <p>When Málachi wóre the cóllar of góld,</p> + <p class="i2">Which he wón from the próud inváder.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Again, such a line as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>For the glory I have lost,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>although it may be read</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>For the glóry I have lóst,</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>would be read improperly. The stanza wherein it occurs is essentially + dissyllabic (<i>a x</i>).</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Heéd, oh heéd my fátal stóry!</p> + <p class="i2">Í am Hósier's ínjured ghóst,</p> + <p>Cóme to seék for fáme and glóry—</p> + <p class="i2">Fór the glóry Í have lóst.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect674">§ 674</a>. <i>Metrical and grammatical + combinations.</i>—Words, or parts of words, that are combined as + measures, are words, or parts of words, combined <i>metrically</i>, or in + <i>metrical combination</i>.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 528 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page528"></a>{528}</span></p> + + <p>Syllables combined as words, or words combined as portions of a + sentence, are syllables and words <i>grammatically combined</i>, or in + <i>grammatical combination</i>.</p> + + <p>The syllables <i>ere her faith-</i> form a metrical combination.</p> + + <p>The words <i>her faithless sons</i> form a grammatical + combination.</p> + + <p>When the syllables contained in the same measure (or connected + metrically) are also contained in the same construction (or connected + grammatically), the metrical and the grammatical combinations coincide. + Such is the case with the line</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Remémber | the glóries | of Brían | the Bráve;</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>where the same division separates both the measure and the + subdivisions of the sense, inasmuch as the word <i>the</i> is connected + with the word <i>glories</i> equally in grammar and in metre, in syntax + and in prosody. So is <i>of</i> with <i>Brian</i>, and <i>the</i> with + <i>Brave</i>.</p> + + <p>Contrast with this such a line as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A chieftain to the Highlands bound.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Here the metrical division is one thing, the grammatical division + another, and there is no coincidence.</p> + + <p><i>Metrical</i>,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A chíef | tain tó | the Hígh | lands bóund.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Grammatical</i>,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>A chieftain | to the Highlands | bound.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In the following stanza the coincidence of the metrical and + grammatical combination is nearly complete:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>To árms! to árms! The sérfs, they róam</p> + <p class="i2">O'er híll, and dále, and glén:</p> + <p>The kíng is deád, and tíme is cóme</p> + <p class="i2">To choóse a chiéf agáin.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>In</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Wárriors or chiéfs, should the sháft or the swórd</p> + <p>Piérce me in léading the hóst of the Lórd,</p> + <p>Heéd not the córse, though a kíng's in your páth,</p> + <p>Búry your stéel in the bósoms of Gáth.—<span class="sc">Byron.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>there is a non-coincidence equally complete.</p> + + <p><a name="sect675">§ 675</a>. <i>Rhythm.</i>—The character of a + metre is marked and prominent in proportion as the metrical and the + grammatical <!-- Page 529 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page529"></a>{529}</span>combinations coincide. The extent to which + the measure <i>a x x</i> is the basis of the stanza last quoted is + concealed by the antagonism of the metre and the construction. If it were + not for the axiom, that <i>every metre is to be considered uniform until + there is proof to the contrary</i>, the lines might be divided + thus:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>a x, x a, x x a, x x a,</i></p> + <p><i>a x, x a x, x a x, x a,</i></p> + <p><i>a x, x a, x x a, x x a,</i></p> + <p><i>a x, x a x, x a x, x a.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The variety which arises in versification from the different degrees + of the coincidence and non-coincidence between the metrical and + grammatical combinations may be called <i>rhythm</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect676">§ 676</a>. <i>Constant and inconstant parts of a + rhythm.</i>—See <a href="#sect636">§ 636</a>. Of the three parts or + elements of a rhyme, the vowel and the part which follows the vowel are + <i>constant</i>, <i>i.e.</i>, they cannot be changed without changing or + destroying the rhyme. In <i>told</i> and <i>bold</i>, <i>plunder</i>, + <i>blunder</i>, both the <i>o</i> or <i>u</i> on one side, and the + <i>-ld</i> or <i>-nder</i> on the other are immutable.</p> + + <p>Of the three parts, or elements, of a rhyme the part which precedes + the vowel is <i>inconstant</i>, <i>i.e</i>, it must be changed in order + to effect the rhyme. Thus, <i>old</i> and <i>old</i>, <i>told</i> and + <i>told</i>, <i>bold</i> and <i>bold</i>, do <i>not</i> rhyme with each + other; although <i>old</i>, <i>bold</i>, <i>told</i>, <i>scold</i>, + &c. do.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 1.</i> In two or more syllables that rhyme with each other, + neither the vowel nor the sounds which <i>follow</i> it can be + <i>different</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Rule 2.</i> In two or more syllables that rhyme with each other, + the sounds which <i>precede</i> the vowel cannot be <i>alike</i>.</p> + + <p>Now the number of sounds which can precede a vowel is limited: it is + that of the consonants and consonantal combinations; of which a list can + be made <i>a priori</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Consonants and consonantal combinations" title="Consonants and consonantal combinations"> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>p</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>pl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>pr</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>b</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>bl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>br</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>f</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>fl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>fr</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>v</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>vl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>vr</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>t</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>tl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>tr</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>d</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>dl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>dr</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>th</i></td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>thl</i></td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>thr</i></td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>dh</i></td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>dhl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>dhr</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>k</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>kl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>kr</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>g</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>gl</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>gr</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>s</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>sp</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>sf</i> </td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>st</i></td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>sth,</i></td><td class="hspcsingle"> <i>&c.</i></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>and so on, the combinations of s being the most complex. <!-- Page 530 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page530"></a>{530}</span></p> + + <p>This gives us the following method (or receipt) for the discovery of + rhymes:—</p> + + <p>1. Divide the word to which a rhyme is required, into its + <i>constant</i> and <i>inconstant</i> elements.</p> + + <p>2. Make up the inconstant element by the different consonants and + consonantal combinations until they are exhausted.</p> + + <p>3. In the list of words so formed, mark off those which have an + existence in the language; these will all rhyme with each other; and if + the list of combinations be exhaustive, there are no other words which + will do so.</p> + + <p><i>Example.</i>—From the word <i>told</i>, separate the <i>o</i> + and <i>-ld</i>, which are constant.</p> + + <p>Instead of the inconstant element <i>t</i>, write successively, + <i>p</i>, <i>pl</i>, <i>pr</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>bl</i>, <i>br</i>, &c.: + so that you have the following list:—<i>t-old</i>, <i>p-old</i>, + <i>pl-old</i>, <i>pr-old</i>, <i>b-old</i>, <i>bl-old</i>, <i>br-old</i>, + &c.</p> + + <p>Of these <i>plold</i>, <i>blold</i>, and <i>brold</i>, have no + existence in the language; the rest, however, are rhymes.</p> + + <p><a name="sect677">§ 677</a>. All words have the same number of + possible, but not the same number of actual rhymes. Thus, <i>silver</i> + is a word amenable to the same process as <i>told—pilver</i>, + <i>plilver</i>, <i>prilver</i>, <i>bilver</i>, &c.; yet <i>silver</i> + is a word without a corresponding rhyme. This is because the combinations + which answer to it do not constitute words, or combinations of words in + the English language.</p> + + <p>This has been written, not for the sake of showing poets how to + manufacture rhymes, but in order to prove that a result which apparently + depends on the ingenuity of writers, is reducible to a very humble + mechanical process, founded upon the nature of rhyme and the limits to + the combinations of consonants.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 531 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page531"></a>{531}</span></p> + +<h3>PART VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.</p> + + <p><a name="sect678">§ 678</a>. The consideration of the dialects of the + English language is best taken in hand after the historical investigation + of the elements of the English population. For this, see Part I.</p> + + <p>It is also best taken in hand after the analysis of the grammatical + structure of the language. For this, see Part IV.</p> + + <p>This is because both the last-named subjects are necessary as + preliminaries. The structure of the language supplies us with the points + in which one dialect may differ from another, whilst the history of the + immigrant populations may furnish an ethnological reason for such + differences as are found to occur.</p> + + <p>For a further illustration of this see pp. <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a + href="#page5">5</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect679">§ 679</a>. By putting together the history of the + migrations into a country, and the grammatical structure of the language + which they introduced, we find that there are two methods of classifying + the dialects. These may be called the ethnological, and the structural + methods.</p> + + <p>According to the former, we place in the same class those dialects + which were introduced by the same section of immigrants. Thus, a body of + Germans, starting from the same part of Germany, and belonging to the + same section of the Germanic population, even if, whilst at sea, they + separated into two, three, or more divisions, and landed upon widely + separated portions of Great Britain, would introduce dialects which were + allied <i>ethnologically</i>; even though, by one of them changing + rapidly, and the others not changing at all, they might, in their + external characters, differ from each other, and agree with dialects of a + different introduction. Hence, the ethnological principle is essentially + historical, and <!-- Page 532 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page532"></a>{532}</span>is based upon the idea of + <i>affiliation</i> or affinity in the way of descent.</p> + + <p>The <i>structural</i> principle is different. Two dialects introduced + by different sections (perhaps it would be better to say + <i>sub</i>-sections) of an immigrant population may suffer similar + changes; <i>e. g.</i>, they may lose the same inflexions, adopt similar + euphonic processes, or incorporate the same words. In this case, their + external characters become mutually alike. Hence, if we take two (or + move) such dialects, and place them in the same class, we do so simply + because they are alike; not because they are affiliated.</p> + + <p>Such are the two chief principles of classification. Generally, they + coincide; in other words, similarity of external characters is <i>primâ + facie</i> evidence of affinity in the way of affiliation, identity of + origin being the safest assumption in the way of cause; whilst identity + of origin is generally a sufficient ground for calculating upon + similarity of external form; such being, <i>a priori</i>, its probable + effect.</p> + + <p>Still, the evidence of one in favour of the other is only <i>primâ + facie</i> evidence. Dialects of the same origin may grow unlike; dialects + of different origins alike.</p> + + <p><a name="sect680">§ 680</a>. The causes, then, which determine those + minute differences of language, which go by the name of <i>dialects</i> + are twofold.—1. Original difference; 2. Subsequent change.</p> + + <p><a name="sect681">§ 681</a>. The original difference between the two + sections (or <i>sub</i>-sections) of an immigrant population are + referable to either—1. Difference of locality in respect to the + portion of the country from which they originated; or 2. Difference in + the date of the invasion.</p> + + <p>Two bodies of immigrants, one from the Eyder, and the other from the + Scheldt, even if they left their respective localities on the same day of + the same month, would most probably differ from one another; and that in + the same way that a Yorkshireman differs from a Hampshire man.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, two bodies of immigrants, each leaving the very + same locality, but one in 200 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, and the + other in 500 <span class="scac">A.D.</span>, would also, most probably, + differ; and that as a Yorkshireman of 1850 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> + differs from one of 1550 <span class="scac">A.D.</span> <!-- Page 533 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page533"></a>{533}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect682">§ 682</a>. The subsequent changes which may affect + the dialect of an immigrant population are chiefly referable to either, + 1. Influences exerted by the dialects of the aborigines of the invaded + country; 2. Influences of simple growth, or development. A dialect + introduced from Germany to a portion of Great Britain, where the + aborigines spoke Gaelic, would (if affected at all by the indigenous + dialect) be differently affected from a dialect similarly circumstanced + in a British, Welsh, and Cambrian district.</p> + + <p>A language which changes rapidly, will, at the end of a certain + period, wear a different aspect from one which changes slowly.</p> + + <p><a name="sect683">§ 683</a>. A full and perfect apparatus for the + minute philology of the dialects of a country like Great Britain, would + consist in—</p> + + <p>1. The exact details of the present provincialisms.</p> + + <p>2. The details of the history of each dialect through all its + stages.</p> + + <p>3. The exact details of the provincialisms of the whole of that part + of Germany which contributed, or is supposed to have contributed, to the + Anglo-Saxon immigration.</p> + + <p>4. The details of the original languages or dialects of the Aboriginal + Britons at the time of the different invasions.</p> + + <p>This last is both the least important and the most unattainable.</p> + + <p><a name="sect684">§ 684</a>. Such are the preliminaries which are + wanted for the purposes of investigation. Others are requisite for the + proper understanding of the facts already ascertained, and the doctrines + generally admitted; the present writer believing that these two classes + are by no means coextensive.</p> + + <p>Of such preliminaries, the most important are those connected with 1. + the structure of language, and 2. the history of individual documents; in + other words, certain points of philology, and certain points of + bibliography.</p> + + <p><a name="sect685">§ 685</a>. <i>Philological + preliminaries.</i>—These are points of pronunciation, points of + grammatical structure, and glossarial peculiarities. It is only the first + two which will be noticed. They occur in 1. the modern, 2. the ancient + local forms of speech. <!-- Page 534 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page534"></a>{534}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect686">§ 686</a>. <i>Present provincial + dialects.</i>—In the way of grammar we find, in the present + provincial dialects (amongst many others), the following old + forms—</p> + + <p>1. A plural in <i>en</i>—<i>we call-en</i>, <i>ye call-en</i>, + they <i>call-en</i>. Respecting this, the writer in the Quarterly Review, + has the following doctrine:—</p> + + <p>"It appears to have been popularly known, if not in East Anglia + proper, at all events in the district immediately to the westward, since + we find it in Orm, in an Eastern-Midland copy of the Rule of Nuns, sæc. + XIII., and in process of time in Suffolk. Various conjectures have been + advanced as to the origin of this form, of which we have no certain + examples before the thirteenth century.<a name="NtA72" + href="#Nt72"><sup>[72]</sup></a> We believe the true state of the case to + have been as follows. It is well known that the Saxon dialects differ + from the Gothic, Old-German, &c. in the form of the present + indicative plural—making all three persons to end in <i>-aþ</i> or + <i>-ad</i>;<i>—we—ȝe—hi—lufi-aþ</i> + (<i>-ad</i>). Schmeller and other German philologists observe that a + nasal has been here elided, the true ancient form being <i>-and</i>, + <i>-ant</i>, or <i>-ent</i>. Traces of this termination are found in the + Cotton MS. of the Old Saxon Evangelical Harmony, and still more + abundantly in the popular dialects of the Middle-Rhenish district from + Cologne to the borders of Switzerland. These not only exhibit the full + termination <i>-ent</i>, but also two modifications of it, one dropping + the nasal and the other the dental. <i>E.g.</i>:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Terminations derived from -ent" title="Terminations derived from -ent"> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> Pres. Indic.</td><td class="qspcsingle"> Plur. 1, 2, 3</td><td class="qspcsingle"> liebent;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> lieb-et;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="qspcsingle"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> ,, </td><td class="qspcsingle"> lieb-en;</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>—the last exactly corresponding with the Mercian. It is + remarkable that none of the above forms appear in classical German + compositions, while they abound in the Miracle-plays, vernacular sermons, + and similar productions of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, + specially addressed to the uneducated classes. We may, therefore, + reasonably conclude from analogy that similar forms were popularly + current in our midland counties, gradually insinuating themselves into + the <!-- Page 535 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page535"></a>{535}</span>written language. We have plenty of + examples of similar phenomena. It would be difficult to find written + instances of the pronouns <i>scho</i>, or <i>she</i>, <i>their</i>, + <i>you</i>, the auxiliaries <i>sal</i>, <i>suld</i>, &c., before the + twelfth century; but their extensive prevalence in the thirteenth proves + that they must have been popularly employed somewhere even in times which + have left us no documentary evidence of their existence."</p> + + <p>I prefer to consider this termination as <i>-en</i>, a mere extension + of the subjunctive form to the indicative.</p> + + <p>2. An infinitive form in <i>-ie</i>; as to <i>sowie</i>, to + <i>reapie</i>,—Wiltshire. (Mr. Guest).</p> + + <p>3. The participial form in <i>-and</i>; as <i>goand</i>, + <i>slepand</i>,—Lincolnshire (?), Northumberland, Scotland.</p> + + <p>4. The common use of the termination <i>-th</i> in the third person + present; <i>goeth</i>, <i>hath</i>, + <i>speaketh</i>,—Devonshire.</p> + + <p>5. Plural forms in <i>-en</i>; as <i>housen</i>,—Leicestershire + and elsewhere.</p> + + <p>6. Old preterite forms of certain verbs; as,</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Old preterite forms" title="Old preterite forms"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Clom</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> from </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>climb</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Hereford and elsewhere.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Hove</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>heave</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Puck</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>pick</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Shuck</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>shook</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Squoze</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>squeeze</i>,</td><td class="spacsingle"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Shew</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>sow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> Essex.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Rep</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>reap</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ditto.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Mew</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center"> — </td><td class="spacsingle"> <i>mow</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle"> ditto, &c.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>The following changes (a few out of many) are matters not of grammar, + but of pronunciation:—</p> + + <p>Ui for <i>oo</i>—<i>cuil</i>, <i>bluid</i>, for <i>cool</i>, + <i>blood</i>,—Cumberland, Scotland.</p> + + <p>Oy for <i>i</i>—<i>foyne</i>, <i>twoyne</i>, for <i>fine</i>, + <i>twine</i>,—Cheshire, Cambridgeshire, Suffolk.</p> + + <p>Oy for <i>oo</i>—<i>foyt</i> for <i>foot</i>,—Halifax.</p> + + <p>Oy for <i>o</i>—<i>noite</i>, <i>foil</i>, <i>coil</i>, + <i>hoil</i>, for <i>note</i>, <i>foal</i>, <i>coal</i>, + <i>hole</i>,—Halifax.</p> + + <p>Oy for <i>a</i>—<i>loyne</i> for <i>lane</i>,—Halifax.</p> + + <p>Ooy for <i>oo</i>—<i>nooin</i>, <i>gooise</i>, <i>fooil</i>, + <i>tooil</i>, for <i>noon</i>, <i>goose</i>, <i>fool</i>, + <i>tool</i>,—Halifax. <!-- Page 536 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page536"></a>{536}</span></p> + + <p>W inserted (with or without a modification)—as <i>spwort</i>, + <i>scworn</i>, <i>whoam</i>, for <i>sport</i>, <i>scorn</i>, + <i>home</i>,—Cumberland, West Riding of Yorkshire.</p> + + <p>Ew for <i>oo</i>, or <i>yoo</i>—<i>tewn</i> for + <i>tune</i>,—Suffolk, Westmoreland.</p> + + <p>Iv for <i>oo</i>, or <i>yoo</i> when a vowel follows—as + <i>Samivel</i> for <i>Samuel</i>; <i>Emmanivel</i> for <i>Emmanuel</i>. + In all these we have seen a tendency to <i>diphthongal</i> sounds.</p> + + <p>In the following instances the practice is reversed, and instead of + the vowel being made a diphthong, the diphthong becomes a vowel, as,</p> + + <p>O for <i>oy</i>—<i>boh</i> for <i>boy</i>, Suffolk, &c.</p> + + <p>Oo for <i>ow</i>—<i>broon</i> for + <i>brown</i>,—Bilsdale.</p> + + <p>Ee for <i>i</i>—<i>neet</i> for + <i>night</i>,—Cheshire.</p> + + <p>O for <i>ou</i>—<i>bawn'</i> for + <i>bound</i>,—Westmoreland.</p> + + <p>Of these the substitution of <i>oo</i> for <i>ow</i>, and of <i>ee</i> + for <i>i</i>, are of importance in the questions of the Appendix.</p> + + <p>Ēē for <i>a</i>—<i>theere</i> for + <i>there</i>,—Cumberland.</p> + + <p>Ēē for <i>ĕ</i>—<i>reed</i>, <i>seeven</i>, + for <i>red</i>, <i>seven</i>,—Cumberland, Craven.</p> + + <p>Ā for <i>ō</i>—<i>sair</i>, <i>mair</i>, + <i>baith</i>, for <i>sore</i>, <i>more</i>, + <i>both</i>,—Cumberland, Scotland.</p> + + <p>Ă for <i>ŏ</i>—<i>saft</i> for + <i>soft</i>,—Cheshire.</p> + + <p>O for <i>ă</i>—<i>mon</i> for <i>man</i>,—Cheshire. + <i>Lond</i> for <i>land</i>,—East-Anglian Semi-Saxon.</p> + + <p><i>Y</i> inserted before a vowel—<i>styake</i>, <i>ryape</i>, + for <i>stake</i>, <i>rope</i>,—Borrowdale; especially after + <i>g</i> (a point to be noticed), <i>gyarden</i>, <i>gyown</i>, for + <i>garden</i>, <i>gown</i>,—Warwickshire, &c.; and at the + beginning of a word, as <i>yat</i>, <i>yan</i>, for <i>ate</i>, + <i>one</i> (<i>ane</i>),—Westmoreland, Bilsdale.</p> + + <p><i>H</i> inserted—<i>hafter</i>, <i>hoppen</i>, for + <i>after</i>, <i>open</i>,—Westmoreland, &c.</p> + + <p><i>H</i> omitted—<i>at</i>, <i>ard</i>, for <i>hat</i>, + <i>hard</i>,—<i>Passim</i>.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Transition of Consonants.</i></p> + + <p><i>B</i> for <i>v</i>—<i>Whitehebbon</i> for + <i>Whitehaven</i>,—Borrowdale.</p> + + <p><i>P</i> for <i>b</i>—<i>poat</i> for <i>boat</i>.—Welsh + pronunciation of many English words. See the speeches of Sir Hugh Evans + in Merry Wives of Windsor.</p> + + <p><i>V</i> for <i>f</i>—<i>vind</i> for + <i>find</i>,—characteristic of Devonshire, Kent. <!-- Page 537 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page537"></a>{537}</span></p> + + <p><i>T</i> for <i>d</i> (final)—<i>deet</i> for + <i>deed</i>,—Borrowdale.</p> + + <p><i>T</i> for <i>ch</i> (<i>tsh</i>)—<i>fet</i> for + <i>fetch</i>,—Devonshire.</p> + + <p><i>D</i> for <i>j</i> (<i>dzh</i>)—<i>sled</i> for + <i>sledge</i>,—Hereford.</p> + + <p><i>D</i> for <i>th</i> (<i>þ</i>)—<i>wid</i>=<i>with</i>; + <i>tudder</i>=<i>the other</i>,—Borrowdale, Westmoreland. Initial + (especially before a consonant)—<i>drash</i>, + <i>droo</i>=<i>thrash</i>, <i>through</i>,—Devonshire, Wilts.</p> + + <p><i>K</i> for <i>ch</i> (<i>tsh</i>)—<i>thack</i>, <i>pick</i>, + for <i>thatch</i>, <i>pitch</i>,—Westmoreland, Lincolnshire, + Halifax.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> for <i>j</i> (<i>dzh</i>)—<i>brig</i> for + <i>bridge</i>—Lincolnshire, Hereford.</p> + + <p><i>G</i> preserved from the Anglo-Saxon—<i>lig</i>, <i>lie</i>. + Anglo-Saxon, <i>licgan</i>,—Lincolnshire, North of England.</p> + + <p><i>Z</i> for <i>s</i>—<i>zee</i> for + <i>see</i>,—Devonshire.</p> + + <p><i>S</i> for <i>sh</i>—<i>sall</i> for + <i>shall</i>,—Craven, Scotland.</p> + + <p><i>Y</i> for <i>g</i>—<i>yet</i> for + <i>gate</i>,—Yorkshire, Scotland.</p> + + <p><i>W</i> for <i>v</i>—<i>wiew</i> for <i>view</i>,—Essex, + London.</p> + + <p><i>N</i> for <i>ng</i>—<i>bleedin</i> for + <i>bleeding</i>,—Cumberland, Scotland.</p> + + <p><i>Sk</i> for <i>sh</i>—<i>busk</i> for + <i>bush</i>,—Halifax.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Ejection of Letters.</i></p> + + <p><i>K</i> before <i>s</i>, the preceding vowel being lengthened by way + of compensation—<i>neist</i> for <i>next</i>, <i>seist</i> for + <i>sixth</i>,—Halifax.</p> + + <p><i>D</i> and <i>v</i> after a consonant—<i>gol</i> for + <i>gold</i>, <i>siller</i> for <i>silver</i>,—Suffolk. The ejection + of <i>f</i> is rarer; <i>mysel</i> for <i>myself</i>, however, occurs in + most dialects.</p> + + <p><i>L</i> final, after a short vowel,—in which case the vowel is + lengthened—<i>poo</i> for <i>pull</i>,—Cheshire, + Scotland.</p> + + <p><i>Al</i> changed to <i>a</i> open—<i>hawf</i> for <i>half</i>, + <i>saumo</i>n for <i>salmon</i>,—Cumberland, Scotland.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Transposition.</i></p> + + <p>Transpositions of the liquid <i>r</i> are common in all our provincial + dialects; as <i>gars</i>, <i>brid</i>, <i>perty</i>, for <i>grass</i>, + <i>bird</i>, <i>pretty</i>. Here the provincial forms are the oldest, + <i>gærs</i>, <i>brid</i>, &c., being the Anglo-Saxon forms. Again; + <i>acsian</i>, Anglo-Saxon=<i>ask</i>, English.</p> + + <p><a name="sect687">§ 687</a>. <i>Ancient forms of speech.</i>—In + the way of grammar—</p> + + <p>1. The <i>ge-</i> (see <a href="#sect409">§ 409</a>), prefixed to the + past participle (<i>ge-boren</i>=<i>borne</i>) is, in certain + localities,<a name="NtA73" href="#Nt73"><sup>[73]</sup></a> omitted.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 538 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page538"></a>{538}</span></p> + + <p>2. The present<a name="NtA74" href="#Nt74"><sup>[74]</sup></a> plural + form <i>-s</i>, encroaches upon the form in <i>-n</i>. Thus, + <i>munuces</i>=<i>munucan</i>=<i>monks</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The infinitive ends in <i>-a</i>, instead of <i>-an</i>. This is + Scandinavian, but it is also Frisian.</p> + + <p>4. The particle <i>at</i> is used instead of <i>to</i> before the + infinitive verb.</p> + + <p>5. The article<a href="#Nt74"><sup>[74]</sup></a> <i>the</i> is used + instead of <i>se</i>, <i>seo</i>, <i>þæt</i>=<span title="ho, hê, to" class="grk" + >ὁ, ἡ, τὸ</span>, for both the numbers, and all + the cases and genders.</p> + + <p>6. The form in <i>-s</i> (<i>use</i>, <i>usse</i>) replaces + <i>ure</i>=<i>our</i>.