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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:01:50 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:01:50 -0700 |
| commit | a66f200e83e04e35664bb7058c765a86bb9661e3 (patch) | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5 + "Bedlam" to "Benson, George" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: December 1, 2010 [EBook #34533] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +One typographical error has been corrected. It +appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME III SLICE V<br /><br /> +Bedlam to Benson, George</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BEDLAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BELLENDEN, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BEDLINGTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BELLENDEN, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BEDLOE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BELLEROPHON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BELLES-LETTRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BED-MOULD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BELLEVILLE</a> (Ontario, Canada)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BEDOUINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BELLEVILLE</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BEDSORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BELLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BEDWORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BELLIGERENCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BEECH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BELLINGHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BEECHER, HENRY WARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BELLINI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BEECHER, LYMAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BELLINI, LORENZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BELLINI, VINCENZO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BELLINZONA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BEECHWORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BELLO, ANDRÉS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BEEF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BELLO-HORIZONTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BEEFSTEAK CLUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BELLONA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BEELZEBUB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BELLOT, JOSEPH RENÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BEER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BELLOWS, ALBERT F.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BEERSHEBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BELLOWS and BLOWING MACHINES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BEET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BELLOY, DORMONT DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BELL or INCHCAPE ROCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BEETLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BELLUNO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BEETS, NIKOLAAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BELMONT, AUGUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BEFANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BELOIT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BELOMANCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BEGAS, KARL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BELON, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BEGAS, REINHOLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BELPER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BEGGAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BELSHAM, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BELSHAZZAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BEGONIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BELT, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BEGUINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BELT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BEHAIM, MARTIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BELTANE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BEHAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BELUGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BEHĀ UD-DĪN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BELVEDERE</a> (architectural structure)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BEHĀ UD-DĪN ZUHAIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BELVIDERE</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BEHBAHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BEHEADING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BEM, JOSEF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BEHEMOTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BEMA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BEHISTUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BEMBERG, HERMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BEHN, APHRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BEMBO, PIETRO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BEMBRIDGE BEDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BEIRA</a> (seaport of East Africa)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BEIRA</a> (province of Portugal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BÉMONT, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BEIRUT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BEIT, ALFRED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BENARES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BEJA</a> (tribe)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BENBOW, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BEJA</a> (city)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BENCE-JONES, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BEJAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BENCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BÉJART</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BENCH-MARK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BEK, ANTONY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BENCH TABLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BEND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BÉSKÉSCSABA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BENDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BENDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57a">BEKKER, BALTHASAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BENDIGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57b">BEKKER, ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BENDL, KAREL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BENEDEK, LUDWIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BELA III.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BENEDETTI, VINCENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BELA IV.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BENEDICT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BELA</a> (capital of Las Bela)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BELA</a> (town of India)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BELAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BELCHER, SIR EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BENEDICT BISCOP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BELDAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BENEDICTINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BELESME, ROBERT OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BENEDICTINES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BELFAST</a> (Ireland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BENEDICTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BELFAST</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BENEDICTUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BELFORT</a> (division of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BENEDICTUS ABBAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BELFORT</a> (town of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BELFRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BENEFICE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BELGAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BENEFICIARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BELGARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BELGAUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BENETT, ETHELDRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BELGIAN CONGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BENEVENTO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BELGIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BENEVOLENCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BELGRADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BENFEY, THEODOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN HAMILTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BENGAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BELISARIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BENGAL, BAY OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BELIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BENGALI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BELIZE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BENGAZI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BELJAME, ALEXANDRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BELKNAP, JEREMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BENGUELLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BENÍ</a> (river of Bolivia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BENÍ</a> (department of Bolivia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BENI-AMER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BELL, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BENI-ISRAEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BELL, SIR CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BENIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BENITOITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BELL, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BENJAMIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BENJAMIN OF TUDELA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BELL, JACOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BELL, JOHN</a> (Scottish traveller)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BEN LEDI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BELL, JOHN</a> (Scottish anatomist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BELL, JOHN</a> (American political leader)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BEN LOMOND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BELL, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BENLOWES, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BEN MACDHUI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BELLABELLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BELLACOOLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BENNETT, JAMES GORDON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BELLADONNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BENNETT, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BELLAGIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BELLAIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BELLAMY, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BEN NEVIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BELLAMY, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BELLARMINE, ROBERTO FRANCESCO ROMOLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BENNINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BELLARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BENNO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BELL-COT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BELLEAU, REMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BENOÎT DE SAINTE-MORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BELLECOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BENSERADE, ISAAC DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BELLEFONTAINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BENSLEY, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BELLEGARDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BENSON, EDWARD WHITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BELLE-ÎLE-EN-MER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BENSON, FRANK WESTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BENSON, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BEDLAM,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bethlehem Hospital</span>, the first English +lunatic asylum, originally founded by Simon FitzMary, sheriff +of London, in 1247, as a priory for the sisters and brethren of +the order of the Star of Bethlehem. It had as one of its special +objects the housing and entertainment of the bishop and canons +of St Mary of Bethlehem, the mother-church, on their visits to +England. Its first site was in Bishopsgate Street. It is not +certain when lunatics were first received in Bedlam, but it is +mentioned as a hospital in 1330 and some were there in 1403. +In 1547 it was handed over by Henry VIII. with all its revenues +to the city of London as a hospital for lunatics. With the +exception of one such asylum in Granada, Spain, the Bethlehem +Hospital was the first in Europe. It became famous and afterwards +infamous for the brutal ill-treatment meted out to the +insane (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>: <i>Hospital Treatment</i>). In 1675 it was +removed to new buildings in Moorfields and finally to its present +site in St George’s Fields, Lambeth. The word “Bedlam” has +long been used generically for all lunatic asylums.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDLINGTON,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> an urban district of Northumberland, England, +within the parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 5 m. S.E. of that +town on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) +18,766. It lies on high ground above the river Blyth, 2½ m. +above its mouth. The church of St Cuthbert shows good +transitional Norman details. Its dedication recalls the transportation +of the body of the saintly bishop of Lindisfarne from +its shrine at Durham by the monks of that foundation to Lindisfarne, +when in fear of attack from William the Conqueror. +They rested here with the coffin. The modern growth of the +town is attributable to the valuable collieries of the neighbourhood, +and to manufactures of nails and chains. It is one of the +most populous mining centres in the county. On the south +bank of the river is the township and urban district of Cowpen +(pop. 17,879), with collieries and glass works; coal is shipped +from this point by river.</p> + +<p>Bedlington (Betlingtun) and the hamlets belonging to it were +bought by Cutheard, bishop of Durham, between 900 and 915, +and although locally situated in the county of Northumberland +became part of the county palatine of Durham over which +Bishop Walcher was granted royal rights by William the +Conqueror. When these rights were taken from Cuthbert +Tunstall, bishop of Durham, in 1536, Bedlington among his +other property lost its special privileges, but was confirmed to +him in 1541 with the other property of his predecessors. Together +with the other lands of the see of Durham, Bedlington +was made over to the ecclesiastical commissioners in 1866. +Bedlingtonshire was made part of Northumberland for civil +purposes by acts of parliament in 1832 and 1844.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDLOE, WILLIAM<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1650-1680), English informer, was +born at Chepstow on the 20th of April 1650. He appears to have +been well educated; he was certainly clever, and after coming +to London in 1670 he became acquainted with some Jesuits +and was occasionally employed by them. Calling himself now +Captain Williams, now Lord Gerard or Lord Newport or Lord +Cornwallis, he travelled from one part of Europe to another; +he underwent imprisonments for crime, and became an expert +in all kinds of duplicity. Then in 1678, following the lead of +Titus Gates, he gave an account of a supposed popish plot to +the English government, and his version of the details of the +murder of Sir E.B. Godfrey was rewarded with £500. Emboldened +by his success he denounced various Roman Catholics, +married an Irish lady, and having become very popular lived +in luxurious fashion. Afterwards his fortunes waned, and he +died at Bristol on the 20th of August 1680. His dying depositions, +which were taken by Sir Francis North, chief justice of +the common pleas, revealed nothing of importance. Bedloe +wrote a <i>Narrative and impartial discovery of the horrid Popish +Plot</i> (1679), but all his statements are extremely untrustworthy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Pollock, <i>The Popish Plot</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDMAR, ALPHONSO BELLA CUEVA,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis of</span> (1572-1655), +Spanish diplomatist, became ambassador to the republic +of Venice in 1667. This was a very important position owing +to the amount of information concerning European affairs +which passed through the hands of the representative of Spain. +When Bedmar took up this appointment, Venice had just concluded +an alliance with France, Switzerland and the Netherlands, +to counterbalance the power of Spain, and the ambassador was +instructed to destroy this league. Assisted by the duke of Ossuna, +viceroy of Naples, he formed a plan to bring the city into the power +of Spain, and the scheme was to be carried out on Ascension Day +1618. The plot was, however, discovered; and Bedmar, protected +by his position from arrest, left Venice and went to Flanders +as president of the council. In 1622 he was made a cardinal, +and soon afterwards became bishop of Oviedo, a position which +he retained until his death, which occurred at Oviedo on the +2nd of August 1655. The authorship of an anonymous work, +<i>Squitinio della libertà Veneta</i>, published at Mirandola in 1612, +has been attributed to him.</p> + +<p>Some controversy has arisen over the Spanish plot of 1618, +and some historians have suggested that it only existed in the +minds of the Venetian senators, and was a ruse for forcing +Bedmar to leave Venice. From what is known, however, of +the policy of Spain at this time, it is by no means unlikely that +such a scheme was planned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.V. de Saint-Réal, <i>Œuvres</i>, tome iv. (Paris, 1745); P.J. +Grosley, <i>Discussion historique et critique sur la conjuration de Venise</i> +(Paris, 1756); P.A.N.B. Daru, <i>Histoire de la république de Venise</i> +(Paris, 1853); A. Baschet, <i>Histoire de la chancellerie secrète à Venise</i> +(Paris, 1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BED-MOULD,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> in architecture, the congeries of mouldings +which is under the projecting part of almost every cornice, of +which, indeed, it is a part.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDOUINS<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (<i>Ahl Bedu</i>, “dwellers in the open land,” or +<i>Ahl el beit</i>, “people of the tent,” as they call themselves), the +name given to the most important, as it is the best known, +division of the Arab race. The Bedouins are the descendants of +the Arabs of North Arabia whose traditions claim Ishmael as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> +their ancestor (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabs</a></span>). The deserts of North Arabia seem +to have been their earliest home, but even in ancient times they +had migrated to the lowlands of Egypt and Syria. The Arab +conquest of northern Africa in the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> caused +a wide dispersion, so that to-day the Arab element is strongly +represented in the Nile Valley, Saharan, and Nubian peoples. +Among the Hamitic-Negroid races the Bedouins have largely +lost their nomadic character; but in the deserts of the Nile +lands they remain much what their ancestors were. Thus the +name has suffered much ethnic confusion, and is often incorrectly +reserved to describe such pastoral peoples as the Bisharin, the +Hadendoa and the Ababda. This article treats solely of the +Arabian Bedouin, as affording the purest type of the people. +They are shepherds and herdsmen, reduced to an open-air, roving +life, partly by the nature of their occupations, partly by the +special characteristics of the countries in which they dwell. For, +while land, unsuited to all purposes except pasture, forms an +unusually large proportion of the surface in the Arabian territory, +the prolonged droughts of summer render considerable portions +of it unfit even for that, and thus continually oblige the herdsmen +to migrate from one spot to another in search of sufficient +herbage and water for their beasts. The same causes also involve +the Bedouins in frequent quarrels with each other regarding the +use of some particular well or pasture-ground, besides reducing +them not unfrequently to extreme want, and thus making them +plunderers of others in self-support. Professionally, the Bedouins +are shepherds and herdsmen; their raids on each other or their +robbery of travellers and caravans are but occasional exceptions +to the common routine. Their intertribal wars (they very rarely +venture on a conflict with the better-armed and better-organized +sedentary population) are rarely bloody; cattle-lifting +being the usual object. Private feuds exist, but are +usually limited to two or three individuals at most, one of whom +has perhaps been ridiculed in satirical verse, to which they are +very sensitive, or had a relation killed in some previous fray. +But bloodshed is expensive, as it must be paid for either by +more bloodshed or by blood-money—the <i>diya</i>, which varies, +according to the importance of the person killed, from ten to fifty +camels, or even more. Previous to Mahomet’s time it was +optional for the injured tribe either to accept this compensation +or to insist on blood for blood; but the Prophet, though by his +own account despairing of ever reducing the nomad portion of +his countrymen to law and order, succeeded in establishing among +them the rule, that a fair <i>diya</i> if offered must be accepted. +Instances are, however, not wanting in Arab history of fiercer +and more general Bedouin conflicts, in which the destruction, +or at least the complete subjugation, of one tribe has been +aimed at by another, and when great slaughter has taken place. +Such were the wars of Pekr and Thagleb in the 6th century, +of Kelb and Howazin in the 8th, of Harb and Ateba in the 18th.</p> + +<p>The Bedouins regard the plundering of caravans or travellers +as in lieu of the custom dues exacted elsewhere. The land is +theirs, they argue, and trespassers on it must pay the forfeit. +Hence whoever can show anything equivalent to a permission +of entrance into their territory has, in the regular course of +things, nothing to fear. This permission is obtained by securing +the protection of the nearest Bedouin sheik, who, for a +politely-worded request and a small sum of money, will readily grant +the pass, in the shape of one or two or more men of his tribe, +who accompany the wayfarers as far as the next encampment on +their road, where they hand their charge over to fresh guides, +equally bound to afford the desired safeguard. In the interior +of Arabia the passport is given in writing by one of the town +governors, and is respected by the Bedouins of the district; +for, however impudent and unamenable to law these nomads +may be on the frontiers of the impotent Ottoman government in +Syria or the Hejaz, they are submissive enough in other and +Arab-governed regions. But the traveller who ventures on the +desert strip without such precautions will be robbed and perhaps +killed.</p> + +<p>Ignorant of writing and unacquainted with books, the Bedouins +trust to their memory for everything; where memory fails, +they readily eke it out with imagination. Hence their own +assertions regarding the antiquity, numbers, strength, &c., of +their clans are of little worth; even their genealogies, in which +they pretend to be eminently versed, are not to be much depended +on; the more so that their own family names hardly ever exceed +the limits of a patronymic, whilst the constantly renewed subdivisions +of a tribe, and the temporary increase of one branch +and decrease of another, tend to efface the original name of the +clan. Few tribes now preserve their ancient, or at least their +historical titles; and the mass of the Bedouin multitude resembles +in this respect a troubled sea, of which the substance is +indeed always the same, but the surface is continually shifting +and changing. As, however, no social basis or ties are acknowledged +among them except those of blood and race, certain broad +divisions are tolerably accurately kept up, the wider and more +important of which may here be noted. First, the Aneza clan, +who extend from Syria southward to the limits of Jebel Shammar. +It is numerous, and, for a Bedouin tribe, well armed. Two-thirds +of the Arab horse trade, besides a large traffic in sheep, +camels, wool, and similar articles, are in their hands. Their +principal subdivisions are the Sebaá on the north, the Walid Ali +on the west, and the Ruála on the south; these are generally +on bad terms with each other. If united, they could muster, +it is supposed, about 30,000 lances. They claim descent from +Rabi’a. Second, the Shammar Bedouins, whose pasturages lie +conterminous to those of the Aneza on the east. Their numbers +are about the same. Thirdly, in the northern desert, the Huwetat +and Sherarat, comparatively small and savage tribes. There is +also the Solibi clan, which, however, is disowned by the Arabs, +and seems to be of gipsy origin. Next follow, in the western +desert, the Beni-Harb, a powerful tribe, supposed to muster +about 20,000 fighting men. They are often troublesome to the +Meccan pilgrims. In the eastern desert are the Muter, the +Beni-Khalid, and the Ajmans, all numerous clans, often at war with +each other. To the south, in Nejd itself or on its frontiers, +are the Hodeil, Ateba, and others. These all belong to the +“Mustareb,” or northern Arabs.</p> + +<p>The Bedouins of southern or “pure Arab” origin are comparatively +few in number, and are, with few exceptions, even poorer +and more savage than their northern brethren. Al-Morrah, +on the confines of Oman, Al-Yam and Kahtan, near +Yemen, and Beni-Yas, between Harik and the Persian Gulf, +are the best known. The total number of the Bedouin or +pastoral population throughout Arabia, including men, women, +and children, appears not to exceed a million and a half, or about +one fifth of the total population. The only tribal authority is +the “elder,” or “sheik,” a title not necessarily implying +advanced age, but given to any one who, on account of birth, +courage, wealth, liberality or some other quality, has been +chosen to the leadership. Descent has something to do with +rank, but not much, as every individual of the tribe considers +himself equal to the others; nor are the distinctions of relative +riches and poverty greatly taken into account. To the “sheik” +all disputes are referred; he is consulted, though not necessarily +obeyed, on every question which regards the general affairs of +the tribe, whether in peace or war; there is no other magistrate, +and no law except what he and the other chief men may consider +proper. But in fact, for most personal and private affairs, +every man does pretty much what is right in his own eyes.</p> + +<p>All the Bedouins, with the exception of certain tribes in Syria, +are nominally Mahommedans, but most pay but slight attention +to the ceremonial precepts of the Koran; the five daily prayers +and the annual fast of Ramadan are not much in favour among +them; and however near a tribe may be to Mecca, few of them +visit it as pilgrims. The militant Wahhabi have, however, from +time to time enforced some degree of Islamitic observance among +the Bedouins of Nejd and the adjoining districts: elsewhere +Mahommedanism is practically confined to the profession of +the Divine Unity; among the remoter and wilder tribes sun-worship, +tree-worship, and no worship at all, are not uncommon. +Some clans even omit the rite of circumcision altogether; others, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span> +like the tribe of Hodeil, south of Mecca, perform it after a fashion +peculiar to themselves.</p> + +<p>Though polygamy is not common among Bedouins, marriages +are contracted without any legal intervention or guarantee; +the consent of the parties, and the oral testimony of a couple of +witnesses, should such be at hand, are all that are required; +and divorce is equally easy. Nor is mutual constancy much +expected or observed either by men or women; and the husband +is rarely strict in exacting from the wife a fidelity that he himself +has no idea of observing. Jealousy may indeed occasionally bring +about tragic results, but this rarely occurs except where publicity, +to which the Bedouins, like all other Arabs, are very sensitive, +is involved. Burckhardt writes: “The Bedouins are jealous of +their women, but do not prevent them from laughing and talking +with strangers. It seldom happens that a Bedouin strikes his +wife; if he does so she calls loudly on her <i>wasy</i> or protector, +who pacifies the husband and makes him listen to reason.... +The wife and daughters perform all domestic business. They +grind the wheat in the handmill or pound it in the mortar; +they prepare the breakfast and dinner; knead and bake the +bread; make butter, fetch water, work at the loom, mend the +tent-covering ... while the husband or brother sits before the +tent smoking his pipe.” A maiden’s honour is, on the other hand, +severely guarded; and even too openly avowed a courtship, +though with the most honourable intentions, is ill looked on. +But marriage, if indeed so slight and temporary a connexion +as it is among Bedouins deserves the name, is often merely a +passport for mutual licence. In other respects Bedouin morality, +like that of most half-savage races, depends on custom and +public feeling rather than on any fixed code or trained conscience, +and hence admits of the strangest contradictions. Not only are +lying and exaggeration no reproach in ordinary discourse, but +even deliberate perjury and violation of the most solemn engagements +are frequent occurrences. Not less frequent, however, +are instances of prolonged fidelity and observance of promise +carried to the limits of romance. “The wind,” “the wood,” +and “the honour of the Arabs” are the most ordinary oaths in +serious matters; but even these do not give absolute security, +while a simple verbal engagement will at other times prove an +inviolable guarantee. Thus, too, the extreme abstemiousness +of a Bedouin alternates with excessive gorgings; and, while +the name and deeds of “robber” are hardly a reproach, those of +“thief” are marked by abhorrence and contempt. In patience, +or rather endurance, both physical and moral, few Bedouins +are deficient; wariness is another quality universally developed +by their mode of life. And in spite of an excessive coarseness of +language, and often of action, gross vice, at least of the more +debasing sorts that dishonour the East, is rare.</p> + +<p>Most Bedouins, men and women, are rather undersized; +their complexion, especially in the south, is dark; their hair +coarse, thick and black; their eyes dark and oval; the nose is +generally aquiline, and the features well formed; the beard and +moustache are usually scanty. The men are active, but not +strong; the women are generally plain. The dress of the men +consists of a long cotton shirt, open at the breast, often girt with +a leathern girdle; a black or striped cloak of hair is sometimes +thrown over the shoulders; a handkerchief, folded once, black, +or striped yellow and red, covers the head, round which it is kept +in its place by a piece of twine or a twisted hairband. To this +costume a pair of open sandals is sometimes added. Under the +shirt, round the naked waist, a thin strip of leather plait is wound +several times, not for any special object, but merely out of +custom. In his hand a Bedouin almost always carries a slight +crooked wand, commonly of almond-wood. Among the Bedouins +of the south a light wrapper takes the place of the handkerchief +on the head, and a loin-cloth that of the shirt. The women +usually wear wide loose drawers, a long shirt, and over it a wide +piece of dark blue cloth enveloping the whole figure and head, +and trailing on the ground behind. Very rarely does a Bedouin +woman wear a veil, or even cover her face with her overcloak, +contenting herself with narrowing the folds of the latter over her +head on the approach of a stranger. Her wrists and ankles are +generally adorned with bracelets and rings of blue glass or +copper or iron, very rarely of silver; her neck with glass beads; +ear-rings are rare, and nose-rings rarer. Boys, till near puberty, +usually go stark naked; girls also wear no clothes up to the age +of six or seven.</p> + +<p>On a journey a Bedouin invariably carries with him a light, +sharp-pointed lance, the stem of which is made of Persian or +African cane; the manner in which this is carried or trailed +often indicates the tribe of the owner. The lance is the favourite +and characteristic weapon of the Arab nomad, and the one in the +use of which he shows the greatest skill. An antiquated sword, +an out-of-date musket, an ornamented dagger or knife, a coat of +mail, the manufacture of Yemen or Bagdad, and a helmet, a mere +iron head-piece, without visor or crest, complete his military +outfit.</p> + +<p>A Bedouin’s tent consists of a few coverings of the coarsest +goat-hair, dyed black, and spread over two or more small poles, +in height from 8 to 9 ft., gipsy fashion. If it be the tent of a +sheik, its total length may be from 30 to 40 ft.; if of an ordinary +person, less than 20 ft. Sometimes a partition separates the +quarters of the women and children; sometimes they are +housed under a lower and narrower covering. A rough carpet +or mat is spread on the ground; while camel-saddles, ropes, +halters, two or three cooking pots, one or two platters, a wooden +drinking bowl, the master’s arms at one side of the tent, and his +spear stuck in the ground at the door, complete the list of household +valuables. On striking camp all these are fastened on the +backs of camels; the men mount their saddles, the women their +litters; and in an hour the blackened stones that served for a +cooking hearth are the only sign of the encampment. For food +the Bedouin relies on his herds, but rice, vegetables, honey, +locusts and even lizards are at times eaten.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, <i>Notes on the +Bedouins and Wahabis</i> (1831); Karstens Niebuhr, <i>Travels through +Arabia</i> (orig. Germ. edit. 1772), translated into English by Robert +Heron (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1792); H.H. Tessup, <i>Women of the +Arabs</i> (New York, 1874); W.S. Blunt, <i>Bedouin Tribes of the +Euphrates</i> (1879); Lady Anne Blunt, <i>Pilgrimage to Neid</i> (1881); +Desmoulins, <i>Les Français d’aujourd’hui</i> (Paris, 1898); C.M. +Doughty, <i>Arabia Deserta</i> (2 vols., 1888); E. Reclus, <i>Les Arabes</i> +(Brussels, 1898); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, <i>Arabia, the Cradle of Islam</i> +(1900); W. Robertson Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i> +(Cambridge, 1885); H.C. Trumbull, <i>The Blood Covenant</i> (Philadelphia, +1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDSORE,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a form of ulceration or sloughing, occasioned in +people who, through sickness or old age, are confined to bed, +resulting from pressure or the irritation of sweat and dirt. +Bedsores usually occur when there is a low condition of nutrition +of the tissues. The more helpless the patient the more liable he +is to bedsores, and especially when he is paralysed, delirious or +insane, or when suffering from one of the acute specific fevers. +They may occur wherever there is a pressure, more especially +when any moisture is allowed to remain on the bedding; and +thus lack of cleanliness is an important factor in the production +of this condition. In large hospitals a bedsore is now a great +rarity, and this, considering the helplessness of many of the +patients treated, shows what good nursing can do. The bed +must be made with a firm smooth mattress; the undersheet and +blanket must be changed whenever they become soiled; the +drawsheet is spread without creases, and changed the moment it +becomes soiled. Preventive treatment must be followed from +the first day of the illness. This consists in the most minute +attention to cleanliness, and constant variation in the position +of the patient. All parts subjected to pressure or friction must +be frequently washed with soap and hot water, then thoroughly +dried with a warm soft towel. The part should next be bathed +in a solution of corrosive sublimate in spirits of wine, and finally +dusted with an oxide of zinc and starch powder. This routine +should be gone through not less than four times in the twenty-four +hours in any case of prolonged illness. The pressure may be +relieved over bony prominences by a water-pillow or by a piece +of thick felt cut into a ring. Signs of impending bedsores must +constantly be watched for. Where one threatens, the skin loses +its proper colour, becoming either a deadly white or a dusky red, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span> +and the redness does not disappear on pressure. The surrounding +tissues become oedematous, and pain is often severe, except in a +case of paralysis. As the condition progresses further the pain +ceases. The epidermis now becomes raised as in a blister, and +finally becomes detached, forming an excoriation and exposing +the papillae. Even at this late stage an actual ulceration can +still be prevented if proper care is taken; but failing this, the +skin sloughs and an ulcer forms. In treating this, the position +of the patient must be such that no pressure is ever allowed on the +sloughing tissue. A hot boracic pad under oil-silk should be +applied, the affected part being first dusted with iodoform. +If, however, the slough is very large, it is safer to avoid wet +applications, and the parts should be dusted with animal charcoal +and iodoform, and protected with a dry dressing. When the +slough has separated and the sore is clean, friar’s balsam will +hasten the healing process. In any serious illness the formation +of a bedsore makes the prognosis far more grave, and may even +bring about a fatal issue, either directly or indirectly.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDWORTH,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a manufacturing town in the Nuneaton parliamentary +division of Warwickshire, England; on the Nuneaton-Coventry +branch of the London & North Western railway, +100 m. north-west from London. Pop. (1900) 7169. A tramway +connects with Coventry, and the Coventry canal passes through. +Coal and ironstone are mined; there are iron-works, and bricks, +hats, ribbons and tape and silk are made. Similar industries +are pursued in the populous district (including the villages +of Exhall and Foleshill) which extends southward towards +Coventry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:323px; height:690px" src="images/img625a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Honeybee (<i>Apis mellifica</i>). <i>a</i>, +male (drone); <i>b</i>, queen, <i>c</i>, worker.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Benton, <i>Bull.</i> 1 (n.s.) <i>Div. Ent.</i>, U.S. Dept. Agr.).</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">BEE<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Sanskrit <i>bha</i>, A S. <i>beó</i>, Lat. <i>apis</i>), a large and natural +family of the zoological order <i>Hymenoptera</i>, characterized by +the plumose form of many of their hairs, by the large size of +the basal segment of +the foot, which is +always elongate and +in the hindmost limb +sometimes as broad +as the shin, and by +the development of a +“tongue” for sucking +liquid food; this +organ has been variously +interpreted as +the true insectan +tongue (hypo-pharynx) +or as a +ligula formed by +fused portions of the +second maxillae +(probably the latter).</p> + +<p>Bees are specialized +in correspondence +with the flowers from +which they draw the +bulk of their food +supply, the flexible +tongue being used +for sucking nectar, +the plumed hairs and +the modified legs (fig. +7) for gathering pollen. +These floral products +which form the +food of bees and of +their larvae, are in +most cases collected +and stored by the +industrious insects; +but some genera of +bees act as inquilines +or “cuckoo-parasites,” laying their eggs in the nests of other +bees, so that their larvae may feed at the expense of the +rightful owners of the nest. In a few cases, the parasitic bee-grub +devours not only the food-supply, but also the larva of +its host.</p> + +<p><i>Solitary and Social Bees.</i>—Many genera of bees are represented, +like most other insects, by ordinary males and females, each +female constructing a nest formed of several chambers (“cells”) +and storing in each chamber a supply of food for the grub to be +hatched from the egg that she lays therein. Such bees, although +a number of individuals often make their nests close together, +are termed “solitary,” their communities differing in nature +from those of the “social” bees, among which there are two +kinds of females—the normal fertile females or “queens,” +and those specially modified females with undeveloped ovaries +(see fig. 6) that are called “workers” (fig. 1). The workers +are the earliest developed offspring of the queen, and it is their +associated work which renders possible the rise of an insect +state—a state which evidently has its origin in the family. +It is interesting to trace various stages in the elaboration of the +bee-society. Among the humble-bees (<i>Bombus</i>) the workers help +the queen, who takes her share in the duties of the nest; the +distinction between queen and workers is therefore less absolute +than in the hive-bees (<i>Apis</i>), whose queen, relieved of all nursing +and building cares by the workers, devotes her whole energies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span> +to egg-laying. The division of labour among the two castes of +female becomes therefore most complete in the most highly +organized society.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:511px; height:822px" src="images/img625b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Head and Appendages of Honey-bee (Apis).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Antenna or feeler.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Epipharynx.</p> +<p><i>mxp</i>, Maxillary palp.</p> +<p><i>pg</i>, Opposite to galeae of 2nd maxillae (labium).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>mx</i>, 1st maxilla.</p> +<p><i>lp</i>, Labial palp.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Ligula or “tongue.”</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Bouton or spoon of the ligula.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Frank R. Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Structure.</i>—Details of the structure of bees are given in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hymenoptera</a></span>. The feelers (fig. 2, <i>a</i>) are divided into +“scape” and “flagellum” as in the ants, and the mandibles +vary greatly in size and sharpness in different genera. The +proboscis or “tongue” (fig. 2, <i>l</i>) is a hollow organ enclosing +an outgrowth of the body-cavity which is filled with fluid, +and with its flexible under-surface capable of invagination or +protrusion. Along this surface stretches a groove which is surrounded +by thickened cuticle and practically formed into a +tube by numerous fine hairs. Along this channel the nectar is +drawn into the pharynx and passes, mixed with saliva, into the +crop or “honey-bag”; the action of the saliva changes the +saccharose into dextrose and levulose, and the nectar becomes +honey, which the bee regurgitates for storage in the cells or for +the feeding of the grubs. The sting (fig. 6, <i>pg, st</i>.) of female +bees is usually highly specialized, but in a few genera it is reduced +and useless.</p> + +<p>Many modifications in details of structure may be observed +within the family. The tongue is bifid at the tip in a few genera; +usually it is pointed and varies greatly in length, being comparatively +short in <i>Andrena</i>, long in the humble-bees (<i>Bombus</i>), +and longest in <i>Euglossa</i>, a tropical American genus of solitary +bees. The legs, which are so highly modified as pollen-carriers +in the higher bees, are comparatively simple in certain primitive +genera. The hairy covering, so notable in the hive-bee and +especially in humble-bees, is greatly reduced among bees that +follow a parasitic mode of life.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:486px; height:220px" src="images/img626.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Larva and Pupa of Apis.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><p>SL, Spinning larva.</p> +<p>N, Pupa.</p> +<p>FL, Feeding larva.</p> +<p><i>co</i>, Cocoon.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>sp</i>, Spiracles.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, “Tongue.”</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Mandible.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Antenna</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 34%; vertical-align: top;"><p><i>w</i>, Wing.</p> +<p><i>ce</i>, Compound Eye.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Excrement.</p> +<p><i>ex</i>, Exuvium.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="3">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Early stages</i>.—As is usual where an abundant food supply +is provided for the young insects, the larvae of bees (fig. 3, SL.) +are degraded maggots; they have no legs, but possess fairly +well-developed heads. The successive cuticles that are cast +as growth proceeds are delicate in texture and sometimes +separate from the underlying cuticle without being stripped +off. The maggots may pass no excrement from the intestine +until they have eaten all their store of food. When fully grown +the final larval cuticle is shed, and the “free” pupa (fig. 3, N) +revealed. The larvae of some bees spin cocoons (fig. 3, <i>co</i>) +before pupation.</p> + +<p><i>Nests of Solitary Bees</i>.—Bees of different genera vary considerably +in the site and arrangement of their nests. Many—like +the common “solitary” bees <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Andrena</i>—burrow +in the ground; the holes of species of <i>Andrena</i> are commonly +seen in springtime opening on sandy banks, grassy lawns or +gravel paths. Our knowledge of such bees is due to the observations +of F. Smith, H. Friese, C. Verhoeff and others. The nest +may be simple, or, more frequently, a complex excavation, cells +opening off from the entrance or from a main passage. Sometimes +the passage is the conjoint work of many bees whose cells +are grouped along it at convenient distances apart. Other bees, +the species of <i>Osmia</i> for example, choose the hollow stem of a +bramble or other shrub, the female forming a linear series of cells +in each of which an egg is laid and a supply of food stored up. +J.H. Fabre has found that in the nests of some species of <i>Osmia</i> +the young bee developed in the first-formed cell, if (as often +happens) she emerges from her cocoon before the inmates of +the later cells, will try to work her way round these or to bite +a lateral hole through the bramble shoot; should she fail to +do this, she will wait for the emergence of her sisters and not +make her escape at the price of injury to them. But when +Fabre substituted dead individuals of her own species or live +larvae of another genus, the <i>Osmia</i> had no scruple in destroying +them, so as to bite her way out to air and liberty.</p> + +<p>The leaf-cutter bees (<i>Megachile</i>)—which differ from <i>Andrena</i> +and <i>Halictus</i> and agree with <i>Osmia</i>, <i>Apis</i> and <i>Bombus</i> in having +elongate tongues—cut neat circular disks from leaves, using +them for lining the cells of their underground nests. The +carpenter-bees (<i>Xylocopa</i> and allied genera), unrepresented +in the British Islands, though widely distributed in warmer +countries, make their nests in dry wood. The habits of <i>X. +violacea</i>, the commonest European species, were minutely +described in the 18th century in one of R.A.F. de Réaumur’s +memoirs. This bee excavates several parallel galleries to which +access is gained by a cylindrical hole. In the galleries are +situated the cells, separated from one another by transverse +partitions, which are formed of chips of wood, cemented by +the saliva of the bee.</p> + +<p>Among the solitary bees none has more remarkable nesting +habits than the mason bee (<i>Chalicodoma</i>) represented in the +south of France and described at length by Fabre. The female +constructs on a stone a series of cells, built of cement, which +she compounds of particles of earth, minute stones and her +own saliva. Each cell is provided with a store of honey and +pollen beside which an egg is laid; and after eight or nine cells +have been successively built and stored, the whole is covered +by a dome-like mass of cement. Fabre found that a <i>Chalicodoma</i> +removed to a distance of 4 kilometres from the nest that she was +building, found her way back without difficulty to the exact +spot. But if the nest were removed but a few yards from its +former position, the bee seemed no longer able to recognize it, +sometimes passing over it, or even into the unfinished cell, and +then leaving it to visit again uselessly the place whence it had +been moved. She would accept willingly, however, another +nest placed in the exact spot where her own had been. If the +unfinished cell in the old nest had been only just begun, while +that in the substituted nest were nearly completed, the bee +would add so much material as to make the cell much larger +than the normal size, her instinct evidently being to do a certain +amount of building work before filling the cell with food. The +food, too, is always placed in the cell after a fixed routine—first +honey disgorged from the mouth, then pollen brushed off the +hairs beneath the body (fig. 7, <i>c</i>) after which the two substances +are mixed into a paste.</p> + +<p><i>Inquilines and Parasites</i>.—The working bees, such as have been +mentioned, are victimized by bees of other genera, which throw +upon the industrious the task of providing for the young of +the idle. The nests of <i>Andrena</i>, for example, are haunted by +the black and yellow species of <i>Nomada</i>, whose females lay their +eggs in the food provided for the larva of the <i>Andrena</i>. According +to H. Friese, the relations between the host and the inquiline +are quite friendly, and the insects if they meet in the nest-galleries +courteously get out of each other’s way. D. Sharp, +in commenting on this strange behaviour, points out that the +host can have no idea why the inquiline haunts her nest. “Why +then should the <i>Andrena</i> feel alarm? If the species of <i>Nomada</i> +attack the species of <i>Andrena</i> too much, it brings about the +destruction of its own species more certainly than that of the +<i>Andrena</i>.”</p> + +<p>More violent in its methods is the larva of a <i>Stelis</i>, whose +operations in the nest of <i>Osmia leucomelana</i> have been studied +by Verhoeff. The female <i>Stelis</i> lays her eggs earlier than the +<i>Osmia</i>, and towards the bottom of the food-mass; the egg of +the <i>Osmia</i> is laid later, and on the surface of the food. Hence +the two eggs are at opposite ends of the food, and both larvae +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span> +feed for a time without conflict, but the <i>Stelis</i>, being the older, +is the larger of the two. Finally the parasitic larva attacks +the <i>Osmia</i>, and digging its mandibles into its victim’s head +kills and eats it, taking from one to two days for the completion +of the repast.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:374px; height:261px" src="images/img627a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Under Side of Worker, carrying Wax +Scales.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Social Bees</i>.—The bees hitherto described are “solitary,” +all the individuals being either males or unmodified females. +The most highly developed of the long-tongued bees are “social” +species, in which +the females are +differentiated +into egg-laying +queens and +(usually) infertile +“workers” +(fig. 6). Verhoeff +has discussed +the rise of the +“social” from +the “solitary” +condition, and +points out that +for the formation +of an insect +community three +conditions are necessary—a nest large enough for a number +of individuals, a close grouping of the cells, and an association +between mother and daughters in the winged state. +For the fulfilment of this last condition, the older insects of the +new generation must emerge from the cells while the mother is +still occupied with the younger eggs or larvae. One species of +<i>Halictus</i> nearly reaches the desired stage; but the first young +bees to appear in the perfect state are males, and when the +females emerge the mother dies.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:295px" src="images/img627b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Abdominal Plate (worker of <i>Apis</i>), under side, third +segment. W, wax-yielding surface, covering true gland; <i>s</i>, septem, +or carina; <i>wh</i>, webbed hairs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the social bees the mother and daughter-insects +co-operate, and they differ from the “solitary” groups in the +nature of their nest, the cells (fig. 25) of which are formed of +wax secreted by special glands (fig. 5) in the bee’s abdomen, +the wax being pressed out between the segmental sclerites in +the form of plates (fig. 4), which are worked by the legs (fig. 7) +and jaws into the requisite shape. In our well-known hive-bee +(<i>Apis</i>) and humble-bees (<i>Bombus</i>) the wax glands are ventral +in position, but in the “stingless” bees of the tropics (<i>Trigona</i> +and <i>Melipona</i>) they are dorsal. A colony of humble-bees is +started in spring by a female “queen” which has survived the +winter. She starts her nest underground or in a surface depression, +forming a number of waxen cells, roughly globular in shape +and arranged irregularly. The young females (“workers”) +that develop from the eggs laid in these early cells assist the +queen by building fresh cells and gathering food for storage +therein. The queen may be altogether relieved of the work +of the nest as the season advances, so that she can devote all +her energies to egg-laying, and the colony grows rapidly. The +distinction between queen and worker is not always clear among +humble-bees, the female insects varying in size and in the development +of their ovaries. If any mishap befall the queen, the workers +can sometimes keep the community from dying out. In autumn +males are produced, as well as young queens. The community +is broken up on the approach of winter, the males and workers +perish, and the young queens after hibernation start fresh nests +in the succeeding year.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:355px; height:523px" src="images/img627c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Ovaries of Queen and Workers (<i>Apis</i>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Abdomen of queen, under side.</p> + <p> P, Petiole.</p> + <p> o, o, Ovaries.</p> + <p> <i>hs</i>, Position filled by honey-sack.</p> + <p> <i>ds</i>, Position through which digestive system passes.</p> + <p> <i>od</i>, Oviduct.</p> + <p> <i>co.d</i>, Vagina.</p> + <p> E, Egg-passing oviduct.</p> + <p> <i>s</i>, Spermatheca.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> + <p> <i>i</i>. Intestine.</p> + <p> <i>pb</i>, Poison bag.</p> + <p> <i>pg</i>, Poison gland.</p> + <p> <i>st</i>, Sting.</p> + <p> <i>p</i>, “Palps” or “feelers” of sting.</p> +<p>B, Rudimentary ovaries of ordinary worker.</p> + <p> <i>sp</i>, Rudimentary spermatheca.</p> +<p>C, Partially developed ovaries of fertile worker.</p> + <p> <i>sp</i>, Rudimentary spermatheca.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The appearance of the heavy-bodied hairy <i>Bombi</i> is well +known. They are closely “mimicked” by bees of the genus +<i>Psithyrus</i>, which often share their nests. These <i>Psithyri</i> have +no pollen-carrying +structures on the +legs and their grubs +are dependent for +their food-supply +on the labours of +the <i>Bombi</i>, though, +according to E. +Hoffer’s observations, +it seems that +the female <i>Psithyrus</i> +builds her own cells. +The colonies of +<i>Bombus</i> illustrate +the rise of the +inquiline habit. +Many of the species +are very variable +and have been +differentiated into +races or varieties. +F.W.L. Sladen +states that a queen +belonging to the +<i>virginalis</i> form of +<i>Bombus terrestris</i> +often invades a nest +belonging to the +<i>lucorum</i> form, kills +the rightful queen, +and takes possession +of the nest, getting +the <i>lucorum</i> workers +to rear her young. +In the nests of +<i>Bombi</i> are found +various beetle +larvae that live as +inquilines or parasites, +and also maggots +of drone-flies +(<i>Volucella</i>), which +act as scavengers; +the Volucella-fly is +usually a “mimic” of the <i>Bombus</i>, whose nest she invades.</p> + +<p>The “stingless” bees (<i>Trigona</i>) of the tropics have the parts +of the sting reduced and useless for piercing. As though to +compensate for the loss of this means of defence, the mandibles +are very powerful, and some of the bees construct tubular +entrances to the nest with a series of constrictions easy to hold +against an enemy. The habits of the Brazilian species of these +bees have been described in detail by H. von Jhering, who points +out that their wax glands are dorsal in position, not ventral as +in <i>Bombus</i> and <i>Apis</i>.</p> + +<p>With <i>Apis</i>, the genus of the hive-bee, we come to the most +highly-specialized members of the family—better known, perhaps +than any other insects, on account of the long domestication of +many of the species or races. In <i>Apis</i> the workers differ structurally +from the queen, who neither builds cells, gathers food, nor +tends brood, and is therefore without the special organs adapted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span> +for those functions which are possessed in perfection by the +workers. The differentiation of queen and workers is correlated +with the habit of storing food supplies, and the consequent +permanence of the community, which finds relief for its surplus +population by sending off a swarm, consisting of a queen and a +number of workers, so that the new community is already +specialized both for reproduction and for labour.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:501px; height:767px" src="images/img628.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Modifications in the Legs of Bees.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A. <i>a-d</i>, Hive-bee (<i>Apis</i>).</p> +<p>B. <i>f-g</i>, Stingless bee (<i>Melipona</i>).</p> +<p>C. <i>h-i</i>, Humble-bee (<i>Bombus</i>).</p> +<p><i>a, f, h</i>, Outer view of hind-leg.</p> +<p><i>b, g, i</i>, Inner view.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>d</i>, Fore-leg of <i>Apis</i> showing notch in tarsal segment for cleaning feeler.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Tip of intermediate shin with spur.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Feathered hairs with pollen grains, magnified.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Riley, <i>Insect Life</i> (U.S. Dept. Agr.), vol. 6.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The workers of <i>Apis</i> may be capable (fig. 6, C) of laying +eggs—necessarily unfertilized—which always give rise to males +(“drones”), and, since the researches of J. Dzierzon (1811-1906) +in 1848, it has been believed that the queen bee lays +fertilized eggs in cells appropriate for the rearing of queens or +workers, and unfertilized eggs in “drone-cells,” virgin reproduction +or parthenogenesis being therefore a normal factor in the +life of these insects. F. Dickel and others have lately claimed +that fertilized eggs can give rise to either queens, workers or +males, according to the food supplied to the larvae and the +influence of supposed “sex-producing glands” possessed by +the nurse-workers. Dickel states that a German male bee +mated with a female of the Italian race transmits distinct +paternal characters to hybrid male offspring. A. Weismann, +however, doubts these conclusions, and having found a spermaster +in every one of the eggs that he examined from worker-cells, +and in only one out of 272 eggs taken from drone-cells, +he supports Dzierzon’s view, explaining the single exception +mentioned above as a mistake of the queen, she having laid +inadvertently this single fertilized egg in a drone instead of in a +worker cell.</p> + +<p>The cells of the honeycomb of <i>Apis</i> are usually hexagonal in +form, and arranged in two series back to back (figs. 3, 25). +Some of these cells are used for storage, others for the rearing of +brood. The cells in which workers are reared are smaller than +those appropriate for the rearing of drones, while the “royal +cells,” in which the young queens are developed, are large in +size and of an irregular oval in form (fig. 25). It is believed that +from the nature of the cell in which she is ovipositing, the queen +derives a reflex impulse to lay the appropriate egg—fertilized +in the queen or worker cell, unfertilized in the drone cell, as +previously mentioned. Whether the fertilized egg shall develop +into a queen or a worker depends upon the nature of the food. +All young grubs are at first fed with a specially nutritious food, +discharged from the worker’s stomach, to which is added a digestive +secretion derived from special salivary glands in the worker’s +head. If this “royal jelly” continue to be given to the grub +throughout its life, it will grow into a queen; if the ordinary +mixture of honey and digested pollen be substituted, as is +usually the case from the fourth day, the grub will become a +worker. The workers, who control the polity of the hive (the +“queen” being exceedingly “limited” in her monarchy), +arrange if possible that young queens shall develop only when +the population of the hive has become so congested that it is +desirable to send off a swarm. When a young queen has emerged, +she stings her royal sisters (still in the pupal stage) to death. +Previous to the emergence of the young queen, the old queen, +prevented by the workers from attacking her daughters, has led +off a swarm to find a new home elsewhere. The young queen, +left in the old home, mounts high into the air for her nuptial +flight, and then returns to the hive and her duties of egg-laying. +The number of workers increases largely during the summer, +and so hard do the insects work that the life of an individual +may last only a few weeks. On the approach of winter the +males, having no further function to perform for the community, +are refused food-supplies by the workers, and are either excluded +or banished from the hive to perish. Such ruthless habits of the +bee-commonwealth, no less than the altruistic labours of the +workers, are adapted for the survival and dominance of the +species. The struggle for life may deal hardly with the individual, +but it results—to quote Darwin’s well-known title—in +“the preservation of favoured races.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—More has been written on bees, and especially on +the genus <i>Apis</i>, than on any other group of insects. The classical +observations of Réaumur <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des +insectes</i>, vols. v., vi. (Paris, 1740-1742) and F. Huber’s <i>Nouvelles +observations sur les abeilles</i> (Genéve, 1792) will never be forgotten; +they have been matched in recent times by J.H. Fabre’s <i>Souvenirs +entomologiques</i> (Paris, 1879-1891); and M. Maeterlinck’s poetic yet +scientific <i>La vie des abeilles</i> (Paris, 1901). Among writers on the +solitary and parasitic species may be specially mentioned F. Smith, +<i>Hymenoptera in the British Museum</i> (London, 1853-1859); H. Friese, +<i>Zool. Jahrb. Syst.</i>, iv. (1891) J. Pérez, <i>Actes Soc. Bordeaux</i>, xlviii. +(1895); and C. Verhoeff, <i>Zool. Jahrb. Syst.</i>, vi. (1892). For the +social species we have valuable papers by E. Hoffer, <i>Mitt. Naturwissen. +Ver. Steiermark</i>, xxxi. (1881); H. von Jhering, <i>Zool. Jahrb. +Syst.</i>, xix. (1903); and others. For recent controversy on parthenogenesis +in the hive bee, see J. Pérez, <i>Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool.</i> (6), vii. +(1878); F. Dickel, <i>Zool. Anz.</i>, xxv. (1901), and <i>Anatom. Anzeiger</i>, +xix. (1902); A. Petrunkevich, <i>Zoolog. Jahrb. Anat.</i>, xiv. (1901); +and A. Weismann, <i>Anatom. Anzeiger</i>, xviii. (1901). F.R. Cheshire’s +<i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i> (London, 1885-1888), and T.W. Cowan’s +<i>Honey Bee</i> (2nd ed., 1904), are invaluable to the naturalist, +and contain extensive bibliographies of <i>Apis</i>. D. Sharp’s summary in the +<i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, vol. vi., should be consulted for further +information on bees generally. British bees are described in the +catalogues of Smith, mentioned above, and by E. Saunders, <i>The +Hymenoptera of the British Islands</i> (London, 1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Bee-Keeping</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:103px; height:111px" src="images/img629a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Sign of +the king of Lower +Egypt; from the +coffin of Mykerinos, +3633 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (British +Museum).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Bee-keeping, or the cultivation of the honey-bee as a source +of income to those who practise it, is known to have existed +from the most ancient times. Poets, philosophers, historians +and naturalists (among whom may be mentioned Virgil, Aristotle, +Cicero and Pliny) have eulogized the bee as unique among +insects, endowed by nature with wondrous gifts beneficial to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span> +mankind in a greater degree than any other creature of the +insect world. We are told that some of these ancient scientists +passed years of their lives studying the wonders of bee-life, and +left accurate records of their observations, which on many points +agree with the investigations of later observers. As a forcible +illustration of the manner in which a colony of bees was recognized +as the embodiment of government by a chief or ruler, in the +earliest times of which there is any existing record, it may be +mentioned that on the sarcophagus containing the mummified +remains of Mykerinos (now in the British +Museum and dating back 3633 years <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +will be found a hieroglyphic bee, (fig. 8) +representing the king of Lower Egypt.</p> + +<p>In dealing with the practical side of bee-keeping +as now understood, it may be said +that, compared with the methods in vogue +during the first decade of the 19th century, +or even within the memory of men still +living at the beginning of the 20th, it +is as the modern locomotive to the stagecoach +of a previous generation. Almost +everything connected with bee-craft has been revolutionized, +and apiculture, instead of being classed with such homely +rural occupations as that of the country housewife who carries a +few eggs weekly to the market-town in her basket, is to-day +regarded in many countries as a pursuit of considerable importance. +<span class="sidenote">Queen-rearing.</span> +Remarkable progress has also been made in the art of queen-rearing, +and in improving the common or native bee by judicious crossing +with the best foreign races, selected mainly for hardiness, working +qualities and the prolific capacity of their queens. American +bee-breeders are conspicuous in this respect, extensive apiaries +being exclusively devoted to the business of rearing queens by the thousand +for sale and export.</p> + +<p>On the European continent queen-rearing apiaries are plentiful, +but less attention is paid there to hybridizing than to keeping the +respective races pure. In England also, some bee-keepers include +queen-rearing as part of their business, while one large apiary +on the south coast is exclusively devoted to the rearing of queen +bees on the latest scientific system, and to breeding by selection +from such races as are most suited to the exceptional climatic +conditions of the country.</p> + +<p>Extensive apiaries have been established on the American +continent, some containing from 2000 to 3500 colonies of bees, +and in these honey is harvested in hundreds of tons yearly. +The magnitude of the bee industry in the United States may be +judged from the fact of a single bee-farmer located in California +having harvested from 150,000 ℔ of honey in one year from +2000 stocks of bees, and, as an instance of the enormous weight +of honey obtainable from good hives in that favoured region, the +same farmer secured 60,000 ℔ of comb-honey in one season from +his best 300 colonies. This is probably the maximum, and the +hives were necessarily located in separate apiaries some few +miles apart in order to avoid the evils of overstocking, but all +in the midst of thousands of acres of honey-yielding flowers. +Results like the above compared with those of the skeppist bee-keeper +of former days, who was well pleased with an average +of 20 to 25 ℔ per hive, may be regarded as wonderful, but +<span class="sidenote">Honey as food. </span> +they are matters of fact. The consumption of honey as an article +of food has also largely increased of late +years; a recent computation shows that from 100 to +125 million ℔ of honey, representing a money value of from +eight to ten million dollars, is consumed annually in the United +States alone. Many of the larger bee-farmers of the United +States of America and Canada harvest from 50,000 to 60,000 ℔ +of honey in a single season, and some of them sell the whole +crop direct to consumers.</p> + +<p>It is a notable fact that in the United States, Canada, Australia, +New Zealand, and indeed all English-speaking countries outside +the United Kingdom, honey is far more extensively used than +it is there as an article of daily food. The natural result of this +is that the trade in honey is conducted, in those countries, on +entirely different lines from those followed in the British Isles, +where honey production as an occupation has, until quite recent +years, been regarded as too insignificant for official notice in any +<span class="sidenote">State aid for bee-keeping.</span> +form. The value of the bee industry is now recognized, +however, by the British government as worthy of state +aid, in the promotion of technical instruction connected +with agriculture. On the American continent apiculture +is officially recognized by the respective states’ governments; +and by the federal government at Washington it is taken into +account as a section of the Agricultural Department, with fully +equipped experimental apiaries and qualified professors engaged +therein for educational work. In several Canadian provinces +also, the public funds are used in promoting the bee industry in +various ways, mainly in combating the bee-disease known as +“foul brood.” In New Zealand the government of the colony +has displayed the most praiseworthy earnestness and vigour in +promoting apiculture. State-aided apiaries have been established +under the supervision of a skilled bee-keeper, who travels over +the colony giving instruction in practical bee-work at the public +schools, and forming classes at various centres where pupils are +taught bee-keeping in all its branches.</p> + +<p>In Europe similar progress is observable; technical schools, +with well-equipped apiaries attached, are supported by the +state, and in them the science and practice of modern bee-keeping +is taught free by scientists and practical experts. Institutions +of this kind have been established in Germany, Russia, +Switzerland and elsewhere, all tending in the same direction, +viz. the cultivation of the honey-bee as an appreciable source of +income to the farmer, the peasant cultivator, and dwellers in +districts where bee-forage is abundant and, if unvisited by the +bee, lies wasting its sweetness on the desert air. It may be +safely said that the value of the bee to the fruit-grower and the +market-gardener has been proved beyond dispute; and the +technical instruction now afforded by county councils in the rural +<span class="sidenote">Value of bees as fertilizers.</span> +districts of England has an appreciable effect. In proof +thereof, we may quote the case of an extensive grower +in the midland counties—sending fruit to the London +market in tons—whose crop of gooseberries increased +nearly fourfold after establishing a number of stocks of bees in +close proximity to the gooseberry bushes. The fruit orchards +and raspberry fields of Kent are also known to be greatly benefited +by the numerous colonies of bees owned by more than 3000 +bee-keepers in the county. The important part played by the +bee in the economy of nature as a fertilizer is shown in fig. 9.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:478px; height:261px" src="images/img629b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—A, Raspberry (<i>Rubus idaeus</i>, +order <i>Rosaceae</i>), being fertilized. B, Cross section.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Flower.</p> +<p> <i>p, p</i>, Petals.</p> +<p> <i>a, a</i>, Anthers.</p> +<p> <i>s</i>, Stigma.</p> +<p> <i>no</i>, Nectary openings.</p> +<p> <i>nc</i>, Nectar cells.</p> +<p> D, Drupels.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>B, Section through core, or torus (C) and drupels (D).</p> +<p> <i>ud</i>, Unfertilized drupel.</p> +<p> <i>ws</i>, Withered stigma.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the United Kingdom the prevailing conditions, climatic +and otherwise, with regard to apiculture—as well as the lack of +sufficient natural bee-forage for large apiaries—are such as to +preclude the possibility of establishing apiaries on a scale comparable +with those located in less confined lands. On the other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span> +hand, even in England the value of bee-keeping is worthy of +recognition as a minor industry connected with such items of +agriculture as fruit-growing, market-gardening or poultry-raising. +The fact that British honey is second to none for +quality, and that the British market is eagerly sought by the +bee-keepers of other nationalities, has of late impressed itself +on the minds of thinking men. Moreover, their views are confirmed +by the constant references to bees and the profits obtainable +from bee-keeping in the leading papers on all sides. This +newly-aroused interest in the subject is no doubt to a large extent +fostered by the grants in aid of technical instruction afforded by +<span class="sidenote">Bee-keepers’ associations.</span> +county councils in rural districts. The British Bee-keepers’ +Association (instituted in 1874) has been +untiring in its efforts to raise the standard of efficiency +among those who are desirous of qualifying as experts +and teachers of bee-keeping on modern methods. This body had +for its first president the distinguished naturalist Sir John +Lubbock (Lord Avebury). Subsequently the baroness Burdett-Coutts +accepted the office in the year 1878, and was re-elected +annually until her death in 1906. During this time she presided +at its meetings and took an active part in its work, until advancing +years prevented her attendance, but her interest in the +welfare of the association was maintained to the last. Branch +societies of bee-keepers were established throughout the English +counties, mainly by the efforts of the parent body in London, +with the object of securing co-operation in promoting the sale +<span class="sidenote">Bee and honey shows.</span> +of honey, and showing the most modern methods of +producing it in its most attractive form at exhibitions +held for the purpose. Nearly the whole of these county +societies affiliated with the central association, paying +an affiliation fee yearly, and receiving in return the silver medal, +bronze medal and certificate of the association, to be offered as +prizes for competition at the annual county shows. Other advantages +are given in connexion with the qualifying of experts, +&c., while nearly all the county associations in the United +Kingdom employ qualified men who visit members in spring +and autumn for the purpose of examining hives and giving +advice on bee management to those needing it. Another +<span class="sidenote">Honey labels.</span> +advantage of membership is the use of a “county +label” for affixing to each section of honey in comb, +or jar of extracted honey, offered for sale by members. +These labels are numbered consecutively, and thus afford a +guarantee of the genuineness and quality of the honey, the label +enabling purchasers to trace the producer if needed. The +British Bee-keepers’ Association is an entirely philanthropic +body, the only object of its members being to promote all that +is good in British bee-keeping, and to “teach humanity to that +industrious little labourer, the honey-bee.” Bee-appliance +manufacturers are not eligible for membership of its council, +nor are those who make bee-keeping their main business; thus +no professional jealousies can possibly arise. In this respect the +association appears to stand alone among the bee-keepers’ +societies of the world. There are many equally beneficial +societies, framed on different lines, existing in Germany, France, +Russia and Switzerland, but they are mainly co-operative bodies +instituted for the general benefit of members, who are without +exception either bee-keepers on a more or less extensive scale, +or scientists interested in the study of insect life.