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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/34562-h.zip b/34562-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..13c5a9b --- /dev/null +++ b/34562-h.zip diff --git a/34562-h/34562-h.htm b/34562-h/34562-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9a3c52 --- /dev/null +++ b/34562-h/34562-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1166 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ --> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of John Deere's Steel Plow, by Edward C. Kendall. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +h1 {text-align:right; clear: both;} +h2 {text-align: center; clear: both;} +h3 {text-align: left; clear: both;} +p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} +hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} +blockquote {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%; } +.blockquotn {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; } +.rnum {position: absolute; right:10%; text-align:left;} +.center {text-align: center;} +.right {text-align: right;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.caption2 {font-weight: bold; text-align: justify;} +p.caption2 {margin-top:0.25em;} +.sidebar {margin-left: 20%;margin-right: 20%; margin-top:0.75em; margin-bottom:0.75em; + padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right:1.5em; border: solid 1px;} + +/* page numbers */ +.pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} +.figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} +.figright { float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;text-decoration: none;} +.fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of John Deere's Steel Plow, by Edward C. Kendall + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: John Deere's Steel Plow + +Author: Edward C. Kendall + +Release Date: December 4, 2010 [EBook #34562] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN DEERE'S STEEL PLOW *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Louise Pattison +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="400" height="556" alt="Cover" title="Cover" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> + + +<h1><br /><span class="smcap">Contributions from</span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">The Museum of History and Technology:</span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Paper 2</span><br /><br /><br /><br /> + +<span class="smcap">John Deere's Steel Plow</span></h1> + +<p class="right" style="font-size: larger;"><i>Edward C. Kendall</i></p> + + +<p> +<span class="rnum">DEERE AND ANDRUS <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="rnum">THE FIRST PLOW <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="rnum">STEEL OR IRON <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="rnum">WHY A STEEL PLOW <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="rnum">RECONSTRUCTIONS <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="rnum">IN SUMMARY— <a href="#Page_25">25</a></span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p> +<p class="right"><a name="By_Edward_C_Kendall" id="By_Edward_C_Kendall"></a><i>By Edward C. Kendall</i></p> + +<h2 style="font-size: 1.5em;letter-spacing:0.25em;">JOHN DEERE'S STEEL PLOW</h2> + + +<div class="blockquotn"><p><i>John Deere in 1837 invented a plow that could be used +successfully in the sticky, root-filled soil of the prairie. +It was called a steel plow. Actually, it appears that only the +cutting edge, the share, on the first Deere plows was steel. +The moldboard was smoothly ground wrought iron.</i></p> + +<p><i>Deere's invention succeeded because, as the durable steel +share of the plow cut through the heavy earth, the sticky soil +could find no place to cling on its polished surfaces.</i></p></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Americans moving westward</span> in the beginning of the 19th century soon +encountered the prairie lands of what we now call the Middle West. The +dark fertile soils promised great rewards to the farmers settling in +these regions, but also posed certain problems. First was the breaking +of the tough prairie sod. The naturalist John Muir describes the +conditions facing prairie farmers when he was a boy in the early 1850's +as he tells of the use of the big prairie-breaking plows in the +following words:<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<blockquote><p>They were used only for the first ploughing, in breaking up +the wild sod woven into a tough mass, chiefly by the cord-like +roots of perennial grasses, reinforced by the tap roots of oak +and hickory bushes, called "grubs," some of which were more +than a century old and four or five inches in diameter.... If +in good trim, the plough cut through and turned over these +grubs as if the century-old wood were soft like the flesh of +carrots and turnips; but if not in good trim the grubs +promptly tossed the plough out of the ground.</p></blockquote> + +<p>The second and greater problem was that the richer lands of the prairie +bottoms, after a few years of continuous cultivation, became so sticky +that they clogged the moldboards of the plows. Clogging was such a +factor in prairie plowing that farmers in these regions carried a wooden +paddle solely for cleaning off the moldboard, a task which had to be +repeated so frequently that it seriously interfered with plowing +efficiency. It seems probable that by the 1830's blacksmiths in the +prairie country were beginning to solve the problem of continuous +cultivation of sticky prairie soil by nailing strips of saw steel to the +face of wooden moldboard of the traditional plows. Figure <a href="#Fig_1">1</a> is a +photograph of an 18th century New England plow in the collection of the +U. S. National Museum. This is one type of plow which was brought west +by the settlers. It contributed to the development of the prairie +breaker shown in figure <a href="#Fig_2">2</a>. The first plow on record with strips of steel +on the moldboard is attributed to John Lane in Chicago in 1833.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> Steel +presented a smoother surface which shed the sticky loam better than the +conventional wooden moldboards covered with wrought iron, or the cast +iron moldboards of the newer factory-made plows then coming into use.</p> + +<p>It is generally accepted as historical fact that John Deere made his +first steel plow in 1837 at Grand Detour, Illinois. The details of the +construction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> this plow have been variously given by different +writers. Ardrey<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and Davidson<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> describe Deere's original plow as +having a wooden moldboard covered with strips of steel cut from a saw, +in the manner of the John Lane plow.</p> + +<div class="sidebar"> +<p><span class="smcap">The Author</span>:</p> + +<p><i>Edward C. Kendall is curator of agriculture, Museum of History and +Technology, in the Smithsonian Institution's United States National +Museum.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>In recent years the 1837 Deere plow has been pictured quite differently. +This has apparently come about as the result of the discovery of an old +plow identified as one made by John Deere at Grand Detour in 1838 and +sold to Joseph Brierton from whose farm it was obtained in 1901 by the +maker's son, Charles H. Deere. He brought it to the office of Deere & +Company at Moline, Illinois, for preservation and display. This plow is +shown in figures <a href="#Fig_7">7</a> and <a href="#Fig_9">9</a>. In 1938 Deere & Company presented it to the U. +S. National Museum, where it is on display. It can be seen that the +moldboard is made of one curved diamond-shaped metal slab. This plow +bottom conforms to the description of the "diamond" plows manufactured +by Deere in the 1840's.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> The Company states that according to its +records, this was one of three plows made by Deere in 1838 and that it +was probably substantially identical with the first one made in 1837.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> +It may be difficult to prove that the Museum's specimen was made in +1838, but a comparison of this plow (fig. <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>) with the 1847 moldboard +(fig. <a href="#Fig_5">5</a>) and the 1855 plow (fig. <a href="#Fig_6">6</a>) suggests that the Museum's plow is +the earliest of the three, since there is particularly evident an +evolution of the shape of the moldboard from a simple, almost crude form +to a more sophisticated shape.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_1" id="Fig_1"></a> +<img src="images/i006.jpg" width="600" height="254" alt="Figure 1." title="Figure 1." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 1.—<span class="smcap">New England Strong Plow, Mid-18th Century</span>. +Colter locked into heavy, broad share; wooden moldboard covered with +iron strips. (<i>Cat. no. F1091</i>; <i>Smithsonian photo 13214</i>.)</p> +</div> + +<h3>DEERE AND ANDRUS</h3> + +<p>Writers of the 20th century describing the making of the first John +Deere steel plow have in mind the 1838 plow. One<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> has John Deere +pondering the local plowing problem and getting an idea from the +polished surface of a broken steel mill saw. Another<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> claims that +Leonard Andrus, the founder and leading figure of Grand Detour and part +owner of the sawmill,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> conceived the design of the plow and employed +Deere, the blacksmith newly arrived from Vermont, to build it. This idea +may have originated with and was certainly promoted by the late Fred A. +Wirt, as advertising manager of the J. I. Case Company. It is difficult, +at this distance, to determine the parts played at the beginning by +Deere and Andrus.