</p> + + <p>In the way of sound—</p> + + <p>1. Forms with the slenderer, or more vocalic<a + href="#Nt74"><sup>[74]</sup></a> sounds, replace forms which in the + West-Saxon are broad or diphthongal.<a name="NtA75" + href="#Nt75"><sup>[75]</sup></a> Beda mentions that <i>Cœlin</i> is + the Northumbrian form of <i>Ceawlin</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The simple<a href="#Nt74"><sup>[74]</sup></a> sound of <i>k</i> + replaces the combination out of which the modern sound of <i>ch</i> has + been evolved.</p> + + <p>3. The sound of <i>sk</i> replaces either the <i>sh</i>, or the sound + out of which it has been evolved.</p> + + <p>The meaning of these last two statements is explained by the following + extract: "Another characteristic is the infusion of Scandinavian words, + of which there are slight traces in monuments of the tenth century, and + strong and unequivocal ones in those of the thirteenth and fourteenth. + Some of the above criteria may be verified by a simple and obvious + process, namely, a reference to the topographical nomenclature of our + provinces. Whoever takes the trouble to consult the Gazetteer of England + will find, that of our numerous 'Carltons' not one is to be met with + south of the Mersey, west of the Staffordshire Tame, or south of the + Thames; and that 'Fiskertons,' 'Skiptons,' 'Skelbrookes,' and a whole + host of similar names are equally <i>introuvables</i> in the same + district. They are, with scarcely a single exception, northern or + eastern; and we know from Ælfric's Glossary, from Domesday and the + Chartularies, that this distinction of pronunciation was established as + early as the eleventh century. 'Kirby' or 'Kirkby,' is a specimen of + joint Anglian and <!-- Page 539 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page539"></a>{539}</span>Scandinavian influence, furnishing a clue + to the ethnology of the district wherever it occurs. The converse of this + rule does not hold with equal universality, various causes having + gradually introduced soft palatal sounds into districts to which they did + not properly belong. Such are, however, of very partial occurrence, and + form the exception rather than the rule."—<i>Quarterly Review</i>, + No. <span class="scac">CLXIV</span>.</p> + + <p><i>Bibliographical preliminaries.</i>—The leading facts here are + the difference between 1. the locality of the authorship, and 2, the + locality of the transcription of a book.</p> + + <p>Thus: the composition of a Devonshire poet may find readers in + Northumberland, and his work be transcribed by Northumbrian copyist. Now + this Northumbrian copyist may do one of two things: he may transcribe the + Devonian production <i>verbatim et literatim</i>; in which case his + countrymen read the MS. just as a Londoner reads Burns, <i>i.e.</i>, in + the dialect of the writer, and not in the dialect of the reader. On the + other hand, he may <i>accommodate</i> as well as transcribe, <i>i.e.</i>, + he may change the <i>non</i>-Northumbrian into Northumbrian expressions, + in which case his countrymen read the MS. in their own rather than the + writer's dialect.</p> + + <p>Now it is clear, that in a literature where transcription, <i>combined + with accommodation</i>, is as common as <i>simple</i> transcription, we + are never sure of knowing the dialect of an author unless we also know + the dialect of his transcriber. In no literature is there more of this + <i>semi</i>-translation than in the Anglo-Saxon and the early English; a + fact which sometimes raises difficulties, by disconnecting the evidence + of authorship with the otherwise natural inferences as to the dialect + employed; whilst, at others, it smoothes them away by supplying as many + specimens of fresh dialects, as there are extant MSS. of an often copied + composition.</p> + + <p>Inquiring whether certain peculiarities of dialect in Layamon's Brut, + really emanated from the author, a writer in the Quarterly Review, (No. + clxiv.) remarks, that to decide this it "would be necessary to have + access either to the priest's autograph, or to a more faithful copy of it + than it was the practice to make either in his age or the succeeding <!-- + Page 540 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page540"></a>{540}</span>ones. + A transcriber of an early English composition followed his own ideas of + language, grammar, and orthography; and if he did not entirely obliterate + the characteristic peculiarities of his original, he was pretty sure, + like the Conde de Olivares, 'd'y meter beaucour du sein.' The practical + proof of this is to be found in the existing copies of those works, + almost every one of which exhibits some peculiarity of features. We have + 'Trevisa' and 'Robert of Gloucester,' in two distinct forms—'Pier's + Ploughman,' in at least three, and 'Hampole's Pricke of Conscience,' in + half a dozen, without any absolute certainty which approximates most to + what the authors wrote. With regard to Layamon, it might be supposed that + the older copy is the more likely to represent the original; but we have + internal evidence that it is not the priest's autograph; and it is + impossible to know what alterations it may have undergone in the course + of one or more transcriptions."</p> + + <p>Again, in noticing the orthography of the Ormulum (alluded to in the + present volume, <a href="#sect266">§ 266</a>), he writes: "It is true + that in this instance we have the rare advantage of possessing the + author's autograph, a circumstance which cannot with confidence be + predicated of any other considerable work of the same period. The author + was, moreover, as Mr. Thorpe observes, a kind of critic in his own + language; and we therefore find in his work, a regularity of orthography, + grammar, and metre, hardly to be paralleled in the same age. All this + might, in a great measure, disappear in the very next copy; for fidelity + of transcription was no virtue of the thirteenth or the fourteenth + century; at least with respect to vernacular works. It becomes, + therefore, in many cases a problem of no small complication, to decide + with certainty respecting the original metre, or language, of a given + mediæval composition, with such data as we now possess."</p> + + <p>From all this it follows, that the inquirer must talk of <i>copies</i> + rather than of <i>authors</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect688">§ 688</a>. <i>Caution.</i>—Differences of + spelling do not always imply differences of pronunciation; perhaps they + may be <i>primâ facie</i> of such. Still it is uncritical to be + over-hasty in <!-- Page 541 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page541"></a>{541}</span>separating, as specimens of + <i>dialect</i>, works which, perhaps, only differ in being specimens of + separate <i>orthographies</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect689">§ 689</a>. <i>Caution.</i>—The accommodation + of a transcribed work is susceptible of <i>degrees</i>. It may go so far + as absolutely to replace one dialect by another, or it may go no farther + than the omission of the more unintelligible expressions, and the + substitution of others more familiar. I again quote the Quarterly + Review,—"There are very few matters more difficult than to + determine <i>à priori</i>, in what precise form a vernacular composition + of the thirteenth century might be written, or what form it might assume + in a very short period. Among the Anglo-Saxon charters of the eleventh + and twelfth centuries, many are modelled upon the literary Anglo-Saxon, + with a few slight changes of orthography and inflection; while others + abound with dialectical peculiarities of various sorts. Those + peculiarities may generally be accounted for from local causes. An + East-Anglian scribe does not employ broad western forms, nor a West of + England man East-Anglian ones; though each might keep his provincial + peculiarities out of sight, and produce something not materially + different from the language of Ælfric."</p> + + <p><a name="sect690">§ 690</a>. <i>Caution.</i>—In the Reeve's + Tale, Chaucer puts into the mouth of one of his north-country clerks, a + native of the Strother, in the north-west part of the deanery of Craven, + where the Northumbrian dialect rather preponderates over the Anglian, + certain Yorkshire glosses. "Chaucer<a name="NtA76" + href="#Nt76"><sup>[76]</sup></a> undoubtedly copied the language of some + native; and the general accuracy, with which he gives it, shows that he + was an attentive observer of all that passed around him.</p> + + <p>"We subjoin an extract from the poem, in order to give our readers an + opportunity of comparing southern and northern English, as they + co-existed in the fifteenth century. It is from a MS. that has never been + collated; but which we believe to be well worthy the attention of any + future editor of the Canterbury Tales. The italics denote variations from + the printed text:—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 542 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page542"></a>{542}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg3">"John highte that oon and Aleyn highte that other:</p> + <p>Of <i>oo</i> toun were thei born that highte Strother,</p> + <p>Ffer in the north I can not tellen where.</p> + <p>This Aleyn maketh redy al his gere—</p> + <p>And on an hors the sak he caste anoon.</p> + <p>Fforth goth Aleyn the clerk and also John,</p> + <p>With good swerde and bokeler by his side.</p> + <p>John knewe the weye—hym nedes no gide;</p> + <p>And atte melle the sak a down he layth.</p> + <p>Aleyn spak first: Al heyle, Symond—in fayth—</p> + <p>How fares thi fayre daughter and thi wyf?</p> + <p>Aleyn welcome—quod Symkyn—be my lyf—</p> + <p>And John also—how now, what do ye here?</p> + <p>By God, quod John—Symond, nede has <i>na</i> pere.</p> + <p>Hym bihoves <i>to</i> serve him self that has na swayn;</p> + <p>Or <i>ellis</i> he is a fool as clerkes sayn.</p> + <p>Oure maunciple I hope he wil be ded—</p> + <p>Swa <i>werkes hym</i> ay the wanges in his heed.</p> + <p>And therefore is I come and eek Aleyn—</p> + <p>To grynde oure corn, and carye it <i>ham</i> agayne,</p> + <p>I pray yow <i>spedes</i><a name="NtA77" href="#Nt77"><sup>[77]</sup></a> us <i>hethen</i> that ye may.</p> + <p>It shal be done, quod Symkyn, by my fay!</p> + <p>What wol ye done while it is in hande?</p> + <p>By God, right by the hoper wol I stande,</p> + <p>Quod John, and see <i>how gates</i> the corn gas inne;</p> + <p><i>Yit</i> saugh I never, by my fader kynne,</p> + <p>How that the hoper wagges til and fra!</p> + <p>Aleyn answerde—John wil <i>ye</i> swa?</p> + <p>Than wil I be bynethe, by my crown,</p> + <p>And se <i>how gates</i> the mele falles down</p> + <p>In til the trough—that sal be my disport.</p> + <p><i>Quod John</i>—In faith, I is of youre sort—</p> + <p>I is as ille a meller as <i>are</i> ye.</p> + <p> * * * * * * </p> + <p>And when the mele is sakked and ybounde,</p> + <p>This John goth out and fynt his hors away—</p> + <p>And gan to crie, harow, and wele away!—</p> + <p>Our hors is lost—Aleyn, for Godde's banes,</p> + <p>Stepe on thi feet—come of man attanes!</p> + <p>Allas, oure wardeyn has his palfrey lorn!</p> + <p>This Aleyn al forgat bothe mele and corn—</p> +<!-- Page 543 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page543"></a>{543}</span> + <p>Al was out of his mynde, his housbonderie.</p> + <p>What—whilke way is he goon? he gan to crie.</p> + <p>The wyf come lepynge <i>in</i> at a ren;</p> + <p>She saide—Allas, youre hors goth to the fen</p> + <p>With wylde mares, as faste as he may go.</p> + <p>Unthank come on this hand that <i>band</i> him so—</p> + <p>And he that <i>bet</i> sholde have knet the reyne.</p> + <p>Alas! quod John, Alayn, for Criste's peyne,</p> + <p>Lay down thi swerde, and I <i>wil</i> myn alswa;</p> + <p>I is ful <i>swift</i>—God wat—as is a ra—</p> + <p>By Goddes <i>herte</i> he sal nought scape us bathe.</p> + <p>Why ne hadde thou put the capel in the lathe?</p> + <p>Il hayl, by God, Aleyn, thou <i>is</i> fonne."</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"Excepting the obsolete forms <i>hethen</i> (hence), <i>swa</i>, + <i>lorn</i>, <i>whilke</i>, <i>alswa</i>, <i>capel</i>—all the + above provincialisms are still, more or less, current in the north-west + part of Yorkshire. <i>Na</i>, <i>ham</i>(e), <i>fra</i>, <i>banes</i>, + <i>attanes</i>, <i>ra</i>, <i>bathe</i>, are pure Northumbrian. + <i>Wang</i> (cheek or temple) is seldom heard, except in the phrase + <i>wang tooth</i>, <i>dens molaris</i>. <i>Ill</i>, adj., for + <i>bad</i>—<i>lathe</i> (barn)—and <i>fond</i> + (foolish)—are most frequently and familiarly used in the West + Riding, or its immediate borders."</p> + + <p>Now this indicates a class of writings which, in the critical history + of our local dialect, must be used with great caution and address. An + imitation of dialect may be so lax as to let its only merit consist in a + deviation from the standard idiom.</p> + + <p>In the Lear of Shakspeare we have speeches from a Kentish clown. Is + this the dialect of the character, the dialect of the writer, or is it + some conventional dialect appropriated to theatrical purposes? I think + the latter.</p> + + <p>In Ben Jonson's Tale of a Tub, one (and more than one of the + characters) speaks thus. His residence is the neighbourhood of London, + Tottenham Court.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Is it no sand? nor buttermilk? if't be,</p> + <p>Ich 'am no zive, or watering-pot, to draw</p> + <p>Knots in your 'casions. If you trust me, zo—</p> + <p>If not, <i>pra</i>forme 't your zelves, '<i>C</i>ham no man's wife,</p> + <p>But resolute Hilts: you'll vind me in the buttry.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Act</i> <span class="scac">I</span>. <i>Scene</i> 1.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 544 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page544"></a>{544}</span></p> + + <p>I consider that this represents the dialect of the neighbourhood of + London, not on the strength of its being put in the mouth of a man of + Tottenham, but from other and independent circumstances.</p> + + <p>Not so, however, with the provincialisms of another of Ben Jonson's + plays, the Sad Shepherd:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="i24">—— shew your sell</p> + <p>Tu all the sheepards, bauldly; gaing amang hem.</p> + <p>Be mickle in their eye, frequent and fugeand.</p> + <p>And, gif they ask ye of Eiarine,</p> + <p>Or of these claithes; say that I ga' hem ye,</p> + <p>And say no more. I ha' that wark in hand,</p> + <p>That web upon the luime, sall gar em thinke.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Act</i> <span class="scac">II</span>. <i>Scene</i> 3.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>The scene of the play is Sherwood Forest: the language, however, as + far as I may venture an opinion, is not the language from which the + present Nottinghamshire dialect has come down.</p> + + <p><a name="sect691">§ 691</a>. <i>Caution.</i>—Again, the word + <i>old</i>, as applied to language, has a double meaning.</p> + + <p>The language of the United States was imported from England into + America in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The language of South Australia + has been introduced within the present generation. In one sense, the + American English is older than the Australian. It was earliest separated + from the mother-tongue.</p> + + <p>The language, however, of America may (I speak only in the way of + illustration, and consequently hypothetically), in the course of time, + become the least old of the two; the word <i>old</i> being taken in + another sense. It may change with greater rapidity. It may lose its + inflections. It may depart more from the structure of the mother-tongue, + and preserve fewer of its <i>old</i> elements. In this sense the + Australian (provided that it has altered least, and that it retain the + greatest number of the <i>old</i> inflections) will be the older tongue + of the two.</p> + + <p>Now what may be said of the language of two countries, may be said of + the dialects of two districts. The one dialect may run its changes apace; + the other alter but by degrees. <!-- Page 545 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page545"></a>{545}</span>Hence, of two works in two such dialects, + the one would appear older than the other, although in reality the two + were cotemporary.</p> + + <p>Hence, also, it is a lax expression to say that it is the old forms + (the archaisms) that the provincial dialects retain. The provincial forms + are archaic only when the current language changes more rapidly than the + local idiom. When the local idiom changes fastest, the archaic forms + belong to the standard mode of speech.</p> + + <p>The provincial forms, <i>goand</i>, <i>slepand</i>, for <i>going</i> + and <i>sleeping</i>, are archaic. Here the archaism is with the + provincial form.</p> + + <p>The forms <i>almost</i>, <i>horses</i>, <i>nought but</i>, contrasted + with the provincialisms <i>ommost</i>, <i>hosses</i>, <i>nobbot</i>, are + archaic. They have not been changed so much as they will be. Here the + archaism (that is, the nearer approach to the older form) is with the + standard idiom. A sequestered locality is preservative of old forms. But + writing and education are preservatives of them also.</p> + + <p><a name="sect692">§ 692</a>. With these preliminaries a brief notice + of the English dialects, in their different stages, may begin.</p> + + <p><i>The districts north of the Humber.</i>—There is so large an + amount of specimens of the dialects of this area in the Anglo-Saxon stage + of our language, the area itself so closely coincides with the political + division of the kingdom of Northumberland, whilst the present arrangement + (more or less provisional) of the Anglo-Saxon dialects consists of the + divisions of them into the, 1, West-Saxon; 2, Mercian; and 3, + Northumbrian, that it is best to give a general view of the whole tract + before the minuter details of the different counties which compose them + are noticed. The <i>data</i> for the Northumbrian division of the + Anglo-Saxon dialects are as follows:—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Wanley's Fragment of Cædmon.</i>—The north-east of + Yorkshire was the birth-place of the Anglo-Saxon monk Cædmon. + Nevertheless, the form in which his poems in full have come down to us is + that of a West-Saxon composition. This indicates the probability of the + original work having first been re-cast, and afterwards lost. Be this as + it may, the <!-- Page 546 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page546"></a>{546}</span>following short fragment has been printed + by Wanley, from an ancient MS., and by Hickes from Bede, Hist. Eccl., 4, + 24, and it is considered, in the first form, to approach or, perhaps, to + represent the Northumbrian of the original poem.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Fragment of Cædmon" title="Fragment of Cædmon"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> + 1.<br /> + <i>Wanley.</i><br /> +Nu seylun hergan<br /> +Herfaen-ricaes uard,<br /> +Metudes mæcti,<br /> +End his modgethanc.<br /> +Uerc uuldur fadur,<br /> +Sue he uundra gihuaes,<br /> +Eci drictin,<br /> +Ord stelidæ.<br /> +He ærist scopa,<br /> +Elda barnum,<br /> +Heben til hrofe;<br /> +Haleg scepen:<br /> +Tha mittungeard,<br /> +Moncynnæs uard,<br /> +Eci drictin,<br /> +Æfter tiaðæ,<br /> +Firum foldu,<br /> +Frea allmectig. +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> + 2.<br /> + <i>Hickes.</i><br /> +Nú we sceolan herigean<br /> +Heofon-ríces weard,<br /> +Metodes mihte,<br /> +And his módgethanc.<br /> +Weorc wuldor-fæder,<br /> +Sva he wundra gewæs,<br /> +Ecé driten,<br /> +Ord onstealde.<br /> +Ne ǽrest scóp,<br /> +Eorðan bearnum,<br /> +Heofon tó rófe;<br /> +Hálig scyppend:<br /> +Dá middangeard,<br /> +Moncynnes weard,<br /> +Ece drihten,<br /> +Æfter teóde,<br /> +Firum foldan,<br /> +Freá almihtig. +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Translation.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Translation" title="Translation"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +Now we should praise<br /> +The heaven-kingdom's preserver,<br /> +The might of the Creator,<br /> +And his mood-thought.<br /> +The glory-father of works,<br /> +As he, of wonders, each<br /> +Eternal Lord,<br /> +Originally established.<br /> +He erst shaped, +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +For earth's bairns,<br /> +Heaven to roof;<br /> +Holy shaper;<br /> +Then mid-earth,<br /> +Mankind's home,<br /> +Eternal Lord,<br /> +After formed,<br /> +For the homes of men,<br /> +Lord Almighty. +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="cenhead">2. <i>The death-bed verses of Bede.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The death-bed verses of Bede" title="The death-bed verses of Bede"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +Fore the neidfaerae,<br /> +Naenig uuiurthit<br /> +Thoc-snotturra<br /> +Than him tharf sie<br /> +To ymbhycganne,<br /> +<!-- Page 547 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page547"></a>{547}</span> +Aer his hionongae,<br /> +Huaet, his gastae,<br /> +Godaes aeththa yflaes,<br /> +Æfter deothdaege,<br /> +Doemid uuieorthae. +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +Before the necessary journey,<br /> +No one is<br /> +Wiser of thought<br /> +Than he hath need<br /> +To consider,<br /> +Before his departure,<br /> +What, for his spirit,<br /> +Of good or evil,<br /> +After the death-day,<br /> +Shall be doomed. +</td></tr></table> + + <p>From a MS. at St. Gallen; quoted by Mr. Kemble, <i>Archæologia</i>, + vol. xxviii.</p> + + <p>3. <i>The Ruthwell Runes.</i>—The inscription in Anglo-Saxon + Runic letters, on the Ruthwell Cross, is thus deciphered and translated + by Mr. Kemble:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Ruthwell Runes" title="The Ruthwell Runes"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +. . . . . . . mik.<br /> +Riiknæ kyningk<br /> +Hifunæs hlafard,<br /> +Hælda ic ne dærstæ.<br /> +Bismerede ungket men,<br /> +Bâ ætgæd[r]e,<br /> +Ik (n)iðbædi bist(e)me(d)<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +. . . . geredæ<br /> +Hinæ gamældæ<br /> +Estig, ða he walde<br /> +An galgu gistîga<br /> +Môdig fore<br /> +Men, . . . . .<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +Mid stralum giwundæd,<br /> +Alegdun hiæ hinæ,<br /> +Limwêrigne.<br /> +Gistodun him . . .<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +Krist wæs on rôdi;<br /> +Hweðræ ther fûsæ<br /> +Fearran cwomu<br /> +Æððilæ ti lænum.<br /> +Ic that al bih (eôld)<br /> +. . . . . sæ (...)<br /> +Ic w(æ)s mi(d) ga(l)gu<br /> +Æ (. . . .) rod . ha . .<br /> +. . . . . . . . . . +</td><td class="spacsingle" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +. . . . . . me.<br /> +The powerful King,<br /> +The Lord of Heaven,<br /> +I dared not hold.<br /> +They reviled us two,<br /> +Both together,<br /> +I stained with the pledge of<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +. . . . prepared<br /> +Himself spake<br /> +Benignantly when he would<br /> +Go up upon the cross,<br /> +Courageously before<br /> +Men . . . . .<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +Wounded with shafts,<br /> +They laid him down,<br /> +Limb-weary.<br /> +They stood by him.<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +Christ was on cross.<br /> +Lo! there with speed<br /> +From afar came<br /> +Nobles to him in misery.<br /> +I that all beheld<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +I was with the cross<br /> +. . . . . . . . . .<br /> +. . . . . . . . . . +</td></tr></table> + +<p><!-- Page 548 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page548"></a>{548}</span></p> + + <p>"The dialect of these lines is that of Northumberland in the seventh, + eighth, and even ninth centuries. The first peculiarity is in the + <i>æ</i> for <i>e</i> in the oblique cases, and which I have observed in + the cotemporary MS. of Cuðberht's letter at St. Gallen. This, which is + strictly organic, and represents the uncorrupted Gothic genitive in + <i>-as</i>, and dative in <i>-a</i>, as well as the Old Saxon forms of + the substantive, is evidence of great antiquity. But that which is, + perhaps, the most characteristic of the Northumbrian dialect is the + formation of the infinitive in <i>-a</i> and <i>-æ</i>, instead of + <i>-an</i> (<i>hældæ</i>, <i>gistiga</i>). The Durham Book has, I + believe, throughout but one single verb, which makes the infinitive in + <i>-an</i>, and that is the anomalous word <i>bean</i>=<i>to be</i>; even + <i>wosa</i> and <i>wiortha</i> following the common rule. The word + <i>ungket</i> is another incontrovertible proof of extreme antiquity, + having, to the best of my knowledge, never been found but in this + passage. It is the dual of the first personal pronoun <i>Ic</i>, and + corresponds to the very rare dual of the second personal pronoun + <i>incit</i>, which occurs twice in Cædmon."<a name="NtA78" + href="#Nt78"><sup>[78]</sup></a></p> + + <p>4. <i>The Cotton Psalter.</i>—This is a Latin Psalter in the + Cotton collection, accompanied by an Anglo-Saxon interlineation. Place + uncertain. Time, ninth century or earlier. The following points of + difference between this and the West-Saxon are indicated by Mr. Garnett, + Phil. Soc. No. 27.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Cotton Psalter" title="Cotton Psalter"> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> COTTON PSALTER. </td><td class="hspcsingle"> WEST-SAXON.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Boen, <i>prayer</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Bën.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Boec, <i>books</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Béc.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Coelan, <i>cool</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Célan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Doeman, <i>judge</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Déman.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Foedan, <i>feed</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Fédan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Spoed, <i>fortune</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Spéd.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Swoet, <i>sweet</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Swét.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Woenan, <i>think</i>, <i>ween</i> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Wénan.</td></tr> +</table> + + <p>5. <i>The Durham Gospels—Quatuor Evangelia Latine, ex + translatione B. Hieronymi, cum glossâ interlineatâ Saxonica.</i> Nero, + <span class="scac">D</span>. 4.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 549 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page549"></a>{549}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Matthew</i>, cap. 2.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Durham Gospels" title="Durham Gospels"> +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:bottom"> miððy<br />Cum </td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> arod<br />ergo</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> gecenned<br />natus</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> were<br />esset</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> haelend<br />Jesus</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> in<br />in</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> ðær byrig<br/> Bethleem</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> Judææ</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> in<br />in</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> dagum<br />diebus</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> Herodes<br />Herodis</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> cyninges<br />Regis,</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> heonu<br />ecce</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> ða tungulcraeftga<br />magi</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> of<br />ab</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> eustdael<br />oriente</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> cwomun<br />venerunt</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> to hierusalem<br />Hierosolymam,</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> cweoðonde<br />hiu cwoedon<br />dicentes,</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> huer<br />Ubi</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> is<br />est</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> ðe<br />qui</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> acenned<br />natus</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> is<br />est</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> cynig<br />rex</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> Judeunu<br />Judæorum?</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> gesegon<br />vidimus</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> we forðon<br />enim</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> tungul<br />sterru<br />stellam</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> his<br />ejus</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> in<br />in </td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:bottom"> eustdæl<br />oriente</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> and<br />et</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> we cwomon<br />venimus</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> to worðanne<br />adorare</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> hine<br />eum.