</p> + +<p>The bee-keepers’ associations of the United States, Canada +and most of the British colonies, are—like those last mentioned +above—formed for the sole and laudable purpose of promoting +the business interests of their members, the latter being either +bee-farmers or bee-appliance manufacturers. Thus they make +no pretension of any but business discussions at their conferences, +and much benefit to all concerned follows as a matter of +course. In fact, we find enthusiastic bee-men and women +travelling several hundreds of miles and devoting time, money +and labour in attending conferences of bee-keepers in America, +while the proceedings usually last for several days and are +largely attended. The extent of the industry compared with +that of Great Britain is so great that it fully accounts for the +difference in procedure of the respective associations.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:355px; height:270px" src="images/img630a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—“1-℔ section” wooden box for +holding Comb-honey.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from the <i>A B C of Bee Culture</i>, published by +the A. I. Root Co. Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>As a natural consequence of this activity, the trade in bee-appliance +making has assumed enormous proportions in the +United States, where extensive factories have been +established; one firm—employing over 500 hands, +<span class="sidenote">The bee-appliance trade.</span> +and using electric-power machinery of the most modern +type—being devoted entirely to the manufacture of +bee-goods and apiarian requisites. From this establishment +alone the yearly output is about 25,000 bee-hives, and upwards +of 100 millions of the small wooden boxes used for holding comb-honey. +The most +generally approved +form of this box is +known as the +“1-℔ section,” +made from a strip +of wood ½ in. thick, +2 in. wide, and of +such length that +when folded by +joining the morticed +and tenoned ends +A B (fig. 10) it +forms the section of +box C, measuring +4¼″ × 4½″ × 2″ when +complete, and holds +about 1 ℔ of comb-honey when filled by the bees and ready +for table use. The V-shaped groove D (cut across and partly +through the wood) shows the joint when in the flat, and E the +same joint when closed for use. All the section boxes used in +the United Kingdom are made in the U.S.A or in Canada from +the timber known as basswood, no native wood being suitable +for the purpose.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:492px; height:226px" src="images/img630b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Straw skep in section, showing arrangement of Combs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Vertical section.</p> +<p> <i>fb</i>, Floor board.</p> +<p> <i>e</i>, Entrance.</p> +<p> <i>br</i>, Brood</p> +<p> <i>p</i>, Pollen.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p> <i>h</i>, Honey.</p> +<p> <i>fh</i>, Feeding hole.</p> +<p> <i>bs, bs</i>, Bee spaces.</p> +<p>B, Horizontal section.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 34%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p> <i>sk</i>, Skep-side.</p> +<p> <i>c, c</i>, Combs.</p> +<p> <i>sc, sc</i>, Store combs.</p> +<p> <i>bs, bs</i>, Bee spaces.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="3">(from Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Development of the Movable-frame Hive</i>—The dome-shaped +straw skep of our forefathers may be regarded as the typical +bee-hive of all time and of all civilized countries; +indeed, it may with truth be said that as a healthy +<span class="sidenote">The straw skep.</span> +and convenient home for the honey-bee it has no equal. +A swarm of bees hived in a straw skep, the picturesque little +domicile known the world over as the personification of industry, +will furnish their home with waxen combs in form and shape so +admirably adapted to their requirements as to need no improvement +by man. Why the circular form was chosen for the skep +need not be inquired into, beyond saying that its shape conforms +to that of a swarm, as the bees usually hang clustered on the +branch of a neighbouring tree or bush after issuing from the +parent hive. Fig 11 shows a straw skep in section, and explains +itself as illustrating the admirable way in which the bees furnish +their dwelling. The vertical section (A) shows the lower portion +of the combs devoted to brood-rearing, the higher and thicker +combs being reserved for honey, and midway between the brood +and food is stored the pollen required for mixing with honey in +feeding the larvae. It will be seen how well the upper part of +the combs are fitted for bearing the weight of stores they contain, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span> +and how the lower portion allows the bees to cluster around the +tender larvae and thus maintain the warmth necessary during its +metamorphosis from the egg to the perfect insect. The horizontal +section (B) with equal clearness demonstrates the bee’s +ingenuity in economizing space, showing how the outer combs +are used exclusively for stores, and, as such, may be built of +varying thickness as more or less storage room is required. The +straw skep has, however, the irredeemable fault of fixed combs, +<span class="sidenote">The movable-frame hive.</span> +and the gradual development of the movable-frame +hive of today may be said to have first appeared in +1789 with the leaf-hive of Huber, so called from its +opening like the leaves of a book. Prior to that date +wooden box-hives of various shapes had been adopted by +advanced bee-masters anxious to increase their output of honey, +and by enthusiastic naturalists desirous of studying and investigating +the wonders of bee-life apart from the utilitarian +standpoint. Foremost among the latter was the distinguished +Swiss naturalist and bee-keeper, François Huber, who was led +to construct the leaf-hive bearing his name after experimenting +with a single comb observatory hive recommended by Réaumur. +Huber found that although he could induce swarms to occupy +the glass-sided single frame advised by Réaumur, if the frame +was fitted with ready-built pieces of comb patched together +before hiving the swarm, the experiment was successful, while +if left to themselves the bees built small combs across the space +between the sheets of glass, and the desired inspection from the +outside was thus rendered impossible. He also gathered that the +abnormal conditions forced upon the bees by a ready-built single +comb might so turn aside their natural instincts as to render his +investigations less trustworthy than if conducted under perfectly +natural conditions; so, in order to remove all doubt, he decided +to have a series of wooden frames made, measuring 12 in. sq., +each of rather more than the ordinary width allowed for brood-combs. +These frames were numbered consecutively 1 to 12, +and hinged together as shown in fig. 12 (<i>h</i>, A). In this way the +frames of comb could be opened for inspection like a book, while +when closed the bees clustered together as in an ordinary hive. +Ten of these frames had a small piece of comb fixed to the top-bar +in each, supported (temporarily) by a thin lath wedged up +with pegs at side, the latter being removed when the comb had +been made secure by the bees. When closed, the ten frames, +together with the two outside ones (fitted with squares of glass +for inspection), which represent the covers of the book, were tied +together with a couple of stout strings. In a subsequent form +of the same hive Huber was enabled—with the help of very long +thumb-screws at each side (fig. 13)—to raise up any frame +<span class="sidenote">Huber’s observatory hive.</span> +between two sheets of glass which confined the bees +and allowed him to study the process of comb-building +better than any hive we know of today. By means +of the leaf-hive and using the entrances (fig. 12, <i>e, e</i>, A) +Huber made artificial swarms by dividing and the use of division-boards, +though not in quite the same fashion as is practised at +the present day. On the other hand, it must be admitted that +Huber’s hive was defective in many respects; the parting of +each frame, thus letting loose the whole colony, caused much +trouble at times, but it remained the only movable-comb hive +till 1838, when Dr Dzierzon—whose theory of parthenogenesis +has made his name famous—devised a box-hive with a loose +top-bar on which the bees built their combs and a movable side +or door, by means of which the frames could be lifted out for +inspection. This improvement was at once appreciated, and in +the year 1852 Baron Berlepsch added side-bars and a bottom-bar, +thus completing the movable frame.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:513px; height:567px" src="images/img631a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Huber’s book or leaf hive.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Book hive.</p> +<p> <i>e, e</i>, Entrances.</p> +<p> <i>s, s</i>, Side leaves.</p> +<p> <i>h</i>, Hinges.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>B, Side view of frame or leaf.</p> +<p> <i>tb</i>, Top-bar</p> +<p> <i>c</i>, Comb.</p> +<p> <i>p, p</i>, Pegs.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 34%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>C, Part of bin, cross section, lettering as before.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="3">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:291px" src="images/img631b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Huber’s bar-hive, showing how comb is +built, <i>cb</i>, Comb bar; <i>g, g</i>, glass sheets; <i>s, s</i>, screws; <i>e</i>, entrance</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>About the same time the Rev. L.L. Langstroth was experimenting +on the same lines in America, and in 1852 his important +invention was made known, giving to the world of +bee-keepers a movable frame which in its most important +<span class="sidenote">Laagstroth’s hive.</span> +details will never be excelled. We refer to the +respective distances left between the side-bars and hive walls +on each side, and between the lower edge of the bottom-bars +and the floor-board. Langstroth, in his measurements, hit upon +the happy mean which keeps bees from propolizing or fastening +the frames to the hive body, as they assuredly would do if +sufficient space had not been allowed for free passage round the +side-bars; it is equally certain that if too much space had been +provided, they would fill it with comb and thus render the frame +immovable. In addition to these benefits, Langstroth’s frame +and hive possessed the enormous advantage over Dzierzon’s of +being manipulated from above, so that any single frame could +be raised for inspection without disturbing the others. Langstroth’s +space-measurements have remained practically unaltered +notwithstanding the many improvements in hive-making, and +in the various sizes of movable frames, since introduced and used +in different parts of the world.</p> + +<p>In the United States of America Langstroth’s frame and hive +are the acknowledged “standards” among the great body of +bee-keepers, although about a dozen different frames, +varying more or less in size, have their adherents. +<span class="sidenote">Size of frames in the U.S.A.</span> +Among these may be named the American, Adair, +Danzenbaker, Gallup, Heddon, Langstroth and +Quinby. Three of these, the American, Adair and Gallup, may +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span> +be termed square frames, the others being oblong, but the latter +shape appears to possess the most all-round advantages to the +modern bee-keeper. Amid the different climatic conditions of so +vast a continent as America, variation in size, and in the capacity +of frames used, is in some measure accounted for.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:183px" src="images/img632a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Standard Frame.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the British Isles, though the conditions are variable enough, +they are less extreme, and, fortunately for those engaged in +the pursuit, only one size of frame is acknowledged by +the great majority of bee-keepers, viz. the British +<span class="sidenote">British “Standard” frame.</span> +Bee-keepers’ Association “Standard” (fig. 14). This +frame, the outside measurement of which is 14 by 8½ +in., was the outcome of deliberations extending over a considerable +time on the part of a committee of well-known bee-keepers, +specially appointed in 1882 to consider the matter. In this way, +whatever type or form of +hive is used, the frames +are interchangeable. +Differences in view may, +and do, exist regarding +the thickness of the wood +used in frame-making, but +the <i>outside</i> measurement +never varies. Notwithstanding +this fact, the advancement +of apiculture +and the continuous development of the modern frame-hive and +methods of working have proceeded with such rapidity, both +in England and in America, that hives and appliances used +prior to 1885 are now obsolete.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 385px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:252px" src="images/img632b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Langstroth Hive.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from the <i>A B C of Bee-Culture</i>, + published by the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>It may, therefore, be useful to compare the progress made +in the United States of America and in Great Britain in order to +show that, while the industry is incomparably larger and of +more importance in America and Canada than in Great Britain, +British bee-keepers have been abreast of the times in all things +apicultural. The original Langstroth hive was single-walled, +held ten frames (size 17¾ by 9 in.), and had a deep roof, made +to cover a case of small honey boxes like the sections now in +use; but the cumbersome projecting porch and sides, made to +support the roof, are now dispensed with, and the number of +frames reduced to eight. Although various modifications have +since been made in minor details—all tending to improvement— +its main features are unaltered. The typical hive of America is +the <i>improved</i> Langstroth (fig. 15), which has no other +covering for the frame tops +but a flat roof-board +allowing ¼ in. space +between the roof and +top-bars for bees to +pass from frame to +frame. Consequently, +on the roof being raised +the bees can take wing +if not prevented from +doing so. This feature +finds no favour with +British bee-keepers, +nevertheless the “improved +Langstroth” is +a useful and simple +hive, moderate in price, +and no doubt efficient, but not suitable for bees wintered on their +summer stands, as nearly all hives are in Great Britain. American bee-keepers, +<span class="sidenote">Winter cellars for bees.</span> +therefore, find it necessary to provide +underground cellars, into which the bees are carried +in the fall of each year, remaining there till work +begins in the following spring. Those among them +who cannot, for various reasons, adopt the cellar-wintering plan +are obliged to provide what are termed “chaff-covers” for +protecting their bees in winter. Of late years they have also +introduced, as an improvement, the plan long followed in +England of using double-walled chaff-packed hives. The difference +here is that packing is now dispensed with, it being found +that bees winter equally well with an outer case giving 1½ in. +of free space on all sides of the hive proper, but with no packing +in between. Thus no change is needed in winter or summer, +the air-space protecting the bees from cold in winter and heat +in summer. Another point of difference between the English +and American hive is the roof, which being gable-shaped in the +former allows warm packing to be placed directly on the frame +tops, so that the bees are covered in when the roof is removed +and may be examined or fed with very little disturbance. Again, +the American hive is, as a general rule, set close down on the +ground, while stands or short legs are invariably used in Great +Britain. One of the best-known hives in England is that known +as the W.B.C. hive, devised in 1890 by W. Broughton Carr.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 470px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:390px; height:451px" src="images/img632c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Exterior, W.B.C. Hive.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:365px; height:423px" src="images/img632d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Interior, W.B.C. Hive.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Figs. 16 and 17 explain its construction and, as will be seen, +it is equally suitable +when working +for comb or +for extracted +honey.</p> + +<p>Various causes +have contributed +to the development +of the modern hive, the +most important +of which are the +improvements in +methods of extracting +honey +from combs, and +in the manufacture of comb-foundation. +Regarding +the first +of these, it cannot +be said that +the honey extractor, +even in its latest form, differs very much from the original +machine (fig. 18) invented by Major Hruschka, an officer in +the Italian army, who in later life became an enthusiastic apiculturist. +<span class="sidenote">Honey extractors.</span> +Hruschka’s extractor, first brought to public notice in +1865, may be said to have revolutionized the bee-industry +as a business. It enabled the honey producer to increase +his output considerably by extracting honey from the cells +in most cleanly +fashion without +damaging the +combs, and in a +fraction of the time +previously occupied +in the draining, +heating and squeezing process. At +the same time the +combs were preserved +for refilling +by the bees, in lieu +of melting them +down for wax. The +principle of the +honey extractor +(throwing the +liquid honey out of +the cells by centrifugal +force) was +discovered quite by +accident. Major +Hruschka’s little son chanced to have in his hand a bit +of unsealed comb-honey in a basket to which was attached +a piece of string, and, as the boy playfully whirled the basket +round in the air, his father noticed a few drops of honey, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span> +thrown out of the comb by the centrifugal force employed to +keep the basket suspended. The value of the idea at once struck +him, he set to work on utilizing the principle involved, and +ere long had constructed a machine admirably adapted to serve +its purpose. Since that time changes, of more or less value, have +been introduced to meet present-day requirements. +One of the first to take advantage +of Hruschka’s +invention was Mr A. I. Root, +who in 1869 perfected a +machine on similar lines to +the Hruschka one but +embodying various improvements. +This appliance, +known as the “Novice Honey +Extractor,” became very +popular in the United States of +America, but it had the fault +of wasting time in removing +the combs for reversing after +one side had been emptied +of its contents. A simple form of machine for extracting +honey by centrifugal force was brought to notice in England +in 1875, and was soon improved upon, as will be seen in fig. +19, which shows a section of one of the best English machines +at that time. Various plans were tried in America to improve +on the “Novice” machine, and Mr T.W. Cowan, who was +experimenting in the same direction in England, invented in +the year 1875 a machine called the “Rapid,” in which, the combs +were reversed without removal of the cages (fig. 20). +The frame-cases—wired on both sides—are +hung at the angles of a revolving +ring of iron, and the reversing +process is so simple and effective +that the “Cowan” reversible +frame has been adopted in all +the best machines both in Great +Britain and in America.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:263px" src="images/img633a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:251px; height:363px" src="images/img633b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Hruschka Extractor.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Diagram of the Raynor Extractor.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" style="vertical-align: top;">Redrawn from <i>The A B C of Bee Culture</i>, +published by the A. I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td> +<td class="f90"> +<p>A, Section of extractor.</p> +<p> <i>fr</i>, Fixing rail</p> +<p> <i>ffr</i>, Frame for cage.</p> +<p> <i>wb</i>, Metal webbing.</p> +<p> <i>wn</i>, Wire netting.</p> +<p> <i>co</i>, Comb</p> +<p> <i>w</i>, Wire bottom.</p> +<p> <i>p</i>, Pivot.</p> +<p> <i>c</i>, Stiffening cone.</p> +<p> <i>cb</i>, Coned bottom.</p> +<p> <i>gt</i>, Gutter.</p> +<p> <i>st</i>, Syrup tap.</p> + +<p>C, Perpendicular section of side of cage enlarged.</p> +<p> <i>oc</i>, Outer casing</p> +<p> <i>wb</i>, Metal webbing</p> +<p> <i>wn</i>, Wire netting</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"> </td> +<td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee keeping, Scientific and Practical.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The latest form of honey +extractor used in America is that +known as the “Four-frame +Cowan.” Fig. 21 shows the +working part or inside of the +appliance. In this, and indeed +in all extractors used in large +apiaries, the “Cowan” or reversible +frame principle is used. +Each of the four cages in which +the combs are placed is swung +on a pivot attached to the side, +and when the outer faces of the +combs are emptied the cages are +reversed without removal from +the machine for emptying the +opposite sides of combs. The +further development of the +honey extractor has of late +been limited to an increase in +the size of machine used, in +order to save time and manual +labour, and thus meet the +requirements of the largest honey +producers, who extract honey +by the car load. Some of the +largest machines—propelled by +motor power—are capable of +taking eight or more frames at one time. It may also be claimed +for the honey extractor that it does away with the objection +entertained by many persons to the use of honey, by enabling +the apiarist to remove his produce from the honey-combs in its +purest form untainted by crushed brood and untouched by hand.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:255px; height:336px" src="images/img633c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—Cowan’s rapid Extractor.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:271px; height:314px" src="images/img633d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—Cowan’s four-frame Extractor; interior.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from <i>The A B C of Bee Culture</i>, +published by the A. I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Next in importance, to bee-keepers, is the enormous advance +made in late years through the invention of a machine for +manufacturing the impressed wax sheets known as +“comb foundation,” aptly so named, because upon +<span class="sidenote">Comb foundation.</span> +it the bees build the cells wherein they store their food. +We need not dwell upon the evolution from the crude +idea, which first took form in the endeavour to compel bees to build +straight combs in a given direction by offering them a guiding +line of wax along the under side of each top-bar of the frame in +which the combs were built; but we may glance at the more +important improvements +which gradually developed +as time went on. In 1843 +a German bee-keeper, +Krechner by name, conceived +the idea of first +dipping fine linen into +molten wax, then pressing +the sheets so made between +rollers, and thus +forming a waxen midrib +on which the bees would +build their combs. This +experiment was partially +successful, but the instinctive +dislike of bees +to anything of a fibrous +nature caused them completely +to spoil their work +of comb-building in the endeavour to tear or gnaw away +the linen threads whenever they got in touch with them. +In 1857 Mehring (also a German) made a further advance +by the use of wooden moulds for casting sheets of wax impressed +with the hexagonal form of the bee-cell. These +sheets were readily accepted by the bees, and afterwards +plates cast from metal were employed, with so good a result as to +give to the bees as perfect a midrib as that of natural comb with +the deep cell walls cut away. Fig. 22 shows a portion of one of +these metal plates with worker-cells of natural size, <i>i.e.</i> five cells +to the inch. Thus Mehring is justly claimed as the originator +of comb-foundation, though the value of his invention was less +eagerly taken advantage of even in Germany than its merits +deserved. Probably it was ahead of the times, for not until +nearly twenty years later was any prominence given to it, when +Samuel Wagner, founder +and editor of the <i>American Bee +Journal</i>, became impressed +with Mehring’s invention and +warmly advocated it in his +paper. Mr Wagner first conceived +the idea of adding +slightly raised side walls to the +hexagonal outlines of the cells, +by means of which the bees are +supplied with the material for +building out one-half or more +of the complete cell walls +or sides. The manifest advantage +of this was at once +realized by practical American +apiarists as saving labour +to the bees and money to the +bee-keeper. One of the first +to recognize its value was Mr +A I. Root, of Medina, Ohio, +who suggested the substitution of embossed rollers in lieu of +flat plates, in order to increase the output of foundation +and lessen its cost to the bee-keeper. He lost no time in +giving practical shape to his views, and mainly through +the inventive genius of a skilled machinist (Mr A. Washburn) +the A. I. Root Co. constructed a roller press (fig 23) for +producing foundation in sheets. This form of machine came +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span> +into extensive use in the United States of America and afterwards +in Great Britain. The first roller press was made +by the A.I. Root Co. and imported by Mr William Raitt, a +Scottish bee-keeper of repute in Perthshire, N.B. In all roller +machines used at that time the plain sheets of wax were first +made by the “dipping” process, <i>i.e.</i> by repeated dippings of +damped boards in molten wax (kept in liquid condition in tanks immersed in +hot water) until the sheet was of suitable thickness for the purpose. The +prepared sheets were then passed through the rollers, and after being cut +out and trimmed were ready for use.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:337px; height:225px" src="images/img634a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.—Portion of a type-metal plate—<i>i.e.</i> +form of Comb Midrib (five cells to the inch).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Owing to the enormous demand for comb-foundation at +that time various devices were tried with the view of securing (1) +more rapid production, and (2) a foundation thin enough to be +used in surplus chambers when working for comb-honey intended +for table use. Foremost among the able men who experimented +in this latter direction was Mr F.B. Weed, a skilful American +machinist, who, after some years of strenuous effort, succeeded +in devising and perfecting special rollers and dies, by the use of +which foundation was produced with a midrib so thin as to +compare favourably with natural comb built by the bees. +“Dipping,” however, proved not only a stumbling-block to +speed but to the production of continuous sheets of wax; and +in the end Mr Weed, acting in concert with Mr A.I. Root (who +placed the resources of his enormous factory at his disposal), +devised and perfected machinery—driven by motor power—for +manufacturing foundation by what is known as the “Weed” +process. By this process “dipping” is abolished, and in its +latest form sheets of wax of any length are produced, passed +between engraved rollers 6 in in diameter, cut to given lengths, +trimmed, counted and paper-tissued ready for packing, at a +rate of speed previously undreamt of.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:534px; height:485px" src="images/img634b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.—Foundation Machine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Practical Management of Bees.</i>—Among the world of insects +the honey-bee stands pre-eminent as the most serviceable to +mankind; from the day on which the little labourer leaves its +home for the first time in search of food, its mission is undoubtedly +useful. Launched upon an unknown world, and +guided by unerring instinct to the very flowers it seeks, the bee +fertilizes fruit and flowers while winging its happy flight among +the blossoms, gathering pollen for the nurslings of its own home +and honey for the use of man. Nothing seems to be lost, nor can +any part of the bee’s work be accounted labour in vain; the +very wax from which the insect builds the store-combs for its +food and the cells in which its young are hatched and reared is +valuable to mankind in many ways, and is regarded today no +less than in the past ages as an important commercial product. +The hive bee is, moreover, the only insect known to be capable +of domestication, so far as labouring under the direct control of +the bee-master is concerned, its habits being admirably adapted +for embodying human methods of working for profit in our +present-day life.</p> + +<p>In dealing with the practical side of apiculture it will not be +necessary to do more than mention the salient points to be +considered by those desirous of acquiring more complete knowledge +of the subject. Authoritative text-books specially written +for the guidance of bee-keepers are numerous and cheap, and on +no account should any one engage in an attempt to manage bees +on modern lines without a careful perusal of one or more of these. +Bearing this in mind the reader will understand that so much of +the natural history of the honey-bee as is necessary for elucidating +the practical part of our subject may be comprised in +(1) the life of the insect, (2) its mission in life, and (3) utilizing +to the utmost the brief period during which it can labour before being +worn out with toil.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:370px; height:165px" src="images/img634c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Hive bee (<i>Apis mellafica</i>). +<i>a</i>, Worker; <i>b</i>, queen; <i>c</i>, drone.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and +Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>A prosperous bee-colony managed on modern lines will in the +height of summer consist of three kinds of bees: a queen or +mother-bee, a certain number of drones, and from +80,000 to 100,000 workers. With regard to sex, the +<span class="sidenote">Sex of bees.</span> +queen is a fully-developed female, the drones are males +and the workers may be termed neuters or partially developed +females. These last possess ovaries like the queen, but shrunken +and aborted so as to render the insect normally incapable of +egg-production. The relative importance of the three kinds of bees, +differs greatly in a degree and in somewhat curious fashion. +For instance, the queen (or “king” of the hives as it was termed +by our forefathers) is of paramount importance at certain +<span class="sidenote">Loss of queens.</span> +seasons, her death or disablement during the period +when the male element is absent meaning extinction +of the whole colony. Fecundation would under such conditions +be impossible, and without this the eggs of a resultant +queen will produce nothing but drones. During the summer +season, however (from May to July), when drones are abundant, +the loss of a queen is of comparatively little moment, as the +workers can transform eggs (or young larvae not more than three +days old), which would in the ordinary course produce worker +bees, into fully-developed queens, capable of fulfilling all the +maternal duties of a mother-bee. The value of this wonderful +provision of nature to the bee-keeper of today may be estimated +from the fact that bees managed according to modern methods are +necessarily subject to so much manipulating or handling, that +fatal accidents are as likely to happen in bee life as among +human beings.</p> + +<p>Authorities differ with regard to the age during which the +queen bee is useful to the bee-keeper who works for profit. +Under normal conditions the insect will live for three, four or +sometimes five years, but the stimulation given together with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span> +the high-pressure system followed in modern bee-management, +exhausts the period of her greatest fecundity in two years, so +that queens are usually superseded after their second season +has expired and egg-production gradually decreases. This can +hardly cause wonder if it is borne in mind that for many weeks +during the height of the season a prolific queen will deposit eggs +at the rate of from two to three thousand every twenty-four +hours.</p> + +<p>Drones (or male bees) are more or less numerous in hives +according to the skill of the bee-keeper in limiting their production. +It is admitted by those best able to judge +that the proportion of about a hundred drones in each +<span class="sidenote">The drone.</span> +hive is conducive to the prosperity of the colony, but +beyond that number they are worse than useless, being non-producers +and heavy consumers. Thus in times of scarcity, +which are not infrequent during the early part of the season, +they become a heavy tax upon the food-supply of the colony +at the critical period when brood-rearing is accelerated by an +abundance of stores, while shortness of food means a falling-off +in egg-production. The modern bee-keeper, therefore, +allows just so much drone comb in the hive as will produce +a sufficient number of drones to ensure queen-mating, while +affording to the bees the satisfaction of dwelling in a home +equipped according to natural conditions, and containing all +the elements necessary to bee-life. The action of the bees +themselves makes this point clear, for when the season of mating +is past the drone is no longer needed, the providing of winter +stores taking first place in the economy of the hive. So long +as honey is being gathered in plenty drones are tolerated, but +no sooner does the honey harvest show signs of being over than +they are mercilessly killed and cast out of the hive by the workers, +after a brief idle life of about four months’ duration. Thus +the “lazy yawning drone,” as Shakespeare puts it, has a short +shrift when his usefulness to the community is ended.</p> + +<p>Finally we have the aptly named worker-bee, on whom devolves +the entire labour of the colony. The worker-bee is incapable +of egg-production and can therefore take no part in +the perpetuation of its species, so that individually its +<span class="sidenote">The worker-bee.</span> +value to the community is infinitesimal. Yet it forms +an item in a commonwealth, the members of which are +in all respects equally well endowed. They are in turn skilled +scientists, architects, builders, artisans, labourers and even +scavengers; but collectively they are the rulers on whom the +colony depends for the wonderful condition of law and order +which has made the bee-community a model of good government +for all mankind. Then so far as regards longevity, the period +<span class="sidenote">Longevity in bees.</span> +of a worker-bee’s existence is not measured by numbering +its days but simply by wear and tear, the marvellous +intricacy and wonderful perfection of its framework +being so delicate in construction that after six or seven weeks of +strenuous toil, such as the bee undergoes in summer time, the +little creature’s labour is ended by a natural death. On the other +hand, worker-bees hatched in the autumn will seven months +later be strong with the vigour of lusty youth, able to take +their full share in the labour of the hive for six weeks or more +in the early spring, which is the most critical period in the colony’s +existence; hence the value to the apiarist of bees hatched +in the autumn.</p> + +<p>The mission of the worker-bee is <i>work</i>; not so much for itself +as for the younger members of the community to which it belongs. +We cannot claim for it the virtue of strict honesty with regard +to the stranger, but for its own “kith and kin” it is a model of +socialism in an ideal form, possessing nothing of its own yet +toiling unceasingly for the good of all. The increasing warmth +of each recurring spring finds the bee awake, and full of eagerness +to be up and doing; its sole mission being apparently to accomplish +as much work as possible while life lasts. The earliest +pollen is sought out from far and near, and has its immediate effect +upon the mother bee of the colony. If healthy and young she +begins egg-laying at once, and brood-rearing proceeds at an +ever-increasing rate as each week passes, until the hive is +brimming over with bees in time for the first honey flow. Then +comes the almost human foresight with which the bee prevents +the inevitable chaos created by an overcrowded home. There +is no cell-room either for storing the abundant supply of food +constantly being brought in, or for the thousands of eggs which +a prolific queen will produce daily as a consequence of general +prosperity; therefore unless help comes from without an exodus +is prepared for, and what is known as “swarming” takes +place.</p> + +<p>It would be difficult to imagine anything more exhilarating +to a beginner in bee-keeping than the sight of his first hive in +the act of swarming. The little creatures are seen +rushing in frantic haste from the hive like a living +<span class="sidenote">Swarming.</span> +stream, filling the air with ever-increasing thousands of +bees on the wing. The incoming workers returning pollen-laden +from the fields, carried away by the prevailing excitement, do +not stop to unload their burdens in the old home, but join the +enthusiastic emigrants, tumbling over each other pell-mell +in the outrush; among them the queen of the colony will in due +course have taken her place, bound like her children for a new +home. It soon becomes apparent to the onlooker when the +queen has joined the flying multitude of bees in the air, for they +are seen to be closing up their ranks, and in a few moments +begin to form a solid cluster, usually on the branch of a small +tree or bush close to the ground. When this stage of swarming +is reached the bee-keeper has but to take his hiving skep, hold it +under the swarm, and shake the bees into it, preparatory to transferring +<span class="sidenote">Hiving swarms.</span> +them into a frame-hive already prepared for their reception. +The process of hiving a swarm is very simple and need not occupy many +moments of time under ordinary conditions, but so many unlooked-for +contingencies may arise that the apiarist would do well to prepare +himself beforehand by carefully reading the directions in his +text-book.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:489px; height:402px" src="images/img635.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.—Honeycomb, Metamorphoses of the Honey Bee.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The illustration given in fig. 25 will serve more readily than +words to enlighten the would-be bee-keeper. It shows a portion +of honeycomb (natural size) not precisely as it appears when +the frame containing it is lifted out of the hive, but as would be +seen on two or more combs in the same hive, namely, the various +cells built for—and occupied by—queens, drones and workers; +also the larvae or grubs in the various stages of transformation +from egg to perfect insect, with the latter biting their way out +of sealed cells. It also shows sealed honey and pollen in cells, +&c. To familiarize himself with the various objects depicted, +all of which are drawn from nature, will not only help the reader +to understand the different phases of bee-life during the swarming +season, but tend to increase the interest of beginners in +the pursuit. “Early drones, early swarms” was the ancient +bee-man’s favourite adage, and the skilled apiarist of to-day +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span> +experiences the same pleasurable thrill as did the skeppist of +old at the sight of the first drone of the year, which betokens +an early swarm. As the drones increase in number queen-cells +are formed, unless steps be taken to turn aside the swarming +impulse by affording additional room beforehand in the hive. +The above brief outline of the guiding principles of natural +swarming is merely intended as introductory to the fuller +information given in a good text-book.</p> + +<p><i>Management of an Apiary.</i>—The main consideration in establishing +an apiary is to secure a favourable location, which means +a place where honey of good marketable quality may be gathered +from the bee-forage growing around without any planting on +the part of the bee-keeper himself. It is impossible to deal +here with the varying conditions under which apiculture is +carried on in all parts of the world, but, as a rule, the same +principle applies everywhere. The bee industry prospers greatly +<span class="sidenote"> Bee-forage in U.S.A.</span> +in America, where amid the vast stretches of mountain +and canyon in California the bee-forage extends for +miles without a break, and the climatic conditions +are so generally favourable as to reduce to a minimum +the chances of the honey crop failing through adverse weather.</p> + +<p>The bee-keeper’s object is to utilize to the utmost the brief +space of a worker-bee’s life in summer, by adopting the best +methods in vogue for building up stocks to full strength before +the honey-gathering time begins, and preparing for it by the +exercise of skill and intelligence in carrying out this work.</p> + +<p>In the United Kingdom there is a difference of several weeks +in the honey season between north and south. Swarming +usually begins in May in the south of England, and in mid-July +in the north of Scotland, the issue of swarms coinciding with the +early part of the main honey flow. The weather is naturally +more precarious in autumn than earlier in the year, and chances +of success proportionately smaller for northern bee-men, but +the disadvantage to the latter is more than compensated for +by the heather season, which extends well into September. +With regard to the British bee-keeper located in the south, +<span class="sidenote">Value of pollen.</span> +the early fruit crop is what concerns him most, and +where pollen (the fertilizing dust of flowers) is plentiful +his bees will make steady progress. If pollen is scarce, +a substitute in the form of either pea-meal or wheaten flour +must be supplied to the bees, as brood-rearing cannot make +headway without the nitrogenous element indispensable in the +food on which the young are reared. But the main honey-crop +of both north and south is gathered from the various trifoliums, +<span class="sidenote">The queen of bee-plants.</span> +among which the white Dutch or common clover +(<i>Trifolium repens</i>) is acknowledged to be the most +important honey-producing plant wherever it grows. +In the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand +and in many other parts of the world honey of the finest quality +is obtained from this “queen of bee-plants,” and in lesser degree +from other clovers such as sainfoin, alsike (a hybrid clover), +trefoil, &c.</p> + +<p>Before undertaking the management of a modern apiary, the +bee-keeper should possess a certain amount of aptitude for +the pursuit, without which it is hardly possible to succeed. He +must also acquire the ability to handle bees judiciously and +well under all imaginable conditions. In doing this it is needful +to remember that bees resent outside interference with either +their work or their hives, and will resolutely defend themselves +when aroused even at the cost of life itself. Experience has also +proved that, when alarmed, bees instinctively begin to fill their +honey-sacs with food from the nearest store-cells as a safeguard +against contingencies, and when so provided they are more +amenable to interference. The bee-keeper, therefore, by the +judicious application of a little smoke from smouldering fuel, +blown into the hive by means of an appliance known as a bee-smoker, +alarms the bees and is thus able to manipulate the frames +of comb with ease and almost no disturbance. The smoker +(fig. 26) devised by T.F. Bingham of Farwell, Michigan, U.S.A., +is the one most used in America and in the United Kingdom. +No other protection is needed beyond a bee-veil of fine black +net, which slipped over a wide-brimmed straw hat protects the +face from stings when working among bees; as experience is +gained the veil is not always used. The man who is hasty and +nervous in temperament, who fears an occasional sting, and +resents the same by viciously killing the bee that inflicts it +will rarely make a good apiarist. The methods of handling bees +vary in different countries, this being in a great measure +accounted for by the number of hives kept. Very few apiaries +in the United Kingdom contain more than a hundred hives; +consequently the British bee-keeper has no need for employing +the forceful or “hustling” methods found necessary in America, +<span class="sidenote">British and American methods.</span> +where the honey-crop is gathered in car-loads and the +hives numbered by thousands. It naturally follows +that bee-life is there regarded very slightly by comparison, +and the bee-garden in England becomes +the “bee-yard” in America, where the apiarist when at work +must thoroughly protect himself from being stung, and, safe +in his immunity from damage, cares little for bee-life in getting +through his task, the loss of a few +hundred bees being considered of +no account. There are, however, +other reasons, apart from humanity, +to account for the difference in +handling bees as advocated in +the United Kingdom. The great +majority of apiaries owned by +British bee-keepers are located in +close proximity to neighbours; +consequently a serious upset among +the bees would in many cases involve +an amount of trouble which +should if possible be avoided; +therefore quietness and the exercise +of care when manipulating are +always recommended by teachers, +and practised by those who wisely +take their lessons to heart.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 285px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:234px; height:333px" src="images/img636.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.—Bee-Smoker.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Redrawn from the <i>A B C of Bee-Culture</i>, +published by the A.I. Root Co, Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Having made himself proficient +in practical bee-work and chosen a suitable location for +his apiary, the bee-keeper should carefully select the particular +type of hive most suited to his means and +requirements. This point settled, uniformity is +<span class="sidenote">Chosing a location.</span> +secured, and all loose parts of the hives being +interchangeable time will be saved during the busy season +when time means money. Beginning with not too many +stocks he can test the capabilities of his location before +investing much capital in the undertaking, so that by utilizing +the information already given and adopting the wise adage +“make haste slowly” he will realize in good time whether it +will pay best to work for honey in comb or extracted honey +in bulk; not only so, but the knowledge gained will enable +him to select such appliances as are suited to his needs. As a rule, +<span class="sidenote">Bee-keeping for profit.</span> +it may be said that the man content to start with an +apiary of moderate size—say fifty stocks—may +realize a fair profit from comb-honey only; but so +limited a venture would need to be supplemented +by some other means before an adequate income could be secured. +On the other hand, the owner of one or two hundred colonies +would find it more lucrative to work for extracted honey and send +it out to wholesale buyers in that form. By so doing a far +greater weight of surplus per hive may be secured, and extracted +honey will keep in good condition for years, while comb-honey +must be sold before granulation sets in. At the same time it +is but fair to say that bee-culture in the United Kingdom, if +limited to honey-production alone, is not sufficiently safe for +entire reliance to be placed on it for obtaining a livelihood. +The uncertain climate renders it necessary to include either +other branches of the craft less dependent on warmth and +sunshine, or to combine it with fruit-growing, poultry-rearing, +&c. Under such conditions the bees will usually occupy a good +position in the balance-sheet.</p> + +<p>Another indispensable feature of good bee-management is +“forethought,” coupled with order and neatness; the rule of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span> +“a place for everything and everything in its place” prepares +the bee-keeper for any emergency; constant watchfulness is +<span class="sidenote">Need of forethought.</span> +also necessary, not only to guard against disease in +his hives, but to overlook nothing that tends to be of +advantage to the bees at all seasons. Among the many +ways of saving time nothing is more useful than a +carefully-kept note-book, wherein are recorded brief memoranda +regarding such items as condition of each stock when packed +for winter, amount of stores, age and prolific capacity of queen, +strength of colony, healthiness or otherwise, &c., all of which +particulars should be noted and the hives to which they refer +plainly numbered. It also enables the bee-keeper to arrange his +day’s work indoors while avoiding disturbance to such colonies +as do not need interference. In the early spring stores must be +seen to and replenished where required; breeding stimulated +when pollen begins to be gathered, and appliances cleaned and +prepared for use during the busy season.</p> + +<p>The main honey-gathering time (lasting about six or seven +weeks) is so brief that in no pursuit is it more important to +“make hay while the sun shines,” and if the bee-keeper +needs a reminder of this truism he surely has it in the +<span class="sidenote">Length of bee season.</span> +example set by his bees. As the season advances and +the flowers yield nectar more freely, visible signs of comb-building +will be observed in the whitened edges of empty +cells in the brood-chambers; the thoughtful workers are +lengthening out the cells for honey-storing, and the bee-master +takes the hint by giving room in advance, thus lessening the +chance of undesired swarms. In other words, order and method, +combined with the habit of taking time by the forelock, are +absolutely necessary to the bee-keeper, seeing that the enormous +army of workers under his control is multiplying daily by +scores of thousands. As spring merges into summer, sunny days +become more frequent; the ever-increasing breadth of bee-forage +yields still more abundantly, and the excitement among +the labourers crowding the hives increases, rendering room in +advance, shade and ventilation, a <i>sine qua non</i>. +It requires a level head to keep cool amongst a couple of hundred +strong stocks of bees on a hot summer’s day in a good honey season. +<span class="sidenote">Swarm prevention.</span> +Moreover, it will be too late to think of giving ventilation +at noontide, when the temperature has risen to +80° F. in the shade; the necessary precautions for +swarm prevention must therefore be taken in advance, +for when what is known as the “swarming fever” once starts +it is most difficult to overcome.</p> + +<p>The well-read and intelligent bee-keeper, content to work on +orthodox lines, will be able to manage an apiary—large or small—by +guiding and controlling the countless army he commands in a +way that will yield him both pleasure and profit. All he needs +is good bee weather and an apiary free from disease to make him +appreciate bee-craft as one of the most remunerative of rural +industries; affording a wholesome open-air life conducive to +good health and yielding an abundance of contentment.</p> + +<p><i>Diseases of Bees</i>.—It is quite natural that bees living in +colonies should be subject to diseases, and only since the +introduction of movable-comb hives has it been possible to learn +something about these ailments. The most serious disease with +which the bee-keeper has to contend is that commonly known +as “bee-pest” or “foul brood,” so called because of the young +brood dying and rotting in the cells. This disease has been +known from the earliest ages, and is probably the same as that +designated by Pliny as <i>blapsigonia (Natural History</i>, bk. xi. +ch. xx.). Coming to later times, Della Rocca minutely describes +a disease to which bees were subject in the island of Syra, between +the years 1777 and 1780, and through which nearly every colony +in the island perished. From the description given it was +undoubtedly foul brood, and the bee-keepers of the island +became convinced, after bitter experience, that it was extremely +contagious. Schirach also mentioned and described the disease +in 1769, and was the first to give it the name of “foul brood.” +Still later, in 1874, Dr Cohn, after the most exhaustive experiments +and bacteriological research, realized that the disease was +caused by a bacillus, and—nine years later—the name <i>Bacillus +alvei</i> was given to it by Cheyne and Cheshire, whose views were +in agreement with those of Dr Cohn.</p> + +<p>The illustration (fig. 27) shows a portion of comb affected with +foul brood in its worst form. The sealed cells are dark-coloured +and sunken, pierced with irregular holes, and the larvae in all +stages from the crescent-shaped healthy condition to that in +which the dead larvae are seen lying at the bottom of the cells, +flaccid and shapeless. The remains then change to buff colour, +afterwards turning brown, when decomposition sets in, and as +the bacilli present in the dead larvae increase and the nutrient +matter is consumed, the mass in some cases becomes sticky and +ropy in character, making its removal impossible by the bees. +In course of time it dries up, leaving nothing but a brown scale +adhering to the bottom or side of the cell. In the worst cases +the larvae even die after the cells are sealed over; a strong +characteristic and offensive odour being developed in some +phases of the disease, noticeable at times some distance away +from the hive.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:485px; height:314px" src="images/img637.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.—Foul Brood (<i>Bacillus alvei</i>).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Cheshire’s <i>Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Two forms of foul brood have been long known, one foul +smelling, the other odourless; and investigations made during +1906 and 1907 showed that the etiology of the disease is not by +any means simple, but that it is produced by different microbes, +two others in addition to <i>Bacillus alvei</i> playing an important +part. These are <i>Bacillus brandenburgiensis</i>, Maassen (syn. +<i>B. burri</i>, Burri: <i>B. larvae</i>, white), and <i>Streptococcus apis</i>, +Maassen (syn. <i>B. Guntheri</i>, Burri). The first two are found in +both forms of foul brood, whereas the last is only present with +<i>B. alvei</i> in the strong-smelling form of the disease, in which the +larvae are attacked prior to the cells being sealed over.</p> + +<p>The brood of bees, when healthy, lies in the combs in compact +masses, the larvae being plump and of a pearly whiteness, and +when quite young curled up on their sides at the base of the +cells. When attacked by the disease, the larva moves uneasily, +stretches itself out lengthwise in the cell, and finally becomes +loose and flabby, an appearance which plainly indicates death.</p> + +<p>When the disease attacks the larvae before they are sealed +over <i>Bacillus alvei</i> is present, usually associated with +<i>Streptococcus apis</i>, which latter imparts a sour smell to the dead +brood. In cases where the disease is odourless the larvae are attacked +after the cells are sealed over, and just before they change to +pupae, when they become slimy, sputum-like masses, difficult +to remove from the cells. Under these conditions <i>Bacillus +brandenburgiensis</i> is found, although <i>Bacillus alvei</i> may also +be present. The two bacilli are antagonistic, each striving for +supremacy, first one then the other predominating. Various +other microbes are also present in large numbers, but are not +believed to be pathogenic or disease-producing in character.</p> + +<p>It is, therefore, seen that at least three different microbes play +an important part in the same disease. The danger of contagion +lies in the wonderful vitality of the spores, and their great +resistance to heat and cold. Dr Maassen records a case where +he had no difficulty in obtaining cultures from spores removed +from combs after being kept dry for twenty years. It should be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span> +borne in mind that the disease is much easier to cure in the +earlier stages while the bacilli are still rod-shaped than when the +rods have turned to spores.</p> + +<p>Since the bacterial origin of foul brood has been established, +the efforts of some bacteriologists have been employed in finding +a simple remedy by means of which the disease may be checked +in its earliest stages, and in this an appreciable amount of success +has been attained. Nor has foul brood in its more advanced +forms been neglected, all directions for treatment being found +in text-books written by distinguished writers on apiculture in +the United Kingdom, America and throughout the European continent.</p> + +<p>The only other disease to which reference need be made here +is dysentery, which sometimes breaks out after the long +confinement bees are compelled to undergo during severe winters. +This trouble may be guarded against by feeding the bees in the +early autumn with good food made from cane sugar, and housing +them in well-ventilated hives kept warm and dry by suitable +coverings. When bees are wintered on thin, watery food not +sealed over, and are unable for months to take cleansing flights, +they become weak and involuntarily discharge their excrement +over the combs and hive, a state of things never seen in a healthy +colony under normal conditions. The stocks of bee-keepers +who attend to the instructions given in text-books are rarely +visited by this disease.</p> + +<p>The above embraces all that is necessary to be said in relation +to diseases, though bees have been subject to other ailments +such as paralysis, constipation, &c.</p> + +<p>In the Isle of Wight a serious epidemic broke out in 1906 +which caused great destruction to bee-life in the following year. +The malady was of an obscure character, but its cause has been +under investigation by the British Board of Agriculture and +Fisheries, and by European bacteriologists in 1908.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Though in modern times a great deal has appeared +in the daily newspapers on the subject, it is a notable fact that not a +tithe of the wonderful things published in such articles about bees +and bee-keeping is worthy of credence or possesses any real value. +Indeed, a pressman possessing any technical knowledge of the +subject—beyond that obtainable from books—would be a <i>rara avis</i>. +The account given above is the result of forty years’ practical +experience with bees in England, the writer having for a great +portion of the time been connected editorially with the only two +papers in that country entirely devoted to bees and bee-keeping, +<i>The British Bee Journal</i> (weekly, founded 1873), and <i>Bee-keepers’ +Record</i> (monthly, founded 1882), the former being the only weekly +journal in the world. The following books on the subject may be +consulted for further details:—François Huber, <i>New Observations +on the Natural History of Bees</i>; +T.W. Cowan, <i>British Bee-keepers’ Guide-Book, +The Honey Bee, its Natural History, Anatomy and Physiology; +Langstroth on the Honey Bee</i>, revised by C. Dadant & Son; +A.I. Root, <i>A B C and X Y Z of Bee-culture</i>; +F.R. Cheshire, <i>Bees and Bee-keeping</i>; +Dr Dzierzon, <i>Rational Bee-keeping</i>; +E. Bertrand, <i>Conduite du rucher</i>; +A.J. Cook, <i>Manual of the Apiary</i>; +Dr C.C. Miller, <i>Forty Years among the Bees</i>; +F.W.L. Sladen, <i>Queen-rearing in England</i>; +S. Simmins, <i>A Modern Bee Farm</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B. Ca.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECH,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a well-known tree, <i>Fagus sylvatica</i>, a member of the +order Fagaceae to which belong the sweet-chestnut (<i>Castanea</i>) +and oak. The name beech is from the Anglo-Saxon <i>boc, bece</i> or +<i>beoce</i> (Ger. <i>Buche</i>, Swedish, <i>bok</i>), words meaning at once a book +and a beech-tree. The connexion of the beech with the graphic +arts is supposed to have originated in the fact that the ancient +Runic tablets were formed of thin boards of beech-wood. “The +origin of the word,” says Prior (<i>Popular Names of British Plants</i>), +“is identical with that of the Sanskrit <i>bōkō</i>, letter, <i>bōkōs</i>, writings; +and this correspondence of the Indian and our own is interesting +as evidence of two things, viz. that the Brahmins had the art of +writing before they detached themselves from the common stock +of the Indo-European race in Upper Asia, and that we and other +Germans have received alphabetic signs from the East by a +northern route and not by the Mediterranean.” Beech-mast, +the fruit of the beech-tree, was formerly known in England as +buck; and the county of Buckingham is so named from its fame +as a beech-growing country. Buckwheat (<i>Bucheweizen</i>) derives +its name from the similarity of its angular seeds to beech-mast. +The generic name Fagus is derived from <span class="grk" title="phagein">φάγειν</span> to eat; but the +<span class="grk" title="phaegos">φηγός</span> of Theophrastus was probably the sweet chestnut +(<i>Aesculus</i>) of the Romans. Beech-mast has been used as food in times of +distress and famine; and in autumn it yields an abundant supply +of food to park-deer and other game, and to pigs, which are +turned into beech-woods in order to utilize the fallen mast. In +France it is used for feeding pheasants and domestic poultry. +Well-ripened beech-mast yields from 17 to 20% of non-drying +oil, suitable for illumination, and said to be used in some parts +of France and other European countries in cooking, and as a +substitute for butter.</p> + +<p>The beech is one of the largest British trees, particularly on +chalky or sandy soils, native in England from Yorkshire southwards, +and planted in Scotland and Ireland. It is one of the +common forest trees of temperate Europe, spreading from +southern Norway and Sweden to the Mediterranean. It is +found on the Swiss Alps to about 5000 ft. above sea-level, and +in southern Europe is usually confined to high mountain slopes; +it is plentiful in southern Russia, and is widely distributed in +Asia Minor and the northern provinces of Persia.</p> + +<p>It is characterized by its sturdy pillar-like stem, often from +15 to 20 ft. in girth, and smooth olive-grey bark. The main +branches rise vertically, while the subsidiary branches spread +outwards and give the whole tree a rounded outline. The +slender brown pointed buds give place in April to clear green +leaves fringed with delicate silky hairs. The flowers which +appear in May are inconspicuous and, as usual with our forest +trees, of two kinds; the male, in long-stalked globular clusters, +hang from the axils of the lower leaves of a shoot, while the +female, each of two or three flowers in a tiny cup (cupule of bracts), +stand erect nearer the top of the shoot. In the ripe fruit or +mast the four-sided cupule, which has become much enlarged, +brown and tough, encloses two or three three-sided rich chestnut-brown +fruits, each containing a single seed. It is readily propagated +by its seeds. It is a handsome tree in every stage of its +growth, but is more injurious to plants under its drip than other +trees, so that shade-bearing trees, as holly, yew and thuja, +suffer. Its leaves, however, enrich the soil. The beech has a +remarkable power of holding the ground where the soil is congenial, +and the deep shade prevents the growth of other trees. +It is often and most usefully mixed with oak and Scotch fir. +The timber is not remarkable for either strength or durability. +It was formerly much used in mill-work and turnery; but its +principal use at present is in the manufacture of chairs, bedsteads +and a variety of minor articles. It makes excellent fuel and +charcoal. The copper-beech is a variety with copper-coloured +leaves, due to the presence of a red colouring-matter in the sap. +There is also a weeping or pendulous-branched variety; and several +varieties with more or less cut leaves, are known in cultivation.</p> + +<p>The genus <i>Fagus</i> is widely spread in temperate regions, and +contains in addition to our native beech, about 15 other species. +A variety (<i>F. sylvatica</i> var. <i>Sieboldi</i>) is a native of Japan, +where it is one of the finest and most abundant of the deciduous-leaved +forest trees. <i>Fagus americana</i> is one of the most beautiful and +widely-distributed trees of the forests of eastern North America. +It was confounded by early European travellers with <i>F. sylvatica</i>, +from which it is distinguished by its paler bark and lighter green, +more sharply-toothed leaves. Several species are found in +Australia and New Zealand, and in the forests of southern Chile +and Patagonia. The dense forests which cover the shore of the +Straits of Magellan and the mountain-slopes of Tierra del Fuego +consist largely of two beeches—one evergreen, <i>Fagus betuloides</i>, +and one with deciduous leaves, <i>F. antarctica</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (1856-1904), American +palaeontologist, was born at Dunkirk, New York, on the 9th of +October 1856. He graduated at the university of Michigan in +1878, and then became assistant to James Hall in the state +museum at Albany. Ten years later he was appointed to the +charge of the invertebrate fossils in the Peabody Museum, New +Haven, under O.C. Marsh, whom he succeeded in 1899 as curator. +Meanwhile in 1889 he received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale +University for his memoir on the <i>Brachiospongidae</i>, a remarkable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span> +group of Silurian sponges; later on he did good work among +the fossil corals, and other groups, being ultimately regarded +as a leading authority on fossil crustacea and brachiopoda; +his researches on the development of the brachiopoda, and on +the Trilobites <i>Triarthrus</i> and <i>Trinudeus</i>, were especially +noteworthy. In 1892 he was appointed professor of palaeontology in Yale +University. He died on the 14th of February 1904.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Memoir by C. Schuchert in <i>Amer. Journ. Science</i>, vol. xvii., +June 1904 (with portrait and bibliography).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECHER, HENRY WARD<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1813-1887), American preacher +and reformer, was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 24th +of June 1813. He was the eighth child of Lyman and Roxana +Foote Beecher, and brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe. Entering +Amherst College in 1830, and graduating four years later, he +gave more attention to his own courses of reading than to +college studies, and was more popular with his fellows than +with the faculty. With a patience foreign to his impulsive +nature, he submitted to minute drill in elocution, and became +a fluent extemporaneous speaker. Reared in a Puritan atmosphere, +he has graphically described the mystical experience +which, coming to him in his early youth, changed his whole +conception of theology and determined his choice of the ministry. +“I think,” he says, “that when I stand in Zion and before God, +the highest thing that I shall look back upon will be that blessed +morning of May when it pleased God to reveal to my wondering +soul the idea that it was His nature to love a man in his sins for +the sake of helping him out of them.” In 1837 he graduated from +Lane Theological Seminary in Ohio, of which his father was +president, and entered upon his work as pastor of a missionary +Presbyterian church at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, a village on the +Ohio, about 20 m. below Cincinnati. The membership numbered +nineteen women and one man. Beecher was sexton as well as +preacher. Two years later he accepted a call to Indianapolis. +His unconventional preaching shocked the more staid members +of the flock, but filled the church to overflowing with people +unaccustomed to churchgoing. He studied men rather than +books; became acquainted with the vices in what was then a +pioneer town; and in his <i>Seven Lectures to Young Men</i> (1844) +treated these with genuine power of realistic description and +with youthful and exuberant rhetoric. Eight years later (1847) +he accepted a call to the pastorate of Plymouth Church (Congregational), +then newly organized in Brooklyn, New York. +The situation of the church, within five minutes’ walk of the chief +ferry to New York, the stalwart character of the man who had +organized it, and the peculiar eloquence of Beecher, combined +to make the pulpit a national platform. The audience-room +of the church, capable of seating 2000 or 2500 people, frequently +contained 500 or 1000 more.</p> + +<p>Beecher at once became a recognized leader. On the all-absorbing +question of slavery he took a middle ground between the +pro-slavery or peace party, and abolitionists like William Lloyd +Garrison and Wendell Phillips, believing, with such statesmen +as W.H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, and Abraham Lincoln, +that slavery was to be overthrown under the constitution and +in the Union, by forbidding its growth and trusting to an +awakened conscience, enforced by an enlightened self-interest. +He was always an anti-slavery man, but never technically an +abolitionist, and he joined the Republican party soon after its +organization. In the earlier days of the agitation, he challenged +the hostility which often mobbed the anti-slavery gatherings; +in the later days he consulted with the political leaders, inspiring +the patriotism of the North, and sedulously setting himself to +create a public opinion which should confirm and ratify the +emancipation proclamation whenever the president should +issue it. When danger of foreign intervention cast its threatening +shadow across the national path, he went to England, and by +his famous addresses did what probably no other American +could have done to strengthen the spirit in England favourable +to the United States, and to convert that which was doubtful +and hostile. In 1861-1863 he was the editor-in-chief of the +<i>Independent</i>, then a Congregational journal; and in his editorials, +copied far and wide, produced a profound impression on the public mind +by clarifying and defining the issue. Later (in 1870), +he founded and became editor-in-chief of the <i>Christian Union</i>, +afterwards the <i>Outlook</i>, a religious undenominational weekly. +His lectures and addresses had the spirit if not the form of his +sermons, just as his sermons were singularly free from the +homiletical tone. Yet his work as a reformer was subsidiary +to his work as a preacher. He was not indeed a parish pastor; +he inspired church activities which grew to large proportions, +but trusted the organization of them to laymen of organizing +abilities in the church; and for acquaintance with his people +he depended on such social occasions as were furnished in the +free atmosphere of this essentially New England church at the +close of every service. But during his pastorate the church grew +to be probably the largest in membership in the United States.</p> + +<p>It was in the pulpit that Beecher was seen at his best. His +mastery of the English tongue, his dramatic power, his instinctive +art of impersonation, which had become a second nature, his +vivid imagination, his breadth of intellectual view, the catholicity +of his sympathies, his passionate enthusiasm, which made for +the moment his immediate theme seem to him the one theme of +transcendent importance, his quaint humour alternating with +genuine pathos, and above all his simple and singularly +unaffected devotional nature, made him as a preacher without a +peer in his own time and country. His favourite theme was +love: love to man was to him the fulfilment of all law; love of +God was the essence of all Christianity. Retaining to the day +of his death the forms and phrases of the New England theology +in which he had been reared, he poured into them a new meaning +and gave to them a new significance. He probably did more +than any other man in America to lead the Puritan churches +from a faith which regarded God as a moral governor, the Bible +as a book of laws, and religion as obedience to a conscience to +a faith which regards God as a father, the Bible as a book of +counsels, and religion as a life of liberty in love. The later years +of his life were darkened by a scandal which Beecher’s personal, +political and theological enemies used for a time effectively to +shadow a reputation previously above reproach, he being +charged by Theodore Tilton, whom he had befriended, with +having had improper relations with his (Tilton’s) wife. But in +the midst of these accusations (February 1876), the largest and +most representative Congregational council ever held in the +United States gave expression to a vote of confidence in him, +which time has absolutely justified. Not a student of books nor +a technical scholar in any department, Beecher’s knowledge +was as wide as his interests were varied. He was early familiar +with the works of Matthew Arnold, Charles Darwin and Herbert +Spencer; he preached his <i>Bible Studies</i> sermons in 1878, when +the higher criticism was wholly unknown to most evangelical +ministers or known only to be dreaded; and his sermons on +<i>Evolution and Religion</i> in 1885, when many of the ministry +were denouncing evolution as atheistic. He was stricken with +apoplexy while still active in the ministry, and died at Brooklyn +on the 8th of March 1887, in the seventy-fourth year of his age.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principal books by Beecher, besides his published sermons, +are: <i>Seven Lectures to Young Men</i> (1844); <i>Plymouth Collection of +Hymns and Tunes</i> (1855); <i>Star Papers, Experiences of Art and +Nature</i> (1855); <i>Life Thoughts</i> (1858); <i>New Star Papers; or Views +and Experiences of Religious Subjects</i> (1859); <i>Plain and Pleasant +Talks about Fruits, Flowers, and Farming</i> (1859); <i>American Rebellion, +Report of Speeches delivered in England at Public Meetings in +Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and London</i> (1864); +<i>Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit</i> (1867); <i>Norwood: A Tale of Village +Life in New England</i> (1867); <i>The Life of Jesus the Christ</i> (1871), +completed in 2 vols. by his sons (1891); and <i>Yale Lectures on +Preaching</i> (3 vols., 1872-1874).</p> + +<p>The prinipal lives are: Noyes L. Thompson, <i>The History of +Plymouth Church</i> (1847-1872); Thomas W. Knox, <i>The Life and +Work of Henry Ward Beecher</i> (Hartford, Conn., 1887); Frank S. +Child, <i>The Boyhood of Henry Ward Beecher</i> (Pamphlet, New Creston, +Conn., 1887); Joseph Howard, Jr., <i>Life of Henry Ward Beecher</i> +(Philadelphia, 1887); T.W. Hanford, <i>Beecher: Christian Philosopher, +Pulpit Orator, Patriot and Philanthropist</i> (Chicago, 1887); +Lyman Abbott and S.B. Halliday, <i>Henry Ward Beecher: A Sketch +of his Career</i> (New York, 1887); William C. Beecher, Rev. Samuel +Scoville and Mrs. H.W. Beecher, <i>A Biography of Henry Ward +Beecher</i> (New York, 1888); John R. Howard, <i>Henry Ward Beecher:</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span> +<i>A Study</i> (1891); John Henry Barrows, <i>Henry Ward Beecher</i> (New York, +1893); and Lyman Abbott, <i>Henry Ward Beecher</i> (Boston, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECHER, LYMAN<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1775-1863), American clergyman, was born at New Haven, +Connecticut, on the 12th of October 1775. He was a descendant of one of +the founders of the New Haven colony, worked as a boy in an uncle’s +blacksmith shop and on his farm, and in 1797 graduated from Yale, having +studied theology under Timothy Dwight. He preached in the Presbyterian +church at East Hampton, Long Island (1798-1810, being ordained in 1799); +in the Congregational church at Litchfield, Connecticut (1810-1826), in +the Hanover Street church of Boston (1826-1832), and in the Second +Presbyterian church of Cincinnati, Ohio (1833-1843); was president of +the newly established Lane Theological Seminary at Walnut Hills, +Cincinnati, and was professor of didactic and polemic theology there +(1832-1850), being professor emeritus until his death. At Litchfield and +in Boston he was a prominent opponent of the growing “heresy” of +Unitarianism, though as early as 1836 he was accused of being a +“moderate Calvinist” and was tried for heresy, but was acquitted. Upon +his resignation from Lane Theological Seminary he lived in Boston for a +short time, devoting himself to literature; but he broke down, and the +last ten years of his life were spent at the home of his son, Henry Ward +Beecher, in Brooklyn, New York, where he died on the both of January +1863. Magnetic in personality, incisive and powerful in manner of +expression, he was in his prime one of the most eloquent of American +pulpit orators. In 1806 he preached a widely circulated sermon on +duelling, and about 1814 a series of six sermons on intemperance, which +were reprinted frequently and greatly aided temperance reform. Thrice +married, he had a large family, his seven sons becoming Congregational +clergymen, and his daughters, Harriet Beecher Stowe (<i>q.v.