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_2" id="Fig_2"></a> +<img src="images/i009.jpg" width="600" height="269" alt="Figure 2." title="Figure 2." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 2.—<span class="smcap">Large Prairie-Breaking Plow, Mid-19th Century</span>. +Wheels underneath the beam regulate the depth of plowing; large wheel +runs in the furrow, small wheel on the land. The colter is braced at the +bottom as well as at the top. The share cuts a broad, shallow strip of +sod which the long, gently curving moldboard turns over unbroken.</p> +</div> + +<p>The earliest existing partnership agreement involving Andrus and Deere +is dated March 20, 1843.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> The existing copy is unsigned, but its +conditions are the same as those in the agreements executed during the +next few years. It began by stating that Deere and Andrus had agreed "to +become copartners together in the art and trade of Blacksmithing, +ploughmaking and all things thereto belonging at the said Grand Detour, +and all other business that the said parties may hereafter deem +necessary for their mutual interest and benefit ..." One of the terms +was that the copartnership should continue from the date of the +agreement "under the name and firm of Leonard Andrus."</p> + +<p>A second agreement dated October 26, 1844,<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which brought in a third +partner, Horace Paine, described the business as "the art and trade of +Blacksmithing Plough Making Iron Castings and all things thereto +belonging ..." and stated that the copartnership should be conducted +"under the name and firm of L. Andrus and Co." The third agreement, +dated October 20, 1846, in which another man appeared in place of Paine, +gave the name of the firm as Andrus, Deere, and Lathrop.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> This +carried an addendum dated June 22, 1847, in which Andrus and Deere +bought out Lathrop's interest in the business and agreed to continue +under the name of Andrus and Deere. This is the only mention of the firm +of Andrus and Deere. It could only have lasted a few months because it +was in 1847 that Deere moved to Moline and established his plow factory +there.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_3" id="Fig_3"></a> +<img src="images/i012.jpg" width="600" height="152" alt="Figure 3." title="Figure 3." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 3.—<span class="smcap">Reconstructions of John Deere's 1837 Plow</span>. For +a discussion of the position and attachment of the handles see p. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. +(<i>Deere & Company photo</i>.)</p></div> + +<p>These agreements suggest that Leonard Andrus was the capitalist of the +young community of Grand Detour, as well as its founder. The dominance +of the name Andrus tends to back up the opinion which holds that Andrus +was the leading figure in the development of the successful prairie +plow. On the other hand, the general tone of the agreements suggests +that two or more people were participating in an enterprise in which +each contributed to the business and shared in the results. Deere +contributed his plow and his blacksmith shop, tools, and outbuildings;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +Andrus contributed money and business experience. There is no indication +that they were formally associated prior to the agreement of March 20, +1843. An advertisement (it is quoted later) dated February 3, 1843, and +appearing in the March 10, 1843, issue of the <i>Rock River Register</i>, +carries an announcement by John Deere that he is ready to fill orders +for plows, which he then describes. There is no mention of Andrus or of +an Andrus and Deere firm. I am inclined by the evidence to the view that +Deere worked out his plow by himself, began to manufacture it in small +numbers, needed money to enlarge and expand his operations, and went to +the logical source of capital in the community, Leonard Andrus.</p> + +<p>In support of this view I quote a statement by Mr. Burton F. Peek<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> +who has spent most of his life in Deere & Company and who may now be the +only person living who knew John Deere:</p> + +<blockquote><p>Andrus removed to Grand de Tour from some place in New York +[Rochester, though originally from Vermont]. Some years later +John Deere came along from Rutland, Vermont leaving his family +behind him. Whether Deere ever heard of Andrus or Andrus of +Deere no one knows.</p> + +<p>Having decided to remain in Grand de Tour, Deere sent for his +family asking my paternal grandfather, William Peek, to bring +them and also the Peek family out to Grand de Tour. This was +done via covered wagon the journey occupying some six weeks. +My father, Henry C. Peek, was then an infant age six weeks and +Charles Deere, the son of John, an infant of about the same +age. Of course these infants came along sleeping in the feed +box of the wagon. My grandfather "took up land" adjacent to +Grand de Tour and John Deere continued in the manufacturing +business.</p> + +<p>Incidentally, John Deere and William Peek were brothers-in-law +having married sisters and what I have said, and much more +that I might say to you, is based upon what I have been told +by my grandfather, by John Deere and by others who had a part +in the early history of the company. So far as I know, I am +the only living person who ever knew or saw John Deere....</p> + +<p>... I joined the Deere Company on October 1, 1888, at the age +of 16 and retired on the 28th of April, 1956—nearly 68 years. +C. H. Deere was my great friend and benefactor. I was educated +at his expense as a lawyer and practiced for thirteen years. +During this time I was his personal attorney, I drew his will, +was made trustee thereunder, and probably was more intimate +with him than any living person. I have seen and read the +manuscript of an early history of the company which he wrote, +but never published and there was nothing in it to indicate +that Andrus had any part in the manufacture of the first +successful steel plow and it is my firm belief that he had no +part other than perhaps a friendly interest in it.</p></blockquote> + + +<h3>THE FIRST PLOW</h3> + +<p>Most writers describe Deere cutting a diamond-shaped piece out of a +broken steel mill saw. There is usually no further identification of the +type of saw beyond the statement that it came from the Andrus sawmill. +Neil Clark, author of a brief biography of John Deere, states that the +diamond-shaped piece was cut out of a circular saw.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> There is no +evidence given to support this. There are some powerful arguments +against it. The circular saw, especially of the larger size, was +probably not very common in America in the 1830's. Although an English +patent for a circular saw was issued in 1777 the first circular saw in +America is attributed to Benjamin Cummins of Bentonsville, New York, +about 1814.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width:650px;"> +<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_4" id="Fig_4"></a> +<img src="images/i014.jpg" width="300" height="486" alt="Figure 4." title="Figure 4." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 4.—<span class="smcap">How Deere Probably Cut and Bent the Flat Plate</span> +of his 1838 plow to form the moldboard and landside. Because of the +shape of the moldboard it became known as the diamond plow.</p></div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;"> +<a name="Fig_5" id="Fig_5"></a> +<img src="images/i015.jpg" width="300" height="298" alt="Figure 5." title="Figure 5." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 5.—<span class="smcap">Moldboard of 1847 John Deere Plow</span>, showing how +the diamond shape of the original design has been slightly modified. +(<i>Deere & Company photo 57192-D</i>.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p style="clear:both;">In a small, new, pioneering community it seems unlikely that the local +sawmill would have been equipped with the newer circular saw rather than +the familiar up and down saw which remained in use<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> throughout the 19th +century and, in places, well into the 20th century. The up and down saw +was a broad strip of iron or steel with large teeth in one edge. Driven +by water power it slowly cut large logs into boards. It is doubtful that +the circular saws of that period were large enough for this kind of mill +work. The second argument is the shape of the moldboard itself. The +photograph of the 1838 plow in figure <a href="#Fig_7">7</a> shows that the shape of the +moldboard is unconventional. It is essentially a parallelogram curved to +present a concave surface to the furrow slice and thus to make a simple, +small but workable plow. A parallelogram or diamond would be an easy +shape to cut out of a mill saw with the teeth removed. The moldboard on +the 1838 plow is from .228 to .238 inches thick and its width is 12 +inches. These dimensions approximate those given in an 1897 Disston +catalog<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> which describes mulay saws, a type of mill saw, from 10 to +12 inches wide and from 4 to 9 gauge. Gauge number 4 is the thickest and +is .238 inches.