</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> geherde<br />Audiens</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> wiototlice<br />autem </td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:bottom"> herodes se cynig<br />Herodes</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> gedroefed<br />turbatus</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> wæs<br />est</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> and<br />et</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> alle<br />omnis</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> ða burgwæras<br />ða hierusolemisca<br />Hierosolyma</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> mið<br />cum </td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> him<br />illo.</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> and<br />Et</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> gesomnede<br />congregatis</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> <br />(<i>sic</i>)</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> alle<br />omnes</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> ða aldormenn<br />principes</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> mesapreusti<br />biscopa<br />sacerdotum </td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:bottom"> and<br />et</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> ða uðuutta<br />scribas</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> ðæs folces<br />populi,</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> geascode<br />georne gefragnde<br />sciscitabatur</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> fra<br />ab</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> him<br />iis</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> huer<br />ubi</td><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:bottom"> crist<br />Christus </td></tr> +</table></td></tr> + +<tr><td><table> +<tr><td class="hspcsingle" style="text-align:left; vertical-align:bottom"> acenned were.<br />nasceretur.</td></tr> +</table></td></tr> +</table> + + <p>6. <i>The Rituale Ecclesiæ Dunhelmensis.</i>—Edited for the + Surtees Society by Mr. Stevenson. Place: neighbourhood of Durham. Time: + <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 970. Differences between the Psalter and + Ritual:—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> The form for the first person is in the Psalter generally + <i>-u</i>. In the Ritual it is generally <i>-o</i>. In West Saxon, + <i>-e</i>.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Psalter.</span>—<i>Getreow-u</i>, I believe; + <i>cleopi-u</i>, I call; <i>sell-u</i>, I give; <i>ondred-u</i>, I fear; + <i>ageld-u</i>, I pay; <i>getimbr-u</i>, I build. Forms in <i>-o</i>; + <i>sitt-o</i>, I sit; <i>drinc-o</i>, I drink.</p> + + <p><span class="sc">Ritual.</span>—<i>Feht-o</i>, I fight; + <i>wuldrig-o</i>, I glory. The ending in <i>-u</i> is rarer.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> In the West Saxon the plural present of verbs ends in + <i>-að</i>: <i>we lufi-að</i>, <i>ge lufi-að</i>, <i>hi lufi-að</i>. The + Psalter also exhibits this West Saxon form. But the plurals of the Ritual + <!-- Page 550 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page550"></a>{550}</span>end in <i>-s</i>: as, <i>bidd-as</i>=<i>we + pray</i>; <i>giwoed-es</i>=<i>put on</i>; <i>wyrc-as</i>=<i>do</i>.</p> + + <p><i>c.</i> The infinitives of verbs end in the West Saxon in + <i>-an</i>, as <i>cwed-an</i>=<i>to say</i>. So they do in the Psalter. + But in the Ritual the <i>-n</i> is omitted, and the infinitive ends + simply in <i>-a</i>: <i>cuoetha</i>=<i>to say</i>; <i>inngeonga</i>=<i>to + enter</i>.</p> + + <p><i>d.</i> The oblique cases and plurals of substantives in West Saxon + end in <i>-an</i>: as <i>heortan</i>=<i>heart's</i>; + <i>heortan</i>=<i>hearts</i>. So they do in the Psalter. But in the + Ritual the <i>-n</i> is omitted, and the word ends simply in <i>-a</i> or + <i>-e</i>; as <i>nome</i>=<i>of a name</i> (West Saxon <i>nam-an</i>); + <i>hearta</i>=<i>hearts</i>.</p> + + <p>7. <i>The Rushworth Gospels.</i>—Place, Harewood in Wharfdale, + Yorkshire. Time, according to Wanley, the end of the ninth century.</p> + + <p>Here observe—</p> + + <p>1. That the Ruthwell inscription gives us a sample of the so-called + Northumbrian Anglo-Saxon, and that as it is spoken in Scotland, + <i>i.e.</i>, in Galloway. For the bearings of this see Part II., c. + 3.</p> + + <p>2. That the Rushworth Gospels take us as far south as the West Riding + of Yorkshire.</p> + + <p>3. That there are no specimens from any Cumberland, Westmoreland, or + North Lancashire localities, these being, most probably, exclusively + Celtic.</p> + + <p><a name="sect693">§ 693</a>. The most general statements concerning + this great section of the Anglo-Saxon, is that—</p> + + <p>1. It prefers the slenderer and more vocalic to the broader and more + diphthongal forms.</p> + + <p>2. The sounds of <i>k</i> and <i>s</i>, to those of <i>ch</i> and + <i>sh</i>.</p> + + <p>3. The forms without the prefix <i>ge-</i>, to those with them. + Nevertheless the form <i>ge-cenned</i> (=<i>natus</i>) occurs in the + first line of the extract from the Durham Gospels.</p> + + <p><a name="sect694">§ 694</a>. The Old and Middle English MSS. from this + quarter are numerous; falling into two classes:</p> + + <p>1. Transcriptions with accommodation from works composed southwards. + Here the characteristics of the dialect are not absolute. <!-- Page 551 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page551"></a>{551}</span></p> + + <p>2. Northern copies of northern compositions. Here the characteristics + of the dialect are at the maximum. Sir Tristram is one of the most + important works of this class; and in the wider sense of the term + <i>Northumbrian</i>, it is a matter of indifference on which side of the + Border it was composed. See <a href="#sect190">§ 190</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect695">§ 695</a>. Taking the counties in detail, we + have—</p> + + <p><i>Northumberland.</i>—Northern frontier, East Scotland; the + direction of the influence being from South to North, rather than from + North to South, <i>i. e.</i>, Berwickshire and the Lothians being + Northumbrian and English, rather than Northumberland Scotch.</p> + + <p>West frontier Celtic—the Cumberland and Westmoreland Britons + having been encroached upon by the Northumbrians of Northumberland.</p> + + <p>Present dialect.—Believed to be nearly uniform over the counties + of Northumberland and Durham; but changing in character in North + Yorkshire, and in Cumberland and Westmoreland.</p> + + <p>The Anglo-Saxon immigration considered to have been Angle (so-called) + rather than Saxon.</p> + + <p>Danish admixture—Very great. Possibly, as far as the marks that + it has left on the language, greater than in any other part of + <i>England</i>.<a name="NtA79" href="#Nt79"><sup>[79]</sup></a>—See + <a href="#sect152">§ 152</a>.</p> + + <p><i>Cumberland, Westmoreland, North Lancashire.</i>—Anglo-Saxon + elements introduced from portions of Northumbria rather than directly + from the Continent.</p> + + <p>Celtic language persistent until a comparatively late though + undetermined period.</p> + + <p>Northern frontier, West-Scotland—the direction of the influence + being from Scotland to England, rather than <i>vice versâ</i>; Carlisle + being more of a Scotch town than Berwick.</p> + + <p>Specimens of the dialects in the older stages, few and doubtful.</p> + + <p>Topographical nomenclature characterized by the preponderance of + compounds of <i>-thwaite</i>; as <i>Braithwaite</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 552 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page552"></a>{552}</span></p> + + <p><i>North</i> Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, "exhibit many + Anglian<a name="NtA80" href="#Nt80"><sup>[80]</sup></a> peculiarities, + which may have been occasioned in some degree by the colonies in the + south, planted in that district by William Rufus (Saxon Chronicle, <span + class="scac">A.D.</span> 1092.) A comparison of Anderson's ballads with + Burns's songs, will show how like Cumbrian is to Scottish, but how + different. We believe that Weber is right in referring the romance of Sir + Amadas to this district. The mixture of the Anglian forms <i>gwo</i>, + <i>gwon</i>, <i>bwons</i>, <i>boyd-word</i> (in pure Northumbrian), + <i>gae</i>, <i>gane</i>, <i>banes</i>, <i>bod-worde</i>, with the + northern terms, <i>tynt</i>, <i>kent</i>, <i>bathe</i>, <i>mare</i>, and + many others of the same class, could hardly have occurred in any other + part of England."<a name="NtA81" href="#Nt81"><sup>[81]</sup></a></p> + + <p><i>Yorkshire, North and part of West Riding.</i>—The Anglo-Saxon + specimens of this area have been noticed in <a href="#sect692">§ + 692</a>.</p> + + <p>The extract from Chaucer is also from this district.</p> + + <p>The modern dialects best known are—</p> + + <p>1. <i>The Craven.</i>—This, in northern localities, "becomes + slightly tinctured with Northumbrian."—Quart. Rev. <i>ut + supra</i>.</p> + + <p>2. <i>The Cleveland.</i>—With not only Northumbrian, but even + Scotch characters. Quart. Rev. <i>ut supra</i>.</p> + + <p>Danish admixture—Considerable.</p> + + <p>All these dialects, if rightly classified, belong to the Northumbrian + division of the Angle branch of the Anglo-Saxon language; whilst, if the + <i>primâ facie</i> view of their affiliation or descent, be the true one, + they are the dialects of <a href="#sect692">§ 692</a>, in their modern + forms.</p> + + <p><a name="sect696">§ 696</a>. The classification which gives this + arrangement now draws a line of distinction at the river Ribble, in + Lancashire, which separates <i>South</i> from North Lancashire; whilst in + Yorkshire, the East Riding, and that part of the West which does not + belong to the Wapentake of Claro, belong to the class which is supposed + to exclude the previous and contain the following dialects:—</p> + + <p><a name="sect697">§ 697</a>. <i>South Lancashire and + Cheshire.</i>—Sub-varieties of <!-- Page 553 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page553"></a>{553}</span>the same dialects, but + not sub-varieties of the previous ones.</p> + + <p>The plural form in <i>-en</i> is a marked character of this + dialect—at least of the Lancashire portion.</p> + + <p>Supposed original population—Angle rather than Saxon.</p> + + <p>Original political relations—Mercian rather than + Northumbrian.</p> + + <p>These last two statements apply to all the forthcoming areas north of + Essex. The latter is a simple historical fact; the former supposes an + amount of difference between the Angle and the Saxon which has been + assumed rather than proved; or, at any rate, which has never been defined + accurately.</p> + + <p>The elements of uncertainty thus developed, will be noticed in <a + href="#sect704">§§ 704</a>-708. At present it is sufficient to say, that + if the South Lancashire dialect has been separated from the north, on the + score of its having been <i>Mercian</i> rather than <i>Northumbrian</i>, + the principle of classification has been based upon <i>political</i> + rather than <i>philological</i> grounds; and as such is + exceptionable.</p> + + <p><a name="sect698">§ 698</a>. <i>Shropshire, Staffordshire, and West + Derbyshire.</i>—Supposing the South Lancashire and Cheshire to be + the Mercian (which we must remember is a <i>political</i> term), the + Shropshire, Staffordshire, and <i>West</i> Derbyshire are Mercian also; + transitional, however, in character.</p> + + <p>Shropshire and Cheshire have a Celtic frontier.</p> + + <p>Here, also, both the <i>a priori</i> probabilities and the known facts + make the Danish intermixture at its <i>minimum</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect699">§ 699</a>. <i>East Derbyshire and + Nottinghamshire.</i>—Here the language is considered to change from + the mode of speech of which the South Lancashire is the type, to the mode + of speech of which the Norfolk and Suffolk dialect is the type.</p> + + <p>Danish elements may now be expected, Derbyshire being the most inland + Danish area.</p> + + <p>Original political relations—Mercian.</p> + + <p>Specimens of the dialects in their older stages, preeminently + scanty.</p> + + <p><i>Hallamshire.</i>—This means the parts about Sheffield <!-- + Page 554 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page554"></a>{554}</span>extended so as to include that portion of + the West Riding of Yorkshire which stands over from <a href="#sect696">§ + 696</a>. Probably belonging to the same group with the <i>South</i> + Lancashire.</p> + + <p><i>East Riding of Yorkshire.</i>—It is not safe to say more of + this dialect than that its affinities are with the dialects spoken to the + <i>north</i> rather than with those spoken to the south of it, + <i>i.e.</i>, that of—</p> + + <p><i>Lincolnshire.</i>—Frontier—On the Nottinghamshire and + Leicestershire frontier, passing into the form of speech of those + counties. Pretty definitely separated from that of Norfolk. Less so from + that of North Cambridgeshire. Scarcely at all from that of + Huntingdonshire, and North Northamptonshire.</p> + + <p>Danish admixture.—The number of towns and villages ending in the + characteristic Danish termination <i>-by</i>, at its <i>maximum</i>; + particularly in the neighbourhood of Spils<i>by</i>.</p> + + <p>Traditions Danish, <i>e. g.</i>, that of Havelok the Dane, at + Grimsby.</p> + + <p>Physiognomy, Danish.</p> + + <p>Language not Danish in proportion to the other signs of Scandinavian + intermixture.</p> + + <p>Specimens of the dialects in its older form—Havelok<a + name="NtA82" href="#Nt82"><sup>[82]</sup></a> the Dane (?), Manning's + Chronicle (supposing the MS. to have been transcribed in the county where + the author was born).</p> + + <p>Provincial peculiarities (<i>i.e.</i>, deviations from the written + language) nearly at the <i>minimum</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Huntingdonshire, North Northamptonshire, and + Rutland.</i>—<i>Anglo-Saxon period.</i>—The latter part of + the Saxon Chronicle was written at Peterboro. Probably, also, the poems + of Helena and Andreas. Hence, this area is that of the <i>old</i> Mercian + in its most typical form; whilst South Lancashire is that of the + <i>new</i>—a practical instance of the inconvenience of applying + <i>political</i> terms to philological subjects.</p> + + <p><a name="sect700">§ 700</a>. <i>Norfolk, Suffolk, and the fen part of + Cambridgeshire.</i>—Here the population is pre-eminently Angle. The + political character East-Anglian rather than Mercian.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 555 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page555"></a>{555}</span></p> + + <p>Specimens of the dialects in the Anglo-Saxon stage.—The Natale + St. Edmundi, in Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica.</p> + + <p>Early English—The Promtuarium Parvulorum.</p> + + <p><a name="sect701">§ 701</a>. <i>Leicestershire, Warwickshire, and + South Northamptonshire.</i>—Mercian (so-called) rather than + West-Saxon (so-called).</p> + + <p>Probably, approaching the written language of England more closely + than is the case with the dialects spoken to the south of them.</p> + + <p>Certainly, approaching the written language of England less closely + than is the case with the dialect of Huntingdonshire, North + Northamptonshire, and South Lincolnshire.</p> + + <p><a name="sect702">§ 702</a>. These remarks have the following import. + They bear upon the question of the origin of the <i>written</i> language + of England.</p> + + <p>Mr. Guest first diverted the attention of scholars from the + consideration of the West Saxon of the chief Anglo-Saxon writers as the + mother-dialect of the present English, to the Mercian; so turning their + attention from the south to the centre of England.</p> + + <p>The general principle that a <i>central</i> locality has the <i>a + priori</i> likelihood in its favour, subtracts nothing from the value of + his suggestion.</p> + + <p>Neither does the fact of the nearest approach to the written language + being found about the parts in question; since the doctrine to which the + present writer commits himself, viz., that in the parts between + Huntingdon and Stamford, the purest English is most generally spoken, is, + neither universally recognised, nor yet part of Mr. Guest's argument.</p> + + <p>Mr. Guest's arguments arose out of the evidence of the MSS. of the + parts in question.</p> + + <p>That the dialect most closely allied to the dialect (or dialects) out + of which the present literary language of England is developed, is to be + found either in Northamptonshire or the neighbouring counties is nearly + certain. Mr. Guest looks for it on the western side of that county + (Leicestershire); the present writer on the eastern + (Huntingdonshire).</p> + + <p><a name="sect703">§ 703</a>. It is now convenient to pass from the + dialects of <!-- Page 556 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page556"></a>{556}</span>the water-system of the Ouse, Nene, and + Welland to those spoken along the lower course of the Thames.</p> + + <p>These, to a certain extent, may be dealt with like those to the north + of the Humber. Just as the latter were, in the first instance, and in the + more general way, thrown into a single class (the Northumbrian), so may + the dialects in question form the provisional centre of another separate + class. For this we have no very convenient name. The dialects, however, + which it contains agree in the following points.</p> + + <p>1. These are considered to be derived from that variety of the + Anglo-Saxon which is represented by the chief remains of the Anglo-Saxon + literature, <i>i.e.</i>, the so-called standard or classical language of + Alfred, Ælfric, the present text of Cædmon, &c.</p> + + <p>2. About half their <i>present eastern</i> area consists of the + <i>counties</i> ending in <i>-sex</i>; viz., Sus<i>sex</i>, Es<i>sex</i>, + and Middle<i>sex</i>.</p> + + <p>3. Nearly the <i>whole</i> of their <i>original</i> area consisted in + <i>kingdoms</i> (or sub-kingdoms) ending in <i>-sex</i>; viz., the + districts just enumerated, and the kingdom of Wes<i>sex</i>.</p> + + <p>Hence they are—</p> + + <p><i>a.</i>—<i>Considered with reference to their literary + history.</i>—They are dialects whereof the literary development + began early, but ceased at the time of the Norman Conquest, being + superseded by that of the central dialects (<i>Mercian</i> so-called) of + the island. The truth of this view depends on the truth of Mr. Guest's + doctrine noticed in page <a href="#page555">555</a>. If true, it is by no + means an isolated phænomenon. In Holland the present Dutch is the + descendant of some dialect (or dialects) which was uncultivated in the + earlier periods of the language; whereas the Old Frisian, which was + <i>then</i> the written language, is <i>now</i> represented by a + provincial dialect only.</p> + + <p>"In speaking of the Anglo-Saxon language, scholars universally intend + that particular form of speech in which all the principal monuments of + our most ancient literature are composed, and which, with very slight + variations, is found in Beowulf and Cædmon, in the Exeter and Vercelli + Codices, in the translation of the Gospels and Homilies, and in the works + <!-- Page 557 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page557"></a>{557}</span>of Ælfred the Great. For all general + purposes this nomenclature is sufficiently exact; and in this point of + view, the prevalent dialect, which contains the greatest number of + literary remains, may be fairly called the Anglo-Saxon language, of which + all varying forms were dialects. It is, however, obvious that this is in + fact an erroneous way of considering the subject; the utmost that can be + asserted is, that Ælfred wrote his own language, viz., that which was + current in Wessex; and that this, having partly through the devastations + of heathen enemies in other parts of the island, partly through the + preponderance of the West-Saxon power and extinction of the other royal + families, become the language of the one supreme court, soon became that + of literature and the pulpit also."—Kemble. Phil. Trans. No. + 35.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i>—<i>Considered in respect to their political + relations.</i>—Subject to the influence of the <i>Wessex</i> + portion of the so-called Heptarchy, rather than to the + <i>Mercian</i>,</p> + + <p><i>c.</i>—<i>Considered ethnologically</i>—<i>Saxon</i> + rather than <i>Angle</i>. The exceptions that lie against this class will + be noticed hereafter.</p> + + <p><a name="sect704">§ 704</a>. <i>Kent</i>—<i>Theoretically</i>, + Kent, is Jute rather than Saxon, and Saxon rather than Angle.</p> + + <p>Celtic elements, probably, at the <i>minimum</i>.</p> + + <p>Predominance of local terms compounded of the word <i>-hurst</i>; as, + Pens<i>hurst</i>, Staple<i>hurst</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><i>Frisian hypothesis.</i>—The following facts and statements + (taken along with those of <a href="#sect15">§§ 15</a>-20, and <a + href="#sect129">§§ 129</a>-131), pre-eminently require criticism.</p> + + <p>1. Hengest the supposed father of the Kentish kingdom is a Frisian + hero—Kemble's <i>Sächsische Stamtaffel</i>.</p> + + <p>2. The dialect of the Durham Gospels and Ritual contain a probably + Frisian form.</p> + + <p>3. "The country called by the Anglo-Saxons Northumberland, and which + may loosely be said to have extended from the Humber to Edinburgh, and + from the North Sea to the hills of Cumberland, was peopled by tribes of + Angles. Such, at least, is the tradition reported by Beda, who adds that + Kent was first settled by Jutes. Who these Jutes were is <!-- Page 558 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page558"></a>{558}</span>not clearly + ascertained, but from various circumstances it may be inferred that there + was at least a considerable admixture of Frisians amongst them. Hengest, + the supposed founder of the Kentish kingdom, is a Frisian hero, and + Jutes, 'ëotenas,' is a usual name for the Frisians in Bëówulf. Beda, it + is true, does not enumerate Frisians among the Teutonic races by which + England was colonized, but this omission is repaired by the far more + valuable evidence of Procopius, who, living at the time of some great + invasion of Britain by the Germans, expressly numbers Frisians among the + invaders. Now the Anglo-Saxon traditions themselves, however obscurely + they may express it, point to a close connection between Kent and + Northumberland: the latter country, according to these traditions, was + colonized from Kent, and for a long time received its rulers or dukes + from that kingdom. Without attaching to this legend more importance than + it deserves, we may conclude that it asserts an original communion + between the tribes that settled in the two countries; and consequently, + if any Frisic influence is found to operate in the one, it will be + necessary to inquire whether a similar action can be detected in the + other. This will be of some moment hereafter, when we enter upon a more + detailed examination of the dialect. The most important peculiarity in + which the Durham Evangeles and Ritual differ from the Psalter is the form + of the infinitive mood in verbs. This in the Durham books is, with + exception of one verb, beán, <i>esse</i>, invariably formed in <i>-a</i>, + not in <i>-an</i>, the usual form in all the other Anglo-Saxon dialects. + Now this is also a peculiarity of the Frisic, and of the Old Norse, and + is found in no other Germanic tongue; it is then an interesting inquiry + whether the one or the other of these tongues is the origin of this + peculiarity; whether, in short, it belongs to the old, the original + Frisic form which prevailed in the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries, or + whether it is owing to Norse influence, acting in the ninth and tenth, + through the establishment of Danish invaders and a Danish dynasty in the + countries north of the Humber."—Kemble. Phil. Trans. No. 35.</p> + + <p>The details necessary for either the verification or the overthrow of + the doctrine of a similarity of origin between <!-- Page 559 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page559"></a>{559}</span>portions of the + Northumbrian<a name="NtA83" href="#Nt83"><sup>[83]</sup></a> and portions + of the Kentish population have yet to be worked out.</p> + + <p>So have the <i>differentiæ</i> between the dialects of <i>Kent</i>, + and the dialects of Sus<i>sex</i>, Es<i>sex</i>, Middle<i>sex</i>, and + Wes<i>sex</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Probable Anglo-Saxon of Kent.</i>—Codex Diplomaticus, No. + 191.</p> + + <p><a name="sect705">§ 705</a>. <i>Sussex.</i>—The characteristics + are involved in those of Kent—thus, if Kent be simply Saxon the two + counties have the same ethnological relation; whilst if Kent be Frisian + or Jute(?) Sussex may be either like or unlike.</p> + + <p><i>Hampshire.</i>—<i>Theoretically</i>, Saxon rather than Angle, + and West Saxon (Wessex) rather than south, east, or Middle-Saxon.</p> + + <p>Jute elements in either the Hants or Isle of Wight dialects, hitherto + undiscovered. Probably, non-existent.</p> + + <p>Present dialect certainly not the closest representative of the + classical Anglo-Saxon, <i>i. e.</i>, the so-called <i>West</i> Saxon.</p> + + <p><i>Berkshire.</i>—Present dialect, probably, the closest + representative of the classical Anglo-Saxon.</p> + + <p><i>Cornwall.</i>—Celtic elements at the <i>maximum</i>.</p> + + <p><i>Devonshire and West Somerset.</i>—Present dialect strongly + marked by the use of <i>z</i> for <i>s</i> + (<i>Zomerzet</i>=<i>Somerset</i>).</p> + + <p>Celtic elements probably considerable.</p> + + <p><i>Worcestershire.</i>—The language of the Anglo-Saxon period is + characterized by the exclusive, or nearly exclusive, use of <i>s</i> in + the forms <i>usse</i> and <i>usses</i> for <i>ure</i> and <i>ures</i>. + See Codex Diplomaticus, Nos. 95 and 97.</p> + + <p>The affiliation of the present dialect has yet to be investigated.</p> + + <p><i>North Glostershire.</i>—<i>Politically</i>, both North + Gloster and Worcestershire are Mercian rather than West-Saxon.</p> + + <p>Now the language of Layamon was North Gloster.</p> + + <p>And one at least of the MSS. is supposed to represent this + language.</p> + + <p>Nevertheless its character is said to be West Saxon rather than + Mercian.</p> + + <p>What does this prove? Not that the West Saxon dialect <!-- Page 560 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page560"></a>{560}</span>extended into + Mercia, but that a political nomenclature is out of place in + philology.</p> + + <p><i>The Welsh frontier.</i>—<i>Herefordshire, + &c.</i>—Celtic elements. General character of the dialects, + probably, that of the counties immediately to the east of them.</p> + + <p><i>Essex.</i>—<i>Theoretically</i>, Saxon rather than Angle. No + such distinction, however, is indicated by the ascertained characteristic + of the Essex dialects as opposed to the East Anglian, Suffolk, and the + Mercian.</p> + + <p><i>Hertfordshire.</i>—I am not aware of any thing that + distinguishes the South Hertfordshire form of speech from those + of—</p> + + <p><i>Middlesex.</i>—Here, as far as there are any characteristics + at all, they are those of <i>Es</i>sex. The use of <i>v</i> for <i>w</i>, + attributed (and partially due) to Londoners, occurs—not because + there is any such thing as a London dialect, but because London is a town + on the Essex side of Middlesex.</p> + + <p><i>Surrey.</i>—The name (<i>Suð rige</i>=<i>southern + kingdom</i>) indicates an original political relation with the parts + <i>north</i> rather than <i>south</i> of the Thames.</p> + + <p>The evidence of the dialect is, probably, the other way.</p> + + <p><a name="sect706">§ 706</a>. <i>Supposed East-Anglian and Saxon + frontier.</i>—For the area just noticed there are two lines of + demarcation—one geographical, and one ethnological.</p> + + <p><i>a.</i> <i>Geographical.</i>—The river Thames.</p> + + <p><i>b.</i> <i>Ethnological.</i>—The line which separates + Middle<i>sex</i> and Es<i>sex</i> (<i>so-called</i> Saxon localities) + from Herts and Suffolk (<i>so-called</i> Angle localities).</p> + + <p>Of these the first line involves an undeniable fact; the second a very + doubtful one. No evidence has been adduced in favour of disconnecting + Saxon Essex from Anglian Suffolk, nor yet for connecting it with + Sus<i>sex</i> and Wes<i>sex</i>. The termination <i>-sex</i> is an + undoubted fact; the difference between the Saxons and Angles which it is + supposed to indicate is an assumption.</p> + + <p><a name="sect707">§ 707</a>. The dialects of the remaining counties + have, probably, the transitional characters, indicated by their + geographical position.</p> + + <p><i>Dorset</i>—Hants and Somerset. <!-- Page 561 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page561"></a>{561}</span></p> + + <p><i>Wilts.</i>—Hants, Dorset, Somerset, Berks.</p> + + <p><i>Buckingham, Beds, Northampton.</i>—These connect the two most + convenient <i>provisional</i> centres of the so-called West-Saxon of + Alfred, &c., and mother-dialect of the present written English, viz.: + Wantage and Stamford (or Huntingdon); and in doing this they connect + dialects which, although placed in separate classes (West-Saxon and + Mercian), were, probably, more alike than many subdivisions of the same + group.</p> + + <p>To investigate the question as to the Mercian or West-Saxon origin of + the present written English without previously stating whether the + comparison be made between such extreme dialects as those of the New + Forest, and the neighbourhood of Manchester, or such transitional ones as + those of Windsor and Northampton is to reduce a real to a mere verbal + discussion.</p> + + <p><i>Warwickshire, Staffordshire.</i>—From their central position, + probably transitional to both the north and south, and the east and west + groups.</p> + + <p>Celtic elements increasing.