</i>) and Catherine +Esther Beecher, attaining literary distinction.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lyman Beecher’s published works include: <i>A Plea for the West</i> (1835), +<i>Views in Theology</i> (1836), and various sermons; his <i>Collected Works</i> +were published at Boston in 1852 in 3 vols. Consult his <i>Autobiography +and Correspondence</i> (2 vols., New York, 1863-1864), edited by his son +Charles; D.H. Alien, <i>Life and Services of Lyman Beecher</i> (Cincinnati, +1863); and James C. White, <i>Personal Reminiscences of Lyman Beecher</i> +(New York, 1882).</p> +</div> + +<p>His daughter, <span class="sc">Catherine Esther</span> (1800-1878), was born at East Hampton, +Long Island, on the 6th of September 1800. She was educated at +Litchfield Seminary, and from 1822 to 1832 conducted a school for girls +at Hartford, Connecticut, with her sister Harriet’s assistance, and from +1832 to 1834 conducted a similar school in Cincinnati. She wrote and +lectured on women’s education and in behalf of better primary schools, +and radically opposed woman suffrage and college education for women, +holding woman’s sphere to be domestic. The National Board of Popular +Education, a charitable society which she founded, sent hundreds of +women as teachers into the South and West. She died on the 12th of May +1878 in Elmira, New York. She published <i>An Essay on Slavery and +Abolition with Reference to the Duty of American Females</i> (1837), <i>A +Treatise on Domestic Economy</i> (1842), <i>The True Remedy for the Wrongs of +Women</i> (1851), <i>Letters to the People on Health and Happiness</i> (1855), +<i>The Religious Training of Children</i> (1864), and <i>Woman’s Profession as +Mother and Educator</i> (1871).</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Edward Beecher</span> (1803-1895), was born at East Hampton, Long +Island, on the 27th of August 1803, graduated at Yale in 1822, studied +theology at Andover, and in 1826 became pastor of the Park Street church +in Boston. From 1830 to 1844 he was president of Illinois College, +Jacksonville, Illinois, and subsequently filled pastorates at the Salem +Street church, Boston (1844-1855), and the Congregational church at +Galesburg, Illinois (1855-1871). He was senior editor of the +<i>Congregationalist</i> (1849-1855), and an associate editor of the +<i>Christian Union</i> from 1870. In 1872 he settled in Brooklyn, New York, +where in 1885-1889 he was pastor of the Parkville church and where he +died on the 28th of July 1895. He wrote <i>Addresses on the Kingdom of +God</i> (1827), <i>History of the Alton Riots</i> (1837), <i>Statement of +Anti-Slavery Principles</i> (1837), <i>Baptism, its Import and Modes</i> (1850), +<i>The Conflict of Ages</i> (1853), <i>The Papal Conspiracy Exposed</i> (1855), +<i>The Concord of Ages</i> (1860), and <i>History of Opinions on the Scriptural +Doctrine of Future Retribution</i> (1878).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Charles Beecher</span> (1815-1900), another of Lyman’s sons, was born at +Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 7th of October 1815. He graduated at +Bowdoin College in 1834, and subsequently held pastorates at Newark, New +Jersey (1851-1857), and Georgetown, Massachusetts; and from 1870 to 1877 +lived in Florida, where he was state superintendent of public +instruction in 1871-1873. He died at Georgetown, Massachusetts, on the +21st of April 1900. He was an accomplished musician, and assisted in the +selection and arrangement of music in the <i>Plymouth Collection of Hymns +and Tunes</i>. He wrote <i>David and His Throne</i> (1855), <i>Pen Pictures of the +Bible</i> (1855), <i>Redeemer and Redeemed</i> (1864), and <i>Spiritual +Manifestations</i> (1879).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Thomas Kinnicutt Beecher</span> (1824-1900), another son, born at Litchfield, +Connecticut, on the 10th of February 1824, was pastor of the Independent +Congregational church (now the Park church), at Elmira, New York, one of +the first institutional churches in the country, from 1854 until his +death at Elmira on the 14th of March 1900. He wrote Our <i>Seven Churches</i> +(1870).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1796-1856), English naval officer and +geographer, son of Sir William Beechey, R.A., was born in London on the +17th of February 1796. In 1806 he entered the navy, and saw active +service during the wars with France and America. In 1818 he served under +Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) John Franklin in Buchan’s Arctic expedition, +of which at a later period he published a narrative; and in the +following year he accompanied Lieutenant W.E. Parry in the “Hecla.” In +1821 he took part in the survey of the Mediterranean coast of Africa +under the direction of Captain, afterwards Admiral, William Henry Smyth. +He and his brother Henry William Beechey, made an overland survey of +this coast, and published a full account of their work in 1828 under the +title of <i>Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of +Africa from Tripoly Eastward in 1821-1822</i>. In 1825 Beechey was +appointed to command the “Blossom,” which was intended to explore Bering +Strait, in concert with Franklin and Parry operating from the east. He +passed the strait and penetrated as far as 71° 23′ 31″ N., and 156° 21′ +30″ W., reaching a point only 146 m. west of that reached by Franklin’s +expedition from the Mackenzie river. The whole voyage lasted more than +three years; and in the course of it Beechey discovered several islands +in the Pacific, and an excellent harbour near Cape Prince of Wales. In +1831 there appeared his <i>Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and +Bering’s Strait to Co-operate with the Polar Expeditions, 1825-1828</i>. In +1835 and the following year Captain Beechey was employed on the coast +survey of South America, and from 1837 to 1847 carried on the same work +along the Irish coasts. He was appointed in 1850 to preside over the +Marine Department of the Board of Trade. In 1854 he was made +rear-admiral, and in the following year was elected president of the +Royal Geographical Society. He died on the 29th of November 1856.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1753-1839), English portrait-painter, was born at +Burford. He was originally meant for a conveyancer, but a strong love +for painting induced him to become a pupil at the Royal Academy in 1772. +Some of his smaller portraits gained him considerable reputation; he +began to be employed by the nobility, and in 1793 became associate of +the Academy. In the same year he was made portrait-painter to Queen +Charlotte. He painted the portraits of the members of the royal family, +and of nearly all the most famous or fashionable persons of the time. +What is considered his finest production is a review of cavalry, a large +composition, in the foreground of which he introduced portraits of +George III., the prince of Wales and the duke of York, surrounded by a +brilliant staff on horseback. It was painted in 1798, and obtained for +the artist the honour of knighthood, and his election as R.A.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1859-  ), English clergyman and author, was born +on the 15th of May 1859, and educated at the City of London school and +at Balliol College, Oxford. He took holy orders in 1882, and after three +years in a Liverpool +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span> +curacy he was for fifteen years rector of Yattendon, Berkshire. +From 1900 to 1903 he lectured on pastoral and liturgical theology +at King’s College, London, and was chaplain of Lincoln’s Inn, +where he became preacher in 1903. He became a canon of +Westminster in 1902, and examining chaplain to the bishop of +Carlisle in 1905. As a poet he is best known by his share in two +volumes—<i>Love in Idleness</i> (1883) and <i>Love’s Looking Glass</i> +(1891)—which contained also poems by J.W. Mackail and +J. Bowyer Nichols. He was a sympathetic editor and critic of the +works of many 16th and 17th century poets, of Richard Crashaw +(1905), of Herrick (1907), of John Milton (1900), of Henry +Vaughan (1896). Under the pseudonym of “Urbanus Sylvan” +he published two successful volumes of essays, <i>Pages from a +Private Diary</i> (1898) and <i>Provincial Letters and other Papers</i> +(1906). His works also include numerous volumes of sermons +and essays on theological subjects.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEECHWORTH,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a town of Bogong county, Victoria, Australia, +172 m. by rail N.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 7359. The +town is the centre of the Ovens goldfields, and the district +is mainly devoted to mining with both alluvial and reef working, +but much of the land is under cultivation, yielding grain and +fruit. The water supply is derived from Lake Kerferd in the +vicinity, which is a favourite resort of visitors; the scenery near +the town, which lies at an elevation of 1805 ft. among the May +Day Hills, being singularly beautiful. The industries of Beechworth +include tanning, ironfounding and coach-building.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEEF<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>boef</i>, mod. <i>boeuf</i>, from Lat. +<i>bos, bovis</i>, ox, Gr. <span class="grk" title="bous">βοῦς</span>, which show the ultimate +connexion with the Sanskrit <i>go, gāus</i>, ox, and thus with “cow”), +the flesh of the ox, cow or bull, as used for food. The use of the +French word for the meat, while the Saxon name was retained for the +animal, has been often noticed, and paralleled with the use of veal, +mutton and pork. “Beef” is also used, especially in the plural +“beeves,” for the ox itself, but usually in an archaic way. “Corned” +or “corn” beef is the flesh cured by salting, <i>i.e.</i> sprinkling with +“corns” or granulated particles of salt. “Collared” beef is so +called from the roll or collar into which the meat is pressed, after +extracting the bones. “Jerked” beef, <i>i.e.</i> meat cut into long +thin slices and dried in the sun, like “biltong” (<i>q.v.</i>), comes +through the Spanish-American <i>charque</i>, from <i>echarqui</i>, the +Peruvian word for this species of preserved meat. For “Beefeater” +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yeomen of the Guard</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEEFSTEAK CLUB,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> the name of several clubs formed in +London during the 18th and 19th centuries. The first seems to +have been that founded in 1709 with Richard Estcourt, the +actor, as steward. Of this the chief wits and great men of the +nation were members and its badge was a gridiron. Its fame was, +however, entirely eclipsed in 1735 when “The Sublime Society of +Steaks” was established by John Rich at Covent Garden theatre, +of which he was then manager. It is said that Lord Peterborough +supping one night with Rich in his private room, was so delighted +with the steak the latter grilled him that he suggested a repetition +of the meal the next week. From this started the Club, the +members of which delighted to call themselves “The Steaks.” +Among them were Hogarth, Garrick, Wilkes, Bubb Doddington +and many other celebrities. The rendezvous was the theatre +till the fire in 1808, when the club moved first to the Bedford +Coffee House, and the next year to the Old Lyceum. In 1785 +the prince of Wales joined, and later his brothers the dukes of +Clarence and Sussex became members. On the burning of the +Lyceum, “The Steaks” met again in the Bedford Coffee House +till 1838, when the New Lyceum was opened, and a large room +there was allotted the club. These meetings were held till the +club ceased to exist in 1867. Thomas Sheridan founded a +Beefsteak Club in Dublin at the Theatre Royal in 1749, and of +this Peg Woffington was president. The modern Beefsteak Club +was founded by J.L. Toole, the actor, in 1876.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Timbs, <i>Clubs and Club Life in London</i> (1873); +Walter Arnold, <i>Life and Death of the Sublime Society of +Steaks</i> (1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEELZEBUB,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> <span class="sc">Beelzebul, Baalzebub</span>. In 2 Kings i. we +read that Ahaziah ben Ahab, king of Israel, fell sick, and sent +to inquire of Baalzebub, the god of the Philistine city Ekron, +whether he should recover. There is no other mention of this +god in the Old Testament. <i>Baal</i>, “lord,” is the ordinary title +or word for a deity, especially a local deity, cf. such place names +as Baal Hazor (2 Sam. xiii. 23), Baal Hermon (Judges iii. 3), +which are probably contractions of fuller forms, like Beth Baal +Meon (Josh. xiii. 17), the House or Temple of the Baal of Meon. +According to these analogies we should expect <i>Zebub</i> to be a +place. No place <i>Zebub</i>, however, is known; and it has been +objected that the Baal of some other place would hardly be the +god of Ekron. These objections are hardly conclusive.</p> + +<p>Usually <i>Zebub</i> is identified with a Hebrew common noun +<i>zebub</i> = flies,<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> occurring twice in the Old Testament,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +so that Baalzebub “is the Baal to whom flies belong or are holy. As +children of the summer they are symbols of the warmth of the +sun, to which ... Baal stands in close relation. Divination by +means of flies was known at Babylon.”<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> There are other cases of +names compounded of Baal and an element equivalent to a +descriptive epithet, <i>e.g.</i> Baalgad, the Baal of Fortune.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +For the “Fly-god,” sometimes interpreted as the “averter of +insects,” cf <span class="grk" title="Zeus apomouios, muiagros">Ζεὺς ἀπόμυιος, μυίαγρος</span>, and the Hercules +<span class="grk" title="muiagros">μυίαγρος</span>. Clemens Alexander speaks of a Hercules +<span class="grk" title="apomuios">ἀπόμυιος</span> as worshipped at Rome. It has been suggested +that Baalzebub was the dung-beetle, <i>Scarabaeus pillularius</i>, worshipped in Egypt.</p> + +<p>A name of a deity on an Assyrian inscription of the 12th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> has been read as <i>Baal-zabubi</i>, but this reading has +now been abandoned in favour of <i>Baal-sapunu</i> (Baal-Zephon).<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +Cheyne considers that Baalzebub is a “contemptuous uneuphonic +Jewish modification of the true name Baalzebul.”<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>In the New Testament we meet with Beelzebul,<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a> which some of the +versions, especially the Vulgate and Syriac, followed by the +Authorized Version, have changed to Beelzebub, under the +influence of 2 Kings. In Matt. x. 25, Christ speaks of men +calling the master of the house, <i>i.e.</i> Himself, Beelzebul.<a name="fa8a" id="fa8a" href="#ft8a"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In +Mark iii 22-27,<a name="fa9a" id="fa9a" href="#ft9a"><span class="sp">9</span></a> the scribes explain that Jesus is possessed by +Beelzebul<a name="fa10a" id="fa10a" href="#ft10a"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and is thus enabled to cast out devils. The passage +speaks of Beelzebul as Satan and as the prince of the demons.</p> + +<p>The origin of the name Beelzebul is variously explained. +(<i>a</i>) It is “a phonetic corruption, perhaps a softening of the +original word”; as Bab-el-mandel is a corruption of Bab-el-mandeb. +(<i>b</i>) <i>Zebul</i> is from <i>zebel</i>, a word found in the Targums +in the sense of “dung,” so that Beelzebul would mean “Lord +of Dung,” a term of contempt. The further suggestion has been +made that <i>zebul</i> itself in the sense of “dung” is a term for a +heathen deity, cf. the Old Testament use of “abomination” &c. +for heathen deities, so that Beelzebul would mean “Chief of +false gods,” and so arch-fiend. (<i>c</i>) <i>Zebul</i> is found in 1 Kings +viii. 13 in the sense of “height,” <i>beth-sebul</i>—lofty house, and +in Rabbinical writings in the sense of “house” or “temple,” or +“the fourth heaven”;<a name="fa11a" id="fa11a" href="#ft11a"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and Beelzebul may equal “Lord +of the High House” or “Lord of Heaven.” This view is +perhaps favoured by Matt. x. 25, “if they have called the lord of +the house Beelzebul.” It appears, however, that Rabbinical +writings use <i>yōm</i> (day-of) <i>zebul</i> for the festival of a +heathen deity; and Jastrow connects this usage with the meaning +“house” or “temple,” so that the meaning “Lord of the False +Gods” might be arrived at in a different way.</p> + +<p>The names <i>Zebulun, ’Izebel</i> (Jezebel), suggest that <i>Zebul</i> +may be an ancient name of a deity; cf. the names <span title="baal ezebel">בעל אזבל</span> +(B‘L ’ZBL), <span title="shemzebel">שמזבל</span> (ShMZBL) in Punic and Phoenician +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span> +inscriptions.<a name="fa12a" id="fa12a" href="#ft12a"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The substitution of Beelzebub for Beelzebul by +the Syriac, Vulgate and other versions implies the identification +of the New Testament arch-fiend with the god of Ekron; +this substitution, however, may be due to the influence of the +Aramaic <i>B‘el-debaba</i>, “adversary,” sometimes held to be the +original of these names.</p> + +<p>There is no trace of Beelzebul or Beelzebub outside of the +Biblical passages mentioned, and the literature dependent +on them. If we assume a connexion between the two names, there +is nothing to show how the god became in later times the devil.</p> + +<p>In <i>Paradise Lost</i>, Book ii., Beelzebub appears as second only +to Satan himself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Lightfoot, <i>Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae</i>, Works, +vol. ii. pp. 188 f., 429, ed. Strype (1684); +Baethgen, <i>Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i>, pp. 25, 65, 261. +Commentaries on the Biblical passages especially Burney and Skinner on <i>Kings</i>, +Meyer and A.B. Bruce on the <i>Synoptic Gospels</i>, and Swete on <i>Mark</i>. +Articles on “Baal,” “Baalzebub,” “Beelzebub,” “Beelzebul,” in Hastings’ +<i>Bible Dict.</i>, Black and Cheyne’s <i>Encycl. Bibl.</i>, +and Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>; on <span title="baal zebub">בעל זבב</span> in Clarendon Press +<i>Hebr. Lex.</i>; and on <span title="zebel">זבל</span> and <span title="zebul">זבול</span> in Jastrow’s +<i>Dict. of the Targumim, &c.</i></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> So Clarendon Press, <i>Hebrew Lexicon</i>, p. 127, with LXX.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Eccl. x. 1; Isaiah vii. 18.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Baethgen, <i>Beitrage zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte</i>, +p. 25, cf. pp. 65, 261.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Josh, xii. 7.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Art. “Baalzebub,” Black and Cheyne’s <i>Ency. Bibl.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> With various spellings (<i>e.g.</i> Belzebul, and in XB, Beezebul), all +variants of Beelzebul. Cf. Deissmann, <i>Bible Studies</i>, 332.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> There is a variation of reading, which has been held to support +the view that the passage means that men reproached Jesus with +His supposed connexion with Beelzebul; cf. A.B. Bruce, <i>in loco</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8a" id="ft8a" href="#fa8a"><span class="fn">8</span></a> And in the parallel passages, Matt. xii. 22-29; Luke xi. 14-22.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9a" id="ft9a" href="#fa9a"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. John vii. 20, viii. 48, 52, x. 20.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10a" id="ft10a" href="#fa10a"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Swete, <i>in loco</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11a" id="ft11a" href="#fa11a"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Jastrow, <i>Dict. of the Targumim.</i> &c., sub voce.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12a" id="ft12a" href="#fa12a"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Lidzbarski, <i>Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epigraphik</i>, i. pp. 240, 377.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEER,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a beverage obtained by a process of alcoholic fermentation +mainly from cereals (chiefly malted barley), hops and +water. The history of beer extends over several thousand years. +According to Dr Bush, a beer made from malt or red barley is +mentioned in Egyptian writings as early as the fourth dynasty. +It was called <img style="width:34px; height:33px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img642.jpg" alt="" /> or <i>heqa</i>. Papyri of the time of +Seti I. (1300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) allude to a person inebriated from over-indulgence +in beer. In the second book (<i>c.</i> 77) of Herodotus (450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) we +are told that the Egyptians, being without vines, made wine +from barley (cf. Aesch. <i>Suppl.</i> 954); but as the grape is mentioned +so frequently in Scripture and elsewhere as being most abundant +there, and no record exists of the vine being destroyed, we must +conclude that the historian was only partially acquainted with +the productions of that most fertile country. Pliny (<i>Natural +History</i>, xxii. 82) informs us that the Egyptians made wine from +corn, and gives it the name of <i>sythum</i>, which, in the Greek, +means drink from barley. The Greeks obtained their knowledge +of the art of preparing beer from the Egyptians. The writings +of Archilochus, the Parian poet and satirist who flourished +about 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, contain evidence that the Greeks of his day were +acquainted with the process of brewing. There is, in fact, little +doubt that the discovery of beer and its use as an exhilarating +beverage were nearly as early as those of the grape itself, though +both the Greeks and the Romans despised it as a barbarian +drink. Dioscorides mentions two kinds of beer, namely <span class="grk" title="zythos">ζῦθος</span> +and <span class="grk" title="kourmi">κοῦρμι</span>, but he does not describe them sufficiently to enable +us to distinguish them. Sophocles and other Greek writers, +again, styled it <span class="grk" title="bryton">βρῦτον</span>. In the time of Tacitus (1st century +after Christ), according to him, beer was the usual drink of the +Germans, and there can be little doubt that the method of malting +barley was then known to them. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxii. 82) +mentions the use of beer in Spain under the name of <i>celia</i> and +<i>ceria</i> and in Gaul under that of <i>cerevisia</i>; and elsewhere +(xiv. 29) he says:—“The natives who inhabit the west of Europe have +a liquid with which they intoxicate themselves, made from corn +and water. The manner of making this liquid is somewhat +different in Gaul, Spain and other countries, and it is called by +different names, but its nature and properties are everywhere +the same. The people in Spain in particular brew this liquid +so well that it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the +cunning of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites that they +have thus invented a method to make water itself produce intoxication.”</p> + +<p>The knowledge of the preparation of a fermented beverage +from cereals in early times was not confined to Europe. Thus, +according to Dr H.H. Mann, the Kaffir races of South Africa have +made for ages—and still make—a kind of beer from millet, and +similarly the natives of Nubia, Abyssinia and other parts of +Africa prepare an intoxicating beverage, generally called <i>bousa</i>, +from a variety of cereal grains. The Russian <i>quass</i>, made from +barley and rye, the Chinese <i>samshu</i>, made from rice, and the +Japanese <i>saké</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) are all of ancient origin. Roman historians +mention the fact that the Britons in the south of England at the +time of the Roman invasion brewed a species of ale from barley +and wheat. The Romans much improved the methods of brewing +in vogue among the Britons, and the Saxons—among whom ale +had long been a common beverage—in their turn profited much +by the instruction given to the original inhabitants of Great +Britain by the Romans. We are informed by William of Malmesbury +that in the reign of Henry II. the English were greatly +addicted to drinking, and by that time the monasteries were +already famous, both in England and on the continent, for the +excellence of their ales. The waters of Burton-on-Trent began +to be famous in the 13th century. The secret of their being so +especially adapted for brewing was first discovered by some +monks, who held land in the adjacent neighbourhood of Wetmore. +There is a document dated 1295 in which it is stated that Matilda, +daughter of Nicholas de Shoben, had re-leased to the abbot and +convent of Burton-on-Trent certain tenements within and +without the town; for which re-lease they granted her, daily for +life, two white loaves from the monastery, two gallons of conventual +beer, and one penny, besides seven gallons of beer for the +men. The abbots of Burton apparently made their own malt, +for it was a common covenant in leases of mills belonging to the +abbey that the malt of the lords of the manor, both spiritual and +temporal, should be ground free of charge. Robert Plot, in his +<i>Natural History of Staffordshire</i> (1686), refers to the peculiar +properties of the Burton waters, from which, he says, “by an art +well known in this country good ale is made, in the management +of which they have a knack of fining it in three days to that +degree that it shall not only be potable, but is clear and palatable +as we could desire any drink of this kind to be.” In 1630 Burton +beer began to be known in London, being sold at “Ye Peacocke” +in Gray’s Inn Lane, and according to the <i>Spectator</i> was in great +demand amongst the visitors in Vauxhall. Until tea and coffee +were introduced, beer and ale (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ale</a></span>) were, practically speaking, +the only popular beverages accessible to the general body of +consumers. Since the advent of tea, coffee, cocoa and mineral +waters, the character of British beers has undergone a gradual +modification, the strongly alcoholic, heavily hopped liquids +consumed by the previous generation slowly giving place to the +lighter beverages in vogue at the present time. The old “stock +bitter” has given way to the “light dinner ale,” and “porter” +(so called from the fact that it was the popular drink amongst the +market porters of the 18th century) has been largely replaced by +“mild ale.” A certain quantity of strong beer—such as heavy +stouts and “stock” and “Scotch” ales—is still brewed nowadays, +but it is not an increasing one. The demand is almost entirely +for medium beers such as mild ale, light stout, and the better class +of “bitter” beers, and light beers such as the light “family ales,” +“dinner ales” and lager.</p> + +<p>The general run of beers contain from 3 to 6% of alcohol and +4 to 7% of solids, the remainder being water and certain flavouring +and preservative matters derived from the malt, hops and +other materials employed in their manufacture. The solid, <i>i.e.</i> +non-volatile, matter contained in solution in beer consists mainly +of maltose or malt sugar, of several varieties of dextrin (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>), of substances which stand in an intermediate position +between the sugars and the dextrins proper, and of a number of +bodies containing nitrogen, such as the non-coagulable proteids, +peptones, &c. In addition there is an appreciable quantity of +mineral matter, chiefly phosphates and potash. Dietetically +regarded, therefore, beer possesses considerable food value, and, +moreover, the nutritious matter in beer is present in a readily +assimilable form.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the average adult member of the British +working classes consumes not less than two pints of beer daily. +A reasonable calculation places the total proteids and +carbohydrates consumed by the average worker at 140 and 400 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span> +grammes respectively. Taking the proteid content of the average +beer at 0.4% and the carbohydrate content at 4%, a simple +calculation shows that about 3% of the total proteid and 11% +of the total carbohydrate food of the average worker will be +consumed in the shape of beer.</p> + +<p>The chemical composition of beers of different types will be +gathered from the following tables.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">A. English Beers.</span><br /> +(Analyses by J.L. Baker, Hulton & P. Schidrowitz.)<br /> + +I. <i>Mild Ales.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.<a href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">3.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1071.78</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.57</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.3</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt1">II. <i>Light Bitters and Ales.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1046.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1047.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1047.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1050.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">5.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1038.31</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.81</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.5</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt1">III. <i>Pale and Stock Ales.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1059.01</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1068.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">3.<a href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1076.80</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.68</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.9</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center pt1">IV. <i>Stouts and Porter.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Original Gravity.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Extractives (Solids) %.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1.<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1072.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2.<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1054.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3.<a href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1081.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">4.<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1054.11</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.90</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">6.5</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The figures in the above tables are very fairly representative +of different classes of British and Irish beers. It will be noticed +that the <i>Mild Ales</i> are of medium original gravity<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +and alcoholic strength, but contain a relatively large proportion of solid +matter. The <i>Light Bitters and Ales</i> are of a low original gravity, +but compared with the Mild Ales the proportion of alcohol to +solids is higher. The <i>Pale and Stock Ales</i>, which represent the +more expensive bottle beers, are analytically of much the same +character as the Light Bitters, except that the figures all round +are much higher. The <i>Stouts</i>, as a rule, are characterized by a +high gravity, and contain relatively more solids (as compared +with alcohol) than do the heavy beers of light colour. With +regard to the proportions of the various matters constituting the +extractives (solids) in English beers, roughly 20-30% consists of +maltose and 20-50% of dextrinous matter. In mild ales the +proportion of maltose to dextrin is high (roughly 1:1), thus +accounting for the full sweet taste of these beers. Pale and stock +ales, on the other hand, which are of a “dry” character, contain +relatively more dextrin, the general ratio being about 1:1½ +or 1:2. The mineral matter (“ash”) of beers is generally in the +neighbourhood of 0.2 to 0.3%, of which about one-fourth is +phosphoric acid. The proteid (“nitrogenous matters”) content +of beers varies very widely according to character and strength, +the usual limits being 0.3 to 0.8%, with an average of roughly 0.4%.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">B. Continental Beers.</span><br /> +(Analyses by A. Doemens.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Description.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Original<br />Gravity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Extractives<br />(Solids) %.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Draught Dark</td> <td class="tcc rb">1056.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.76</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> ”   ”  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1052.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Draught Light</td> <td class="tcc rb">1048.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> ”   ”  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1048.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Export</td> <td class="tcc rb">1054.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> ”   ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1059.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.48</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Munich Bock Beer<a name="fa9b" id="fa9b" href="#ft9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a></td> <td class="tcc rb">1076.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.05</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pilsener Bottle</td> <td class="tcc rb">1047.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.90</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pilsener Draught</td> <td class="tcc rb">1044.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.25</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin Dark</td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin Light</td> <td class="tcc rb">1056.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.46</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Berlin Weissbier</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1033.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.644</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.01</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be seen that, broadly speaking, the original gravity of +German and Austrian beers is lower than that of English +beers, and this also applies to the alcohol. On the other +hand, the foreign beers are relatively very rich in solids, and the +extractives: alcohol ratio is high. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">C. American Beers and Ales.</span><br /> +(Analyses by M. Wallerstein.)</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Description.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Original<br />Gravity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Alcohol %.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Extractives<br />(Solids) %.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm lb cl bb" rowspan="5">Bottom Fermentation<br />Beers<br />(Lager Type).</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1046.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">2.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1055.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">3.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1063.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.43</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">4.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1046.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.96</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">5.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1051.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.86</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm lb cl bb" rowspan="3">Top Fermentation<br />Ales<br />(British Type).</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1084.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">2.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1073.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb bb">3.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1068.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.50</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.53</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be noted that the American <i>beers</i> (<i>i.e.</i> bottom +fermentation products of the lager type) are very similar in composition +to the German beers, but that the ales are very much heavier +than the general run of the corresponding British products.</p> + +<p><i>Production and Consumption.</i>—(For manufacture of beer, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>.) Germany is the greatest beer-producing nation, if +liquid bulk be taken as a criterion; the United States comes +next, and the United Kingdom occupies the third place in this +regard. The consumption per head, however, is slightly greater +in the United Kingdom than in Germany, and very much +greater than is the case in the United States. The 1905 figures +with regard to the total production and consumption of the +three great beer-producing countries, together with those for +1885, are as under:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Total Production (Gallons).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Consumption per <br />Head of Population<br />(Gallons).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1885</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">German Empire.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,538,240,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">932,228,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">23.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States.</td> <td class="tcl rb">1,434,114,180</td> <td class="tcl rb">494,854,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">19.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">United Kingdom.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">1,227,933,468<a name="fa10b" id="fa10b" href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb bb">993,759,000</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">27.90<a href="#ft10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27.1</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span></p> + +<p>The chief point of interest in the preceding table is the enormous +increase in the United States. In considering the figures, the +character of the beer produced must be taken into consideration. +Thus, although Germany produces roughly 25% more beer in +liquid measurement than the United Kingdom, the latter actually +uses about 50% more malt than is the case in the German +breweries. According to a Viennese technical journal, the +quantities of malt employed for the production of one hectolitre +(22 gallons) of beer in the respective countries is 0.40 cwt. in the +German empire, 0.72 cwt. in the United States, and 0.81 cwt. +in the United Kingdom. In a sense, therefore, England may +still claim pre-eminence as a beer-producing nation. Large as +the <i>per capita</i> consumption in the United Kingdom may seem, +it is considerably less than is the case in Bavaria, which stands +at the head of the list with over 50 gallons, and in Belgium, which +comes second with 47.7 gallons. In the city of Munich the +consumption is actually over 70 gallons, that is to say, about 1½ +pints a day for every man, woman and child. It is curious to +note that in Germany, which is usually regarded as a beer-drinking +country <i>par excellence</i>, the consumption per head of this +article is slightly less than in England, and that inversely the +average German consumes more alcohol in the shape of spirits +than does the inhabitant of the British Islands (consumption of +spirits per head: Germany, 1.76 gallons; United Kingdom, 0.99 +gallons). This is accounted for by the fact that the peasantry +of the northern and eastern portions of the German empire +consume spirits almost exclusively. In the British colonies +beer is generally one of the staple drinks, but if we except +Western Australia, where about 25 gallons per head of population +are consumed, the demand is much smaller than in the United +Kingdom. In Australia generally, the <i>per capita</i> consumption +amounts to about 12 gallons, in New Zealand to 10 gallons, and +in Canada to 5 gallons.</p> +<div class="author">(P. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> London Ales.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Strong Burton Mild Ale.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Fairly representative of “Pale Ales.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Heavy Stock Ales.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Irish Stout.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Nos. 2 and 3 are respectively “single” and “double” London + Stouts from the same brewery.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> London Porter or Cooper.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The specific gravity, or “gravity” as it is always termed in the +industry, of the brewer is 1000 times the specific gravity of the +physicist. This is purely a matter of convention and convenience. +Thus when a brewer speaks of a wort of a “gravity” of 1045 +(ten-forty-five) he means a wort having a specific gravity of 1.045. Each +unit in the brewer’s scale of specific gravity is termed a “degree of +gravity.” The wort referred to above, therefore, possesses forty-five +<i>degrees</i> of gravity. The “original gravity,” it may here be +mentioned, represents the specific gravity of the wort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brewing</a></span>) +before fermentation. The solids in the original wort may be +ascertained by dividing the excess of the gravity over 1000 by 3.86. +Thus in the case of Mild Ale No. 1 the excess of the original gravity +over 1000 is 1055.13 − 1000 = 55.13. Dividing this by 3.86 we get +14.28, which indicates that the wort from which the beer was +manufactured contained 14.28% of solids. In the trade the gravity of +a beer (or rather of the wort from which it is derived) is generally +expressed in pounds per barrel. This means the excess in weight +of a barrel of the wort over the weight of a barrel of water. The +weight of a barrel (36 gallons) of water is 360 ℔; in the above example +the weight of a barrel of the beer wort is 360 × 1.05513 = 379.8. +The gravity of the wort in ℔ is therefore 379.8 − 360 = 19.8. The +beer which is made from this wort would also be called a 19.8 ℔ +beer, the reference in all cases being to the original wort.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9b" id="ft9b" href="#fa9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> A particularly heavy beer, only brewed at certain times in the year.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10b" id="ft10b" href="#fa10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> The maxima of production and consumption were reached +in 1899/1900, when the production amounted to 1,337,509,116 +gallons (at the standard gravity) and consumption to 32.28 gallons +per head.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEERSHEBA,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a place midway between Gaza and Hebron +(28 m. from each), frequently referred to in the Bible as the +southern limit of Palestine (“Dan to Beersheba,” Judg. xx. i, &c.) +Its foundation is variously ascribed to Abraham and Isaac, and +different etymologies for its name are suggested, in the fundamental +documents of Genesis (xxi. 22, xxvi. 26). It was an +important holy place, where Abraham planted a sacred tree +(Gen. xxi. 23), and where divine manifestations were vouchsafed +to Hagar (Gen. xxi. 17), Isaac (xxvi. 24), Jacob (xlvi. 2) and +Elijah (1 Kings xix. 5). Amos mentions it in connexion with +the shrines of Bethel and Gilgal (Amos v. 5) and denounces oaths +by its <i>numen</i> (viii. 14). The most probable meaning of the name +is “seven wells,” despite the non-Semitic construction involved +in this interpretation. Seven ancient wells still exist here, +though two are stopped up. Eusebius and Jerome mention the +place in the 4th century as a large village and the seat of a Roman +garrison. Extensive remains of this village exist, though they +are being rapidly quarried away for building; some inscriptions +of great importance have been found here. Later it appears to +have been the site of a bishopric; remains of its churches were +still standing in the 14th century. Some fine mosaics have been +here unearthed and immediately destroyed, in sheer wantonness, +by the natives quarrying building-stone. The Biblical Beersheba +probably exists at Bir es-Seba‘, 2 m. distant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1831-  ), English historian +and positivist, son of the Rev. James Beesly, was born at Feckenham, +Worcestershire, on the 23rd of January 1831. He was +educated at Wadham College, Oxford, which may be regarded +as the original centre of the English positivist movement. +Richard Congreve (<i>q.v.</i>) was tutor at Wadham from 1849 to 1854, +and three men of that time, Frederic Harrison (<i>q.v.</i>), Beesly and +John Henry Bridges (1832-1906), became the leaders of Comtism +in England. Beesly left Oxford in 1854 to become assistant-master +at Marlborough College. In 1859 he was appointed +professor of history at University College, London, and of Latin +at Bedford College, London, in 1860. He resigned these appointments +in 1893 and 1889, and in 1893 became the editor of the +newly-established <i>Positivist Review</i>. He collaborated in the +translation of Comte’s system of <i>Positive Polity</i> (4 vols., 1875-1879), +translated his <i>Discourse on the Positive Spirit</i> (1903), +and wrote a biography of Comte for a translation of the first two +chapters of his <i>Cours de philosophie positive</i>, entitled <i>Fundamental +Principles of Positive Philosophy</i> (1905). Professor Beesly stood +unsuccessfully as Liberal candidate for Westminster in 1885 +and for Marylebone in 1886, and is the author of numerous +review articles on social and political topics, treated from +the positivist standpoint, especially on the Irish question. His +works also include a series of lectures on Roman history, entitled +<i>Catiline, Clodius, Tiberius</i> (1878), in which he rehabilitates in +some degree the character of each of his subjects, and <i>Queen +Elizabeth</i> (1892), in the “Twelve English Statesmen” series.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEET,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a cultivated form of the plant <i>Beta vulgaris</i> (natural +order Chenopodiaceae), which grows wild on the coasts of +Europe, North Africa and Asia as far as India. It is a biennial, +producing, like the carrot, a thick, fleshy tap-root during the first +year and a branched, leafy, flowering stem in the following season. +The small, green flowers are borne in clusters. A considerable +number of varieties are cultivated for use on account of their +large fleshy roots, under the names of mangel-wurzel or mangold, +field-beet and garden-beet. The cultivation of beet in relation +to the production of sugar, for which purpose certain varieties of +beet stand next in importance to the sugar cane, is dealt with +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sugar</a></span>. The garden-beet has been cultivated from very +remote times as a salad plant, and for general use as a table +vegetable. The variety most generally grown has long, tapering, +carrot-shaped roots, the “flesh” of which is of a uniform deep +red colour throughout, and the leaves brownish red. It is boiled +and cut into slices for being eaten cold; and it is also prepared +as a pickle, as well as in various other forms. Beet is in much +more common use on the continent of Europe as a culinary +vegetable than in Great Britain, where it has, however, been +cultivated for upwards of two centuries. The white beet, <i>Beta +cicla</i>, is cultivated for the leaves, which are used as spinach. +The midribs and stalks of the leaves are also stewed and eaten as +sea-kale, under the name of Swiss chard. <i>B. cicla</i> is also +largely used as a decorative plant for its large, handsome +leaves, blood red or variegated in colour.</p> + +<p>The beet prospers in a rich deep soil, well pulverized by the +spade. If manure is required, it should be deposited at the +bottom of the trench in preparing the ground. The seeds should +be sown in drills 15 ins. asunder, in April or early in May, and the +plants are afterwards to be thinned to about 8 in. apart in the +lines, but not more, as moderate-sized roots are preferable. +The plants should grow on till the end of October or later, when a +portion should be taken up for use, and the rest laid in in a +sheltered corner, and covered up from frost. The roots must not +be bruised and the leaves must be twisted off—not closely cut, +as they are then liable to bleed. In the north the crop may be +wholly taken up in autumn, and stored in a pit or cellar, beyond +reach of frost. If it is desired to have fresh roots early, the seeds +should be sown at the end of February or beginning of March; +and if a succession is required, a few more may be sown by the +end of March.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1770-1827), German musical +composer, was baptized (probably, as was usual, the day after +birth) on the 17th of December 1770 at Bonn. His family is +traceable to a village near Louvain, in Belgium, in the 17th +century. In 1650 a lineal ancestor of the composer settled in +Antwerp. Beethoven’s grandfather, Louis, quarrelled with his +family, came to Bonn in 1732, and became one of the court +musicians of the archbishop-elector of Cologne. He was a genial +man of estimable character, and though Ludwig van Beethoven +was only four years old when his grandfather died, he never +forgot him, but cherished his portrait to the end of his life. +Beethoven’s father, a tenor singer at the archbishop-elector’s +court, was of a rough and violent temper, not improved by his +passion for drink, nor by the dire poverty under which the +family laboured. He married Magdelina Leim or Laym, the +widow of a <i>vâlet-de-chambre</i> of the elector of Trier and daughter +of the chief cook at Ehrenbreitstein. Beethoven’s father wished +to profit as early as possible by his son’s talent, and accordingly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span> +began to give him a severe musical training, especially on the +violin, when he was only five years old, at about which time they +left the house in which he was born (515 Bonngasse, now preserved +as a Beethoven museum, with a magnificent collection of +manuscripts and relics). By the time Beethoven was nine his +father had no more to teach him, and he entered upon a perhaps +healthier course of clavier lessons under a singer named Pfeiffer. +A little general education was also edged in by a certain Zambona. +Van den Eeden, the court organist, and an old friend of his +grandfather, taught him the organ and the pianoforte, and so +rapid was Beethoven’s progress that when C.G. Neefe succeeded +to Van den Eeden’s post in 1781, he was soon able to allow the +boy to act as his deputy. With his permission Beethoven published +in 1783 his earliest extant composition, a set of variations +on a march by Dressler. The title-page states that they were +written in 1780 “<i>par un jeune amateur Louis van Beethoven +âgé de dix ans</i>.” Beethoven’s father was very clumsy in his +unnecessary attempts to make an infant prodigy of his son; +for the ante-dating of this composition, implying the correct +date of birth, contradicts the post-dating of the date of birth +by which he tried to make out that the three sonatas Beethoven +wrote in the same year were by a boy of eleven. (Beethoven +for a long time believed that he was born in 1772, and the +certificate of his baptism hardly convinced him, because he +knew that he had an elder brother named Ludwig who died in +infancy.) In the same year, 1783, Beethoven was given the +post of cembalist in the Bonn theatre, and in 1784 his position +of assistant to Neefe became official. In a <i>catalogue raisonné</i> of +the new archbishop Max Franz’s court musicians we find “No. +14, Ludwig Beethoven” described “as of good capacity, still +young, of good, quiet behaviour and poor,” while his father +(No. 8) “has a completely worn-out voice, has long been in +service, is very poor, of fairly good behaviour, and married.”</p> + +<p>In the spring of 1787 Beethoven paid a short visit to Vienna, +where he astonished Mozart by his extemporizations and had a +few lessons from him. How he was enabled to afford this visit +is not clear. After three months the illness of his mother, to +whom he was devoted, brought him back. She died in July, +leaving a baby girl, one year old, who died in November. For +five more years Beethoven remained at Bonn supporting his +family, of which he had been since the age of fifteen practically +the head, as his father’s bad habits steadily increased until in +1789 Ludwig was officially entrusted with his father’s salary. +He had already made several lifelong friends at Bonn, of whom +the chief were Count Waldstein and Stephan Breuning; and his +prospects brightened as the archbishop-elector, in imitation of his +brother the emperor Joseph II., enlarged the scale of his artistic +munificence. By 1792 the archbishop-elector’s attention was +thoroughly aroused to Beethoven’s power, and he provided for +Beethoven’s second visit to Vienna. The introductions he and +Count Waldstein gave to Beethoven, the prefix “van” in +Beethoven’s name (which looked well though it was not really a +title of nobility), and above all the unequalled impressiveness +of his playing and extemporization, quickly secured his footing +with the exceptionally intelligent and musical aristocracy of +Vienna, who to the end of his life treated him with genuine +affection and respect, bearing with all the roughness of his +manners and temper, not as with the eccentricities of a fashionable +genius, but as with signs of the sufferings of a passionate +and noble nature.</p> + +<p>Beethoven’s life, though outwardly uneventful, was one of +the most pathetic of tragedies. His character has had the same +fascination for his biographers as it had for his friends, and +there is probably hardly any great man in history of whom more +is known and of whom so much of what is known is interesting. +Yet it is all too much a matter of detail and anecdote to admit +of chronological summarizing here, and for the disentangling of +its actual incidents we must refer the reader to Sir George +Grove’s long and graphic article, “Beethoven,” in the <i>Dictionary +of Music and Musicians</i>, and to the monumental biography of +Thayer, who devoted his whole life to collecting materials. +These two biographical works, read in the spirit in which their +authors conceived them, will reveal, beneath a mass of distressing, +grotesque and sometimes sordid detail, a nobility of character +and unswerving devotion to the highest moral ideas throughout +every distress and temptation to which a passionate and totally +unpractical temper and the growing shadow of a terrible misfortune +could expose a man.</p> + +<p>The man is surpassed only by his works, for in them he had +that mastery which was denied to him in what he himself calls +his attempt to “grapple with fate.” Such of his difficulties as +lay in his own character already showed themselves in his studies +with Haydn. Haydn, who seems to have heard of him on his +first visit to Vienna in 1787, passed through Bonn in July 1792, +and was so much struck by Beethoven that it was very likely at +his instigation that the archbishop sent Beethoven to Vienna to +study under him. But Beethoven did not get on well with him, +and found him perfunctory in correcting his exercises. Haydn +appreciated neither his manners nor the audacity of his free +compositions, and abandoned whatever intentions he may have +had of taking Beethoven with him to England in 1794. Beethoven +could do without sympathy, but a grounding in strict +counterpoint he felt to be a dire necessity, so he continued his +studies with Albrechtsberger, a mere grammarian who had the +poorest opinion of him, but who could, at all events, be depended +on to attend to his work. Almost every comment has been made +upon the relations between Haydn and Beethoven, except the +perfectly obvious one that Mozart died at the age of thirty-six, +just at the time Beethoven came to Vienna, and that Haydn, as is +perfectly well known, was profoundly shocked by the untimely +loss of the greatest musician he had ever known. At such a time +the undeniable clumsiness of Beethoven’s efforts at academic +exercises would combine with his general tactlessness to confirm +Haydn in the belief that the sun had set for ever in the musical +world, and would incline him to view with disfavour those bold +features of style and form which the whole of his own artistic +development should naturally have predisposed him to welcome. +It is at least significant that those early works of Beethoven in +which Mozart’s influence is most evident, such as the Septet, +aroused Haydn’s open admiration, whereas he hardly approved +of the compositions like the sonatas, <i>op.</i> 2 (dedicated to him), in +which his own influence is stronger. Neither he nor Beethoven +was skilful in expressing himself except in music, and it is +impossible to tell what Haydn meant, or what Beethoven +thought he meant, in advising him not to publish the last and +finest of the three trios, <i>op</i>. 1. But even if he did not +mean that it was too daring for the public, it can hardly be expected that +he never contrasted the meteoric career of Mozart, who after a +miraculous boyhood had produced at the age of twenty-five +some of the greatest music Haydn had ever seen, with the slow +and painful development of his uncouth pupil, who at the same +age had hardly a dozen presentable works to his credit. It is +not clear that Haydn ever came to understand Beethoven, and +many years passed before Beethoven realized the greatness of +the master whose teaching had so disappointed him.</p> + +<p>From the time Beethoven settled permanently in Vienna, +which he was soon induced to do by the kindness of his aristocratic +friends, the only noteworthy external features of his +career are the productions of his compositions. In spite of the +usual hostile criticism for obscurity, exaggeration and unpopularity, +his reputation became world-wide and by degrees actually +popular; nor did it ever decline, for as his later works became +notorious for their extravagance and unintelligibility his earlier +works became better understood. He was no man of business, +but, in a thoroughly unpractical way, he was suspicious and +exacting in money matters, which in his later years frequently +turned up in his conversation as a grievance, and at times, +especially during the depreciation of the Austrian currency +between 1808 and 1815, were a real anxiety to him. Nevertheless, +with a little more skill his external prosperity would have been +great. He was always a personage of importance, as is testified +by more than one amusing anecdote, like those of his walks with +Goethe and his half-ironical comments on the hats which flew +off more for him than for Goethe; and in 1815 it seemed as if the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span> +summit of his fame was reached when his 7th symphony was +performed, together with a hastily-written cantata, <i>Der glorreiche +Augenblick</i> and the blazing piece of descriptive fireworks entitled +<i>Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria</i>, once popular +in England as the <i>Battle Symphony</i>. The occasion for this +performance was the congress of Vienna; and the government +placed the two halls of the Redouten-Saal at his disposal for +two nights, while he himself was allowed to invite all the +sovereigns of Europe. In the same year he received the freedom +of the city, an honour much valued by him. After that time his +immediate popularity, as far as new works were concerned, became +less eminent, as that of his more easy-going contemporaries +began to increase. Yet there was, not only in the emotional +power of his earlier works, but also in the known cause of his +increasing inability to appear in public, something that awakened +the best popular sensibilities; and when his two greatest and +most difficult works, the 9th symphony and parts of the <i>Missa +Solemnis</i>, were produced at a memorable concert in 1824, the +storm of applause was overwhelming, and the composer, who +was on the platform in order to give the time to the conductor, +had to be turned round by one of the singers in order to <i>see</i> it.</p> + +<p>Signs of deafness had given him grave anxiety as early as +1708. For a long time he successfully concealed it from all but +his most intimate friends, while he consulted physicians and +quacks with eagerness; but neither quackery nor the best skill +of his time availed him, and it has been pointed out that the root +of the evil lay deeper than could have been supposed during his +lifetime. Although his constitution was magnificently strong +and his health was preserved by his passion for outdoor life, +a post-mortem examination revealed a very complicated state of +disorder, evidently dating almost from childhood (if not inherited) +and aggravated by lack of care and good food. The touching +document addressed to his brothers in 1802, and known as +his “will,” should be read in its entirety, as given by Thayer +(iv. 4). No verbal quotation short of the whole will do justice +to the overpowering outburst which runs almost in one long +unpunctuated sentence through the whole tragedy of Beethoven’s +life, as he knew it then and foresaw it. He reproaches men for +their injustice in thinking and calling him pugnacious, stubborn +and misanthropical when they do not know that for six years +he has suffered from an incurable condition, aggravated by +incompetent doctors. He dwells upon his delight in human +society, from which he has had so early to isolate himself, but the +thought of which now fills him with dread as it makes him +realize his loss, not only in music but in all finer interchange of +ideas, and terrifies him lest the cause of his distress should appear. +He declares that, when those near him had heard a flute or a +singing shepherd while he heard nothing, he was only prevented +from taking his life by the thought of his art, but it seemed impossible +for him to leave the world until he had brought out +all that he felt to be in his power. He requests that after his +death his present doctor, if surviving, shall be asked to describe +his illness and to append it to this document in order that at +least then the world may be as far as possible reconciled with +him. He leaves his brothers his property, such as it is, and in +terms not less touching, if more conventional than the rest of +the document, he declares that his experience shows that only +virtue has preserved his life and his courage through all his +misery.</p> + +<p>And, indeed, his art and his courage rose far above any level +attainable by those artists who are slaves to the “personal +note,” for his chief occupation at the time of this document was +his 2nd symphony, the most brilliant and triumphant piece +that had ever been written up to that time. On a smaller scale, +in which mastery was the more easily attainable as experiment +was more readily tested, Beethoven was sooner able to strike +a tragic note, and hence the process of growth in his style is +more readily traceable in the pianoforte works than in the larger +compositions which naturally represent a series of crowning +results. Only in his last period does the pianoforte cease to be +Beethoven’s normal means of expression. Accordingly, if in +the discussion of Beethoven’s works, with which we close this +article, we dwell rather more on the pianoforte sonatas than on +his greater works, it is not only because they are more easily +referred to by the general reader, but because they are actually +a key to his intellectual development, such as is afforded neither +by his life nor by the great works which are themselves the crowning +mystery and wonder of musical art.</p> + +<p>Deafness causes inconvenience in conversation long before it +is noticeable in music, and in 1806 Beethoven could still conduct +his opera <i>Fidelio</i> and be much annoyed at the inattention to his +nuances; and his last appearance as a player was not until 1814, +when he made a great impression with his B flat trio, <i>op</i>. 97. +At the end of November 1822 an attempt to conduct proved +disastrous. The touching incident in 1824 has been described, +but up to the last Beethoven seems to have found or imagined +that ear-trumpets (of which a collection is now preserved at Bonn) +were of use to him in playing to himself, though his friends +were often pained when the pianoforte was badly out of tune, +and were overcome when Beethoven in soft passages did not make +the notes sound at all. The instrument sent him by Broadwood +in 1817-1818 gave him great pleasure and he answered it with +a characteristically cordial and quaint letter in the best of bad +French. His fame in England was often a source of great +comfort to him, especially in his last illness, when the London +Philharmonic Society, for which the 9th symphony was written +and a 10th symphony projected, sent him £100 in advance of +the proceeds of a benefit concert which he had begged them to +give, being in very straitened circumstances, as he would make +no use of the money he had deposited in the bank for his nephew.</p> + +<p>This nephew was the cause of most of his anxiety and distress +in the last twelve years of his life. His brother, Kaspar Karl, +had often given him trouble; for example, by obtaining and +publishing some of Beethoven’s early indiscretions, such as the +trio-variations, <i>op</i>. 44, the sonatas, <i>op</i>. 49, and other trifles, +of which the late <i>opus</i> number is thus explained. In 1815, after +Beethoven had quarrelled with his oldest friend, Stephan +Breuning, for warning him against trusting his brother in money +matters, Kaspar died, leaving a widow of whom Beethoven +strongly disapproved, and a son, nine years old, for the guardianship +of whom Beethoven fought the widow through all the law +courts. The boy turned out utterly unworthy of his uncle’s +persistent devotion, and gave him every cause for anxiety. +He failed in all his examinations, including an attempt to learn +some trade in the polytechnic school, whereupon he fell into the +hands of the police for attempting suicide, and, after being +expelled from Vienna, joined the army. Beethoven’s utterly +simple nature could neither educate nor understand a human +being who was not possessed by the wish to do his best. His +nature was passionately affectionate, and he had suffered all +his life from the want of a natural outlet for it. He had often +been deeply in love and made no secret of it; but Robert +Browning had not a more intense dislike of “the artistic temperament” +in morals, and though Beethoven’s attachments were +almost all hopelessly above him in rank, there is not one that +was not honourable and respected by society as showing the +truthfulness and self-control of a great man. Beethoven’s +orthodoxy in such matters has provoked the smiles of Philistines, +especially when it showed itself in his objections to Mozart’s +<i>Don Giovanni</i>, and his grounds for selecting the subject of +<i>Fidelio</i> for his own opera. The last thing that Philistines will +ever understand is that genius is far too independent of convention +to abuse it; and Beethoven’s life, with all its mistakes, +its grotesqueness and its pathos, is as far beyond the shafts of +Philistine wit as his art.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of 1827 Beethoven had projects for a 10th +symphony, music to Goethe’s <i>Faust</i>, and (under the stimulus +of his newly acquired collection of Handel’s works) any amount +of choral music, compared to which all his previous compositions +would have seemed but a prelude. But he was in bad health; +his brother Johann, with whom he had been staying, had not +allowed him a fire in his bedroom, and had sent him back to +Vienna in an open chaise in vile weather; and the chill which +resulted ended in a fatal illness. Within a week of his death +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span> +Beethoven was still full of his projects. Three days before the +end he added a codicil to his will, and saw Schubert, whose music +had aroused his keen interest, but was not able to speak to him, +though he afterwards spoke of the Philharmonic Society and the +English, almost his last words being “God bless them.” On the +26th of March 1827, during a fierce thunderstorm, he died.</p> + +<p><i>Beethoven’s Music.</i>—The division of Beethoven’s work into +three styles has become proverbial, and is based on obvious facts. +The styles, however, are not rigidly separated, either in +themselves or in chronology. Nor can the popular description of +Beethoven’s first manner as “Mozartesque” be accepted as +doing justice to a style which differs more radically from Mozart’s +than Mozart’s differs from Haydn’s. The style of Beethoven’s +third period is no longer regarded as “showing an obscurity +traceable to his deafness,” but we have, perhaps, only recently +outgrown the belief that his later treatment of form is revolutionary. +The peculiar interest and difficulty in tracing Beethoven’s +artistic development is that the changes in the materials +and range of his art were as great as those in the form, so that he +appears in the light of a pioneer, while the art with which he +started was nevertheless already a perfectly mature and highly +organized thing. And he is perhaps unique among artists in +this, that his power of constructing perfect works of art never +deserted him while he revolutionized his means of expression. +No doubt this is in a measure true of all the greatest artists, +but it is seldom obvious. In mature art vital differences in +works of similar form are generally more likely to be overlooked +than to force themselves on the critic’s attention. And when +they become so great as to make a new epoch it is generally +at the cost of a period of experiment too heterogeneous and +insecure for works of art to attain great permanent value. +But in Beethoven’s case, as we have said, the process of development +is so smooth that it is impossible to separate the periods +clearly, although the ground covered is, as regards emotional +range, at least as great as that between Bach and Mozart. No +artist has ever left more authoritative documentary evidence +as to the steps of his development than Beethoven. In boyhood +he seems to have acquired the habit of noting down all his +musical ideas exactly as they first struck him. It is easy to see +why in later years he referred to this as a “bad habit,” for it +must often take longer to jot down a crude idea than to reject +it; and by the time the habit was formed Beethoven’s powers of +self-criticism were unparalleled, and he must often have felt +hampered by the habit of writing down what he knew to be too +crude to be even an aid to memory. Such first intuitions, if not +written down, would no doubt be forgotten; but the poetic +mood, the <i>Stimmung</i>, they attempt to indicate, would remain +until a better expression was forthcoming. Beethoven had +acquired the habit of recording them, and thereby he has, +perhaps, misled some critics into over-emphasizing the contrast +between his “tentative” self-critical methods and the +quasi-extempore outpourings of Mozart. This contrast is probably +not very radical; indeed, we may doubt whether in every +thoughtful mind any apparently sudden inspiration is not +preceded by some anticipatory mood in which the idea was sought +and its first faint indications tested and rejected so +instantaneously as to leave no impression on the memory.</p> + +<p>The number and triviality of Beethoven’s preliminary sketches +should not, then, be taken as evidence of a timid or vacillating +spirit. But if we regard his sketches as his diary their significance +becomes inestimable. They cover every period of Beethoven’s +career, and represent every stage of nearly all his important +works, as well as of innumerable trifles, including ideas that did +not survive to be worked out. And the type of self-criticism +is the same from beginning to end. There is no tendency in the +middle or last period, any more than in the first, to “subordinate +form to expression,” nor do the sketches of the first +period show any lack of attention to elements that seem more +characteristic of the third. The difference between Beethoven’s +three styles appears first in its full proportions when we realize +this complete continuity of his method and art. We have ventured +to cast doubts upon the Mozartesque character of his early +style, because that is chiefly a question of perspective. While +he was handling a range of ideas not, in a modern view, glaringly +different from Mozart’s, he had no reason to use a glaringly +different language. His contemporaries, however, found it more +difficult to see the resemblance; and, though their criticism was +often violently hostile, they saw with prejudice a daring originality +which we may as well learn to appreciate with study. +Beethoven himself in later years partly affected and partly felt +a lack of sympathy with his own early style. But he had other +things to do than to criticize it. Modern prejudice has not his +excuse, and the neglect of Beethoven’s early works is no less +than the neglect of the key to the understanding of his later. +It is also the neglect of a mass of mature art that already places +Beethoven on the same plane as Mozart, and contains perhaps +the only traces in all his work of a real struggle between the +forces of progress and those of construction. We will therefore +give special attention to this subject here.</p> + +<p>The truth is that there are several styles in Beethoven’s +first period, in the centre of which, “proving all things,” is the +true and mature Beethoven, however wider may be the scope of +his later maturity. And he did not, as is often alleged, fail to +show early promise. The pianoforte quartets he wrote at the age +of fifteen are, no doubt, clumsy and childish in execution to a +degree that contrasts remarkably with the works of Mozart’s, +Mendelssohn’s or Schubert’s boyhood; yet they contain material +actually used in the sonatas, <i>op</i>. 2, No. 1, and <i>op</i>. 2, No. 3. And +the passage in <i>op</i>. 2, No. 3, is that immediately after the first +subject, where, as Beethoven then states it, it embodies one of +his most epoch-making discoveries, namely, the art of organizing +a long series of apparently free modulations by means of a +systematic progression in the bass. In the childish quartet the +principle is only dimly felt, but it is nevertheless there as a +subconscious source of inspiration; and it afterwards gives +inevitable dramatic truth to such passages as the climax of the +development in the sonata, <i>op</i>. 57 (commonly called <i>Appassionata</i>), +and throughout the chaos of the mysterious introduction +to the C major string-quartet, <i>op</i>. 59, No. 3, prepares us for the +world of loveliness that arises from it.</p> + +<p>Although with Beethoven the desire to express new thoughts +was thus invariably both stimulated and satisfied by the discovery +of the necessary new means of expression, he felt deeply +the danger of spoiling great ideas by inadequate execution; +and his first work in a new form or medium is, even if as late +as the Mass in C, <i>op</i>. 89, almost always unambitious. His +teachers had found him sceptical of authority, and never +convinced of the practical convenience of a rule until he had too +successfully courted disaster. But he appreciated the experience, +though he may have found it expensive, and traces of crudeness +in such early works as he did not disown are as rare as plagiarisms. +The first three pianoforte sonatas, <i>op</i>. 2. show the different +elements in Beethoven’s early style as clearly as possible. Sir +Hubert Parry has aptly compared the opening of the sonata, +<i>op</i>. 