</p> + +<p>Examination of the 1838 plow suggests that Deere cut the moldboard and +landside as one piece, which was then heated and bent to the desired +form. The pattern of this piece is shown in figure <a href="#Fig_4">4</a>. Some additional +metal appears to be forged into the sharp bend at the junction of the +moldboard and the landside apparently to strengthen this part, which may +have begun to open during the bending. If, however, Deere had used a +large circular saw with plenty of room for cutting out a moldboard of +the usual shape and size, it seems likely that he would have made a plow +of more conventional appearance. In any event his moldboard of one +jointless piece of polished metal would scour better than one of wood +covered with strips of steel since the nailheads and the joints between +the strips would provide places for the earth to stick.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_6" id="Fig_6"></a> +<img src="images/i016.jpg" width="600" height="330" alt="Figure 6." title="Figure 6." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 6.—<span class="smcap">The Shape of the Moldboard</span> continued to +evolve, as illustrated by this 1855 John Deere plow. (<i>Deere & Company +photo 57192-A</i>.)</p></div> + +<p>A very great majority of writers describing John Deere and his plow +attribute his fame to his development of a successful steel plow which +made cultivation of rich prairie soil practical. The emphasis is always +on the development of a steel moldboard and the assumption is that from +the 1837 plow onward stretched an unbroken line of steel moldboard +plows. An advertisement for John Deere plows in the March 10, 1843, +issue of the <i>Rock River Register</i>, published weekly in Grand Detour, +Illinois, gives a detailed description, here presented in full:</p> + +<blockquote><p>John Deere respectfully informs his friends and customers, the +agricultural community, of this and adjoining counties, and +dealers in Ploughs, that he is now prepared to fill orders for +the same on presentation.</p> + +<p>The Moldboard of this well, and so favorably known PLOUGH, is +made of wrought iron, and the share of steel, 5/16 of an inch +thick, which carries a fine sharp edge. The whole face of the +moldboard and share is ground smooth, so that it scours +perfectly bright in any soil, and will not choke in the +foulest of ground. It will do more work in a day, and do it +much better and with less labor, to both team and holder, than +the ordinary ploughs that do not scour, and in consequence of +the ground being better prepared, the agriculturalist obtains +a much heavier crop.</p> + +<p>The price of Ploughs, in consequence of hard times, will be +reduced from last year's prices. Grand Detour, Feb. 3, 1843.</p></blockquote> + +<p>This raised two questions: Why, and for how long, was wrought iron used +for the moldboards of the Deere plows? Of what material is the moldboard +of the 1838 plow made? During the first few years, when production was +very small, there were probably enough worn out mill saws available for +the relatively few plows made. As production increased this source must +have become inadequate. Ardrey gives the following figures for the +production of plows by Deere and Andrus:<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> 1839, 10 plows; 1840, 40 +plows; 1841, 75 plows; 1842, 100 plows; 1843, 400 plows. Ardrey states +further that "by this time the difficulty of obtaining steel in the +quantity and quality needed had become a serious obstacle in the way of +further development." The statement, quoted above, that the moldboard +was of wrought iron and the statistics on production of plows during the +1840's and 1850's belie Ardrey's claim that it was a serious obstacle, +nor is there any suggestion in the advertisement that wrought iron was +being substituted for steel.</p> + +<p>In 1847 John Deere amicably severed relations with the firm of Andrus & +Deere and moved to Moline, Illinois, to continue plow manufacturing in a +site that had better transportation facilities than Grand Detour. The +new firm produced 700 plows in the first year, 1600 in 1850, and 10,000 +in 1857.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Swank<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> states that the first slab of cast plow steel +ever rolled in the United States was in 1846 and that it was shipped to +John Deere of Moline, Illinois. A little later he says that it was not +until the early 1860's in this country that several firms succeeded in +making high grade crucible cast steel of uniform quality as a regular +product.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_7" id="Fig_7"></a> +<img src="images/i018.jpg" width="600" height="293" alt="Figure 7." title="Figure 7." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 7.—<span class="smcap">John Deere's 1838 Plow, Right Side</span>, showing +large iron staple used to fasten end of right handle to the standard. +Note remains of wooden pin near rear end of plow beam. (<i>Cat. no. +F1111</i>; <i>Smithsonian photo 42639-A</i>.)</p> +</div> +<p>Based on a visit to Deere's factory in 1857 the <i>Country Gentleman</i><a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +gave the yearly output as 13,400 plows. It pictured four of seven models +and stated, "these are all made of cast steel, and perfectly polished +before they are sent out, and are kept bright by use, so that no soil +adheres to them." The article then gives the tonnages of iron and steel +used by the Deere factory in a year. They are as follows: 50 tons cast +steel, 40 tons German steel, 100 tons Pittsburgh steel, 75 tons +castings, 200 tons wrought iron, 8 tons malleable castings in clevises, +etc. In addition 100,000 plow bolts and 200,000 feet of oak plank were +used.</p> + +<p>These figures do not indicate what the different parts of the plows were +made of but, if approximately correct, they do show that more than half +the metal used was iron rather than steel. Steel accounts for 190 tons; +wrought iron for 200. Although it is conceivable, under this weight +distribution, that the shares and moldboards were made of steel while +the landsides and standards were made of wrought iron, other +distributions are also possible, and it is quite conceivable that at +this period some of the plows had steel moldboards while others had +wrought-iron ones. An analysis of the metal in different parts of an +1855 John Deere plow, now at the factory in Moline, may shed some light +on this, but from these figures and dates it seems likely that most of +John Deere's plows during the 1840's and 1850's had wrought-iron +moldboards with steel shares. (It should be borne in mind that the +poorer grades of steel available at this time were probably no more +satisfactory than cast iron as far as scouring clean in sticky soil was +concerned.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_8" id="Fig_8"></a> +<img src="images/i019.jpg" width="600" height="281" alt="Figure 8." title="Figure 8." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 8.—<span class="smcap">Reconstruction of Deere's 1838 Plow</span>, right +side, with handles shown in what is believed to be their original +position. (<i>Smithsonian photo 42647</i>.)</p></div> + +<p>The question of the material in the moldboard of the 1838 plow was +answered when a spark-test analysis was made of the metal in the +moldboard and share. In this test the color, shape, and pattern of the +spark bursts produced by a high-speed grinding wheel indicate the type +of iron or steel. Several spots along the edges and back surface of the +moldboard were tested. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>No carbon bursts were seen in the spark +patterns, indicating that the material was wrought iron. The share +consists of a piece, wedge shaped in cross section, welded on to the +lower, or front, edge of the moldboard. This was tested at several spots +along its sharp edge, all of which gave a pattern and color indicating +that the material was medium high carbon steel. This test was +corroborated by a chemical analysis of filings from the moldboard and +share in a metallurgical laboratory. A small trace of carbon was found +in the moldboard. It may be present as the result of contamination from +several sources, a likely one being the charcoal fire in the forge when +it was heated for bending and shaping.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>These tests agree perfectly with the description in the 1843 +advertisement. It seems, therefore, that Deere's success in making plows +that worked well in prairie bottom lands depended as much on the smooth +surface he produced by grinding and polishing as on the material used.</p> + +<p>The filing of the edge of the moldboard for the metallurgical test +disclosed that the wrought-iron slab consisted of five thin laminations +apparently forged together but with separations visible. The length and +regularity of the lines of separation seem to preclude their being +striations resulting from the fibrous structure of wrought iron. This +calls into question the theory that the moldboard and landside were cut +from a mill saw, since it hardly seems likely that a saw would be made +of laminated material. The possibility exists that the body of the mill +saw might have been made this way, with a tooth-bearing steel edge +welded on, but there seems little reason for making a saw out of thin +laminations. It is also possible that this laminated iron originally had +been intended for some other purpose, such as boiler plate, and may have +been available in rectangular pieces. In making the 1838 plow Deere +followed a pattern (fig. 4), which suggests that he cut it out of such a +piece.