</p> + + <p>Danish elements decreasing. Perhaps at the <i>minimum</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="sect708">§ 708</a>. The exceptions suggested in <a + href="#sect703">§§ 703</a>, 704, lie not only against the particular + group called West-Saxon, but (as may have been anticipated) against all + classifications which assume either—</p> + + <p>1. A coincidence between the philological divisions of the Anglo-Saxon + language, and the political division of the Anglo-Saxon territory.</p> + + <p>2. Any broad difference between the Angles and the Saxons.</p> + + <p>3. The existence of a Jute population.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p><a name="sect709">§ 709</a>. <i>English dialects not in continuity + with the mother-tongue.</i>—Of these the most remarkable are those + of—</p> + + <p>1. <i>Little England beyond Wales.</i>—In Pembrokeshire, and a + part of Glamorganshire, the language is English rather than Welsh. The + following extracts from Higden have effected the belief that this is the + result of a Flemish colony. "<i>Sed <!-- Page 562 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page562"></a>{562}</span>et Flandrenses, tempore + Regis Henrici Primi in magna copia juxta Mailros ad orientalem Angliæ + plagam habitationem pro tempore accipientes, septimam in insula gentem + fecerunt: jubente tamen eodem rege, ad occidentalem Walliæ partem, apud + Haverford, sunt translati. Sicque Britannia ... his ... nationibus + habitatur in præsenti ... Flandrensibus in West Wallia</i>."</p> + + <p>A little below, however, we learn that these Flemings are <span + class="correction" title="Original reads 'distinguised'." + >distinguished</span> by their origin only, and not by their + language:—"<i>Flandrenses vero qui in Occidua Walliæ incolunt, + dimissa jam barbarie, Saxonice satis loquuntur</i>."—Higden, edit. + Gale, p. 210.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, Mr. Guest has thrown a reasonable doubt upon this + inference; suggesting the probability of its having been simply English. + The following vocabulary collected by the Rev. J. Collins,<a name="NtA84" + href="#Nt84"><sup>[84]</sup></a> in the little peninsula of Gower, + confirms this view. It contains no exclusively Flemish elements.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Angletouch, n. s. <i>worm</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Bumbagus, n. s. <i>bittern</i>.</p> + <p>Brandis, n. s. <i>iron stand for a pot or kettle</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Caffle, adj. <i>entangled</i>.</p> + <p>Cammet, adj. <i>crooked</i>.</p> + <p>Cloam, n. s. <i>earthenware</i>.</p> + <p>Charnel, n. s. <i>a place raised in the roof for hanging bacon</i>.</p> + <p>Clit, v. <i>to stick together</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Deal, n. s. <i>litter, of pigs</i>.</p> + <p>Dotted, adj. <i>giddy, of a sheep</i>.</p> + <p>Dome, adj. <i>damp</i>.</p> + <p>Dreshel, n. s. <i>a flail</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Eddish, n. s. <i>wheat-stubble</i>.</p> + <p>Evil, n. s. a <i>three-pronged fork for dung, &c.</i></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Firmy, v. <i>to clean out, of a stable, &c.</i></p> + <p>Fleet, adj. <i>exposed in situation</i>, <i>bleak</i>.</p> + <p>Flott, n. s. <i>aftergrass</i>.</p> + <p>Flamiring, s. <i>an eruption of the nature of erysipelas</i>.</p> + <p>Fraith, adj. <i>free-spoken</i>, <i>talkative</i>.</p> + <p>Frithing, adj. <i>a fence made of thorns wattled</i>.</p> + <p>Foust, v. act. <i>to tumble</i>.</p> + <p>Flathin, n. s. <i>a dish made of curds, eggs, and milk</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Gloy, n. s. <i>refuse straw after the "reed" has been taken out</i>.</p> + <p>Gloice, n. s., <i>a sharp pang of pain</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Heavgar, adj. <i>heavier</i> (so also <i>near-ger</i>, <i>far-ger</i>).</p> + <p>Hamrach, n. s. <i>harness collar made of straw</i>.</p> + <p>Hay, n. s. <i>a small plot of ground attached to a dwelling</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Kittybags, n. s. <i>gaiters</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Lipe, n. s. <i>matted basket of peculiar shape</i>.</p> +<!-- Page 563 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page563"></a>{563}</span> + <p>Letto, n. s. <i>a lout</i>, <i>a foolish fellow</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Main, adj. <i>strong</i>, <i>fine</i> (<i>of growing crops</i>),</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Nesseltrip, n. s. <i>the small pig in a litter</i>.</p> + <p>Nommet, n. s. <i>a luncheon of bread, cheese, &c.</i>—<i>not a regular meal</i>.</p> + <p>Noppet, Nipperty, adj. <i>lively</i>—<i>convalescent</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ovice, n. s. <i>eaves of a building</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Plym, v. <i>to fill</i>, <i>to plump up</i>.</p> + <p>Plym, adj. <i>full</i>.</p> + <p>Planche, v. <i>to make a boarded floor</i>.</p> + <p>Peert, adj. <i>lively</i>, <i>brisk</i>.</p> + <p>Purty, v. n. <i>to turn sulky</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Quat, v. act. <i>to press down</i>, <i>flatten</i>.</p> + <p>Quapp, v. n. <i>to throb</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Rathe, adj. <i>early, of crops</i>.</p> + <p>Reremouse, n. s. <i>bat</i>.</p> + <p>Ryle, v. <i>to angle in the sea</i>.</p> + <p>Riff, n. s. <i>an instrument for sharpening scythes</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Seggy, v. act. <i>to tease</i>, <i>to provoke</i>.</p> + <p>Semmatt, n. s. <i>sieve made of skin for winnowing</i>.</p> + <p>Shoat, n. s. <i>small wheaten loaf</i>.</p> + <p>Showy, v. n. <i>to clear</i> (<i>of weather</i>); (show, <i>with termination</i> y, <i>common</i>).</p> + <p>Soul, n. s. <i>cheese, butter, &c</i>. (<i>as eaten with bread</i>).</p> + <p>Snead, n. s. <i>handle of a scythe</i>.</p> + <p>Songalls, n. s. <i>gleanings</i>: "to gather <i>songall</i>" <i>is</i> to glean.</p> + <p>Sull, <i>or</i> Zull, n. s. <i>a wooden plough</i>.</p> + <p>Stiping, n. s. <i>a mode of fastening a sheep's foreleg to its head by a band of straw, or withy</i>.</p> + <p>Susan, n. s. <i>a brown earthenware pitcher</i>.</p> + <p>Sump, n. s. <i>any bulk that is carried</i>.</p> + <p>Suant, part. <i>regular in order</i>.</p> + <p>Slade, n. s. <i>ground sloping towards the sea</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Tite, v. <i>to tumble over</i>.</p> + <p>Toit, n. s. <i>a small seat or stool made of straw</i>.</p> + <p>Toit, adj. <i>frisky</i>, <i>wanton</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Vair, n. s. <i>weasel</i> or <i>stoat</i>.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Want, n. s. <i>a mole</i>.</p> + <p>Wirg, n. s. <i>a willow</i>.</p> + <p>Wimble, v. <i>to winnow</i>.</p> + <p>Weest, adj. <i>lonely</i>, <i>desolate</i>.</p> + <p>Wash-dish, n. s. <i>the titmouse</i>.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect710">§ 710</a>. <i>The baronies of Forth and Bargie in + the County Wexford.</i>—The barony of Forth "lies south of the city + of Wexford, and is bounded by the sea to the south and east, and by the + barony of Bargie to the west. It is said to have been colonized by the + Welshmen who accompanied Strongbow in his invasion of Ireland; but by the + term Welshmen, as here used, we must no doubt understand the English + settlers of Gower and Pembroke. Vallancey published a specimen of their + language. Some of the grammatical forms can hardly <!-- Page 564 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page564"></a>{564}</span>fail to interest the + English scholar, and we may venture more particularly to call his + attention to the verbal ending <i>th</i>. In no other of our spoken + dialects do we find the <i>th</i> still lingering as an inflection of the + <i>plural</i> verb."</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="sc">Address in the Barony of Forth Language.</span></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p><i>Presented in August 1836, to the Marquis of Normanby, then Earl of + Mulgrave, and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland; with a Translation of the + Address in English.</i></p> + +</blockquote> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Address in the Barony of Forth Language" title="Address in the Barony of Forth Language"> +<tr><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +<i>To's Excellencie Consantine Harrie +Phipps, Earle Mulgrave, "Lord +Lieutenant-General, and General +Governor of Ireland;" Ye soumissive +spakeen o' ouz Dwellers o' +Baronie Forthe, Weisforthe.</i> + + <p>Mai't be plesaunt to th' Excellencie,</p> + + <p>Wee, Vassales o' "His Most Gracious Majesty" Wilyame ee 4th an az wee + verilie chote na coshe an loyale Dwellers na Baronie Forth, crave na + dicke luckie acte t'uck necher th' Excellencie, an na plaine garbe o' + oure yola talke, wi' vengem o' core t'gie oure zense o'ye grades wilke be + ee dighte wi' yer name, and whilke wee canna zie, albeit o' "Governere" + Statesman an alike. Yn ercha an ol o' whilke yt beeth wi' gleezom o'core + th' oure eene dwitheth apan ye vigere o'dicke zovereine, Wilyame ee + Vourthe unnere fose fatherlie zwae oure deis be ee spant, az avare ye + trad dicke lone ver name was ee kent var ee <i>Vriene o' Levertie</i>, an + <i>He fo brack ge neckers o' Zlaves</i>—Mang ourzels—var wee + dwitheth an Irelone az oure general haime—y'ast bie' ractzom + homedelt tous ye lass ee mate var ercha vassale, ne'er dwith ee na dicke + wai n'ar dicka. Wee dewithe ye ane fose deis bee gien var ee gudevare o' + ee lone ye zwae, t'avance <!-- Page 565 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page565"></a>{565}</span>pace an levertie, an wi'out vlinch ee + garde o' general riochts an poplare vartue.—Ye pace—yea wee + ma' zei ye vaste pace whilke be ee stent o'er ye lone zince th' ast ee + cam, prooth, y'at we alane needed ye giftes o' general riochts, az be + displayte bie ee factes o' thie governmente. Ye state na dicke die o'ye + lone, na whilke be ne'er fash n'ar moil, albeit "Constitutional + Agitation" ye wake o'hopes ee blighte, stampe na per zwae ee be rare an + lightzom. Yer name var zetch avanct avare y'e, e'en a dicke var hie, + arent whilke ye brine o' zea, an ee crags o'noghanes cazed nae balk. Na + oure glades ana whilke we dellte wi' mattoc, an zing t'oure caules wi + plou, we hert ee zough o'ye colure o' pace na name o' "<i>Mulgrave</i>." + Wi "Irishmen" oure general hopes be ee bond, az "Irishmen," an az + dwellers na coshe an loyale o' Baronie Forthe, w'oul dei an ercha dei, + oure maunes an aure gurles, prie var lang an happie zins, home o'leurnagh + an ee vilt wi benizons, an yersel an oure zoverine 'till ee zin o'oure + deis be var ay be ee go t'glade.</p> + +</td><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> + <i>To His Excellency Constantine Henry +Phipps, Earl Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant-General +and General Governor +of Ireland: The humble Address +of the Inhabitants of Barony + Forth, Wexford.</i> + + <p>May it please your Excellency,</p> + + <p>We, the subjects of His Most Gracious Majesty William IV., and as we + truly believe both faithful and loyal inhabitants of the Barony Forth, + beg leave, at this favourable opportunity to approach Your Excellency, + and in the simple garb of our old dialect to pour forth from the strength + (or fulness) of our hearts, our strength (or admiration) of the + qualities which characterize your name, and for which we have no words + but of "Governor," "Statesman," &c. Sir, each and every condition, it + is with joy of heart that our eyes rest upon the representative of that + Sovereign, William IV., under whose paternal rule our days are spent; for + before your foot pressed the soil, your name was known to us as the + <i>Friend of Liberty</i>, and <i>He who broke the fetters of the + Slave</i>. Unto ourselves—for we look on Ireland to be our common + country—you have with impartiality (of hand) ministered the laws + made for every subject, without regard to this party or that. We behold + you, one whose days devoted to the welfare of the land you govern, to + promote peace and liberty—the uncompromising guardian of common + rights and public virtue. The peace, yes we may say the profound peace, + which overspreads the land since your arrival, proves that we alone stood + in need of the enjoyment of common privileges, as is demonstrated by the + results of your government. The condition, this day, of the country, in + which is neither tumult nor confusion, but that constitutional agitation, + the consequence of disappointed hopes, confirm your rule to be rare and + enlightened. Your fame for such came before you, even into this retired + spot, to which neither the waters of the sea yonder, nor the mountains + above, caused any impediment. In our valleys, where we were digging with + the spade, or as we whistled to our horses in the plough, we heard in the + word "Mulgrave," the sound of the wings of the dove of peace. With + Irishmen our common hopes are inseparably wound up; as Irishmen, and as + inhabitants, faithful and loyal, of the Barony Forth, we will daily, and + every day, our wives and our children, implore long and happy days, free + from melancholy and full of blessings, for yourself and good Sovereign, + until the sun of our lives be for ever gone down the dark valley of + death.<a name="NtA85" href="#Nt85"><sup>[85]</sup></a></p> + +</td></tr></table> + + <p><a name="sect711">§ 711</a>. <i>Americanisms.</i>—These, which + may be studied in the excellent dictionary of J. R. Bartlett, are chiefly + referable to five causes—</p> + +<p><!-- Page 566 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page566"></a>{566}</span></p> + + <p>1. Influence of the aboriginal Indian languages.</p> + + <p>2. Influence of the languages introduced from Europe anterior to the + predominance of English; viz.: French in Louisiana, Spanish in Florida, + Swedish in Pennsylvania and Delaware, and Dutch in New York.</p> + + <p>3. Influence, &c., subsequent to the predominance of the English; + viz.: German in Pennsylvania, and Gaelic and Welsh generally.</p> + + <p>4. Influence of the original difference of dialect between the + different portions of the English population.</p> + + <p>5. Influence of the preponderance of the Anglo-Saxon over the + Anglo-Norman element in the American population in general.</p> + + <p><a name="sect712">§ 712</a>. <i>Extract.</i>—In a sound and + sagacious paper upon the Probable Future Position of the English + Language,<a name="NtA86" href="#Nt86"><sup>[86]</sup></a> Mr. Watts, + after comparing the previous predominance of the French language beyond + the pale of France, with the present spread of the German beyond Germany, + and after deciding in favour of the latter tongue, remarks that there is + "The existence of another language whose claims are still more + commanding. That language is our own. Two centuries ago the proud + position that it now occupies was beyond the reach of anticipation. We + all smile at the well-known boast of Waller in his lines on the death of + Cromwell, but it was the loftiest that at the time the poet found it in + his power to make:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p class="hg1">'Under the tropie is our language spoke,</p> + <p>And part of Flanders hath received our yoke.'</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>"'I care not,' said Milton, 'to be once named abroad, though perhaps I + could attain to that, being content with these islands as my world.' A + French Jesuit, Garnier, in 1678, laying down rules for the arrangement of + a library, thought it superfluous to say anything of English books, + because, as he observed, 'libri Anglicâ scripti linguâ vix mare + transmittunt.' Swift, in the earlier part of the eighteenth century, in + his 'Proposal for correcting, improving, and <!-- Page 567 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page567"></a>{567}</span>ascertaining the + English Tongue,' observed, 'the fame of our writers is usually confined + to these two islands." Not quite a hundred years ago Dr. Johnson seems to + have entertained far from a lofty idea of the legitimate aspirations of + an English author. He quotes in a number of the 'Rambler' (No. 118, May + 4th, 1751), from the address of Africanus as given by Cicero, in his + Dream of Scipio:—'The territory which you inhabit is no more than a + scanty island inclosed by a small body of water, to which you give the + name of the great sea and the Atlantic Ocean. And even in this known and + frequented continent what hope can you entertain that your renown will + pass the stream of Ganges or the cliffs of Caucasus, or by whom will your + name be uttered in the extremities of the north or south towards the + rising or the setting sun? So narrow is the space to which your fame can + be propagated, and even there how long will it remain?' 'I am not + inclined,' remarks Johnson, 'to believe that they who among us pass their + lives in the cultivation of knowledge or acquisition of power, have very + anxiously inquired what opinions prevail on the further banks of the + Ganges.... The hopes and fears of modern minds are content to range in a + narrower compass; a single nation, and a few years have generally + sufficient amplitude to fill our imagination.' What a singular comment on + this passage is supplied by the fact that the dominions of England now + stretch from the Ganges to the Indus, that the whole space of India is + dotted with the regimental libraries of its European conquerors, and that + Rasselas has been translated into Bengalee! A few years later the great + historian of England had a much clearer perception of what was then in + the womb of Fate. When Gibbon, as has been already mentioned, submitted + to Hume, a specimen of his intended History of Switzerland, composed in + French, he received a remarkable letter in reply: 'Why,' said Hume, 'do + you compose in French and carry faggots into the wood, as Horace says + with regard to Romans who wrote in Greek? I grant that you have a like + motive to those Romans, and adopt a language much more generally diffused + than your native tongue, but have you not remarked the fate <!-- Page 568 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page568"></a>{568}</span>of those two + ancient languages in following ages? The Latin, though then less + celebrated and confined to more narrow limits, has in some measure + outlived the Greek, and is now more generally understood by men of + letters. Let the French therefore triumph in the present diffusion of + their tongue. Our solid and increasing establishments in America, where + we need less dread the inundation of barbarians, promise a superior + stability and duration to the English language.'</p> + + <p>"Every year that has since elapsed has added a superior degree of + probability to the anticipations of Hume. At present the prospects of the + English language are the most splendid that the world has ever seen. It + is spreading in each of the quarters of the globe by fashion, by + emigration, and by conquest. The increase of population alone in the two + great states of Europe and America in which it is spoken, adds to the + number of its speakers in every year that passes, a greater amount than + the whole number of those who speak some of the literary languages of + Europe, either Swedish, or Danish, or Dutch. It is calculated that, + before the lapse of the present century, a time that so many now alive + will live to witness, it will be the native and vernacular language of + about one hundred and fifty millions of human beings.</p> + + <p>"What will be the state of Christendom at the time that this vast + preponderance of one language will be brought to bear on all its + relations,—at the time when a leading nation in Europe and a + gigantic nation in America make use of the same idiom,—when in + Africa and Australasia the same language is in use by rising and + influential communities, and the world is circled by the accents of + Shakspeare and Milton? At that time such of the other languages of Europe + as do not extend their empire beyond this quarter of the globe will be + reduced to the same degree of insignificance in comparison with English, + as the subordinate languages of modern Europe to those of the state they + belong to,—the Welsh to the English, the Basque to the Spanish, the + Finnish to the Russian. This predominance, we may flatter ourselves, will + be a more signal blessing to literature than that of any other language + could possibly be. The English is essentially a <!-- Page 569 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page569"></a>{569}</span>medium + language;—in the Teutonic family it stands midway between the + Germanic and Scandinavian branches—it unites as no other language + unites, the Romanic and the Teutonic stocks. This fits it admirably in + many cases for translation. A German writer, Prince Pückler Muskau, has + given it as his opinion that English is even better adapted than German + to be the general interpreter of the literature of Europe. Another German + writer, Jenisch, in his elaborate 'Comparison of Fourteen Ancient and + Modern Languages of Europe,' which obtained a prize from the Berlin + Academy in 1796, assigns the general palm of excellence to the English. + In literary treasures what other language can claim the superiority? If + Rivarol more than sixty years back thought the collective wealth of its + literature able to dispute the pre-eminence with the French, the victory + has certainly not departed from us in the time that has since + elapsed,—the time of Wordsworth and Southey, of Rogers and + Campbell, of Scott, of Moore, and of Byron.</p> + + <p>"The prospect is so glorious that it seems an ungrateful task to + interrupt its enjoyment by a shade of doubt: but as the English language + has attained to this eminent station from small beginnings, may it not be + advisable to consider whether obstacles are not in existence, which, + equally small in their beginnings, have a probability of growing larger? + The first consideration that presents itself is that English is not the + only language firmly planted on the soil of America, the only one to + which a glorious future is, in the probable course of things, + assured.</p> + + <p>"A sufficient importance has not always been attached to the fact, + that in South America, and in a portion of the northern continent, the + languages of the Peninsula are spoken by large and increasing + populations. The Spanish language is undoubtedly of easier acquisition + for the purposes of conversation than our own, from the harmony and + clearness of its pronunciation; and it has the recommendation to the + inhabitants of Southern Europe of greater affinity to their own languages + and the Latin. Perhaps the extraordinary neglect which has been the + portion of this language for the last <!-- Page 570 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page570"></a>{570}</span>century and a half may + soon give place to a juster measure of cultivation, and indeed the recent + labours of Prescott and Ticknor seem to show that the dawn of that period + has already broken. That the men of the North should acquire an easy and + harmonious southern language seems in itself much more probable than that + the men of the south should study a northern language, not only rugged in + its pronunciation, but capricious in its orthography. The dominion of + Spanish in America is, however, interrupted and narrowed by that of + Portuguese, and to a singular degree by that of the native languages, + some of which are possibly destined to be used for literary purposes in + ages to come.</p> + + <p>"At the time when Hume wrote his letter to Gibbon, the conquest of + Canada had very recently been effected. The rivalry of the French and + English in North America had been terminated by the most signal triumph + of the English arms. Had measures been taken at that time to discourage + the use of French and to introduce that of English, there can be little + doubt that English would now be as much the language of Quebec and + Montreal as it is of New York and the Delaware. Those measures were not + taken. At this moment, when we are approaching a century from the battle + of the Heights of Abraham, there is still a distinction of races in + Canada, nourished by a distinction of language, and both appear likely to + continue.</p> + + <p>"Within the United States themselves, a very large body of the + inhabitants have remained for generation after generation ignorant of the + English language. The number is uncertain. According to Stricker, in his + dissertation 'Die Verbreitung des deutschen Volkes über die Erde,' + published in 1845, the population of German origin in the United States + in 1844 was 4,886,632, out of a total of 18,980,650. This statement, + though made in the most positive terms, is founded on an estimate only, + and has been shown to be much exaggerated. Wappaus (in his 'Deutsche + Auswanderung und Colonisation'), after a careful examination, arrives at + the conclusion that the total cannot amount to a million and a half. Many + of these are of course acquainted with both <!-- Page 571 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page571"></a>{571}</span>languages—in + several cases where amalgamation has taken place, the German language has + died out and been replaced by the English,—but the number of + communities where it is still prevalent is much larger than is generally + supposed. In Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Missouri, to say nothing of other + states, there are masses of population of German origin or descent, who + are only acquainted with German. This tendency has of late years + increased instead of declining. It has been a favourite project with + recent German emigrants to form in America a state, in which the language + should be German, and from the vast numbers in which they have crossed + the Atlantic, there is nothing improbable in the supposition, that, by + obtaining a majority in some one state, this object will be attained. In + 1835 the legislature of Pennsylvania placed the German language in its + legal rights on the same footing with the English.</p> + + <p>"It may be asked if any damage will be done by this? The damage, it + may be answered, will be twofold. The parties who are thus formed into an + isolated community, with a language distinct from that of those around + them, will be placed under the same disadvantages as the Welsh of our own + day, who find themselves always as it were some inches shorter than their + neighbours, and have to make an exertion to be on their level. Those of + them who are only masters of one language are in a sort of prison; those + who are masters of two, might, if English had been their original speech, + have had their choice of the remaining languages of the world to exert + the same degree of labour on, with a better prospect of advantage. In the + case of Welsh, the language has many ties: even those who see most + clearly the necessity of forsaking it, must lament the harsh necessity of + abandoning to oblivion the ancient tongue of an ancient nation. But these + associations and feelings could not be pleaded in favour of transferring + the Welsh to Otaheite; and when these feelings are withdrawn, what valid + reason will remain for the perpetuation of Welsh, or even, it may be + said, of German?</p> + + <p>"The injury done to the community itself is perhaps the greatest; but + there is a damage done to the world in general. It will be a splendid and + a novel experiment in modern society, if a single language becomes so + predominant over all others as <!-- Page 572 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page572"></a>{572}</span>to reduce them in comparison to the + proportion of provincial dialects. To have this experiment fairly tried, + is a great object. Every atom that is subtracted from the amount of the + majority has its influence—it goes into the opposite scale. If the + Germans succeed in establishing their language in the United States, + other nations may follow. The Hungarian emigrants, who are now removing + thither from the vengeance of Austria, may perpetuate their native + Magyar, and America may in time present a surface as checkered as Europe, + or in some parts, as Hungary itself, where the traveller often in passing + from one village to another, finds himself in the domain of a different + language. That this consummation may be averted must be the wish not only + of every Englishman and of every Anglo-American, but of every sincere + friend of the advancement of literature and civilization. Perhaps a few + more years of inattention to the subject will allow the evil to make such + progress that exertion to oppose it may come too late."</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p><a name="sect713">§ 713</a>. Of the Gypsy language I need only say, + that it is not only Indo-Germanic, but that it is Hindoo. Few words from + it have mixed themselves with our standard (or even our provincial) + dialects.</p> + + <p>Thieves' language, or that dialect for which there is no name, but one + from its own vocabulary, <i>viz.</i> Slang, is of greater value in + philology than in commerce. It serves to show that in speech nothing is + arbitrary. Its compound phrases are either periphrastic or metaphorical; + its simple monosyllables are generally those of the current language in + an older form. The thieves of London are conservators of Anglo-Saxonisms. + In this dialect I know of no specimens earlier than the reign of Queen + Elizabeth. In the dramatic literature of that age they are rife and + common. The Roaring Girl, the Jolly Beggars, amongst the plays, and + Deckar's Bellman amongst the tracts, preserve us a copious vocabulary, + similar to what we have now, and similar to what it was in Gay's time. Of + this the greater part is Saxon. Here and there appears a word of Latin + origin, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>pannum</i>, bread; <i>cassons</i>, cheese. Of the + Gypsy language I have discovered no trace. <!-- Page 573 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page573"></a>{573}</span></p> + + <p><a name="sect714">§ 714</a>. The Talkee-Talkee is a Lingua Franca + based on the English, and spoken by the Negroes of Surinam.