2, No. 1, with that of the finale of Mozart’s G minor symphony, +to show how much closer Beethoven’s texture is. The +slow movement well illustrates the rare cases in which Beethoven +imitates Mozart to the detriment of his own proper richness +of tone and thought, while the finale in its central episode +brings a misapplied and somewhat diffuse structure in Mozart’s +style into direct conflict with themes as “Beethovenish” in +their terseness as in their sombre passion. The second sonata is +flawless in execution, and entirely beyond the range of Haydn +and Mozart in harmonic and dramatic thought, except in the +finale. And it is just in the adoption of the luxurious +Mozartesque rondo form as the crown of this work that Beethoven +shows his true independence. He adopts the form, not because +it is Mozart’s, but because it is right and because he can master it. +The opening of the second subject in the first movement is a +wonderful application of the harmonic principle already mentioned +in connexion with the early piano quartets. In all music +nothing equally dramatic can be found before the D minor +sonata, <i>op</i>. 31, No. 2, which is rightly regarded as marking the +beginning of Beethoven’s second period. The slow movement, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span> +like those of <i>op</i>. 7 and a few other early works, shows a thrilling +solemnity that immediately proves the identity of the pupil of +Haydn with the creator of the 9th symphony. The little <i>scherzo</i> +no less clearly foreshadows the new era in music by the fact +that in so small and light a movement a modulation from A to G +sharp minor can occur too naturally to excite surprise. If the +later work of Beethoven were unknown there would be very +little evidence that this sonata was by a young man, except, +perhaps, in the remarkable abruptness of style in the first +movement, an abruptness which is characteristic, not of +immaturity, but of art in which problems are successfully solved +for the first time. This abruptness is, however, in a few of +Beethoven’s early works carried appreciably too far. In the +sonata in C minor, <i>op</i>. 10, No. 1, for example, the more vigorous +parts of the first movement lose in breadth from it, while the +finalé is almost stunted.</p> + +<p>But Beethoven was not content to express his individuality +only in an abrupt epigrammatic style. From the outset breadth +was also his aim, and while he occasionally attempted to attain +a greater breadth than his resources would properly allow (as +in the first movement of the sonata, <i>op</i>. 2, No. 3, and that of the +violoncello sonata, <i>op</i>. 5, No. 1, in both of which cases a kind of +extempore outburst in the coda conceals the collapse of his +peroration), there are many early works in which he shows +neither abruptness of style nor any tendency to confine himself +within the limits of previous art. The C minor trio, <i>op</i>. 1, No. 3, +is not more remarkable for the boldness of thought that made +Haydn doubtful as to the advisability of publishing it, than for +the perfect smoothness and spaciousness of its style. These +qualities Beethoven at first naturally found easier to retain with +less dramatic material, as in the other trios in the same <i>opus</i>, +but the C minor trio does not stand alone. It represents, perhaps, +the most numerous, as certainly the noblest, class of +Beethoven’s early works. Certainly the smallest class is that +in which there is unmistakable imitation of Mozart, and it is +significant that almost all examples of this class are works for +wind instruments, where the technical limitations narrowly +determine the style and discourage the composer from taking +things seriously. Such works are the beautiful and popular +septet, the quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments (modelled +superficially, yet closely and with a kind of modest ambition, on +Mozart’s wonderful work for the same combination) and, on a +somewhat higher level, the trio for pianoforte, clarinet and +violoncello, <i>op</i>. 11.</p> + +<p>It is futile to discuss the point at which Beethoven’s second +manner may be said to begin, but he has himself given us +excellent evidence as to when and how his first manner (as far as +that is a single thing) became impossible to him. Through quite +a large number of works, beginning perhaps with the great +string quintet, <i>op</i>. 29, new types of harmonic and emotional +expression had been assimilated into a style at least intelligible +from Mozart’s point of view. Indeed, Beethoven’s favourite +way of enlarging his range of expression often seems to consist in +allowing the Titanic force of his new inventions and the formal +beauty of the old art to indicate by their contrast a new world +grander and lovelier than either. Sometimes, as in the C major +quintet, the new elements are too perfectly assimilated for the +contrast to appear. The range of key and depth of thought is +beyond that of Beethoven’s first manner, but the smoothness is +that of Mozart. In the three pianoforte sonatas, <i>op</i>. 31, the +struggle of the transition is as manifest as its accomplishment is +triumphant. The first movement of the first sonata (in G major) +deals with widely separated keys on new principles. These are +embodied in a style which for abruptness and jocular paradox +is hardly surpassed by Beethoven’s most nervous early works. +The exceptionally ornate and dilatory slow movement reads +almost like a protest; while the finale begins as if to show that +humour should be beautiful, and ends by making fun of the +beauty. The second sonata (in D minor) is the greatest work +Beethoven had as yet written. Its first movement, already cited +above in connexion with the dramatic sequences in <i>op</i>. 2, No. 2, +is, like that of the <i>Sonata Appassionata</i>, a <i>locus classicus</i> for such +powerful means of expression. And it is worth noting that the +only sketch known of this movement is a sketch in which nothing +but its sequential plan is indicated. In the third sonata +Beethoven enjoys on a higher plane an experience he had often +indulged in before, the attainment of smoothness and breadth +by means of a delicately humorous calm which gives scope to the +finer subtleties of his new thoughts.</p> + +<p>Beethoven himself wrote to his publisher that these three +sonatas represented a new phase in his style; but when we +realize his artistic conscientiousness it is not surprising that they +should be contemporary with larger works like the 2nd symphony, +which are far more characteristic of his first manner. +His whole development is entirely ruled by his determination to +let nothing pass until it has been completely mastered, and long +before this his sketch-books show that he had many ambitious +ideas for a 1st symphony, and that it was a deliberate process +that made his ambitions dwindle into something that could be +safely realized in the masterly little comedy with which he began +his orchestral career. The easy breadth and power of the 2nd +symphony represents an amply sufficient advance, and leaves +his forces free to develop in less expensive forms those vast +energies for which afterwards the orchestra and the string-quartet +were to become the natural field.</p> + +<p>In the “Waldstein” sonata, <i>op</i>. 53, we see Beethoven’s +second manner literally displacing his first; that is to say, we +reach a state of things at which the two can no longer form an +artistic contrast. The work, as we know it, is not only perfect, +but has all the qualities of art in which the newest elements have +long been familiar. The opening is on the same harmonic train +of thought as that of the sonata, <i>op</i>. 31, No. 1, but there is no +longer the slightest need for a paradoxical or jocular manner. +On the contrary, the harmonies are held together by an orderly +sequence in the bass, and the onrush is that of some calm diurnal +energy of nature. The short introduction to the finale is +harmonically and emotionally the most profound thing in the sonata, +while the finale itself uses every new resource in the triumphant +attainment of a leisure more splendid than any conceivable in +the most spacious of Mozart’s rondos. Yet it is well known +that Beethoven originally intended the beautiful <i>andante</i> in F, +afterwards published separately, to be the slow movement of +this sonata. That andante is, like the finale, a spacious and +gorgeous rondo, which probably Beethoven himself could not +have written at an earlier period. The modulation to D flat in +its principal theme, and that to G flat near the end, are its chief +harmonic effects and stand out in beautiful relief within its +limits. After the first movement of the Waldstein sonata they +would be flat and colourless. The sketch-books show that +Beethoven, when he first planned the sonata, was by no means +inattentive to the balance of harmonic colour in the whole scheme, +but that at first he did not realize how far that scheme was +going to carry him. He originally thought of the slow movement +as in E major, a remote key to which, however, he soon assigned +the more intimate position of complementary key in the first +movement. He then worked at the slow movement in F with +such zest that he did not discover until the whole sonata was +finished that he had raised the first and last movements to an +altogether higher plane of thought, though the redundancy of +the two rondos in juxtaposition and the unusual length of the +sonata were so obvious that his friends ventured to point them +out. Beethoven’s revision of his earliest works is now known +to have been extensive and drastic; but this is the first instance, +and <i>Fidelio</i> and the quartet in B flat, <i>op</i>. 131, are the only +other instances, of any later work needing important alteration after +it was completely executed. From this point up to <i>op</i>. 101 we +may study Beethoven’s second manner entirely free from any +survivals of his first, even as a legitimate contrast; though it +is as impossible to fix a point before which his third manner +cannot be traced as it is to ignore the premonitions of his second +manner in his early works. The distinguishing features in +Beethoven’s second style are the result of a condition of art in +which enormous new possibilities have become so well known that +there is no need for stating them abruptly, paradoxically or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span> +emphatically, but also no need for working them out to remote +conclusions. Hence these works have become for most people +the best-known and best-loved type of classical music. In their +perfect fusion of untranslatable dramatic emotion with every +beauty of musical design and tone they have never been equalled, +nor is it probable that any other art can show a wider range of +thought embodied in a more perfect form. In music itself there +is nothing else of so wide a range without grave artistic defects +from which Beethoven is entirely free. Wagnerian opera aims +at an ideal as truly artistic, and in so far of wider range than +Beethoven’s that it passes beyond the bounds of pure music +altogether. Within those bounds Beethoven remained, and +even the apparent exceptions (such as <i>Fidelio</i> and his two great +examples of “programme music,” the <i>Pastoral Symphony</i> and +the sonata, <i>Les Adieux</i>) only show how universal his conception +of pure music is. Extraneous ideas had here struck him as +magnificent material for instrumental music, and he never +troubled to argue whether instrumental music is the better +or worse for expressing extraneous ideas. To describe the works +of Beethoven’s second period here would be to describe a library +of well-known classics, and we must refer the reader for further +details to the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonata Forms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contrapuntal Forms</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Instrumentation</a></span>. It remains for us to attempt +to indicate the essential features of his third style, and to conclude +with a survey of his influence on the history of music.</p> + +<p>Beethoven’s third style arose imperceptibly from his second. +His deafness had very little to do with it, for all his epoch-making +discoveries in orchestral effect date from the time when he was +already far too much inconvenienced to test them in a way which +would satisfy any one who depended more upon his ear than upon +his imagination. It is indeed highly probable that there are no +important features in Beethoven’s latest style that may not be +paralleled by the tendencies of all great artists who have handled +their material until it contains nothing that has not been long +familiar with them. Such tendencies lead to an extreme simplicity +of form, underlying an elaboration of detail which may at first +seem bewildering until we realize that it is purely the working out +to its logical conclusions of some idea as simple and natural as the +form itself. The form, however, will be not merely simple, but +individual. Different works will show such striking external +differences of form that a criticism which applies merely <i>a priori</i> +or historic standards will be tempted by the fallacy that there is +less form in a number of such markedly different works than in a +number of works that have one scheme in common. All this is +eminently the case with Beethoven’s last works. The extreme +simplicity of the themes of the first two movements of the +quartet in B flat, <i>op</i>. 131, and the tremendous complexity of the +texture into which they are woven, at first impress us as something +mysterious and intangible rather than astonishing. The +boldness with which the slow introduction is blended in broad +statement and counter-statement with the <i>allegro</i>, is directly +impressive, as is also the entry of the second subject with its +dark harmony and tone, but the work needs long familiarity +before its vast mass of thought reveals itself to us in its true +lucidity. Such works are “dark with excessive bright.” When +we enter into them they are transparent as far as our vision +extends, and their darkness is that of a depth that shines as we +penetrate it. In all probability only a veil of familiarity prevents +our finding the same kind of difficulty in Beethoven’s earlier +works. What is undoubtedly newest in the last works is the +enormous development of those polyphonic elements which are +always essential to the life of a composition, but which have +very different functions and degrees of prominence in different +forms and stages of the art. Polyphony inevitably draws +attention to detail, and thus Beethoven in his middle period +found its more obvious manifestations but little conducive to +the breadth of designs which were not as yet sufficiently familiar +to take any but the foremost place. Hence, among other +interesting features of that second period, his marked preference +for themes founded on rhythmic figures of one note, <i>e.g.</i> the +famous “four taps” in the C minor symphony; an identical +rhythm in a melodious theme of very different character in the +G major concerto; a similar figure in the <i>Sonata Appassionata</i>; +the first theme of the <i>scherzo</i> of the F major quartet, <i>op</i>. 59, +No. 1, and the drum-beats in the violin concerto. Such rhythms give +thematic life to an inner part without causing it to assume such +melodic interest as might distract the attention from the flow +of the surface. But in proportion as polyphony loses its danger +so does the prominence of such rhythmic figures decrease, until +in Beethoven’s last works they are no more noticeable than other +kinds of simplicity. The impression of crowded detail is naturally +more prominent the smaller the means with which Beethoven +works and the less outwardly dramatic his thought. Thus +those most gigantic of all musical designs, the 9th symphony, +and the Mass in D, are, but for the mechanical difficulties of the +choral writing, almost like works of the second period as far as +direct impressiveness is concerned; and in the same way the +enormous pianoforte sonata, <i>op</i>. 106, is in its first three movements +easier to follow than the extremely terse and subtle works +on a smaller scale that preceded it (sonata in A major, 101, and +the two sonatas for violoncello, <i>op</i>. 102).</p> + +<p>His enormous development of polyphonic interest soon led +Beethoven to employ the fugue, not only, as in previous works, +by way of episodic contrast to passages and designs in which the +form and not the texture is the main object of interest, but as +the culminating expression of a condition or art in which the +unity of form and texture is so perfect that the mind is free to +concentrate itself on the texture alone. This union was not +effected without a struggle, the traces of which present a close +parallel to that abrupt emphasis which we noticed in some of +Beethoven’s early works. In his fugue-writing the notion that +the chief interest lies in the texture is as yet so difficult to hold +together with the perception that these fugues are based on a +modern firmness and range of form, that the texture is forced +upon the listener’s attention by a continual series of ruthlessly +logical bold strokes of harmony. From this and from the +notorious violence of Beethoven’s choral writing, and also from +his well-known technical struggles in his years of pupilage, the +easy inference has been drawn that Beethoven never was a great +master of counterpoint, an inference that is absolutely irreconcilable +with such plain facts as, to take but one early example, the +brilliant piece of triple counterpoint in the <i>andante</i> of the string +quartet in C minor, <i>op</i>. 18, No. 4, and the complete absence of +anything like crudeness in his handling of harmonics, basses or +inner parts at any period of his career. Beethoven may have +mastered some things with difficulty, but he mastered nothing +incompletely; and where he is not orthodox it is safest to +conclude that orthodoxy is wrong. Had he lived for another +ten years he would certainly have produced an immense amount +of choral work, and with it many other great instrumental works +in which this last remaining element of conflict between texture +and form would have dwindled away. But while this would +doubtless result in such work being easier to follow and might +even have given us a version of the great fugue, <i>op</i>. 133 (discarded +from the string-quartet, <i>op</i>. 131), that did not surpass the bounds +of practical performance, it would yet be no sound criterion by +which to stigmatize as an immaturity the roughness of the +polyphonic works that we know. That roughness is, like the +abrupt epigrammatic manner of some of his early works, the +necessary condition in which such material realizes mature +expression. Without it that material could receive but the +academic handling of a dead language. And by it was created +that permanent reconciliation of polyphony and form from which +has arisen almost all that is true in “Romantic” music, all that +is peculiar to the thematic technique of Wagnerian opera, and +all the perfect smoothness of Brahms’s polyphony.</p> + +<p>The incalculable depth of thought and closeness of texture in +Beethoven’s later works are, of course, the embodiment of a no +less incalculable emotional power. If we at times feel that the +last quartets are more introspective than dramatic, that is +only because Beethoven’s dramatic sense is higher than we can +realize. The subject is too large and too subtle for dogmatism +to be profitable; and we cannot in Beethoven’s case, as we can +in Bach’s, cite a complete series of illustrations of his musical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span> +ideas from his treatment in choral music of words which themselves +interpret the intention of the composer. There is so little +but the music itself by which one can express Beethoven’s +thought, that the utmost we can do here is to refer the reader, +as before, to the articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sonata Forms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harmony</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Instrumentation</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Opera</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Music</a></span>, where he will find further +attempts to indicate in what sense pure music can be described +as dramatic and expressive of emotion.</p> + +<p>As our range of investigation widens, and thoroughness of +analysis and study increases, so we shall surely find in ourselves +an ever-deepening conviction that Beethoven, whether in range, +depth and truth of thought, perfect sense of beauty, or absolute +conscientiousness of execution, is the greatest musician, perhaps +the greatest artist, that ever lived. There is no means of +measuring Beethoven’s influence upon subsequent music. Every +composer of every school claims it. The immense changes he +brought about in the range of music have their most obvious +effect in the possibilities of emotional expression; and so any +outbreak of vulgarity or sentimentality can with impunity claim +descent from Beethoven, though its ancestry may be no higher +than Meyerbeer. Again, we have already referred to that +confusion of thought which regards a series of works markedly +different in form as containing less form than any number of +works cast in one mould. Hence the works of Beethoven’s third +period have been cited in defence of more than one “revolution,” +attempted in a form which never existed in any true classic, for +the purpose of setting up something the revolutionist has not yet +succeeded in inventing. To measure Beethoven’s influence is +like measuring Shakespeare’s. It is an influence either too +vaguely universal to name or too profoundly artistic to analyse. +Perhaps the truest account of it would be that which ignored its +presence in the works of ill-balanced artists, or even in the works of +those who profited merely by an increase of technical and harmonic +resource which, though effected by Beethoven, would, after the +French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, almost certainly +have to some extent arisen from sheer necessity of finding +expression for the new experience of humanity, if Beethoven had +never existed. Setting aside, then, all instances of mere +domination, and of a permanently established new world of musical +thought, and omitting Schubert and Weber as contemporaries, +the one attracted and the other partly repelled, we may, perhaps, +take three later composers, Schumann, Wagner and Brahms, as +the leading examples of the way in which Beethoven’s influence +is definitely traceable as a creative force. The depth and +solemnity of Beethoven’s melody and later polyphonic richness +is a leading source of Schumann’s inspiration, though Schumann’s +artistic schemes exclude any high degree of formal organization +on a large scale. Beethoven’s late polyphony is carried on by +Brahms to the point at which perfect smoothness of style is once +more possible, and there is no aspect of his form which Brahms +neglects or fails to realize with that complete originality which +has nothing to fear from its ancestry. Wagner does not handle +the same art-forms; his task is different, but Beethoven was the +inspiring source, not only of his purely musical sense, but also of +his whole sense of dramatic contrast and fitness. When he had +shaken off the influence of Meyerbeer, which has so often been +confused with that of Beethoven, there remained to him, pre-eminently +in his music and more imperfectly realized in his drama, +a power of combining contrasted emotions such as is the privilege +of only the very greatest dramatic artists. Bach and Beethoven +are the sources of the polyphonic means of expression by which +he attains this. Beethoven alone is the extraneous source of his +knowledge that it was possible. And it is as certain as anything +in the history of art that there will never be a time when +Beethoven’s work does not occupy the central place in a sound +musical mind.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center sc">Annotated List of Beethoven’s Works</p> + +<p>Up to 1823 we give in most cases the dates of publication, the date +of composition being generally from one to three years earlier. +Beethoven seldom had less than a dozen projects in hand at once, +and their immediate chronology is inextricable; whereas publication +generally means final revision. This list is purposely incomplete +in order that unimportant works may not distract attention, even +when they are late and on a large scale.</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + <p>Sonata = Pianoforte sonata.</p> + <p>Violin or violoncello sonata = for pianoforte, V. or Vc.</p> + <p>Pianoforte trio = Pfte., V., Vc.</p> + <p>Pianoforte quartet = Pfte., V., viola and Vc.</p> + <p>String trio = V., Va., Vc.</p> + <p>String quartet = VV., Va. and Vc.</p> + <p>Pianoforte or violin concerto = Concerto with orchestra.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>1785. 3 pfte. quartets, of which the third contains important material + for the sonatas, <i>op.</i> 2, Nos. 1 and 3.</p> +<p class="j1">(Thayer’s attribution of the masterly bagatelles, <i>op.</i> 33, + published 1803, to this period can only be rationalized + by some similar rough first idea.)</p> + +<p>1790. 24 variations on an air by Righini (published 1801). A very + remarkable work, anticipating Schumann’s <i>Papillons</i> in + its humorous close. It was Beethoven’s chief early + <i>tour-de-force</i> in pianoforte playing.</p> + +<p>1795. 3 pfte. trios, <i>op.</i> 1 (E♭, G, C minor).</p> + +<p>1796. 3 pfte. sonatas, <i>op.</i> 2 (F minor, A and C, dedicated to Haydn).</p> + +<p>1797. String trio, <i>op.</i> 3, 2 violoncello sonatas, <i>op.</i> 5, F and G mi., + sonata, <i>op.</i> 7, E♭.</p> + +<p>1798. 3 string trios, <i>op.</i> 9; G, D, C mi., 3 sonatas, <i>op.</i> 10 (C mi., + F, D). Trio for pfte., clarinet and violoncello in B♭, <i>op.</i> 11.</p> + +<p>1799. 3 violin sonatas (D, A, E♭), <i>op.</i> 12. Pfte. sonata (<i>Pathétique</i> + not Beethoven’s title) C mi., <i>op.</i> 13, 2 pfte. sonatas, <i>op.</i> 14, + E, G (the first arranged by the composer as a string quartet in F).</p> + +<p>1801. Pianoforte concertos, <i>op.</i> 15 in C, <i>op.</i> 19 in B♭ (the latter + composed first). Quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments, + <i>op.</i> 16 (also arranged, with new details, as quartet + for pianoforte and strings), composed 1797. 6 string + quartets, <i>op.</i> 18 (F, G, D, C mi., A, B♭). 1st symphony (C), + <i>op.</i> 21. 2 violin sonatas, A mi., <i>op.</i> 23; F ma., <i>op.</i> 24 + (made into two opus-numbers by an accident in the <i>format</i> + of the volumes).</p> + +<p>1802. Pianoforte score of the <i>Prometheus</i> ballet, <i>op.</i> 24 (ousted by + the F ma. violin sonata, and reissued as <i>op.</i> 43). Sonata + in B♭, <i>op.</i> 22. Sonata in A♭, <i>op.</i> 26 (with the funeral + march). 2 sonatas (“quasi fantasia”), <i>op.</i> 27, E♭, C♯ mi. + Sonata in D, <i>op.</i> 28 (<i>Pastorale</i> not Beethoven’s title). String + quintet in C, <i>op.</i> 29.</p> + +<p>1803. 3 violin sonatas, <i>op.</i> 30 (A, C mi., G). 3 sonatas, <i>op.</i> 31, G, + D mi., E♭ (the last appearing in 1804).</p> +<p class="j1">Variations, <i>op.</i> 34. 15 variations and fugue on theme from + <i>Prometheus</i>, <i>op.</i> 35.</p> + +<p>1804. 2nd symphony (D), <i>op.</i> 36 (1802). 3rd pfte. concerto (C mi.), + <i>op.</i> 37 (1800).</p> + +<p>1805. The “Kreutzer” sonata, <i>op.</i> 47, for pfte. and violin (A) + (finale at first intended for <i>op.</i> 30, No. 1).</p> +<p class="j1">“Waldstein” sonata for pfte., <i>op.</i> 53 (C). First version + of opera <i>Leonore</i> in three acts (with overture “No. 2”).</p> + +<p>1806. Sonata in F, <i>op.</i> 54. <i>Eroica Symphony</i>, No. 3, <i>op.</i> 55 (E♭), + written in 1804 in honour of Napoleon Bonaparte. It + was just finished when news arrived that Napoleon had + made himself emperor, and Beethoven was with difficulty + restrained from destroying the score. It is still the longest + extant perfect design in instrumental music. The finale + glorifies the material (and much of the form) of the variations, + <i>op.</i> 35. The <i>scherzo</i> is the first full-sized example of + Beethoven’s special type.</p> +<p class="j1"><i>Leonore</i> reproduced in two acts with overture No. 3. + 32 variations in C mi. (no opus-number, but a very important + work on the lines of a modernized <i>chaconne</i>).</p> + +<p>1807. Triple concerto (pfte., V. and Vc.), <i>op.</i> 56, chiefly interesting + as a study for the true concerto-form which had given + Beethoven difficulty. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 57 (F mi., <i>Appassionata</i>, + not Beethoven’s title). New overture, <i>Leonore</i>, “No. 1,” + composed for projected performance of the opera at + Prague (posthumously published as <i>op.</i> 138).</p> + +<p>1808. 4th pfte. concerto, <i>op.</i> 58 (G). 3 string quartets, <i>op.</i> 59, F, + E mi., C (dedicated to Count Rasoumovsky, in compliment + to whom Russian tunes appear in the finale of No. 1 and + the <i>scherzo</i> of No. 2). Overture to <i>Coriolanus</i>, <i>op.</i> 62.</p> + +<p>1809. 4th symphony, <i>op.</i> 60 (B♭). Violin concerto (D), <i>op.</i> 61 (also + arranged by the composer for pianoforte). 5th symphony, + <i>op.</i> 67 (C mi.) (1806), the first in which trombones appear. + 6th symphony (Pastorale), <i>op.</i> 68; violoncello sonata, + <i>op.</i> 69 (A). 2 pianoforte trios, <i>op.</i> 70 (D, E♭).</p> + +<p>1810. Pianoforte score of <i>Leonore</i> (2nd version) published. String + quartet, <i>op.</i> 74 (E♭, called “Harp” because of <i>pizzicato</i> + passages in first movement). Fantasia, <i>op.</i> 77, interesting + as consisting of a long and capricious series of dramatic + beginnings and breakings off of themes, as if in search for + a firm idea, which is at last found and developed as a set + of variations. This scheme thus foreshadows the choral + finale of the 9th symphony even more significantly than the + Choral Fantasia.</p> + +<p class="j1">Sonata, <i>op.</i> 78, F♯ (extremely terse and subtle, and a great + favourite with Beethoven, who preferred it to the C♯ mi.).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span></p> + +<p>1811. 5th pfte. concerto, <i>op.</i> 73, E♭ (<i>The Emperor</i> not Beethoven’s + title). Fantasia for pfte., orchestra and chorus, <i>op.</i> 80. + Sonata, <i>op.</i> 81a (<i>Les Adieux, l’absence, et le retour</i>), first + movement written when the archduke Rudolph had to + leave Vienna (4th May 1809), and the rest on his return on + the 30th of January 1810. It was an anxious time both + for Beethoven and his excellent royal friend, for whom he + had great affection. (Battle of Wagram, 6th July 1809.) + (We may here note that <i>op.</i> 81b is an unimportant and very + early sextet.) The overture to <i>Egmont</i>, <i>op.</i> 84; <i>Christus + am Oelberge</i> (the Mount of Olives), <i>op.</i> 85, oratorio (probably + composed between 1800 and its first performance in 1803).</p> + +<p>1812. The rest of the <i>Egmont</i> music, <i>op.</i> 84. 1st mass, <i>op.</i> 87 (C) + (first performance, 1807).</p> + +<p>1814. Final version of <i>Leonore</i>, performed as <i>Fidelio</i> with great + alterations, skilful revision of the libretto, very important + new material in the music and a new overture.</p> + +<p>1815. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 90 (E mi.).</p> + +<p>1816. 7th symphony, <i>op.</i> 92 (A); 8th symphony, <i>op.</i> 93 (F) (Beethoven + was planning a group of three of which the last was + to be in D mi., which we shall find significant). String + quartet, <i>op.</i> 95 (F mi.). Violin sonata, <i>op.</i> 96 (G). Pianoforte + trio, <i>op.</i> 97 (B♭); <i>Liederkreis</i>, <i>op.</i> 98.</p> + +<p>1817. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 101 (the first indisputably in Beethoven’s “third + manner”). 2 violoncello sonatas, <i>op.</i> 102 (C, D, the second + containing Beethoven’s first modern instrumental strict fugue).</p> + +<p>1819. Arrangement for string quintet, <i>op.</i> 104, of C mi. trio, <i>op.</i> 1, + No. 3 (a wonderful study in translation, comparable only + to Bach’s arrangements and very unlike Beethoven’s former + essays of the kind). Sonata, <i>op.</i> 106 (B♭), the largest and + most symphonic pianoforte work extant, surpassed in + length only by Bach’s <i>Goldberg</i> variations and Beethoven’s + 33 variations on Diabelli’s waltz.</p> + +<p>1821. 25 Scotch songs accompanied by pfte., V. and Vc., <i>op.</i> 108 + (the first set of a large and much neglected collection, + mostly posthumous, many of great interest and beauty + and very Beethovenish, which has shocked persons who + expect sympathetic insight into folk-music to prevail over + Beethoven’s artistic impulse). Sonata, <i>op.</i> 109 (E).</p> + +<p>1822. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 110 (A♭). Overture, <i>Die Weihe des Hauses</i>, + <i>op.</i> 124 (C), a magnificent essay in orchestral free fugue, + published 1825.</p> + +<p>1823. Sonata, <i>op.</i> 111 (C mi., the last pianoforte sonata). 33 variations + on a waltz by Diabelli, who sent his waltz round to + fifty-one musicians in Austria asking each to contribute + a variation; the whole to be published for the benefit of + the widows and orphans left by the war. Beethoven + answered with the greatest set ever written, and it was + published in a separate volume. Among the other fifty + composers were Schubert and an infant prodigy of eleven, + Franz Liszt!</p> +<p class="j1">The mass in D (<i>Missa Solemnis</i>), <i>op.</i> 123, begun in 1818 + for the installation of the archduke Rudolph as archbishop + of Olmutz, was not finished until 1826, two years + after the installation.</p> +<p class="j1">The 9th symphony, <i>op.</i> 125 D mi. (see note on 7th and + 8th symphonies); sketches begun 1817; project of setting Schiller’s + <i>Freude</i> already in Beethoven’s mind before he left Bonn.</p> +<p class="j1">6 bagatelles, <i>op.</i> 126, Beethoven’s last pianoforte work a + very remarkable and unaccountably neglected group of + carefully contrasted lyric pieces.</p> + +<p>1824. String quartet, <i>op.</i> 127 (E♭, published 1826).</p> + +<p>1825. String quartet, <i>op.</i> 130 (B♭), with finale, <i>op.</i> 133 (grand fugue); + string quartet, <i>op.</i> 132 (A mi., with slow movement in + Lydian mode, a <i>Heiliger Dankgesang</i> on recovery from + illness. Theme of finale first thought of as for instrumental + finale to 9th symphony).</p> + +<p>1826. String quartet, <i>op.</i> 131 (C♯, mi.). String quartet, <i>op.</i> 135 (F). + New finale to <i>op.</i> 130, Beethoven’s last composition.</p> +</div></div> +<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—A.W. Thayer, <i>Beethovens Leben</i> (1866-1879); +L. Nohl, <i>Life of Beethoven</i> (Eng. trans., 1884), +and <i>Letters</i> (Eng. trans., 1866); +Sir G. Grove, <i>Beethoven and his Symphonies</i> (1896), +and in Grove’s <i>Dictionary of Music</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEETLE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>bityl</i>; connected with “bite”), a name +commonly applied to those insects which possess horny wing-cases; +it is used to denote the cockroaches (<i>q.v.</i>) (black beetles), +as well as the true beetles or <i>Coleoptera</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), the two belonging +to different orders of <i>Insecta</i>.</p> + +<p>The adjective “beetle-browed,” and similarly “beetling” +(of a cliff), are derived from the name of the insect. From +another word (O. Eng. <i>betel</i>, connected with “beat”) comes +“beetle” in the sense of a mallet, and the “beetling-machine,” +which subjects fabrics to a hammering process.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEETS, NIKOLAAS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1814-1903), Dutch poet, was born at +Haarlem on the 13th of September 1814; constant references +in his poems and sketches show how deeply the beauty of that +town and its neighbourhood impressed his imagination. He +studied theology in Leiden, but gave himself early to the cultivation +of poetry. In his youth Beets was entirely carried away +on the tide of Byronism which was then sweeping over Europe, +and his early works—<i>Jose</i> (1834), <i>Kuser</i> (1835) and <i>Guy de +Vlaming</i> (1837)—are gloomy romances of the most impassioned +type. But at the very same time he was beginning in prose the +composite work of humour and observation which has made him +famous, and which certainly had nothing that was in the least +Byronic about it. This was the celebrated <i>Camera Obscura</i> (1839), +the most successful imaginative work which any Dutchman +of the 18th century produced. This work, published under +the pseudonym of “Hildebrand,” goes back in its earliest +inception to the year 1835, when Beets was only twenty-one. +It consists of complete short stories, descriptive sketches, studies +of peasant life—all instinct with humour and pathos, and +written in a style of great charm; it has been reprinted in +countless editions. Beets became a professor at the university +of Leiden, and the pastor of a congregation in that city. In +middle life he published further collections of verse—<i>Cornflowers</i> +(1853) and <i>New Poems</i> (1857)—in which the romantic melancholy +was found to have disappeared, and to have left in its place a +gentle sentiment and a depth of religious feeling. In 1873-1875 +Beets collected his works in three volumes. In April 1883 the +honorary degree of LL.D. Edin. was conferred upon him. He +died at Utrecht on the 13th of March 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEFANA<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (Ital., corrupted from <i>Epifania</i>, Epiphany), the +Italian female counterpart of Santa Claus, the Christmas benefactor +(St Nicholas). On Epiphany, or Twelfth Night, she plays +the fairy godmother to the children, filling their stockings with +presents. Tradition relates that she was too busy with house +duties to come to the window to see the Three Wise Men of the +East pass on their journey to pay adoration to the Saviour, +excusing herself on the ground that she could see them on their +return. They went back another way, and Befana is alleged +to have been punished by being obliged to look for them for +ever. Her legends seem to be rather mixed, for in spite of her +Santa Claus character, her name is used by Italian mothers as a +bogey to frighten the babies. It was the custom to carry her +effigy through Italian towns on the eve of the Epiphany.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1757-1811), French +dramatist and man of letters, was born at Laon on the 6th of +November 1757. Under the name of “Cousin Jacques” he founded +a periodical called <i>Les Lunes</i> (1785-1787). The <i>Courrier +des planètes ou Correspondance du Cousin Jacques avec le firmament</i> +(1788-1792) followed. <i>Nicodème dans la lune, ou la révolution +pacifique</i> (1790) a three-act farce, is said to have had more +than four hundred representations. In spite of his protests +against the evils of the Revolution he escaped interference +through the influence of his brother, Louis Étienne Beffroy, who +was a member of the Convention. Of <i>La Petite Nanette</i> (1795) +and several other operas he wrote both the words and the music. +His <i>Dictionnaire néologique</i> (3 vols., 1795-1800) of the chief +actors and events in the Revolution was interdicted by the +police and remained incomplete. Beffroy spent his last years +in retirement, dying in Paris on the 17th of December 1811.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEGAS, KARL<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1794-1854), German historical painter, was +born at Heinsberg near Aix-la-Chapelle. His father, a retired +judge, destined him for the legal profession, but the boy’s tastes +pointed definitely in another direction. Even at school he was +remarked for his wonderful skill in drawing and painting, and in +1812 he was permitted to visit Paris in order to perfect himself +in his art. He studied for eighteen months in the atelier of Gros +and then began to work independently. In 1814 his copy of +the Madonna della Sedia was bought by the king of Prussia, +who was attracted by the young artist and did much to advance +him. He was engaged to paint several large Biblical pictures, +and in 1825, after his return from Italy, continued to produce +paintings which were placed in the churches of Berlin and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span> +Potsdam. Some of these were historical pieces, but the majority +were representations of Scriptural incidents. Begas was also +celebrated as a portrait-painter, and supplied to the royal gallery +a long series of portraits of eminent Prussian men of letters. +At his death he held the post of court painter at Berlin. His +son <span class="sc">Oskar</span> (1828-1883) was also a painter and professor of +painting at Berlin. <span class="sc">Reinhold</span>, the sculptor, is noticed below.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEGAS, REINHOLD<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1831-  ), German sculptor, younger +son of Karl Begas, the painter, was born at Berlin on the 15th of +July 1831. He received his early education (1846-1851) in the +ateliers of C.D. Rauch and L. Wichmann. During a period of +study in Italy, from 1856 to 1858, he was influenced by Böcklin +and Lenbach in the direction of a naturalistic style in sculpture. +This tendency was marked in the group “Borussia,” executed +for the façade of the exchange in Berlin, which first brought +him into general notice. In 1861 he was appointed professor +at the art school at Weimar, but retained the appointment only +a few months. That he was chosen, after competition, to execute +the statue of Schiller for the Gendarmen Markt in Berlin, was a +high tribute to the fame he had already acquired; and the result, +one of the finest statues in the German metropolis, entirely +justified his selection. Since the year 1870, Begas has entirely +dominated the plastic art in Prussia, but especially in Berlin. +Among his chief works during this period are the colossal statue +of Borussia for the Hall of Glory; the Neptune fountain in +bronze on the Schlossplatz; the statue of Alexander von Humboldt, +all in Berlin; the sarcophagus of the emperor Frederick +III. in the mausoleum of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam; and, +lastly, the national monument to the emperor William (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berlin</a></span>), the statue of Bismarck before the Reichstag building, +and several of the statues in the Siegesallee. He was also entrusted +with the execution of the sarcophagus of the empress Frederick.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.G. Meyer, “Reinhold Begas” in <i>Künstler-Monographien</i>, +ed. H. Knackfuss, Heft xx. (Bielefeld, 1897; new ed., 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEGGAR,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> one who begs, particularly one who gains his living +by asking the charitable contributions of others. The word, +with the verbal form “to beg,” in Middle English <i>beggen</i>, is of +obscure history. The words appear first in English in the 13th +century, and were early connected with “bag,” with reference +to the receptacle for alms carried by the beggars. The most +probable derivation of the word, and that now generally accepted, +is that it is a corruption of the name of the lay communities +known as Beguines and Beghards, which, shortly after their +establishment, followed the friars in the practice of mendicancy +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beguines</a></span>). It has been suggested, however, that the +origin of “beg” and “beggars” is to be found in a rare Old +English word, <i>bedecian</i>, of the same meaning, which is apparently +connected with the Gothic <i>bidjan</i>, cf. German <i>betteln</i>; but +between the occurrence of <i>bedecian</i> at the end of the 9th century +and the appearance of “beggar” and “beg” in the 13th, there +is a blank, and no explanation can be given of the great change +in form. For the English law relating to begging and its history, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charity</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poor Law</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vagrancy</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEGGAR-MY-NEIGHBOUR,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a simple card-game. An ordinary +pack is divided equally between two players, and the cards are +held with the backs upwards. The first player lays down his +top card face up, and the opponent plays his top card on it, +and this goes on alternately as long as no court-card appears; +but if either player turns up a court-card, his opponent has to +play four ordinary cards to an ace, three to a king, two to a +queen, one to a knave, and when he has done so the other player +takes all the cards on the table and places them under his pack; +if, however, in the course of this playing to a court-card, another +court-card turns up, the adversary has in turn to play to this, and +as long as neither has played a full number of ordinary cards to +any court-card the trick continues. The player who gets all the +cards into his hand is the winner.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEGONIA<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany), +a large genus (natural order, Begoniaceae) of succulent herbs or +undershrubs, with about three hundred and fifty species in +tropical moist climates, especially South America and India. +About one hundred and fifty species are known in cultivation, +and innumerable varieties and hybrid forms. Many are tuberous. +The flowers are usually showy and large, white, rose, scarlet +or yellow in colour; they are unisexual, the male containing +numerous stamens, the female having a large inferior ovary and +two to four branched or twisted stigmas. The fruit is a winged +capsule containing numerous minute seeds. The leaves, which are +often large and variegated, are unequal-sided.</p> + +<p>Cuttings from flowering begonias root freely in sandy soil, +if placed in heat at any season when moderately firm; as soon +as rooted, they should be potted singly into 3-in. pots, in sandy +loam mixed with leaf-mould and sand. They should be stopped +to keep them bushy, placed in a light situation, and thinly +shaded in the middle of very bright days. In a few weeks they +will require another shift. They should not be overpotted, but +instead assisted by manure water. The pots should be placed +in a light pit near the roof glass. The summer-flowering kinds +will soon begin blooming, but the autumn and winter flowering +sorts should be kept growing on in a temperature of from 55° to +60° by night, with a few degrees more in the day. The tuberous-rooted +sorts require to be kept at rest in winter, in a medium +temperature, almost but not quite dry. In February they should +be potted in a compost of sandy loam and leaf-mould, and placed +in a temperate pit until May or June, when they may be moved +to the greenhouse for flowering. If they afterwards get at all +pot-bound, weak manure should be applied. After blooming, +the supply of water must be again slackened; in winter the +plants should be stored in a dry place secure from frost; they +are increased by late summer and autumn cuttings, after being +partially cut down.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEGUINES<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (Fr. <i>béguine</i>, Med. Lat. <i>beguina, begina, beghina</i>), +at the present time the name of the members of certain lay +sisterhoods established in the Netherlands and Germany, the +enclosed district within which they live being known as a beguinage +(Lat. <i>beginagium</i>). The equivalent male communities, +called also Beguines (Fr. <i>béguins</i>, Lat. <i>beguiní</i>), but more usually +Beghards (Lat. <i>baghardi, beggardi, begehardi</i>, &c., O. Fr. <i>bégard-i</i>, +Flem. <i>beggaert</i>), have long ceased to exist. The origin of the +names Beguine and Beghard has been the subject of much +controversy. In the 15th century a legend arose that both name +and organization were traceable to St Begga, daughter of Pippin +of Landen, who consequently in 1630 was chosen by the Beguines +as the patron saint of their association. In 1630 a professor of +Louvain, Erycius Puteanus (van Putte), published a treatise, +<i>De Begginarum apud Belgas instituto et nomine suffragium</i>, in +which he produced three documents purporting to date from +the 11th and 12th centuries, which seemed conclusively to prove +that the Beguines existed long before Lambert le Bègue. For +two centuries these were accepted as genuine and are admitted +as such even in the monumental work of Mosheim. In 1843, +however, they were conclusively proved by the German scholar +Hallmann, from internal evidence, to be forgeries of the 14th and +15th centuries. It is now universally admitted that both the +institution and the name of the Beguines are derived from +Lambert le Bègue, who died about the year 1187. The confusion +caused by the spurious documents of Puteanus, however, led, +even when the legend of St Begga was rejected, to other suggestions +for the derivation of the name, <i>e.g.</i> from an imaginary old +Saxon word <i>beggen</i>, “to beg” or “pray,” an explanation +adopted even by Mosheim, or from <i>bègue</i>, “stammering,” a +French word of unknown origin, which only brings us back to +Lambert again, whose name of Le Bègue, as the chronicler +Aegidius, a monk of Orval (Aureae Vallis), tells us, simply +means “the stammerer,” <i>quia balbus erat</i> (<i>Gesta pontificum +Leodiensium</i>, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1251). Doubtless this coincidence gave +a ready handle to the scoffing wits of the time, and among the +numerous popular names given to the Beghards—<i>bons garçons, +boni pueri, boni valeti</i> and the like—we find also that of Lollards +(from Flemish <i>löllen</i>, “to stammer”).</p> + +<p>About the year 1170 Lambert le Bègue, a priest of Liége, +who had devoted his fortune to founding the hospital and church +of St Christopher for the widows and children of crusaders, +conceived the idea of establishing an association of women, who, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span> +without taking the monastic vows, should devote themselves +to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was immense, and +large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the loss +of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a +movement which was attended with all the manifestations of +what is now called a “revival.” About the year 1180 Lambert +gathered some of these women, who had been ironically styled +“Beguines” by his opponents, into a semi-conventual community, +which he established in a quarter of the city belonging +to him around his church of St Christopher. The district was +surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate +small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation of good +works, and of chastity so long as they remained members of the +community. After Lambert’s death (<i>c</i>. 1187?) the movement +rapidly spread, first in the Netherlands and afterwards in France—where +it was encouraged by the saintly Louis IX.—Germany, +Switzerland and the countries beyond. Everywhere the community +was modelled on the type established at Liége. It +constituted a little city within the city, with separate houses, +and usually a church, hospital and guest-house, the whole being +under the government of a mistress (<i>magistra</i>). Women of all +classes were admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty, +many wealthy women devoted their riches to the common cause. +The Beguines did not beg; and, when the endowments of the +community were not sufficient, the poorer members had to support +themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the like.</p> + +<p>The Beguine communities were fruitful soil for the missionary +enterprise of the friars, and in the course of the 13th century the +communities in France, Germany and upper Italy had fallen +under the influence of the Dominicans and Franciscans to such an +extent that in the Latin-speaking countries the tertiaries of these +orders were commonly called <i>beguini</i> and <i>beguinae</i>. The very +looseness of their organization, indeed, made it inevitable that +the Beguine associations should follow very diverse developments. +Some of them retained their original character; others +fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ultimately +converted into houses of Dominican, Franciscan or +Augustinian tertiaries; others again fell under the influence of +the mystic movements of the 13th century, turned in increasing +numbers from work to mendicancy (as being nearer the Christ-life), +practised the most cruel self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant +heresies that called down upon them the condemnation of popes +and councils.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> All this tended to lower the reputation of the +Beguines. During the 14th century, indeed, numerous new +beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth +ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and more +mere almshouses for poor women. By the 15th century in many +cases they had utterly sunk in reputation, their obligation to +nurse the sick was quite neglected, and they had, rightly or +wrongly, acquired the reputation of being mere nests of beggars +and women of ill fame. At the Reformation the communities +were suppressed in Protestant countries, but in some Catholic +countries they still survive. The beguinages found here and +there in Germany are now simply almshouses for poor spinsters, +those in Holland (<i>e.g.</i> at Amsterdam and Breda) and Belgium +preserve more faithfully the characteristics of earlier days. +The beguinage of St Elizabeth at Ghent has some thousand +sisters, and occupies quite a distinct quarter of the city, being +surrounded by a wall and moat. The Beguines wear the old +Flemish head-dress and a dark costume, and are conspicuous +for their kindness among the poor and their sick nursing.</p> + +<p>It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men +originated also with Lambert le Bègue. The first records are of +communities at Louvain in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The +history of the male communities is to a certain extent parallel +with the female, but they were never so numerous and their +degeneration was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish Beghard +communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned +their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in +intimate connexion with the craft-gilds; but under the influence +of the mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended +to break up, and, though certain of the male beguinages survived +or were incorporated as tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name +of Beghard became associated with groups of wandering mendicants +who made religion a cloak for living on charity; <i>béguigner</i> +becoming in the French language of the time synonymous with +“to beg,” and <i>beghard</i> with “beggar,” a word which, according +to the latest authorities, was probably imported into England +in the 13th century from this source (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beggar</a></span>). More serious +still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of +these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the +Fraticelli, the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the +Free Spirit. The situation was embittered by the hatred of the +secular clergy for the friars, with whom the Beguines were +associated. Restrictions were placed upon them by the synod +of Fritzlar (1269), by that of Mainz (1281) and Eichstätt (1281). +and by the synod of Béziers (1299) they were absolutely forbidden. +They were again condemned by a synod held at Cologne +in 1306; and at the synod of Trier in 1310 a decree was passed +against those “who under a pretext of feigned religion call +themselves Beghards ... and, hating manual labour, go about +begging, holding conventicles and posing among simple people +as interpreters of the Scriptures.” Matters came to a climax at +the council of Vienne in 1311 under Pope Clement V., where the +“sect of Beguines and Beghards” were accused of being the +main instruments of the spread of heresy, and decrees were +passed suppressing their organization and demanding their +severe punishment. The decrees were put into execution by +Pope John XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the +pope expressly protected the female Beguine communities of the +Netherlands, there was little discrimination between the orthodox +and unorthodox Beguines. This led to the utmost confusion, +the laity in many cases taking the part of the Beguine communities, +and the Church being thus brought into conflict with +the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution +died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and +1378 by Popes Urban V. and Gregory XI., and the Beguines were +not formally reinstated until the pontificate of Eugenius IV. +(1431-1447). The male communities did not survive the 14th +century, even in the Netherlands, where they had maintained +their original character least impaired.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.L. von Mosheirn, <i>De beghardis et beguinabus commentarius</i> +(Leipzig, 1790); E. Hallmann, <i>Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der +belgischen Beghinen</i> (Berlin, 1843); J.C.L. Giesclcr, <i>Eccles. Hist.</i> +(vol. iii., Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853), with useful excerpts from +documents; Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>; Herzog-Haurk, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(3rd ed., 1897) s. “Beginen,” by Herman Haupt, where +numerous further authorities are cited.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the year 1287 the council of Liége decreed that “all Beguinae +desiring to enjoy the Beguine privileges shall enter a Beguinage, +and we order that all who remain outside the Beguinage shall wear +a dress to distinguish them from the Beguinae.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHAIM<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Behem</span>), <b>MARTIN</b> (1436?-1507), a navigator +and geographer of great pretensions, was born at Nuremberg, +according to one tradition, about 1436; according to Ghillany, +as late as 1459. He was drawn to Portugal by participation in +Flanders trade, and acquired a scientific reputation at the court +of John II. As a pupil, real or supposed, of the astronomer +“Regiomontanus” (<i>i.e.</i> Johann Müller of Königsberg in Franconia) +he became (<i>c.</i> 1480) a member of a council appointed by +King John for the furtherance of navigation. His alleged introduction +of the cross-staff into Portugal (an invention described +by the Spanish Jew, Levi ben Gerson, in the 14th century) is +a matter of controversy; his improvements in the astrolabe +were perhaps limited to the introduction of handy brass instruments +in place of cumbrous wooden ones; it seems likely that +he helped to prepare better navigation tables than had yet been +known in the Peninsula. In 1484-1485 he claimed to have +accompanied Diogo Cão in his second expedition to West Africa, +really undertaken in 1485-86, reaching Cabo Negro in 15° 40′ S. +and Cabo Ledo still farther on. It is now disputed whether +Behaim’s pretensions here deserve any belief; and it is suggested +that instead of sharing in this great voyage of discovery, the +Nuremberger only sailed to the nearer coasts of Guinea, perhaps +as far as the Bight of Benin, and possibly with José Visinho the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span> +astronomer and with João Affonso d’Aveiro, in 1484-86. Martin’s +later history, as traditionally recorded, was as follows. On his +return from his West African exploration to Lisbon he was +knighted by King John, who afterwards employed him in various +capacities; but, from the time of his marriage in 1486, he usually +resided at Fayal in the Azores, where his father-in-law, Jobst +van Huerter, was governor of a Flemish colony. On a visit to +his native city in 1492, he constructed his famous terrestrial +globe, still preserved in Nuremberg, and often reproduced, in +which the influence of Ptolemy is strongly apparent, but wherein +some attempt is also made to incorporate the discoveries of the +later middle ages (Marco Polo, &c.). The antiquity of this globe +and the year of its execution, on the eve of the discovery of +America, are noteworthy; but as a scientific work it is unimportant, +ranking far below the <i>portolani</i> charts of the 14th century. +Its West Africa is marvellously incorrect; the Cape Verde +archipelago lies hundreds of miles out of its proper place; and +the Atlantic is filled with fabulous islands. Blunders of 16° +are found in the localization of places the author claims to have +visited: contemporary maps, at least in regard to continental +features, seldom went wrong beyond 1°. It is generally agreed +that Behaim had no share in Transatlantic discovery; and +though Columbus and he were apparently in Portugal at the +same time, no connexion between the two has been established. +He died at Lisbon in 1507.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.G. von Murr, <i>Diplomatische Geschichte des berühmten Ritters +Behaim</i> (1778); A. von Humboldt, <i>Kritische Untersuchungen</i> (1836); +F.W. Ghillany, <i>Geschichte des Seefahrers Martin Behaim</i> (1853); +O. Peschel, <i>Geschichte der Erdkunde</i>, 214-215, 226, 251, +and <i>Zeitalter der Entdeckungen</i>, esp. p. 90; +Breusing, <i>Zur Geschichte der Geographie</i> (1869); +Eugen Gelcich in the <i>Mittheilungen</i> of the Vienna Geographical +Society, vol. xxxvi. pp. 100, &c.; +E.G. Ravenstein, <i>Martin de Bohemia</i>, (Lisbon, 1900), +<i>Martin Behaim, His Life and His Globe</i> (London, 1909), +and <i>Voyages of Diogo Cão and Bartholomeu Dias</i>, 1482-1488, +in <i>Geographical Journal</i>, Dec. 1900; see also +<i>Geog. Journal</i>, Aug. 1893, p. 175, Nov. 1901, p. 509; Jules Mees +in <i>Bull. Soc. Geog.</i>, Antwerp, 1902, pp. 182-204; A. Ferreira de Serpa +in <i>Bull. Soc. Geog.</i>, Lisbon, 1904, pp. 297-307.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHAR,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bihar</span>, a town of British India, in the Patna +district of Bengal, which gives its name to an old province, +situated on the right bank of the river Panchana. Pop. (1901) +45,063. There are still some manufactures of silk and muslin, +but trade has deserted Behar in favour of Patna and other +places more favourably situated on the river Ganges and the +railway, while the indigo industry has been ruined by the +synthetic products of the German chemist, and the English +colony of indigo planters has been scattered abroad.</p> + +<p>The old province, stretching widely across the valley of the +Ganges from the frontier of Nepal to the hills of Chota Nagpur, +corresponds to the two administrative divisions of Patna and +Bhagalpur, with a total area of 44,197 sq. m. and a population +of 24,241,305. It is the most densely populated tract in India, +and therefore always liable to famine; but it is now well +protected almost everywhere by railways. It is a country of large +landholders and formerly of indigo planters. The vernacular +language is not Bengali, but a dialect of Hindu; and the people +likewise resemble those of Upper India. The general aspect +of the country is flat, except in the district of Monghyr, where +detached hills occur, and in the south-east of the province, +where the Rajmahal and Santal ranges abut upon the plains.</p> + +<p>Behar abounds in great rivers, such as the Ganges, with its +tributaries, the Ghagra, Gandak, Kusi, Mahananda and Sone. +The Ganges enters the province near the town of Buxar, flows +eastward and, passing the towns of Dinajpur, Patna, Monghyr +and Colgong, leaves the province at Rajmahal. It divides the +province into two almost equal portions; north of the river lie +the districts of Saran, Champaran, Tirhoot, Purnea, and part of +Monghyr and Bhagalpur, and south of it are Shahabad, Patna, +Gaya, the Santal parganas, and the rest of Monghyr and Bhagalpur. +The Ganges and its northern tributaries are navigable by +country boats of large burden all the year round. The cultivation +of opium is a government monopoly, and no person is allowed to +grow the poppy except on account of government. The Behar +Opium Agency has its headquarters at the town of Patna. +Annual engagements are entered into by the cultivators, under a +system of pecuniary advances, to sow a certain quantity of land +with poppy, and the whole produce in the form of opium is +delivered to government at a fixed rate.</p> + +<p>Saltpetre is largely refined in Tirhoot, Saran and Champaran, +and is exported both by rail and river to Calcutta. The +manufactures of less importance are tussore-silk, paper, blankets, +brass utensils, firearms, carpets, coarse cutlery and hardware, +leather, ornaments of gold and silver, &c. Of minerals—lead, +silver and copper exist in the Bhagalpur division, but the mines +are not worked. One coal-mine is worked in the parganas. +Before the construction of railways in India, the Ganges and the +Grand Trunk road afforded the sole means of communication +from Calcutta to the North-Western Provinces. But now the +railroad is the great highway which connects Upper India with +Lower Bengal. The East Indian railway runs throughout the +length of the province. The climate of Behar is very hot from +the middle of March to the end of June, when the rains set in, +which continue till the end of September. The cold season, from +October to the first half of March, is the pleasantest time of the +year.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The province of Behar corresponds to the ancient +kingdom of Magadha, which comprised the country now included +in the districts of Patna, Gaya and Shahabad, south of the +Ganges. The origin of this kingdom, famous alike in the political +and religious history of India, is lost in the mists of antiquity; +and though the Brahmanical <i>Puranas</i> give lists of its rulers +extending back to remote ages before the Christian era, the first +authentic dynasty is that of the Saisunaga, founded by Sisunaga +(<i>c.</i> 600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), whose capital was at Rajagaha (Rajgir) in the hills +near Gaya; and the first king of this dynasty of whom anything +is known was Bimbisara (<i>c.</i> 528 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who by conquests and +matrimonial alliances laid the foundations of the greatness of the +kingdom. It was in the reign of Bimbisara that Vardhamana +Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, and Gautama, the founder of +Buddhism, preached in Magadha, and Buddhist missionaries +issued thence to the conversion of China, Ceylon, Tibet and +Tatary. Even to this day Behar, where there are extensive +remains of Buddhist buildings, remains a sacred spot in the +eyes of the Chinese and other Buddhist nations.</p> + +<p>Bimbisara was murdered by his son Ajatasatru, who succeeded +him, and whose bloodthirsty policy reduced the whole country +between the Himalayas and the Ganges under the suzerainty of +Magadha. According to tradition, it was his grandson, Udaya, +who founded the city of Pataliputra (Patna) on the Ganges, +which under the Maurya dynasty became the capital not only of +Magadha but of India. The remaining history of the dynasty is +obscure; according to Mr Vincent Smith, its last representative +was Mahanandin (417 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), after whose death the throne was +usurped, under obscure circumstances, by Mahapadma Nanda, +a man of low caste (<i>Early Hist. of India</i>, p. 36). It was a son +of this usurper who was reigning at the time of the invasion +of Alexander the Great; and the conqueror, when his advance +was arrested at the Hyphasis (326 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), meditating an attack on +Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), was informed that +the king of Magadha could oppose him with a force of 20,000 +cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2000 chariots, and 3000 or 4000 +elephants. The Nanda dynasty seems to have survived only for +two generations, when (321 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Chandragupta Maurya, the +founder of the great Maurya dynasty, seized the throne. This +dynasty, of which the history belongs to that of India (<i>q.v.</i>), +occupied the throne for 137 years. After the death of the great +Buddhist king, Asoka (<i>c.</i> 231), the Maurya empire began to break +up, and it was finally destroyed about fifty years later when +Pushyamitra Sunga murdered the Maurya king Brihadratha +and founded the Sunga dynasty. Descendants of Asoka continued, +however, to subsist in Magadha as subordinate rajas for +many centuries; and as late as the 8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> petty +Maurya dynasties are mentioned as ruling in Konkan. The +reign of Pushyamitra, who held his own against Menander and +succeeded in establishing his claim to be lord paramount of +northern India, is mainly remarkable as marking the beginning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span> +of the Brahmanical reaction and the decline of Buddhism; +according to certain Buddhist writers the king, besides reviving +Hindu rites, indulged in a savage persecution of the monks. +The Sunga dynasty, which lasted 112 years, was succeeded by +the Kanva dynasty, which after 45 years was overthrown +(<i>c.</i> 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) by the Andhras or Satavahanas. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 236 the +Andhras were overthrown, and, after a confused and obscure +period of about a century, Chandragupta I. established his power +at Pataliputra (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320) and founded the famous Gupta empire +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gupta</a></span>), which survived till it was overthrown by the +Ephthalites (<i>q.v.</i>), or White Huns, at the close of the 5th century. +In Magadha itself the Guptas continued to rule as tributary +princes for some centuries longer. About the middle of the 8th +century Magadha was conquered by Gopala, who had made +himself master in Bengal, and founded the imperial dynasty +known as the Palas of Bengal. They were zealous Buddhists, +and under their rule Magadha became once more an active centre +of Buddhist influence. Gopala himself built a great monastery +at Udandapura, or Otantapuri, which has been identified by +Sir Alexander Cunningham with the city of Behar, where the +later Pala kings established their capital. Under Mahipala +(<i>c.</i> 1026), the ninth of his line, and his successor Nayapala, +missionaries from Magadha succeeded in firmly re-establishing +Buddhism in Tibet.</p> + +<p>In the 11th century the Pala empire, which, according to the +Tibetan historian Taranath, extended in the 9th century from +the Bay of Bengal to Delhi and Jalandhar (Jullundur) in the +north and the Vindhyan range in the south, was partly dismembered +by the rise of the “Sena” dynasty in Bengal; and +at the close of the 12th century both Palas and Senas were swept +away by the Mahommedan conquerors, the city of Behar itself +being captured by the Turki free-lance Mahommed-i-Bakhtyar +Khilji in 1193, by surprise, with a party of 200 horsemen. “It +was discovered,” says a contemporary Arab historian, “that the +whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindi +tongue they call a college Bihar.” Most of the monks were +massacred in the first heat of the assault; those who survived +fled to Tibet, Nepal and the south. Buddhism in Magadha +never recovered from this blow; it lingered in obscurity for a +while and then vanished.</p> + +<p>Behar now came under the rule of the Mahommedan governors +of Bengal. About 1330 the southern part was annexed to +Delhi, while north Behar remained for some time longer subject +to Bengal. In 1397 the whole of Behar became part of the +kingdom of Jaunpur; but a hundred years later it was annexed +by the Delhi emperors, by whom—save for a short period—it +continued to be held. The capital of the province was established +under the Moguls at the city of Behar, which gave its name to +the province. From the middle of the 14th to the middle of the +16th century a large part of Behar was ruled by a line of Brahman +tributary kings; and in the 15th century another Hindu dynasty +ruled in Champaran and Gorakhpur. Behar came into the +possession of the East India Company with the acquisition of the +Diwani in 1765, when the province was united with Bengal. In +1857 two zemindars, Umar Singh and Kumar Singh, rebelled +against the British government, and for some months held the +ruinous fort of Rohtas against the British.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Imperial Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), <i>s.v.</i> +“Bihar” and “Bengal”; V.A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i> +(2nd ed., Oxford, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHĀ UD-DĪN<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Abū-l-maḥāsin Yūsuf Ibn Rāfī‘ Ibn +Shaddād Behā Ud Dīn</span>] (1145-1234), Arabian writer and statesman, +was born in Mosul and early became famous for his knowledge +of the Koran and of jurisprudence. Before the age of thirty he +became teacher in the great college at Bagdad known as the +Nizāmiyya, and soon after became professor at Mosul. In 1187, after +making the pilgrimage to Mecca, he visited Damascus. Saladin, +who was at the time besieging Kaukab (a few miles south of +Tiberias), sent for him and became his friend. Behā ud-Dīn +observed that the whole soul of the monarch was engrossed by the +war which he was then engaged in waging against the enemies of +the faith, and saw that the only mode of acquiring his favour +was by urging him to its vigorous prosecution. With this view +he composed a treatise on <i>The Laws and Discipline of Sacred +War</i>, which he presented to Saladin, who received it with peculiar +favour. From this time he remained constantly attached to the +person of the sultan, and was employed on various embassies +and in departments of the civil government. He was appointed +judge of the army and judge of Jerusalem. After Saladin’s death +Behā-ud-Din remained the friend of his son Malik uz-Zāhir, +who appointed him judge of Aleppo. Here he employed some of +his wealth in the foundation of colleges. When Malik uz-Zāhir +died, his son Malik ul-‘Aziz was a minor, and Behā ud-Dīn had +the chief power in the regency. This power he used largely for the +patronage of learning. After the abdication of Malik ul-‘Aziz, +he fell from favour and lived in retirement until his death in +1234. Behā ud-Dīn’s chief work is his <i>Life of Saladin</i> +(published at Leiden with Latin translation by A. Schultens in +1732 and 1755). An English translation was published by the Palestine +Pilgrims’ Text Society, London, 1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For list of other extant works see C. Brockelmann, <i>Geschichte der +arabischen Litteratur</i> (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 316 f.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHĀ UD-DĪN ZUHAIR<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Abū-l Faḍl Zuhair Ibn Maḥommed +Al-Muhallabī</span>) (1186-1258), Arabian poet, was born at or +near Mecca, and became celebrated as the best writer of prose and +verse and the best calligraphist of his time. He entered the +service of Malik uṣ-Sāliḥ Najm ud-Dīn in Mesopotamia, and +was with him at Damascus until he was betrayed and imprisoned. +Behā ud-Dīn then retired to Nablūs (Shechem) where he remained +until Najm ud-Dīn escaped and obtained possession +of Egypt, whither he accompanied him in 1240. There he remained +as the sultan’s confidential secretary until his death, +due to an epidemic, in 1258. His poetry consists mostly of +panegyric and brilliant occasional verse distinguished for its +elegance. It has been published with English metrical translation +by E.H. Palmer (2 vols., Cambridge, 1877).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by his contemporary Ibn Khallikan (see +M‘G. de Slane’s trans. of his <i>Biographical Dictionary</i>, vol. i. +pp. 542-545).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHBAHAN,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a walled town of Persia in the province of Fars, +pleasantly situated in the midst of a highly cultivated plain, +128 m. W.N.W. of Shiraz and 3 m. from the left bank of the river +Tab, here called Kurdistan river. It is the capital of the +Kuhgilu-Behbahan sub-province of Fars and has a population of about +10,000. The walls are about 3 m. in circumference and a Narinj +Kalah (citadel) stands in the south-east corner. At a short +distance north-west of the city are the ruins of Arrajan, the old +capital of the province.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHEADING,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a mode of executing capital punishment (<i>q.v.</i>). +It was in use among the Greeks and Romans, and the former, as +Xenophon says at the end of the second book of the <i>Anabasis</i>, +regarded it as a most honourable form of death. So did the +Romans, by whom it was known as <i>decollatio</i> or <i>capitis +amputatio</i>. The head was laid on a block placed in a pit dug +for the purpose,—in the case of a military offender, outside +the intrenchments, in civil cases outside the city walls, near the <i>porta decumana</i>. +Before execution the criminal was tied to a stake and whipped +with rods. In earlier years an axe was used; afterwards a sword, +which was considered a more honourable instrument of death, +and was used in the case of citizens (<i>Dig.</i> 48, 19, 28). It was +with a sword that Cicero’s head was struck off by a common +soldier. The beheading of John the Baptist proves that the +tetrarch Herod had adopted from his suzerain the Roman mode +of execution. Suetonius (<i>Calig. c</i>. 32) states that +Caligula kept a soldier, an artist in beheading, who in his +presence decapitated prisoners fetched indiscriminately for +that purpose from the gaols.