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_9" id="Fig_9"></a> +<img src="images/i021.jpg" width="600" height="263" alt="Figure 9." title="Figure 9." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 9.—<span class="smcap">John Deere's 1838 Plow, Left Side</span>, showing +details of construction and relationship of landside to moldboard. +(<i>Cat. no. F1111</i>; <i>Smithsonian photo 42639</i>.)</p> +</div> +<p>Since the moldboard of the 1838 plow is of wrought iron, and since this +plow is thought to be essentially identical with the first one Deere +made in 1837, it is highly probable that the 1837 plow also had a +wrought-iron moldboard, a condition which appears to have been the basic +pattern for John Deere plows until the middle 1850's.</p> + + +<h3>WHY A "STEEL" PLOW</h3> + +<p>In view of the facts and the probabilities based on them, how is the +legend of the John Deere steel plow to be explained? There are several +likely reasons. It is possible that the first plow, in 1837, was made +from a broken steel mill saw. It is also possible that within a few +years puddled iron came to be used for the moldboards because of the +scarcity of suitable steel, either in the form of broken mill saws or as +plates ordered from foundries in America (the high price of steel +imported from England made this an impractical source). However, it +seems more likely that it became known as a steel plow owing to the +importance Deere attached to his plows having steel shares, as shown in +his advertisement in 1843. A steel share, tougher than cast iron, would +hold an edge much better than wrought iron, and John Muir's description +of prairie plowing, quoted earlier, substantiates the importance of a +tough, sharp share.</p> + +<p>Deere's plows, probably distinctive by reason of their steel shares, may +have been called "steel"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> plows, in the regions where they were used, to +distinguish them from the standard wooden plows and from the newer +cast-iron implements. The term "wooden plow" has a similar history. For +well over 2000 years in Europe some plows have been made with iron +shares and the rest of the structure wood. Plows in 18th-century America +were made principally of wood with iron shares, colters, and clevises, +and with strips of iron frequently covering the wooden moldboard. These +implements were called, simply, plows of various regional types. Not +until the development and spread of the factory-made plows with +cast-iron moldboards, landsides, and standards did the term "wooden +plow" come into use to differentiate all these plows from the newer +ones. Subsequently writers have been led to assume that "wooden plow" +meant a plow with no iron parts and consequently to make unwarranted +statements about the primitiveness of the 18th-century implements.</p> + +<p>A second reason for use of the term "steel plow" may have developed from +the supposition that the moldboards of the first John Deere plows were +made of diamond-shaped sections cut from old mill saws, which later +writers seem to have assumed were made of steel. (It is probable that +from the late 1850's on Deere plows had steel moldboards.) However, mill +saws of the early 19th century were not necessarily made of steel, which +was then relatively expensive. I have been told of an old mill saw made +of wrought iron on which was welded a steel edge that carried the +teeth.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> Rees' <i>Cyclopaedia</i><a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> describes saws as being made of +either wrought iron or steel, the latter being preferable. Therefore, it +seems most likely that Deere's plows, from his first until the middle +1850's were made with highly polished wrought-iron moldboards and steel +shares.</p> + + +<h3>RECONSTRUCTIONS</h3> + +<p>The remains of the 1838 plow are shown in figures <a href="#Fig_7">7</a> and <a href="#Fig_9">9</a>. One's +curiosity is aroused as to what the plow looked like in its original +state, complete with handles. Several full-scale 3-dimensional +reconstructions and a number of sketches of the 1837 plow have been +made. The reconstructions all must have been based on the remains of the +1838 plow, since they resemble it closely and it is the only surviving +plow of this type known.</p> + +<p>Recently I received a photograph (fig. 3, right) of a plow which has +been boxed and in storage for many years at Deere & Company which may be +an early Deere plow. As it appears in the photograph, the plow looks +unconvincing. The handles are fastened by bolts and nuts, a manner +uncommon in American plow making in the early 19th century. The shape of +the handles is that of stock handles available for small plows and +cultivators in such a catalog as Belknap's. The plow seems very high and +weakly braced. There is no logical reason for curving the end of the +beam down and cutting it off at a slant if the handles are attached in +the manner shown. The edges of the tenon on the upper end of the +standard where it goes through the mortise in the beam have been neatly +beveled in a manner I have never seen before on any other plow. All of +this leads me to think that this is an early reconstruction based on the +remains of the 1838 plow which it only roughly approximates in +proportion and design.</p> + +<p>Another of these reconstructions is shown in figure <a href="#Fig_3">3</a>, left. Although +superficially like the 1838 plow it varies considerably in its +proportions, in the angular relations of its parts, and in other details +such as the use of iron bolts and nuts in place of wooden pins. All +these reconstructions agree in one thing. They show a plow with handles +fastened to both sides of the plow beam and standard.</p> + +<p>During an examination of the 1838 plow it occurred to me that there was +no indication of an attachment of a handle on the landside in the same +manner as on the furrow side. The position and attachment of the handle +in figure <a href="#Fig_7">7</a> is clearly indicated by the remains of a wooden pin in the +side of the plow beam near the rear end and by the large iron staple, in +the side of the standard, which must have held the tapered lower end of +the handle. Figure <a href="#Fig_8">8</a> is a sketch showing this handle in position. The +landside view of this plow in figure <a href="#Fig_9">9</a> shows that the pin did not extend +through the beam nor are there marks on the standard to indicate the +position of a staple like that on the furrow side. The four holes +approximately in line on the standard and beam show where a piece of +sheet metal had been nailed to hold the beam and standard in about the +right position. The outline of the sheet metal can be seen on the side +of the beam. This was removed at the time this examination was made.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p> + +<p>How was the landside handle attached? W. E. Bridges of the National +Museum suggests that it might have been attached to the lower side of +the standard and the rear end of the plow beam. This seems, beyond +doubt, to be correct. The wood has deteriorated considerably over the +years and the joints are loose, but, within the limits of the existing +structure, the plow beam can easily be set in such a position that its +sloping rear end lines up with the slope of the underside of the +standard. Furthermore, a long bolt runs from the upper part of the +moldboard through the standard and projects quite far beyond its lower +surface, as can be seen in figure <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>. The end of the bolt is threaded +only part way and it has been necessary to put a cylindrical metal +spacer on it in order to draw up the nut snugly. This long bolt must +originally have passed through the lower end of the handle, which, in +turn, was fastened to the end of the plow beam by a tenon on the end of +the beam, now broken off, passing through a mortise in the handle. This +was the common method of fastening the handle to the beam. The square +hole in the plow's iron landside (fig. <a href="#Fig_7">7</a>), which at first might seem +meant for another bolt passing through the lower end of the handle at +right angles to the long bolt, seems too close to the other bolt and to +the edges of the handle. It may simply be a first try for the bolt +through the bottom of the standard. In this manner the handle would have +been strongly attached to the plow frame and, at the same time, would +have materially helped to make it rigid by forming one side of a +triangular structure. Figures <a href="#Fig_8">8</a> and <a href="#Fig_10">10</a> show what I believe to be the +correct reconstruction of the 1838 Deere plow along the lines just +described and, therefore, the probable appearance of the 1837 plow.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"><a name="Fig_10" id="Fig_10"></a> +<img src="images/i024.jpg" width="600" height="295" alt="Figure 10." title="Figure 10." /> +<p class="caption2">Figure 10.—<span class="smcap">Reconstruction of Deere's 1838 Plow</span>, left +side, showing how left handle is believed to have been attached. +(<i>Smithsonian photo 42637</i>.)</p></div> + +<p>It should also be noted that it was general practice in making fixed +moldboard plows to have the plow beam, standard, handle, and landside +(or sharebeam, on the old plows) in the same plane. Symmetrical handles +branching from both sides of the beam are found on cultivators, shovel +plows, middle busters, and sidehill plows where the moldboard is turned +alternately to each side.</p> + + +<h3>IN SUMMARY—</h3> + +<p>The existing evidence, I believe, indicates that:</p> + +<p>1. The successful prairie plow with a smooth one-piece moldboard and +steel share was basically Deere's idea.