</p> + + <p>It is Dutch rather than English; it shows, however, the latter + language as an element of admixture.</p> + +<p class="cenhead">SPECIMEN.<a name="NtA87" href="#Nt87"><sup>[87]</sup></a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>1. Drie deh na bakka dem holi wan bruiloft na Cana na Galilea; on + mamma va Jesus ben de dapeh.</p> + + <p>2. Ma dem ben kali Jesus nanga hem discipel toe, va kom na da + bruiloft.</p> + + <p>3. En teh wieni kaba, mamma va Jesus takki na hem; dem no habi wieni + morro.</p> + + <p>4. Jesus takki na hem: mi mamma, hoeworko mi habi nanga joe? Tem va mi + no ben kom jette.</p> + + <p>5. Hem mamma takki na dem foetoeboi; oene doe sanni a takki gi + oene.</p> + + <p>6. Ma dem ben poetti dapeh siksi biggi watra-djoggo, na da fasi va + Djoe vo krieni dem: inniwan djoggo holi toe effi drie kannetjes.</p> + + <p>7. Jesus takki na dem [foetoeboi]: Oene foeloe dem watra-djoggo nanga + watra. Ed dem foeloe dem teh na moeffe.</p> + + <p>8. En dan a takki na dem: Oene poeloe pikinso, tjarri go na + grang-foetoeboi. En dem doe so.</p> + + <p>9. Ma teh grangfoetoeboi tesi da watra, dissi ben tron wieni, kaba a + no sabi, na hoepeh da wieni komotto (ma dem foetoeboi dissi ben teki da + watra ben sabi): a kali da bruidigom.</p> + + <p>10. A takki na hem: Inniwan somma njoesoe va gi fossi da morro switti + wieni, en teh dem dringi noeffe kaba, na bakka da mendre swittiwan; ma + joe ben kiebri da morro boennewan.</p> + + <p>11. Datti da fossi marki dissi Jesus ben doe; en datti ben passa na + Cana na Galilea va dem somma si hem glori. En dem discipel va hem briebi + na hem.</p> + + <p> </p> + + <p>1. Three day after back, them hold one marriage in Cana in Galilee, + and mamma of Jesus been there.</p> + + <p>2. But them been call Jesus with him disciple, for come to that + marriage.</p> + + <p>3. And when wine end, mamma of Jesus talk to him, them no have wine + more.</p> + + <p>4. Jesus talk to him, me mamma how work me have with you? Time of me + no been come yet.</p> + + <p>5. Him mamma talk to them footboy, ye do things he talk to ye.</p> + + <p>6. But them been put there six big water-jug, after the fashion of Jew + for clean them; every one jug hold two or three firkins.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 574 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page574"></a>{574}</span></p> + + <p>7. Jesus talk to them (footboy): ye fill them water jug with water. + And them fill them till to mouth.</p> + + <p>8. And then he talk to them, ye pour little, carry go to grandfootboy. + And them do so.</p> + + <p>9. But when grandfootboy taste that water, this been turn wine, could + he no know from where that wine come-out-of (but them footboy this been + take that water well know): he call the bridegroom.</p> + + <p>10. He talk to him, every one man use of give first the more sweet + wine; and when them drink enough end, after back the less sweety wine: + but you been cover that more good wine.</p> + + <p>11. That the first miracle that Jesus been do, and that been pass in + Cana in Galilee, for them men see him glory. And them disciple of him + believe in him.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect715">§ 715</a>. That the Anglo-Norman of England was, in + the reign of Edward III., not the French of Paris (and most probably not + the Franco-Norman of Normandy), we learn from the well-known quotation + from Chaucer:—</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>And Frenche she spake ful feteously,</p> + <p>After the scole of Stratforde at Bowe,</p> + <p>For Frenche of Parys was to her unknowe.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p><i>Prologue to the Canterbury Tales.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="sect716">§ 716</a>. The concluding extract from the + Testamenta Eboracensia, published by the Surtees' Society, is from the + will of a gentleman in Yorkshire. To me it seems to impugn the assertion + of Higden, that the Norman was spoken throughout England without a + variety of pronunciation: "Mirandum videtur quomodo nativa propria + Anglorum lingua, in unica insula coartata, pronunciatione ipsa fit tam + diversa, cum tamen Normannica lingua, quæ adventicia est, univoca maneat + penes cunctos."—<i>Ed. Gale</i>, p. 210.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Testamenta Eboracensia</i>, <span class="scac">CLIX</span>.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>En le noune de Dieu, et de notre Dame Sante Marie, et en noun de teuz + le sauntez de Paradyse, Amen. Moi Brian de Stapylton devise m'alme a Dieu + et a notre Dame Saunte Marie, et a touz lez Sauntz de Paradyse, et mon + chautiff corps d'estre enterre en le Priourie de le Parke decoste ma + compaigne, que Dieu l'assoille, et sur mon corps seit un drape de blew + saye; et ma volunte ett au l'aide de Dieu d'avoire un herce ov synke + tapirs, chescun tapir de synk livers, et tresze hommes vestuz en bluw ov + tresze torchez, <!-- Page 575 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page575"></a>{575}</span>de queux tresze torchez, si ne saiount + degastez, jeo voile que quatre demore a le dit Priorie.</p> + + <p>Item jeo devyse que j'ay un homme armes en mes armes et ma hewme ene + sa teste, et quy soit bien monte et un homme de bon entaille de qil + condicon que y sort.</p> + + <p>Item jeo devyse que touz ceaux, qui a moy appendent meignialx en ma + maison, soient vestuz en bluw a mes costagez. Et a touz les poores, qils + veignent le jour de mon enterment jeo devise et voile que chescun ait un + denier en ovre de charrte, et en aide de ma chitiffe alme, et jeo voile + que les sires mes compaignons mez aliez et mez voiseignez, qui volliont + venir de lour bone gre prier pour moy et pour faire honour a mon chettife + corps, qi peue ne vault, jeo oille et chargez mez executour que y soient + mesme cel jour bien a eise, et q'il eient a boiere asseth, et a cest ma + volunté parfournir jeo devise ci marcæ ove l'estore de maison taunke + juiste seit.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><a name="sect717">§ 717</a>. <i>Relations of dialects</i> + (<i>so-called</i>) <i>to languages</i> (<i>so-called</i>).—"It is + necessary clearly to conceive the nature and character of what we call + dialects. The Doric, Æolic, and Ionic for example, in the language of + grammarians, are dialects of the Greek: to what does this assertion + amount? To this only, that among a people called the Greeks, some being + Dorians spoke a language called Doric, some being Æolians spoke another + language called Æolic, while a third class, Ionians, spoke a third + language called, from them, Ionic. But though all these are termed + dialects of the Greek, it does not follow that there was ever a Greek + language of which these were variations, and which had any being apart + from these. Dialects then are essentially languages: and the name dialect + itself is but a convenient grammarian's phrase, invented as part of the + machinery by which to carry on reasonings respecting languages. We learn + the language which has the best and largest literature extant; and having + done so, we treat all very nearly resembling languages as + <i>variations</i> from what we have learnt. And that dialects are in + truth several languages, will readily appear to any one who perceives the + progressive development of the principle of separation in cognate + tongues. The language of the Bavarian highlander or High Dutch, the + language of the Hanoverian lowlander or Low Dutch, are German dialects: + elevate, as it is called, regulate, and purify the one, and it assumes + the <!-- Page 576 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page576"></a>{576}</span>name and character of a language—it + is German. Transplant the other to England, let nine centuries pass over + it, and it becomes a language too, and a language of more importance than + any which was ever yet spoken in the world, it has become English. Yet + none but practised philologists can acknowledge the fact that the German + and English languages are dialects of one Teutonic tongue."</p> + + <p><a name="sect718">§ 718</a>. <i>Relation of dialects to the older + stages of the mother-tongue.</i>—This has been noticed in <a + href="#sect691">§ 691</a>. The following extract from Mr. Kemble's paper + just quoted, illustrates what he calls the <i>spontaneity</i> of + dialects:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Those who imagine language invented by a man or men, originally + confined and limited in its powers, and gradually enlarged and enriched + by continuous practice and the reflection of wise and learned + individuals—unless, indeed, they look upon it as potentially + only—in <i>posse</i> though not in <i>esse</i>—as the tree + may be said to exist in the seed, though requiring time and culture to + flourish in all its majesty—appear to neglect the facts which + history proves. There is nothing more certain than this, that the earlier + we can trace back any one language, the more full, complete, and + consistent are its forms; that the later we find it existing, the more + compressed, colloquial, and business-like it has become. Like the trees + of our forests, it grows at first wild, luxuriant, rich in foliage, full + of light and shadow, and flings abroad in its vast branches the fruits of + a vigorous youthful nature: transplanted into the garden of civilization + and trained for purposes of commerce, it becomes regulated, trimmed and + pruned; nature indeed still gives it life, but art prescribes the + direction and extent of its vegetation. Compare the Sanscrit with the + Gothic, the Gothic with the Anglo-Saxon, and again the Anglo-Saxon with + the English: or what is even better, take two periods of the Anglo-Saxon + itself, the eighth and tenth centuries for example. Always we perceive a + compression, a gradual loss of fine distinctions, a perishing of forms, + terminations and conjugations, in the younger state of the language. The + truth is, that in language up to a certain period, there is a real + indwelling vitality, a principle acting <!-- Page 577 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page577"></a>{577}</span>unconsciously but + pervasively in every part: men wield their forms of speech as they do + their limbs, spontaneously, knowing nothing of their construction, or the + means by which these instruments possess their power. There are flexors + and extensors long before the anatomist discovers and names them, and we + use our arms without inquiring by what wonderful mechanism they are made + obedient to our will. So is it with language long before the grammarian + undertakes its investigation. It may even be said, that the commencement + of the age of self-consciousness is identical with the close of that of + vitality in language; for it is a great error to speak of languages as + dead, only when they have ceased to be spoken. They are dead when they + have ceased to possess the power of adaptation to the wants of the + people, and no longer contain in themselves the means of their own + extension. The Anglo-Saxon, in the spirit and analogy of his whole + language, could have used words which had never been heard before, and + been at once understood: if we would introduce a new name for a new + thing, we must take refuge in the courtesy of our neighbours, and borrow + from the French, or Greek, or Latin, terms which never cease to betray + their foreign origin, by never putting off the forms of the tongue from + which they were taken, or assuming those of the tongue into which they + are adopted. The English language is a dead one.</p> + + <p>"In general it may be said that dialects possess this vitality in a + remarkable degree, and that their very existence is the strongest proof + of its continuance. This is peculiarly the case when we use the word to + denote the popular or provincial forms of speech in a country where, by + common consent of the learned and educated classes, one particular form + of speech has been elevated to the dignity of the national language. It + is then only the strength of the principles which first determined the + peculiarities of the dialect that continues to support them, and + preserves them from being gradually rounded down, as stones are by + friction, and confounded in the course of a wide-spreading + centralization. Increased opportunity of intercommunion with other + provincials or the metropolis (dependent upon increased facilities of + locomotion, <!-- Page 578 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page578"></a>{578}</span>the improvement of roads and the spread of + mechanical inventions) sweeps away much of these original distinctions, + but it never destroys them all. This is a necessary consequence of the + fact that they are in some degree connected with the physical features of + the country itself, and all those causes which influence the atmosphere. + A sort of pseudo-vitality even till late periods bears witness to the + indwelling power, and the consciousness of oppression from without: + <i>false</i> analogies are the form this life assumes. How often have we + not heard it asserted that particular districts were remarkable for the + Saxonism of their speech, because they had retained the archaisms, + <i>kine</i>, <i>shoon</i>, <i>housen</i>! Well and good! Archaisms they + are, but they are false forms nevertheless, based upon an analogy just as + erroneous as that which led men in the last century to say <i>crowed</i>, + <i>hanged</i> for <i>crew</i>, <i>hung</i>. The Anglo-Saxon language + never knew any such forms, and one wonders not to find by their side + equally gratuitous Saxonisms, <i>mousen</i>, <i>lousen</i>."—Phil. + Soc. No. 35.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>The doctrine that languages become <i>dead</i> when they lose a + certain power of evolving new forms out of previously existing ones, is + incompatible with views to which the present writer has committed himself + in the preface. If the views there exhibited be true the test of the + <i>vitality</i> of a language, if such metaphors <i>must</i> be used, is + the same as the test of vitality in material organisms, <i>i.e.</i>, the + power of fulfilling certain functions. Whether this is done by the + evolution of new forms out of existing materials, or by the amalgamation + (the particular power of the English language) of foreign terms is a mere + difference of process.</p> + + <p><a name="sect719">§ 719</a>. <i>Effect of common physical + conditions.</i>—I again quote the same paper of Mr. + Kemble's:—</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>"Professor Willis of Cambridge, in the course of some most ingenious + experiments upon the organization and conditions of the human larynx, + came upon the law which regulated the pronunciation of the vowels. He + found this to be partly in proportion to the size of the opening in the + pipe, partly to the force with which the air was propelled through it, + and by the adaptation of a tremulous artificial larynx to the pipe of an + <!-- Page 579 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page579"></a>{579}</span>organ, he produced the several vowels at + will. Now bearing in mind the difference between the living organ and the + dead one, the susceptibility of the former to dilatation and compression, + from the effects, not only of the human will, but also of cold, of denser + or thinner currents of air, and above all the influence which the general + state of the body must have upon every part of it, we are furnished at + once with the necessary hypothesis; viz. that climate, and the local + positions on which climate much depends, are the main agency in producing + the original variations of dialect. Once produced, tradition perpetuates + them, with subsequent modifications proportionate to the change in the + original conditions, the migration to localities of a different + character, the congregation into towns, the cutting down of forests, the + cultivation of the soil, by which the prevalent degrees of cold and the + very direction of the currents of air are in no small degree altered. It + is clear that the same influences will apply to all such consonants as + can in any way be affected by the greater or less tension of the organs, + consequently above all to the gutturals; next to the palatals, which may + be defined by the position of the tongue; least of all to the labials, + and generally to the liquids also, though these may be more or less + strongly pronounced by different peoples. This hint must suffice here, as + the pursuit of it is rather a physiological than a philological problem, + and it is my business rather to show historically what facts bear upon my + present inquiry, than to investigate the philosophical reasons for their + existence. Still, for the very honour of human nature, one of whose + greatest and most universal privileges is the recognition of and + voluntary subjection to the laws of beauty and harmony, it is necessary + to state that no developed language exists which does not acknowledge + some internal laws of euphony, from which many of its peculiarities + arise, and which by these assimilates its whole practice and assumes an + artistical consistency. On this faculty, which is rather to be considered + as a moral quality of the people than a necessity of their language, + depends the facility of employing the language for certain purposes of + art, and <!-- Page 580 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page580"></a>{580}</span>the form which poetry and rhythm shall + assume in the period of their cultivation.</p> + + <p>"In reviewing the principal languages of the ancient and modern world, + where the migrations of those that spoke them can be traced with + certainty, we are struck with the fact that the dwellers in chains of + mountains, or on the elevated plains of hilly districts, strongly affect + broad vowels and guttural consonants. Compare the German of the Tyrol, + Switzerland, or Bavaria, with that of the lowlands of Germany, + Westphalia, Hanover, and Mecklenburg: compare the Doric with the Attic, + or still more the soft Ionic Greek: follow the Italian of our own day + into the mountains of the Abruzzi: pursue the English into the hills of + Northumberland; mark the characteristics of the Celtic in the highlands + of Wales and Scotland, of the Vascongado, in the hilly ranges of Spain. + Everywhere we find the same type; everywhere the same love for broad + sounds and guttural forms; everywhere these appear as the peculiarity of + mountaineers. The difference of latitude between Holstein and Inspruck is + not great; that between Newcastle and Coventry is less; Sparta is more + southerly than Athens; Crete more so than either; but this does not + explain our problem; its solution is found in the comparative number of + feet above the level of the sea, in the hills and the valleys which they + enclose."</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p>If true, the bearings of this is important; since, if common physical + conditions effect a common physiognomy of language, we may have a certain + amount of resemblance without a corresponding amount of ethnological + affinity.</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 581 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page581"></a>{581}</span></p> + +<h3>PRAXIS.</h3> + + <p>The following extracts are given in the form of simple texts. They are + meant, more especially, to be explained by masters to their classes; and + as such were used by myself during the time that I was Professor of the + English language and literature at University College. They are almost + all taken from editions wherein either a translation or a full commentary + can be found by reference. To have enlarged the present Appendix into a + full Praxis, would have been to overstep the prescribed limits of the + present work.</p> + +<h3>I.</h3> + +<h3>MŒSO-GOTHIC.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Mark, Chap. 1.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>1. 2. Anastodeins aivaggeljons ïesuis xristaus sunaus guþs. sve</p> + <p>gameliþ ïst ïn esaï in praufetau. sai. ïk ïnsandja aggilu meinana</p> + <p>faura þus. saei gamanveiþ vig þeinana faura þus. stibna vopjandins</p> + <p>3. ïn auþidai. manveiþ vig fraujins. raihtos vaurkeiþ</p> + <p>4. staigos guþs unsaris. vas ïohannes daupjands ïn auþidai jah</p> + <p>5. merjands daupein ïdreigos du aflageinai fravaurhte. jah usïddjedun</p> + <p>du ïmma all ïudaialand jah ïairusaulymeis jah daupidai</p> + <p>vesun allai ïn ïaurdane awai fram ïmma andhaitandans fravaurhtim</p> + <p>6. seinaim. vasuþ-þan ïohannes gavasiþs taglam ulbandaus</p> + <p>jah gairda filleina bi hup seinana jah matida þramsteins</p> + <p>7. jah miliþ haiþivisk jah merida qiþands. qimiþ svinþoza mis sa</p> + <p>afar mis. þizei ïk ni ïm vairþs anahneivands andbindan skaudaraip</p> + <p>8. skohe is. aþþan ïk daupja ïzvis ïn vatin. ïþ ïs daupeiþ ïzvis</p> +<!-- Page 582 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page582"></a>{582}</span> + <p>9. ïn ahmin veihamma. jah varþ ïn jainaim dagam. qam</p> + <p>ïesus fram nazaraiþ galeilaias jah daupiþs vas fram ïohanne ïn</p> + <p>10. ïaurdane. jah suns usgaggands us þamma vatin gasaw usluknans</p> + <p>11. himinans jah ahman sve ahak atgaggandan ana ïna. jah</p> + <p>stibna qam us himinam. þu ïs sunus meins sa liuba. ïn þuzei</p> + <p>12. vaila galeikaida. jah suns sai. ahma ïna ustauh ïn auþida.</p> + <p>13. jah vas in þizai auþidai dage fidvortiguns fraisans fram satanin</p> + <p>14. jah vas miþ diuzam jah aggileis andbahtidedun ïmma. ïp afar</p> + <p>þatei atgibans varþ ïohannes. qam ïesus ïn galeilaia merjands</p> + <p>15. aivaggeljon þiudangardjos guþs qiþands þatei usfullnoda þata</p> + <p>mel jah atnewida sik þiudangardi guþs. ïdreigoþ jah galaubeiþ</p> + <p>16. ïn aivaggeljon. jah warbonds faur marein galeilaias gasaw</p> + <p>seimonu jah andraian broþar ïs. þis seimonis. vairpandans</p> + <p>17. nati ïn marein. vesun auk fiskjans. jah qaþ ïm ïesus. hirjats</p> + <p>18. afar mis jah gatauja ïgqis vairþan nutans manne. jah suns</p> + <p>19. affetandans þo natja seina laistidedun afar ïmma. jah jainþro</p> + <p>ïnngaggands framis leitil gasaw ïakobu þana zaibaidaiaus jah</p> + <p>20. ïohanne broþar ïs jah þans ïn skipa manvjandans natja. jah</p> + <p>suns haihait ïns jah affetandans attan seinana zaibaidaiu ïn þamma</p> + <p>skipa miþ asnjam galiþun afar ïmma jah galiþun ïn kafarnaum.</p> + <p>21. jah suns sabbato daga galeiþands ïn synagogen laisida</p> + <p>22. ïns jah usfilmans vaurþun ana þizai laiseinai ïs. unte vas laisjands</p> + <p>23. ïns sve valdufni habands jah ni svasve þai bokarjos. jah</p> + <p>vas ïn þizai synagogen ïze manna ïn unhrainjamma ahmin jah</p> + <p>24. ufhropida qiþands. fralet. wa uns jah þus ïesu nazorenai.</p> + <p>qamt fraqistjan uns. kann þuk was þu ïs. sa veiha guþs.</p> + <p>25. jah andbait ïna ïesus qiþands. þahai jah usgagg ut us þamma.</p> + <p>26. ahma unhrainja. jah tahida ïna ahma sa unhrainja jah hropjands</p> + <p>27. stibnai mikilai usïddja us ïmma. jah afslauþnodedun</p> + <p>allai sildaleikjandans. svaei sokidedun miþ sis misso qiþandans.</p> + <p>wa sijai þata. wo so laiseino so niujo. ei miþ valdufnja jah</p> + <p>ahmam þaim unhrainjam anabiudiþ jah ufhausjand ïmma.</p> + <p>28. usïddja þan meriþa ïs suns and allans bisitands galeilaias.</p> + <p>29. jah suns us þizai synagogen usgaggandans qemun ïn garda seimonis</p> + <p>30. jah andraiïns miþ ïokobau jah ïohannem. ïþ svaihro</p> + <p>31. seimonis log ïn brinnon. jah suns qeþun ïmma bi ïja. jah</p> + <p>duatgaggands urraisida þo undgreipands handu ïzos. jah affailot</p> + <p>32. þo so brinno suns jah andbahtida ïm. andanahtja þan vaurþanamma.</p> + <p>þan gasaggq sauïl. berun du ïmma allans þans ubil</p> +<!-- Page 583 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page583"></a>{583}</span> + <p>33. habandans jah unhulþons habandans. jah so baurgs alla garunnana</p> + <p>34. vas at daura. jah gahailida managans ubil habandans</p> + <p>missaleikaim sauhtim jah unhulþons managos usvarp jah ni</p> + <p>35. fralailot rodjan þos unhulþons. unte kunþedun ïna. jah air</p> + <p>uhtvon usstandans usïddja jah galaiþ ana auþjana staþ jah jainar</p> + <p>36. baþ. jah galaistans vaurþun ïmma seimon jah þai miþ</p> + <p>37. ïmma. jah bigitandans ïna qeþun du ïmma þatei allai þuk</p> + <p>38. sokjand. jah qaþ du ïm. gaggam du þaim bisunjane haimom</p> + <p>39. jah baurgim. ei jah jainar merjau. unte duþe qam. jah</p> + <p>vas merjands ïn synagogim ïze and alla galeilaian jah unholþons</p> + <p>40. usvairpands. jah qam at ïmma þrutsfill habands bidjands</p> + <p>ïna jah knivam knussjands jah qiþands du ïmma þatei. jabai</p> + <p>41. vileis. magt mik gahrainjan. ïþ ïesus ïnfeinands ufrakjands</p> + <p>handu seina attaitok ïmma jah qaþ ïmma. viljau. vairþ hrains.</p> + <p>42. jah biþe qaþ þata ïesus. suns þata þrutsfill affaiþ af ïmma jah</p> + <p>43. hrains varþ. jah gawotjands ïmma suns ussandida ïna jah qaþ</p> + <p>44. du ïmma. saiw ei mannhun ni qiþais vaiht ak gagg þuk silban</p> + <p>ataugjan gudjin jah atbair fram gahraineinai peinai. þatei</p> + <p>45. anabauþ moses du veitvodiþai ïm. ïþ ïs usgaggands dugann</p> + <p>merjan filu jah usqiþan þata vaurd. svasve ïs juþan ni mahta</p> + <p>andaugjo ïn baurg galeiþan ak uta ana auþjaim stadim vas.</p> + <p>jah ïddjedun du ïmma allaþro.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<h3>II.</h3> + +<h3>OLD HIGH-GERMAN.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">MUSPILLI.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From Schmeller.</i></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>... sîn ta piqueme,</p> + <p>Das er towian scal,</p> + <p>Wanta sâr so sih dui sêla</p> + <p>In dem sind arhevit,</p> + <p>Ente si den lîhhamun</p> + <p>Likkan lâzzit;</p> + <p>So quimith ein heri</p> + <p>Fona himilzungalon;</p> + <p>Daz andar fona pehhe:</p> +<!-- Page 584 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page584"></a>{584}</span> + <p>Dar pâgant siu umpi.</p> + <p>Sorgên mac diu sêla,</p> + <p>Unzi diu suona argêt,</p> + <p>Za wideremo herie,</p> + <p>Si gihalot werde.</p> + <p>Wanta ipu sia daz Satanazsses</p> + <p>Kisindi giwinnit,</p> + <p>Das leitet sia sâr</p> + <p>Dar iru leid wirdit,</p> + <p>In fiur enti in finstri,</p> + <p>Dazu ist reht virinlih ding.</p> + <p>Upi sia avar kihalont die,</p> + <p>Die dar fona himile quemant,</p> + <p>Enti si dero engilo eigan wirdit,</p> + <p>Die pringant sia sâr ûf in himilo rîhhi,</p> + <p>Darî est lîp âno tôd, lioht âno finstri,</p> + <p>Selida âno sorgun; dar nist neoman suih.</p> + <p>Denne der mar in pardîsu</p> + <p>Pû kiwinnit,</p> + <p>Hûs in himile,</p> + <p>Dar quimit imu hilfa kinuok</p> + <p>Pidiu ist durft mihhil allero manno welilihemo</p> + <p>Daz in es sîn muot kispane,</p> + <p>Daz er kotes willun</p> + <p>Kerno tuo,</p> + <p>Ente hella fuir</p> + <p>Harto wîsê,</p> + <p>Pehhes pina,</p> + <p>Dar piutit den Satanaz altist</p> + <p>Heizzan lauc. So mac huckan za diu,</p> + <p>Sorgên drâto</p> + <p>Der sih suntigen weiz.</p> + <p>Wê demo in vinstrî scal</p> + <p>Sîno virina stuen,</p> + <p>Prinnan in pehhe;</p> + <p>Daz ist rehto palwig ding—</p> + <p>Daz man den harêt ze gote,</p> + <p>Ente imo helfa ni quimit;</p> + <p>Wânit sih kinâda</p> +<!-- Page 585 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page585"></a>{585}</span> + <p>Diu wênaga sêla</p> + <p>Ni ist in kihuctin</p> + <p>Himiliskin gote,</p> + <p>Wanta hiar in werolti</p> + <p>After ni werkôta.</p> + <p>So denne der mahtigo khuninc</p> + <p>Daz mahal kipannit</p> + <p>Dara scal queman</p> + <p>Chunno kilîhhaz</p> + <p>Denne ni kitar parno nohhein</p> + <p>Den pan furisizzan,</p> + <p>Dî allero manno welîh</p> + <p>Ze demo mahale sculi,</p> + <p>Der scal er, vora demo ricche,</p> + <p>Az rahhu stantan,</p> + <p>Pî daz er, in werolti,</p> + <p>Kiwerkota hapêta.</p> + <p>Daz hôrt ih rahhon</p> + <p>Dia werolt-rehtwîson,</p> + <p>Daz sculi der Antichristo</p> + <p>Mit Eliase pâgan.</p> + <p>Der warch ist kiwâfanit;</p> + <p>Denne wirdit untar in wîk arhapan;</p> + <p>Khensun sind so kreftic,</p> + <p>Diri kosa ist so mihhil.</p> + <p>Elias strîtît</p> + <p>Pî den ewigon lîp,</p> + <p>Wili den rehtkernon</p> + <p>Daz rîhhi kistarkan;</p> + <p>Pidiu scal imo halfan</p> + <p>Der himiles kiwaltit.</p> + <p>Der Anticristo stêt</p> + <p>Pî dem Altfiante</p> + <p>Stêt pî demo Satanase,</p> + <p>Der inan farsenkan scal;</p> + <p>Pidiu scal er in der wîcsteti</p> + <p>Wunt pivallan,</p> + <p>Enti in demo sinde</p> + <p>Sigalos werdan.</p> +<!-- Page 586 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page586"></a>{586}</span> + <p>Doh wânit des vila gotmanno,</p> + <p>Daz Elias in demo wîge arwartit (werdit).</p> + <p>Sâr so daz Eliases pluot</p> + <p>In erda kitruifit,</p> + <p>So inprinnant die perga,</p> + <p>Poum ni kistentit</p> + <p>Einic in erdu,</p> + <p>Aha artruknênt,</p> + <p>Muor varsuilhet sih,</p> + <p>Suilizot lougui der himil</p> + <p>Mâno vallit,</p> + <p>Prinnit mittilagart,</p> + <p>Stein ni kistentit einik in erdu.</p> + <p>Verit denne stuatago in lant,</p> + <p>Verit mit diu viuriu</p> + <p>Viriho wîsôn,</p> + <p>Dar ni mai denne mâk andremo</p> + <p>Helfan vora dema Muspille.</p> + <p>Denne daz preita wasal</p> + <p>Allaz varprinnit,</p> + <p>Enti viur enti luft</p> + <p>Iz allaz arfurpit,</p> + <p>War ist denne diu marha,</p> + <p>Dar man dar eo mit sînem magon</p> + <p>(Diu marha ist farprunnan</p> + <p>Diu sêla stêt pidungan),</p> + <p>Ni weiz mit win puoze;</p> + <p>Sâr verit si za wîze.</p> + <p>Pidui ist dem manne so guot,</p> + <p>Denne er ze demo mahale quimit,</p> + <p>Daz er rahhono welihha</p> + <p>Rehto arteile;</p> + <p>Denne ni darf er sorgên,</p> + <p>Denne er ze deru suonu quimit.</p> + <p>Denne varant engila;</p> + <p>Uper dio marho,</p> + <p>Wecchant diota,</p> + <p>Wîssant ze dinge;</p> + <p>Denne scal manno gelîh</p> +<!-- Page 587 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page587"></a>{587}</span> + <p>Fona deru moltu arsten;</p> + <p>Lôssan sih ar dero lêuuo vazzon</p> + <p>Scal imo avar sîn lîp piqueman,</p> + <p>Daz er sîn reht allaz</p> + <p>Kirahhon muozzi,</p> + <p>Enti imo after sînen tâtin</p> + <p>Arteilet werde.