</p> + +<p>Beheading is said to have been introduced into England from +Normandy by William the Conqueror. The first person to suffer +was Waltheof, earl of Northumberland, in 1076. An ancient +MS. relating to the earls of Chester states that the serjeants or +bailiffs of the earls had power to behead any malefactor or thief, +and gives an account of the presenting of several heads of felons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span> +at the castle of Chester by the earl’s serjeant. It appears that +the custom also attached to the barony of Malpas. In a roll of +3 Edward II., beheading is called the “custom of Cheshire” +(Lysons’ <i>Cheshire</i>, p. 299, from Harl. MS. 2009 fol. 34<i>b</i>). The +liberty of Hardwick, in Yorkshire, was granted the privilege +of beheading thieves. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guillotine</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>But with the exceptions above stated beheading was usually +reserved as the mode of executing offenders of high rank. From +the 15th century onward the victims of the axe include some of +the highest personages in the kingdom: Archbishop Scrope +(1405); duke of Buckingham (1483); Catherine Howard (1542); +earl of Surrey (1547); duke of Somerset (1552); duke of +Northumberland (1553); Lady Jane Grey (1554), Lord Guildford +Dudley (1554); Mary queen of Scots (1587); earl of Essex +(1601); Sir Walter Raleigh (1618); earl of Strafford (1641); +Charles I. (1649); Lord William Russell (1683); duke of +Monmouth (1685); earl of Derwentwater (1716); earl of +Kenmure (1716); earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmerino +(1746); and the list closes with Simon, Lord Lovat, who (9th of +April 1747) was the last person beheaded in England. The +execution of Anne Boleyn was carried out not with the axe, +but with a sword, and by a French headsman specially brought +over from Calais. In 1644 Archbishop Laud was condemned +to be hanged, and the only favour granted him, and that reluctantly, +was that his sentence should be changed to beheading. +In the case of the 4th Earl Ferrers (1760) his petition to be +beheaded was refused and he was hanged.</p> + +<p>Executions by beheading usually took place on Tower Hill, +London, where the scaffold stood permanently during the 15th +and 16th centuries. In the case of certain state prisoners, <i>e.g.</i> +Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey, the sentence was carried +out within the Tower on the green by St Peter’s chapel.</p> + +<p>Beheading was only a part of the common-law method of +punishing male traitors, which was ferocious in the extreme. +According to Walcot’s case (1696), 1 <i>Eng. Rep.</i> 89, the proper +sentence was “quod ... ibidem super bigam (herdillum) +ponatur et abinde usque ad furcas de [Tyburn] trahatur, et +ibidem per collum suspendatur et vivus ad terram prosternatur +et quod secreta membra ejus amputentur, et interiora sua intra +ventrem suum capiantur et in ignem ponantur et ibidem <i>ipso +vivente</i> comburantur, et quod caput ejus amputetur, quodque +corpus ejus in quatuor partes dividatur et illo ponantur ubi +dominus rex eas assignare voluit.” There is a tradition that +Harrison the regicide after being disembowelled rose and boxed +the ears of the executioner.</p> + +<p>In Townley’s case (18 Howell, <i>State Trials</i>, 350, 351) there is a +ghastly account of the mode of executing the sentence; and in +that case the executioner cut the traitor’s throat. In the case +of the Cato Street conspiracy (1820, 33 Howell, <i>State Trials</i>, 1566), +after the traitors had been hanged as directed by the act of 1814, +their heads were cut off by a man in a mask whose dexterity led +to the belief that he was a surgeon.</p> + +<p>Female traitors were until 1790 liable to be drawn to execution +and burnt alive. In that year hanging was substituted for +burning.</p> + +<p>In 1814 so much of the sentence as related to disembowelling +and burning the bowels was abolished and the king was empowered +by royal warrant to substitute decapitation for hanging, which +was made by that act the ordinary mode of executing traitors. +But it was not till 1870 that the portions of the sentence as to +drawing and quartering were abolished (Forfeiture Act 1870).</p> + +<p>The more barbarous features of the execution were remitted +in the case of traitors of high rank, and the offender was simply +decapitated.</p> + +<p>The block usually employed is believed to have been a low +one such as would be used for beheading a corpse. C.H. Firth +and S.R. Gardiner incline to the view that such a block was the +one used at Charles I.’s execution. The more general custom, +however, seems to have been to have a high block over which +the victim knelt. Such is the form of that preserved in the +armoury of the Tower of London. This is undoubtedly the +block upon which Lord Lovat suffered, but, in spite of several +axe-cuts on it, probably not one in early use. The axe which +stands beside it was used to behead him and the other Jacobite +lords, but no certainty exists as to its having been previously +employed. On the ground floor of the King’s House, at the +Tower, is preserved the processional axe which figured in the +journeys of state prisoners to and from their trials, the edge +turned from them as they went, but almost invariably turned +towards them as they returned to the Tower. The axe’s head +is peculiar in form, 1 ft. 8 in. high by 10 in. wide, and is fastened +into a wooden handle 5 ft. 4 in. long. The handle is ornamented +by four rows of burnished brass nails.</p> + +<p>In Scotland they did not behead with the axe, nor with the +sword, as under the Roman law, and formerly in Holland and +France, but with the maiden (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Capital punishment is executed by beheading in France, and +in Belgium by means of the guillotine.</p> + +<p>In Germany the instrument used varies in different states: +in the old provinces of Prussia the axe, in Saxony and Rhenish +Prussia the guillotine. Until 1851 executions were public. +They now take place within a prison in the presence of certain +specified officials.</p> + +<p>Beheading is also the mode of executing capital punishment +in Denmark and Sweden. The axe is used. In Sweden the +execution takes place on the order of the king within a prison +in the presence of certain specified officials and, if desired, of +twelve representatives of the commune within which the prison +is situate (Code 1864, s. 2, Royal Ordinance 1877).</p> + +<p>In the Chinese empire decapitation is the usual mode of +execution. By an imperial edict (24th of April 1905) certain +attendant barbarities have been suppressed: viz. slicing, cutting +up the body, and exhibiting the head to public view +(32 Clunet, 1175).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHEMOTH<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (the intensive plural of the Hebrew <i>b’hemah</i>, a +beast), the animal mentioned in the book of Job (ch. xl. 15), +probably the hippopotamus, which in ancient times was found in +Egypt below the cataracts of Syene. The word may be used in +Job as typical of the primeval king of land animals, as leviathan +of the water animals. The modern use expresses the idea of a +very large and strong animal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHISTUN,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bisitun</span>, now pronounced <i>Bisutum</i>, a little +village at the foot of a precipitous rock, 1700 ft. high, in the +centre of the Zagros range in Persia on the right bank of the +Samas-Ab, the principal tributary of the Kerkha (Choaspes). +The original form of the name, Bagistana, “place of the gods” +or “of God” has been preserved by the Greek authors Stephanus +of Byzantium, and Diodorus (ii. 13), the latter of whom says +that the place was sacred to Zeus, <i>i.e.</i> Ahuramazda (Ormuzd). +At its foot passes the great road which leads from Babylonia +(Bagdad) to the highlands of Media (Ecbatana, Hamadan). On +the steep face of the rock, some 500 ft. above the plain, Darius I., +king of Persia, had engraved a great cuneiform inscription +(11 or 12 ft. high), which recounts the way in which, after the +death of Cambyses, he killed the usurper Gaumata (in Justin +Gometes, the pseudo-Smerdis), defeated the numerous rebels, +and restored the kingdom of the Achaemenidae. Above the +inscription the picture of the king himself is graven, with a bow +in his hand, putting his left foot on the body of Gaumata. Nine +rebel chiefs are led before him, their hands bound behind them, +and a rope round their necks: the ninth is Skunka, the chief of +the Scythians (Sacae) whom he defeated. Behind the king stand +his bow-bearer and his lance-bearer; in the air appears the +figure of the great god Ahuramazda, whose protection led him +to victory.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The inscriptions are composed in the three languages +which are written with cuneiform signs, and were used in all +official inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings: the chief place +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span> +is of course given to the Persian language (in four columns); +the three Susian (Elamitic) columns lie to the left, and the +Babylonian text is on a slanting boulder above them; a part of +the Babylonian has been destroyed by a torrent, which has made +its way over it. In former times the second language has often +been called Scythian, Turanian or Median; but we now know +from numerous inscriptions of Susa that it is the language of +Elam which was spoken in Susa, the capital of the Persian +empire.</p> + +<p>In 1835 the difficult and almost inaccessible cliff was first +climbed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, who copied and deciphered +the inscriptions (1835-1845), and thus completed the reading +of the old cuneiform text and laid the foundation of the science +of Assyriology. Diodorus ii. 13 (cf. xvii. 110), probably following +a later author who wrote the history of Alexander’s campaigns, +mentions the sculptures and inscriptions, but attributes them to +Semiramis. At the foot of the rock are the remainders of some +other sculptures (quite destroyed), the fragments of a Greek +inscription of the Parthian prince Gotarzes (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 40; text in +Dittenberger, <i>Orientis graeci inscr. selectae</i>, no. 431), and of an +Arabic inscription.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir Henry Rawlinson in the <i>Journ. R. Geog. Soc.</i> ix., 1839; +<i>J. R. Asiatic Soc.</i> x. 1866, xiv., 1853, xv., 1855; +<i>Archaeologia</i>, xxxiv., 1852; +Sir R. Ker Porter, <i>Travels</i>, ii. 149 ff.; +Flandin and Coste, <i>Voyage en Perse</i>, i. pl. 16; +and the modern editions of the inscriptions, +the best of which, up to the end of the 19th century, were: +Weissbach and Bang, <i>Die altpersischen Keilinschriften</i> (1893); +Weissbach, <i>Die Achaemenideninschriften zweiter Art</i> (1890); +Bezold, <i>Die (babylonischen) Achaemenideninschriften</i> (1882). +A description of the locality, with comments on the present state of the +inscriptions and doubtful passages of the Persian text, was given by +Dr A.V. Williams Jackson in the <i>Journal of the American Oriental +Society</i>, xxiv., 1903, and in his <i>Persia, Past and Present</i> (1906). +Dr Jackson in 1903 climbed to the ledge of the rock and was able to +collate the lower part of the four large Persian columns; he thus +convinced himself that Foy’s conjecture of <i>ārštām</i> (“righteousness”) +for Rawlinson’s <i>abištām</i> or <i>abaštām</i> was correct. A later +investigation was carried out in 1904 on the instructions of the +British Museum Trustees by Messrs. L.W. King and R.C. Thompson, who published +their results in 1907 under the title, <i>The Inscription of Darius +the Great at Behistûn</i>, including a full illustrated account of the +sculptures and the inscription, and a complete collation of the text.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A passage in the inscription runs:—“Thus saith Darius the +king: That which I have done I have done altogether by the grace +of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda, and the other gods that be, brought +aid to me. For this reason did Ahuramazda, and the other gods +that be, bring aid to me, because I was not hostile, nor a liar, nor a +wrongdoer, neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude +(<i>ārštam</i>) have I ruled.” (A.V. Williams Jackson, <i>Persia, Past and +Present</i>)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHN, APHRA<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (otherwise <span class="sc">Afra, Aphara</span> or <span class="sc">Ayfara</span>) (1640-1689), +British dramatist and novelist, was baptized at Wye, +Kent, in 1640. Her father, John Johnson, was a barber. While +still a child she was taken out to Surinam, then an English +possession, from which she returned to England in 1658, when it +was handed over to the Dutch. In Surinam Aphra learned the +history, and acquired a personal knowledge of the African prince +Oroonoko and his beloved Imoinda, whose adventures she has +related in her novel, <i>Oroonoko</i>. On her return she married Mr +Behn, a London merchant of Dutch extraction. The wit and +abilities of Mrs Behn brought her into high estimation at court, +and—her husband having died by this time—Charles II. employed +her on secret service in the Netherlands during the Dutch +war. At Antwerp she successfully accomplished the objects of +her mission; and in the latter end of 1666 she wormed out of +one Van der Aalbert the design formed by De Ruyter, in conjunction +with the DeWitts, of sailing up the Thames and burning +the English ships in their harbours. This she communicated to +the English court, but although the event proved her intelligence +to have been well founded, it was at the time disregarded. +Disgusted with political service, she returned to England, and +from this period she appears to have supported herself by her +writings. Among her numerous plays are <i>The Forced Marriage, +or the Jealous Bridegroom</i> (1671); <i>The Amorous Prince</i> (1671); +<i>The Town Fop</i> (1677); and <i>The Rover, or the Banished Cavalier</i> +(in two parts, 1677 and 1681); and <i>The Roundheads</i> (1682). +The coarseness that disfigures her plays was the fault of her time; +she possessed great ingenuity, and showed an admirable comprehension +of stage business, while her wit and vivacity were unfailing. +Of her short tales, or novelettes, the best is the story of +<i>Oroonoko</i>, which was made the basis of Thomas Southerne’s +popular tragedy. Mrs Behn died on the 16th of April 1689, and +was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Plays written by the Late Ingenious Mrs Behn</i> (1702; +reprinted, 1871); also “Aphra Behn’s Gedichte und Prosawerke,” by +P. Siegel in <i>Anglia</i> (Halle, vol. xxv., 1902, pp. 86-128,329-385); +and A.C. Swinburne’s essay on “Social Verse” in <i>Studies in Prose +and Poetry</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1775-1851), German publicist and +writer, was born at Salzheim on the 26th of August 1775. He +studied law at Würzburg and Göttingen, became professor of +public law in the university of Würzburg in 1799, and in 1819 +was sent as a deputy to the <i>Landtag</i> of Bavaria. Having +associated himself with the party of reform, he was regarded with +suspicion by the Bavarian king Maximilian I. and the court +party, although favoured for a time by Maximilian’s son, the +future King Louis I. In 1821 he was compelled to give up his +professorship, but he continued to agitate for reform, and in +1831 the king refused to recognize his election to the <i>Landtag</i>. +A speech delivered by Behr in 1832 was regarded as seditious, +and he was arrested. In spite of his assertion of loyalty to the +principle of monarchy he was detained in custody, and in 1836 +was found guilty of seeking to injure the king. He then admitted +his offence; but he was not released from prison until 1839, and +the next nine years of his life were passed under police supervision +at Passau and Regensburg. In 1848 he obtained a free +pardon and a sum of money as compensation, and was sent to +the German national assembly which met at Frankfort in May of +that year. He passed his remaining days at Bamberg, where +he died on the 1st of August 1851. Behr’s chief writings are: +<i>Darstellung der Bedürfnisse, Wünsche und Hoffnungen deutscher +Nation</i> (Aschaffenburg, 1816); <i>Die Verfassung und Verwaltung +des Staates</i> (Nuremberg, 1811-1812); <i>Von den rechtlichen Grenzen +der Einwirkung des Deutschen Bundes auf die Verfassung, Gesetzgebung, +und Rechtspflege seiner Gliederstaaten</i> (Stuttgart, 1820).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEIRA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a seaport of Portuguese East Africa, at the mouth of +the Pungwe river, in 19° 50′ S., 34° 50′ E., 488 m. N. of Delagoa +Bay, in communication by railway with Cape Town via Umtali, +Salisbury and Bulawayo. Pop. about 4000, of whom a third +are Europeans, and some 300 Indians. The town is built on a +tongue of sand extending into the river, and is comparatively +healthy. The sea front is protected by a masonry wall, and +there are over 13,000 ft. of wharfage. Vessels drawing 24 ft. +can enter the port at high tide. Between the customs house and +the railway terminus is the mouth of a small river, the Chiveve, +crossed by a steel bridge, the centre span revolving and giving +two passages each of 40 ft. The town is without any architectural +pretensions, but possesses fine public gardens. It is the headquarters +of the Companhai de Moçambique, which administers +the Beira district under charter from the Portuguese crown. +The business community is largely British.</p> + +<p>Beira occupies the site of a forgotten Arab settlement. The +present port sprang into being as the result of a clause in the +Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 1891 providing for the construction +of a railway between Rhodesia and the navigable waters of +the Pungwe. The railway at first began at Fontesvilla, about +50 m. by river above Beira, but was subsequently brought down +to Beira. The completion in 1902 of the line connecting Salisbury +with Cape Town adversely affected the port of Beira, the long +railway route from the Cape being increasingly employed by +travellers to and from Mashonaland. Moreover, the high freights +on goods by the Beira route enabled Port Elizabeth to compete +successfully for the trade of Rhodesia. In October 1905 a +considerable reduction was made in railway rates and in port +dues and customs, with the object of re-attracting to the port +the transit trade of the interior, and in 1907 a branch of the +Rhodesian customs was opened in the town. In that year goods +valued at £647,000 passed through the port to Rhodesia. Efforts +were also made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources +of the Beira district itself. The principal exports are rubber, +sugar, ground-nuts and oil seeds, beeswax, chromite (from +Rhodesia), and gold (from Manica). The imports are chiefly +rice (from India) and cotton goods for local use, and food stuffs, +machinery, hardware and manufactured goods for Rhodesia. +For the three years, 1905-1907, the average annual value of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span> +imports and exports, excluding the transit trade with Rhodesia, +was, imports £200,000, exports £90,000. Direct steamship communication +with Europe is maintained by German and British +lines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portuguese East Africa</a></span>; also the reports issued yearly by +the British Foreign Office on the trade of Beira.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEIRA,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> an ancient principality and province of northern and +central Portugal; bounded on the N. by Entre Minho e Douro +and by Traz os Montes, E. by the Spanish provinces of Leon +and Estremadura, S. by Alemtejo and Portuguese Estremadura, +and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,515,834; area, +9208 sq. m. Beira is administratively divided into the districts +of Aveiro, Coimbra, Vizeu, Guarda and Castello Branco, while +it is popularly regarded as consisting of the three sections— +Beira Alta or Upper Beira (Vizeu), north and west of the Serra +da Estrella; Beira Baixa or Lower Beira (Guarda and Castello +Branco), south and east of that range; and Beira Mar or Maritime +Beira (Aveiro and Coimbra), coinciding with the former +coastal province of Douro. The coast line, about 72 m. long, is +uniformly flat, with long stretches of sandy pine forest, heath +or marshland bordered by a wide and fertile plain. Its most +conspicuous features are the lagoon of Aveiro (<i>q.v.</i>) and the bold +headland of Cape Mondego; in the south Aveiro, Murtosa, Ovar +and Figueira da Foz are small seaports. Except along the coast, +the surface is for the most part mountainous,—the highest point +in the Serra da Estrella, which extends from north-east to +south-west through the centre of the province, being 6532 ft. +The northern and south-eastern frontiers are respectively marked +by the two great rivers Douro and Tagus, which rise in Spain +and flow to the Atlantic. The Agueda and Côa, tributaries +of the Douro, drain the eastern plateaus of Beira; the Vouga +rises in the Serra da Lapa, and forms the lagoon of Aveiro at its +mouth; the Mondego springs from the Serra da Estrella, passes +through Coimbra, and enters the sea at Figueira da Foz; and +the Zezere, a tributary of the Tagus, rises north-north-east +of Covilhã and flows south-west and south.</p> + +<p>Beira has a warm and equable climate, except in the mountains, +where the snowfall is often heavy. The soil, except in the valleys, +is dry and rocky, and large stretches are covered with heath. +The principal agricultural products are maize, wheat, garden +vegetables and fruit. The olive is largely cultivated, the oil +forming one of the chief articles of export; good wine is also +produced. In the flat country between Coimbra and Aveiro +the marshy land is laid out in rice-fields or in pastures for herds of +cattle and horses. Sheep farming is an important industry in +the highlands of Upper Beira; while near Lamego swine are +reared in considerable numbers, and furnish the well-known +Lisbon hams. Iron, lead, copper, coal and marble are worked +to a small extent, and millstones are quarried in some places. +Salt is obtained in considerable quantities from the lagoons along +the coast. There are few manufactures except the production +of woollen cloth, which occupies a large part of the population +in the district of Castello Branco. Three important lines of +railway, the Salamanca-Oporto, Salamanca-Lisbon and Lisbon-Oporto, +traverse parts of Beira; the two last named are also +connected by the Guarda-Figueira da Foz railway, which has a +short branch line going northwards to Vizeu. The chief towns, +Aveiro (pop. 1900, 9979), Castello Branco (7288), Coimbra +(18,144), Covilhã (15,469), Figueira da Foz (6221), Guarda (6124), +Ilhavo (12,617), Lamego (9471), Murtosa (9737), Ovar (10,462) +and Vizeu (8057), with the frontier fortress of Almeida (2330), +are described in separate articles. There is a striking difference +of character between the inhabitants of the highlands, who are +grave and reserved, hardy and industrious, and those of the +lowlands, who are more sociable and courteous, but less energetic. +The heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal has the title of prince +of Beira.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEIRUT<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Beyrout</span>. (1) A vilayet of Syria, constituted +as recently as 1888, which stretches along the sea-coast from +Jebel el-Akra, south of the Orontes, to the Nahr Zerka, south of +Mount Carmel, and towards the south extends from the Mediterranean +to the Jordan. It includes five <i>sanjaks</i>, Latakia, +Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Buka’a. (2) The chief town of the +vilayet (anc. <i>Berytus</i>), the most important seaport town in +Syria, situated on the south side of St George’s Bay, on rising +ground at the foot of Lebanon. Pop. 120,000 (Moslems, 36,000; +Christians, 77,000; Jews, 2500; Druses, 400; foreigners, 4100). +Berytus, whether it is to be identified with Hebrew <i>Berothai</i> +or not (2 Sam. viii. 8; Ezek. xlvii. 16), was one of the most +ancient settlements on the Phoenician coast; but nothing more +than the name is known of it till <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 140, when the town +was taken and destroyed by Tryphon in his contest with +Antiochus VII. for the throne of the Seleucids. It duly passed +under Rome, was much favoured by the Herods and became +a <i>colonia</i>. It was famous for its schools, especially that of law, +from the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> onwards. Justinian recognized it +as one of the three official law schools of the empire (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 533), +but within a few years, as the result of a disastrous earthquake +(551), the students were transferred to Sidon. In the following +century it passed to the Arabs (635), and was not again a Christian +city till 1111, when Baldwin captured it. Saladin retook it +in 1187, and thenceforward, for six centuries and a half, whoever +its nominal lords may have been, Saracen, Crusader, Mameluke +or (from the 16th century) Turk, the Druse emirs of Lebanon +dominated it (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Druses</a></span>). One of these, Fakr ed-Din Maan II., +fortified it early in the 17th century; but the Turks asserted +themselves in 1763 and occupied the place. During the succeeding +epoch of rebellion at Acre under Jezzar and Abdullah pashas, +Beirut declined to a small town of about 10,000 souls, in dispute +between the Druses, the Turks and the pashas,—a state of things +which lasted till Ibrahim Pasha captured Acre in 1832. When +the powers moved against the Egyptians in 1840, Beirut had +recently been occupied in force by Ibrahim as a menace to the +Druses; but he was easily driven out after a destructive bombardment +by Admiral Sir Robert Stopford (1768-1847). Since the +pacification of the Lebanon after the massacre of the Christians +in 1860 (for later history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lebanon</a></span>), Beirut has greatly +increased in extent, and has become the centre of the transit +trade for all southern Syria. In 1894 a harbour, constructed +by a French company, was opened, but the insecurity of the +outer roadstead militates against its success. Nevertheless +trade is on the increase. In 1895 a French company completed +a railway across the Lebanon to Damascus, and connected it +with Mezerib in the Hauran, whence now starts the line to the +Hejaz. Since 1907 it has also had railway communication with +Aleppo; and a narrow-gauge line runs up the coast to Tripoli. +The steepness of the Lebanon railway, and the break of gauge at +Rayak, the junction for Aleppo, have prevented the diversion +of much of the trade of North Syria to Beirut. The town has +been supplied with water, since 1875, by an English company, +and with gas, since 1888, by a French company. There are many +American and European institutions in the city: the American +Presbyterian mission, with a girls’ school and a printing office, +which published the Arabic translation of the Bible, and now +issues a weekly paper and standard works in Arabic; the Syrian +Protestant college with its theological seminary, medical faculty, +training college and astronomical observatory; the Scottish +mission, and St George’s institute for Moslem and Druse girls; +the British Syrian mission schools; the German hospital, +orphanage and boarding school; the French hospital and +schools, and the Jesuit “Université de St Joseph” with a +printing office. In summer most of the richer residents reside +on the Lebanon, and in winter the governor of the Lebanon and +many Lebanon notables inhabit houses in Beirut. The town +has many fine houses, but the streets are unpaved and the +bazaars mean. The Moslem inhabitants, being in a minority, +have often shown themselves fanatical and turbulent. There +are several fairly good hotels for tourists.</p> +<div class="author">(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEIT, ALFRED<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1853-1906), British South African financier, +was the son of a well-to-do merchant of Hamburg, Germany, +and in 1875, after a commercial education at home, was sent +out to Kimberley, South Africa, to investigate the diamond +prospects. He had relatives, the Lipperts, out there in business, +and in conjunction with Mr (afterwards Sir) Julius Wernher +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span> +(b. 1850) he rapidly acquired a leading position on the diamond +fields, and became closely allied with the ideals of Cecil Rhodes +(<i>q.v.</i>). In 1889 Rhodes and Beit effected the amalgamation of +various interests in the De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited. It +was largely owing to the capital and enterprise of Beit that the +deep-level mining in the Witwatersrand district of the Transvaal +was started, and he had a large share in the principal company, +the Rand Mines Limited. The firm of Wernher, Beit & Co. +gradually transferred the centre of their financial operations to +London, where they became the leading house in the dealings +in South African mines. The rapid progress made in developing +the diamond and gold output made Beit a man of enormous +wealth, and he utilized it lavishly in pursuit of Rhodes’s South +African policy. He was one of the original directors of the +British South Africa company, and was included with Rhodes +in the censure passed by the House of Commons Commission of +Inquiry on the Jameson Raid (1896). He was subsequently one +of Rhodes’s trustees. Personally of a modest, gentle, generous +and retiring disposition, and strongly imbued with Rhodes’s +ideas of British imperialism, he was one of the South African +millionaires of German birth against whom the anti-imperialist +section in England were never tired of employing their sarcastic +invective. But though shrinking from ostentation in any form, +his purse was continually opened for public objects, notably his +support of the Imperial Light Horse and Imperial Yeomanry in +the South African War of 1899-1902, and his endowment of the +professorship of colonial history at Oxford (1905). He gave +£100,000 to establish a university in his native city of Hamburg +and £200,000 for a university in Johannesburg. He built a fine +house in Park Lane, London, but was never prominent in social +life. He died, unmarried, on the 16th of July 1906.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEJA<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bīja</span>), the name under which is comprised a widespread +family of tribes, usually classed as Hamitic. They +may, however, represent very early Semitic immigrants (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hamitic Races</a></span>). When first recorded the Beja occupied +the whole region between the Nile and the Red Sea from the +border of Upper Egypt to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau. +They were known to the ancient Egyptians, upon whose monuments +they are represented. They are the Blemmyes of Strabo +(xvii. 53), and have also been identified with the Macrobii of +Herodotus, “tallest and finest of men” (iii. 17). It has been +suggested, though on insufficient grounds, that the Beja, rather +than the Abyssinians, are the “Ethiopians” of Herodotus, the +civilized people who built the city of Meroë and its pyramids. +During the Roman period the Beja were much what they are +to-day, nomadic and aggressive, and were constantly at war. +In 216 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 832) the Moslem governor of Assuan made a +treaty with the Beja chief, by which the latter undertook to +guard the road to Aidhab and pay an annual tribute of one +hundred camels. This is the earliest record of a government +engagement with the northern section of the Beja, now the +Abābda. Ibn Batuta, early in the 14th century, mentions a +king of Beja, El Hadrabi, who received two-thirds of the revenue +of Aidhab, the other third going to the king of Egypt. The Beja +territory contained gold and emerald mines. The tribesmen +were the usual escort for pilgrims to Mecca from Kus to Aidhab. +According to Leo Africanus, at the close of the 14th or very +early in the 15th century their rich town of Zibid (Aidhab?) +on the Red Sea was destroyed. This seems to have broken up +the tribal cohesion. Leo Africanus describes the Beja as “most +base, miserable and living only on milk and camels’ flesh.” In +the middle ages the Beja, partially at any rate, were Christians. +The kingdom of Meroö was succeeded by that of “Aloa,” the +capital of which, Soba, was on the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above +Khartum. The country was conquered by the Funj (<i>q.v.</i>), a +negroid people who subsequently became Mahommedan and +compelled the Beja to adopt that religion. Until the invasion +of the Egyptians, under Ismail, son of Mehemet Ali (1820), the +Funj remained in possession.</p> + +<p>All the Beja are now Mahommedans, but generally only so in +name, though some of the tribes enthusiastically fought for +Mahdiism (1883-99). As a race the Beja are remarkable for +physical beauty, with a colour more red than black, and of a +distinctly Caucasic type of face. The chiefs are, as a rule, of much +fairer complexion than the tribesmen. In spite of their claim to +Arab origin, the tribes have preserved many negro customs in +the matter of costume and scarring the body. Their hair-dressing +is very characteristic. The hair, worn thick as a protection +against the sun, is parted in a circle round the head on a level +with the eyes, above which the hair, saturated with mutton fat +or butter, is trained straight up like a mop, with separate tufts +at sides and back. Most of the tribes are nomadic shepherds, +driving their cattle from pasture to pasture; some few are +occupied in agriculture.</p> + +<p>They are polygynous, but, unlike the Arabs, great independence +is granted their women. Among most of the Beja peoples +the wife can return to her mother’s tent whenever she likes, and +after a birth of a child she can repudiate the husband, who must +make a present to be re-accepted. Cases are said to have occurred +where the woman has thus obtained all her husband’s possessions. +The whole social position of the Beja women points, indeed, to +an earlier matriarchal system. Among some of the tribes the +custom of the “fourth day free” is observed, by which the +women are only considered married for so many days a week, +forming what liaisons they please on the odd day. The chief +Beja tribes are the Abābda, Bishārïn, Hadendoa, Beni-Amer, +Amarar, Shukuria, Hallenga and Hamran.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEJA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (probably the ancient <i>Pax Julia</i>), the capital of an +administrative district formerly included in the province of +Alemtejo, Portugal; situated 95 m. S.S.E. of Lisbon by +the Lisbon-Faro railway, and at the head of a branch line +to Pias e Orada (3855), 26 m. E. Pop. (1900) 8885. Beja is +an episcopal city, built on an isolated hill, and partly enclosed +by walls of Roman origin; on the south it has a fine Roman +gateway. Its cathedral is modern, but the citadel, with its +beautiful Gothic tower of white marble, was founded by King +Diniz (1279-1325). The city is surrounded by far-reaching +plains, known as the Campo de Beja, and devoted partly to the +cultivation of grain and fruit, partly to the breeding of cattle +and pigs; copper, iron and manganese are also mined to a +small extent, and Beja is the central market for all these products. +Cloth, pottery and olive oil are manufactured in the city.</p> + +<p>The administrative district of Beja, the largest and most +thinly-populated district in Portugal, coincides with the southern +part of Alemtejo (<i>q.v.</i>); pop. (1900) 163,612; area, 3958 sq. m.; +41.3 inhabitants per sq. m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEJAN<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (Fr. <i>béjaune</i>, from <i>bec jaune</i>, “yellow beak,” in allusion +to unfledged birds; the equivalent to Ger. <i>Gelbschnabel</i>, Fr. +<i>blanc-bec</i>, a greenhorn), a term for freshmen, or undergraduates +of the first year, in the Scottish universities. The phrase was +introduced from the French universities, where the levying of +<i>bejaunium</i> “footing-money” had been prohibited by the statutes +of the university of Orleans in 1365 and by those of Toulouse in +1401. In 1493 the election of an <i>Abbas Bejanorum</i> (Abbot of the +Freshmen) was forbidden in the university of Paris. In the +German and Austrian universities the freshman was called <i>beanus</i>. +In Germany the freshman was anciently called a <i>Pennal</i> (from +Med. Lat. <i>pennale</i>, a box for pens), in allusion to the fact that the +newly-arrived student had to carry such for the older pupils. +Afterwards <i>Fuchs</i> (fox) was substituted for <i>Pennal</i>, and then +<i>Goldfuchs</i> because he is supposed still to have a few gold coins +from home.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉJART,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> the name of several French actors, children of +Marie Hérve and Joseph Béjart (d. 1643), the holder of a small +government post. The family—there were eleven children— +was very poor and lived in the Marais, then the theatrical +quarter of Paris. One of the sons, <span class="sc">Joseph Béjart</span> (<i>c.</i> 1617-1659), +was a strolling player and later a member of Molière’s first +company (l’Illustre Théâtre), accompanied him in his theatrical +wanderings, and was with him when he returned permanently +to Paris, dying soon after. He created the parts of Lélie in +<i>L’Étourdie</i>, and Eraste in <i>Le Dépit amoureux</i>. His brother Louis +BÉJART (<i>c.</i> 1630-1678) was also in Molière’s company during +the last years of its travels. He created many parts in his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span> +brother-in-law’s plays—Valère in <i>Le Dépit amoureux</i>, Dubois in +<i>Le Misanthrope</i>, Alcantor in <i>Le Mariage forcé</i>, and Don Luis in +<i>Le Festin de Pierre</i>—and was an actor of varied talents. In +consequence of a wound received when interfering in a street +brawl, he became lame and retired with a pension—the first +ever granted by the company to a comedian—in 1670.</p> + +<p>The more famous members of the family were two sisters.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Madeleine Béjart</span> (1618-1672) was at the head of the travelling +company to which her sister Geneviève (1631-1675)—who +played as Mlle Hervé—and her brothers belonged, before +they joined Molière in forming l’Illustre Théâtre (1643). With +Molière she remained until her death on the 17th of February +1672. She had had an illegitimate daughter (1638) by an +Italian count, and her conduct on her early travels had not +been exemplary, but whatever her private relations with Molière +may have been, however acrimonious and violent her temper, +she and her family remained faithful to his fortunes. She was +a tall, handsome blonde, and an excellent actress, particularly +in soubrette parts, a number of which Molière wrote for her. +Among her creations were Marotte in <i>Les Précieuses ridicules</i>, +Lisette in <i>L’École des maris</i>, Dorine in <i>Tartuffe</i>.</p> + +<p>Her sister, <span class="sc">Armande Grésinde Claire Elizabeth Béjart</span> +(1645-1700), seems first to have joined the company at Lyons in +1653. Molière directed her education and she grew up under his +eye. In 1662, he being then forty and she seventeen, they were +married. Neither was happy; the wife was a flirt, the husband +jealous. On the strength of a scurrilous anonymous pamphlet, +<i>La Fameuse Comédienne, ou histoire de la Guérin</i> (1688), her +character has been held perhaps unduly low. She was certainly +guilty of indifference and ingratitude, possibly of infidelity; +they separated after the birth of a daughter in 1665 and met only +at the theatre until 1671. But the charm and grace which fascinated +others, Molière too could not resist, and they were reconciled. +Her portrait is given in a well-known scene (Act iii., sc. 9) +in <i>Le Bourgeois gentilhomme</i>. Mme Molière’s first appearance +on the stage was in 1663, as Élise in the <i>Critique de l’école des +femmes</i>. She was out of the cast for a short time in 1664, when +she bore Molière a son—Louis XIV. and Henrietta of England +standing sponsors. But in the spring, beginning with the fêtes +given at Versailles by the king to Anne of Austria and Maria +Theresa, she started her long list of important roles. She was at +her best as Celimène—really her own highly-finished portrait—in +<i>Le Misanthrope</i>, and hardly less admirable as Angélique in +<i>Le Malade imaginaire</i>. She was the Elmire at the first performance +of <i>Tartuffe</i>, and the Lucile of <i>Le Bourgeois gentilhomme</i>. +All these parts were written by her husband to display her talents +to the best advantage and she made the most of her opportunities. +The death of Molière, the secession of Baron and several other +actors, the rivalry of the Hôtel de Bourgogne and the development +of the Palais Royal, by royal patent, into the home of +French opera, brought matters to a crisis with the <i>comédiens du +roi</i>. Well advised by La Grange (Charles Varlet, 1639-1692), +Armande leased the Théâtre Guénégaud, and by royal ordinance +the residue of her company were combined with the players from +the Théâtre du Marais, the fortunes of which were at low ebb. +The combination, known as the <i>troupe du roi</i>, at first was +unfortunate, but in 1679 they secured Mlle du Champmeslé, later +absorbed the company of the Hôtel de Bourgogne, and in 1680 +the Comédie Française was born. Mme Molière in 1677 had +married Eustache François Guérin (1636-1728), an actor, and +by him she had one son (1678-1708). She continued her successes +at the theatre until she retired in 1694, and she died on the 30th +of November 1700.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEK, ANTONY<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (d. 1311), bishop of Durham, belonged to a +Lincolnshire family, and, having entered the church, received +several benefices and soon attracted the attention of Edward I., +who secured his election as bishop of Durham in 1283. When, +after the death of King Alexander III. in 1285, Edward interfered +in the affairs of Scotland, he employed Bek on this business, and +in 1294 he sent him on a diplomatic errand to the German king, +Adolph of Nassau. Taking part in Edward’s campaigns in +Scotland, the bishop received the surrender of John de Baliol at +Brechin in 1296, and led one division of the English army at the +battle of Falkirk in 1298. Soon after his return to England he +became involved in a quarrel with Richard de Hoton, prior of +Durham. Deposed and excommunicated by Bek, the prior +secured the king’s support; but the bishop, against whom other +complaints were preferred, refused to give way, and by his +obstinacy incurred the lasting enmity of Edward. In 1302, in +obedience to the command of Pope Boniface VIII., he visited +Rome on this matter, and during his absence the king seized and +administered his lands, which, however, he recovered when he +returned and submitted to Edward. He continued, however, +to pursue Richard with unrelenting hostility, and was in his turn +seriously harassed by the king. Having been restored to the +royal favour by Edward II. who made him lord of the Isle of Man, +the bishop died at Eltham on the 3rd of March 1311. A man of +great courage and energy, chaste and generous, Bek was remarkable +for his haughtiness and ostentation. Both as a bishop and +as a private individual he was very wealthy, and his household +and retinue were among the most magnificent in the land. He +was a soldier and a hunter rather than a bishop, and built castles +at Eltham and elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Bek’s elder brother, <span class="sc">Thomas Bek</span> (d. 1293), bishop of St +David’s, was a trusted servant of Edward I. He obtained many +important and wealthy ecclesiastical positions, was made +treasurer of England in 1279, and became bishop of St David’s +in 1280. He was a benefactor to his diocese and died on the +12th of May 1293.</p> + +<p>Another <span class="sc">Thomas Bek</span> (1282-1347), who was bishop of Lincoln +from 1341 until his death on the 2nd of February 1347, was a +member of the same family.</p> + +<p>Antony Bek must not be confused with his kinsman and namesake, +<span class="sc">Antony Bek</span> (1279-1343), who was chancellor and dean +of Lincoln cathedral, and became bishop of Norwich after a +disputed election in 1337. He was a quarrelsome man, and after +a stormy episcopate, died on the 19th of December 1343.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Robert of Graystanes, <i>Historia de statu ecclesiae Dunelmensis</i>, +edited by J. Raine in his <i>Historiae Dunelmensis scriptores</i> (London, +1839); W. Hutchinson, <i>History of Durham</i> (Newcastle, 1785-1794); +J.L. Low, <i>Diocesan History of Durham</i> (London, 1881); and M. Creighton +in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, vol. iv. (London, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1800-1874), English traveller, +geographer and Biblical critic, was born in Stepney, Middlesex, +on the 10th of October 1800. His father was a merchant in +London, and Beke engaged for a few years in mercantile pursuits. +He afterwards studied law at Lincoln’s Inn, and for a time +practised at the bar, but finally devoted himself to the study +of historical, geographical and ethnographical subjects. The +first-fruits of his researches appeared in his work entitled <i>Origines +Biblicae, or Researches in Primeval History</i>, published in 1834. +An attempt to reconstruct the early history of the human race +from geological data, it raised a storm of opposition on the part +of defenders of the traditional readings of the book of Genesis; +but in recognition of the value of the work the university of +Tübingen conferred upon him the degree of Ph.D. For about +two years (1837-1838) Beke held the post of acting British consul +in Saxony. From that time till his death his attention was +largely given to geographical studies, chiefly of the Nile valley. +Aided by private friends, he visited Abyssinia in connexion with +the mission to Shoa sent by the Indian government under the +leadership of Major (afterwards Sir) William Cornwallis Harris, +and explored Gojam and more southern regions up to that time +unknown to Europeans. Among other achievements, Beke +was the first to determine, with any approach to scientific +accuracy, the course of the Abai (Blue Nile). The valuable +results of this journey, which occupied him from 1840 to 1843, +he gave to the world in a number of papers in scientific publications, +chiefly in the <i>Journal</i> of the Royal Geographical Society. +On his return to London, Beke re-engaged in commerce, but +devoted all his leisure to geographical and kindred studies. In +1848 he planned an expedition from the mainland opposite +Zanzibar to discover the sources of the Nile. A start was made, +but the expedition accomplished little. Beke’s belief that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span> +White Nile was the main stream was, however, shown to be +accurate by subsequent exploration. In 1856 he endeavoured, +unsuccessfully, to establish commercial relations with Abyssinia +through Massawa. In 1861-1862 he and his wife travelled in +Syria and Palestine, and went to Egypt with the object of +promoting trade with Central Africa and the growth of cotton in +the Sudan. In 1865 he again went to Abyssinia, for the purpose +of obtaining from King Theodore the release of the British +captives. On learning that the captives had been released, Beke +turned back, but Theodore afterwards re-arrested the party. To +the military expedition sent to effect their release Beke furnished +much valuable information, and his various services to the +government and to geographical research were acknowledged by the +award of £500 in 1868 by the secretary for India, and by the +grant of a civil list pension of £100 in 1870. In his seventy-fourth +year he undertook a journey to Egypt for the purpose of +determining the real position of Mount Sinai. He conceived that +it was on the eastern side of the Gulf of Akaba, and his +journey convinced him that his view was right. It has not, +however, commended itself to general acceptance. Beke died at +Bromley, in Kent, on the 31st of July 1874.</p> + +<p>Beke’s writings are very numerous. Among the more important, +besides those already named, are: +<i>An Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries</i> (1847), +<i>The Sources of the Nile</i> (1860), +and <i>The British Captives in Abyssinia</i> (1865). He was a fellow +of the Royal Geographical Society, and for his contributions to +the knowledge of Abyssinia received its gold medal, and also +that of the Geographical Society of France. As a result of a +controversy over the statements of another Abyssinian explorer, +Antoine Abbadie, Beke returned the medal awarded him by the +French Society.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Summary of the late Dr Beke’s published works and ... public +services</i>, by his widow (Tunbridge Wells, 1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉSKÉSCSABA,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a market-town of Hungary, 123 m. S.E. of +Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,108, mostly Slovaks and +Lutherans, who form the largest Lutheran community in Hungary. +The town is situated near the White Körös, with which it is +connected by a canal, and is an important railway-junction in +central Hungary. Békéscsaba possesses several large milling +establishments, while the weaving of hemp and the production of +hemp-linen is largely pursued as a home industry. The town +carries on an active trade in cereals, wines and cattle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1785-1871), German +philologist and critic, was born on the 21st of May 1785. He +completed his classical education at the university of Halle +under F.A. Wolf, who considered him as his most promising +pupil. In 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the +university of Berlin. For several years, between 1810 and 1821, +he travelled in France, Italy, England and parts of Germany, +examining classical manuscripts and gathering materials for his +great editorial labours. He died at Berlin on the 7th of June +1871. Some detached fruits of his researches were given in the +<i>Anecdota Graeca</i>, 1814-1821; but the full result of his +unwearied industry and ability is to be found in the enormous +array of classical authors edited by him. Anything like a complete +list of his works would occupy too much space, but it may be said +that his industry extended to nearly the whole of Greek literature +with the exception of the tragedians and lyric poets. His best +known editions are: Plato (1816-1823), Oratores Attici (1823-1824), +Aristotle (1831-1836), Aristophanes (1829), and twenty-five +volumes of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. The only +Latin authors edited by him were Livy (1829-1830) and Tacitus +(1831). Bekker confined himself entirely to textual recension +and criticism, in which he relied solely upon the MSS., and +contributed little to the extension of general scholarship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sauppe, <i>Zur Erinnerung an Meineke und Bekker</i> (1872); Haupt, +“Gedächtnisrede auf Meineke und Bekker,” in his <i>Opuscula</i>, iii.; +E.I. Bekker, “Zur Erinnerung an meinen Vater,” in the <i>Preussisches Jahrbuch</i>, xxix.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEKKER, BALTHASAR<a name="ar57a" id="ar57a"></a></span> (1634-1698), Dutch divine, was born in +Friesland in 1634, and educated at Groningen, under Jacob +Alting, and at Franeker. He was pastor at Franeker, and from +1679, at Amsterdam. An enthusiastic disciple of Descartes, he +wrote several works in philosophy and theology, which by their +freedom of thought aroused considerable hostility. His best +known work <i>Die Betooverde Wereld</i> (1691), or <i>The World +Bewitched</i> (1695; one volume of an English translation from a +French copy), in which he examined critically the phenomena +generally ascribed to spiritual agency, and attacked the belief +in sorcery and “possession” by the devil, whose very existence +he questioned. The book is interesting as an early study in +comparative religion, but its publication in 1692 led to +Bekker’s deposition from the ministry. He died at Amsterdam.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEKKER<a name="ar57b" id="ar57b"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Wolff</span>), <b>ELIZABETH</b> (1738-1804), Dutch +novelist, was married to Adrian Wolff, a Reformed clergyman, +but is always known under her maiden name. After the death of +her husband in 1777, she resided for some time in France, with +her close friend, Agatha Deken. She was exposed to some of the +dangers of the French Revolution, and, it is said, escaped the +guillotine only by her great presence of mind. In 1795 she +returned to Holland, and resided at the Hague till her death. +Her novels were written in conjunction with Agatha Deken, and it +is somewhat difficult to determine the exact qualities +contributed by each. The <i>Historie van William Levend</i> (1785), +<i>Historie van Sara Burgerhart</i> (1790), <i>Abraham Blankaart</i> (1787), +<i>Cornelie Wildschut</i> (1793-1796), were extremely popular.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEL<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span>, the name of a chief deity in Babylonian religion, the +counterpart of the Phoenician Baal (<i>q.v.</i>) ideographically written +as En-lil. Since Bel signifies the “lord” or “master” <i>par +excellence</i>, it is, therefore, a title rather than a genuine name, +and must have been given to a deity who had acquired a position +at the head of a pantheon. The real name is accordingly to be +sought in En-lil, of which the first element again has the force +of “lord” and the second presumably “might,” “power,” and the +like, though this cannot be regarded as certain. En-lil is +associated with the ancient city of Nippur, and since En-lil +with the determinative for “land” or “district” is a common +method of writing the name of the city, it follows, apart from +other evidence, that En-lil was originally the patron deity of +Nippur. At a very early period—prior to 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—Nippur had +become the centre of a political district of considerable extent, +and it is to this early period that the designation of En-lil as +Bel or “the lord” reverts. Inscriptions found at Nippur, where +extensive excavations were carried on during 1888-1900 by +Messrs Peters and Haynes, under the auspices of the University +of Pennsylvania, show that Bel of Nippur was in fact regarded +as the head of an extensive pantheon. Among the titles accorded +to him are “king of lands,” “king of heaven and earth” and +“father of the gods.” His chief temple at Nippur was known +as E-Kur, signifying “mountain house,” and such was the +sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and Assyrian +rulers, down to the latest days, vied with one another in +embellishing and restoring Bel’s seat of worship, and the name +itself became the designation of a temple in general. Grouped +around the main sanctuary there arose temples and chapels to +the gods and goddesses who formed his court, so that E-Kur +became the name for an entire sacred precinct in the city of +Nippur. The name “mountain house” suggests a lofty structure and +was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at +Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine +of the god on the top. The tower, however, also had its special +designation of “Im-Khar-sag,” the elements of which, signifying +“storm” and “mountain,” confirm the conclusion drawn from other +evidence that En-lil was originally a storm-god having his seat +on the top of a mountain. Since the Euphrates valley has no +mountains, En-lil would appear to be a god whose worship was +carried into Babylonia by a wave of migration from a +mountainous country—in all probability from Elam to the east.</p> + +<p>When, with the political rise of Babylon as the centre of a +great empire, Nippur yielded its prerogatives to the city over +which Marduk presided, the attributes and the titles of En-lil +were transferred to Marduk, who becomes the “lord” or Bel of +later days. The older Bel did not, however, entirely lose his +standing. Nippur continued to be a sacred city after it ceased +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +to have any considerable political importance, while in addition +the rise of the doctrine of a triad of gods symbolizing the three +divisions—heavens, earth and water—assured to Bel, to whom +the earth was assigned as his province, his place in the religious +system. The disassociation from his local origin involved in +this doctrine of the triad gave to Bel a rank independent of +political changes, and we, accordingly, find Bel as a factor in the +religion of Babylonia and Assyria to the latest days. It was +no doubt owing to his position as the second figure of the triad +that enabled him to survive the political eclipse of Nippur and +made his sanctuary a place of pilgrimage to which Assyrian +kings down to the days of Assur-baui-pal paid their homage +equally with Babylonian rulers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Belit</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Baal</a></span>. For the apocryphal book of the Bible, +<i>Bel and the Dragon</i>, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daniel</a></span>: <i>Additions to Daniel</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELA III<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>. (d. 1196), king of Hungary, was the second son of +King Géza II. Educated at the Byzantine court, where he had +been compelled to seek refuge, he was fortunate enough to win +the friendship of the brilliant emperor Manuel who, before the +birth of his own son Alexius, intended to make Bela his successor +and betrothed him to his daughter. Subsequently, however, +he married the handsome and promising youth to Agnes of +Châtilion, duchess of Antioch, and in 1173 placed him, by force +of arms, on the Hungarian throne, first expelling Bela’s younger +brother Géza, who was supported by the Catholic party. Initiated +from childhood in all the arts of diplomacy at what was then the +focus of civilization, and as much a warrior by nature as his +imperial kinsman Manuel, Bela showed himself from the first +fully equal to all the difficulties of his peculiar position. He began +by adopting Catholicism and boldly seeking the assistance of +Rome. He then made what had hitherto been an elective a +hereditary throne by crowning his infant son Emerich his +successor. In the beginning of his reign he adopted a prudent +policy of amity with his two most powerful neighbours, the +emperors of the East and West, but the death of Manuel in 1180 +gave Hungary once more a free hand in the affairs of the Balkan +Peninsula, her natural sphere of influence. The attempt to +recover Dalmatia, which involved Bela in two bloody wars with +Venice (1181-88 and 1190-91), was only partially successful. +But he assisted the Rascians or Serbs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>) +to throw off the Greek yoke and establish a native dynasty, and +attempted to made Galicia an appanage of his younger son +Andrew. It was in Bela’s reign that the emperor Frederick I., +in the spring of 1189, traversed Hungary with 100,000 crusaders, +on which occasion the country was so well policed that no harm +was done to it and the inhabitants profited largely from their +commerce with the German host. In his last years Bela assisted +the Greek emperor Isaac II. Angelus against the Bulgarians. +His first wife bore Bela two sons, Emerich and Andrew. On her +death he married Margaret of France, sister of King Philip +Augustus. Bela was in every sense of the word a great statesman, +and his court was accounted one of the most brilliant in Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of his internal reforms see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>. Though +the poet Ede Szigligeti has immortalized his memory in the play +<i>Bela III</i>., we have no historical monograph of him, but in Ignacz +Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i> (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest, +1903), there is an excellent account of his reign.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELA IV<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>. (1206-1270), king of Hungary, was the son of +Andrew II., whom he succeeded in 1235. During his father’s +lifetime he had greatly distinguished himself by his administration +of Transylvania, then a wilderness, which, with incredible +patience and energy, he colonized and christianized. He repaired +as far as possible the ruinous effects of his father’s wastefulness, +but on his accession found everything in the utmost confusion, +“the great lords,” to cite the old chronicler Rogerius (<i>c</i>. 1223-1266), +“having so greatly enriched themselves that the king +was brought to naught.” The whole land was full of violence, +the very bishops storming rich monasteries at the head of armed +retainers. Bela resolutely put down all disorder. He increased +the dignity of the crown by introducing a stricter court etiquette, +and its wealth by recovering those of the royal domains which +the magnates had appropriated during the troubles of the last +reign. The pope, naturally on the side of order, staunchly +supported this regenerator of the realm, and in his own brother +Coloman, who administered the district of the Drave, Bela also +found a loyal and intelligent co-operator. He also largely +employed Jews and Ishmaelites,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the financial specialists of the +day, whom he rewarded with lands and titles. The salient event +of Bela’s reign was the terrible Tatar invasion which reduced +three-quarters of Hungary to ashes. The terror of their name +had long preceded them, and Bela, in 1235 or 1236, sent the +Dominican monk Julian, by way of Constantinople, to Russia, to +collect information about them from the “ancient Magyars” +settled there, possibly the Volgan Bulgarians. He returned to +Hungary with the tidings that the Tatars contemplated the +immediate conquest of Europe. Bela did his utmost to place his +kingdom in a state of defence, and appealed betimes to the +pope, the duke of Austria and the emperor for assistance; but +in February and March 1241 the Tatars burst through the +Carpathian passes; in April Bela himself, after a gallant stand, +was routed on the banks of the Sajó and fled to the islands of +Dalmatia; and for the next twelve months the kingdom of +Hungary was merely a geographical expression. The last twenty-eight +years of Bela’s reign were mainly devoted to the reconstruction +of his realm, which he accomplished with a single-minded +thoroughness which has covered his name with glory. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>.)</p> + +<p>Perhaps the most difficult part of his task was the recovery of +the western portions of the kingdom (which had suffered least) +from the hands of Frederick of Austria, who had seized them as +the price of assistance which had been promised but never given. +First Bela solicited the aid of the pope, but was compelled finally +to resort to arms, and crossing the Leitha on the 15th of June +1246, routed Frederick, who was seriously wounded and trampled +to death by his own horsemen. With him was extinguished the +male line of the house of Babenberg. In the south Bela was less +successful. In 1243 he was obliged to cede to Venice, Zara, a +perpetual apple of discord between the two states; but he +kept his hold upon Spalato and his other Dalmatian possessions, +and his wise policy of religious tolerance in Bosnia enabled +Hungary to rule that province peaceably for many years. The +new Servian kingdom of the Nemanides, on the other hand, gave +him much trouble and was the occasion of many bloody wars. +In 1261 the Tatars under Nogai Khan invaded Hungary for the +second time, but were defeated by Bela and lost 50,000 men. +Bela reached the apogee of his political greatness in 1264 when, +shortly after his crushing defeat of the Servian king, Stephen +Urosh, he entertained at his court, at Kalocsa, the ambassadors +of the newly restored Greek emperor, of the kings of France, +Bulgaria and Bohemia and three Tatar <i>mirzas</i>. For a time +Bela was equally fortunate in the north-west, where the ambitious +and enterprising Pøemyslidae had erected a new Bohemian +empire which absorbed the territories of the old Babenbergers +and was very menacing to Hungary. With Ottakar II. in +particular, Bela was almost constantly at war for the possession +of Styria, which ultimately fell to the Bohemians. The last years +of Bela’s life were embittered by the ingratitude of his son +Stephen, who rebelled continuously against his father and +ultimately compelled him to divide the kingdom with him, the +younger prince setting up a capital of his own at Sárospatak, and +following a foreign policy directly contrary to that of his father. +Bela died on the 3rd of May 1270 in his sixty-fourth year. With +the people at large he was popular to the last; his services to +his country had been inestimable. He married, while still +crown-prince, Maria, daughter of the Nicaean emperor, Theodore +Lascaris, whom his own father brought home with him from his +crusade. She bore him, besides his two sons Stephen and Bela, +seven daughters, of whom St Margaret was the most famous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>No special monograph for the whole reign exists. For the Tatar +invasion see the contemporary Rogerius, <i>Epistolae super destructione +Regni Hungarias per Tartaros facta</i> (Budapest, 1885). A vivid but +somewhat chauvinistic history of Bela’s reign will be found in +Acsády’s <i>History of the Hungarian Realm</i> (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest, +1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mahommedan itinerant chapmen, from the Volga.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELA,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> <span class="sc">Las Bela</span>, or <span class="sc">Lus Beyla</span>, situated in 26° 27′ 30″ N. +lat. and 66° 45′ 0″ E. long., 350 ft. above sea level, capital of the +small independent state of Las Bela to the south of Kalat +(Baluchistan), ruled by the Jam (or Cham), who occupies the +position of a protected chief under the British Raj. To the east +lies Sind, and to the west Makran, and from time immemorial +the great trading route between Sind and Persia has passed +through Las Bela. The area of Las Bela is 6357 sq. m., and its +population in 1901 was 56,109, of which 54,040 were Mussulmans. +The low-lying, alluvial, hot and malarial plains of Las Bela, +occupying about 6000 sq. m. on the north-east corner of the +Arabian Sea, are highly irrigated and fertile—two rivers from +the north, the Purali and the Kud, uniting to provide a plentiful +water supply. The bay of Sonmiani once extended over most +of these plains, where the Purali delta is now growing with +measurable strides. The hill ranges to the east, parting the +plains from Sind (generally known locally as the Mor and the +Kirthar), between which lies the long narrow line of the Hab +valley, strike nearly north and south, diminishing in height as +they approach the sea and allowing of a route skirting the coast +between Karachi and Bela. To the west they are broken into +an infinity of minor ridges massing themselves in parallel formation +with a strike which curves from south to west till they +form the coast barrier of Makrān. The Persian route from +India, curving somewhat to the north, traverses this waste of +barren ridges almost at right angles, but on dropping into the +Kolwah valley its difficulty ceases. It then becomes an open +road to Kej and Persia, with an easy gradient. This was undoubtedly +one of the greatest trade routes of the medieval days +of Arab ascendancy in Sind, and it is to this route that Bela +owes a place in history which its modern appearance and dimensions +hardly seem to justify. Bela is itself rather prettily situated +on a rocky site above the banks of the Purali. About four miles +to the south are the well-kept gardens which surround the tomb +of Sir Robert Sandeman; which is probably destined to become +a “ziarat,” or place of pilgrimage, of even greater sanctity than +that of General Jacob at Jacobabad. The population of the +town numbers about 5000. The Jam’s retinue consists of about +300 infantry, 50 cavalry, and 4 guns. Liability to assist on active +service is the only acknowledgment of the suzerainty which is +paid by the Jam to the Khan of Kalat. The Jam, Mir Kamal +Khan, succeeded his father, Sir Mir Khan, in 1895, and was +formally invested with powers in 1902.</p> + +<p>From very early times this remote corner of Baluchistan has +held a distinct place in history. There are traces of ancient Arab +(possibly Himyaritic) occupation to be found in certain stone +ruins at Gondakeha on the Kud river, 10 m. to the north-west of +Bela, whilst the Greek name “Arabis” for the Purali is itself +indicative of an early prehistoric connexion with races of Asiatic +Ethiopians referred to by Herodotus. On the coast, near the +village of Sonmiani (a station of the Indo-Persian telegraph line) +may be traced the indentation which once formed the bay of +Morontobara, noted in the voyage of Nearchus; and it was on the +borders of Makrān that the Turanian town of Rhambakia was +situated, which was once the centre of the trade in “bdellium.” +In the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Las Bela was governed by a Buddhist +priest, at which time all the province of Gandava was Buddhist, +and Sind was ruled by the Brahman, Chach. Buddhist caves are +to be found excavated in the conglomerate cliffs near Gondakeha, +at a place called Gondrani, or Shahr-i-Rogan. With the influx of +Arabs into Makran, Bela, under the name of Armel (or Armabel), +rose to importance as a link in the great chain of trading towns +between Persia and Sind; and then there existed in the delta such +places as Yusli (near the modern Uthal) and Kambali (which may +possibly be recognized in the ruins at Khairokot), and many +smaller towns, each of which possessed its citadel, its caravanserai +and bazaar, which are not only recorded but actually mapped by +one of the medieval Arab geographers, Ibn Haukal. It is probable +that Karia Pir, 1½ m. to the east of the modern city, represents +the site of the Armabel which was destroyed by Mahommed +Kasim in his victorious march to Sind in 710. There is another +old site 5 m. to the west of the modern town. The ruins at +Karia Pir, like those of Tijarra Pir and Khairokot, contain Arab +pottery, seals, and other medieval relics. The Lumris, or Lasis, +who originate the name Las as a prefix to that of Bela, are the +dominant tribe in the province. They are comparatively recent +arrivals who displaced the earlier Tajik and Brahui occupants. +It is probable that this influx of Rajput population was coincident +with the displacement of the Arab dynasties in Sind by the +Mahommedan Rajputs in the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Some authorities +connect the Lumris with the Sumras.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are no published accounts of Bela, excepting those of the +Indian government reports and gazetteers. This article is compiled +from unpublished notes by the author and by Mr Wainwright, +of the Indian Survey department.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELA,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a town of British India, administrative headquarters +of the Partabgarh district of the United Provinces, with a +railway station 80 m. from Benares. Pop. (1901) 8041. It +adjoins the village of Partabgarh proper, and the civil station +sometimes known as Andrewganj. Bela, which was founded +in 1802 as a cantonment, became a district headquarters after +the mutiny. It has trade in agricultural produce. There is a +well-known hospital for women here.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELAY<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from the same O. Eng. origin as “lay”; cf. Dutch +<i>beleggen</i>), a nautical term for making ropes fast round a pin. In +earlier days the word was synonymous with “waylay” or +“surround.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELCHER, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1799-1877), British naval officer, +entered the navy in 1812. In 1825 he accompanied Frederick +William Beechey’s expedition to the Pacific and Bering Strait, +as a surveyor. He subsequently commanded a surveying ship +on the north and west coasts of Africa and in the British seas, +and in 1836 took up the work which Beechey left unfinished on +the Pacific coast of South America. This was on board the +“Sulphur,” which was ordered to return to England in 1839 by +the Trans-Pacific route. Belcher made various observations +at a number of islands which he visited, was delayed by being +despatched to take part in the war in China in 1840-1841, and +reached home only in 1842. In 1843 he was knighted, and was +now engaged in the “Samarang,” in surveying work in the East +Indies, the Philippines, &c., until 1847. In 1852 he was given +command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Sir +John Franklin. This was unsuccessful; Belcher’s inability +to render himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly +unfortunate in an Arctic voyage, and he was not wholly suited +to command vessels among ice. This was his last active service, +but he became K.C.B. in 1867 and an admiral in 1872. He +published a <i>Treatise on Nautical Surveying</i> (1835), <i>Narrative +of a Voyage round the World performed in H.M.S. “Sulphur,” +1836-1842</i> (1843), <i>Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. “Samarang” +during 1843-1846</i> (1848; the <i>Zoology of the Voyage</i> was separately +dealt with by some of his colleagues, 1850), and <i>The Last of the +Arctic Voyages</i> (1855); besides minor works, including a novel, +<i>Horatio Howard Brenton</i> (1856), a story of the navy. He died +in London on the 18th of March 1877.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELDAM<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (like “belsire,” grandfather, from the Fr. <i>bel</i>, good, +expressing relationship; cf. the Fr. <i>belle-mère</i>, mother-in-law, +and <i>dame</i>, in Eng. form “dam,” mother), strictly a grandmother +or remote ancestress, and so an old woman; generally used +contemptuously as meaning an old hag.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELESME, ROBERT OF<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (fl. 1100), earl of Shrewsbury. +From his mother Mabel Talvas he inherited the fief of Belesme, +and from his father, the Conqueror’s companion, that of Shrewsbury. +Both were march-fiefs, the one guarding Normandy from +Maine, and the other England from the Welsh; consequently +their lord was peculiarly powerful and independent. Robert is +the typical feudal noble of the time, circumspect and politic, +persuasive and eloquent, impetuous and daring in battle, and +an able military engineer; in person, tall and strong; greedy +for land, an oppressor of the weak, a systematic rebel and traitor, +and savagely cruel. He first appears as a supporter of Robert’s +rebellion against the Conqueror (1077); then as an accomplice +in the English conspiracy of 1088 against Rufus. Later he served +Rufus in Normandy, and was allowed to succeed his brother Hugh +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +in the earldom of Shrewsbury (1098). But at the height of his +power, he revolted against Henry I (1102). He was banished +and deprived of his English estate; for sometime after he +remained at large in Normandy, defying the authority of Robert +and Henry alike. He betrayed Robert’s cause at Tinchebrai; +but in 1112 was imprisoned for life by Henry I.