</p> + +<p>2. The moldboards of practically all of his plows, from 1837 and for +about 15 years, were made of wrought iron rather than steel.</p> + +<p>3. The success of his plows in the prairie soils depended on a steel +share which held a sharp edge and a highly polished moldboard to which +the sticky soils could not cling.</p> + +<p>4. The importance attached to the steel share led to the plows being +identified as steel plows.</p> + +<p>5. The correct reconstruction of the 1838 plow, and, by inference, the +1837 plow, is shown in figures <a href="#Fig_8">8</a> and <a href="#Fig_10">10</a>, previous reconstructions being +wrong primarily in the position and attachment of the handles.</p> + +<p>6. The Museum's John Deere plow (Cat. No. F1111), shown in figures <a href="#Fig_7">7</a> and +<a href="#Fig_9">9</a>, is a very early specimen, on the basis of a comparison of it with +Deere moldboards of 1847 and 1855 and its conformity to Deere's +description of his plows in an 1843 advertisement; and the 1838 date +associated with it is plausible.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> John Muir (1838-1914), <i>The story of my boyhood and youth</i>, +Boston, 1913, pp. 227, 228.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> R. L. Ardrey, <i>American agricultural implements</i>, Chicago, +1894, p. 14.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 16.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> J. B. Davidson, "Tillage machinery," in L. H. Bailey's +<i>Cyclopedia of American agriculture</i>, New York, 1907, vol. 1, p. 389.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Leo Rogin, <i>The introduction of farm machinery in its +relation to the productivity of labor in the agriculture of the United +States during the nineteenth century</i>, Berkeley, 1931, p. 33.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> U. S. National Museum records under accession 148904.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Neil M. Clark, <i>John Deere</i>, Moline, 1937, pp. 34, 35.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Stewart H. Holbrook, <i>Machines of plenty</i>, New York, 1955, +pp. 178, 179. To an inquiry by this author, Mr. Holbrook replied that +most if not all of the material about Andrus came from the files of the +J. I. Case Company.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Photographic copies of partnership agreements between +Andrus, Deere, and others are in U. S. National Museum records under +accession 148904.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Letter from Burton F. Peek to M. L. Putnam, December 18, +1957, in U. S. National Museum records under accession 148904.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Clark, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 7), p. 34.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> E. H. Knight, <i>American mechanical dictionary</i>, Boston, +1884, vol. 3, p. 2033.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Henry Disston & Sons, <i>Price list</i>, Philadelphia, 1897, p. +28.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Ardrey, <i>op. cit.</i> (footnote 2), p. 166.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 166.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> James M. Swank, <i>History of the manufacture of iron in all +ages</i>..., Philadelphia, 1892, pp. 390, 393.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> <i>Country Gentleman</i>, 1857, vol. 10, p. 129.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> Reports on spark test by E. A. Battison, U. S. National +Museum, and on metallurgical investigation by A. H. Valentine, +Metallographic Laboratory of the Bethlehem Steel Company's Sparrows +Point Plant.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> For this information I am indebted to Mr. E. A. Battison +of the U. S. National Museum staff.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> Abraham Rees, <i>The cyclopaedia; or universal dictionary of +arts, sciences, and literature</i>, Philadelphia, 1810-1842, vol. 33, under +saw.</p></div> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's John Deere's Steel Plow, by Edward C. 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Kendall + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: John Deere's Steel Plow + +Author: Edward C. Kendall + +Release Date: December 4, 2010 [EBook #34562] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JOHN DEERE'S STEEL PLOW *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Louise Pattison +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +CONTRIBUTIONS FROM + +THE MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY: + +PAPER 2 + + +JOHN DEERE'S STEEL PLOW + +_Edward C. Kendall_ + + + DEERE AND ANDRUS 17 + + THE FIRST PLOW 19 + + STEEL OR IRON 21 + + WHY A STEEL PLOW 23 + + RECONSTRUCTIONS 24 + + IN SUMMARY-- 25 + + + + +_By Edward C. Kendall_ + +JOHN DEERE'S STEEL PLOW + + + _John Deere in 1837 invented a plow that could be used + successfully in the sticky, root-filled soil of the prairie. + It was called a steel plow. Actually, it appears that only the + cutting edge, the share, on the first Deere plows was steel. + The moldboard was smoothly ground wrought iron._ + + _Deere's invention succeeded because, as the durable steel + share of the plow cut through the heavy earth, the sticky soil + could find no place to cling on its polished surfaces._ + +Americans moving westward in the beginning of the 19th century soon +encountered the prairie lands of what we now call the Middle West. The +dark fertile soils promised great rewards to the farmers settling in +these regions, but also posed certain problems. First was the breaking +of the tough prairie sod. The naturalist John Muir describes the +conditions facing prairie farmers when he was a boy in the early 1850's +as he tells of the use of the big prairie-breaking plows in the +following words:[1] + + They were used only for the first ploughing, in breaking up + the wild sod woven into a tough mass, chiefly by the cord-like + roots of perennial grasses, reinforced by the tap roots of oak + and hickory bushes, called "grubs," some of which were more + than a century old and four or five inches in diameter.... If + in good trim, the plough cut through and turned over these + grubs as if the century-old wood were soft like the flesh of + carrots and turnips; but if not in good trim the grubs + promptly tossed the plough out of the ground. + +The second and greater problem was that the richer lands of the prairie +bottoms, after a few years of continuous cultivation, became so sticky +that they clogged the moldboards of the plows. Clogging was such a +factor in prairie plowing that farmers in these regions carried a wooden +paddle solely for cleaning off the moldboard, a task which had to be +repeated so frequently that it seriously interfered with plowing +efficiency. It seems probable that by the 1830's blacksmiths in the +prairie country were beginning to solve the problem of continuous +cultivation of sticky prairie soil by nailing strips of saw steel to the +face of wooden moldboard of the traditional plows. Figure 1 is a +photograph of an 18th century New England plow in the collection of the +U. S. National Museum. This is one type of plow which was brought west +by the settlers. It contributed to the development of the prairie +breaker shown in figure 2. The first plow on record with strips of steel +on the moldboard is attributed to John Lane in Chicago in 1833.[2] Steel +presented a smoother surface which shed the sticky loam better than the +conventional wooden moldboards covered with wrought iron, or the cast +iron moldboards of the newer factory-made plows then coming into use. + +It is generally accepted as historical fact that John Deere made his +first steel plow in 1837 at Grand Detour, Illinois. The details of the +construction of this plow have been variously given by different +writers. Ardrey[3] and Davidson[4] describe Deere's original plow as +having a wooden moldboard covered with strips of steel cut from a saw, +in the manner of the John Lane plow. + +[Sidebar: THE AUTHOR: + +_Edward C. Kendall is curator of agriculture, Museum of History and +Technology, in the Smithsonian Institution's United States National +Museum._] + +In recent years the 1837 Deere plow has been pictured quite differently. +This has apparently come about as the result of the discovery of an old +plow identified as one made by John Deere at Grand Detour in 1838 and +sold to Joseph Brierton from whose farm it was obtained in 1901 by the +maker's son, Charles H. Deere. He brought it to the office of Deere & +Company at Moline, Illinois, for preservation and display. This plow is +shown in figures 7 and 9. In 1938 Deere & Company presented it to the U. +S. National Museum, where it is on display. It can be seen that the +moldboard is made of one curved diamond-shaped metal slab. This plow +bottom conforms to the description of the "diamond" plows manufactured +by Deere in the 1840's.[5] The Company states that according to its +records, this was one of three plows made by Deere in 1838 and that it +was probably substantially identical with the first one made in 1837.[6] +It may be difficult to prove that the Museum's specimen was made in +1838, but a comparison of this plow (fig. 7) with the 1847 moldboard +(fig. 5) and the 1855 plow (fig. 6) suggests that the Museum's plow is +the earliest of the three, since there is particularly evident an +evolution of the shape of the moldboard from a simple, almost crude form +to a more sophisticated shape. + +[Illustration: Figure 1.