</p> + <p>Denne der gisizzit,</p> + <p>Der dar suonnan scal,</p> + <p>Enti arteillan scal,</p> + <p>Tôten enti quekken,</p> + <p>Denne stêt darumpi</p> + <p>Engilo menigi,</p> + <p>Quotero gomono girust so mihhil.</p> + <p>Dara quimit ze deru rightungu so vilo dia dar arstent,</p> + <p>So dar manno nohhein</p> + <p>Wiht pimîdan ni mak;</p> + <p>Dar scal denne hant sprehhan,</p> + <p>Houpit sagên,</p> + <p>Allero lido wehh</p> + <p>Unsi id den luzigun vinger.</p> + <p>Ni weiz der wênago man</p> + <p>Wielihhan urteil er habêt;</p> + <p>Denne er mit den miaton</p> + <p>Marrit daz rehta,</p> + <p>Daz der tiuval darpî</p> + <p>Kitarnit stentit;</p> + <p>Der habêt in ruovu</p> + <p>Rahhono welihha,</p> + <p>Daz der man er enti sîd</p> + <p>Upiles kifrumita,</p> + <p>Daz er iz allaz kisagêt,</p> + <p>Denne or ze deru suonu quimit.</p> + <p> * * * * * * </p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 588 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page588"></a>{588}</span></p> + +<h3>III.</h3> + +<h3>ANGLO-SAXON.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">Evangelium Nicodemi, xxi.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From Thwaite's Heptateuch.</i></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Hyt wæs ða swiþe angrislic, ða ða Satanas, ðære Helle ealdor and þæs + deaþes heretoga, cwæþ to þære Helle; "Gegearwa þe sylfe, þat ðu mæge + Chryst onfon; se hyne sylfne gewuldrod hæfð, and ys Godes sunu and eac + man, and eac se Deað ys hyne ondrædende, and myn sawl ys swa unrot þæt me + þincþ þæt ic alybban ne mæg, for þig he ys mycel wyðerwynna and yfel + wyrcende ongean me, and eac ongean þe: and fæla, þe ic hæfde to me gewyld + and to atogen, blynde and healte, gebygede and hreoslan, eallo he fram ðe + atyhð." Seo Hell þa, swiþe grymme and swiþe egeslice, answarode ða + Satanase ðam ealdan deofle, and cwæð: "Hwæt is se þe ys swa strang and + swa myhtig, gif he man is, þæt he ne sig þone Deað ondrædende, þe wyt + gefyrn beclysed hæfdon, for þam ealle þa þe on eorþan anweald hæfdon þu + hig myd þynre myhte to me getuge, and ic hig fæste geheold; and, gif þu + swa mihhtig eart swa þu ær wære, hwæt ys se man and se Hælend þe ne sig + þone Deað and þyne mihte ondrædende? to forðan ic wat, gif he on + mennyscnysse swa mihtig ys, þæt he naþer ne unc ne þond Deað ne ondræt, + þonne gefohð he þe and þe byþ æfre wa to ecere worulde." Satanos þa, þæs + cwicsusles ealdor þære Helle andswarode, and þus cwæd: "Hwæt twyneð þe, + oþþe hwæt ondrædst þu þe þone Hælend to onfonne, mynne wyþerwynnan and + eac þynne; Ac forðon ic his costnode, and ic gedyde him þæt eal þæt + Iudeisce folc þæt hig wæron ongean him myd yrre and mid andan awehte, and + ic gedyde þæt he wæs mid spere gesticod, and ic gedyde þæt hym man + dryncan mengde myd eallan and myd ecede, and ic gedyde þæt man hym + treowene rode gegearwode, and hyne þær on aheng, and hyne mid næglum + gefæstnode and nu æt nextan ic wylle his deað to þe gelædan, and he sceal + beon underþeod agwhær ge me ge þe." Seo Hell þa swyþe angrysenlice þus + cwœþ; "Wyte þæt ðu swa do þæt he ða deadan fram me ateo, for þam þe + her fæla syndon geornfulle fram me mig, þæt hig on me wunian noldon; ac + ic wat þæt hig <!-- Page 589 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page589"></a>{589}</span>fram mig ne gewytaþ þurh heora agene + myhte, butan hig se Ælmytiga God fram me ateo, se þe Lazarum of me genam, + þone þe ic heold deadne feower nyht fæstne gebunden, ac ic hyne æft + cwicne ageaf þurh his bedodu." Da andswarode Satanas and cwæþ: "Se ylca + hyt is se þe Lazarum of unc bam genam." Seo Hell hym þa þus to cwæp. + "Eala hic halgige þe þuhr þyne mægenu, and eac þuhr myne, þæt þu næfre ne + geþafige pæt he on me cume, for þam þa ic gehyrde, þæt worde his bebodes, + ic was myd miclum ege afyriht, and ealle mynne arleasan þenas wæron samod + myd me gedrehte and gedrefede, swa þæt we ni myhton Lazarum gehealdan, ac + he wæs hyne asceacende eal swa earn þonne he myd hrædum flythe wyle forð + afleon, and he swa wæs fram us ræfende, and seo eorþe þe Lazarus deadan + lichaman heold, heo hyne cwycne ageaf, and þæt ic nu wat þæt se man þe + eall þæt gedyde þæt he ys on Gode strang and myhtig, and gif þu hyne to + me lædest, ealle þa þe her syndon on þysum wælhreowan cwearterne + beclysde, and on þysum bendum myd synnum gewryðene, ealle he myd þys + godcundnysse fram me atyhð, and to lyfe gelæt."</p> + +</blockquote> + +<h3>IV.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From Schmid's Anglo-Saxon Laws.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Þis syndon þa domas þe Ælfred se cyning geceas.</p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Drihten wæs precende þæs word to Moyse and þus cwæð:</p> + + <p>1. Ic eam drihten þin god. Ic þe utgelædde of Ægypta land and of heora + þeowdome; ne lufa þu oðre fremde godas ofer me.</p> + + <p>2. Ne minne naman ne cig þu on idelnesse, forþon þe þu ne bist + unscyldig wið me, gif þu on idelnesse cigst minne naman.</p> + + <p>3. Gemine þæt þu gehalgie þone ræstedæg. Wyrceað eow syx dagas, and on + þam seofaðan restað eow, þu and þin sunu and þine dohter and þin þeowe + and þine wylne and þin weorcynten and se cuma þe bið binnan þinan durum. + Forþam on syx dagum Crist geworhte heofenas and eorðan, sæas and ealle + gesceafta þe on him sint and hine gereste on þam seofaðan dæge, and + forþon drihten hine gehalgode.</p> + + <p>4. Ara þinum fæder and þinre meder, þa þe drihten sealde þe, þæt þu sy + þy leng libbende on eorðan.</p> + + <p>5. Ne slea þu.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 590 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page590"></a>{590}</span></p> + + <p>6. Ne stala þu.</p> + + <p>7. Ne lige þu dearnunga.</p> + + <p>8. Ne sæge þu lease gewitnesse wið þinum nehstan.</p> + + <p>9. Ne wilna þu þines nehstan yrfes mid unrihte.</p> + + <p>10. Ne wyrc þu þe gyldene godas oððe seolfrene.</p> + + <p>11. Þis synd þa domas þe þu him settan scealt. § 1. Gif hwa gebycge + Christenne þeow, VI gear þeowige he, þe seofoðan beo he freoh orceapunga. + § 2. Mid swylce hrægle he ineode, mid swilce gange he ut. § 3. Gif he wif + sylf hæbbe, gange heo ut mid him. § 4. Gif se hlaford þonne him wif + sealde, sy heo and hire beam þæs hlafordes. § 5. Gif se þeowa þonne + cwæðe: nelle ic fram minum hlaforde, ne fram minum wife, ne fram minum + bearne,—breng hine þonne his hlaford to þære dura þæs temples and + þurhþyrlige his eare mid eale to tacne, þæt he sy æfre syððan þeow.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>13. Se man þe his gewealdes monnan ofslea, swelte se deaðe. Se-þe hine + þonne neades ofsloge oððe unwillum oððe ungewealdes, swylce hine god swa + sende on his honda and he hine ne ymb syrede, sy he his feores wyrðe and + folcrihtre bot, gif he fryðstowe gesece. Gif hwa þonne of gyrnesse oððe + gewealdes ofslea his þone nehstan þurh syrwa, aluc þu hine fram minum + weofode, to þam þæt he deaðe swelte.</p> + + <p>14. Se-þe slea his fæder oððe his modor, ne sceal deaðe sweltan.</p> + + <p>15. Se-þe frione forstæle and he hyne bebycge and hit onbetæled sy, + þæt he hine bereccan ne mæg, swelte se deaðe. § 1. Se-se wyrge his fæder + oððe his modor, swelte se deaðe.</p> + + <p>16. Gif hwa slea his þone nehstan mid stane oððe mid fyste, and he + þeah utgangan mæge be stafe, begyte him læce and wyrce his weorc þa + hwile, þe he sylf ne mæge.</p> + + <p>17. Se-þe slea his agenne þeowne esne oððe mennen, and he ne sy þy + dæges dead, þeah he libbe twa niht oððe þreo, ne bið he ealles swa + scyldig, forþon þe hit wæs his agen feoh. Gif he þonne sy idæges dead, + þonne sitte seo scyld on him.</p> + + <p>18. Gif hwa on ceast eacniend wif gewerde, bete þone æfwyrdlan swa him + domeras gereccan. Gif heo dead sy, sylle sawle wið sawle.</p> + + <p>19. Gif hwa oðrum his eage oðdo, sylle his agen for; toð for toð, + handa for handa, fet for fet, bærning for bærning, wund wið wund, læl wið + læle.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 591 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page591"></a>{591}</span></p> + + <p>20. Gif hwa ofslea his þeowe oððe his þeowenne þæt eage ut, and he + þonne hi gedo ænigge, gefreoge hi forþon. Gif he þonne toð ofslea, do þæt + ylce.</p> + + <p>21. Gif oxa ofhnite wer oððe wif, þæt hy deade synd, sy he mid stanum + ofweorpod and ne sy his flæsc geeton and se hlaford bið unscyldig. § 1. + Gif se oxa hnitol wære twam dagum ære oððe þrym and se hlaford hit wist + and hine inne betynan nolde, and he þonne were oððe wif ofsloge, sy he + mid stanum ofworpod and sy se hlaford ofslegen oððe forgolden, swa þæt + witan to riht findan. § 2. Sunu oððe dohtor gif he ofstinge, þæs ylcan + domes sy he wyrðe. § 3. Gif he þonne þeow oððe þeowe mennen ofstynge, + gesylle þæm hlaford XXX scill. seolfres and se oxa sy mid stanum + ofworpod.</p> + + <p>22. Gif hwa adelfe wæterpytte oððe betynedne untyne and hine eft ne + betyne, gyld swylc neat swa þær on befealle and hæbbe him þæt dead.</p> + + <p>23. Gif oxa oðres mannes oxan gewundige and he þonne dead sy, + bebycggen þone oxan and hæbben him þæt weorð gemæne and eac þæt flæsc swa + þæs deadan. Gif se hlaford þonne wiste, þæt se oxa hnitol wære and hine + healdan nolde, sylle him oðerne oxan fore and hæbbe him ealle þæt + flæsc.</p> + + <p>24. Gif hwa forstæle oðres oxan and hine ofslea oððe bebycge, sylle + twegen wið and feower sceap wið anum. Gif he hæbbe hwæt he sylle, sy he + sylf beboht wið þam feoh.</p> + + <p>25. Gif þeof brece mannes hus nihtes and he wyrðe þær ofslægen, ne sy + he na manslæges scyldig, þe him sloge. Gif he syððan æfter sunnan upgonge + þis deð, he bið mansleges scyldig and he þonne sylfa swylte, butan he + nyddæda wære. Gif mid him cwicum sy funden þæt he ær stale, be twyfealdum + forgylde hit.</p> + + <p>26. Gif hwa gewerde oðres monnes wingeard oððe his æceras oððe his + landes awuht, gebete swa hit man geeahtige.</p> + + <p>27. Gif fyr sy ontended ryt to bærnenne, gebete þone æfwerdelsan se + þæt fyr ontendeð.</p> + + <p>28. Gif hwa oðfæste his friend feoh, gif he hit sylf stæl, forgylde be + twyfealdum. § 1. Gif he nyste, hwa hit stæle, geladige hine sylfne, þæt + he þær nan facn ne gefremede. § 2. Gif hit þonne cucu feoh wære and he + secge, þæt hit here name oððe þæt hit sylf acwæle, and he gewitnesse + hæbbe, ne þearf he þæt gyldan. § 3. Gif he þonne gewitnesse næbbe, and he + him ne getriewe ne sy, swerige he þonne. <!-- Page 592 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page592"></a>{592}</span></p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>30. Þa fœmnan þe gewunniað onfon galdorcræftigan and scinlæcan + and wiccan, ne læt þu þa libban.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> + + <p>32. And se þe godgeldum onsæcge ofer god ænne, swelte deaðe.</p> + + <p>33. Utancumene and ætþeodige ne geswenc þu no, forþon þe ge wæron + ælþeodige on Ægypta land.</p> + + <p>34. Þa wudewan and þa steopcilde ne sceaððað ne hi nawer deriað. Gif + ge þonne elles doð, hi cleopiað to me and ic gehire hi, and ic eow þonne + slea mid minum sweorde and ic gedo pæt eowra wif bið wudewan and eowre + bearn byð steopcilde.</p> + + <p>35. Gif þu feoh to borh gesylle þinum geferan, þe mid þe eardian + wille, ne nide þu hine swa nidling and ne gehene þu hine mid þy + eacan.</p> + + <p>36. Gif man næbbe butan anfeald hrægle hine mid to wreonne and to + werianne and he hit to wedde sylle, ær sunnan setlgange sy hit agyfen. + Gif þu swa ne dest, þonne cleopað he to me and ic hine gehyre, forþon þe + ic eom swiðe mildheort.</p> + + <p>37. Ne tæl þu þinne drihten, ne þone hlaford þæs folces ne werge + þu.</p> + + <p>38. Þine teoðan sceattas and þine frumripan gangendes and weaxendos + agyfe þu gode.</p> + + <p>39. Ealle þæt flæsc þæt wilddeor læfan, ne etan ge þæt ac syllað hit + hundum.</p> + + <p>40. Leases mannes word ne recce þu no þæs to gehyranno, ne his domas + ne geþafa þu, ne næne gewitnysse æfter him ne saga þu.</p> + + <p>41. Ne wend þu þe na on þæs folces unræd and on unriht gewillon hiora + spræce and gecleps ofer þin riht, and on þæs unwisestan lare þu ne + geþafa.</p> + + <p>42. Gif þe becume oðres mannes gymeleas feoh on hand, þeah hit sy þin + feonde, gecyðe hit him.</p> + + <p>43. Dem þu swiðe emne; de dem þu oðerne dom pæm welegan oðerne þam + earman, ne oðerne þam leofran oðerne þam laðran ne deme þu.</p> + + <p>44. Onscuna þu a leasunga.</p> + + <p>45. Soðfæstne man and unscildigne, ne acwele þu þone æfre.</p> + + <p>46. Ne onfo þu næfre medsceattum, forþon hi ablendað ful oft wisra + manna geþoht and hiora word onwendað.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 593 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page593"></a>{593}</span></p> + + <p>47. Þam ælþeodigan and utancumenan ne læt þu na uncuðlice wið hine, ne + mid nanum unrihtum þu hine ne drecce.</p> + + <p>48. Ne swerigen ge næfre under hæðene godas, ne on nanum þingum ne + cleopien ge to him.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<h3>V.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">OPENING OF BEOWULF.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Edited and Translated by J. M. Kemble.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Opening of Beowulf" title="Opening of Beowulf"> +<tr><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +Hwæt we Gár-Dena,<br /> +in gear-dagum,<br /> +þeód-cy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ninga,<br /> +þry<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>m ge-frunon—<br /> +hû ða æþelingas<br /> +ellen fremedon—<br /> +oft Scy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ld Scefing,<br /> +sceaþen(a) þreátum,<br /> +monegū mægþum,<br /> +meodo-setla of-teáh—<br /> +egsode eorl—<br /> +sy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ððan ǽrest wearð<br /> +feá-sceaft funden;<br /> +he þæs frófre ge-bá(d),<br /> +weóx under wolcnum,<br /> +weorð-my<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ndum þáh;<br /> +oð þ<span class="x1"><span class="x6">¯</span></span> him ǽg-hwly<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>c<br /> +þára ymb-sittendra,<br /> +ofer hron-ráde,<br /> +hýran scolde,<br /> +gomban gy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ldan—<br /> +þ<span class="x1"><span class="x6">¯</span></span> wǽs gód cy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ning—<br /> +ðæm eafera wǽs<br /> +æfer cenned,<br /> +geong in geardum,<br /> +þone gód sende<br /> +folce to frófre;<br /> +fy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ren-þearfe on-geat,<br /> +þ<span class="x1"><span class="x6">¯</span></span> híe ǽr drugon,<br /> +aldor-(le)áse.<br /> +<!-- Page 594 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page594"></a>{594}</span> +lange hwíle,<br /> +him þæs líf-freá,<br /> +wuldres wealdend,<br /> +worold-áre for-geaf—<br /> +Beó-wulf wǽs breme,<br /> +blǽd wíde sprang,<br /> +Scy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ldes eafera,<br /> +Scede-landum in—<br /> +swa sceal (wig-fru)ma<br /> +góde ge-wircean—<br /> +fromum feo-giftum,<br /> +on fæder-(feo)rme;<br /> +þ<span class="x1"><span class="x6">¯</span></span> hine, on y<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>lde,<br /> +eft ge-wunigen<br /> +wi(l)-ge-síþas,<br /> +þonne wig cume.<br /> +leóde ge-lǽsten,<br /> +lof-dǽdū sceal,<br /> +in mægþage-hwære,<br /> +man ge-þeón——<br /> +him, ðá Scy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ld ge-wát<br /> +tó ge-scæp hwíle +</td><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +fela-hror feran<br /> +on freán wæ re—<br /> +hí hy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ne þá æt-bǽron<br /> +tó brimes faroðe,<br /> +swǽse ge-síþas,<br /> +swá he selfa bæd;<br /> +þenden wordum weóld<br /> +wine Scy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ldinga<br /> +leóf land-fruma<br /> +lange áhte——<br /> +þær æt hýðe stód<br /> +hringed-stefna,<br /> +isig and út-fús,<br /> +æþelinges fær;<br /> +á-ledon þá<br /> +leófne þeóden,<br /> +beága bry<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>ttan,<br /> +on bearm scipes,<br /> +mǽrne be mǽste:<br /> +þær wǽs mádma fela<br /> +of feor-wegum<br /> +frætwa ge-lǽded.<br /> +Ne hýrde ic cy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>mlicor<br /> +ceol ge-gy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>rwan,<br /> +hilde-wæpnum<br /> +and heaðo-wǽdum,<br /> +billum and by<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>rnum<br /> +him on bearme læg<br /> +mádma menigo,<br /> +þa him mid scoldon<br /> +on flódes æht<br /> +feor ge-wítan.<br /> +Nalæs hí hine læssan<br /> +lácum teódan,<br /> +þeód-ge-streónum,<br /> +þon þá dy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>don<br /> +þe hine, æt frum-sceafte,<br /> +forð on-sendon,<br /> +ǽnne ofer ýðe,<br /> +umbor-wesende.<br /> +þá gy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>t híe him á-setton<br /> +segen (gy<span class="x1"><span class="x2">˙</span></span>l denne,<br /> +heáh ofer heáfod—<br /> +leton holm ber(an)<br /> +geafon on gár-secg:<br /> +him wǽs geomor-sefa<br /> +murnende mód——<br /> +men ne cunnon<br /> +secgan, tó sóðe,<br /> +séle rædenne,<br /> +hæleð under heofenū<br /> +hwá þæm hlæste on-feng. +</td></tr></table> + +<h3>VI.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURG.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From Warton's History of English Poetry,</i> <i>Ed.</i> 1840. Vol. I. +p. lxvii. <i>Translated</i> by R. Taylor.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Battle of Brunanburg" title="The Battle of Brunanburg"> +<tr><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +Æthelstán cyning,<br /> +eorla drihten,<br /> +boorna beáh-gyfa,<br /> +and his bróther eac,<br /> +Eadmund ætheling,<br /> +ealdor langne tir,<br /> +geslogon æt secce,<br /> +sweorda ecgum,<br /> +<!-- Page 595 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page595"></a>{595}</span> +ymbe Brunanburh.<br /> +Bord-weal clufon,<br /> +heowon heatho-linda,<br /> +hamora lafum,<br /> +eáforan Eadweardes.<br /> +Swa him geæthele wæs<br /> +from cneo-mægum<br /> +thæt híe æt campe oft,<br /> +with lathra gehwæne,<br /> +land ealgodon,<br /> +hord and hámas,<br /> +hettend crungon.<br /> +Scotta leode,<br /> +and scip-flotan,<br /> +fæge feollon.<br /> +Feld dennade,<br /> +secga swate,<br /> +sith-than sunne úp,<br /> +on morgen-tíd,<br /> +mære tuncgol,<br /> +glád ofer grundas,<br /> +Godes candel be orht,<br /> +éces Drihtnes;<br /> +oth-thæt sio æthele gesceaft,<br /> +sáh tó setle.<br /> +Thær læg secg monig,<br /> +gárum ageted,<br /> +guman northere,<br /> +ofer scyld scoten.<br /> +Swylc Scyttisc eac,<br /> +werig wiges sæd.<br /> +West-Seaxe forth,<br /> +ondlangne dæg<br /> +eorod-cystum,<br /> +on last lægdon<br /> +lathum theodum.<br /> +Heowon here-flyman,<br /> +hindan thearle,<br /> +mecum mylen-scearpum.<br /> +Myrce ne wyrndon<br /> +<!-- Page 596 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page596"></a>{596}</span> +heardes hand-plegan,<br /> +hæletha nanum,<br /> +thára the mid Anlafe,<br /> +ofer ear-geblond,<br /> +on lides bosme,<br /> +land gesohton,<br /> +fæge to feohte.<br /> +Fife lægon,<br /> +on thám campstede,<br /> +cyningas geonge,<br /> +sweordum aswefede.<br /> +Swylc seofen éac<br /> +eorlas Anlafes;<br /> +unrím heriges,<br /> +flotan and Sceotta.<br /> +Thær geflymed wearth<br /> +Northmanna bregu,<br /> +nyde gebæded,<br /> +to lides stefne,<br /> +litle werede.<br /> +Cread cnear on-flot,<br /> +cyning ut-gewat,<br /> +on fealowe flod,<br /> +feorh generede.<br /> +Swylc thær éac se froda, +</td><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> +mid fleame cóm,<br /> +on his cyththe north,<br /> +Constantinus,<br /> +har hylderinc<br /> +Hreman ne thórfte<br /> +meca gemanan.<br /> +Her wæs his maga sceard,<br /> +freonda gefylled,<br /> +on folc-stede,<br /> +beslægen æt secce;<br /> +and his sunu (he) forlet<br /> +on wæl-stowe,<br /> +wundum-forgrunden,<br /> +geongne æt guthe.<br /> +Gylpan ne thórfte,<br /> +beorn blanden-feax,<br /> +bill-geslehtes,<br /> +eald inwitta;<br /> +ne Anláf thy má,<br /> +mid heora here-lafum,<br /> +hlihan ne thorfton,<br /> +thæt hí beadu-weorca<br /> +beteran wurdon,<br /> +on camp-stede,<br /> +cumbol-gehnastes,<br /> +gár mittinge,<br /> +gumena gemotes,<br /> +wæpen-gewrixles,<br /> +thæs the híe on wæl-felda<br /> +with Eadweardes<br /> +eáforan plegodon.<br /> +Gewiton hym tha Northmen,<br /> +nægledon cnearrum,<br /> +dreorig daretha láf,<br /> +on dinges mere,<br /> +ofer deop wæter,<br /> +Dyflin secan,<br /> +eft Yraland,<br /> +æwisc-mode.<br /> +Swylce thá gebrother,<br /> +begen æt samne,<br /> +cyning and ætheling,<br /> +cyththe sohton,<br /> +West Seaxna land,<br /> +wiges hremige.<br /> +Læton him behindan,<br /> +hrá brittian,<br /> +salowig padan,<br /> +thone sweartan hræfn,<br /> +hyrned-nebban;<br /> +and thone hasean padan,<br /> +earn æftan hwit,<br /> +æses brucan,<br /> +grædigne guth-hafoc;<br /> +and thæt græge deor,<br /> +wulf on wealde.<br /> +Ne wearth wæl máre,<br /> +on thys igland,<br /> +æfre gyta,<br /> +folces gefylled,<br /> +beforan thissum,<br /> +sweordes ecgum,<br /> +thæs the us secgath béc,<br /> +ealde uthwitan,<br /> +sith-than eastan hider<br /> +Engle and Seaxe<br /> +úp becomon,<br /> +ofer brade brimu<br /> +Brytene sohton,<br /> +wlance wig-smithas,<br /> +Weales ofer-comon,<br /> +eorlas árhwáte,<br /> +eard begeaton. +</td></tr></table> + +<h3>VII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">HILDIBRAND AND HATHUBRAND.</p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">TEXT OF GRIMM. TRANSLATION IBID.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead">Also in—<i>Langue et Litérature des Anciens Francs, par G. Gley</i>.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ih gihorta that seggen, that sie urhetton ænon muotin</p> + <p>Hildibraht enti Hathubrant untar heriuntuem,</p> + <p>Sunu fatar ungo; iro saro rihtun,</p> + <p>Garutun se iro guthhamun, gurtun sih iro suert ana,</p> + <p>Helidos, ubar ringa, do sie to dero hiltu ritun.</p> +<!-- Page 597 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page597"></a>{597}</span> + <p>Hiltibraht gimahalta, Heribrantes sunu, her was heroro man,</p> + <p>Ferahes frotoro, her fragen gistuont,</p> + <p>Fohem wortum: wer sin fater wari;</p> + <p>Fires in folche, eddo weliches cnuosles du sis?</p> + <p>Ibu du mi aenan sages, ik mideo are-wet,</p> + <p>Chind in chuninchriche, chud ist min al irmindeot.</p> + <p>Hadubraht gimahalti Hiltibrantes sunu: Dat sagetun mi</p> + <p>Usere liuti alte anti frote, dea erhina warun,</p> + <p>Dat Hilbrant haetti min fater, ïh heittu Hadubrant.</p> + <p>Forn her ostar gihueit, floh her Otachres nid</p> + <p>Hina miti Theotriche enti sinero degano filu;</p> + <p>Her furlach in lante luttila sitten</p> + <p>Prut in bure; barn unwahsan,</p> + <p>Arbeolosa heraet, ostar hina det,</p> + <p>Sid delriche darba gistuontum, fatereres mines,</p> + <p>Dat was so friuntlaos man, her was Otachre unmettirri,</p> + <p>Degano dechisto, unti Deotriche darba gistontum;</p> + <p>Her was eo folches at ente, imo was eo feheta ti leop.</p> + <p>Chud was her chonnem mannuma, ni wanin ih, in lib habbe.</p> + <p>Wittu Irmin-Got, quad Hiltibraht, obana ab havane,</p> + <p>Dat du neo danahalt mit sus sippan man dinc in gileitos!</p> + <p>Want her do ar arme wuntane bouga,</p> + <p>Cheiswringu gitan, so imo seder chuning gap</p> + <p>Huneo truhtin; dat ih dir it un bi huldi gibu!</p> + <p>Hadubraht gimalta, Hiltibrantes sunu:</p> + <p>Mit geru scal man geba infahan,</p> + <p>Ort widar orte, du bist dir, alter Hun, ummet,</p> + <p>Spaher, spenis mi mit dinem wortema,</p> + <p>Wilihuh di nu speru werpan,</p> + <p>Pist al so gialtet man, so du ewin inwit fortos;</p> + <p>Dat sagetun mi Sacolidante</p> + <p>Westar ubar Wentilsaeo, dat man wic furnam,</p> + <p>Tot ist Hiltibraht Heribrantes suno,</p> + <p>Hildibrant gimahalta Heribrantes suno: wela gisihu ih,</p> + <p>In dinem hrustim, dat du habes heine herron goten,</p> + <p>Dat du noh bi desemo riche reccheo ni wurti,</p> + <p>Welaga, nu waltant Got, quad Hiltibrant, we wurt skihit!</p> + <p>Ih wallota sumaro enti wintro sehstick urlante.</p> + <p>Dar man mih eo scerita in folc scestantero.</p> +<!-- Page 598 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page598"></a>{598}</span> + <p>So man mir at burc einigeru banun ni gifasta;</p> + <p>Nu scal mih suasat chind suertu hauwan,</p> + <p>Bieton mit sinu billiu, eddo ih imo tí banin werden.</p> + <p>Doh maht du nu aodlicho, ibu dir din ellent aoc,</p> + <p>In sus heremo man hrusti girwinnan;</p> + <p>Rauba bi hrahanen ibu du dar enic reht habes.</p> + <p>Der si doh nu argosto, quad Hildibrant, ostarliuto,</p> + <p>Der dir nu wiges warne, nu dih es so wel lustit.</p> + <p>Gudea gimeirum niused emotti.</p> + <p>Wer dar sih hiutu dero prel-zilo hrumen muotti,</p> + <p>Erdo desero brunnono bedero waltan.</p> + <p>Do laettun se aerist asckim scritan</p> + <p>Scarpen scurim, dat in dem sciltim stout;</p> + <p>Do stoptun tosamene, starmbort chludun,</p> + <p>Hewun harmilicco huitte scilti</p> + <p>Unti im iro lintun luttilo wurtun—</p> + </div> + </div> + +<h3>VIII.</h3> + +<h3>OLD SAXON.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">FROM THE TEXT OF A. YPEIJ.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Taalkundig Magazijn.</i> P. 1, No. 1.—<i>p. 54.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Psalm</i> LIV.</p> + + <p>2. Gehori got gebet min, in ne furuuir bida mina; thenke te mi in + gehori mi.</p> + + <p>3. Gidruouit bin an tilogon minro, in mistrot bin fan stimmon fiundes, + in fan arbeide sundiges.</p> + + <p>4. Uuanda geneigedon an mi unreht, in an abulge unsuoti uuaron mi.</p> + + <p>5. Herta min gidruouit ist an mi, in forta duodis fiel ouir mi.</p> + + <p>6. Forthta in biuonga quamon ouer mi, in bethecoda mi + thuisternussi.</p> + + <p>7. In ic quad "uuie sal geuan mi fetheron also duuon, in ic fliugon + sal, in raston sal."</p> + + <p>8. Ecco! firroda ic fliende, inde bleif an eudi.</p> + + <p>9. Ic sal beidan sin, thie behaldon mi deda fan luzzilheide geistis in + fan geuuidere. <!-- Page 599 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page599"></a>{599}</span></p> + + <p>10. Bescurgi, herro, te deile tunga iro, uuanda ic gesag unriht in + fluoc an burgi.</p> + + <p>11. An dag in naht umbefangan sal sia ouir mura ira, unreht in arbeit + an mitdon iro in unreht.</p> + + <p>12. In ne te fuor fan straton iro prisma in losunga.</p> + + <p>13. Uuanda of fiunt flukit mi, is tholodit geuuisso; in of thie thie + hatoda mi, ouir mi mikila thing spreke, ic burge mi so mohti geburran, + fan imo.</p> + + <p>14. Thu geuuisso man einmuodigo, leido min in cundo min.</p> + + <p>15. Thu samon mit mi suota nami muos, an huse gode giengon uuir mit + geluni.</p> + + <p>16. Cum dot ouir sia, in nithir stigin an hellon libbinda. Uuanda + arheide an selethe iro, an mitdon ini.</p> + + <p>17. Ic eft te gode riepo, in herro behielt mi.</p> + + <p>18. An auont in an morgan in an mitdondage tellon sal ic, in kundon; + in he gehoron sal.</p> + + <p>19. Irlosin sal an frithe sela mina fan then, thia ginacont mi, uuanda + under managon he uuas mit mi.</p> + + <p>20. Gehorun sal got in ginetheron sal sia; thie ist er uueroldi.</p> + + <p>21. Ne geuuisso ist ini uuihsil; in ne forchtedon got. Theneda hant + sina an uuitherloni.</p> + +<h3>IX.</h3> + +<h3>MODERN DUTCH OF HOLLAND.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Mark</i>, <i>Chap.</i> I.</p> + + <p>1. Het begin des Evangelies van <span class="sc">Jezus + Christus</span>, den Zoon van God.</p> + + <p>2. Gelijk geschreven is in de Profeten: ziet, Ik zend mijnen Engel + voor uw aangezigt, die uwen weg voor u heen bereiden zal.</p> + + <p>3. De stem des roependen in de woestijn: bereidt den weg des Heeren, + maakt zijne paden regt!</p> + + <p>4. Johannes was doopende in de woestijn, en predikende den doop der + bekeering tot vergeving der zonden.</p> + + <p>5. En al het Joodsche land ging tot hem uit, en die van Jerûzalem; en + werden allen van hem gedoopt in the rivier de Jordaan, belijdende hunne + zonden.</p> + + <p>6. En Johannes was gekleed met kemelshaar, en met eenen <!-- Page 600 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page600"></a>{600}</span>lederen gordel + om zijne lendenen, en at sprinkhannen en wilden honig.</p> + + <p>7. En hij predikte, zeggende: na mij komt, die sterker is dan ik, wien + ik niet waardig ben, nederbukkende, den riem zijner schoenen te + ontbinden.</p> + + <p>8. Ik heb ulieden wel gedoopt met water, maar hij zal u doopen met den + Heiligen Geest.</p> + + <p>9. En het geschiedde in diezelve dagen, dat Jezus kwam van Názareth, + <i>gelegen</i> in Galiléa, en werd van Johannes gedoopt in de + Jordaan.</p> + + <p>10. En terstond, als hij uit het water opklom, zag bij de hemelen + opengaan, en den Geest, gelijk eene duive, op hem nederdalen.</p> + + <p>11. En er geschiedde eene stem nit de hemelen: gij zijt mijn geliefde + Zoon, in denwelken Ik mijn welbehagen heb!</p> + + <p>12. En terstond dreef hem de Geest uit in de woestijn.</p> + + <p>13. En hij was aldaar in de woestijn vertig dagen, verzocht van den + Satan; en was bij de wilde gedierten; en de Engelen dienden hem.</p> + + <p>14. En nadat Johannes overgeleverd was, kwam Jezus in Galiléa, + predikende het Evangelie van het Koningrijk Gods,</p> + + <p>15. En zeggende: de tijd is vervuld, en het Koningrijk Gods nabij + gekomen; bekeert u, en gelooft het Evangelie.</p> + + <p>16. En wandelende bij de Galilésche zee, zag hij Simon en Andréas, + zijnen broeder, werpende het net in de zee (want zij waren + visschers);</p> + + <p>17 En Jezus zeide tot hen: volgt mij na, en ik zal maken, dat gij + visschers der menschen zult worden.</p> + + <p>18. En zij, terstond hunne netten verlatende, zijn hem gevolgd.</p> + + <p>19. En van daar een weinig voortgegaan zijnde, zag hij Jacobus, den + zoon van Zebedéüs, en Johannes, zijnen broeder, en dezelve in het schip + hunne netten vermakende.</p> + + <p>20. En terstond riep hij hen; en zij, latende hunnen vader Zebedéüs in + het schip, met de huurlingen, zijn hem nagevolgd.