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.A. Freeman’s <i>William Rufus</i> and his <i>Norman Conquest</i>, +vol. iv.; and J.M. Lappenberg’s <i>History of England under the +Norman Kings</i>, trans. B. Thorpe (1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELFAST,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a city, county and parliamentary borough, the +capital of the province of Ulster, and county town of county +Antrim, Ireland. Pop. (1901) 349,180. It is a seaport of the +first rank, situated at the entrance of the river Lagan into +Belfast Lough, 112¾ m. north of Dublin by rail, on the north-east +coast of the island. It is an important railway centre, with +terminal stations of the Great Northern, Northern Counties +(Midland of England), and Belfast & County Down railways, and +has regular passenger communication by sea with Liverpool, +Fleetwood, Heysham, Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain. +It is built on alluvial deposit and reclaimed land, mostly not +exceeding 6 ft. above high water mark, and was thus for a long +period subject to inundation and epidemics, and only careful +drainage rendered the site healthy. The appearance of the city +plainly demonstrates the modern growth of its importance, and +evidence is not wanting that for a considerable period architectural +improvement was unable to keep pace with commercial +development. Many squalid districts, however, have been improved +away to make room for new thoroughfares and handsome +buildings. One thoroughfare thus constructed at the close of +the 19th century is the finest in Belfast—Royal Avenue. It +contains, among several notable buildings, the post office, and +the free public library, opened in 1888 and comprising a collection +of over 40,000 volumes, as well as an art gallery and a museum +of antiquities especially rich in remains of the Neolithic period. +The architect was Mr W.H. Lynn. The magnificent city hall, +from designs of Mr (afterwards Sir) Brumwell Thomas, was +opened in 1906. The principal streets, such as York Street, +Donegall Street, North Street, High Street, are traversed by +tramways. Four bridges cross the Lagan; the Queen’s Bridge +(1844, widened in 1886) is the finest, while the Albert Bridge +(1889) replaces a former one which collapsed. Other principal +public buildings, nearly all to be included in modern schemes of +development, are the city hall, occupying the site of the old +Linen Hall, in Donegall Square, estimated to cost £300,000; +the commercial buildings (1820) in Waring Street, the customhouse +and inland revenue office on Donegall Quay, the architect +of which, as of the court house, was Sir Charles Lanyon, and +some of the numerous banks, especially the Ulster Bank. The +Campbell College in the suburb of Belmont was founded in 1892 +in accordance with the will of Mr W.J. Campbell, a Belfast +merchant, who left £200,000 for the building and endowment +of a public school. Other educational establishments are +Queen’s University, replacing the old Queen’s College (1849) under +the Irish Universities Act 1908; the Presbyterian and the +Methodist Colleges, occupying neighbouring sites close to the +extensive botanical gardens, the Royal Academical Institution, +and the Municipal Technical Institute. In 1897 the sum of +£100,000 was subscribed by citizens to found a hospital (1903) to +commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and +named after her. It took the place of an institution which, under +various names, had existed since 1797. Public monuments are +few, but include a statue of Queen Victoria (1903) and a South +African War memorial (1905) in front of the city hall; the Albert +Memorial (1870), in the form of a clock-tower, in Queen Street; +a monument to the same prince in High Street; and a statue in +Wellington Place to Dr Henry Cooke, a prominent Presbyterian +minister who died in 1868. The corporation controls the gas +and electric and similar undertakings. The water supply, under +the control of the City and District Water Commissioners (incorporated +1840), has its sources in the Mourne Mountains, Co. +Down, 40 m. distant, with a service reservoir at Knockbreckan; +also in the hilly district near Carrickfergus. There are several +public parks, of which the principal are the Ormeau Park (1870), +the Victoria, Alexandra, and Falls Road parks. There is a +Theatre Royal in Arthur Square. There are also several excellent +clubs and societies, social, political, scientific, and sporting; +including among the last the famous Royal Ulster Yacht +Club.</p> + +<p>In 1899 was laid the foundation stone of the Protestant +cathedral in Donegall Street, designed by Sir Thomas Drew +and Mr W.H. Lynn to seat 3000 worshippers, occupying the site +of the old St Anne’s parish church, part of the fabric of which +the new building incorporates. The diocese is that of Down, +Connor, and Dromore. The first portion (the nave) was consecrated +on the 2nd of June 1904. The plan is a Latin cross, the +west front rising to a height of 105 ft., while the central tower is +175 ft. The pulpit was formerly used in the nave of Westminster +Abbey, being presented to Belfast cathedral by the dean and +chapter of that foundation.</p> + +<p>Most of the older churches are classical in design, and the most +notable are St George’s, in High Street, and the Memorial church +of Dr Cooke in May Street. For the more modern churches the +Gothic style has frequently been used. Amongst these are St +James, Antrim Road; St Peter’s Roman Catholic chapel, with +its Florentine spire; Presbyterian churches in Fitzroy Avenue, +and Elmwood Avenue, and the Methodist chapel, Carlisle Circus. +The Presbyterians and Protestant Episcopalians each outnumber +the Roman Catholics in Belfast, and these three are the chief +religious divisions.</p> + +<p><i>Environs.</i>—The country surrounding Belfast is agreeable and +picturesque, whether along the shores of the Lough or towards +the girdle of hills to the west; and is well wooded and studded +with country seats and villas. In the immediate vicinity of the +city are several points of historic interest and natural beauty. +The Cave Hill, though exceeded in height by Mount Divis, +Squire’s Hill, and other summits, is of greatest interest for its +caves, in the chalk, from which early weapons and other objects +have been recovered. The battle in 1408, which was fought along +the base of the cliffs here between the Savages of the Ards and +the Irish, is described in Sir Samuel Ferguson’s “Hibernian +Nights Entertainment.” Here also are McArt’s Fort and other +earthworks, and from here the importance of the physical position +of Belfast may be appreciated to the full. At Newtonbreda, +overlooking the Lagan, was the palace of Con O’Neill, whose sept +was exterminated by Deputy Mountjoy in the reign of Queen +Elizabeth. Belfast Lough is of great though quiet beauty; +and the city itself is seen at its best from its seaward approach, +with its girdle of hills in the background. On the shores of the +lough several villages have grown into residential towns for the +wealthier classes, whose work lies in the city. Of these Whitehouse +and White Abbey are the principal on the western shore, +and on the eastern, Holywood, which ranks practically as a +suburb of Belfast, and, at the entrance to the lough, Bangor.</p> + +<p><i>Harbour and Trade.</i>—The harbour and docks of Belfast are +managed by a board of harbour commissioners, elected by the +ratepayers and the shipowners. The outer harbour is one of the +safest in the kingdom. By the Belfast Harbour Acts the commissioners +were empowered to borrow more than £2,500,000 in +order to carry out several new works and improvements in the +port. Under the powers of these acts a new channel, called the +Victoria Channel, several miles in length, was cut about 1840 +leading in a direct line from the quays to the sea. This channel +affords 20 ft. of water at low tide, and 28 ft. at full tide, the +width of the channel being 300 ft. The Alexandra Dock, which +is 852 ft. long and 31 ft. deep, was opened in 1889, and the +extensive improvements (including the York Dock, where vessels +carrying 10,000 tons can discharge in four to six days) have been +effected from time to time, making the harbour one of the most +commodious in the United Kingdom. The provision of a new +graving dock adjoining the Alexandra was delayed in October +1905 by a subsidence of the ground during its construction. +Parliamentary powers were obtained to construct a graving dock +capable of accommodating the largest class of warships. The +growth and development of the shipbuilding industry has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +immense, the firm of Harland & Wolff being amongst the first +in the trade, and some of the largest vessels in the world come +from their yards. The vast increase of the foreign trade of +Belfast marks its development, like Liverpool, as a great distributing +port. The chief exports are linen, whisky, aerated waters, +iron ore and cattle.</p> + +<p>Belfast is the centre of the Irish linen industry, machinery for +which was introduced by T. & A. Mulholland in 1830, a rapid +extension of the industry at once resulting. It is also the headquarters +and business centre for the entire flax-spinning and +weaving industry of the country. Distilling is extensively carried +on. Several firms are engaged in the manufacture of mineral +waters, for which the water of the Cromac Springs is peculiarly +adapted. Belfast also has some of the largest tobacco works +and rope works in the world.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—In conformity with the passing of the +Municipal Corporations Act of 1840 the constitution of the corporation +was made to consist of ten aldermen and thirty councillors, +under the style and title of “The Mayor, Aldermen, and +Burgesses of the Borough of Belfast.” In 1888 the rank of a city +was conferred by royal charter upon Belfast, with the incidental +rank, liberties, privileges, and immunities. In 1892 Queen +Victoria conferred upon the mayor of the city the title of lord +mayor, and upon the corporation the name and description of +“The Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of the city of Belfast.” +By the passing of the Belfast Corporation Act of 1896, the +boundary of the city was extended, and the corporation made +to consist of fifteen aldermen and forty-five councillors, and the +number of wards was increased from five to fifteen. By virtue +of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became a +county borough on the 1st of April 1899. By the Local Government +(Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became for assize purposes +“the county of the city of Belfast,” with a high sheriff. It is +divided into four parliamentary divisions north, south, east and +west, each returning one member. The total area is 16,594 acres.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The etymology of the name (for which several +derivations have been proposed) and the origin of the town are +equally uncertain, and there is not a single monument of antiquarian +interest upon which to found a conjecture. About 1177 +a castle is said to have been built by John de Courcy, to be +destroyed by Edward Bruce in 1316. It may be noted here that +Belfast Castle was finally burnt in 1708; but a modern mansion, +on Cave Hill, outside the city, bears that name. About the +beginning of the 16th century, Belfast is described as a town +and fortress, but it was in reality a mere fishing village in the +hands of the house of O’Neill. In the course of the wars of +Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th earl of Kildare, Belfast was twice attacked +by him, in 1503 and 1512. The O’Neills, always opposed to the +English, had forfeited every baronial right; but in 1552 Hugh +O’Neill of Clandeboye promised allegiance to the reigning +monarch, and obtained the castle of Carrickfergus, the town +and fortress of Belfast, and all the surrounding lands. Belfast +was then restored from the half ruined state into which it had +fallen, and the castle was garrisoned. The turbulent successors +of O’Neill having been routed by the English, the town and +fortress were obtained by grant dated the 16th of November 1571 +by Sir Thomas Smith, a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, but were +afterwards forfeited by him to the lord deputy Sir Arthur +Chichester, who, in 1612, was created Baron Chichester of Belfast. +At this time the town consisted of about 120 houses, mostly +built of mud and covered with thatch, while the castle, a two-storeyed +building, was roofed with shingles. A charter was now +granted to the town by James I. (April 27, 1613) constituting +it a corporation with a chief magistrate and 12 burgesses and +commonalty, with the right of sending two members to parliament. +In 1632 Thomas Wentworth, Earl Strafford, was appointed +first lord deputy of Ireland, and Belfast soon shared largely in +the benefits of his enlightened policy, receiving, among other +favours, certain fiscal rights which his lordship had purchased +from the corporation of Carrickfergus. Two years after the +rebellion of 1641 a rampart was raised round the town, pierced +by four gates on the land side. In 1662, as appears by a map +still extant, there were 150 houses within the wall, forming five +streets and as many lanes; and the upland districts around +were one dense forest of giant oaks and sycamores, yielding +an unfailing supply of timber to the woodmen of Carrickfergus.</p> + +<p>Throughout the succeeding fifty years the progress of Belfast +surpassed that of most other towns in Ireland. Its merchants +in 1686 owned forty ships, of a total carrying power of 3300 tons, +and the customs collected were close upon £20,000. The old +charter was annulled by James II. and a new one issued in 1688, +but the old was restored in 1690 by William III. When the +king arrived at Belfast in that year there were only two places +of worship in the town, the old corporation church in the High +Street, and the Presbyterian meeting-house in Rosemary Lane, +the Roman Catholics not being permitted to build their chapels +within the walls of corporate towns.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the 18th century Belfast had become +known as a place of considerable trade, and was then thought a +handsome, thriving and well-peopled town, with many new +houses and good shops. During the civil commotions which +so long afflicted the country, it suffered less than most other +places; and it soon afterwards attained the rank of the richest +commercial town in the north of Ireland. James Blow and Co. +introduced letterpress printing in 1696, and in 1704 issued the +first copy of the Bible produced in the island. In September +1737, Henry and Robert Joy started the <i>Belfast News Letter</i>. +Twenty years afterwards the town contained 1800 houses and +8549 inhabitants, 556 of whom were members of the Church +of Rome. It was not, however, till 1789 that Belfast obtained +the regular communication, which towns of less importance +already enjoyed, with Dublin by stage coach, a fact which is +to be explained by the badness of the roads and the steepness +of the hills between Newry and Belfast.</p> + +<p>The increased freedom of trade with which Ireland was +favoured, the introduction of the cotton manufacture by Robert +Joy and Thomas M’Cabe in 1777, the establishment in 1791 of +shipbuilding on an extensive scale by William Ritchie, an +energetic Scotsman, combined with the rope and canvas +manufacture already existing, supplied the inhabitants with +employments and increased the demand for skilled labour. +The population now made rapid strides as well by ordinary +extension as by immigration from the rural districts. Owing +to the close proximity of powerful opposed religious sects, +the modern history of the city is not without its record of riot +and bloodshed, as in 1880 and 1886, and in August 1907 serious +rioting followed upon a strike of carters; but the prosperity of +the city has been happily unaffected.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See George Benn, <i>History of Belfast</i> (Belfast, 1877); Robert M. +Young, <i>Historical Notices of Old Belfast</i> (Belfast, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELFAST,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Waldo +county, Maine, U.S.A., on Belfast Bay (an arm of the Penobscot), +and about 32 m. south-south-west of Bangor. Pop. (1890) +5294; (1910) 4618. It is served by the Belfast branch of the +Maine Central railway (connecting with the main line at Burnham +Junction, 33 m. distant), and by the coasting steamers (from +Boston) of the Eastern Steamship Co. The city, a summer +resort, lies on an undulating hillside, which rises from the water’s +edge to a height of more than 150 ft., and commands extensive +views of the picturesque islands, headlands, and mountains +of the Maine coast. It has a public library. Among the +industries of Belfast are trade with the surrounding country, +the manufacture of shoes, leather boards, axes, and sashes, +doors and blinds, and the building and repairing of boats. +Its exports in 1908 were valued at $285,913 and its imports +at $10,313. Belfast was first settled (by Scottish-Irish) in +1769, and in 1773 was incorporated as a town under its present +name (from Belfast, Ireland). The town was almost completely +destroyed by the British in 1779, but its rebuilding was begun in +the next year. It was held by a British force for five days in +September 1814. Belfast was chartered as a city in 1850.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELFORT,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> <span class="sc">Territory of</span>, administrative division of eastern +France, formed from the southern portion of the department +of Haut-Rhin, the rest of which was ceded to Germany by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span> +treaty of Frankfort (1871). It is bounded on the N.E. and E. +by German Alsace, on the S.E. and S. by Switzerland, on the S.W. +by the department of Doubs, on the W. by that of Haute-Saône, +on the N. by that of Vosges. Pop. (1906), 95,421.</p> + +<p>With an area of only 235 sq. m., it is, next to that of Seine, +the smallest department of France. The northern part is +occupied by the southern offshoots of the Vosges, the southern +part by the northern outposts of the Jura. Between these two +highlands stretches the Trouée (depression) de Belfort, 18½ m. +broad, joining the basins of the Rhine and the Rhone, traversed +by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine and by several railways. +A part of the natural highway open from Frankfort to the +Mediterranean, the Trouée has from earliest times provided +the route for the migration from north to south, and is still of +great commercial and strategical value. The northern part, +occupied by the Vosges, rises to 4126 ft. in the Ballon d’Alsace, +the northern termination and the culminating point of the +department; to 3773 ft. in the Planche des Belles-Filles; to +3579 ft. in the Signal des Plaines; to 3534 ft. in the Bärenkopf; +and to numerous other lesser heights. South of the Trouée +de Belfort, there rise near Delle limestone hills, in part wooded, +on the frontiers of France, Alsace, and Switzerland, attaining +1680 ft. in the Forêt de Florimont. The territory between +Lachapelle-sous-Rougemont (in the north-east), Belfort and +Delle does not rise above 1300 ft. The line of lowest altitude +follows the river St Nicolas and the Rhone-Rhine canal. The +chief rivers are the Savoureuse, 24 m. long, running straight +south from the Ballon d’Alsace, and emptying into the Allaine; +the Allaine, from Switzerland, entering the territory a little to +the south of Delle, and leaving it a little to the west of Morvillars; +the St Nicolas, 24 m. long, from the Bärenkopf, running southwards +and then south-west into the Allaine. The climate to +the north of the town of Belfort is marked by long and rigorous +winters, sudden changes of temperature, and an annual rainfall +of 31 in. to 39 in. retained by an impervious subsoil; farther +south it is milder and more equable with a rainfall of 23 in. to +31 in., quickly absorbed by the soil or evaporated by the sun. +About one-third of the total area is arable land; wheat, oats and +rye are the chief cereals; potatoes come next in importance. +Forest covers another third of the surface; the chief trees are +firs, pines, oak and beech; cherries are largely grown for the +distillation of kirsch. Pasture and forage crops cover the remaining +third of the Territory; only horned cattle are raised +to any extent. There is an unworked concession of copper, +silver and lead at Giromagny; and there are also quarries of +stone. The Territory is an active industrial region. The two +main branches of manufacture are the spinning and weaving +of cotton and wool, and the production of iron and iron-goods +(wire, railings, nails, files, &c.) and machinery. Belfort has +important locomotive and engineering works. Hoisery is +manufactured at Delle, watches, clocks, agricultural machinery, +petrol motors, ironware and electrical apparatus at the flourishing +centre of Beaucourt, and there are numerous saw-mills, tile and +brick works and breweries. Imports consist of raw materials +for the industries, dyestuffs, coal, wine, &c., and the exports of +manufactured goods.</p> + +<p>Belfort is the capital of the Territory, which comprises one +arrondissement, 6 cantons and 106 communes, and falls within +the circumscriptions of the archbishopric, the court of appeal +and the académie (educational division) of Besançon. It forms +the 7th subdivision of the VII. army corps. Both the Eastern +and the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railways traverse the Territory, +and the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine accompanies the +river St Nicolas for about 6 m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELFORT,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of the Territory +of Belfort, 275 m. E.S.E. of Paris, on the main line of the Eastern +railway. Pop. (1906), town, 27,805; commune, 34,649. It is +situated among wooded hills on the Savoureuse at the intersection +of the roads and railway lines from Paris to Basel and from +Lyons to Mülhausen and Strassburg, by which it maintains +considerable trade with Germany and Switzerland. The town is +divided by the Savoureuse into a new quarter, in which is the +railway station on the right bank, and the old fortified quarter, +with the castle, the public buildings and monuments, on the +left bank. The church of St Denis, a building in the classical +style, erected from 1727 to 1750, and the hôtel de ville (1721-1724) +both stand in the Place d’Armes opposite the castle. The +two chief monuments commemorate the defence of Belfort in +the war of 1870-1871. “The Lion of Belfort,” a colossal figure +78 ft. long and 52 ft. high, the work of F.A. Bartholdi, stands +in front of the castle; and in the Place d’Armes is the bronze +group “Quand Même” by Antonin Mercié, in memory of Thiers +and of Colonel Pierre Marie Aristide Denfert-Rochereau (1823-1878), +commandant of the place during the siege. Other objects +of interest are the Tour de la Miotte, of unknown origin and date, +which stands on the hill of La Miotte to the N.E. of Belfort, and +the Port de Brisach, a gateway built by Vauban in 1687. +Belfort is the seat of a prefect; its public institutions include +tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of +commerce, a lycée, a training-college and a branch of the Bank +of France. The construction of locomotives and machinery, +carried on by the Société Alsacienne, wire-drawing, and the +spinning and weaving of cotton are included among its industries, +which together with the population increased greatly owing to +the Alsacian immigration after 1871. Its trade is in the wines +of Alsace, brandy and cereals. The town derives its chief +importance from its value as a military position.</p> + +<p>After the war of 1870-1871, Belfort, which after a diplomatic +struggle remained in French hands, became a frontier fortress +of the greatest value, and the old works which underwent the +siege of 1870-1871 (see below) were promptly increased and +re-modelled. In front of the Perches redoubts, the Bosmont, +whence the Prussian engineers began their attack, is now heavily +fortified with continuous lines called the <i>Organisation défensive +de Bosmont</i>. The old Bellevue redoubt (now Fort Denfert-Rochereau) +is covered by a new work situated likewise on the +ground occupied by the siege trenches in the war. Pérouse, +hastily entrenched in 1870, now possesses a permanent fort. +The old entrenched camp enclosed by the castle, Fort La Miotte, +and Fort Justice, is still maintained, and part even of the enceinte +built by Vauban is used for defensive purposes. Outside this +improved inner line, which includes the whole area of the attack +and defence of 1870, lies a complete circle of detached forts and +batteries of modern construction. To the north, Forts Salbert +and Roppe form the salients of a long defensive line on high +ground, at the centre of which, where the Savoureuse river +divides it, a new work was added later. Two works near +Giromagny, about 8 m. from Belfort itself, connect the fortress +with the right of the defensive line of the Moselle (Fort Ballon +d’Alsace). In the eastern sector of the defences (from Roppe +to the Savoureuse below Belfort) the forts are about 3 m. from +the centre, the works near the Belfort-Mülhausen railway being +somewhat more advanced, and in the western (from Salbert to +Fort Bois d’Oyé on the lower Savoureuse) they are advanced to +about the same distance. The fort of Mont Vaudois, the westernmost, +overlooks Héricourt and the battlefield of the Lisaine: +farther to the south Montbéliard is also fortified. The perimeter +of the Belfort defences is nearly 25 m.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Gallo-Roman remains have been discovered in the +vicinity of Belfort, but the place is first heard of in the early +part of the 13th century, when it was in the possession of the counts +of Montbéliard. From them it passed by marriage to the counts +of Ferrette and afterwards to the archdukes of Austria. By +the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the town was ceded to Louis XIV. +who gave it to Cardinal Mazarin.</p> + +<p>In the Thirty Years’ War Belfort was twice besieged, 1633 +and 1634, and in 1635 there was a battle here between the duke +of Lorraine and the allied French and Swedes under Marshal +de la Force. The fortifications of Vauban were begun in 1686. +Belfort was besieged in 1814 by the troops of the allies and in +1815 by the Austrians.</p> + +<p>The most famous episode of the town’s history is its gallant +and successful defence in the war of 1870-1871.</p> + +<p>The events which led up to the siege are described under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span> +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>. Even before the investment Belfort +was cut off from the interior of France, and the German corps of +von Werder was, throughout the siege, between the fortress and +the forces which might attempt its relief. The siege corps was +commanded by General von Tresckow and numbered at first +10,000 men with twenty-four field guns—a force which appeared +adequate for the reduction of the antiquated works of Vaubau. +Colonel Denfert-Rochereau was, however, a scientific engineer of +advanced ideas as well as a veteran soldier of the Crimea and +Algeria, and he had been stationed at Belfort for six years. +He was therefore eminently fitted for the command of the +fortress. He had as a nucleus but few regular troops, but the +energy of the military and civil authorities enabled his force to +be augmented by national guards, &c., to 17,600 men. The +artillery was very numerous, but skilled gunners were not +available in any great strength and ammunition was scarce. +Perhaps the most favourable circumstance from a technical +point of view was the bomb-proof accommodation of the enceinte.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:523px; height:393px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img667.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The old fortress consisted of the town enceinte, the castle +(situated on high ground and fortified by several concentric +envelopes), and the entrenched camp, a hollow enclosed by +continuous lines, the salients of which were the castle, Fort La +Justice and Fort La Miotte. These were planned in the days +of short-range guns, and were therefore in 1870 open to an +overwhelming bombardment by the rifled cannon of the attack. +Denfert-Rochereau, however, understood better than other +engineers of the day the power of modern artillery, and his plan +was to utilize the old works as a keep and an artillery position. +The Perches ridge, whence the town and suburbs could be +bombarded, he fortified with all possible speed. On the right +bank of the Savoureuse he constructed two new forts, Bellevue +in the south-west and Des Barres to the west, and, further, +he prepared the suburb on this side for a hand-to-hand defence. +His general plan was to maintain as advanced a line as possible, +to manoeuvre against the investing troops, and to support his +own by the long range fire of his rifled guns. With this object +he fortified the outlying villages, and when the Germans (chiefly +Landwehr) began the investment on the 3rd of November 1870, +they encountered everywhere a most strenuous resistance. +Throughout the month the garrison made repeated sorties, and +the Germans were on several occasions forced by the long range +fire of the fortress to evacuate villages which they had taken. +Under these circumstances, and also because of their numerical +weakness and the rigour of the weather, the Germans advanced +but slowly. On the 2nd of December, when at last von Tresckow +broke ground for the construction of his batteries, the French +still held Danjoutin, Bosmont, Pérouse and the adjacent woods, +and, to the northward (on this side the siege was not pressed) +La Forge. Thus the first attack of the siege artillery was confined +to the western side of the river between Essert and Bavillers. +From this position the bombardment opened on the 3rd of +December. Some damage was done to the houses of Belfort, +but the garrison was not intimidated, and their artillery replied +with such spirit that after some days the German commander +gave up the bombardment. On this occasion the distant forts +La Miotte and La Justice fired with effect at a range of 4700 yds., +affording a conspicuous illustration of the changed conditions +of siege-craft. The German batteries, as more guns arrived, +were extended from left to right, and on the 13th of December +the Bosmont was captured, ground being also gained in front of +Bellevue. The difficulties under which the siege corps laboured +were very great, and it was not until the 7th of January 1871 +that the rightmost battery opened fire. The formal siege of the +Perches redoubts had now been decided upon, and as an essential +preliminary to further operations, Danjoutin, now isolated, was +stormed by the Landwehr on the night of the 7th-8th January. +In the meanwhile typhus and smallpox had broken out amongst +the French, many of the national guards were impatient of +control, and the German trenches, in spite of difficulties of ground +and weather, made steady progress towards the Perches. A +week after the fall of Danjoutin the victory of von Werder and +the XIV. army corps at the Lisaine, in which a part of the siege +corps bore a share, put an end to the attempt to relieve Belfort, +and the siege corps was promptly increased to a strength of 17,600 +infantry, 4700 artillery and 1100 engineers, with thirty-four +field-guns besides the guns and howitzers of the siege train. +The investment was now more strictly maintained even on the +north side. On the night of the 20th of January the French +lines about Pérouse were carried by assault, and, both flanks +being now cleared, the formal siege of the Perches forts was +opened, the first parallel extending from Danjoutin to Haut +Taillis. In the early morning of the 27th a determined but +premature attempt was made to storm the Perches redoubts, +which cost the besiegers nearly 500 men. After this failure +Tresckow once more resorted to the regular method of siege +approaches, and on the 2nd of February the second parallel was +thrown up. La Justice was now bombarded by two new batteries +near Pérouse, the Perches were of course subjected to an “artillery +attack,” and henceforward the besiegers fired 1500 shells a day +into the works of the French. But the besiegers were still weak +in numbers and their labours were very exhausting. Bellevue +and Des Barres became very active in hindering the advance +of the siege works, and the German battalions were so far depleted +by losses and sickness that they could often muster but 300 men +for duty. Still, the guns of the attack were now steadily gaining +the upper hand, and at last on the 8th of February the Germans +entered the two Perches redoubts. This success, and the arrival +of German reinforcements, decided the siege. The Perches ridge +was crowned with a parallel and numerous batteries, which in +the end mounted ninety-seven guns. The attack on the castle +now opened, but operations were soon afterwards suspended +by the news that Belfort was now included in the general armistice +(February 15th). A little later Denfert-Rochereau received +a direct order from his own government to surrender the fortress, +and the garrison, being granted free withdrawal, marched out +with its arms and trains. “The town had suffered terribly ... +nearly all the buildings were damaged ... the guns in the upper +batteries could only be reached by ladders. The garrison, of +its original strength of 17,700 officers and men, had lost 4750, +besides 336 citizens. The place was no longer tenable” (Moltke, +<i>Franco-German War</i>). Nevertheless, “the defence was by no +means at its last stage” at the time of the formal surrender +(British <i>Text-Book of Fortification</i>, 1893). The total loss of the +besiegers was about 2000 men.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Liblin, <i>Belfort et son territoire</i> (Mülhausen, 1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELFRY<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Mid. Eng. <i>berfrey</i>, through Med. Lat. <i>berefredus</i>, +from Teut. <i>bergfrid</i> or <i>bercvrit</i>, which, according to the <i>New +Eng. Dict.</i>, is a combination of <i>bergen</i>, to protect, and <i>frida</i>, +safety or peace; the word thus meaning a shelter; the change +from <i>r</i> to <i>l</i>,—cf. <i>almery</i> for <i>armarium</i>,—wrongly associated +the origin of the word with “bell,” and aided the restriction +in meaning), a word in medieval siege-craft for a movable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +wooden tower of several stages, protected with raw hides, +used for purposes of attack; also a watch-tower, particularly +one with an alarm bell; hence any detached tower or campanile +containing bells, as at Evesham, but more generally the ringing +room or loft of the tower of a church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tower</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELGAE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a Celtic people first mentioned by Caesar, who +states that they formed the third part of Gaul, and were separated +from the Celtae by the Sequana (Seine) and Matrona (Marne). +On the east and north their boundary was the lower Rhine, on +the west the ocean. Whether Caesar means to include the Leuci, +Treviri and Mediomatrici among the Belgian tribes is uncertain. +According to the statement of the deputation from the Remi to +Caesar (<i>Bell. Gall.</i> ii. 4), the Belgae were a people of German +origin, who had crossed the Rhine in early times and driven out +the Galli. But Caesar’s own statement (<i>B.G.</i> i. 1) that the +Belgae differed from the Celtae in language, institutions and +laws, is too sweeping (see Strabo iv. p. 176), at least as regards +language, for many words and names are common to both. +In any case, only the eastern districts would have been affected +by invaders from over the Rhine, the chief seat of the Belgae +proper being in the west, the country occupied by the Bellovaci, +Ambiani and Atrebates, to which it is probable (although the +reading is uncertain) that Caesar gives the distinctive name +Belgium (corresponding to the old provinces of Picardy and +Artois). The question is fully discussed by T.R. Holmes +(<i>Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul</i>, 1899), who comes to the conclusion +that “when the Reman delegates told Caesar that the Belgae +were descended from the Germans, they probably only meant +that the ancestors of the Belgic conquerors had formerly dwelt +in Germany, and this is equally true of the ancestors of the Gauls +who gave their name to the Celtae; but, on the other hand, it is +quite possible that in the veins of some of the Belgae flowed +the blood of genuine German forefathers.” W. Ridgeway (<i>Early +Age of Greece, 1901</i>) considers that the Belgic tribes were Cimbri, +“who had moved directly across the Rhine into north-eastern +Gaul.” No definite number of Belgian tribes is given by Caesar; +according to Strabo (iv. p. 196) they were fifteen in all. The +Belgae had also made their way over to Britain in Caesar’s time +(<i>B.G.</i> ii. 4, v. 12), and settled in some of the southern counties +(Wilts, Hants and Somerset). Among their towns were <i>Magnus +Portus</i> (Portsmouth) and <i>Venta Belgarum</i> (Winchester).</p> + +<p>In 57 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, after the defeat of Ariovistus, the Belgae formed a +coalition against Caesar, and in 52 took part in the general +rising under Vercingetorix. After their final subjugation, +Caesar combined the territory of the Belgae, Celtae and Aquitani +into a single province (Gallia Comata). Augustus, however, +finding it too unwieldy, again divided it into three provinces, +one of which was Belgica, bounded on the west by the Seine and +the Arar (Saône); on the north by the North Sea; on the east +by the Rhine from its mouth to the Lacus Brigantinus (Lake +Constance). Its southernmost district embraced the west of +Switzerland. The capital and residence of the governor of the +province was Durocortorum Remorum (Reims). Under Diocletian, +Belgica Prima (capital, Augusta Trevirorum, Trier) and +Secunda (capital, Reims) formed part of the “diocese” of Gaul.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.G.B. Schayes, <i>La Belgique et les Pays-Bas avant et pendant +la domination romaine</i> (2nd ed., Brussels, 1877); +H.G. Moke, <i>La Belgique ancienne</i> (Ghent, 1855); +A. Desjardins, <i>Géographie historique de la Gaule</i>, ii. (1878); +T.R. Holmes, <i>Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul</i> (1899); +M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. pt. 1 (1897); +J. Jung, “Geographie von Italien und dem Orbis romanus” (2nd ed., 1897) +in I. Müller’s <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELGARD,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Pomerania, at the junction of the rivers Leitznitz and +Persante, 22 m. S.E. of Kolberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 8047. +Its industries consist of iron founding and cloth weaving, and +there are considerable horse and cattle markets.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELGAUM,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the southern +division of Bombay. The town is situated nearly 2500 ft. above +sea-level; it has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway, +245 m. S. of Poona. It has an ancient fortress, dating +apparently from 1519, covering about 100 acres, and surrounded +by a ditch; within it are two interesting Jain temples. Belgaum +contains a cantonment which is the headquarters of a brigade +in the 6th division of the western army corps. It is also a +considerable centre of trade and of cotton weaving. There are +cotton mills. Pop. (1901) 36,878.</p> + +<p>The district of Belgaum has an area of 4649 sq. m. To the +north and east the country is open and well cultivated, but to +the south it is intersected by spurs of the Sahyadri range, thickly +covered in some places with forest. In 1901 the population was +993,976, showing a decrease of 2% compared with an increase of +17% in the preceding decade. The principal crops are millet, +rice, wheat, other food-grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, sugar-cane, +spices and tobacco. There are considerable manufactures +of cotton-cloth. The town of Gokak is known for its dyes, its +paper and its wooden and earthenware toys. The West Deccan +line of the Southern Mahratta railway runs through the district +from north to south. Two high schools at Belgaum town are +maintained by government and by the London Mission. The +Kurirs, a wandering and thieving tribe, the Kamais, professional +burglars, and the Baruds, cattle-stealers and highwaymen, are +notorious among the criminal classes.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The ancient name of the town of Belgaum was +Venugrama, which is said to be derived from the bamboos that +are characteristic of its neighbourhood. The most ancient +place in the district is Halsi; and this, according to inscriptions +on copper plates discovered in its neighbourhood, was once the +capital of a dynasty of nine Kadamba kings. It appears that +from the middle of the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> to about 760 the country +was held by the Chalukyas, who were succeeded by the Rashtrakutas. +After the break-up of the Rashtrakuta power a portion +of it survived in the Rattas (875-1250), who from 1210 onward +made Venugrama their capital. Inscriptions give evidence of a +long struggle between the Rattas and the Kadambas of Goa, +who succeeded in the latter years of the 12th century in acquiring +and holding part of the district. By 1208, however, the +Kadambas had been overthrown by the Rattas, who in their +turn succumbed to the Yadavas of Devagiri in 1250. After the +overthrow of the Yadavas by the Delhi emperor (1320), Belgaum +was for a short time under the rule of the latter; but only a few +years later the part south of the Ghatprabha was subject to the +Hindu rajas of Vijayanagar. In 1347 the northern part was +conquered by the Bahmani dynasty, which in 1473 took the town +of Belgaum and conquered the southern part also. When +Aurungzeb overthrew the Bijapur sultans in 1686, Belgaum +passed to the Moguls. In 1776 the country was overrun by +Hyder Ali, but was retaken by the Peshwa with British assistance. +In 1818 it was handed over to the East India Company and was +made part of the district of Dharwar. In 1836 this was divided +into two parts, the southern district continuing to be known as +Dharwar, the northern as Belgaum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Imp. Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, ed. 1908), <i>s.v.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELGIAN CONGO,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a Belgian colony in Equatorial Africa +occupying the greater part of the basin of the Congo river. +Formerly the Independent State of the Congo, it was annexed +to Belgium in 1908. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congo Free State</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELGIUM<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Belgique</i>; Flem. <i>Belgie</i>), an independent, +constitutional and neutral state occupying an important position +in north-west Europe. It was formerly part of the Low Countries +or Netherlands (<i>q.v.</i>). Although the name Belgium only came +into general use with the foundation of the modern kingdom in +1830, its derivation from ancient times is clear and incontrovertible. +Beginning with the Belgae and the Gallia Belgica of +the Romans, the use of the adjective to distinguish the inhabitants +of the south Netherlands can be traced through all stages of +subsequent history. During the Crusades, and in the middle ages, +the term <i>Belgicae principes</i> is of frequent occurrence, and when +in 1790 the Walloons rose against Austria during what was called +the Brabant revolution, their leaders proposed to give the +country the name of Belgique. Again in 1814, on the expulsion +of the French, when there was much talk of founding an independent +state, the same name was suggested for it. It was not +till sixteen years later, on the collapse of the united kingdom of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +the Netherlands, that the occasion presented itself for giving +effect to this proposal. For the explanation of the English form +of the name it may be mentioned that Belgium was a canton of +what had been the Nervian country in the time of the Roman +occupation.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:682px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img668.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img668a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Topography, &c.</i>—Belgium lies between 49° 30′ and 51° 30′ N., +and 2° 32′ and 6° 7′ E., and on the land side is bounded by +Holland on the N. and N.E., by Prussia and the grand duchy of +Luxemburg on the E. and S.E., and by France on the S. Its +land frontiers measure 793 m., divided as follows:—with Holland +269 m., with Prussia 60 m., with the grand duchy 80 m. and +with France 384 m. In addition it has a sea-coast of 42 m. +The western portion of Belgium, consisting of the two Flanders, +Antwerp and parts of Brabant and Hainaut, is flat, being little +above the level of the sea; and indeed at one point near Furnes +it is 7 ft. below it. The same description applies more or less to +the north-east, but in the south of Hainaut and the greater part +of Brabant the general level of the country is about 300 ft. +above the sea, with altitudes rising to more than 600 ft. South +of the Meuse, and in the district distinguished by the appellation +“Between Sambre and Meuse,” the level is still greater, and the +whole of the province of Luxemburg is above 500 ft., with altitudes +up to 1650 ft. In the south-eastern part of the province +of Liége there are several points exceeding 2000 ft. The highest +of these is the Baraque de Michel close to the Prussian frontier, +with an altitude of 2190 ft. The Baraque de Fraiture, north-east +of La Roche, is over 2000 ft. While the greater part of western +and northern Belgium is devoid of the picturesque, the Ardennes +and the Fagnes districts of “Between Sambre and Meuse” and +Liége contain much pleasant and some romantic scenery. The +principal charm of this region is derived from its fine and +extensive woods, of which that called St Hubert is the best known. +There are no lakes in Belgium, but otherwise it is exceedingly +well watered, being traversed by the Meuse for the greater part +of its course, as well as by the Scheldt and the Sambre. The +numerous affluents of these rivers, such as the Lys, Dyle, Dender, +Ourthe, Amblève, Vesdre, Lesse and Semois, provide a system +of waterways almost unique in Europe. The canals of Belgium +are scarcely less numerous or important than those of Holland, +especially in Flanders, where they give a distinctive character +to the country. But the most striking feature in Belgium, +where so much is modern, utilitarian and ugly, is found in the +older cities with their relics of medieval greatness, and their +record of ancient fame. These, in their order of interest, are +Bruges, Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Ghent, Ypres, Courtrai, +Tournai, Furnes, Oudenarde and Liége. It is to them rather +than to the sylvan scenes of the Ardennes that travellers and +tourists flock.</p> + +<p>The climate may be described as temperate and approximating +to that of southern England, but it is somewhat hotter in summer +and a little colder in winter. In the Ardennes, owing to the +greater elevation, the winters are more severe.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Belgium lies upon the northern side of an ancient +mountain chain which has long been worn down to a low level +and the remnants of which rise to the surface in the Ardennes, +and extend eastward into Germany, forming the Eifel and +Westerwald, the Hunsrück and the Taunus. Westward the +chain lies buried beneath the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of +Belgium and the north of France, but it reappears in the west of +England and Ireland. It is the “Hercynian chain” of Marcel +Bertrand, and is composed entirely of Palaeozoic rocks. Upon +its northern margin lie the nearly undisturbed Cretaceous and +Tertiary beds which cover the greater part of Belgium. The +latest beds which are involved in the folds of this mountain +range belong to the Coal Measures, and the final elevation must +have taken place towards the close of the Carboniferous period. +The fact that in Belgium Jurassic beds are found upon the +southern and not upon the northern margin indicates that in +this region the chain was still a ridge in Jurassic times. In the +Ardennes the rocks which constitute the ancient mountain chain +belong chiefly to the Devonian System, but Cambrian beds rise +through the Devonian strata, forming the masses of Rocroi, +Stavelot, &c., which appear to have been islands in the Devonian +sea. The Ordovician and Silurian are absent here, and the +Devonian rests unconformably upon the Cambrian; but along +the northern margin of the Palaeozoic area, Ordovician and +Silurian rocks appear, and beds of similar age are also exposed +farther north where the rivers have cut through the overlying +Tertiary deposits. Carboniferous beds occur in the north of +the Palaeozoic area. Near Dinant they are folded amongst the +Devonian beds, but the most important band runs along the +northern border of the Ardennes. In this band lie the coalfields +of Liége, and of Mons and Charleroi. It is a long and narrow +trough, which is separated from the older rocks of the Ardennes +by a great reversed fault, the <i>faille du midi</i>. In the southern +half of the trough the folding of the Coal Measures is intense; +in the northern half it is much less violent. The structure is +complicated by a thrust-plane which brings a mass of older +beds upon the Coal Measures in the middle of the trough. +Except along the southern border of the Ardennes, and at one or +two points in the middle of the Palaeozoic massif, Triassic and +Jurassic beds are unknown in Belgium, and the Palaeozoic +rocks are directly and unconformably overlaid by Cretaceous +and Tertiary deposits. The Cretaceous beds are not extensive, +but the Wealden deposits of Bernissart, with their numerous +remains of Iguanodon, and the chalk of the district about the +Dutch frontier near Maastricht, with its very late Cretaceous +fauna, are of special interest.</p> + +<p>Exclusive of the Ardennes the greater part of Belgium is +covered by Tertiary deposits. The Eocene, consisting chiefly +of sands and marls, occupies the whole of the west of the country. +The Oligocene forms a band stretching from Antwerp to Maastricht, +and this is followed towards the north by a discontinuous +strip of Miocene and a fairly extensive area of Pliocene. The +Tertiary deposits are similar in general character to those of the +north of France and the south of England. Coal and iron are by +far the most important mineral productions of Belgium. Zinc, +lead and copper are also extensively worked in the Palaeozoic +rocks of the Ardennes.</p> + +<p><i>Area and Population.</i>—The area comprises 2,945,503 hectares, +or about 11,373 English sq. m., and the total population in +December 1904 was 7,074,910, giving an average of 600 per sq. m.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">The Nine<br />Provinces.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />English sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population at<br />end of 1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population per<br />sq. m. 1904.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Antwerp</td> <td class="tcr rb">1093</td> <td class="tcr rb">888,980</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 813.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brabant</td> <td class="tcr rb">1268</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,366,389</td> <td class="tcl rb">1077.59</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flanders E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1158</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,078,507</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 931.35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flanders W.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1249</td> <td class="tcr rb">845,732</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 677.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hainaut</td> <td class="tcr rb">1437</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,192,967</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 830.18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Liége</td> <td class="tcr rb">1117</td> <td class="tcr rb">863,254</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 772.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Limburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">931</td> <td class="tcr rb">255,359</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 274.28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Luxemburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">1706</td> <td class="tcr rb">225,963</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 132.45</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Namur</td> <td class="tcr rb">1414</td> <td class="tcr rb">357,759</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 253</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">11,373</td> <td class="tcr allb">7,074,910</td> <td class="tcl allb"> 622</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The population was made up of 3,514,491 males and 3,560,419 +females. The rate at which the population has increased is +shown as follows:—From 1880 to 1890 the increase was at the +rate annually of 54,931, from 1890 to 1900 at the rate of +62,421, and for the five years from 1900 to 1904 at the rate of +66,200. In 1831 the population of Belgium was 3,785,814, so +that in 75 years it had not quite doubled. The following table +gives the total births and deaths in certain years since 1880:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Total births.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Total deaths.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Excess of births.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc rb">171,864</td> <td class="tcc rb">123,323</td> <td class="tcc rb">48,541</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895.</td> <td class="tcc rb">183,015</td> <td class="tcc rb">125,148</td> <td class="tcc rb">57,867</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1900.</td> <td class="tcc rb">193,789</td> <td class="tcc rb">129,046</td> <td class="tcc rb">64,743</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1904.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">191,721</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">119,506</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">72,215</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>These figures show that the births were 23,674 more in 1904 +than in 1880, while the deaths were nearly 4000 fewer, with a +population that had increased from 5½ to 7 millions. Of 191,721 +births in 1904, 12,887 or 6.7% were illegitimate. Statistics of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span> +recent years show a slight increase in legitimate and a slight +decrease in illegitimate births.</p> + +<p>The emigration of Belgians from their country is small and +reveals little variation. In 1900, 13,492 emigrated, and in 1904 +the total rose only to 14,752. Of Belgians living abroad it is +estimated that 400,000 reside in France, 15,000 in Holland, +12,000 in Germany and 4600 in Great Britain. The number of +Belgians in the Congo State in 1904 was 1505. The number of +foreigners resident in Belgium in 1900 with their nationalities +were Germans, 42,079; English, 5096; French, 85,735; Dutch, +54,491; Luxemburgers, 9762; and all other nationalities, +14,411.</p> + +<p>With regard to the languages spoken by the people of Belgium +the following comparative table gives the return for the three +censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1880</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">French only</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,230,316</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,485,072</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,574,805</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flemish only</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,485,384</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,744,271</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,822,005</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">German only</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,550</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,314</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">French and Flemish</td> <td class="tcr rb">423,752</td> <td class="tcr rb">700,997</td> <td class="tcr rb">801,587</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">French and German</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,250</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,590</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,447</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Flemish and German</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,956</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,028</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,238</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">The three languages</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13,331</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13,185</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">42,885</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Constitution and Government</i>.—The Belgian constitution, +drafted by the national assembly in 1830-1831 after the provisional +government had announced that “the Belgian provinces +detached by force from Holland shall form an independent state,” +was published on the 7th of February 1831, and the modifications +introduced into it subsequently, apart from the composition of +the electorate, have been few and unimportant. The constitution +originally contained one hundred and thirty-nine articles, +and decreed in the first place that the government was to be +“a constitutional, representative and hereditary monarchy.” +Having decided in favour of a monarchy, the provisional government +first offered the throne to the due de Nemours, son of +Louis-Philippe, but this offer was promptly withdrawn on the +discovery that Europe would not endorse it. It was then offered +to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, widower of the princess +Charlotte of England, and accepted by him. The prince was +proclaimed on the 4th of June 1831 as Leopold I., king of the +Belgians, and on the 21st of July 1831 he was solemnly inaugurated +in Brussels. The succession is vested in the heirs male +of Leopold I., and should they ever make complete default the +throne will be declared vacant, and a national assembly composed +of the two chambers elected in double strength will make a fresh +nomination. In 1894 a new article numbered 61 was inserted +in the constitution providing that “in default of male heirs the +king can nominate his successor with the assent of the two +chambers, and if no such nomination has been made the throne +shall be vacant,” when the original procedure of the constitution +would be followed. The Belgian national assembly assumed +that its constitution would extend over the whole of the Belgic or +south Netherlands, but the powers decreed otherwise. The +limits of Belgium are fixed by the London protocol of the 15th +of October 1831—also called the twenty-four articles—which +cut off what is now termed the grand duchy of Luxemburg, +and also a good portion of the duchy of Limburg. These losses +of territory held by a brother people are still felt as a grievance +by many Belgians. The Belgian constitution stipulates for +“freedom of conscience, of education, of the press and also of +the right of meeting,” but the sovereign must be a member of +the Church of Rome. The government was to consist of the king, +the senate and the chamber of representatives. The functions +of the king are those that appertain everywhere to the sovereign +of a constitutional state. He is the head of the army and has +the exclusive right of dissolving the chambers as preliminary +to an appeal to the country.</p> + +<p>The senate is composed of seventy-six elected members and +twenty-six members nominated by the provincial councils. +A senator sits for eight years unless a dissolution is ordered, +and no one is eligible until he is forty years of age. Half the +seventy-six elected senators retire for re-election every four +years. There is no payment or other privilege, except a pass +on the state railways, attached to the rank of senator. The +chamber of representatives contained one hundred and fifty-two +members until 1899, when the number was increased to one +hundred and sixty-six. Deputies are elected for four years, but +half the house is re-elected every two years. A deputy must +be twenty-five years of age, and the members of both houses +must be of Belgian nationality, born or naturalized. A deputy +receives an annual honorarium of 4000 francs and a railway +pass. Down to 1893 the electorate was exceedingly small. +Property and other qualifications kept the voting power in the +hands of a limited class. This may be judged from the fact +that in the year named there were only 137,772 voters out of a +population of 65 millions. In April 1894 the new electoral law +altered the whole system. The property qualification was +removed and every Belgian was given one vote on attaining +twenty-five years of age and after one year’s residence in his +commune. At the same time the principle of multiple votes for +certain qualifications was introduced. The Belgian citizen on +reaching the age of thirty-five, providing he is married or is a +widower with legitimate offspring and pays five francs of direct +taxes, gets a second vote. Two extra votes are given for qualifications +of property, official status or university diplomas. The +maximum voting power of any individual is three votes. In +1904 there were 1,581,649 voters, possessing 2,467,966 votes. +This system of plural voting has proved a success. It does not, +however, satisfy the Socialists, whose formula is one man, one +vote. The final change in the system of parliamentary elections +was made in 1899-1900, when proportional representation was +introduced. Proportional representation aims at the protection +of minorities, and its working out is a little intricate, or at all +events difficult to describe. The following has been accepted +as a clear definition of what proportional representation is:—“Each +electoral district has the number of its members apportioned +in accordance with the total strength of each party or +political programme in that district. As a rule there are only the +three chief parties, viz. Catholic, Liberal and Socialist, but the +presence of Catholic-Democrats or some other new faction may +increase the total to four or even five. The number of seats to +be filled is divided by the number of parties or candidates, and +then they are distributed in the proportion of the total followers +or voters of each. The smallest minority is thus sure of one +seat.” An illustration may make this clearer. In an electoral +district with 32,000 votes which returns eight deputies, four +parties send up candidates, let us say, eight Catholics, eight +Liberals, eight Socialists and one Catholic-Democrat. The +result of the voting is, 16,000 Catholic votes, 9000 Liberal, 4500 +Socialist, and 2500 Catholic-Democrat. The seats would, therefore, +be apportioned as follows: four Catholic, two Liberal, one +Socialist and one Catholic-Democrat.</p> + +<p>The king has one right which other constitutional rulers do +not possess. He can initiate proposals for new laws (<i>projets de +loi</i>). He is also charged with the executive power +which he delegates to a cabinet composed of ministers +<span class="sidenote">Administration.</span> +chosen from the party representing the majority +in the chamber. Down to 1884 the Liberal party had held +power with very few intervals since 1840. The Catholic party +succeeded to office in 1884. The ministers represent departments +for finance, foreign affairs, colonies, justice, the interior, +science and arts, war, railways, posts and telegraphs, agriculture, +public works, and industry and labour. The minister +for war is generally a soldier, the others are civilians. +Ministers may be members of either chamber and enjoy the +privilege of being allowed to speak in both. Sometimes one +minister will hold several portfolios at the same time, but such +cases are rare.</p> + +<p>The kingdom is divided into nine provinces which are subdivided +into 342 cantons and 2623 communes. The provinces +are governed by a governor nominated by the king, the canton +is a judicial division for marking the limit of the jurisdiction of +each <i>juge de paix</i>, and the commune is the administrative unit, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +possessing self-government in all local matters. For each commune +<span class="sidenote">Provinces and communes.</span> +of 5000 inhabitants or over, a burgomaster is appointed by +the communal council which is chosen by the electors +of the commune. As three years’ residence is required +these electors are fewer in number than those +for the legislature. In 1902 there were 1,146,482 +voters with 2,007,704 votes, the principles of multiple votes, +with, however, a maximum of four votes and proportional +representation, being in force for communal as for legislative +elections.</p> + +<p><i>Religion</i>.—The constitution provides for absolute liberty of +conscience and there is no state religion, but the people are +almost to a man Roman Catholics. It is computed that there +are 10,000 Protestants (half English) and 5000 Jews, and that +all the rest are Catholics. The government in 1904 voted nearly +7,000,000 francs in aid of the religious establishments of, and +the benevolent institutions kept up by, the Roman Church. +The grant to other cults amounted to 118,000 francs, but small +as this sum may appear it is in due proportion to the relative +numbers of each creed. The hierarchy of the Church of Rome +in Belgium is composed of the archbishop of Malines, and the +bishops of Liége, Ghent, Bruges, Tournai and Namur. The +archbishop receives £800, and the bishops £600 apiece from the +state yearly. The pay of the village <i>curé</i> averages £80 a year +and a house. Besides the regular clergy there are the members +of the numerous monastic and conventual houses established in +Belgium. They are engaged principally in educational and +eleemosynary work, and the development in such institutions +is considerable.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—Education, though not obligatory, is free for +those who cannot pay for it. In the primary schools instruction +in reading, writing, arithmetic, history and geography is obligatory. +In 1904 there were 7092 primary schools with 859,436 +pupils of both sexes. Of these 807,383 did not pay. Primary +education is supposed to continue till the age of fourteen, but in +practice it stops at twelve for all who do not intend to pass +through the middle schools, which is essential for all persons +seeking state employment of any kind. The middle schools +have one privilege. They can give a certificate qualifying +scholars for a mastership in the primary schools, which are +under the full control of the communes. These appointments +are always bestowed on local favourites. The pay of a schoolmaster +in a small commune is only £48, and in a large town £96, +with a maximum ranging from £80 to £152 after twenty-four +years’ service. It is therefore clear that no very high qualifications +could be expected from such a staff. The control of the +state comes in to the extent of providing district inspectors +who visit the schools once a year, and hold a meeting of the +teachers in their district once a quarter. In each province there +is a chief inspector who is bound to visit each school once in two +years, and reports direct to the minister of public instruction. +With regard to the middle schools, the government has reserved +the right to appoint the teaching staff, and to prescribe the books +that are to be used. The results of the middle schools are fairly +satisfactory. Still better are the Athénées Royaux, twenty in +number, which are quite independent of the commune and +subject to official control under the superior direction of the +king. Mathematics and classics are taught in them and the +masters are allowed to take boarders. The expenditure of the +state on education amounts to about a million sterling. In +1860 the grants were only for little over one-eighth of the total +in 1903. In 1900 31.94% of the toal population was illiterate. +Considerable progress in the education of the people is made +visible by a comparison of the figures of three decennial censuses. +In 1880 the illiterate were 42.25% and in 1890 37.63, so that +there was a further marked improvement by 1900. Among the +provinces Walloon Belgium is better instructed than Flemish, +Luxemburg coming first, followed by Namur, Liége and Brabant +in their order.</p> + +<p>Higher instruction is given at the universities and in the +schools attached thereto. Those at Ghent and Liége are state +universities; the two others at Brussels and Louvain are free. +At Louvain alone is there a faculty of theology. The number of +students inscribed for the academical year 1904-1905 at each +university was Ghent 899, Liége 1983, Brussels 1082, and +Louvain 2134, or a grand total of 6098. Liége is specially +famed for the technical schools attached to it. There are also +a large number of state-aided schools for special purposes; (1) for +military instruction, there are the <i>École Militaire</i> at Brussels, +the school of cadets at Namur, and army schools at different +stations, <i>e.g.</i> Bouillon, &c. For officers in the army, there are +the <i>École de Guerre</i> or staff college at Brussels with an average +attendance of twenty, a riding school at Ypres where a course is +obligatory for the cavalry and horse artillery, and for soldiers +in the army there are regimental schools and evening classes for +illiterate soldiers. (2) For education in the arts, there is the +Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, and besides this +famous school of painting there are eighty-four academies for +teaching drawing throughout the kingdom. In music, there +are royal conservatoires at Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and +Liége. Besides these there are sixty-nine minor conservatoires. +(3) For commercial and professional education, there are 181 +schools. The Commercial Institute of Antwerp deserves special +notice as an excellent school for clerks. (4) Among special +schools may be named the three schools of navigation at Antwerp, +Ostend and Nieuport. Since the wreck of the training-ship +“Comte de Smet de Naeyer” in 1906, it has been decided that a +stationary training-ship shall be placed in the Scheldt like the +“Worcester” on the Thames. Among the numerous learned +societies may be mentioned the Belgian Royal Academy founded +in 1769 and revived in 1818. For the encouragement of research +and literary style the government awards periodical prizes which +are very keenly contested.</p> + +<p><i>Justice</i>.—The administration of justice is very fully organized, +and in the Code Belge, which was carefully compiled between +1831 and 1836 from the old laws of the nine provinces leavened +by the Code Napoleon and modern exigencies, the Belgians +claim that they possess an almost perfect statute-book. The +courts of law in their order are <i>Cour de Cassation</i>, <i>Cour d’Appel</i>, +<i>Cour de Première Instance</i>, and the <i>Juge de Paix</i> courts, one +for each of the 342 cantons. The <i>Cour de Cassation</i> has a +peculiar judicial sphere. It works automatically, examining +every judgment to see if it is in strict accord with the code, +and where it is not the decision or verdict is simply annulled. +There is only one judge in this court, but he has the assistance of +a large staff of revisers. The <i>Cour de Cassation</i> never tries a case +itself except when a minister of state is the accused. The +president of this tribunal is the highest legal functionary in +Belgium. There are three courts of appeal, viz. at Brussels, +Ghent and Liége. At Brussels there are four separate chambers +or tribunals in the appeal court. Judges of appeal are appointed +by the king for life from lists of eligible barristers prepared by +the senate and the courts. Judges can only be removed by the +unanimous vote of their brother judges. There are twenty-six +courts of first instance distributed among the principal towns +of the kingdom, and in Antwerp, Ghent and Liége there are +besides special tribunals for the settlement of commercial cases. +Of course there is the right of appeal from the decisions of these +tribunals as well as of the regular courts. Finally the 342 <i>Juge +de Paix</i> courts resemble British county courts. Criminal cases are +tried by (1) the <i>Tribunaux de Police</i>, (2) <i>Tribunaux Correctionnels</i>, +(3) and the <i>Cours d’Assises</i>. The last are held as the length of +the calendar requires. Capital punishment is retained on the +statute, but is never enforced, the prisoner on whom sentence +of death is passed in due form in open court being relegated to +imprisonment for life in solitary confinement and perpetual +silence. The chief prisons are at Louvain, Ghent and St Gilles +(Brussels), and the last named serves as a house of detention. +At Merxplas, near the Dutch frontier, is the agricultural criminal +colony at which an average number of two thousand prisoners are +kept employed in comparative liberty within the radius of the +convict settlement.</p> + +<p><i>Pauperism</i>.—For the relief of pauperism there are a limited +number of houses of mendicity, in which inmates are received, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span> +and houses of refuge for night shelter. At the <i>béguinages</i> of +Ghent and Bruges women and girls able to contribute a specified +sum towards their support are given a home.</p> + +<p><i>National Finance.</i>—The budget is submitted to the chambers +by the minister of finance and passed by them. The revenue +and expenditure were in the years stated as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Revenue.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Expenditure.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1880.</td> <td class="tcl rb">394,215,932 francs</td> <td class="tcl rb">382,908,429 francs</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895.</td> <td class="tcl rb">395,730,445  ”</td> <td class="tcl rb">410,383,402  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1903.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">632,416,810  ”</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">627,975,568  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The revenue is made up from taxes, including customs, tolls, +including returns from railway traffic, &c., and the balance comes +from various revenues, return of capital, loans, &c. The following +are the principal items of expenditure (1903):—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Service of debt</td> <td class="tcr cl">143,065,352</td> <td class="tcl cl">francs</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sovereign, senate, chamber, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">5,289,087</td> <td class="tcl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Departments, foreign office</td> <td class="tcr cl">3,751,636</td> <td class="tcl cl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”   agriculture</td> <td class="tcr">12,253,957</td> <td class="tcl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">   ”   railways</td> <td class="tcr cl">165,086,019</td> <td class="tcl cl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”   finance</td> <td class="tcr">34,479,674</td> <td class="tcl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">   ”   industry</td> <td class="tcr cl">19,905,589</td> <td class="tcl cl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”   war</td> <td class="tcr">63,972,473</td> <td class="tcl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">   ”   public instruction</td> <td class="tcr cl">31,799,105</td> <td class="tcl cl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   ”   justice</td> <td class="tcr">27,168,032</td> <td class="tcl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Minor items</td> <td class="tcr cl">4,179,046</td> <td class="tcl cl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">510,949,970</td> <td class="tcl"> ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">========</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The difference is made up of “special expenditure.” The total +debt in English money may be put at 126 millions sterling, which +requires for interest, sinking fund and service about 5¾ millions +sterling annually. The rate of interest on all the loans extant +is 3%, except on one loan of 219,959,632 francs, which pays +only 2½%.</p> + +<p><i>Army and National Defence.</i>—The army is divided into the +regular army, the gendarmerie, and the <i>garde civique</i>. The +Belgian regular army is thus composed: infantry, one regiment +of carabiniers, one of grenadiers, three of <i>chasseurs à pied</i>, and +fourteen of the line, all these regiments having 3 or 4 active +and 3 or 4 reserve battalions apiece; cavalry, two regiments +of guides, two of <i>chasseurs à cheval</i>, and four of lancers, +all light cavalry; artillery, four horse, thirty field, and seventy +siege batteries on active service; engineers, 140 officers and +2000 men. The train or commissariat has only 30 officers +and 600 men on the permanent establishment. Belgium +retains the older form of conscription, and has not adopted the +system of “universal service.” The annual levy is small and +substitution is permitted. In 1904 the number inscribed for +service was 64,042. Of these only 12,525 were enrolled in the +army, and of that number 1421 were volunteers, who took an +engagement on receipt of a premium. The effective strength of +the army in 1904 with the colours was 3406 officers and 40,382 +men. To this total has to be added the men on the active list, +but either absent on leave or allowed to return to civil life, +numbering 70,043. It is assumed that on mobilization these +men are immediately available. The reserve consists of 181 +officers and 58,014 men, so that the total strength of the Belgian +army is 3587 officers and 168,439 men. The field force in war is +organized in four infantry and two cavalry divisions, the total +strength being about 100,000. The peace effective has not varied +much since 1870, but the total paper strength is 75,000 more +than in that year. In the years 1900-1904 it increased by 8000 +men. The gendarmerie is a mounted force composed of men +picked for their physique and divided into three divisions. It +numbers 67 officers and 3079 men, but has no reserve. It is in +every sense a <i>corps d’élite</i>, and may be classed as first-rate heavy +cavalry. The total strength of the <i>garde civique</i> in 1905 was +35,102, to which have to be added 8532 volunteers belonging to +the corps of older formation, service in which counts on a par +with the <i>garde civique</i>. Some of the latter regiments, especially +the artillery, would rank with British volunteers, but the mass +of the <i>garde civique</i> does not pretend to possess military value. +It is a defence against sedition and socialism. The defence of +Belgium depends on five fortified positions. The fortified position +and camp of Antwerp represents the true base of the national +defence. Its detached forts shelter the city from bombardment, +and so long as sea communication is open with England, Antwerp +would be practically impregnable. Liége with twelve forts and +Namur with nine forts are the fortified <i>têtes de pont</i> protecting +the two most important passages of the Meuse. The forts are +constructed in concrete with armoured cupolas. Termonde on +the Scheldt and Diest on the Dender are retained as nominally +fortified positions, but neither, could resist a regular bombardment +for more than a few hours, as their casemates are not +bomb-proof.