--NEW ENGLAND STRONG PLOW, MID-18TH CENTURY. +Colter locked into heavy, broad share; wooden moldboard covered with +iron strips. (_Cat. no. F1091_; _Smithsonian photo 13214_.)] + + +DEERE AND ANDRUS + +Writers of the 20th century describing the making of the first John +Deere steel plow have in mind the 1838 plow. One[7] has John Deere +pondering the local plowing problem and getting an idea from the +polished surface of a broken steel mill saw. Another[8] claims that +Leonard Andrus, the founder and leading figure of Grand Detour and part +owner of the sawmill, conceived the design of the plow and employed +Deere, the blacksmith newly arrived from Vermont, to build it. This idea +may have originated with and was certainly promoted by the late Fred A. +Wirt, as advertising manager of the J. I. Case Company. It is difficult, +at this distance, to determine the parts played at the beginning by +Deere and Andrus. + +[Illustration: Figure 2.--LARGE PRAIRIE-BREAKING PLOW, MID-19TH CENTURY. +Wheels underneath the beam regulate the depth of plowing; large wheel +runs in the furrow, small wheel on the land. The colter is braced at the +bottom as well as at the top. The share cuts a broad, shallow strip of +sod which the long, gently curving moldboard turns over unbroken.] + +The earliest existing partnership agreement involving Andrus and Deere +is dated March 20, 1843.[9] The existing copy is unsigned, but its +conditions are the same as those in the agreements executed during the +next few years. It began by stating that Deere and Andrus had agreed "to +become copartners together in the art and trade of Blacksmithing, +ploughmaking and all things thereto belonging at the said Grand Detour, +and all other business that the said parties may hereafter deem +necessary for their mutual interest and benefit ..." One of the terms +was that the copartnership should continue from the date of the +agreement "under the name and firm of Leonard Andrus." + +A second agreement dated October 26, 1844,[10] which brought in a third +partner, Horace Paine, described the business as "the art and trade of +Blacksmithing Plough Making Iron Castings and all things thereto +belonging ..." and stated that the copartnership should be conducted +"under the name and firm of L. Andrus and Co." The third agreement, +dated October 20, 1846, in which another man appeared in place of Paine, +gave the name of the firm as Andrus, Deere, and Lathrop.[11] This +carried an addendum dated June 22, 1847, in which Andrus and Deere +bought out Lathrop's interest in the business and agreed to continue +under the name of Andrus and Deere. This is the only mention of the firm +of Andrus and Deere. It could only have lasted a few months because it +was in 1847 that Deere moved to Moline and established his plow factory +there. + +[Illustration: Figure 3.--RECONSTRUCTIONS OF JOHN DEERE'S 1837 PLOW. For +a discussion of the position and attachment of the handles see p. 24. +(_Deere & Company photo_.)] + +These agreements suggest that Leonard Andrus was the capitalist of the +young community of Grand Detour, as well as its founder. The dominance +of the name Andrus tends to back up the opinion which holds that Andrus +was the leading figure in the development of the successful prairie +plow. On the other hand, the general tone of the agreements suggests +that two or more people were participating in an enterprise in which +each contributed to the business and shared in the results. Deere +contributed his plow and his blacksmith shop, tools, and outbuildings; +Andrus contributed money and business experience. There is no indication +that they were formally associated prior to the agreement of March 20, +1843. An advertisement (it is quoted later) dated February 3, 1843, and +appearing in the March 10, 1843, issue of the _Rock River Register_, +carries an announcement by John Deere that he is ready to fill orders +for plows, which he then describes. There is no mention of Andrus or of +an Andrus and Deere firm. I am inclined by the evidence to the view that +Deere worked out his plow by himself, began to manufacture it in small +numbers, needed money to enlarge and expand his operations, and went to +the logical source of capital in the community, Leonard Andrus. + +In support of this view I quote a statement by Mr. Burton F. Peek[12] +who has spent most of his life in Deere & Company and who may now be the +only person living who knew John Deere: + + Andrus removed to Grand de Tour from some place in New York + [Rochester, though originally from Vermont]. Some years later + John Deere came along from Rutland, Vermont leaving his family + behind him. Whether Deere ever heard of Andrus or Andrus of + Deere no one knows. + + Having decided to remain in Grand de Tour, Deere sent for his + family asking my paternal grandfather, William Peek, to bring + them and also the Peek family out to Grand de Tour. This was + done via covered wagon the journey occupying some six weeks. + My father, Henry C. Peek, was then an infant age six weeks and + Charles Deere, the son of John, an infant of about the same + age. Of course these infants came along sleeping in the feed + box of the wagon. My grandfather "took up land" adjacent to + Grand de Tour and John Deere continued in the manufacturing + business. + + Incidentally, John Deere and William Peek were brothers-in-law + having married sisters and what I have said, and much more + that I might say to you, is based upon what I have been told + by my grandfather, by John Deere and by others who had a part + in the early history of the company. So far as I know, I am + the only living person who ever knew or saw John Deere.... + + ... I joined the Deere Company on October 1, 1888, at the age + of 16 and retired on the 28th of April, 1956--nearly 68 years. + C. H. Deere was my great friend and benefactor. I was educated + at his expense as a lawyer and practiced for thirteen years. + During this time I was his personal attorney, I drew his will, + was made trustee thereunder, and probably was more intimate + with him than any living person. I have seen and read the + manuscript of an early history of the company which he wrote, + but never published and there was nothing in it to indicate + that Andrus had any part in the manufacture of the first + successful steel plow and it is my firm belief that he had no + part other than perhaps a friendly interest in it. + + +THE FIRST PLOW + +Most writers describe Deere cutting a diamond-shaped piece out of a +broken steel mill saw. There is usually no further identification of the +type of saw beyond the statement that it came from the Andrus sawmill. +Neil Clark, author of a brief biography of John Deere, states that the +diamond-shaped piece was cut out of a circular saw.[13] There is no +evidence given to support this. There are some powerful arguments +against it. The circular saw, especially of the larger size, was +probably not very common in America in the 1830's. Although an English +patent for a circular saw was issued in 1777 the first circular saw in +America is attributed to Benjamin Cummins of Bentonsville, New York, +about 1814.[14] + +[Illustration: Figure 4.--HOW DEERE PROBABLY CUT AND BENT THE FLAT PLATE +of his 1838 plow to form the moldboard and landside. Because of the +shape of the moldboard it became known as the diamond plow.] + +[Illustration: Figure 5.--MOLDBOARD OF 1847 JOHN DEERE PLOW, showing how +the diamond shape of the original design has been slightly modified. +(_Deere & Company photo 57192-D_.)] + +In a small, new, pioneering community it seems unlikely that the local +sawmill would have been equipped with the newer circular saw rather than +the familiar up and down saw which remained in use throughout the 19th +century and, in places, well into the 20th century. The up and down saw +was a broad strip of iron or steel with large teeth in one edge. Driven +by water power it slowly cut large logs into boards. It is doubtful that +the circular saws of that period were large enough for this kind of mill +work. The second argument is the shape of the moldboard itself. The +photograph of the 1838 plow in figure 7 shows that the shape of the +moldboard is unconventional. It is essentially a parallelogram curved to +present a concave surface to the furrow slice and thus to make a simple, +small but workable plow. A parallelogram or diamond would be an easy +shape to cut out of a mill saw with the teeth removed. The moldboard on +the 1838 plow is from .228 to .238 inches thick and its width is 12 +inches. These dimensions approximate those given in an 1897 Disston +catalog[15] which describes mulay saws, a type of mill saw, from 10 to +12 inches wide and from 4 to 9 gauge. Gauge number 4 is the thickest and +is .238 inches. + +Examination of the 1838 plow suggests that Deere cut the moldboard and +landside as one piece, which was then heated and bent to the desired +form. The pattern of this piece is shown in figure 4. Some additional +metal appears to be forged into the sharp bend at the junction of the +moldboard and the landside apparently to strengthen this part, which may +have begun to open during the bending. If, however, Deere had used a +large circular saw with plenty of room for cutting out a moldboard of +the usual shape and size, it seems likely that he would have made a plow +of more conventional appearance. In any event his moldboard of one +jointless piece of polished metal would scour better than one of wood +covered with strips of steel since the nailheads and the joints between +the strips would provide places for the earth to stick. + +[Illustration: Figure 6.