</p> + + <p>21. En zij kwamen binnen Kapernaüm; en terstond op den Sabbatdag in de + Synagoge gegaan zijnde, leerde hij.</p> + + <p>22. En zij versloegen zich over zijne leer: want hij leerde hen, als + magt hebbende, en niet als de Schriftgeleerden. <!-- Page 601 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page601"></a>{601}</span></p> + + <p>23. En er was in hunne Synagoge een mensch, met eenen onreinen geest, + en hij riep uit,</p> + + <p>24. Zeggende: laat af, wat hebben wij met u <i>te doen</i>, gij Jezus + Nazaréner! zijt gij gekomen, om ons to verderven? Ik ken u, wie gij zijt, + <i>namelijk</i> de Heilige Gods.</p> + + <p>25. En Jezus bestrafte hem, zeggende: zwijg stil, en ga nit van + hem.</p> + + <p>26. En de onreine geest, hem scheurende, en roepende met eene groote + stem, ging uit van hem.</p> + + <p>27. En zij werden allen verbaasd, zoodat zij onder elkander vraagden, + zeggende: wat is dit? wat nieuwe leer is deze, dat hij met magt ook den + onreineen geesten gebiedt, en zig hem gehoorzaam zijn!</p> + + <p>28. En zijn gerucht ging terstond uit, in het geheel omliggen land van + Galiléa.</p> + + <p>29. En van stonde aan uit de Synagoge gegaan zijnde, kwamen zij in het + huis van Simon en Andréas, met Jacobus en Johannes.</p> + + <p>30. En Simons vrouws moeder lag met de koorts; en terstond zeiden zij + hem van haar.</p> + + <p>31. En hij, tot haar gaande, vattede hare hand, en rigtte ze op; en + terstond verliet haar de koorts, en zij diende henlieden.</p> + + <p>32. Als het nu avond geworden was, toen de zon onderging, bragten zij + tot hem allen, die kwalijk gesteld, en van den duivel bezeten waren.</p> + + <p>33. En de geheele stad was bijeenvergaderd omtrent de deur.</p> + + <p>34. En hij genas er velen, die door verscheidene ziekten kwalijk + gesteld waren; en wierpe vele duivelen uit, en liet de duivelen niet toe + te spreken, omdat zij hem kenden.</p> + + <p>35. En des morgens vroeg, als het nog diep in den nacht was, opgestaan + zijnde, ging hij uit, en ging henen in eene woeste plaats, en bad + aldaar.</p> + + <p>36. En Simon, en die met hem <i>waren</i>, zijn hem nagevolgd.</p> + + <p>37. En zij hem gevonden hebbende, zeiden tot hem: zig zoeken u + allen.</p> + + <p>38. En hij zeide tot hen: laat ons in de bijliggende vlekken gaan, + opdat ik ook daar predike: want daartoe ben ik uitgegaan.</p> + + <p>39. En hij predikte in hunne Synagogen, door geheel Galiléa, en wierp + de duivelen uit.</p> + + <p>40. En tot hem kwam een melaatsche, biddende hem, en vallende <!-- + Page 602 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page602"></a>{602}</span>voor + hem op de knieën, en tothem zeggende: indien gij wilt, gij kunt mij + reinigen.</p> + + <p>41. En Jezus, met barmhartigheid innerlijk bewogen zijnde, strekte de + hand uit, en raakte hem aan, en zeide tot hem: ik wil, word + gereinigd.</p> + + <p>42. En als hij <i>dit</i> gezegd had, ging de melaatschheid terstond + van hem, en hy werd gereinigd.</p> + + <p>43. En als hij hem strengelijk verboden had, deed hij hem terstond van + zich gaan;</p> + + <p>44. En zeide tot hem: zie, dat gij niemand iets zegt; maar ga heen en + vertoon u zelven den Priester, en offer voor uwe reiniging, hetgeen Mozes + geboden heeft, hun tot eene getuigenis.</p> + + <p>45. Maar hij vitgegaan zijnde, begon vele dingen te verkondigen, en + dat woord te verbreiden, alzoo dat hij niet meer openbaar in de stad kon + komen, maar was buiten in de woeste plaatsen; en zij kwamen tot hem van + alle kanten.</p> + +<h3>X.</h3> + +<h3>OLD NORSE.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">THE DESCENT OF ODIN.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From the Edda of Sæmund. Copenhagen Edition.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="The Descent of Odin" title="The Descent of Odin"> +<tr><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> + + <p> 2.</p> + + <p> Upp reis Óðinn<br /> + alda gautr,<br /> + ok hann á Sleipni<br /> + söðul um lagði;<br /> + reið hann niðr þaðan<br /> + Niflheljar til,<br /> + mœtti hann hvelpi<br /> + þeim er or helju kom.</p> + + <p> 3.</p> + + <p> Sá var blóðugr,<br /> + um brjóst framan,<br /> + ok galdrs föður<br /> + gól um lengi.<br /> + Framm reið Óðinn,<br /> + foldvegr dundi,<br /> + hann kom at háfu<br /> + Heljar ranni.</p> + + <p> 4.</p> + + <p> Þá reið Óðinn<br /> + fyr austan dyrr,<br /> + þar er hann vissi<br /> + völu leiði.<br /> + Nam hann vittugri<br /> + valgaldr kveða,<br /> + unz nauðig reis,<br /> + nás orð um kvað:</p> + +<p><!-- Page 603 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page603"></a>{603}</span></p> + + <p> 5.</p> + + <p> "Hvat er manna þat<br /> + mér ókunnra,<br /> + er mér hefir aukit<br /> + erfit sinni?<br /> + var ek snivin snjófi<br /> + ok slegin regni<br /> + ok drifin döggu,<br /> + dauð var ek lengi.</p> + + <p> 6.</p> + + <p> "Vegtamr ek heiti,<br /> + sonr em ek Valtams,<br /> + segðu mér or helju,<br /> + ek mun or heimi:<br /> + hveim eru bekkir<br /> + baugum sánir,<br /> + flet fagrlig<br /> + flóð gulli?</p> + + <p> 7.</p> + + <p> "Hér stendr Baldri<br /> + of brugginn mjöðr,<br /> + skirar veigar,<br /> + liggr skjöldr yfir;<br /> + en ásmegir<br /> + í ofvæni;<br /> + nauðug sagðak<br /> + nú mun ek þegja.</p> + + <p> 8.</p> + + <p> "Þegiattu völva!<br /> + þik vil ek fregna,<br /> + unz alkunna,<br /> + vil ek enn vita:<br /> + hverr mun Baldri<br /> + at bana verða,<br /> + ok Oðins son<br /> + aldri ræna?</p> + +</td><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> + + <p> 9.</p> + + <p> "Höðr berr háfan<br /> + hróðrbarm þinnig;<br /> + hann mun Baldri<br /> + at bana verða,<br /> + ok Óðins son<br /> + aldri ræna;<br /> + nauðug sagðak,<br /> + nú mun ek þegja.</p> + + <p> 10.</p> + + <p> "Þegiattu völva!<br /> + þik vil ek fregna,<br /> + unz alkunna,<br /> + vil ek enn vita:<br /> + hverr mun heipt Heði<br /> + hefnt of vinna<br /> + eða Baldrs bana<br /> + á bál vega?</p> + + <p> 11.</p> + + <p> "Rindr berr<br /> + i vostrsölum,<br /> + sá mun Oðins sonr<br /> + einnættr vega;<br /> + bond um þvær<br /> + né höfuð kembir<br /> + áðr a bál um berr<br /> + Baldrs andskota;<br /> + nauðug sagðak,<br /> + nú mun ek þegja.</p> + + <p> 12.</p> + + <p> "Þegiattu völva!<br /> + þik vil ek fregna,<br /> + unz alkunna,<br /> + vil ek enn vita:<br /> + hverjar 'ro þær meyjar,<br /> + er at muni gráta<br /> + ok á himin verpa<br /> + hálsa skautum?</p> + +<p><!-- Page 604 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page604"></a>{604}</span></p> + + <p> 13.</p> + + <p> "Ertattu Vegtamr,<br /> + sem ek hugða,<br /> + heldr ertu Óðinn,<br /> + aldinn gautr."<br /> + "Ertattu völva<br /> + né vis kona,<br /> + heldr ertu þriggja<br /> + þursa móðir.</p> + + <p> 14.</p> + + <p> "Heim rið þú, Óðinn!<br /> + ok ver hróðigr!<br /> + svá komit manna<br /> + meir aptr á vit,<br /> + er lauss Loki<br /> + liðr or böndum,<br /> + ok ragna rök<br /> + rjúfendr koma."</p> + +</td></tr></table> + +<h3>XI.</h3> + +<h3>ICELANDIC.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>From Snorro's Heimskringla. Translated by Laing.</i></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">Y'NGLINGA SAGA.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">KAP. I.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Her Segir frá Landa Skipan.</i></p> + + <p>Sva er sagt, at kringla heimsins, sú er mannfólkit byggir, er mjök + vag-skorin: gánga höf stór úr útsjánum inn í jordina. Er þat kunnigt, at + haf gengr af Njorvasundum, ok allt út til Jórsala-lands. Af hafinu gengr + lángr hafsbotn til landnordrs, er heitir Svartahaf: sa skilr heims + þridjúngana: heitir fyrin austan Asia, en fyrir vestan kalla sumir + Evrópa, en sumir Enea. En nordan at Svartahafi gengr Sviþjod in mikla eda + in kalda. Svíþjód ena miklu kalla sumir menn ecki minni enn Serkland hít + mikla; sumir jafna henni vid Bláland hit mikla. Hinn neyrdri lutr + Svíþjódar liggr óbygdr af frosti ok kulda, swa sem hinn sydri lutr + Blálands er audr af sólarbruna. I Svíþjód eru stór hérut mörg: þar eru ok + margskonar þjodir undarligar, ok margar túngur: þar eru risar, ok þar eru + dvergar: þar eru ok blámenn; þar eru dýr ok drekar furdulega stórin. Ur + Nordri frá fjöllum þeim, er fyrir utan eru bygd alla, fellr á um Svíþjód, + sú er at rettu heitir Tanais; hún var fordum köllut Tanaqvísl edr + Vanaquísl; hún kémur til sjávar inu i Svarta-haf. I Vanaqlvíslum var þa + kallat Vanaland, edr Vanheimr; sú á skiir heimsþridjúngana; heitir fyrir + austan Asia, en fyrir vestan Evrópa. <!-- Page 605 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page605"></a>{605}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">KAP. II.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Frá Asía Mönnum.</i></p> + + <p>Fyrir austan Tanaqvísl í Asía, var kallat Asa-land edr Asaheimr; en + höfutborgina, er í var landinu, kölludu þeir Asgard. En í borginni var + höfdíngi sá er Odinn var kalladr, þar var blótstadr mikill. Þar var þar + sidr at 12 hofgodar vóru æztir; skyldu þeir ráda fyrir blótum ok dómum + manna í milli; þat eru Diar kalladir edr drottnar: þeim skyldi þjónustu + veita allr folk ok lotníng. Odinn var hermadr mikill ok mjök vidförull, + ok eignadiz mörg riki: han var sva Sigrfæll, at í hvörri orustu feck hann + gagn. Ok sva kom at hans menn trúdu því, at hann ætti heimilann sigr í + hverri orustu. Þat var háttr hans ef ann sendi menn sína til orustu, edr + adrar sendifarar, at hann lagdi adr hendur í höfut þeim, ok gaf þeim + bjanak; trúdu þeir at þá mundi vel faraz. Sva var ok um hans menn, hvar + sem þeir urdu í naudum staddir á sjá edr á landi, þá kölludu þeir á nafn + hans, ok þóttuz jafnan fá af þvi fro; þar þottuz þeir ega allt traust er + hann var. Hann fór opt sva lángt í brot, at hann dvaldiz í ferdinni mörg + misseri.</p> + +<h3>XII.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">SAGA ÓLAFS KONÚNGS TRYGGVASONAR.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Bardagi í Storð</i>.</p> + + <p>Hákon konúngr hafði þá fylkt liði síno, ok segja menn at hann steypti + af sèr brynjunni áðr orrostan tækist; Hákon konúngr valdi mjök menn með + sèr í hirð at afli ok hreysti, svâ sem gert hafði Haraldr konúngr faðir + hans; þar var þá með konúngi Þorálfr hinn sterki Skólmsson, ok gekk á + aðra hlið konúngi; hann hafði hjálm ok skjöld, kesju ok sverð þat er + kallat var Fetbreiðr; þat var mælt at þeir Hákon konúngr væri + jafnsterkir; þessa getr Þórðr Sjáreksson í drápu þeirri er hann orti um + Þórálf:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Þar er bavðbarðir börðust</p> + <p>bands jó draugar landa</p> + <p>lystr gekk herr til hjörva</p> + <p>hnitz í Storð á Fitjum:</p> + <p>ok gimslöngvir gánga</p> + <p>gífrs hlèmána drífu</p> + <p>nausta blaks hit næsta</p> + <p>Norðmanna gram þorði.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 606 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page606"></a>{606}</span></p> + + <p>En er fylkíngar gengu saman, var fyrst skotit spjótum, þvínæst brugðu + menn sverðum; Gerðist þá orostan óð ok mannskjæd; Hákon konúngr ok + Þórálfr gengu þá fram um merkin ok hjöggu til beggja handa; Hákon konúngr + var auðkendr, meiri enn aðrir menn, lýsti ok mjök af hjálmi hans er sólin + shein á; þá varð vopnaburðr mikill at konúngi; tók þá Eyvindr Finnsson + hatt einn, ok setti yfir hjálm konúngsins; þá kallaði hátt Eyvindr + Skreyja: leynist hann nú Norðmanna konúngr, eðr hefir hann flýit, þvíat + horfinn er nú gullhjálmrinn? Eyvindr ok Álfr bróðir hans gengu þá hart + fram svâ sem óðir ok galnir væri, hjöggu til beggja handa; þa mælti Hákon + konúngr hátt til Eyvindar: haltu svâ fram stefnunni ef þú vill finna hann + Norðmanna konúng, Var þá skampt at bíða at Eyvindr kom þar, reiddi upp + sverþit ok hjó til konúngs; Þórálfr skaut við honum Eyvindi skildinum, + svâ at hann stakaði við; konúngr tók þá tveim höndum sverþit Kvernbít, ok + hjó til Eyvindar, klauf hjálminn ok höfuðit alt í herþar niðr; í því bili + drap Þórálfr Álf Askmann. Svâ segir Eyvindr Skáldaspillir:</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Veit ek at beit enn bitri</p> + <p>byggvíng meðal dyggvan</p> + <p>búlka skiðs or báðum</p> + <p>benvöndr konúngs höndum:</p> + <p>úfælinnklauf ála</p> + <p>eldraugar skör hauga</p> + <p>gullhjaltaðum galtar</p> + <p>grandráðr Dana brandi.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Eptir fall þeirra bræðra gekk Hákon konúngr svâ hart fram at alt + hravkk fur honum; sló þá felmt ok flótta á lið Eiríks sona, en Hákon + konúngr var í öndverðri sinni fylkíng, ok fylgði fast flóttamönnum, ok + hjó tídt ok hart; þá fló ör ein, er Fleinn er kallaðr, ok kom í hönd + Hákoni konúngi uppi í músina firir neþan öxl, ok er þat margra manna sögn + at skósveinn Gunnhildar, sá er Kispíngr er nefndr, ljóp fram í þysinn ok + kallaði: gefi rúm konúngs bananum, ok skaut þá fleinnum til konúngs; en + sumir segja at engi vissi hverr skaut; má þat ok vel vera, firir því at + örvar ok spjót ok önnur skotvâpn flugu svâ þykkt sem drífa; fjöldi manns + fèll þar af Eiríks sonum, en honúngarnir allir komust á skipin, ok rèro + þegar undan, en Hákonar menn eptir þeim; svâ segir Þórðr Sjáreksson: <!-- + Page 607 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page607"></a>{607}</span></p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Varði víga myrðir</p> + <p>vídt svá skal frið slíta</p> + <p>jöfur vildo þann eldast</p> + <p>öndvert fólk á löndum:</p> + <p>starf hófst upp, þá er arfi</p> + <p>ótta vanr á flótta</p> + <p>gulls er gramr var fallinn</p> + <p>Gunnhildar kom sunnan.</p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Þrót var sýnt þá er settust</p> + <p>sinn róðr við þraum stinna</p> + <p>maðr lèt önd ok annarr</p> + <p>úfár bændr sárir</p> + <p>afreks veit þat er jöfri</p> + <p>allríkr í styr slíkum</p> + <p>göndlar njörðr sá er gerði</p> + <p>gekk næst hugins drekku.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<h3>XIII.</h3> + +<h3>MODERN SWEDISH.</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">FRITHIOFS SAGA.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><span class="scac">XI.</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><i>Frithiof hos Angantyr.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Frithiofs Saga" title="Frithiofs Saga"> +<tr><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> + 1. + + <p>Nu är att säga huru<br /> + Jarl Angantyr satt än;<br /> + Uti sin sal af furu,<br /> + Ock drack med sina män;<br /> + Han var så glad i hågen,<br /> + Såg ut åt blånad ban,<br /> + Der solen sjunk i vågen,<br /> + Allt som än gyllne svan.</p> + + <p> 2.</p> + + <p>Vid fönstret, gamle Halvar<br /> + Stod utanför på vakt;<br /> + Hann vaktade med allvar,<br /> + Gaf ock på mjödet akt.<br /> + En sed den gamle hade;<br /> + Hann jemt i botten drack;<br /> + Ock intet ord hann sade;<br /> + Blott hornett i hann stack.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 608 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page608"></a>{608}</span></p> + + <p> 3.</p> + + <p>Nu slängde han det vida<br /> + I salen in och qvad,<br /> + "Skepp ser jag böljan rida;<br /> + Den färden är ej glad.<br /> + Män ser jag döden nära,<br /> + Nu lägga de i land:<br /> + Ock tvenne jättar bära<br /> + De bleknade på strand."</p> + + <p> 4.</p> + + <p>Utöfver böljans spegel,<br /> + Från salen Jarl såg ned:<br /> + "Det är Ellidas segel,<br /> + Och Frithiof, tror jag, med.<br /> + På gångan och på pannan,<br /> + Kånns Thorstens son igen:<br /> + Så blickar ingen annan<br /> + I Nordens land som den."</p> + + <p> 5.</p> + + <p>Från dryckesbord held modig<br /> + Sprang Atle Viking då:<br /> + Svartskåggig Berserk, blodig<br /> + Ock grym at se uppå.<br /> + "Nu, sad' han, vil jag pröfva,<br /> + Hvad rycktet ment dermed,<br /> + At Frithiof svärd kann döfva;<br /> + Och alldrig ber om fred."</p> + + <p> 6.</p> + + <p>Och upp med honom sprungo<br /> + Hanns bistra kämpar tolf:<br /> + Med forhand luften stungo,<br /> + Och svängde svärd ock kolf.<br /> + De stormade mot stranden,<br /> + Hvor tröttadt drakskepp stod.<br /> + Men Frithiof satt å sanden<br /> + Ock talte kraft och mod.</p> + +<p><!-- Page 609 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page609"></a>{609}</span></p> + + <p> 7.</p> + + <p>"Lätt kunde jag dig fälla,"<br /> + Shrek Atle med stort gny.<br /> + "Vill i ditt val dock ställa,<br /> + Att kämpa eller fly.<br /> + Men blott on fred du beder<br /> + Fastän än kämpe hård,<br /> + Jag som än vän dig leder,<br /> + Allt up til Jarlens gård."</p> + + <p> 8.</p> + + <p>"Väl är jag trött af färden;"<br /> + Genmälte Frithiof vred,<br /> + "Dock må vi pröfva svärden,<br /> + Förr än jag tigger fred."<br /> + Då såg man stålen ljunga,<br /> + I solbrun kämpehand;<br /> + På Angurvadels tunga,<br /> + Hvar runa stod i brand.</p> + +</td><td class="spac" style="width:50%; vertical-align:top"> + 9. + + <p>Nu skiftas svärdshugg dryga,<br /> + Och dråpslag hagla nu;<br /> + Och begges skjöldar flyga,<br /> + På samma gång itu.<br /> + De kämpar utan tadel<br /> + Stå dock i kredsen fast;<br /> + Men skarpt bet Angurvadel,<br /> + Och Atles klinga brast.</p> + + <p> 10.</p> + + <p>"Mod svärdlös man jag svänger,"<br /> + Sad Frithiof, "ei mitt svärd."<br /> + Men lyster det dig länger,<br /> + Vi pröfva annan färd.<br /> + Som vågor då on hösten,<br /> + De begge storma an;<br /> + Ock stållbeklädda brösten,<br /> + Slå tätt emot hvarann.</p> + + <p> 11.</p> + + <p>De brottades som björnar,<br /> + Uppå sitt fjäll af snö;<br /> + De spände hop som örnar,<br /> + Utöfver vredgad sjö.<br /> + Rodfästad klippa hölle<br /> + Vel knappast ut att stå;<br /> + Ock lummig jernek fölle<br /> + För mindre tag än så.</p> + + <p> 12.</p> + + <p>Från pannan svetten lackar,<br /> + Och bröstet häfves kallt;<br /> + Och buskar, sten, ock backar,<br /> + Uppsparkas öfver allt.<br /> + Med bäfvän slutet bida<br /> + Stållklädde män å strand;<br /> + Det brottandet var vida<br /> + Berömdt i Nordens land.</p> + + <p> 13.</p> + + <p>Til slut dock Frithiof fällde<br /> + Sin fiende til jord,<br /> + Hann knät mod bröstet ställde,<br /> + Och tallte vredens ord,<br /> + "Blott nu mitt svärd jag hade,<br /> + Du svarte Berserksskägg,<br /> + Jag genom lifvet lade,<br /> + På dig den hvassa ägg.</p> + + <p> 14.</p> + + <p>"Det skal ei hinder bringa,"<br /> + Sad Atle stolt i håg,<br /> + "Gå du, ock ta din klinga,<br /> + Jag licgar som jag låg.<br /> + Den ena, som den andra,<br /> + Skal engång Valhall se:<br /> + Idag skal jag väl vandra;<br /> + I morgon du kanske."</p> + + <p> 15.</p> + + <p>Ei lange Frithiof dröjde;<br /> + Den lek han sluta vill:<br /> + Han Angurvadel höjde;<br /> + Men Atle låg dock still.<br /> + Det rörde hjeltens sinne;<br /> + Sin vrede då hann band;<br /> + Höll midt i huggett inne,<br /> + Ock tog den fallnes hand.</p> + +</td></tr></table> + +<h3>THE END.</h3> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>LONDON:</p> + <p>Printed by <span class="sc">Samuel Bentley & Co.</span>,</p> + <p>Bangor House, Shoe Lane.</p> + </div> + </div> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>NOTES</h3> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Nt1" href="#NtA1">[1]</a> Qu. the people of <i>Euten</i>, in + Holstein.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt2" href="#NtA2">[2]</a> Zeus, p. 591.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt3" href="#NtA3">[3]</a> From Zeuss, <i>v. v. Frisii, + Chauci</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt4" href="#NtA4">[4]</a> The chief works in the two dialects + or languages.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt5" href="#NtA5">[5]</a> Probably, for reasons, too long to + enter upon, those of Grutungs and Tervings; this latter pointing to + Thuringia, the present provincial dialect of which tract was stated, even + by Michaelis, to be more like the Mœso-Gothic than any other + dialect of Germany.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt6" href="#NtA6">[6]</a> Nearly analogous to + <i>Ostro</i>-goth, and <i>Visi</i>-goth.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt7" href="#NtA7">[7]</a> The meaning of these terms is + explained in <a href="#sect90">§ 90</a>-92. The order of the cases and + genders is from Rask. It is certainly more natural than the usual + one.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt8" href="#NtA8">[8]</a> Compare with the Anglo-Saxon + adjectives in <span class="correction" title="Original reads '§ 20'."><a + href="#sect85">§ 85</a></span>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt9" href="#NtA9">[9]</a> Compare with the Anglo-Saxon + adjectives in <a href="#sect85">§ 85</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt10" href="#NtA10">[10]</a> The syllables <i>vulg-</i>, and + <i>Belg-</i>, are quite as much alike as <i>Teuton-</i>, and + <i>Deut-sch</i>; yet how unreasonable it would be for an Englishman to + argue that he was a descendant of the <i>Belgæ</i> because he spoke the + <i>Vulgar</i> Tongue. <i>Mutatis mutandis</i>, however, this is the exact + argument of nine out of ten of the German writers.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt11" href="#NtA11">[11]</a> Tacitus, De Mor. Germ. 40.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt12" href="#NtA12">[12]</a> And on the west of the Old + Saxons is the mouth of the river Elbe and Friesland; and then north-west + is the land which is called <i>Angle</i> and Sealand, and some part of + the Danes.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt13" href="#NtA13">[13]</a> He sailed to the harbour which + is called Hæðum, which stands betwixt the Wends (<i>i.e.</i> the Wagrian + Slaves, for which see <a href="#sect42">§ 42</a>) and Saxons, and + <i>Angle</i>, and belongs to Denmark ... and two days before he came to + Hæðum, there was on his starboard Gothland, and Sealand, and many + islands. On that land lived <i>Angles</i>, before they hither to the land + came.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt14" href="#NtA14">[14]</a> Zeus, in <i>voc</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt15" href="#NtA15">[15]</a> Zeus, in <i>voc.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt16" href="#NtA16">[16]</a> Zeus, in <i>voc.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt17" href="#NtA17">[17]</a> See G. D. S. Vol. ii. II.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt18" href="#NtA18">[18]</a> Zeus, p. 492.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt19" href="#NtA19">[19]</a> As in <i>Amherst</i> and + <i>inherent</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt20" href="#NtA20">[20]</a> The meaning of the note of + interrogation is explained in <a href="#sect148">§ 148</a>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt21" href="#NtA21">[21]</a> Edinburgh Philosophical + Magazine.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt22" href="#NtA22">[22]</a> Natural History of Man.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt23" href="#NtA23">[23]</a> This list is taken from Smart's + valuable and logical English Grammar.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt24" href="#NtA24">[24]</a> As in <i>Shotover Hill</i>, near + Oxford.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt25" href="#NtA25">[25]</a> As in <i>Jerusalem + artichoke</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt26" href="#NtA26">[26]</a> A sort of silk.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt27" href="#NtA27">[27]</a> <i>Ancient + Cassio</i>—"Othello."</p> + + <p><a name="Nt28" href="#NtA28">[28]</a> This class of words was pointed + out to me by the very intelligent Reader of my first edition.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt29" href="#NtA29">[29]</a> V. Beknopte Historie van't + Vaderland, i. 3, 4.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt30" href="#NtA30">[30]</a> Hist. Manch. b. i. c. 12.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt31" href="#NtA31">[31]</a> Dissertation of the Origin of + the Scottish Language.—<span class="sc">Jamieson's</span> + Etymological Dictionary, vol. i. p. 45, 46.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt32" href="#NtA32">[32]</a> Sir W. Betham's Gael and Cymry, + c. iii.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt33" href="#NtA33">[33]</a> Scripturæ Linguæque + Phœniciæ Monumenta, iv. 3.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt34" href="#NtA34">[34]</a> To say, for instance, + <i>Chemist</i> for <i>Chymist</i>, or <i>vice versâ</i>; for I give no + opinion as to the proper mode of spelling.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt35" href="#NtA35">[35]</a> Mr. Pitman, of Bath, is likely + to add to his claims as an orthographist by being engaged in the attempt + to determine, inductively, the orthoepy of a certain number of doubtful + words. He collects the pronunciations of a large number of educated men, + and takes that of the majority as the true one.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt36" href="#NtA36">[36]</a> Gesenius, p. 73.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt37" href="#NtA37">[37]</a> Write one letter twice.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt38" href="#NtA38">[38]</a> Rev. W. Harvey, author of + Ecclesiæ Anglicanæ Vindex Catholicus.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt39" href="#NtA39">[39]</a> Murray's Grammar, vol. i. p. + 79.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt40" href="#NtA40">[40]</a> Used as adverbs.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt41" href="#NtA41">[41]</a> Used as the plurals of + <i>he</i>, <i>she</i>, and <i>it</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt42" href="#NtA42">[42]</a> Different from <i>ilk</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt43" href="#NtA43">[43]</a> Guest, ii. 192.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt44" href="#NtA44">[44]</a> Or <i>call-s.</i></p> + + <p><a name="Nt45" href="#NtA45">[45]</a> <i>Thou s</i>a<i>ngest</i>, + <i>thou dr</i>a<i>nkest</i>, &c.—For a reason given in the + sequel, these forms are less unexceptionable than <i>s</i>u<i>ngest</i>, + <i>dr</i>u<i>nkest</i>, &c.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt46" href="#NtA46">[46]</a> Antiquated.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt47" href="#NtA47">[47]</a> As the present section is + written with the single view of illustrating the subject, no mention has + been made of the forms <span title="tupô" class="grk" + >τυπῶ</span> (<i>typô</i>), and <span + title="etupon" class="grk">ἔτυπον</span> + (<i>etypon</i>).</p> + + <p><a name="Nt48" href="#NtA48">[48]</a> Obsolete.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt49" href="#NtA49">[49]</a> Obsolete.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt50" href="#NtA50">[50]</a> Obsolete.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt51" href="#NtA51">[51]</a> The forms marked + thus<sup>[51]</sup> are either obsolete or provincial.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt52" href="#NtA52">[52]</a> Obsolete.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt53" href="#NtA53">[53]</a> Sounded <i>wun</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt54" href="#NtA54">[54]</a> Obsolete.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt55" href="#NtA55">[55]</a> Præterite, or Perfect.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt56" href="#NtA56">[56]</a> Philological Museum, ii. p. + 387.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt57" href="#NtA57">[57]</a> Vol. ii. p. 203.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt58" href="#NtA58">[58]</a> Found rarely; bist being the + current form.—Deutsche Grammatik, i. 894.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt59" href="#NtA59">[59]</a> <i>Over, under, + after.</i>—These, although derived forms, are not prepositions of + derivation; since it is not by the affix <i>-er</i> that they are made + prepositions. <i>He went over</i>, <i>he went under</i>, <i>he went + after</i>—these sentences prove the forms to be as much adverbial + as prepositional.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt60" href="#NtA60">[60]</a> In the first edition of this + work I wrote, "Verbs substantive govern the nominative case." Upon this + Mr. Connon, in his "System of English Grammar," remarks, "The idea of the + <i>nominative</i> being <i>governed</i> is contrary to all received + notions of grammar. I consider that the verb <i>to be</i>, in all its + parts, acts merely as a connective, and can have no effect in governing + anything." Of Mr. Connon's two reasons, the second is so sufficient that + it ought to have stood alone. The true view of the so-called verb + substantive is that it is no verb at all, but only the fraction of one. + Hence, what I wrote was inaccurate. As to the question of the impropriety + of considering nominative cases fit subjects for government it is a + matter of definition.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt61" href="#NtA61">[61]</a> The paper <i>On certain tenses + attributed to the Greek verb</i> has already been quoted. The author, + however, of the doctrine on the use of <i>shall</i> and <i>will</i>, is + not the author of the doctrine alluded to in the Chapter on the Tenses. + There are, in the same number of the Philological Museum, two papers + under one title: first, the text by a writer who signs himself T. F. B.; + and, next, a comment, by the editor, signed J. C. H. (Julius Charles + Hare). The <i>usus ethicus</i> of the future is due to Archdeacon Hare; + the question being brought in incidentally and by way of + illustration.