</p> + +<p>The training camp of the Belgian army is at Beverloo in the +province of Limburg, and at Braschaet not far from Antwerp +are ranges for artillery as well as rifle practice. The Belgian +officer is technically as well trained and educated as any in +Europe, but he lacks practical experience in military service.</p> + +<p><i>Mines and Industry.</i>—The principal mineral produced in +Belgium is coal. This is found in the Borinage district near +Mons and in the neighbourhood of Liége, but the working of an +entirely new coal-field, which promises to attain vast dimensions, +was commenced in 1906 in the Campine district of the province +of Limburg. The coal mines of Belgium give employment to +nearly 150,000 persons, and for some years the average output +has exceeded 22,000,000 tons. Other minerals are iron, manganese, +lead and zinc. The iron mines produce much less than formerly, +and the want of iron is a grave defect in Belgian prosperity, as +about £5,000,000 sterling worth of iron has to be imported annually, +chiefly from French Lorraine. The chief metal industry of the +country is represented by the iron and steel works of Charleroi +and Liége. Belgium is particularly rich in quarries of marble, +granite and slate. Ghent is the capital of the textile industry, +and all the towns of Flanders are actively engaged in producing +woollen and cotton materials and in lace manufacture. The +bulk of the population is, however, engaged in agriculture, +and the extent of land under cultivation of all kinds is about +6½ million acres.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—The trade returns for 1904 were as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">  <i>Imports—</i></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">General Commerce</td> <td class="tcl">4,426,400,000 francs</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)</td> <td class="tcl">2,782,200,000  ”</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt1">  <i>Exports—</i></td> <td class="tcl pt1"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">General Commerce</td> <td class="tcl">3,849,100,000  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Special Commerce (included in General Commerce)</td> <td class="tcl">2,183,300,000  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The general commerce includes goods in transit across Belgium, +the special commerce takes into account only the produce and +the consumption of Belgium itself. The trade of Belgium has +more than trebled as regards both imports and exports since +1870. The following table shows the amount of exports and imports +between Belgium and the more important foreign states:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Imports.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Exports.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr">465,684,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">francs</td> <td class="tcr">346,670,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">francs</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">351,025,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">505,473,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">England</td> <td class="tcr">335,404,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">392,324,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">240,873,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">268,781,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr">222,301,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">86,324,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr">212,119,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">26,671,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Argentina</td> <td class="tcr">198,913,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">41,508,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">British India</td> <td class="tcr">141,669,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">25,860,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumani</td> <td class="tcr">102,174,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">3,949,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Australia</td> <td class="tcr">58,190,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">12,087,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Congo State</td> <td class="tcr">53,100,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcr">14,049,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">China</td> <td class="tcr bb">8,770,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">”</td> <td class="tcr bb">25,546,000</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In the relative magnitude of the annual value of its commerce, +excluding that in transit, Belgium stands sixth among the nations +of the world, following Great Britain, the United States, Germany, +France and Holland. The principal imports are food supplies +and raw material such as cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp and jute. +Among minerals, iron ore, sulphur, copper, coal, tin, lead and +diamonds are the most imported. The exports of greatest value +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +are textiles, lace, coal, coke, briquettes, glass, machinery, railway +material and fire arms.</p> + +<p><i>Shipping and Navigation.</i>—Belgium has no state navy, although +various proposals have been made from time to time to establish +an armed flotilla in connexion with the defence of Antwerp. +The state, however, possesses a certain number of steamers. +In 1904 they numbered sixty-five of 99,893 tons. These steamers +are chiefly employed on the passenger route between Ostend +and Dover. The total number of vessels entering the only two +ports of Belgium which carry on ocean commerce, namely +Antwerp and Ostend, in 1904 was 7650 of a tonnage of 10,330,127. +Among inland ports that of Ghent is the most important, 1127 +ships of a tonnage of 786,362 having entered the port in 1904. +The corresponding figures for ships sailing from the two ports +first named were in the same year 7642 and tonnage 10,298,405. +The figures from Ghent were 1128 and 787,173 tons. Whereas +the lines of steamers from Ostend are chiefly with Dover and +London, those from Antwerp proceed to all parts of the world. +A steam service was established in 1906 from Hull to Bruges by +Zeebrugge and the ship canal.</p> + +<p><i>Internal Communications.</i>—The internal communications of +Belgium of every kind are excellent. The roads outside the +province of Luxemburg and Namur are generally paved. In +the provinces named, or in other words, in the region south +of the Meuse, the roads are macadamized. The total length of +roads is about 6000 m. When Belgium became a separate state +in 1830 they were less than one-third of this total. There are +about 2900 m. of railways, of which upwards of 2500 m. are +state railways. It is of interest to note that the state railways +derived a revenue of 249,355 francs (or nearly £10,000) from +the penny tickets for the admission of non-travellers to railway +stations. Besides the main railways there are numerous light +railways (<i>chemins de fer vicinaux</i>), of a total length approaching +2500 m. There are also electric and steam tramways in all +the principal cities. The total of navigable waterways is given +as 1360 m. Posts, telegraphs and telephones are exclusively +under state management and form a government department.</p> + +<p><i>Banks and Money.</i>—The principal banking institution is the +Banque Nationale which issues the bank-notes in current use. In +1904 the average value of notes in circulation was 645,989,100 francs. +The rate of discount was 3% throughout the whole of the year.</p> + +<p>The mintage of Belgian money is carried out by a <i>directeur +de la fabrication</i> who is nominated by and responsible to the +government. The gold coins are for 10 and 20 francs, silver +for half francs, francs, 2 francs and 5 francs. Nickel money is +for 5, 10 and 20 centimes, and the copper coinage has been +withdrawn from circulation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Annuaire statistique de la Belgique</i> (1905); Beltjens +and Godenne, <i>La Constitution belge</i> (Brussels, 1880); <i>La Belgique +illustrée</i> (Brussels, 1878-1882); <i>Les Pandectes belges</i> (Brussels, 1898); +<i>Annales du parlement belge</i> for each year; <i>Belgian Life in Town and +Country</i>, “Our Neighbours” Series (London, 1904). For geology see +C. Dewalque, <i>Prodrome d’une description géologique de la Belgique</i> +(Brussels, 1880); M. Mourlon, <i>Géologie de la Belgique</i> (Brussels, +1880-1881); F.L. Cornet and A. Briart, “Sur le relief du sol en +Belgique après les temps paléozoques,” <i>Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg.</i> vol. iv., +1877, pp. 71-115, pls. v.-xi. (see also other papers by the same +authors in the same journal); J. Gosselet, <i>L’Ardenne</i> (Paris, 1888); +M. Bertrand, “Études sur le bassin houiller du nord et sur le +Boulonnais,” <i>Ann. des mines</i>, ser. ix. vol. vi. (Mém.), pp. 569-635, +1894; C. Malaise, “État actuel de nos connaissances sur le silurien +de la Belgique,” <i>Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg.</i> vol. xxv, 1900-1901, pp. 179-221; +H. Forir, “Bibliographie des étages laekénien, lédien, wemmélien, +asschien, tongrien, rupélien et boldérien et des dépêts +tertiaires de la haute et moyenne Belgique,” <i>ibid.</i> pp. 223 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. C. B.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The political severance of the northern and southern Netherlands +may be conveniently dated from the opening of the year +1579. By the signing of the league of Arras (5th of January) +the Walloon “Malcontents” declared their adherence to the +cause of Catholicism and their loyalty to the Spanish king, and +broke away definitely from the northern provinces, who bound +themselves by the union of Utrecht (29th of January) to defend +their rights and liberties, political and religious, against all +<span class="sidenote1">Final separation of the northern and southern Netherlands.</span> +foreign potentates. Brabant and Flanders were still indeed under +the control of the prince of Orange and through his +influence accepted in 1582 the duke of Anjou as their +sovereign. The French prince was actually inaugurated +duke of Brabant at Antwerp (February 1582) and count +of Flanders at Bruges (July), but his misconduct +speedily led to his withdrawal from the Netherlands, +and even before the assassination of Orange (July +1584) the authority of Philip had been practically restored +throughout the two provinces. This had been achieved by the +military skill and statesmanlike abilities of Alexander +<span class="sidenote1">Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, governor-general. +<br />Successes of Parma.</span> +Farnese, prince of Parma, appointed governor-general +on the death of Don John of Austria, on the +1st of October 1578. Farnese first won by promises +and blandishments the confidence of the Walloons, +always jealous of the predominance of the “Flemish” +provinces, and then proceeded to make himself master of Brabant +and Flanders by force of arms. In succession Ypres, Mechlin, +Ghent, Brussels, and finally Antwerp (17th of August +1585) fell into his hands. Philip had in the southern +Netherlands attained his object, and Belgium was +henceforth Catholic and Spanish, but at the expense of its +progress and prosperity. Thousands of its inhabitants, and +those the most enterprising and intelligent, fled from the Inquisition, +and made their homes in the Dutch republic or in England. +All commerce and industry was at a standstill; grass grew in +the streets of Bruges and Ghent; and the trade of Antwerp was +transferred to Amsterdam. On Parma’s death (3rd of December +1592) the archduke Ernest of Austria was appointed governor-general, +but he died after a short tenure of office (20th of February +1595) and was at the beginning of 1596 succeeded by his younger +brother the cardinal archduke Albert. Philip was now nearing +<span class="sidenote1">Albert and Isabel, sovereigns of the Netherlands.</span> +his end, and in 1598 he gave his eldest daughter Isabel +in marriage to her cousin the archduke Albert, and +erected the Netherlands into a sovereign state under +their joint rule. The advent of the new sovereigns, +officially known as “the archdukes,” though greeted +with enthusiasm in the Belgic provinces, was looked +upon with suspicion by the Dutch, who were as firmly resolved +as ever to uphold their independence. The chief military +event of the early years of their reign was the battle of Nieuport +<span class="sidenote1">The twelve years’ truce. +<br />The rule of the archdukes.</span> +(2nd of July 1600), in which Maurice of Nassau defeated +the archduke Albert, and the siege of Ostend, which +after a three years’ heroic defence was surrendered +(20th of September 1604) to the archduke’s general, +Spinola. The Dutch, however, being masters of the sea, kept +the coast closely blockaded, and through sheer exhaustion the +king of Spain and the archdukes were compelled to +agree to a truce for twelve years (9th of April 1609) +with the United Provinces “in the capacity of free +states over which Albert and Isabel made no pretensions.” +During the period of the truce the archdukes, who were +wise and statesmanlike rulers, did their utmost to restore +<span class="sidenote1">Reversion of the southern Netherlands to Spain, 1633.</span> +prosperity to their country and to improve its internal +condition. Unfortunately they were childless, and +the instrument of cession of 1598 provided that in +case they should die without issue, the Netherlands +should revert to the crown of Spain. This reversion +actually took place. Albert died in 1621, just before the +renewal of the war with the Dutch, and Isabel in 1633. +The Belgic provinces therefore passed under the rule of Philip IV., +and were henceforth known as the Spanish Netherlands.</p> + +<p>This connexion with the declining fortunes of Spain was +disastrous to the well-being of the Belgian people, for during +many years a close alliance bound together France and the +United Provinces, and the Southern Netherlands were exposed +<span class="sidenote1">Peace of Münster.</span> +to attack from both sides, and constantly suffered +from the ravages of hostile armies. The cardinal archduke +Ferdinand, governor-general from 1634-1641, was +a capable ruler, and by his military skill prevented in a succession +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +of campaigns the forces of the enemy from overrunning the +country. On the 30th of January 1648, Spain concluded a +separate peace at Münster with the Dutch, by which Philip IV. +<span class="sidenote1">Ruinous consequences of the closing of the Scheldt.</span> +finally renounced all his claims and rights over the +United Provinces, and made many concessions to them. +Among these was the closing of the Scheldt to all ships, +a clause which was ruinous to the commerce of the +Belgic provinces, by cutting them off from their only +access to the ocean. Thus they remained for a long +course of years without a sea-port, and in the many wars that +broke out between Spain and France were constantly exposed, +as an outlying Spanish dependency, to the first attack, and peace +when it came was usually purchased at the cost of some part of +Belgian territory. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) Artois +<span class="sidenote1">Successive cession of Belgian territory to France.</span> +(except St Omer and Aire) and a number of towns in +Flanders, Hainaut, and Luxemburg were ceded to +France. Subsequent French conquests, confirmed by +the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), took away Lille, +Douai, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Coutrai and Tournai. +These were, indeed, partly restored to Belgium by the peace of +Nijmwegen (1679); but on the other hand it lost Valenciennes, +Nieuport, St Omer, Ypres and Charlemont, which were only in +part recovered by the peace of Ryswick (1697).</p> + +<p>The internal history of the Belgic provinces has little to record +during this long period in which the ambition of Louis XIV. to +possess himself of the Netherlands, in right of his wife the infanta +Maria Theresa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spanish Succession</a></span>), led to a series of +invasions and desolating wars. The French king managed to +incorporate a large slice of territory upon his northern frontier, +but his main object was baffled by the steady resistance and able +statesmanship of William III. of England and Holland. Meanwhile +from 1692 onwards brighter prospects were opened out to +the unfortunate Belgians by the nomination by the Spanish king +of Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, to be governor-general +with well-nigh sovereign powers. The elector had himself +a claim to the inheritance as the husband of an Austrian archduchess, +whose mother, the infanta Margaret, was the younger +sister of the French queen. Maximilian Emanuel was an able +man, who did his utmost to improve the condition of the country. +<span class="sidenote1">Efforts of the elector of Bavaria to promote trade.</span> +He attempted to promote trade and restore prosperity +to the impoverished land by the introduction of new +customs laws and other measures, and particularly by +the construction of canals to counteract the damage +done to Belgian commerce by the closing of the Scheldt. +The position of the elector was greatly strengthened by the +partition treaty of the 19th of August 1698. Under this instrument +the signatory powers—England, France and Holland—agreed +that on the demise of Charles II. the crown prince of +Bavaria under his father’s guardianship should be sovereign of +Spain, Belgium and Spanish America. Charles II. himself +<span class="sidenote1">The Spanish succession.</span> +shortly afterwards by will appointed the Bavarian +prince heir to all his dominions. +The death of the infant heir a few months later (6th of February 1699) +unfortunately destroyed any prospects of a peaceable +settlement of the Spanish Succession. Charles II. was persuaded +to name as his sole successor, Philip duke of Anjou, the second +son of the dauphin, and on his death (on the 1st November 1700) +Louis XIV. took immediate steps to support his grandson’s +claims, in spite of his formal renunciation of such claims under +<span class="sidenote1">The Grand Alliance.</span> +the treaty of the Pyrenees. England and Holland were determined to prevent, however, +at all costs the acquisition of Belgium by a French prince, and a +coalition, known as the Grand Alliance, was formed between +these two powers and the empire to uphold the claims of the +archduke Charles, second son of the emperor.</p> + +<p>One of the first steps of Louis was to take possession of the +Netherlands. The hereditary feud between the houses of +Austria and Bavaria induced the elector to take the +<span class="sidenote1">Marlborough’s successes.</span> +side of France, and he was nominated by Philip V. +vicar-general of the Netherlands. The unhappy Belgic +provinces were again doomed for a number of years to +be the battle-ground of the contending forces, and it was on +Belgic soil that Marlborough won the great victories of Ramillies +(1706) and of Oudenarde (1708), by which he was enabled to drive +the French armies out of the Netherlands and to carry the war +into French territory. At the general peace concluded at +Utrecht (11th of April 1713) the long connexion between Belgium +<span class="sidenote1">Peace of Utrecht. +<br />The Austrian Netherlands.</span> +and Spain was severed, and this portion of the Burgundian +inheritance of Charles V. placed under the +sovereignty of the Habsburg claimant, who had, by +the death of his brother, become the emperor Charles VI. +The Belgic provinces now came for a full century to be known as the +Austrian Netherlands. Yet such was the dread of +France and the enfeebled state of the country that +Holland retained the privilege, which had been conceded +to her during the war, of garrisoning the principal +fortresses or Barrier towns, on the French frontier, and her +right to close the navigation on the Scheldt was again ratified by +a European treaty. The beginnings of Austrian sovereignty +were marked by many collisions between the representatives +of the new rulers and the States General, and provincial “states.” +<span class="sidenote1">Marquis de Prié in Belgium.</span> +Despite their troubled history and long subjection, +the Belgic provinces still retained to an unusual +degree their local liberties and privileges, and more +especially the right of not being taxed, except by the +express consent of the states. The marquis de Prié, who (as +deputy for Prince Eugene) was the imperial governor from 1719 +to 1726, encountered on the part of local authorities and town +gilds vigorous resistance to his attempt to rule the Netherlands +as an Austrian dependency, and he was driven to take strong +<span class="sidenote1">Execution of Francis Anneesens.</span> +measures to assert his authority. He selected as his +victim a powerful popular leader at Brussels, +Francis Anneesens, syndic of the gild of St Nicholas, who was +beheaded on the 19th of September 1719. His name +is remembered in Belgian annals as a patriot martyr to the +cause of liberty. The administration of de Prié was not, however, +without its redeeming features. He endeavoured to create +at Ostend a seaport, capable in some measure +to take the place of Antwerp, and in 1722 a Chartered Company of Ostend +<span class="sidenote1">Chartered Company of Ostend.</span> +was erected for the purpose of trading in the East and +West Indies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostend</a></span>). The determined hostility +of the Dutch rendered the promising scheme futile, +and after a precarious struggle for existence, Charles VI., in order +to gain the assent of the United Provinces and Great Britain to +the Pragmatic Sanction (<i>q.v.</i>), suppressed the Company in 1731.</p> + +<p>For sixteen years (1725-1741) the archduchess Mary Elizabeth, +sister of the emperor, filled the post of governor-general. Her +rule was marked by the restoration of the old form +<span class="sidenote">Archduchess Mary Elizabeth.</span> +of administration under the three councils, and was +a period of general tranquillity. +She died (1741) in the Netherlands, and the empress-queen, +Maria Theresa, who had succeeded under the Pragmatic Sanction +to the Burgundian domains of her father about a year before, +appointed her brother-in-law, Charles of Lorraine, to be +governor-general in her aunt’s place, and he retained that post, +to the great advantage of Belgium, for nearly forty years. +<span class="sidenote">Charles of Lorraine.</span> +He was deservedly known as the “Good Governor.” +The first years of his administration were stormy. +During the Austrian War of Succession the country was conquered +by the French, and for two years Marshal Saxe bore the title of +governor-general, but it was restored to Austria by the peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Belgium was undisturbed by the Seven +Years’ War (1756-1763), and during the long peace which followed +enjoyed considerable prosperity. Charles of Lorraine thoroughly +identified himself with the best interests of the country, and was +the champion of its liberties, and though he had at times to make +a stand against the imperialistic tendencies of the chancellor +Kaunitz, he was able to rely on the steady support of the empress, +who appreciated the wise and liberal policy of her brother-in-law. +Although the Scheldt was still closed, Charles endeavoured by +a large extension of the canal system to facilitate commercial +intercourse, he encouraged agriculture, and was successful in +restoring the prosperity of the country. He also did much for +the advancement of learning, founding, among other institutions, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span> +the Academy of Science, and he consistently restrained the undue +intervention of the church in secular affairs, and placed restrictions +upon the accumulation of property in the hands of +religious bodies.</p> + +<p>The death of Charles of Lorraine preceded only by a few +months that of Maria Theresa, whose son Joseph II. not only +appointed his sister, the archduchess Maria Christine, +governor-general, but visited Belgium in person and +<span class="sidenote">Reforming zeal of Joseph II.</span> +showed a great and active interest in its affairs. +Here as elsewhere in his dominions his intentions +were excellent, but his reforming zeal outran discretion, and his +hasty and self-opinionated interferences with treaty rights and +traditional privileges ended in provoking opposition and disaster. +Finding the United Provinces hampered by a war with England, +he seized the opportunity to try to get rid of the impediments +placed upon Belgian development by the Barrier and other +treaties with Holland. He was able to compel the Dutch to +withdraw their garrisons from the Barrier towns, but was wholly +unsuccessful in his high-handed attempt to free the navigation +of the Scheldt. These efforts to coerce the Dutch, though +marred by partial failure, were, however, calculated to win for +Joseph II. popularity with his Belgian subjects; but it was far +otherwise with his policy of internal reform. He offended the +states by seeking to sweep away many of their inherited privileges +and to change the time-honoured, if somewhat obsolete, system +of civil government. He further excited the religious feelings +of the people against him, by his edict of Tolerance (1780), and +his later attempts at the reform of clerical abuses, which were +pronounced to be an infraction of the Joyous Entry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joyeuse +Entrée</a></span>). Fierce opposition was aroused. Numbers of malcontents +left the country and organized themselves as a military +force in Holland. As the discontent became more general, the +<span class="sidenote">The Brabancon revolt.</span> +insurgents returned, took several forts, defeated the +Austrians at Turnhout, and overran the country. +On the 11th of December 1789, the people of Brussels +rose against the Austrian garrison, and compelled it to +capitulate, and, on the 27th, the states of Brabant declared +their independence. The other provinces followed and, on the +11th of January 1790, the whole formed themselves into an +independent state, under the name of the “Belgian United +States.” A few weeks later, on the 20th of February, Joseph II. +died, his end hastened by chagrin at the utter failure of his well-meant +efforts, and was succeeded by Leopold II.</p> + +<p>The new emperor at once took steps to re-assert, if possible, +his authority in Belgium without having recourse to armed +force. He offered the states, if the people would return +to their allegiance, the restoration of their ancient +<span class="sidenote">Leopold II. pacifies the country.</span> +constitution and a general amnesty. This, however, +did not suit views of the popular party, who, under +the leadership of an advocate named Van der Noot, had possession +of the reins of power, and were uplifted by their success. +The terms offered in an imperial proclamation were rejected, +and preparations were made to resist coercion by the <i>levée en +masse</i> of a national army. When, however, in November 1790, +a powerful Austrian force entered the country, there was practically +little opposition to its advance. The popular leaders +fled, the form of government, as it existed at the end of the +reign of Maria Theresa, and an amnesty for past offences was +proclaimed; a superficial pacification of the revolted provinces +was effected, and Austrian rule re-established. It was destined +to be short-lived. In 1792 the armies of revolutionary France +assailed Austria at her weakest point by an invasion of Belgium. +The battle of Jemappes (7th of November) made the French +<span class="sidenote">Conquest of Belgium by the French.</span> +masters of the southern portion of the Austrian +Netherlands; the battle of Fleurus (26th of June 1794) +put an end to the rule of the Habsburgs over the Belgic +provinces. The treaty of Campo Formio (1797) and +the subsequent treaty of Lunéville (1801) confirmed the conquerors +in the possession of the country, and Belgium became +an integral part of France, being governed on the same footing, +receiving the <i>Code Napoléon</i>, and sharing in the fortunes of the +Republic and the Empire. After the fall of Napoleon and the +conclusion of the first peace of Paris (30th of May 1814) +Belgium was indeed for some months placed under the administration +<span class="sidenote">Union of Holland and Belgium under William I.</span> +of an Austrian governor-general, but it +was shortly afterwards united with Holland to form +the kingdom of the Netherlands. The sovereignty +of the newly formed state was given to the prince of +Orange, who mounted the throne (23rd of March 1815) +under the title of William I. The congress of Vienna +(31st of May 1815) determined the relations and fixed the +boundaries of the kingdom; and the new constitution was promulgated +on the 24th of August following, the king taking the +oath at Brussels on the 27th of September.</p> + +<p>From this date until the Belgian revolt of 1830, the history +of Holland and Belgium is that of two portions of one political +entity, but in the relations of those two portions were +to be found from the very outset fundamental causes +<span class="sidenote">1814-1830.</span> +tending to disagreement and separation. The Dutch +and Belgian provinces of the Netherlands had for one hundred +and thirty years passed through totally different experiences, +and had drifted farther and farther apart from one another +in character, in habits, in ideas and above all in religion. In +the south the policy of Alva and Philip II. had been wholly +successful, and the Belgian people, Flemings and Walloons alike, +were perhaps more devoted to the Catholic faith than any other +in Europe. On the other hand the incorporation of the country +for two decades in the French republic and empire had left deep +traces on a considerable section of the population, the French +language was commonly spoken and was exclusively used in +the law courts and in all public proceedings, and French political +theories had made many converts. The Fundamental Law +promulgated by William I. aroused strong opposition among +both the Catholic and Liberal parties in Belgium. The large +powers granted to the king under the new constitution displeased +the Liberals, who saw in its provision only a disguised form of +personal government. The principle of liberty of worship and of +the press, which it laid down, was so offensive to the Catholics +that the bishops condemned it publicly, and in the Doctrinal +Judgment actually forbade their flocks to take the oath. The +“close and complete union,” which was stipulated under the +treaty of 1814, began under unfavourable auspices. Nevertheless +the difficulties might have been smoothed away in the course +of time, had the Belgians felt that the Dutch were treating +them in a fair and conciliatory spirit. This, despite the undoubtedly +good intentions of the king, was far from being the +case. Belgium was regarded too much in the light of an annexed +<span class="sidenote">Causes of disagreement between Holland and Belgium.</span> +territory, handed over to Holland as compensation for +the losses sustained by the Dutch in the revolutionary +and Napoleonic wars. The idea that Holland was the +predominant partner in the kingdom of the Netherlands +was firmly rooted in the north and naturally provoked +in the south the feeling that Belgium was being exploited +for the benefit of the Dutch. The grievances of +the Belgians were indeed very substantial. The seat of government +was in Holland, the king was a Dutchman by birth and +training, and a Calvinistic protestant by religion. Though the +population of Belgium was 3,400,000 and that of Holland only +a little more than 2,000,000 the two countries had equal representation +in the second chamber of the states-general. Practically +in all important legislative measures affecting the interests +of the two countries the Dutch government were able to command +a small but permanent majority. The use of the term +“the Dutch Government” is strictly accurate, for the great +majority of the public offices were filled by northerners. In +1830, of the seven members of the ministry only one was a +Belgian; in the home department out of 117 officials 11 only +were Belgians; in the ministry of war 3 were Belgians out of +102; of the officers of the army 288 out of 1967. All the public +<span class="sidenote">Attitude of the king.</span> +establishments, the Bank, the military schools, were +Dutch. That such was the case must not be entirely +charged to partiality, still less to deliberate unfairness +on the part of William I. The conduct of the king +proves that he had a most sincere regard for the welfare of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +Belgian subjects, and in his choice of measures and men his +aim was to secure the prosperity of his new kingdom by a policy +of unification. This was the object he had in view in his attempt +to make Dutch, except in the Walloon districts, the official +language for all public and judicial acts, and a knowledge of +Dutch a necessary qualification for every person entering the +public service. That the fierce opposition which this attempt +<span class="sidenote">Language question.</span> +aroused in the Flemish-speaking provinces was ill-considered +and unwise, is shown by the fact that in +recent years there has been a patriotic movement +in these same provinces which has been successful in forcing +the Belgian government to adopt Flemish (<i>i.e.</i> Dutch) as well as +French for official usage. This Flemish movement is all in favour +of establishing close relations with the sister people of the north. +Moreover it cannot be gainsaid that Belgium during her union +with Holland enjoyed a degree of prosperity that +<span class="sidenote">Belgian prosperity during the union.</span> +was quite remarkable. The mineral wealth of the +country was largely developed, the iron manufactures +of Liége made rapid advance, the woollen manufactures +of Verviers received a similar impulse, and many large +establishments were formed at Ghent and other places, where +cotton goods were produced which rivalled those of England and +surpassed those of France. The extensive colonial and foreign +trade of the Dutch furnished them with markets, while the +opening of the navigation of the Scheldt raised Antwerp once +more to a place of high commercial importance. The government +also did much in the way of improving the internal communications +of the country, in repairing the roads and canals, +in forming new ones, in deepening and widening rivers, and the +like. Nor was the social and intellectual improvement of the +people by any means neglected. A new university was formed at +Liége, normal schools for the instruction of teachers were instituted, +and numerous elementary schools and schools for higher +instruction were established over the country. These measures +for the furthering of education among the people on the part +of a government mainly composed of Protestants were received +with suspicion and disfavour by the priests, and still more the +attempts subsequently made to regulate the education of the +priests themselves. The establishment under the auspices of +the king in 1825 of the Philosophical College at Louvain, and +the requirement that every priest before ordination should +spend two years in study there, gave great offence to the clerical +party, and some of the bishops were prosecuted for the violence +of their denunciations at this intrusion of the secular arm into +the religious domain. With the view of terminating these +differences the king in 1827 entered into a <i>concordat</i> with the +pope, and an agreement was reached with regard to nominations +to bishoprics, clerical education and other questions, which +should have satisfied all reasonable men. But in 1828 the two +extreme parties, the Catholic Ultramontanes and the revolutionary +Liberals, in their common hatred to the Dutch régime, +formed an alliance, the <i>union</i>, for the overthrow of the government. +Petitions were sent in setting forth the Belgian grievances, +demanding a separate administration for Belgium and a full +concession of the liberties guaranteed by the constitution.</p> + +<p>Matters were in this state when the news of the success of the +July revolution of 1830 at Paris reached Brussels, at this time +a city of refuge for the intriguing and discontented +of almost every country of Europe. The first outbreak +<span class="sidenote">Brussels outbreak of 1830.</span> +took place on the 25th of August, the anniversary +of the king’s accession. An opera called <i>La Muette</i>, +which abounds in appeals to liberty, was played, and the audience +were so excited that they rushed out into the street crying, +“Imitons les Parisiens!” A mob speedily gathered together, +who proceeded to destroy or damage a number of public buildings +and the private residences of unpopular officials. The troops +were few in number and offered no opposition to the mob, but +a burgher guard was enrolled among the influential and middle-class +citizens for the protection of life and property. The intelligence +of these events in the capital soon spread through the +provinces; and in most of the large towns similar scenes were +enacted, beginning with plunderings and outrages, followed +by the institution of burgher guards for the maintenance of peace. +The leading men of Brussels were most anxious not to push +matters to extremities. They demanded the dismissal of the +specially obnoxious minister, Van Maanen, and a separate administration +for Belgium. The government, however, could not +make up their minds what course to pursue, and by allowing +things to drift ended by converting a popular riot into a national +revolt. The heir apparent, the prince of Orange (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">William II.</a></span> +of the Netherlands), was sent on a peaceful mission to Brussels, +but furnished with such limited powers, as under the circumstances +were utterly inadequate. He did his best to get at the +real facts, and after a number of conferences with the leaders +became so convinced that nothing but a separate administration +of the two countries would restore tranquillity that he promised +to use his influence with his father to bring about that object—on +receiving assurances that the personal union under the house +of Orange would be maintained. The king summoned an extraordinary +session of the states-general, which met at the Hague on +the 13th of September and was opened by a speech from the +throne, which was firm and temperate, but by no means definite. +The proceedings were dilatory, and the attitude of the Dutch +deputies exceedingly exasperating. The result was that the +moderate party in Belgium quickly lost their influence, and +those in favour of violent measures prevailed. Meanwhile +although the states were still sitting at the Hague, an army +of 14,000 troops under the command of Prince Frederick, second +son of the king, was gradually approaching Brussels. It was +hoped that the inhabitants would welcome the prince and that +a display of armed force would speedily restore order. After +much unnecessary delay, at a time when prompt action was +required, the prince on the 23rd of September entered Brussels +and, with little opposition, occupied the upper or court portion +of it, but when they attempted to advance into the lower town +the troops found the streets barricaded and defended by citizens +in arms. Desultory fighting between the soldiers and the +insurgents continued for three days until, finding that he was +making no headway, the prince ordered a retreat. The news +spread like wildfire through the country, and the principal +towns declared for separation. A provisional government was +formed at Brussels, which declared Belgium to be an independent +state, and summoned a national congress to establish a system +of government. King William now did his utmost to avoid +a rupture, and sent the prince of Orange to Antwerp to promise +that Belgium should have a separate administration; but it +was too late. Antwerp was the only important place that remained +in the hands of the Dutch, and the army on retreating +from Brussels had fallen back on this town. At the end of +October an insurgent army had arrived before the gates, which +were opened by the populace to receive them, and the troops, +under General Chassé, retired within the citadel. The general +ordered a bombardment of the town for two days, destroying +a number of houses and large quantities of merchandize. This +act served still further to inflame the minds of the Belgians +against the Dutch.</p> + +<p>A convention of the representatives of the five great powers +met in London in the beginning of November, at the request +of the king of the Netherlands, and both sides were +brought to consent to a cessation of hostilities. On the +<span class="sidenote">Meeting of the National Congress.</span> +10th of November the National Congress, consisting +of 200 deputies, met at Brussels and came to three +important decisions: (1) the independence of the country—carried +unanimously; (2) a constitutional hereditary monarchy—174 +votes against 13; (3) the perpetual exclusion of the +Orange-Nassau family—161 votes against 28. On the 20th of +December the conference of London proclaimed the dissolution +of the kingdom of the Netherlands, but claimed the right of +regulating the conditions under which it should take place. +On the 28th of January 1831, the congress proceeded to the +election of a king, and out of a number of candidates the choice +fell on the duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe, but +he declined the office. The congress then elected Baron Surlet +de Chokier to the temporary post of regent, and proceeded to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +draw up a constitution on the British parliamentary pattern. The +constitution expressly declared that the king has no powers +except those formally assigned to him. Ministers were to be +<span class="sidenote">The new constitution.</span> +appointed by him, but be responsible to the chambers. +The legislature was composed of two chambers—the +senate and the chamber of deputies. Both chambers +were elected by the same voters, but senators +required a property qualification,—the payment of at least +2000 florins in taxes. Senators and deputies received salaries. +The franchise was for that time a low one—every one who paid +at least 20 florins in taxes had a vote. The choice of a king was +more difficult than that of drawing up a constitution. It was +desirable that the new sovereign should be able to count upon +the friendly support of the great powers, and yet not be actually +a member of their reigning dynasties. It was from fear of +arousing the susceptibilities of neighbouring states, especially +Great Britain, that Louis Philippe had refused to sanction the +election of his son. It was for this reason that the name of +Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the widower of Princess Charlotte of +England, had not been placed among the candidates in January. +Overtures were, however, made to him, as soon as it was understood +that, as the result of private negotiations at the London +conference, the selection of this prince would be favourably +<span class="sidenote">Leopold I., king of the Belgians.</span> +received both by Great Britain and France. Leopold +signified his readiness to accept the crown after having +first ascertained that he would have the support of +the great powers in bringing about a satisfactory +settlement with Holland on those points which he considered +essential to the security and welfare of the new kingdom. The +election took place on the 4th of June, when 152 votes out of 196, +four being absent, determined that Leopold should be proclaimed +king of the Belgians, under the express condition that he “would +accept the constitution and swear to maintain the national +independence and territorial integrity.” Leopold made his +public entry into Brussels, on the 21st, and subsequently visited +other parts of the kingdom, and was everywhere received with +demonstrations of loyalty and respect.</p> + +<p>At this juncture news suddenly arrived that the Dutch were +preparing to invade the country with a large army. It comprised +45,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry with 72 pieces of artillery, +while Leopold could scarcely bring forward 25,000 men to oppose +it. On the 2nd of August the whole of the Dutch army had +crossed the frontier; Leopold collected his forces, such as they +were, near Louvain in order to cover his capital. The two armies +met on the 9th of August. The undisciplined Belgians, despite +the personal efforts of their king, were speedily routed, and +Leopold and his staff narrowly escaped capture. He, however, +made good his retreat to the capital, and, on the advance of a +French army, the prince of Orange did not deem it prudent to +push on farther. A convention was concluded between him +and the French general, in consequence of which he returned +to Holland and the French likewise recrossed the frontier. +Leopold now proceeded with vigour to strengthen his position +and to restore order and confidence. French officers were +selected for the training and disciplining of the army, the civil +list was arranged with economy and order, and reforms were +introduced into the public service and system of administration. +He kept on the best of terms, though a Protestant, with the +Roman Catholic clergy and nobility, and his subsequent marriage +with the daughter of the French king (9th of August 1832), +and the contract that the children of the marriage should be +brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, did much to inspire +confidence in his good intentions.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the conference in London had drawn up the +project of a treaty for the separation of Holland and Belgium, +which was declared “to be final and irrevocable.” +The conditions were far less favourable to Belgium +<span class="sidenote">The treaty of separation.</span> +than had been hoped, and it was not without much +heart-burning and considerable opposition, that the +senate and chamber of deputies gave their assent to them. +The treaty, which contained 24 articles, was signed on the +15th of November 1831. By these articles the grand-duchy +of Luxemburg was divided, but the king of Holland retained +possession of the fortress of Luxemburg, and also received a +portion of Limburg to compensate him for the part of Luxemburg +assigned to Belgium. The district of Maestricht was likewise +partitioned, but the fortress remained Dutch. The Scheldt +was declared open to the commerce of both countries. The +national debt was divided. The powers recognized the independence +of Belgium, “as a neutral state.”</p> + +<p>This agreement was ratified by the Belgian and French +sovereigns on the 20th and 24th of November, by the British +on the 6th of December, but the Austrian and Prussian and +Russian governments, whose sympathies were with the +“legitimate” King William rather than with a prince who +owed his crown to a revolution, did not give their ratification +till some five months later. Even then King William remained +obdurate, refused to sign and continued to keep possession +of Antwerp. After fruitless efforts on the part of the great powers +to obtain his acquiescence, France and Great Britain resolved +to have recourse to force. On the 5th of November their combined +fleets sailed for the coast of Holland, and, on the 18th, +<span class="sidenote">The French besiege Antwerp.</span> +a French army of 60,000 men, under the command of +Marshal Gérard, crossed the Belgian frontier to besiege +Antwerp. The Dutch garrison capitulated on the +23rd of December, and on the 31st the town was handed +over to the Belgians, and the French troops withdrew across +the frontier. The Dutch, however, still held two forts, which +enabled them to command the navigation of the Scheldt, and +these they stubbornly refused to yield. Belgium therefore kept +possession of Limburg and Luxemburg, except the fortress of +Luxemburg, which as a fortress of the German confederation was, +under the terms of the treaty of Vienna, garrisoned by Prussian +troops. These territories were treated in every way as a part +of Belgium, and sent representatives to the chambers. Great +<span class="sidenote">The Luxemburg question.</span> +indignation was therefore felt at the idea of giving +them up, when Holland (14th of March 1838) signified +its readiness to accept the conditions of the treaty. +The chambers argued that Belgium had been induced +to agree to the twenty-four articles in 1832 in the hope of thereby +at once terminating all harassing disputes, but as Holland +refused then to accept them, the conditions were no longer +binding and the circumstances were now quite changed. They +urged that Luxemburg in fact formed an integral part of Belgium +and that the people were totally opposed to a union with Holland. +They offered to pay for the territory in dispute, but the treaty +gave them no right of purchase, and the proposal was not entertained. +<span class="sidenote">Final settlement between Holland and Belgium.</span> +Addresses were unanimously voted urging +the king to resist separation, great excitement was +aroused throughout the country and preparations +were made for war. But the firmness of the allied +powers and their determination to uphold the condtions +of the treaty compelled the king most reluctantly +to submit to the inevitable. The treaty was signed in London +on the 19th of April 1839. It saddled Belgium with a portion +of Holland’s debt, and a severe financial crisis followed.</p> + +<p>The Belgian revolution owed its success to the union of the +Catholic and Liberal parties; and the king had been very careful +to maintain the alliance between them. This continued +to be the character of the government till 1840, but by +<span class="sidenote">Struggle between the Catholics and Liberals.</span> +degrees it had been growing more and more conservative, +and was giving rise to dissatisfaction. A ministry +was formed on more liberal principles, but it clashed +with the Catholic aristocracy, who had the majority in +the senate. A neutral ministry under M. Charles Nothomb was +then formed. In 1842 it carried a new law of primary instruction, +which aroused the dislike of the anti-clerical Liberals. The +Nothomb ministry retired in 1845. In March 1846 the king +formed a purely Catholic ministry, but it was fiercely attacked by +the Liberals, who had for several years been steadily organizing. +A congress was summoned to meet at Brussels (14th of June 1846) +composed of delegates from the different Liberal associations +throughout the country. Three hundred and twenty delegates +met and drew up an Act of Federation and a programme of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span> +reforms. The election of 1847 gave a majority to the Liberals +and a purely Liberal ministry was formed, and from this date +onwards it has been the constitutional practice in Belgium to +choose a homogeneous ministry from the party which possesses +a working majority in the chamber. In 1848 a new electoral +<span class="sidenote">Electoral reform.</span> +law was passed, which lowered the franchise to 20 +florins’ worth of property and doubled the number of +electors. Hence it came to pass that Belgium passed +safely through the crisis of the French revolution of 1848. The +extreme democratic and socialistic party made with French +aid some spasmodic efforts to stir up a revolutionary movement, +but they met with no popular sympathy; the throne of Leopold +stood firmly based upon the trust and respect of the Belgian +nation for the wisdom and moderation of their king.</p> + +<p>The attention of the government was now largely directed to +the stimulating of private industry and the carrying out of +public works of great practical utility, such as the extension of +railways and the opening up of other internal means of communication. +Commercial treaties were also entered into with +various countries with the view of providing additional outlets +for industrial products. The king also sought as much as +possible to remove from the domain of politics every irritating +question, believing that a union of the different parties was most +for the advantage of the state. In 1850 the question of middle-class +education was settled. In 1852 the Liberal cabinet was +overthrown and a ministry of conciliation was formed. A bill +was passed authorizing the army to be raised to 100,000 men +including reserve. The elections of 1854 modified the parliamentary +situation by increasing the strength of the Conservatives; +the ministry resigned and a new one was formed, under +Pierre de Decker, of moderate Catholics and Progressives. In +1857 the government of M. de Decker brought in a bill to establish +“the liberty of charity,” but in reality to place the administration +of charities in the hands of the priesthood. This led to a violent +agitation throughout the kingdom and the military had to be +called out. Eventually the bill was withdrawn, the ministers +resigned and a Liberal ministry was formed under M. Charles +Rogier. In 1860 the communal <i>octrois</i> or duties on articles of +food brought into the towns was abolished; in 1863 the navigation +of the Scheldt was made free, and a treaty of commerce +established with England. The elections of July 1864 gave a +majority to the Liberals, and M. Rogier continued in office.</p> + +<p>On the 10th of December 1865, King Leopold died, after a +reign of thirty-four years. He was greatly beloved by his people, +and to him Belgium owed much, for in difficult circumstances +and critical times he had managed its affairs +<span class="sidenote">Accession of Leopold II.</span> +with great tact and judgment. He was succeeded by +his eldest son Leopold II., who was immediately +proclaimed king and took the oath to the constitution on the +17th of December. On the outbreak of war between France and +Germany in 1870, Belgium saw the difficulty and danger of her +position, and lost no time in providing for contingencies. A +large war credit was voted, the strength of the army was raised +and strong bodies of troops were moved to the frontier. The +feeling of danger to Belgium also caused great excitement in +England. The British government declared its intention to +maintain the integrity of Belgium in accordance with the treaty +of 1839, and it induced the two belligerent powers to agree not +to violate the neutrality of Belgian territory. A considerable +portion of the French army routed at Sedan did indeed seek +refuge across the frontier; but they laid down their arms +according to convention, and were duly “interned.”</p> + +<p>In 1870 the Liberal party, which had been in power for thirteen +years, was overthrown by a union of the Catholics with a +number of Liberal dissentients to whom the policy of the +government had given offence, and a Catholic cabinet, at the +head of which was Baron Jules Joseph d’Anethan, took office. +At the election of August 1870, the Catholics obtained a majority +in both chambers. They increased their power considerably +by reducing the voting qualification for electors to provincial +councils to 20 frs., and to communal councils to 10 frs., +and also by recognizing the importance of what was styled “the +Flemish Movement.” Hitherto French had been the official +language of the states. The use of Flemish in public documents, +in judicial procedure and in official correspondence was hereafter +<span class="sidenote">The Flemish Movement.</span> +required in the Flemish provinces, and Belgium +became officially bi-lingual. It was, as has been +already pointed out, a reversion to the policy of the +Dutch king, which in 1830 had been so strongly +denounced by the leaders of the Belgian revolution, and its +object was the same, <i>i.e</i>. to prevent <i>frenchification</i> of a population +that was Teutonic by race and speech. In 1871 M. Malou had +become the head of a cabinet of moderate Catholics, and he +retained office till 1878. This was the period of the struggle +between the pope and the Italian government, and the German +<i>Kulturkampf</i>. The Belgian Ultramontanes agitated strongly in +favour of the re-establishment of the temporal power and +against the policy of Bismarck. Though discountenanced by +the ministry, the violence of the Ultra-clericals compassed its +downfall. They passed a law adopting the ballot in 1877, but at +the election of the following year a Liberal majority was returned.</p> + +<p>The new cabinet, under M. Frère-Orban, devoted itself solely +to the settlement of the educational system. Hitherto since +1842 in all primary schools instruction by the clergy +in the Catholic faith was obligatory, children belonging +<span class="sidenote">School law of 1879.</span> +to other persuasions being dispensed from attendance. +In 1879 a bill was passed for the secularization of +primary education; but an attempt was made to conciliate the +clergy by Art. 4, which enacted—“religious instruction is relegated +to the care of families and the clergy of the various creeds. +A place in the school may be put at their disposal where the +children may receive religious instruction,” at hours other than +those set apart for regular education. The bill likewise provided +for a rigorous inspection of the communal schools. The passing +of this law was met by the clergy by uncompromising resistance. +The bishops ordered that absolution be refused to teachers in the +schools “sans Dieu,” and to the parents who sent their children +to them, and urged the establishment of private Catholic schools. +All over Belgium the agitation spread, and the clergy, who were +practically independent of state control, gained the victory. In +November 1879 it was calculated that there were but 240,000 +scholars in the secularized schools against 370,000 in the Catholic +schools. In Flanders over 80% of the children attended the +Catholic schools. The government appealed to the pope, but +the Holy See declined to take any action, and so great was the +embitterment that the Belgian minister at the Vatican and the +papal nuncio at Brussels were recalled, and in 1880 the clergy +refused to associate themselves with the fêtes of the national +jubilee. In order to emerge victorious in such a struggle the +Liberal party had need of all their strength, but a split took +place between the sections known as the <i>doctrinaires</i> and the +<i>progressists</i>, on the question of an extension of the franchise, and +at the election of 1884 the Catholics carried all before them at the +polls. From 1884 up to the present time the clerical party have +maintained their supremacy.</p> + +<p>A Catholic administration under M. Malou at once took in +hand the schools question. A law was passed, despite violent +protests from the Liberals, which enacted that the communes +might maintain the private Catholic schools established since +1879 and suppress unsectarian schools at their pleasure. They +might retain at least one unsectarian or adopt one Catholic school, +where 25 heads of families demanded it. The state subsidized +all the communal schools, Catholic and unsectarian alike. Under +this law in all districts under clerical control the unsectarian +schools were abolished. In October 1884, M. Beernaert replaced +M. Malou as prime minister, and retained that post for the +following ten years. He had in 1886 a troublous and dangerous +situation to deal with. Socialism had become a political force +<span class="sidenote">Social outbreak in 1886.</span> +in the land. Socialism of a German type had taken +deep root among the working men of the Flemish +towns, especially at Ghent and Brussels; socialism of +a French revolutionary type among the Walloon +miners and factory hands. On the 18th of March 1886, a socialist +rising suddenly burst out at Liége, on the occasion of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +anniversary of the Paris Commune, and rapidly spread in other +industrial centres of the Walloon districts. Thousands of workmen +went on strike, demanding better wages and the suffrage. +The ministry acted promptly and with vigour, the outbreak was +suppressed by the employment of the military and order was +restored. But as soon as this was accomplished the government +opened a comprehensive enquiry into the causes of dissatisfaction, +<span class="sidenote">Agitation for a revision of the constitution.</span> +which served as the basis of numerous social laws, and +led eventually to the establishment of universal +suffrage and the substitution in Belgium of a democratic +for a middle-class régime. It was not effected +till several years had been spent in long parliamentary +discussions, by demonstrations on the part of the supporters of +franchise revision and by strikes of a political tendency. At +last the senate and chamber declared, May 1892, that the time +for a revision of certain articles of the constitution had come. +As prescribed by the constitution, a dissolution took place and +two new chambers were elected. The Catholics had a majority +in both, but not enough to enable them to dispense with the +assistance of the Liberals, the constitution requiring for every +revision a two-thirds majority. The bills proposed for extending +the franchise were all rejected (April 11th and 12th). Thereupon +the council of the Labour party proclaimed a general strike. +Fifty thousand workmen struck, in Brussels there were violent +demonstrations, and the agitation assumed generally a dangerous +aspect. Both the government and the opposition in the chambers +saw that delay vas impossible, and that revision must be carried +out. Agreement was reached by the acceptance of a compromise +<span class="sidenote">The Nyssens compromise.</span> +proposed by M. Albert Nyssens, Catholic +deputy and professor of penal procedure and commercial +law at the university of Louvain, and on the +18th of April the chamber adopted an electoral system +until then unknown—<i>le suffrage universel plural</i>. The citizen in +order to possess a vote for the election of representatives to the +chambers was to be of a <i>minimum</i> age of twenty-five years, and +of thirty years for the election of senators and provincial and +communal councillors. For the four categories of elections a +supplementary vote was given to (<i>a</i>) citizens who having attained +the age of thirty-five years, and being married or widowers with +children, paid at least 5 f. income tax, and (<i>b</i>) to citizens of +the age of twenty-five years possessing real estate to the value of +2000 f. or Belgian state securities yielding an income of at +least 100 f. Two supplementary votes were bestowed upon +citizens having certain educational certificates, or discharging +functions or following professions implying their possession. +This elaborate system was only carried into law after considerable +and violent opposition in the sessions of 1894 and 1895. It was +chiefly the work of the ministry of M. de Burlet, who succeeded +to the place of M. Beernaert in March 1894.</p> + +<p>The composition of the elected bodies for the years 1894-1895 +was:—for the chamber of representatives 1,354,891 electors +with 2,085,605 votes, for the senate and provincial +councils 1,148,433 electors with 1,856,838 votes. +<span class="sidenote">Catholic majority of 1894.</span> +The result of the first election in October 1894 was +to give the Catholic party an overwhelming majority. +The old Liberal party almost disappeared, while the Walloon +provinces returned a number of Socialists. In February 1896 +M. de Burlet, being in bad health, transferred the direction of +the government to M. Smet de Naeyer. The election of 1894 +had given the Liberals a much smaller number of seats than they +ought to have had according to the number of votes they polled, +and a cry arose for the establishment of proportional representation. +Both sides felt that reform was again necessary, but the +Catholic majority disagreed among themselves as to the form +it should take. In 1899 M. Smet de Naeyer gave place as head +of the ministry to M. van den Peereboom. But the proposals +<span class="sidenote">Proportional representation.</span> +of the latter met with organized obstruction on the +part of the Socialist deputies, and after a few months’ +tenure of office he gave way to M. Smet de Naeyer +once more. The new cabinet at once (August 1899) +introduced a bill giving complete proportional representation +in parliamentary elections to all the arrondissements, and it +was passed despite the defection of a number of Catholic +deputies led by M. Woeste. The election in May 1900 resulted +in the return of a substantial (though reduced) Catholic +majority in both chambers.</p> + +<p>During this period of Catholic ascendancy social legislation +was not neglected. Among the enactments the following are +the most important:—the institution of industrial +and labour councils, composed of employers and +<span class="sidenote">Social legislation.</span> +employés, and of a superior council, formed of officials, +workmen and employers (1887); laws assisting the +erection of workmen’s dwellings and supervising the labour +of women and children (1889); laws for ameliorating the system +of Friendly Societies (1890); laws regulating workshops (1896); +conferring corporate rights on trades’ unions (1898); guaranteeing +the security and health of working men during hours of labour +(1899). In 1900 laws were passed regulating the contract of +labour, placing the workman on a footing of perfect equality +with his employer, assuring the married woman free control of +her savings, and organizing a system of old-age pensions. +Primary education was dealt with in 1895 by a law, which made +religious instruction obligatory, and extended state support to +all schools that satisfied certain conditions. In 1899 there were +in Belgium 6674 subsidized schools, having 775,000 scholars +out of a total of 950,000 children of school age. Only 68,000 +did not receive religious instruction. The Catholic party also +strove to mitigate the principle of obligatory military service by +encouraging the system of volunteering and by a reduction +of the time of active service and of the number with the colours.</p> + +<p>In 1905 the 75th anniversary of Belgian independence was +celebrated, and there was a great manifestation of loyalty +to King Leopold II. for the wisdom and prudence +shown by him during his long reign. Owing to dissensions +<span class="sidenote">Politics in 1905.</span> +among the Catholic and Conservative party +on the subject of military service and the fortification of Antwerp, +their majority in the chamber in 1904 fell from 26 to 20, that +in the senate from 16 to 12. The partial election in 1906 reduced +the majority in the chamber to 12, while the partial election +in 1908 brought the majority down to 8. The Smet de Naeyer +ministry which had held office since 1900 was defeated in April +1907 in a debate on the mining law over the proposal concerning +the length of the working day. A new cabinet was formed +on the 2nd of May following under the presidency of M. de Trooz, +who had been minister of the interior under M. Smet de Naeyer, +and who retained that portfolio in conjunction with the +premiership. M. de Trooz died on the 31st of December 1907, +and was succeeded by M. Schollaert, president of the chamber. +The count of Flanders, brother of the king, died on the +17th of November 1905, leaving his son Albert heir to the +throne.</p> + +<p>The Congo question had meanwhile become an acute one +in Belgium. The personal interest taken by Leopold II. in the +exploration and commercial development of the +equatorial regions of Africa had led, in the creation of +<span class="sidenote">Belgium and the Congo.</span> +the Congo Free State, to results which had originally +not been anticipated. The <i>Comité des Études du Haut +Congo</i>, formed in 1878 at the instance of the king and mainly +financed by him had developed into the International Association +of the Congo, of which a Belgian officer, Colonel M. Strauch, was +president. Through the efforts in Africa of H.M. Stanley a +rudimentary state was created, and through the efforts of King +Leopold in Europe the International Association was recognized +during 1884-1885 by the powers as an independent state. +Declarations to this effect were exchanged between the Belgian +government and the Association on the 23rd of February 1885. +In April of the same year the Belgian chambers authorized the +king to be the chief of the state founded by the Association, +which had already taken the name of <i>État Indépendent du Congo</i>. +The union between Belgium and the new state was declared +to be purely personal, but its European headquarters were in +Brussels, its officials, in the course of time, became almost exclusively +Belgian, and financially and commercially the connexion +between the two countries became increasingly close. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span> +In 1889 King Leopold announced that he had by his will bequeathed +the Congo state to Belgium, and in 1890 the Belgian +government, in return for financial help, acquired the right of +annexing the country under certain conditions. At later dates +definite proposals for immediate annexation were considered +but not adopted, the king showing a strong disinclination to +cede the state, while among the mass of the Belgians the disinclination +to annex was equally strong. It was not until +terrible reports as to the misgovernment of the Congo created +a strong agitation for reform in Great Britain, America and other +countries responsible for having aided in the creation of the state, +that public opinion in Belgium seriously concerned itself with +the subject. The result was that in November 1907 a new +treaty of cession was presented to the Belgian chambers, while +in March 1908 an additional act modified one of the most objectionable +features of the treaty—a clause by which the king +retained control of the revenue of a vast territory within the +Congo which he had declared to be his private property. A +colonial law, also submitted to the chambers, secured for Belgium +in case of annexation complete parliamentary control over the +Congo state, and the bill for annexation was finally passed in +September 1908.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Th. Juste, <i>Histoire de la Belgique</i> (2 vols., 1853); +<i>La Révolution belge de 1830</i> (2 vols., 1872); <i>Congrès national de +Belgique</i> (2 vols., 1880); <i>Memoirs of Leopold I.</i> (2 vols., 1868); +De Gerlache, <i>Histoire du royaume des Pays-Bas</i> (3 vols., 1859); +D.C. Boulger, <i>The History of Belgium</i>, part i. (1900); C. White, <i>The +Belgic Revolution of 1830</i> (2 vols., 1835); Moke and Hubert, <i>Histoire +de Belgique</i> (<i>jusque 1885</i>) (1892); L. Hymans, <i>Histoire parlementaire +de la Belgique</i> (1830-1899); <i>Cinquante ans de liberté</i> (4 vols., 1881); +J.J. Thonissen <i>La Belgique sous le règne de Leopold I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (4 vols., 1855-1858); +De Laveleye, <i>Le Parti clérical en Belgique</i> (1874); Vandervelde +and Destree, <i>Le Socialisme belge</i> (1898); C. Woeste, <i>Vingt +ans de polémique</i> (1890); Hamelius, <i>Le Mouvement flamand</i> (1894).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Literature</p> + +<p>Belgian literature, taken in the widest sense of the term, falls +into three groups, consisting of works written respectively in +Flemish, Walloon and French. The earlier Flemish authors +are treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dutch Literature</a></span>; the revival of Flemish +Literature (<i>q.v.</i>) since the separation of Belgium from the Netherlands +in 1830, and Walloon Literature (<i>q.v.</i>), are each separately +noticed. The earlier French writers born on what is now Belgian +territory—<i>e.g.</i> Adenès le Rois, Jean Froissart, Jean Lemaire des +Belges and others—are included in the general history of French Literature +(<i>q.v.</i>). It remains to consider the literature written +by Belgians in French during the 19th century, and its rapid +development since the revolution of 1831.</p> + +<p>Belgian writers were commonly charged with provincialism, +but the prejudice against them has been destroyed by the +brilliant writers of 1870-1880. It was also asserted that Belgian +French literature lacked a national basis, and was merely a +reflection of Parisian models. The most important section of it, +however, has a distinctive quality of its own. Many of its most +distinguished exponents are Flemings by birth, and their writings +reflect the characteristic Flemish scenery; they have the +sensuousness, the colour and the realism of Flemish art; and +on the other hand the tendency to mysticism, to abstraction, is +far removed from the lucidity and definiteness associated with +French literature properly so-called. This profoundly national +character disengaged itself gradually, and has been more strikingly +evident since 1870. The earlier writers of the century +were content to follow French tradition.</p> + +<p>The events of 1830-1831 gave a great stimulus to Belgian +letters, but the country possessed writers of considerable merit +before that date. Adolphe Mathieu (1802-1876) belongs to the +earlier half of the century, although the tenth and last volume +of his <i>Œuvres en vers</i> was only printed in 1870. His later works +show the influence of the Romantic revival. Auguste Clavareau +(1787-1864), a mediocre poet, an imitator of the French and +Dutch, produced some successful comedies, but he ceased to +write plays before 1830. Édouard Smits (1789-1852) showed +romantic tendencies in his tragedies of <i>Marie de Bourgogne</i> (1823), +<i>Elfrida</i> (1825), and <i>Jeanne de Flandre</i> (1828). The first of these +had a great success, partly no doubt because of its patriotic +subject. For four years before 1830 André van Hasselt (<i>q.v.</i>) +had been publishing his verses in the <i>Sentinelle des Pays-Bas</i>, +and from 1829 onwards he was an ardent romanticist. A burst +of literary and artistic activity followed the Revolution; and +van Hasselt’s house became a centre of poets, artists and +musicians of the romantic school. The best work of the Belgian +romanticists is in the rich and picturesque prose of the 16th +century romance of Charles de Coster (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">De Coster</a></span>), and in +the melancholy and semi-philosophical writings of the moralist +Octave Pirmez (<i>q.v.</i>). The <i>Poésies</i> (1841) and the <i>Chansons</i> +(1866) of Antoine Clesse (1816-1889), have been compared with +the work of Béranger; and the Catholic party found a champion +against the liberals and revolutionists in the satirical poet, Benoît +Quinet (b. 1819). Among the famous dramatic pieces of this +epoch was the <i>André Chénier</i> (1843) of Édouard Wacken (1819-1861), +who was a lyric rather than a dramatic poet; also the +comedies of Louis Labarre (1810-1892) and of Henri Delmotte +(1822-1884). Charles Potvin (1818-1902), a poet and a dramatist, +is best known by a patriotic <i>Histoire des lettres en Belgique</i>, +forming vol. iv. of the Belgian compilation, <i>Cinquante ans de +liberté</i> (1882), and by his essays in literary history. Eugène van +Bemmel (1824-1880) established an excellent historical tradition +in his <i>Histoire de la Belgique</i> (1880), reproducing textually the +original authorities, and also edited a Belgian Encyclopaedia +(1873-1875), the <i>Patria Belgica</i>. Baron E.C. de Gerlache (1785-1871) +wrote the history of the Netherlands from the ultramontane +standpoint. The romanticists were attacked in an amusing +satire, <i>Les Voyages et aventures de M. Alfred Nicolas</i> (1835), by +François Grandgagnage (1797-1877), who was a nationalist in +the narrowest sense, and regarded the movement as an indefensible +invasion of foreign ideas. The best of the novelists of +this period, excluding Charles de Coster, was perhaps Estelle +Ruelens (<i>née</i> Crèvecœur; 1821-1878); she wrote under the +pseudonym of “Caroline Gravière.” Her tales were collected by +the bibliophile “P.L. Jacob” (Paris, 1873-1874).</p> + +<p>The whole of this literature derived more or less from foreign +sources, and, with the exception of Charles de Coster and Octave +Pirmez, produced no striking figures. De Coster died in 1879, +and Pirmez in 1883, and the new movement in Belgian literature +dates from the banquet given in the latter year to Camille +Lemonnier (<i>q.v.