--THE SHAPE OF THE MOLDBOARD continued to +evolve, as illustrated by this 1855 John Deere plow. (_Deere & Company +photo 57192-A_.)] + +A very great majority of writers describing John Deere and his plow +attribute his fame to his development of a successful steel plow which +made cultivation of rich prairie soil practical. The emphasis is always +on the development of a steel moldboard and the assumption is that from +the 1837 plow onward stretched an unbroken line of steel moldboard +plows. An advertisement for John Deere plows in the March 10, 1843, +issue of the _Rock River Register_, published weekly in Grand Detour, +Illinois, gives a detailed description, here presented in full: + + John Deere respectfully informs his friends and customers, the + agricultural community, of this and adjoining counties, and + dealers in Ploughs, that he is now prepared to fill orders for + the same on presentation. + + The Moldboard of this well, and so favorably known PLOUGH, is + made of wrought iron, and the share of steel, 5/16 of an inch + thick, which carries a fine sharp edge. The whole face of the + moldboard and share is ground smooth, so that it scours + perfectly bright in any soil, and will not choke in the + foulest of ground. It will do more work in a day, and do it + much better and with less labor, to both team and holder, than + the ordinary ploughs that do not scour, and in consequence of + the ground being better prepared, the agriculturalist obtains + a much heavier crop. + + The price of Ploughs, in consequence of hard times, will be + reduced from last year's prices. Grand Detour, Feb. 3, 1843. + +This raised two questions: Why, and for how long, was wrought iron used +for the moldboards of the Deere plows? Of what material is the moldboard +of the 1838 plow made? During the first few years, when production was +very small, there were probably enough worn out mill saws available for +the relatively few plows made. As production increased this source must +have become inadequate. Ardrey gives the following figures for the +production of plows by Deere and Andrus:[16] 1839, 10 plows; 1840, 40 +plows; 1841, 75 plows; 1842, 100 plows; 1843, 400 plows. Ardrey states +further that "by this time the difficulty of obtaining steel in the +quantity and quality needed had become a serious obstacle in the way of +further development." The statement, quoted above, that the moldboard +was of wrought iron and the statistics on production of plows during the +1840's and 1850's belie Ardrey's claim that it was a serious obstacle, +nor is there any suggestion in the advertisement that wrought iron was +being substituted for steel. + +In 1847 John Deere amicably severed relations with the firm of Andrus & +Deere and moved to Moline, Illinois, to continue plow manufacturing in a +site that had better transportation facilities than Grand Detour. The +new firm produced 700 plows in the first year, 1600 in 1850, and 10,000 +in 1857.[17] Swank[18] states that the first slab of cast plow steel +ever rolled in the United States was in 1846 and that it was shipped to +John Deere of Moline, Illinois. A little later he says that it was not +until the early 1860's in this country that several firms succeeded in +making high grade crucible cast steel of uniform quality as a regular +product. + +[Illustration: Figure 7.--JOHN DEERE'S 1838 PLOW, RIGHT SIDE, showing +large iron staple used to fasten end of right handle to the standard. +Note remains of wooden pin near rear end of plow beam. (_Cat. no. +F1111_; _Smithsonian photo 42639-A_.)] + +Based on a visit to Deere's factory in 1857 the _Country Gentleman_[19] +gave the yearly output as 13,400 plows. It pictured four of seven models +and stated, "these are all made of cast steel, and perfectly polished +before they are sent out, and are kept bright by use, so that no soil +adheres to them." The article then gives the tonnages of iron and steel +used by the Deere factory in a year. They are as follows: 50 tons cast +steel, 40 tons German steel, 100 tons Pittsburgh steel, 75 tons +castings, 200 tons wrought iron, 8 tons malleable castings in clevises, +etc. In addition 100,000 plow bolts and 200,000 feet of oak plank were +used. + +These figures do not indicate what the different parts of the plows were +made of but, if approximately correct, they do show that more than half +the metal used was iron rather than steel. Steel accounts for 190 tons; +wrought iron for 200. Although it is conceivable, under this weight +distribution, that the shares and moldboards were made of steel while +the landsides and standards were made of wrought iron, other +distributions are also possible, and it is quite conceivable that at +this period some of the plows had steel moldboards while others had +wrought-iron ones. An analysis of the metal in different parts of an +1855 John Deere plow, now at the factory in Moline, may shed some light +on this, but from these figures and dates it seems likely that most of +John Deere's plows during the 1840's and 1850's had wrought-iron +moldboards with steel shares. (It should be borne in mind that the +poorer grades of steel available at this time were probably no more +satisfactory than cast iron as far as scouring clean in sticky soil was +concerned.) + +[Illustration: Figure 8.--RECONSTRUCTION OF DEERE'S 1838 PLOW, right +side, with handles shown in what is believed to be their original +position. (_Smithsonian photo 42647_.)] + +The question of the material in the moldboard of the 1838 plow was +answered when a spark-test analysis was made of the metal in the +moldboard and share. In this test the color, shape, and pattern of the +spark bursts produced by a high-speed grinding wheel indicate the type +of iron or steel. Several spots along the edges and back surface of the +moldboard were tested. No carbon bursts were seen in the spark +patterns, indicating that the material was wrought iron. The share +consists of a piece, wedge shaped in cross section, welded on to the +lower, or front, edge of the moldboard. This was tested at several spots +along its sharp edge, all of which gave a pattern and color indicating +that the material was medium high carbon steel. This test was +corroborated by a chemical analysis of filings from the moldboard and +share in a metallurgical laboratory. A small trace of carbon was found +in the moldboard. It may be present as the result of contamination from +several sources, a likely one being the charcoal fire in the forge when +it was heated for bending and shaping.[20] + +These tests agree perfectly with the description in the 1843 +advertisement. It seems, therefore, that Deere's success in making plows +that worked well in prairie bottom lands depended as much on the smooth +surface he produced by grinding and polishing as on the material used. + +The filing of the edge of the moldboard for the metallurgical test +disclosed that the wrought-iron slab consisted of five thin laminations +apparently forged together but with separations visible. The length and +regularity of the lines of separation seem to preclude their being +striations resulting from the fibrous structure of wrought iron. This +calls into question the theory that the moldboard and landside were cut +from a mill saw, since it hardly seems likely that a saw would be made +of laminated material. The possibility exists that the body of the mill +saw might have been made this way, with a tooth-bearing steel edge +welded on, but there seems little reason for making a saw out of thin +laminations. It is also possible that this laminated iron originally had +been intended for some other purpose, such as boiler plate, and may have +been available in rectangular pieces. In making the 1838 plow Deere +followed a pattern (fig. 4), which suggests that he cut it out of such a +piece. + +[Illustration: Figure 9.--JOHN DEERE'S 1838 PLOW, LEFT SIDE, showing +details of construction and relationship of landside to moldboard. +(_Cat. no. F1111_; _Smithsonian photo 42639_.)] + +Since the moldboard of the 1838 plow is of wrought iron, and since this +plow is thought to be essentially identical with the first one Deere +made in 1837, it is highly probable that the 1837 plow also had a +wrought-iron moldboard, a condition which appears to have been the basic +pattern for John Deere plows until the middle 1850's. + + +WHY A "STEEL" PLOW + +In view of the facts and the probabilities based on them, how is the +legend of the John Deere steel plow to be explained? There are several +likely reasons. It is possible that the first plow, in 1837, was made +from a broken steel mill saw. It is also possible that within a few +years puddled iron came to be used for the moldboards because of the +scarcity of suitable steel, either in the form of broken mill saws or as +plates ordered from foundries in America (the high price of steel +imported from England made this an impractical source). However, it +seems more likely that it became known as a steel plow owing to the +importance Deere attached to his plows having steel shares, as shown in +his advertisement in 1843. A steel share, tougher than cast iron, would +hold an edge much better than wrought iron, and John Muir's description +of prairie plowing, quoted earlier, substantiates the importance of a +tough, sharp share. + +Deere's plows, probably distinctive by reason of their steel shares, may +have been called "steel" plows, in the regions where they were used, to +distinguish them from the standard wooden plows and from the newer +cast-iron implements. The term "wooden plow" has a similar history. For +well over 2000 years in Europe some plows have been made with iron +shares and the rest of the structure wood. Plows in 18th-century America +were made principally of wood with iron shares, colters, and clevises, +and with strips of iron frequently covering the wooden moldboard. These +implements were called, simply, plows of various regional types. Not +until the development and spread of the factory-made plows with +cast-iron moldboards, landsides, and standards did the term "wooden +plow" come into use to differentiate all these plows from the newer +ones. Subsequently writers have been led to assume that "wooden plow" +meant a plow with no iron parts and consequently to make unwarranted +statements about the primitiveness of the 18th-century implements. + +A second reason for use of the term "steel plow" may have developed from +the supposition that the moldboards of the first John Deere plows were +made of diamond-shaped sections cut from old mill saws, which later +writers seem to have assumed were made of steel. (It is probable that +from the late 1850's on Deere plows had steel moldboards.) However, mill +saws of the early 19th century were not necessarily made of steel, which +was then relatively expensive. I have been told of an old mill saw made +of wrought iron on which was welded a steel edge that carried the +teeth.