</p> + + <p>The subject of the original paper was the nature of the so-called + second aorists, second futures, and preterite middles. These were held to + be no separate tenses, but irregular forms of the same tense. Undoubtedly + this has long been an opinion amongst scholars; and the writer of the + comments is quite right in stating that it is no novelty to the learned + world. I think, however, that in putting this forward as the chief point + in the original paper, he does the author somewhat less than justice. His + merit, in my eyes, seems to consist, not in showing that real forms of + the <i>aoristus secundus</i>, <i>futurum secundum</i>, and <i>præteritum + medium</i> were either rare or equivocal (this having been done before), + but in illustrating his point from the English language; in showing that + between double forms like <span title="sunelechthên" class="grk" + >συνελέχθην</span> + and <span title="sunelegên" class="grk" + >συνελέγην</span>, + and double forms like <i>hang</i> and <i>hanged</i>, there was only a + difference in degree (if there was that), not of kind; and, finally, in + enouncing the very legitimate inference, that either we had two + preterites, or that the Greeks had only one. "Now, if the circumstances + of the Greek and English, in regard to these two tenses, are so precisely + parallel, a simple and obvious inquiry arises, Which are in the right, + the Greek grammarians or our own? For either ours must be wrong in not + having fitted up for our verb the framework of a first and second + preterite, teaching the pupil to say, 1st pret. <i>I finded</i>, 2d pret. + <i>I found</i>; 1st pret. <i>I glided</i>, 2d pret. <i>I glode</i>: or + the others must be so in teaching the learner to imagine two aorists for + <span title="heuriskô" class="grk" + >εὑρίσκω</span>, as, aor. 1, + <span title="heurêsa" class="grk" + >εὕρησα</span>, aor. 2, <span + title="heuron" class="grk">ἑῦρον</span>; or + for <span title="akouô" class="grk" + >ἀκούω</span>, aor. 1, <span + title="êkousa" class="grk" + >ἤκουσα</span>, aor. 2, <span + title="êkoon" class="grk" + >ἤκοον</span>."—p. 198.</p> + + <p>The inference is, that of the two languages it is the English that is + in the right. Now the following remarks, in the comment, upon this + inference are a step in the wrong direction:—"The comparison, I + grant, is perfectly just; but is it a just inference from that + comparison, that we ought to alter the system of our Greek grammars, + which has been drawn up at the cost of so much learning and thought, for + the sake of adapting it to the system, if system it can be called, of our + own grammars, which are seldom remarkable for anything else than their + slovenliness, their ignorance, and their presumption? Is the higher to be + brought down to the level of the baser? is Apollo to be drest out in a + coat and waistcoat? Rather might it be deemed advisable to remodel the + system of our own grammars."</p> + + <p>This, whether right or wrong as a broad assertion, was, in the case in + hand, irrelevant. No <i>general</i> superiority had been claimed for the + English grammars. For all that had been stated in the original paper they + might, as compared with the Greek and Latin, be wrong in ninety-nine + cases out of a hundred. All that was claimed for them was that they were + right in the present instance; just as for a clock that stands may be + claimed the credit of being right once in every twelve hours. That the + inference in favour of altering the <i>system</i> of the Greek grammars + is illegitimate is most undeniably true; but then it is an inference of + the critic's not of the author's. As the illustration in question has + always seemed to me of great value,—although it may easily be less + original than I imagine,—I have gone thus far towards putting it in + a proper light.</p> + + <p>Taking up the question where it is left by the two writers in + question, we find that the difficulties of the so-called <i>second</i> + tenses in Greek are met by reducing them to the same tense in different + conjugations; and, according to the current views of grammarians, this is + a point gained. Is it so really? Is it not rather the substitution of one + difficulty for another? A second conjugation is a second mode of + expressing the same idea, and a second tense is no more. Real criticism + is as unwilling to multiply the one as the other. Furthermore, the + tendency of English criticism is towards the very doctrines which the + Greek grammarian wishes to get rid of. <i>We</i> have the difficulty of a + second conjugation: but, on the other hand, instead of four past tenses + (an imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, and aorist), we have only one (the + aorist). Now, when we find that good reasons can be given for supposing + that the strong preterite in the Gothic languages was once a reduplicate + perfect, we are at liberty to suppose that what is now the same tense + under two forms, was, originally, different tenses. Hence, in English, we + avoid the difficulty of a second conjugation by the very same process + which we eschew in Greek; viz., the assumption of a second <i>tense</i>. + But this we can do, as we have a tense to spare.</p> + + <p>Will any process reconcile this conflict of difficulties? I submit to + scholars the following hypotheses:—</p> + + <p>1. That the <i>true</i> second future in Greek (<i>i.e.</i>, the + future of verbs with a liquid as a characteristic) is a variety of the + <i>present</i>, formed by accentuating the last syllable; just as <i>I + beát you</i>=<i>I will beat you</i>.</p> + + <p>2. That this accent effects a change on the quantity and nature of the + vowel of the penultimate.</p> + + <p>3. That the second aorist is an <i>imperfect</i> formed from this + secondary present.</p> + + <p>4. That the so-called perfect middle is a similar perfect active.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt62" href="#NtA62">[62]</a> Transactions of Philological + Society. No. 90, Jan. 25, 1850.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt63" href="#NtA63">[63]</a> Notwithstanding the extent to + which a relative may take the appearance of conjunction, there is always + one unequivocal method of deciding its <span class="correction" + title="Original reads 'rue'.">true</span> nature. The relative is always + a <i>part</i> of the second proposition. A conjunction is <i>no part</i> + of either.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt64" href="#NtA64">[64]</a> Unless another view be taken of + the construction, and it be argued that <span title="edôke" class="grk" + >ἔδωκε</span> is, etymologically + speaking, no aorist but a perfect. In form, it is almost as much one + tense as another. If it wants the reduplication of the perfect, it has + the perfect characteristic <span class="grk">κ</span>, to the + exclusion of the aorist <span class="grk">σ</span>; and thus far + the evidence is equal. The persons, however, are more aorist than + perfect. For one of Mathiæ's aorists (<span title="methêke" class="grk" + >μεθῆκε</span>) a still better case + might be made, showing it to be, even in etymology, more perfect than + aorist.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Kteinei me chrusou, ton talaipôron, charin" class="grk">Κτείνει με χρυσοῦ, τὸν ταλαίπωρον, χάριν</span></p> + <p><span title="Xenos patrôios, kai ktanôn es oidm' halos" class="grk">Ξένος πατρῷος, καὶ κτανὼν ἐς οἶδμ' ἁλὸς</span></p> + <p><span title="Methêch', hin' autos chruson en domois echêi." class="grk">Μεθῆχ', ἵν' αὐτὸς χρυσὸν ἐν δόμοις ἔχῃ.</span></p> + <p><span title="Keimai d' ep' aktais." class="grk">Κεῖμαι δ' ἐπ' ἀκταῖς.</span></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Eur. <i>Hec.</i></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><a name="Nt65" href="#NtA65">[65]</a> It is almost unnecessary to + state that the sentence quoted in the text is really a beautiful couplet + of Withers's poetry <i>transposed</i>. It was advisable to do this, for + the sake of guarding against the effect of the rhyme. To have + written,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>What care I how fair she <i>is</i></p> + <p>If she be not fair to me?</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>would have made the grammar seem worse than it really was, by + disappointing the reader of a rhyme. On the other hand, to have + written,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>What care I how fair she <i>were</i>,</p> + <p>If she were not kind as <i>fair</i>?</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>would have made the grammar seem better than it really was, by + supplying one.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt66" href="#NtA66">[66]</a> In the first edition of the + present work I inaccurately stated that <i>neither</i> should take a + plural and <i>either</i> a singular verb; adding that "in predicating + something concerning <i>neither you nor I</i>, a negative assertion is + made concerning <i>both</i>. In predicating something concerning + <i>either you or I</i>, a positive assertion is made concerning <i>one of + two</i>." This Mr. Connon (p. 129) has truly stated to be at variance + with the principles laid down by me elsewhere.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt67" href="#NtA67">[67]</a> Latin Prose Composition, p. + 123.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt68" href="#NtA68">[68]</a> Quoted from Guest's English + Rhythms.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt69" href="#NtA69">[69]</a> To the definition in the text, + words like <i>old</i> and <i>bold</i> form no exception. At the first + view it may be objected that in words like <i>old</i> there is no part + preceding the vowel. Compared, however, with <i>bold</i>, the negation of + that part constitutes a difference. The same applies to words like + <i>go</i> and <i>lo</i>, where the negation of a part following the vowel + is a point of identity. Furthermore, I may observe, that the word + <i>part</i> is used in the singular number. The assertion is not that + every individual sound preceding the vowel must be different, but that + the aggregate of them must be so. Hence, <i>pray</i> and <i>bray</i> + (where the <i>r</i> is common to both forms) form as true a rhyme as + <i>bray</i> and <i>play</i>, where all the sounds preceding <i>a</i>, + differ.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt70" href="#NtA70">[70]</a> For <i>prosópa</i>. The Greek + has been transliterated into English for the sake of showing the effect + of the accents more conveniently.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt71" href="#NtA71">[71]</a> For the sake of showing the + extent to which the <i>accentual element</i> must be recognised in the + classical metres, I reprint the following paper On the Doctrine of the + Cæsura in the Greek senarius, from the Transactions of the Philological + Society, June 23, 1843:—</p> + + <p>"In respect to the cæsura of the Greek tragic senarius, the rules, as + laid down by Porson in the Supplement to his Preface to the Hecuba, and + as recognized, more or less, by the English school of critics, seem + capable of a more general expression, and, at the same time, liable to + certain limitations in regard to fact. This becomes apparent when we + investigate the principle that serves as the foundation to these rules; + in other words, when we exhibit the <i>rationale</i>, or doctrine, of the + cæsura in question. At this we can arrive by taking cognizance of a + second element of metre beyond that of quantity.</p> + + <p>"It is assumed that the element in metre which goes, in works of + different writers, under the name of ictus metricus, or of arsis, is the + same as accent, <i>in the sense of that word in English</i>. It is this + that constitutes the difference between words like <i>týrant</i> and + <i>resúme</i>, or <i>súrvey</i> and <i>survéy</i>; or (to take more + convenient examples) between the word <i>Aúgust</i>, used as the name of + a month, and <i>augúst</i>, used as an adjective. Without inquiring how + far this coincides with the accent and accentuation of the classical + grammarians, it may be stated that, in the forthcoming pages, arsis, + ictus metricus, and accent (<i>in the English sense of the word</i>), + mean one and the same thing. With this view of the arsis, or ictus, we + may ask how far, in each particular foot of the senarius, it coincides + with the quantity.</p> + + <p><i>First Foot.</i>—In the first place of a tragic senarius it is + a matter of indifference whether the arsis fall on the first or second + syllable; that is, it is a matter of indifference whether the foot be + sounded as <i>týrant</i> or as <i>resúme</i>, as <i>Aúgust</i> or as + <i>augúst</i>. In the following lines the words <span title="hêkô" class="grk" + >ἡκω</span>, <span title="palai" class="grk" + >παλαι</span>, <span title="eiper" class="grk" + >εἰπερ</span>, <span title="tinas" class="grk" + >τινας</span>, may be pronounced either as <span + title="hê´kô" class="grk">ἡ´κω</span>, <span + title="pa´lai" class="grk">πα´λαι</span>, + <span title="ei´per" class="grk" + >ει´περ</span>, <span title="ti´nas" class="grk" + >τι´νας</span>, or as <span title="hêkô´" class="grk" + >ἡκω´</span>, <span title="palai´" class="grk" + >παλαι´</span>, <span title="eiper´" class="grk" + >ειπερ´</span>, <span title="tina´s" class="grk" + >τινα´ς</span>, without any detriment to the + character of the line wherein they occur.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Hê´kô nekrôn keuthmôna kai skotou pulas." class="grk">Ἡ´κω νεκρων κευθμωνα και σκοτου πυλας.</span></p> + <p><span title="Pa´lai kunêgetounta kai metroumenon." class="grk">Πα´λαι κυνηγετουντα και μετρουμενον.</span></p> + <p><span title="Ei´per dikaios esth' emos ta patrothen." class="grk">Ει´περ δίκαιος εσθ' εμος τα πατροθεν.</span></p> + <p><span title="Ti´nas poth' hedras tasde moi thoazete." class="grk">Τι´νας ποθ' ἑδρας τασδε μοι θοαζετε.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>or,</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Hêkô´ nekrôn keuthmôna kai skotou pulas." class="grk">Ἡκω´ νεκρων κευθμωνα και σκοτου πυλας.</span></p> + <p><span title="Palai´ kunêgetounta kai metroumenon." class="grk">Παλαι´ κυνηγετουντα και μετρουμενον.</span></p> + <p><span title="Eiper´ dikaios esth' emos ta patrothen." class="grk">Ειπερ´ δικαιος εσθ' εμος τα πατροθεν.</span></p> + <p><span title="Tina´s poth' hedras tasde moi thoazete." class="grk">Τινα´ς ποθ' ἑδρας τασδε μοι θοαζετε.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><i>Second Foot.</i>—In the second place, it is also a matter of + indifference whether the foot be sounded as <i>Aúgust</i> or as + <i>augúst</i>. In the first of the four lines quoted above we may say + either <span title="ne´krôn" class="grk" + >νε´κρων</span> or <span title="nekrô´n" class="grk" + >νεκρω´ν</span>, without violating the + rhythm of the verse.</p> + + <p><i>Third Foot.</i>—In this part of the senarius it is no longer + a matter of indifference whether the foot be sounded as <i>Aúgust</i> or + as <i>augúst</i>; that is, it is no longer a matter of indifference + whether the arsis and the quantity coincide. In the circumstance that the + last syllable of the third foot <i>must</i> be accented (in the English + sense of the word), taken along with a second fact, soon about to be + exhibited, lies the doctrine of the penthimimer and hepthimimer + cæsuras.</p> + + <p>The proof of the coincidence between the arsis and the quantity in the + third foot is derived partly from <i>a posteriori</i>, partly from <i>a + priori</i> evidence.</p> + + <p>1. In the Supplices of Æschylus, the Persæ, and the Bacchæ, three + dramas where licences in regard to metre are pre-eminently common, the + number of lines wherein the sixth syllable (<i>i. e.</i>, the last half + of the third foot) is without an arsis, is at the highest sixteen, at the + lowest five; whilst in the remainder of the extant dramas the proportion + is undoubtedly smaller.</p> + + <p>2. In all lines where the sixth syllable is destitute of ictus, the + iambic character is violated: as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Thrêkên perasa´ntes mogis pollôi ponôi." class="grk">Θρηκην περασα´ντες μογις πολλῳ πονῳ.</span></p> + <p><span title="Duoin gerontoi´n de stratêgeitai phugê." class="grk">Δυοιν γεροντοι´ν δε στρατηγειται φυγη.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>These are facts which may be verified either by referring to the + tragedians, or by constructing senarii like the lines last quoted. The + only difficulty that occurs arises in determining, in a dead language + like the Greek, the absence or presence of the arsis. In this matter the + writer had satisfied himself of the truth of the two following + propositions:—1. That the accentuation of the grammarians denotes + some modification of pronunciation other than that which constitutes the + difference between <i>Aúgust</i> and <i>augúst</i>; since, if it were not + so, the word <span title="angelon" class="grk" + >ἄγγελον</span> would be + sounded like <i>mérrily</i>, and the word <span title="angelôn" class="grk" + >ἀγγέλων</span> like + <i>disáble</i>; which is improbable, 2. That the arsis lies upon radical + rather than inflectional syllables, and out of two inflectional syllables + upon the first rather than the second; as <span title="ble´p-ô, bleps-a´s-a" class="grk" + >βλε´π-ω, + βλεψ-α´σ-α</span>, not <span + title="blep-ô´, bleps-as-a´" class="grk" + >βλεπ-ω´, + βλεψ-ασ-α´</span>. The evidence + upon these points is derived from the structure of language in general. + The <i>onus probandi</i> lies with the author who presumes an arsis + (accent in the English sense) on a <i>non</i>-radical syllable. Doubts, + however, as to the pronunciation of certain words, leave the precise + number of lines violating the rule given above undetermined. It is + considered sufficient to show that wherever they occur the iambic + character is violated.</p> + + <p>The circumstance, however, of the last half of the third foot + requiring an arsis, brings us only half way towards the doctrine of the + cæsura. With this must be combined a second fact, arising out of the + constitution of the Greek language in respect to its accent. In + accordance with the views just exhibited, the author conceives that no + Greek word has an arsis upon the last syllable, except in the three + following cases:—</p> + + <p>1. Monosyllables, not enclitic; as <span title="sphô´n, pa´s, chthô´n, dmô´s, nô´n, nu´n" class="grk" + >σφω´ν, πα´ς, + χθω´ν, δμω´ς, νω´ν, + νυ´ν</span>, &c.</p> + + <p>2. Circumflex futures; as <span title="nemô´, temô´" class="grk" + >νεμω´, τεμω´</span>, + &c.</p> + + <p>3. Words abbreviated by apocope; in which case the penultimate is + converted into a final syllable; <span title="dô´m', pheides´th', kentei´t', egô´g'" class="grk" + >δω´μ', + φειδεσ´θ', + κεντει´τ', + εγω´γ'</span>, &c.</p> + + <p>Now the fact of a syllable with an arsis being, in Greek, rarely + final, taken along with that of the sixth syllable requiring, in the + senarius, an arsis, gives as a matter of necessity, the circumstance + that, in the Greek drama, the sixth syllable shall occur anywhere rather + than at the end of a word; and this is only another way of saying, that, + in a tragic senarius, the syllable in question shall generally be + followed by other syllables in the same word. All this the author + considers as so truly a matter of necessity, that the objection to his + view of the Greek cæsura must lie either against his idea of the nature + of the accents, or nowhere; since, that being admitted, the rest follows + of course.</p> + + <p>As the sixth syllable must not be final, it must be followed in the + same word by one syllable, or by more than one.</p> + + <p>1. <i>The sixth syllable followed by one syllable in the same + word.</i>—This is only another name for the seventh syllable + occurring at the end of a word, and it gives at once the hepthimimer + cæsura: as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Hêkô nekrôn keuthmô´na kai skotou pulas." class="grk">Ἡκω νεκρων κευθμω´να και σκοτου πυλας.</span></p> + <p><span title="Hiktêriois kladoi´sin exestemmenoi." class="grk">Ἱκτηριοις κλαδοι´σιν εξεστεμμενοι.</span></p> + <p><span title="Homou te paianô´n te kai stenagmatôn." class="grk">Ὁμου τε παιανω´ν τε και στεναγματων.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>2. <i>The sixth syllables followed by two</i> (<i>or more</i>) + <i>syllables in the same word</i>. This is only another name for the + eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) syllable occurring at the end + of a word; as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Odmê broteiôn hai´matôn me prosgela." class="grk">Οδμη βροτειων αἱ´ματων με προσγελα.</span></p> + <p><span title="Lamprous dunastas em´prepontas aitheri." class="grk">Λαμπρους δυναστας εμ´πρεποντας αιθερι.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>Now this arrangement of syllables, taken by itself, gives anything + rather than a hepthimimer; so that if it was at this point that our + investigations terminated, little would be done towards the evolution of + the <i>rationale</i> of the cæsura. It will appear, however, that in + those cases where the circumstance of the sixth syllable being followed + by two others in the same words, causes the eighth (or some syllable + after the eighth) to be final, either a penthimimer cæsura, or an + equivalent, will, with but few exceptions, be the result. This we may + prove by taking the eighth syllable and counting back from it. What + <i>follows</i> this syllable is immaterial: it is the number of syllables + in the same word that <i>precedes</i> it that demands attention.</p> + + <p>1. <i>The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by + nothing.</i>—This is equivalent to the seventh syllable at the end + of the preceding word: a state of things which, as noticed above, gives + the hepthimimer cæsura.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Anêrithmon gela´sma pam|mêtor de gê." class="grk">Ανηριθμον γελα´σμα παμ|μητορ δε γη.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>2. <i>The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by one + syllable.</i>—This is equivalent to the sixth syllable at the end + of the word preceding; a state of things which, as noticed above, rarely + occurs. When however it does occur, one of the three conditions under + which a final syllable can take an arsis must accompany it. Each of these + conditions requires notice.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">α</span>). With a non-enclitic + <i>mono</i>-syllable the result is a penthimimer cæsura; since the + syllable preceding a monosyllable is necessarily final.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Hêkô sebi´zôn so´n Klu´tai|mnêstra kratos." class="grk">Ἡκω σεβι´ζων σο´ν Κλυ´ται|μνηστρα κρατος.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>No remark has been made by critics upon lines constructed in this + manner, since the cæsura is a penthimimer, and consequently their rules + are undisturbed.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">β</span>). With <i>poly</i>-syllabic circumflex + futures constituting the third foot, there would be a violation of the + current rules respecting the cæsura. Notwithstanding this, if the views + of the present paper be true, there would be no violation of the iambic + character of the senarius. Against such a line as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Kagô to son nemô´ pothei|non aulion" class="grk">Καγω το σον νεμω´ ποθει|νον αυλιον</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>there is no argument <i>a priori</i> on the score of the iambic + character being violated; whilst in respect to objections derived from + evidence <i>a posteriori</i>, there is sufficient reason for such lines + being rare.</p> + + <p><span class="grk">γ</span>). With <i>poly</i>-syllables + abbreviated by apocope, we have the state of things which the metrists + have recognised under the name of quasi-cæsura; as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Kenteite mê pheide´sth' egô | 'tekon Parin." class="grk">Κεντειτε μη φειδε´σθ' εγω | 'τεκον Παριν.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>3. <i>The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by two + syllables.</i>—This is equivalent to the fifth syllable occurring + at the end of the word preceding: a state of things which gives the + penthimimer cæsura; as</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Odmê broteiôn hai´ matôn | me prosgela." class="grk">Οδμη βροτειων αἱ´ ματῶν | με προσγελα.</span></p> + <p><span title="Lamprous dunastas em´prepon tas aitheri." class="grk">Λαμπρους δυναστας εμ´πρεπον τας αιθερι.</span></p> + <p><span title="Apsuchon eikô pro´sgelôisa sômatos." class="grk">Αψυχον εικω προ´σγελῳσα σωματος.</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>4. <i>The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by three or more + than three syllables.</i>—This is equivalent to the fourth (or some + syllable preceding the fourth) syllable occurring at the end of the word + preceding; a state of things which would include the third and fourth + feet in one and the same word. This concurrence is denounced in the + Supplement to the Preface to the Hecuba; where, however, the rule, as in + the case of the quasi-cæsura, from being based upon merely empirical + evidence, requires limitation. In lines like</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Kai talla poll' epei´kasai | dikaion ên," class="grk">Και ταλλα πολλ' επει´κασαι | δικαιον ην,</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>or (an imaginary example),</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p><span title="Tois soisin aspidê´strophois|in andrasi," class="grk">Τοις σοισιν ασπιδη´στροφοις|ιν ανδρασι,</span></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p>there is no violation of the iambic character, and consequently no + reason against similar lines having been written; although from the + average proportion of Greek words like <span title="epeikasai" class="grk" + >επεικασαι</span> + and <span title="aspidêstrophoisin" class="grk" + >ασπιδηστροφοισιν</span>, + there is every reason for their being rare.</p> + + <p>After the details just given, the recapitulation is brief.</p> + + <p>1. It was essential to the character of the senarius that the sixth + syllable, or latter half of the third foot, should have an arsis, ictus + metricus, or accent in the English sense. To this condition of the iambic + rhythm the Greek tragedians, either consciously or unconsciously, + adhered.</p> + + <p>2. It was the character of the Greek language to admit an arsis on the + last syllable of a word only under circumstances comparatively rare.</p> + + <p>3. These two facts, taken together, caused the sixth syllable of a + line to be anywhere rather than at the end of a word.</p> + + <p>4. If followed by a single syllable in the same word, the result was a + hepthimimer cæsura.</p> + + <p>5. If followed by more syllables than one, some syllable in an earlier + part of the line ended the word preceding, and so caused either a + penthimimer, a quasi-cæsura, or the occurrence of the third and fourth + foot in the same word.</p> + + <p>6. As these two last-mentioned circumstances were rare, the general + phænomenon presented in the Greek senarius was the occurrence of either + the penthimimer or hepthimimer.</p> + + <p>7. Respecting these two sorts of cæsura, the rules, instead of being + exhibited in detail, may be replaced by the simple assertion that there + should be an arsis on the sixth syllable. From this the rest follows.</p> + + <p>8. Respecting the non-occurrence of the third and fourth feet in the + same word, the assertion may be withdrawn entirely.</p> + + <p>9. Respecting the quasi-cæsura, the rules, if not altogether + withdrawn, may be extended to the admission of the last syllable of + circumflex futures (or to any other polysyllables with an equal claim to + be considered accented on the last syllable) in the latter half of the + third foot.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt72" href="#NtA72">[72]</a> <i>Sceolon</i>, <i>aron</i>, and + a few similar words, are no real exceptions, being in structure not + present tenses but preterites.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt73" href="#NtA73">[73]</a> Quarterly Review, No. clxiv.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt74" href="#NtA74">[74]</a> Quarterly Review, No. clxiv.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt75" href="#NtA75">[75]</a> From the Quarterly Review, No. + cx.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt76" href="#NtA76">[76]</a> From the Quarterly Review, No. + cx.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt77" href="#NtA77">[77]</a> Apparently a <i>lapsus + calami</i> for <i>spede</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt78" href="#NtA78">[78]</a> J. M. Kemble, "On Anglo-Saxon + Runes," <i>Archæologia</i>, vol. xxviii.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt79" href="#NtA79">[79]</a> But not of <i>Great Britain</i>. + The Lowland Scotch is, probably, more Danish than any South-British + dialect.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt80" href="#NtA80">[80]</a> In opposition to the typical + Northumbrian.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt81" href="#NtA81">[81]</a> Quarterly Review—<i>ut + supra</i>.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt82" href="#NtA82">[82]</a> The subject is a Lincolnshire + tradition; the language, also, is pre-eminently Danish. On the other + hand, the modern Lincolnshire dialect is by no means evidently descended + from it.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt83" href="#NtA83">[83]</a> For some few details see Phil. + Trans., No. 36.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt84" href="#NtA84">[84]</a> Transactions of the Philological + Society. No. 93.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt85" href="#NtA85">[85]</a> Philological Transactions. No. + 84.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt86" href="#NtA86">[86]</a> Transactions of the Philological + Society, No. 92.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt87" href="#NtA87">[87]</a> Quarterly Review, vol. + xliii.</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The English Language, by Robert Gordon Latham + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE *** + +***** This file should be named 34595-h.htm or 34595-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/5/9/34595/ + +Produced by Colin Bell, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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