[21] Rees' _Cyclopaedia_[22] describes saws as being made of +either wrought iron or steel, the latter being preferable. Therefore, it +seems most likely that Deere's plows, from his first until the middle +1850's were made with highly polished wrought-iron moldboards and steel +shares. + + +RECONSTRUCTIONS + +The remains of the 1838 plow are shown in figures 7 and 9. One's +curiosity is aroused as to what the plow looked like in its original +state, complete with handles. Several full-scale 3-dimensional +reconstructions and a number of sketches of the 1837 plow have been +made. The reconstructions all must have been based on the remains of the +1838 plow, since they resemble it closely and it is the only surviving +plow of this type known. + +Recently I received a photograph (fig. 3, right) of a plow which has +been boxed and in storage for many years at Deere & Company which may be +an early Deere plow. As it appears in the photograph, the plow looks +unconvincing. The handles are fastened by bolts and nuts, a manner +uncommon in American plow making in the early 19th century. The shape of +the handles is that of stock handles available for small plows and +cultivators in such a catalog as Belknap's. The plow seems very high and +weakly braced. There is no logical reason for curving the end of the +beam down and cutting it off at a slant if the handles are attached in +the manner shown. The edges of the tenon on the upper end of the +standard where it goes through the mortise in the beam have been neatly +beveled in a manner I have never seen before on any other plow. All of +this leads me to think that this is an early reconstruction based on the +remains of the 1838 plow which it only roughly approximates in +proportion and design. + +Another of these reconstructions is shown in figure 3, left. Although +superficially like the 1838 plow it varies considerably in its +proportions, in the angular relations of its parts, and in other details +such as the use of iron bolts and nuts in place of wooden pins. All +these reconstructions agree in one thing. They show a plow with handles +fastened to both sides of the plow beam and standard. + +During an examination of the 1838 plow it occurred to me that there was +no indication of an attachment of a handle on the landside in the same +manner as on the furrow side. The position and attachment of the handle +in figure 7 is clearly indicated by the remains of a wooden pin in the +side of the plow beam near the rear end and by the large iron staple, in +the side of the standard, which must have held the tapered lower end of +the handle. Figure 8 is a sketch showing this handle in position. The +landside view of this plow in figure 9 shows that the pin did not extend +through the beam nor are there marks on the standard to indicate the +position of a staple like that on the furrow side. The four holes +approximately in line on the standard and beam show where a piece of +sheet metal had been nailed to hold the beam and standard in about the +right position. The outline of the sheet metal can be seen on the side +of the beam. This was removed at the time this examination was made. + +How was the landside handle attached? W. E. Bridges of the National +Museum suggests that it might have been attached to the lower side of +the standard and the rear end of the plow beam. This seems, beyond +doubt, to be correct. The wood has deteriorated considerably over the +years and the joints are loose, but, within the limits of the existing +structure, the plow beam can easily be set in such a position that its +sloping rear end lines up with the slope of the underside of the +standard. Furthermore, a long bolt runs from the upper part of the +moldboard through the standard and projects quite far beyond its lower +surface, as can be seen in figure 7. The end of the bolt is threaded +only part way and it has been necessary to put a cylindrical metal +spacer on it in order to draw up the nut snugly. This long bolt must +originally have passed through the lower end of the handle, which, in +turn, was fastened to the end of the plow beam by a tenon on the end of +the beam, now broken off, passing through a mortise in the handle. This +was the common method of fastening the handle to the beam. The square +hole in the plow's iron landside (fig. 7), which at first might seem +meant for another bolt passing through the lower end of the handle at +right angles to the long bolt, seems too close to the other bolt and to +the edges of the handle. It may simply be a first try for the bolt +through the bottom of the standard. In this manner the handle would have +been strongly attached to the plow frame and, at the same time, would +have materially helped to make it rigid by forming one side of a +triangular structure. Figures 8 and 10 show what I believe to be the +correct reconstruction of the 1838 Deere plow along the lines just +described and, therefore, the probable appearance of the 1837 plow. + +[Illustration: Figure 10.--RECONSTRUCTION OF DEERE'S 1838 PLOW, left +side, showing how left handle is believed to have been attached. +(_Smithsonian photo 42637_.)] + +It should also be noted that it was general practice in making fixed +moldboard plows to have the plow beam, standard, handle, and landside +(or sharebeam, on the old plows) in the same plane. Symmetrical handles +branching from both sides of the beam are found on cultivators, shovel +plows, middle busters, and sidehill plows where the moldboard is turned +alternately to each side. + + +IN SUMMARY-- + +The existing evidence, I believe, indicates that: + +1. The successful prairie plow with a smooth one-piece moldboard and +steel share was basically Deere's idea. + +2. The moldboards of practically all of his plows, from 1837 and for +about 15 years, were made of wrought iron rather than steel. + +3. The success of his plows in the prairie soils depended on a steel +share which held a sharp edge and a highly polished moldboard to which +the sticky soils could not cling. + +4. The importance attached to the steel share led to the plows being +identified as steel plows. + +5. The correct reconstruction of the 1838 plow, and, by inference, the +1837 plow, is shown in figures 8 and 10, previous reconstructions being +wrong primarily in the position and attachment of the handles. + +6. The Museum's John Deere plow (Cat. No. F1111), shown in figures 7 and +9, is a very early specimen, on the basis of a comparison of it with +Deere moldboards of 1847 and 1855 and its conformity to Deere's +description of his plows in an 1843 advertisement; and the 1838 date +associated with it is plausible. + + + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] John Muir (1838-1914), _The story of my boyhood and youth_, Boston, +1913, pp. 227, 228. + +[2] R. L. Ardrey, _American agricultural implements_, Chicago, 1894, p. +14. + +[3] _Ibid._, p. 16. + +[4] J. B. Davidson, "Tillage machinery," in L. H. Bailey's _Cyclopedia +of American agriculture_, New York, 1907, vol. 1, p. 389. + +[5] Leo Rogin, _The introduction of farm machinery in its relation to +the productivity of labor in the agriculture of the United States during +the nineteenth century_, Berkeley, 1931, p. 33. + +[6] U. S. National Museum records under accession 148904. + +[7] Neil M. Clark, _John Deere_, Moline, 1937, pp. 34, 35. + +[8] Stewart H. Holbrook, _Machines of plenty_, New York, 1955, pp. 178, +179. To an inquiry by this author, Mr. Holbrook replied that most if not +all of the material about Andrus came from the files of the J. I. Case +Company. + +[9] Photographic copies of partnership agreements between Andrus, Deere, +and others are in U. S. National Museum records under accession 148904. + +[10] _Ibid._ + +[11] _Ibid._ + +[12] Letter from Burton F. Peek to M. L. Putnam, December 18, 1957, in +U. S. National Museum records under accession 148904. + +[13] Clark, _op. cit._ (footnote 7), p. 34. + +[14] E. H. Knight, _American mechanical dictionary_, Boston, 1884, vol. +3, p. 2033. + +[15] Henry Disston & Sons, _Price list_, Philadelphia, 1897, p. 28. + +[16] Ardrey, _op. cit._ (footnote 2), p. 166. + +[17] _Ibid._, p. 166. + +[18] James M. Swank, _History of the manufacture of iron in all +ages_..., Philadelphia, 1892, pp. 390, 393. + +[19] _Country Gentleman_, 1857, vol. 10, p. 129. + +[20] Reports on spark test by E. A. Battison, U. S. National Museum, and +on metallurgical investigation by A. H. Valentine, Metallographic +Laboratory of the Bethlehem Steel Company's Sparrows Point Plant. + +[21] For this information I am indebted to Mr. E. A. Battison of the U. +S. National Museum staff. + +[22] Abraham Rees, _The cyclopaedia; or universal dictionary of arts, +sciences, and literature_, Philadelphia, 1810-1842, vol. 33, under saw. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's John Deere's Steel Plow, by Edward C. 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