</i>) whose powerful personality did much to turn +“Young Belgium” into a national channel. Lemonnier himself +cannot be exclusively claimed by any of the conflicting schools of +young writers. He was by turns naturalist, lyrist and symbolist; +and it has been claimed that the germs of all the later developments +in Belgian letters may be traced in his work. The quinquennial +prize of literature had been refused to his <i>Un mâle</i>, and +the younger generation of artists and men of letters gave him a +banquet which was recognized as a protest against the official +literature, represented by Louis Hymans (1829-1884), Gustave +Frédérix (b. 1834), the literary critic of <i>L’Indépendance belge</i>, +and others. The centres around which the young writers were +grouped were two reviews, <i>L’Art moderne</i> and <i>La Jeune Belgique</i>. +<i>L’Art moderne</i> was founded in 1882 by Edmond Picard, who had +as his chief supporters Victor Arnould and Octave Maus. The +first editor of <i>La Jeune Belgique</i> was M. Warlomont (1860-1889), +known under the pen-name of “Max Waller.” This review, +which owed much of its success to Waller’s energy, defended the +intense preoccupation of the new writers with questions of style, +and became the depository of the Parnassian tradition in Belgium. +It had among its early contributors Georges Eekhoud, Albert +Giraud, Iwan Gilkin and Georges Rodenbach. Edmond Picard +(b. 1836) was one of the foremost in the battle. He was well +known as an advocate in Brussels, and made a considerable +contribution to jurisprudence as the chief writer of the <i>Pandectes +belges</i> (1886-1890). His <i>Pro arte</i> (1886) was a kind of literary +code for the young Belgian writers. His novels, of which <i>La +Forge Roussel</i> (1881) is a good example, were succeeded in 1902-1903 +by two plays, <i>Jéricho</i> and <i>Fatigue de vivre</i>.</p> + +<p>Georges Eekhoud, born at Antwerp on the 27th of May 1854, +was in some ways the most passionately Flemish of the whole +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +group. He described the life of the peasants of his native Flanders +with a bold realism, making himself the apologist of the vagabond +and the outcast in a series of tragic stories:—<i>Kees Doorik</i> (1883), +<i>Kermesses</i> (1883), <i>Nouvelles Kermesses</i> (1887), +<i>Le Cycle patibulaire</i> (1892), <i>Mes Communions</i> (1895), <i>Escal Vigor</i> +(1899) and <i>La Faneuse d’amour</i> (1900), &c. <i>Nouvelle Carthage</i> +(1888) deals with modern Antwerp. In 1892 he produced a +striking book on English literature entitled <i>Au siècle de Shakespeare</i>, +and has written French versions of Beaumont and Fletcher’s +<i>Philaster</i> (1895) and of Marlow’s <i>Edward II.</i> (1896).</p> + +<p>The earlier work of “Young Belgium” in poetry was experimental +in character, and was marked by extravagances of style +and a general exuberance which provoked much hostile criticism. +The young writers of 1870 to 1880 had not long to wait, however, +for recognition both at home and in Paris, where many of them +found hospitality in the pages of the <i>Mercure de France</i> from +1890 onwards. They divided their allegiance between the +leaders of the French Parnassus and the Symbolists.</p> + +<p>The most powerful of the Belgian poets, Émile Verhaeren (<i>q.v.</i>), +is the most daring in his technical methods of expressing bizarre +sensation, and has been called the “poet of paroxysm.” His +reputation extends far beyond the limits of his own country.</p> + +<p>Many of the Belgian poets adhere to the classical form. +Albert Giraud (born at Louvain in 1860) was faithful to the +Parnassian tradition in his <i>Pierrot lunaire</i> (1884), <i>Pierrot narcisse</i> +(1891) and <i>Hors du siècle</i> (1886). In the earlier works of Iwan +Gilkin (born at Brussels in 1858) the influence of Charles Baudelaire +is predominant. He wrote <i>Damnation de l’artiste</i> (1890), +<i>Ténèbres</i> (1892), <i>Stances dorées</i> (1893), <i>La Nuit</i> (1897) and +<i>Prométhée</i> (1899). The poems of Valère Gille (born at Brussels +in 1867), whose <i>Cithare</i> was crowned by the French Academy in +1898, belong to the same group. Émile van Arenberghe (born +at Louvain in 1854) is the author of some exquisite sonnets. +Fernand Severin (b. 1867) in his <i>Poèmes ingénus</i> (1900) aims at +simplicity of form, and seems to have learnt the art of his +musical verse direct from Racine. With Severin is closely associated +Georges Marlow (b. 1872), author of <i>L’Âme en exil</i> (1895).</p> + +<p>Georges Rodenbach (1855-1898) spent most of his life in +Paris and was an intimate of Edmond de Goncourt. He produced +some Parisian and purely imitative work; but the best part of +his production is the outcome of a passionate idealism of the +quiet Flemish towns in which he had passed his childhood and +early youth. In his best known work, <i>Bruges la Morte</i> (1892), he +explains that his aim is to evoke the town as a living being, +associated with the moods of the spirit, counselling, dissuading +from and prompting action.</p> + +<p>The most famous of all modern Belgian writers, Maurice +Maeterlinck (<i>q.v.</i>), made his début in a Parisian journal, the +<i>Pléiade</i>, in 1886. He succeeded more nearly than any of his +predecessors in expressing or suggesting ideas and emotions +which might have been supposed to be capable of translation +only in terms of music. “The unconscious self, or rather the +sub-conscious self,” says Émile Verhaeren, “recognized in the +verse and prose of Maeterlinck its language or rather its stammering +attempt at language.” Maeterlinck was a native of Ghent, +and the first poems of two of his fellow-townsmen also appeared +in the <i>Pléiade</i>. These were Grégoire le Roy (b. 1862), author +of <i>La Chanson d’un soir</i> (1886), and <i>Mon Cœur pleure d’autrefois</i> +(1889); and Charles van Lerberghe (b. 1861), author of a play, +<i>Les Flaireurs</i> (1890) and a collection of <i>Poèmes</i> (1897).</p> + +<p>Max Elskamp (born at Antwerp in 1862) is the author of some +volumes of religious poetry—<i>Dominical</i> (1892), <i>Salutations, dont +d’angéliques</i> (1893), <i>En symbole vers l’apostolat</i> (1895)—for which +he has devised as background an imaginary city. Eugène +Demolder (b.1862) also created a mythical city as a setting for +his prose <i>contes</i> in the <i>Légende d’Yperdamme</i> (1897).</p> + +<p>Belgian literary activity extends also to historical research. +Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove (1817-1891) wrote a <i>Histoire de +Flandre</i> (7 vols., 1847-1855), and a number of monographs +on separate points in Flemish and English history. Though an +accurate historian, he allowed himself lo be prejudiced by his +extreme Catholic views. He was a vehement defender of +Mary Stuart. Louis Gachard (1800-1885) wrote many valuable +works on 16th century history; Mgr. Namèche (1810-1893) +completed the 29th volume of his <i>Cours d’histoire nationale</i> +before his death; Charles Piot (b. 1812) edited the correspondence +of Cardinal de Granvelle; Alphonse Wauters (1818-1898), +archivist of Brussels, published many archaeological works; and +Charles Rahlenbeck (1823-1903) wrote enthusiastically of the +history of Protestantism in Belgium. One of the most masterly +writers of French in Belgium was the economist Émile de +Laveleye (<i>q.v.</i>). In aesthetics should be noted the historian +of music, François Joseph Fétis (1784-1871); F.A. Gevaert +(1828-1908), author of <i>Histoire et théorie de la musique d’antiquité</i> +(2 vols., 1875-1881); and Victor Mahillon (b. 1841) for his +work in acoustics and his descriptive catalogue (1893-1900) +of the museum of musical instruments belonging to the Brussels +conservatoire. In psychology Joseph Delboeuf (1831-1896) +enjoyed a great reputation outside Belgium; Elisée Reclus +(b. 1830), though a Frenchman by birth, completed his <i>Géographie +universelle</i> (1875-1894) in exile at Brussels; and Ernest Nys +has written many standard works on international law. In the +history of literature an important work is compiled by Ferdinand +van der Haeghen and others in the <i>Bibliotheca Belgica</i> (1880, &c.), +comprising a description of all the books printed in the Netherlands +in the 15th and 16th centuries. The vicomte de Spoelberch +de Lovenjoul (1836-1907) was well known in France as the +author of <i>Sainte-Beuve inconnu</i> (1901), <i>La Genèse d’un roman +de Balzac</i> (1901), <i>Une Page perdue de H. de Balzac</i> (1903), and +of numerous bibliographical works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F.V. Goethals, <i>Histoire des lettres, des sciences et des arts en +Belgique</i> (4 vols., 1840-1844); Fr. Masoin, <i>Histoire de la littèrature +française en Belgique de 1815 à 1830</i> (1903); F. Nautet, <i>Histoire des +lettres belges d’expression française</i> (3 vols., 1892 et seq.), written from +the point of view of young Belgium, and by no means impartial; +A. de Koninck, <i>Bibliographie nationale</i> brought down to 1880; +<i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i> (1866, &c.) in progress; see also +articles by Émile Verhaeren in the <i>Revue des revues</i> (15th June 1896), +by Albert Mockel in the <i>Revue encyclopédique</i> (24th July 1897); a +collection of criticisms chiefly on Belgian writers by Eugène Gilbert, +<i>France et Belgique; études litteraires</i> (1905); Frédéric Faber, +<i>Histoire du théâtre français en Belgique</i> (5 vols., 1878-1880). An +excellent anthology of Belgian poets was published by K. Pol de +Mont with the title of <i>Modernités</i> (1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See for earlier history <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brabant</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liége</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELGRADE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (Servian, <i>Biograd</i> or <i>Beograd</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “White Castle”), +the capital of Servia. Pop. (1900) 69,097. Belgrade occupies a triangular +ridge or foreland, washed on the north-west by the Save, +and on the north-east by the Danube; these rivers flowing respectively +from the south-west and north-west. The sides of the +triangle slope down abruptly towards the west, more gradually +towards the east; at the base stands the cone of Avala Hill, +the last outpost of the Rudnik Mountains, which extend far +away to the south; and, at the apex, a cliff of Tertiary chalk, +200 ft. high, overlooks the confluence of the two rivers, the large, +flat island of Veliki Voyn and several smaller islets. This cliff +is crowned by the walls and towers of the citadel, once white, +but now maroon with age, and, though useful as a prison and +barracks, no longer of any military value. Behind the citadel, +and along its <i>glacis</i> on the southern side, are the gardens of +Kalemegdan, commanding a famous view across the river; +behind Kalemegdan comes Belgrade itself, a city of white +houses, among which a few great public buildings, like the high +school, national bank, national theatre and the so-called +New Palace, stand forth prominently. The town was formerly +divided into three parts, namely, the Old town, the Russian town +(<i>Sava-Makhala</i> or Save district), and the Turkish town (<i>Dorčol</i>, or +Cross-road). A great change, however, took place in the course of +the 19th century, and the old divisions are only partially applicable, +while there has to be added the Tirazia, an important suburban +extension along the line of the aqueduct or <i>Tirazi</i>. A few old +Turkish houses, built of plaster, with red-tiled roofs, are left +among the ill-paved and insanitary districts bordering upon +the rivers, but as the royal residence, the seat of government, +and the centre of the import trade, Belgrade was, after 1869, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +rapidly transformed into a modern European town, with wide +streets, electric tramways and electric lighting. Only the +multitude of small gardens, planted with limes, acacias and lilacs, +and the bright costumes of the Servian or Hungarian peasants, +remain to distinguish it from a western capital. For a town of +such importance, which is also the seat of the metropolitan of +Servia, Belgrade has very few churches, and these are of a +somewhat modest type. There were, in 1900, four Servian +Orthodox churches, including the cathedral, one Roman Catholic +chapel, one Evangelical chapel (German), two synagogues and +one mosque. This last is kept up entirely at the expense of the +Servian government.</p> + +<p>The highest educational establishments are to be found in +Belgrade: the <i>Velika Shkola</i> (a small university with three +faculties), the military academy, the theological seminary, the +high school for girls, a commercial academy, and several schools +for secondary education on German models. A commercial +tribunal, a court of appeal and the court of cassation are also +in Belgrade. There is a fine monument to Prince Michael (1860-1868) +who succeeded in removing the Turkish garrison from +the Belgrade citadel and obtaining other Turkish fortresses in +Servia by skilful diplomacy. There are also an interesting +national museum, with Roman antiquities and numismatic +collections, a national library with a wealth of old Servian MSS. +among its 40,000 volumes, and a botanical garden, rich in +specimens of the Balkan flora. To promote commerce there are a +stock and produce exchange (<i>Berza</i>), a national bank, privileged +to issue notes, and several other banking establishments. The +insurance work is done by foreign companies.</p> + +<p>The bulk of the foreign trade of Servia passes through Belgrade, +but the industrial output of the city itself is not large, owing to +the scarcity both of labour and capital. The principal industries +are brewing, iron-founding and the manufacture of cloth, boots, +leather, cigarettes, matches, pottery, preserved meat and +confectionery. The railway from Budapest to Constantinople +crosses the Save by a fine bridge on the south-west, above the +landing-place for steamers. Farther south is the park of <i>Topchider</i>, +with an old Turkish kiosk built for Prince Milosh (1818-1839) +in the beautifully laid-out grounds. In the adjoining +forest of lime-trees, called <i>Koshutnyak</i> or the “deer-park,” +Prince Michael was assassinated in 1868. Just opposite the +citadel, in a north-westerly direction, half-an-hour by steamer +across the Danube, lies the Hungarian town of Semlin. For +administrative purposes, Belgrade forms a separate department +of the kingdom.</p> + +<p>The first fortification of the rock, at the confluence of the +Save and the Danube, was made by the Celts in the 3rd century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> They gave it the name of <i>Singidunum</i>, by which Belgrade +was known until the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The Romans took it +from the Celts, and replaced their fort by a regular Roman +<i>castrum</i>, placing in it a strong garrison. Roman bricks, dug +up in the fortress, bear the inscription, <i>Legio IV. Flavia Felix</i>. +From the 4th to the beginning of the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> it often +changed its masters (Huns, Sarmatians, Goths, Gepids); then +the emperor Justinian brought it once more under Roman rule +and fortified and embellished it. Towards the end of the 8th +century it was taken by the Franks of Charlemagne. In the 9th +century it was captured by the Bulgarians, and held by them +until the beginning of the 11th century, when the Byzantine +emperor Basil II. reconquered it for the Greek empire. The +Hungarians, under king Stephen, took it from the Greeks in +1124. From that time it was constantly changing hands—Greeks, +Bulgarians, Hungarians, replacing each other in turn. +The city was considered to be the key of Hungary, and its +possession was believed to secure possession of Servia, besides +giving command of the traffic between the Upper and the Lower +Danube. It has, in consequence, seen more battles under its +walls than most fortresses in Europe. The Turks used to call +it <i>Darol-i-Jehad</i>, “the home of wars for faith.” During the +14th century it was in the hands of the Servian kings. The +Servian prince George Brankovich ceded it to the Hungarians in +1427. The Turkish forces unsuccessfully besieged the city +in 1444 and 1456, on which last occasion a glorious victory was +obtained by the Christian garrison, led by the famous John +Hunyady and the enthusiastic monk John Capistran. In 1521 +Sultan Suleiman took it from the Hungarians, and from that +year it remained in Turkish possession until 1688, when the +Austrians captured it, only to lose it again in 1690. In 1717 +Prince Eugene of Savoy conquered it for Austria, which kept +it until 1739, improving the fortifications and giving great +impulse to the commercial development of the town. From +1739 to 1789 the Turks were again its masters, when, in that +last year, the Austrians under General Laudon carried it by +assault, only to lose it again in 1792. In 1807 the Servians, +having risen for their independence, forced the Turkish garrison +to capitulate, and became masters of Belgrade, which they kept +until the end of September 1813, when they abandoned it to the +Turks. Up to the year 1862 not only was the fortress of Belgrade +garrisoned by Turkish troops, but the Danubian slope of the town +was inhabited by Turks, living under a special Turkish +administration, while the modern part of the town (the plateau +of the ridge and the western slope) was inhabited by Servians +living under their own authorities. This dual government was +a constant cause of friction between the Servians and the Turks, +and on the occasion of one conflict between the two parties +the Turkish commander of the fortress bombarded the Servian +part of the town (June 1862). The indirect consequence of +this incident was that in 1866, on the categoric demand of Prince +Michael of Servia, and under the diplomatic pressure of the great +powers, the sultan withdrew the Turkish garrison from the +citadel and delivered it to the Servians.</p> +<div class="author">(C. Mi.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN HAMILTON,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> <span class="sc">2nd Baron</span> +(1656-1708), was the eldest son of Robert Hamilton, Lord +Presmennan (d. 1696), and was born on the 5th of July 1656. +Having married Margaret, granddaughter of John Hamilton, +1st Baron Belhaven and Stenton, who had been made a peer by +Charles I. in 1647, he succeeded to this title in 1679. In 1681 +he was imprisoned for opposing the government and for speaking +slightingly of James, duke of York, afterwards James II., in +parliament, and in 1689 he was among those who asked William +of Orange to undertake the government of Scotland. Belhaven +was at the battle of Killiecrankie; he was a member of the +Scottish privy council, and he was a director of the Scottish +Trading Company, which was formed in 1695 and was responsible +for the Darien expedition. He favoured the agitation for +securing greater liberty for his country, an agitation which +culminated in the passing of the Act of Security in 1705, and he +greatly disliked the union of the parliaments, a speech which he +delivered against this proposal in November 1706 attracting +much notice and a certain amount of ridicule. Later he was +imprisoned, ostensibly for favouring a projected French invasion, +and he died in London on the 21st of June 1708. Belhaven is +chiefly famous as an orator, and two of his speeches, one of them +the famous one of November 1706, were printed by D. Defoe in +an appendix to his <i>History of the Union</i> (1786).</p> + +<p>Belhaven’s son, John, who fought on the English side at +Sheriffmuir, became the 3rd baron on his father’s death. He +was drowned in November 1721, whilst proceeding to take up +his duties as governor of Barbados, and was succeeded by his +son John (d. 1764). After the death of John’s brother James in +1777 the title was for a time dormant; then in 1799 the House +of Lords declared that William Hamilton (1765-1814), a +descendant of John Hamilton, the paternal great-grandfather +of the 2nd baron, was entitled to the dignity. William, who +became the 7th baron, was succeeded by his son Robert (1793-1868), +who was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron +Hamilton of Wishaw in 1831. He died without issue in December +1868, when the barony of Hamilton became extinct; in 1875 +the House of Lords declared that his cousin, James Hamilton +(1822-1893) was rightfully Baron Belhaven and Stenton, and +the title descended to his kinsman, Alexander Charles (b. 1840), +the 10th baron.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELISARIUS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 505-565), one of the most famous generals of +the later Roman empire, was born about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 505, in “Germania,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +a district on the borders of Thrace and Macedonia. His name is +supposed to be Slavonic. As a youth he served in the bodyguard +of Justinian, who appointed him commander of the +Eastern army. He won a signal victory over the Persians in +530, and successfully conducted a campaign against them, until +forced, by the rashness of his soldiers, to join battle and suffer +defeat in the following year. Recalled to Constantinople, he +married Antonina, a clever, intriguing woman, and a favourite of +the empress Theodora. During the sedition of the “green” +and “blue” parties of the circus (known as the Nika sedition, +532) he did Justinian good service, effectually crushing the rebels +who had proclaimed Hypatius emperor. In 533 the command +of the expedition against the Vandal kingdom in Africa, a +perilous office, which the rest of the imperial generals shunned, +was conferred on Belisarius. With 15,000 mercenaries, whom he +had to train into Roman discipline, he took Carthage, defeated +Gelimer the Vandal king, and carried him captive, in 534, to +grace the first triumph witnessed in Constantinople. In reward +for these services Belisarius was invested with the consular +dignity, and medals were struck in his honour. At this time the +Ostrogothic kingdom, founded in Italy by Theodoric the Great, +was shaken by internal dissensions, of which Justinian resolved +to avail himself. Accordingly, Belisarius invaded Sicily; and, +after storming Naples and defending Rome for a year against +almost the entire strength of the Goths in Italy, he concluded +the war by the capture of Ravenna, and with it of the Gothic +king Vitiges. So conspicuous were Belisarius’s heroism and +military skill that the Ostrogoths offered to acknowledge him +emperor of the West. But his loyalty did not waver; he +rejected the proposal and returned to Constantinople in 540. +Next year he was sent to check the Persian king Chosroes (Anushirvan); +but, thwarted by the turbulence of his troops, he +achieved no decisive result. On his return to Constantinople he +lived under a cloud for some time, but was pardoned through +the influence Of Antonina with the empress. The Goths having +meanwhile reconquered Italy, Belisarius was despatched with +utterly inadequate forces to oppose them. Nevertheless, during +five campaigns he held his enemies at bay, until he was removed +from the command, and the conclusion of the war was entrusted +to the eunuch Narses. Belisarius remained at Constantinople +in tranquil retirement until 559, when an incursion of Bulgarian +savages spread a panic through the metropolis, and men’s eyes +were once more turned towards the neglected veteran, who +placed himself at the head of a mixed multitude of peasants and +soldiers, and repelled the barbarians with his wonted courage +and adroitness. But this, like his former victories, stimulated +Justinian’s envy. The saviour of his country was coldly received +and left unrewarded by his suspicious sovereign. Shortly afterwards +Belisarius was accused of complicity in a conspiracy +against the emperor (562); his fortune was confiscated, and he +was confined as a prisoner in his palace. He was liberated and +restored to favour in 563, and died in 565.</p> + +<p>The fiction of Belisarius wandering as a blind beggar through +the streets of Constantinople, which has been adopted by +Marmontel in his <i>Bélisaire</i>, and by various painters and poets, +is first heard of in the 10th century. Gibbon justly calls Belisarius +the Africanus of New Rome. He was merciful as a +conqueror, stern as a disciplinarian, enterprising and wary as a +general; while his courage, loyalty and forbearance seem to +have been almost unsullied. He was the idol of his soldiers, a +good tactician, but not a great strategist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Procopius, <i>De Bellis</i> and <i>Historia Arcana</i> (best +edition by J. Haury, 1905, 1907); see Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i> (ed. +Bury, vol. 4); T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i> (vol. 4); J.B. +Bury, <i>Later Roman Empire</i>, vol. i.; Diehl, <i>Justinien</i> (Paris, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. B. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELIT<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (signifying the “lady,” <i>par excellence</i>), in the Babylonian +religion, the designation of the consort of Bel (<i>q.v.</i>). Her +real name was Nin-lil, <i>i.e.</i> the “lady of power,” if the explanation +suggested in <span class="sc">Bel</span> for the second element is correct. She is also +designated as Nin-Khar-sag, “Lady of the mountain,” which +name stands in some relationship to Im-Khar-sag, “storm +mountain”—the name of the staged tower or sacred edifice to +Bel at Nippur. As the consort of En-lil, the goddess Nin-lil or +Belit belongs to Nippur and her titles as “ruler of heaven and +earth,” and “mother of the gods” are all due to her position +as the wife of Bel. While recognized by a temple of her own in +Nippur and honoured by rulers at various times by having votive +offerings made in her honour and fortresses dedicated in her +name, she, as all other goddesses in Babylonia and Assyria with +the single exception of Ishtar, is overshadowed by her male +consort. The title Belit was naturally transferred to the great mother-goddess +Ishtar after the decline of the cult at Nippur, +and we also find the consort of Marduk, known as Sarpanit, +designated as Belit, for the sufficient reason that Marduk, after +the rise of the city of Babylon as the seat of his cult, becomes the +Bel or “lord” of later days.</p> +<div class="author">(M. Ja.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELIZE,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Balize</span>, the capital and principal seaport of +British Honduras, on the Caribbean Sea, in 17° 29′ N. and +88° 11′ W. Pop. (1904) 9969. Belize occupies both banks of +the river Belize, at its mouth. Its houses are generally built of +wood, with high roofs and wide verandahs shaded by cocoanut +or cabbage palms. The principal buildings are the court house, +in the centre of the town, government house, at the southern +end, Fort George, towards the north, the British bank of +Honduras, the hospital, the Roman Catholic convent, and the +Wesleyan church, which is the largest and handsomest of all. +Mangrove swamps surround the town and epidemics of cholera, +yellow fever and other tropical diseases have been frequent; +but the unhealthiness of the climate is mitigated to some extent +by the high tides which cover the marshes, and the invigorating +breezes which blow in from the sea. Belize is connected by +telegraph and telephone with the other chief towns of British +Honduras, but there is no railway, and communication even by +road is defective. The exports are mahogany, rosewood, cedar, +logwood and other cabinet-woods and dye-woods, with cocoanuts, +sugar, sarsaparilla, tortoiseshell, deerskins, turtles and fruit, +especially bananas. Breadstuffs, cotton fabrics and hardware +are imported.</p> + +<p>Belize probably derives its name from the French <i>balise</i>, +“a beacon,” as no doubt some signal or light was raised here +for the guidance of the buccaneers who once infested this region. +Local tradition connects the name with that of Wallis or Wallace, +a Scottish buccaneer, who, in 1638, settled, with a party of +logwood cutters, on St George’s Cay, a small island off the town. +In the 18th century the names Wallis and Belize were used +interchangeably for the town, the river and the whole country. +The history of Belize is inextricably bound up with that of the +rest of British Honduras (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELJAME, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1842-1906), French writer, was born +at Villiers-le-Bel, Seine-et-Oise, on the 26th of November 1842. +He spent part of his childhood in England and was a frequent +visitor in London. His lectures on English literature at the +Sorbonne, where a chair was created expressly for him, did much +to promote the study of English in France. In 1905-1906 he +was Clark lecturer on English literature at Trinity College, +Cambridge. He died at Domont (Seine-et-Oise) on the 19th of +September 1906. His best known book was a masterly study +of the conditions of literary life in England in the 18th century +illustrated by the lives of Dryden, Addison and Pope. This +book, <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (1881), was crowned by the French Academy on the appearance +of the second edition in 1897. He was a good Shakespearian +scholar, and his editions of Macbeth, Othello and Julius Caesar +also received an academic prize in 1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELKNAP, JEREMY<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1744-1798), American author and +clergyman, was born at Boston on the 4th of June 1744, and was +educated at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1762. +In 1767 he became minister of a Congregational church at Dover, +New Hampshire, remaining there until 1787, when he removed +to Federal Street church, Boston. He is recognized as the +founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in 1792 +became an overseer of Harvard. He died at Boston on the +20th of June 1798. Belknap’s chief works are: <i>History of +New Hampshire</i> (1784-1792); <i>An Historical Account of those</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +<i>persons who have been distinguished in America</i>, generally known +as <i>American Biography</i> (1792-1794); <i>The Foresters</i> (1792), &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1820-1890), American +soldier and politician, was born at Newburgh, N.Y., on the +22nd of September 1829. Entering the Union army in 1861, +he took part in the battles of Shiloh, Corinth and Vicksburg, +as major of the 15th Iowa volunteers. In the Atlanta +campaign under Sherman he gained considerable distinction, +rising successively to the rank of brigadier-general in 1864 +and major-general in 1865. During the four years that followed +he was collector of internal revenue for Iowa, leaving that post in +1869 to become secretary of war. In 1876, in consequence of +unproved accusations of corruption, he resigned. He died at +Washington, D.C., on the 13th of October 1890.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1847-  ), American +inventor and physicist, son of Alexander Melville Bell, was born +in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 3rd of March 1847. He was +educated at the university of Edinburgh and the university of +London, and removed with his father to Canada in 1870. In +1872 he became professor of vocal physiology in Boston University. +In 1876 he exhibited an apparatus embodying the results +of his studies in the transmission of sound by electricity, and this +invention, with improvements and modifications, constitutes +the modern commercial telephone. He was the inventor also of +the photophone, an instrument for transmitting sound by +variations in a beam of light, and of phonographic apparatus. +Later, he interested himself in the problem of mechanical flight. +He published many scientific monographs, including a memoir +on the formation of a deaf variety in the human race.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1819-1905), American +educationalist, was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 1st of +March 1819. He studied under and became the principal assistant +of his father, Alexander Bell, an authority on phonetics +and defective speech. From 1843 to 1865 he lectured on elocution +at the university of Edinburgh, and from 1865 to 1870 at the +university of London. In 1868, and again in 1870 and 1871, he +lectured in the Lowell Institute course in Boston. In 1870 he +became a lecturer on philology at Queen’s College, Kingston, +Ontario; and in 1881 he removed to Washington, D.C., where +he devoted himself to the education of deaf mutes by the “visible +speech” method of orthoepy, in which the alphabetical characters +of his own invention were graphic diagrams of positions and +motions of the organs of speech. He held high rank as an +authority on physiological phonetics (<i>q.v</i>.) and was the author of +numerous works on orthoepy, elocution and education, including +<i>Steno-Phonography</i> (1852); <i>Letters and Sounds</i> (1858); <i>The +Standard Elocutionist</i> (1860); <i>Principles of Speech and Dictionary +of Sounds</i> (1863); <i>Visible Speech: The Science of Universal +Alphabetics</i> (1867); <i>Sounds and their Relations</i> (1881); <i>Lectures +on Phonetics</i> (1885); <i>A Popular Manual of Visible Speech and +Vocal Physiology</i> (1889); <i>World English: the Universal Language</i> +(1888); <i>The Science of Speech</i> (1897); <i>The Fundamentals of +Elocution</i> (1899).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Hitz, <i>Alexander Melville Bell</i> (Washington, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, ANDREW<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1753-1832), British divine and educationalist, +was born at St Andrews on the 27th of March 1753. He +graduated at the university there, and afterwards spent some +years as a tutor in Virginia, U.S.A. On his return he took orders, +and in 1787 sailed for India, where he held eight army chaplaincies +at the same time. In 1789 he became superintendent +of the male orphan asylum at Madras, and having been obliged +from scarcity of teachers to introduce the system of mutual +tuition by the pupils, found the scheme answer so well that he +became convinced of its universal applicability. In 1797, after +his return to London, he published a small pamphlet explaining +his views on education. Little public attention was drawn +towards the “monitorial” plan till Joseph Lancaster (<i>q.v</i>.), the +Quaker, opened a school in Southwark, conducting it in accordance +with Bell’s principles, and improving on his system. The +success of the method, and the strong support given to Lancaster +by the whole body of Nonconformists gave immense impetus to +the movement. Similar schools were established in great +numbers; and the members of the Church of England, becoming +alarmed at the patronage of such schools resting entirely in the +hands of dissenters, resolved to set up similar institutions in +which their own principles should be inculcated. In 1807 Bell +was called from his rectory of Swanage in Dorset to organize a +system of schools in accordance with these views, and in 1811 +became superintendent of the newly formed “National Society +for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the +Established Church.” For his valuable services he was in some +degree recompensed by his preferment to a prebend of Westminster, +and to the mastership of Sherburn hospital, Durham. +He tried, but without success, to plant his system in Scotland +and on the continent. He died on the 27th of January 1832, at +Cheltenham, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His great +fortune was bequeathed almost entirely for educational purposes. +Of the £120,000 given in trust to the provost of St Andrews, two +city ministers and the professor of Greek in the university, half +was devoted to the founding of the important school, called the +Madras College, at St Andrews; £10,000 was left to each of the +large cities, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Inverness and Aberdeen, +for school purposes; and £10,000 was also given to the Royal +Naval School.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Southey’s <i>Life of Dr Bell</i> (3 vols.) is very tedious; J.D. +Meiklejohn’s <i>An Old Educational Reformer</i> is concise and accurate.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, SIR CHARLES<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1774-1842), Scottish anatomist, was +born at Edinburgh in November 1774, the youngest son of the +Rev. William Bell, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of +Scotland; among his brothers were the anatomist, John Bell, +and the jurist, G.J. Bell. After attending the high school and +the university of Edinburgh, he embraced the profession of +medicine, and devoted himself chiefly to the study of anatomy, +under the direction of his brother John. His first work, entitled +<i>A System of Dissections, explaining the anatomy of the human +body, the manner of displaying the parts, and their varieties in +disease</i>, was published in Edinburgh in 1798, while he was still +a pupil, and for many years was considered to be a valuable +guide to the student of practical anatomy. In 1802 he published +a series of engravings of original drawings, showing the anatomy +of the brain and nervous system. These drawings, which are +remarkable for artistic skill and finish, were taken from dissections +made by Bell for the lectures or demonstrations he gave +on the nervous system as part of the course of anatomical +instruction of his brother. In 1804 he wrote the third volume, +containing the anatomy of the nervous system and of the organs +of special sense, of <i>The Anatomy of the Human Body</i>, by John +and Charles Bell. In November of the same year he migrated +to London, and from that date, for nearly forty years, he kept up +a regular correspondence with his brother George, much of which +was published in the <i>Letters of Sir Charles Bell</i>, &c., 1870. +The earlier letters of this correspondence show how rapidly he rose +to distinction in a field where success was difficult, as it was +already occupied by such men as John Abernethy, Sir Astley +Cooper and Henry Cline. Before leaving Edinburgh, he had +written his work on the <i>Anatomy of Expression</i>, which was +published in London soon after his arrival and at once attracted +attention. His practical knowledge of anatomy and his skill as an +artist qualified him in an exceptional manner for such a work. +The object of this treatise was to describe the arrangements by +which the influence of the mind is propagated to the muscular +frame, and to give a rational explanation of the muscular movements +which usually accompany the various emotions and +passions. One special feature was the importance attributed +to the respiratory arrangements as a source of expression, and it +was shown how the physician and surgeon might derive information +regarding the nature and extent of important diseases by +observing the expression of bodily suffering. This work, apart +from its value to artists and psychologists, is of interest historically, +as there is no doubt the investigations of the author into the +nervous supply of the muscles of expression induced him to +prosecute inquiries which led to his great discoveries in the +physiology of the nervous system.</p> + +<p>In 1811 Bell published his <i>New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +in which he announced the discovery of the different functions +of the nerves corresponding with their relations to different +parts of the brain; his latest researches were described in <i>The +Nervous System of the Human Body</i> (1830), a collection of papers +read by him before the Royal Society. He discovered that in the +nervous trunks there are special sensory filaments, the office +of which is to transmit impressions from the periphery of the +body to the sensorium, and special motor filaments which convey +motor impressions from the brain or other nerve centre to the +muscles. He also showed that some nerves consist entirely of +sensory filaments and are therefore sensory nerves, that others +are composed of motor filaments and are therefore motor nerves, +whilst a third variety contains both kinds of filaments and are +therefore to be regarded as sensory-motor. Furthermore, he +indicated that the brain and spinal cord may be divided into +separate parts, each part having a special function—one part +ministering to motion, the other to sensation, and that the origin +of the nerves from one or other or both of those sources endows +them with the peculiar property of the division whence they +spring. He also demonstrated that no motor nerve ever passes +through a ganglion. Lastly, he showed, both from theoretical +considerations and from the result of actual experiment on the +living animal, that the anterior roots of the spinal nerves are +<i>motor</i>, while the posterior are <i>sensory</i>. These discoveries as a +whole must be regarded as the greatest in physiology since that +of the circulation of the blood by William Harvey. They were +not only a distinct and definite advance in scientific knowledge, +but from them flowed many practical results of much importance +in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It is not surprising +that Bell should have viewed his results with exultation. On +the 26th of November 1807, he wrote to his brother George:—“I +have done a more interesting <i>nova anatomia cerebri humani</i> +than it is possible to conceive. I lectured it yesterday. I +prosecuted it last night till one o’clock; and I am sure it will +be well received.” On the 31st of the same month he wrote:—“I +really think this new anatomy of the brain will strike more +than the discovery of the lymphatics being absorbents.”</p> + +<p>In 1807 he produced a <i>System of Comparative Surgery</i>, in which +surgery is regarded almost wholly from an anatomical and +operative point of view, and there is little or no mention of the +use of medicinal substances. It placed him, however, in the +highest rank of English writers on surgery. In 1809 he relinquished +his professional work in London, and rendered +meritorious services to the wounded from Coruña, who were +brought to the Haslar hospital at Portsmouth. In 1810 he published +a series of <i>Letters concerning the Diseases of the Urethra</i>, +in which he treated of stricture from an anatomical and pathological +point of view. In 1812 he was appointed surgeon to the +Middlesex hospital, a post he retained for twenty-four years. +He was also professor of anatomy, physiology and surgery to +the College of Surgeons of London, and for many years teacher +of anatomy in the school which used to exist in Great Windmill +Street. In 1815 he went to Brussels to treat the wounded of +the battle of Waterloo. In 1816, 1817 and 1818, he published +a series of <i>Quarterly Reports of Cases in Surgery</i>; +in 1821 a volume of coloured plates with descriptive +letterpress, entitled <i>Illustrations +of the great operations of Surgery, Trepan, Hernia, Amputation +and Lithotomy</i>, and in 1824 <i>Observations on Injuries of the +Spine and of the Thigh Bone</i>. On the formation of University +College, Gower Street, he was for a short time head of the +medical department. In 1832 he wrote a paper for the Royal +Society of London on the “Organs of the Human Voice,” in which +he gave many illustrations of the physiological action of these +parts, and in 1833 a Bridgewater treatise, <i>The Hand: its Mechanism +and Vital Endowments as evincing Design</i>. Along with Lord +Brougham he annotated and illustrated an edition of Paley’s +<i>Natural Theology</i>, published in 1836. The Royal Society of +London awarded to him in 1829 the first annual medal of that +year given by George IV. for discoveries in science; and when +William IV. ascended the throne, Charles Bell received the +honour of knighthood along with a few other men distinguished +in science and literature.</p> + +<p>In 1836 the chair of surgery in the university of Edinburgh +was offered to him. He was then one of the foremost scientific +men in London, and he had a large surgical practice. But his +opinion was “London is a place to live in, but not to die in”; +and he accepted the appointment. In Edinburgh he did not +earn great local professional success; and, it must be confessed, +he was not appreciated as he deserved. But honours came +thick upon him. On the continent of Europe he was spoken +of as greater than Harvey. It is narrated that one day P.J. +Roux, a celebrated French physiologist, dismissed his class +without a lecture, saying “<i>C’est assez, messieurs, vous avez vu +Charles Bell.</i>” During his professorship he published the <i>Institutes +of Surgery, arranged in the order of the lectures delivered in the +university of Edinburgh</i> (1838); and in 1841 he wrote a volume +of <i>Practical Essays</i>, two of which, “On Squinting,” and “On +the action of purgatives,” are of great value. He died at +Hallow Park near Worcester on the 28th of April 1842.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1770-1843), Scottish jurist, was +born at Edinburgh on the 20th of March 1770. He was an elder +brother of Sir Charles Bell. At the age of eight he entered the +high school, but he received no university education further than +attending the lectures of A.F. Tytler, Dugald Stewart and +Hume. He became a member of the Faculty of Advocates in +1791, and was one of the earliest and most attached friends +of Francis Jeffrey. In 1804 he published a <i>Treatise on the Law +of Bankruptcy</i> in Scotland, which he subsequently enlarged +and published in 1826 under the title of <i>Commentaries on the Law +of Scotland and on the principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence—</i> +an institutional work of the very highest excellence, which has +had its value acknowledged by such eminent jurists as Joseph +Story and James Kent. In 1821 Bell was elected professor of +the law of Scotland in the university of Edinburgh; and in +1831 he was appointed to one of the principal clerkships in +the supreme court. He was placed at the head of a commission +in 1833 to inquire into the Scottish bankruptcy law; +and in consequence of the reports of the commissioners, chiefly +drawn up by himself, many beneficial alterations were made. +He died on the 23rd of September 1843. Bell’s smaller treatise, +<i>Principles of the Law of Scotland</i>, became a standard text-book +for law students. The <i>Illustrations of the Principles</i> + is also a work of high value.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, HENRY<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1767-1830), Scottish engineer, was born +at Torphichen, Linlithgowshire, in 1767. Having received +the ordinary education of a parish school, he was apprenticed +to his uncle, a millwright, and, after qualifying himself as a +ship-modeller at Bo’ness, went to London, where he found +employment under John Rennie, the celebrated engineer. Returning +to Scotland in 1790, he first settled as a carpenter at +Glasgow and afterwards removed to Helensburgh, on the Firth +of Clyde where he pursued his mechanical projects, and also +found occasional employment as an engineer. In January +1812 he placed on the Clyde a steamboat (which he named the +“Comet”) of about 25 tons, propelled by an engine of three +horse power, at a speed of 7 m. an hour. Although the honour +of priority is admitted to belong to the American engineer +Robert Fulton, there appears to be no doubt that Fulton had +received very material assistance in the construction of his +vessel from Bell and others in Great Britain. A handsome sum +was raised for Bell by subscription among the citizens of Glasgow; +and he also received from the trustees of the river Clyde a pension +of £100 a year. He died at Helensburgh on the 14th of November +1830. A monument to his memory stands on the banks of the +Clyde, at Dunglass, near Bowling.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1803-1874), a Scottish lawyer +and man of letters, was born at Glasgow on the 8th of November +1803. He received his education at the Glasgow high school +and at Edinburgh University. He became intimate with “Delta” +Moir, James Hogg, John Wilson (Christopher North), and others +of the brilliant staff of <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>, +to which he was drawn by his political sympathies. +In 1828 he became editor of the <i>Edinburgh Literary Journal</i>, +which was eventually incorporated in the <i>Edinburgh Weekly Chronicle</i>. He was admitted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +to the bar in 1832. In 1839 he was appointed sheriff-substitute +of Lanarkshire, and in 1867 he succeeded Sir Archibald Alison +in the post of sheriff-principal of the county, an office which he +filled with distinguished success. In 1831 he published <i>Summer +and Winter Hours</i>, a volume of poems, of which the best known +is that on Mary, queen of Scots. He further defended the cause of +the unfortunate queen in a prose <i>Life</i> (2 vols., 1828-1831). +Among his other works may be mentioned a preface which he +wrote to Bell and Bains’s edition (1865) of the works of Shakespeare, +and <i>Romances and Minor Poems</i> (1866). He figures +in the society of the <i>Noctes Ambrosianae</i> as “Tallboys.” He +died on the 7th of January 1874.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, JACOB<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1810-1859), British pharmaceutical chemist, +was born in London on the 5th of March 1810. On the completion +of his education, he joined his father in business as a +chemist in Oxford Street, and at the same time attended the +chemistry lectures at the Royal Institution, and those on +medicine at King’s College. Always keenly alive to the interests +of chemists in general, Bell conceived the idea of a society which +should at once protect the interests of the trade, and improve +its status, and at a public meeting held on the 15th of April 1841, +it was resolved to found the Pharmaceutical Society of Great +Britain. Bell carried his scheme through in the face of many +difficulties, and further advanced the cause of pharmacy by +establishing the <i>Pharmaceutical Journal</i>, and superintending +its publication for eighteen years. The Pharmaceutical Society +was incorporated by royal charter in 1843. One of the first abuses +to engage the attention of the new body was the practice of +pharmacy by unqualified persons, and in 1845 Bell drew up the +draft of a bill to deal with the matter, one of the provisions of +which was the recognition of the Pharmaceutical Society as the +governing body in all questions connected with pharmacy. +For some time after this the question of pharmaceutical legislation +was widely discussed. In 1850 Bell successfully contested +the borough of St Albans in order that he might be able to advocate +his proposals for reform more effectually in parliament. +In 1851 he brought forward a bill embodying these proposals. +It passed its second reading, but was considerably whittled +down in committee, and when eventually it became law it only +partially represented its sponsor’s intentions. Bell was the +author of an <i>Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy in +Great Britain</i>. He died on the 12th of June 1859.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, JOHN<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1691-1780), Scottish traveller, was born at +Antermony in Scotland in 1691, and educated for the medical +profession, in which he took the degree of M.D. In 1714 he set +out for St Petersburg, where, through the introduction of a +countryman, he was nominated medical attendant to Valensky, +recently appointed to the Persian embassy, with whom he +travelled from 1715 to 1718. The next four years he spent in +an embassy to China, passing through Siberia and the great +Tatar deserts. He had scarcely rested from this last journey +when he was summoned to attend Peter the Great in his perilous +expedition to Derbend and the Caspian Gates. The narrative +of this journey he enriched with interesting particulars of the +public and private life of that remarkable prince. In 1738 he +was sent by the Russian government on a mission to Constantinople, +to which, accompanied by a single attendant who spoke +Turkish, he proceeded in the midst of winter and all the horrors +of war, returning in May to St Petersburg. It appears that +after this he was for several years established as a merchant +at Constantinople, where he married in 1746. In the following +year he retired to his estate of Antermony, where he spent the +remainder of his life. He died in 1780. His travels, published +at Glasgow in 1763, were speedily translated into French, and +widely circulated in Europe.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, JOHN<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1763-1820), Scottish anatomist and surgeon, +an elder brother of Sir Charles Bell, was born at Edinburgh on +the 12th of May 1763. After completing his professional education +at Edinburgh, he carried on from 1790 in Surgeons’ Square +an anatomical lecture-theatre, where, in spite of much opposition, +due partly to the unconservative character of his teaching, he +attracted large audiences by his lectures, in which he was for a +time assisted by his younger brother Charles. In 1793-1795 he +published <i>Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds</i>, and in +1800 he became involved in an unfortunate controversy with +James Gregory (1753-1821), the professor of medicine at Edinburgh. +Gregory in 1800 attacked the system whereby the +fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh acted in +rotation as surgeons at the Royal Infirmary, with the result +that the younger fellows were excluded. Bell, who was among +the number, composed an <i>Answer for the Junior Members</i> (1800), +and ten years later published a collection of <i>Letters on Professional +Character and Manners</i>, which he had addressed to Gregory. +After his exclusion from the infirmary he ceased to lecture and +devoted himself to study and practice. In 1816 he was injured +by a fall from his horse and in the following year went to Italy +for the benefit of his health. He died at Rome on the 15th of +April 1820. His works also included <i>Principles of Surgery</i> (1801), +<i>Anatomy of the Human Body</i>, which went through several +editions and was translated into German, and <i>Observations on +Italy</i>, published by his widow in 1825.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, JOHN<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1797-1869), American political leader, was born +near Nashville, Tennessee, on the 15th of February 1797. He +graduated at the university of Nashville in 1814, and in 1817 +was elected to the state senate, but retiring after one term, he +devoted himself for ten years to the study and the practice of +the law. From 1827 until 1841 he was a member of the national +House of Representatives, of which from June 1834 to March +1835 he was the speaker, and in which he was conspicuous as a +debater and a conservative leader. Though he entered political +life as a Democrat, he became estranged from his party’s leader, +President Jackson, also a Tennessean, and after 1835 was one of +the leaders of the Whig party in the South. In March 1841 he +became the secretary of war in President Harrison’s cabinet, +but in September, after the death of Harrison and the rupture +between the Whig leaders and President Tyler, he resigned this +position. From 1847 until 1859 he was a member of the United +States Senate, and attracted attention by his ability in debate +and his political independence, being one of two Southern +senators to vote against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 and +against the admission of Kansas with the Lecompton or pro-slavery +constitution in 1858. Strongly conservative by temperament +and devoted to the Union, he ardently desired to prevent +the threatened secession of the Southern states in 1860, and +was the candidate, for the presidency, of the Constitutional +Union Party, often called from the names of its candidates for +the presidency and the vice-presidency (Edward Everett) the +“Bell and Everett Party,” which was made up largely of former +Whigs and Southern “Know-Nothings,” opposed sectionalism, +and strove to prevent the disruption of the union. The party +adopted no platform, and discarding all other issues, resolved +that “it is both the part of patriotism and of duty to recognize +no political principle other than the constitution of the country, +the union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws.” Bell +was defeated, but received a popular vote of 587,830 (mostly +cast in the Southern states), and obtained the electoral votes of +Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee—39 altogether, out of a total +of 303. Bell tried earnestly to prevent the secession of his own +state, but after the issue of President Lincoln’s proclamation +of the 15th of April 1861 calling on the various states for volunteers, +his efforts were unavailing, and when Tennessee joined the +Confederacy Bell “went with his state.” He took no part in +the Civil War, and died on the 10th of September 1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL, ROBERT<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1800-1867), Irish man of letters, was born at +Cork on the 16th of January 1800. He was educated at Trinity +College, Dublin, where he was one of the founders of the Dublin +Historical Society. In 1828 he settled in London, where he +edited a weekly paper, the <i>Atlas</i>, and until 1841 was engaged +in journalism; and afterwards in miscellaneous literary work. He +died on the 12th of April 1867. His most important work is his +annotated edition of the <i>English Poets</i> (24 vols., 1854-1857; +new ed., 29 vols., 1866), the works of each poet being prefaced by +a memoir. For Lardner’s <i>Cabinet Cyclopaedia</i> he wrote: <i>History +of Russia</i> (3 vols., 1836-1838); <i>Lives of English Poets</i> (2 vols., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span> +1839); a continuation, with W. Wallace, of Sir James Mackintosh’s +<i>History of England</i> (vols. iv.-x., 1830-1840); and the fifth +volume (1840) of the <i>Lives of the British Admirals</i>, begun by +R. Southey. He was a director of the Royal Literary Fund, +and well known for his open-hearted generosity to fellow men of +letters.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a hollow metallic vessel used for making a more or less +loud noise (A.S. <i>bellan</i>, to bellow; Mid. Eng. “to bell”; cf. +“As loud as belleth, winde in helle,” in Chaucer, <i>House of Fame</i>, +iii. 713). Bells are usually cup-like in shape, and are constructed +so as to give one fundamental note when struck. The term does +not strictly include gongs, cymbals, metal plates, resonant bars +of metal or wood, or tinkling ornaments, such as <i>e.g.</i> the “bells” +upon the Jewish high priest’s dress (Exodus xxviii. 32); nor is +it necessary here to deal with the common useful varieties of +sheep or cow bells, or bells on sledges or harness. For house +bells see the end of this article. A “diving-bell” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divers</a></span>) +is only so called from the analogy of its shape.</p> + +<p>The main interest of bells and bell-ringing has reference to +church or tower bells, their history, construction and uses.</p> + +<p><i>Early Bells.</i>—Of bells before the Christian era there is no +trustworthy evidence. The instruments which summoned the +Romans to public baths or processions, or that which Lucian +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180) describes as set in motion by a water-clock (<i>clepsydra</i>) +to measure time, were probably cymbals or resonant plates of +metal, like the timbrels (<i>corybantia aera</i>, Virg. <i>Aen.</i> iii. 111) +used in the worship of Cybele, or the Egyptian <i>sistrum</i>, which +seems to have been a sort of rattle. The earliest Latin word +for a bell (<i>campana</i>) is late Latin of the 4th or 5th century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>; and the first application of bells to churches has been +ascribed to Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campania about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400. +There is, however, no confirmation of this story, which may have +arisen from the words <i>campana</i> and <i>nola</i> (a small bell); and in a +letter from Paulinus to the emperor Severus, describing very +fully the decoration of his church, the bishop makes no mention +of bells. It has been maintained with somewhat more reason +that Pope Sabinianus (604) first used church bells; but it seems +clear that they were introduced into France as early as 550. +In the 7th century Bede mentions a bell brought from Italy +by Benedict Biscop for his abbey at Wearmouth, and speaks +of the sound of a bell being well known at Whitby Abbey at the +time of St Hilda’s death (680). St Dunstan hung many in the +10th century; and in the 11th they were not uncommon in +Switzerland and Germany. It is said that the Greek Christians +were unacquainted with bells till the 9th century; but it is +known that for political reasons, after the taking of Constantinople +by the Turks in 1453, their use was forbidden lest they +should provide a popular signal for revolt.</p> + +<p>Several old bells are extant in Scotland, Ireland and Wales; +the oldest are often quadrangular, made of thin iron plates +hammered and riveted together. A well-known specimen is +St Patrick’s bell preserved at Belfast, called <i>Clog an eadhachta +Phatraic</i>, “the bell of St Patrick’s will.” It is 6 in. high, 5 +broad, 4 deep, adorned with gems and gold and silver filigree-work; +it is inscribed 1091 and 1105, but it is probably alluded to +in Ulster annals in 552. (For Scottish bells, see <i>Illustrated Catalogue +of Archaeological Museum</i>, Edinburgh, for 1856.)</p> + +<p>The four-sided bell of the Irish missionary St Gall (646) is +preserved at the monastery of St Gall, Switzerland. In these +early times bells were usually small; even in the 11th century +a bell presented to the church at Orleans weighing 2600 ℔ was +thought large. In the 13th century larger bells were cast. The +bell Jacqueline of Paris, cast in 1400, weighed 15,000 ℔; another +Paris bell of 1472, 25,000 ℔; and the famous Amboise bell at +Rouen (1501) 36,364 ℔</p> + +<p>To these scanty records of the early history of bells may be +added the enumeration of different kinds of bells by Hieronymus +Magius, in his work <i>De Tintinnabulis</i>:—1. <i>Tintinnabulum</i>, a little +bell, otherwise called <i>tinniolum</i>, for refectory or dormitory, according +to Joannes Belethus, but Guillaume Durand names <i>squilla</i> for +the refectory; 2. <i>Petasius</i>, or larger “broad-brimmed hat” bell; +3. <i>Codon</i>, orifice of trumpet, a Greek hand-bell; 4. <i>Nola</i>, a very +small bell, used in the choir, according to Durand; 5. <i>Campana</i>, a +large bell, first used in the Latin churches in the steeple (Durand), +in the tower (Belethus); 6. <i>Squilla</i>, a shrill little bell. We read +of <i>cymbalum</i> for the cloister (Durand) or <i>campanella</i> for the +cloister (Belethus); <i>nolula</i> or <i>dupla</i> in the clock; <i>signum</i> +in the tower (<i>e.g.</i> in the <i>Excerptions</i> of St Egbert, 750); the +Portuguese still call a bell <i>sino.</i></p> + +<p><i>Bell-founding.</i>—The earliest bells were probably not cast, +but made of plates riveted together, like the bells of St Gall +or Belfast above mentioned. The bell-founder’s art, originally +practised in the monasteries, passed gradually into the hands +of a professional class, by whom, in England and the Low +Countries especially, were gradually worked out the principles +of construction, mixture of metals, lines and proportions, now +generally accepted as necessary for a good bell. In England +some of the early founders were peripatetic artificers, who +travelled about the country, setting up a temporary foundry +to cast bells wherever they were wanted. Miles Graye (<i>c.</i> 1650), +a celebrated East Anglian founder, carried on his work in this +fashion, and in old churchwardens’ accounts are sometimes +found notices of payment for the casting of bells at places where +no regular foundry is known to have existed. The chief centres +of the art in medieval times were London, York, Gloucester +and Nottingham; and bells by <i>e.g.</i> “John of York” (14th +century), Samuel Smith, father and son, of York (1680-1730), +Abraham Rudhall and his descendants of Gloucester (1684-1774), +Mot (16th century), Lester and Pack (1750), Christopher +Hodson of London (who cast “Great Tom” of Oxford, 1681) +and Richard Phelps (1716) are still in high repute. The Whitechapel +Bell Foundry (now Mears and Stainbank), established +by Robert Mot in 1570, incorporated the business of the Rudhalls, +Lester and Pack, Phelps, Briant and others, and is now one +of the leading firms of bell-founders; others being Warner +and Sons of Spitalfields and Taylor & Co., Loughborough, the +founders of “Great Paul” for St Paul’s cathedral (1881). Of +Dutch and Flemish founders the firms of van den Gheyn (1550), +Hemony (1650), Aerschodt & Wagheven at Louvain and others +have a great reputation in the Low Countries, especially for +“carillons,” such as those at Antwerp or Bruges, a form of +bell-music which has not taken much root in England, despite +the advocacy of the Rev. H.R. Haweis, who proclaimed its +superiority to English change-ringing.</p> + +<p>Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin in the proportion +of 4 to 1. In Henry III.’s reign it was 2 to 1. In Layard’s +Nineveh bronze bells, it was 10 to 1. Zinc and lead are used in +small bells. The thickness of the bell’s edge is about one-tenth +of its diameter, and its height is twelve times its thickness.</p> + +<p>Bells, like viols, have been made of every conceivable shape +within certain limits. The long narrow bell, the quadrangular, +and the mitre-shaped in Europe at least indicate antiquity, +and the graceful curved-inwardly-midway and full trumpet-mouthed +bell indicates an age not earlier than the 16th century.</p> + +<p>The bell is first designed on paper according to the scale of +measurement. Then the crook is made, which is a kind of double +wooden compass, the legs of which are respectively curved to +the shape of the inner and outer sides of the bell, a space of the +exact form and thickness of the bell being left betwixt them. +The compass is pivoted on a stake driven into the bottom of +the casting-pit. A stuffing of brickwork is built round the stake, +leaving room for a fire to be lighted inside it. The outside of this +stuffing is then padded with fine soft clay, well mixed and bound +together with calves’ hair, and the inner leg of the compass run +round it, bringing it to the exact shape of the inside of the bell. +Upon this <i>core</i>, well smeared with grease, is fashioned the false +clay bell, the outside of which is defined by the outer leg of the +compass. Inscriptions are now moulded in wax on the outside +of the clay-bell; these are carefully smeared with grease, then +lightly covered with the finest clay, and then with coarser clay, +until a solid mantle is thickened over the outside of the clay bell. +A fire is now lighted, and the whole baked hard; the grease and +wax inscriptions steam out through holes at the top, leaving +the sham clay bell baked hard and tolerably loose, between the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span> +<i>core</i> and the <i>cope</i> or <i>mantle</i>. The cope is then lifted, the clay +bell broken up, the <i>cope</i> let down again, enclosing now between +itself and the <i>core</i> the exact shape of the bell. The metal is then +boiled and run molten into the mould. A large bell will take +several weeks to cool. When extricated it ought to be scarcely +touched and should hardly require tuning. This is called its +maiden state, and it used to be so sought after that many bells +were left rough and out of tune in order to claim it.</p> + +<p><i>Bell Tones and Tuning.</i>—A good bell, fairly struck, should +give out three distinct notes—a “fundamental” note or “tonic”; +the octave above, or “nominal”; and the octave below, or +“hum-note.” (It also gives out the “third” and “fifth” +above the fundamental; but of these it is less necessary to take +notice.) Very few bells, however, have any two of these notes, +and hardly any all three, in unison—the “hum-notes” being +generally a little sharper, and the “fundamentals” a little +flatter, than their respective “nominals.” In tuning a “ring” +or series of bells, the practice of founders has hitherto been to +take one set of notes (in England usually the nominals, on the +continent the fundamentals) and put these into tune, leaving +the other tones to take care of themselves. But in different +circumstances different tones assert themselves. Thus, when +bells are struck at considerable intervals, the fundamental notes +being fuller and more persistent are more prominent; but when +struck in rapid succession (as in English change-ringing or +with the higher bells of a Belgian “carillon,” which take the +“air”) the higher tone of the “nominal” is more perceptible. +The inharmonious character of many Belgian carillons, and of +certain Belgian and French rings in England, is ascribed by +Canon A.B. Simpson (in his pamphlet, <i>Why Bells sound out of +Tune</i>, 1897) to neglect of the “nominals,” the fundamentals +only being tuned to each other. To tune a series of bells properly, +the fundamental tone of each bell must be brought into true +octave with its nominal, and the whole series of bells, thus +rectified, put into tune with each other. The “hum-note” +of each, which is the tone of the whole mass of metal, should also +be in tune with the others. If flatter than the nominal, it cannot +be sharpened; but if sharper (as is more usual), it may be flattened +by thinning the metal near the crown of the bell. The great bell +(“Great Paul”) cast by Messrs Taylor for St Paul’s cathedral, +London, has all its tones in true harmony, except that the tone +next above the fundamental (E♭) is a “fourth” (A♭) instead +of a “third” (G or G♭). The great bell cast by the same founders +for Beverley Minster is in perfect tune; and with the improved +machinery now in use, there is no reason why this should not +henceforth be the case with all church bells.</p> + +<p>The quality of a bell depends not only on the casting and the +fineness and mixture of metals, but upon the due proportion of +metal to the calibre of the bell. The larger the bell the lower +the tone; but if we try to make a large E bell with metal only +enough for a smaller F bell, the E bell will be puny and poor. It +has been calculated that for a peal of bells to give the pure chord +of the ground tone or key-note, third, fifth and octave, the +diameters are required to be as thirty, twenty-four, twenty, +fifteen, and the weights as eighty, forty-one, twenty-four and +ten.</p> + +<p><i>History and Uses of Bells.</i>—The history of bells is full of +romantic interest. In civilized times they have been intimately +associated, not only with all kinds of religious and social uses, +but with almost every important historical event. Their influence +upon architecture is not less remarkable, for to them indirectly +we probably owe most of the famous towers in the world. +Church towers at first, perhaps, scarcely rose above the roof, +being intended as lanterns for the admission of light, and addition +to their height was in all likelihood suggested by the more common +use of bells.</p> + +<p>Bells early summoned soldiers to arms, as well as Christians +to church. They sounded the alarm in fire or tumult; and the +rights of the burghers in their bells were jealously guarded. +Thus the chief bell in the cathedral often belonged to the town, +not to the cathedral chapter. The curfew, the Carolus and +St Mary’s bell in the Antwerp tower all belong to the town; the +rest are the property of the chapter. He who commanded the +bell commanded the town; for by that sound, at a moment’s +notice, he could rally and concentrate his adherents. Hence a +conqueror commonly acknowledged the political importance of +bells by melting them down; and the cannon of the conquered +was in turn melted up to supply the garrison with bells to be used +in the suppression of revolts. Many a bloody chapter in history +has been rung in and out by bells.</p> + +<p>On the third day of Easter 1282, at the ringing of the Sicilian +vespers (which have given their name to the affair), 8000 French +were massacred in cold blood by John of Procida, who had thus +planned to free Sicily from Charles of Anjou. On the 24th of +August, St Bartholomew’s day, 1571, bells ushered in the +massacre of the Huguenots in France, to the number, it is said, of +100,000. Bells have rung alike over slaughtered and ransomed +cities; and far and wide throughout Europe in the hour of +victory or irreparable loss. At the news of Nelson’s triumph +and death at Trafalgar, the bells of Chester rang a merry peal +alternated with one deep toll, and similar incidents could be +multiplied.</p> + +<p>There are many old customs connected with the use of church +bells, some of which have died out, while others remain here and +there. The best known and perhaps oldest of these is the +“Curfew” (<i>couvre-feu</i>), first enforced (though not perhaps +introduced) by William the Conqueror in England as a signal for +all lights and fires to be extinguished at 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>—probably to +prevent nocturnal gatherings of disaffected subjects. In many +towns it survived into the 19th century as a signal for closing +shops at 8 or 9; and it is still kept up in various places as an old +custom; thus at Oxford the familiar boom of “Tom’s” 101 +strokes is still the signal for closing college gates at 9. The +largest and heaviest bells were used for the Curfew, to carry the +sound as far as possible, as it did to Milton’s ear, suggesting the +descriptive lines in <i>Il Penseroso</i> (74-75):—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Oft, on a plot of rising ground,</p> +<p class="i05">I hear the far-off curfew sound</p> +<p class="i05">Over some wide-watered shore,</p> +<p class="i05">Swinging slow with sullen roar.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Gray’s allusion in the <i>Elegy</i> is well known; as also are those of +Shakespeare to the elves “that rejoice to hear the solemn +curfew” (<i>Tempest</i>), or the fiend that “begins at curfew and +walks till the first cock” (<i>King Lear</i>); or Milton’s in <i>Comus</i> +to the ghost “that breaks his magic chains at curfew time.”</p> + +<p>Among secular uses connected with church bells are the +“Mote” or “Common” bell, summoning to municipal or other +meetings, as <i>e.g.</i> the 7th at St Mary’s, Stamford, tolled for +quarter sessions, or the bell at St Mary’s, Oxford, for meetings +of Convocation. In some places one of the bells is known as the +“Vestry Bell.” The “Pancake Bell,” still rung here and there +on Shrove Tuesday, was originally a summons to confession +before Lent; the “Harvest Bell” and “Seeding Bell” called +labourers to their work; while the “Gleaning Bell” fixed the +hours for beginning or leaving off gleaning, so that everyone +might start fair and have an even chance. The “Oven Bell” +gave notice when the lord of the manor’s oven was ready for his +tenants to bake their bread; the “Market Bell” was a signal +for selling to begin; and in some country districts a church bell +is still rung at dinner time. The general diffusion of clocks and +watches has rendered bells less necessary for marking the events +of daily life; and most of these old customs have either disappeared +or are fast disappearing. At Strassburg a large bell +of eight tons weight, known as the “Holy Ghost Bell,” is only +rung when two fires are seen in the town at once; a “storm-bell” +warns travellers in the plain of storms approaching from +the mountains, and the “Thor Glocke” (gate bell) gives the +signal for opening or shutting the city gates. On the European +continent, especially in countries which, like Belgium and +Holland, were distracted by constant war, bells acquired great +public importance. They were formally baptized with religious +ceremonies (as also in England in pre-Reformation days), the +notabilities of a town or church standing as sponsors; and they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span> +were very generally supposed to have the power of scaring away +evil spirits.</p> + +<p>Other old customs are naturally connected with the ecclesiastical +uses of bells. The “Passing Bell,” rung for the dying, +is now generally rung after death; the ancient mode of indicating +the sex of the deceased, viz. two pulls for a woman and three +for a man being still very common, with many varying customs +as regards the interval after death or the bell to be used, <i>e.g.</i> +smaller bells for children and females, and larger ones for aged +men; the tenor bell being sometimes reserved for the death of +the incumbent, or of a bishop or member of the royal family. +“Burial Peals,” once common at or after funerals to scare away +the evil spirits from the soul of the departed, though discouraged +by bishops as early as the 14th century, were kept alive by +popular superstition, and only finally checked in Puritan times; +but they have been revived, since the spread of change-ringing, +in the “muffled peals” now frequently rung as a mark of +respect to deceased persons of public or local importance, or the +short “touches” on hand-bells sometimes rung at the grave by +the comrades of a deceased ringer. The “Sermon-Bell,” rung +in pre-Reformation times to give notice that a sermon was to +be preached (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Henry IV.</i>, Pt. II. iv. 2. 4-7), +survives in some places in a custom of ringing the tenor bell +before a service with a sermon; and a similar custom before +a celebration of the Holy Communion preserves the memory of +the “Sacrament Bell.” The ancient “Sanctus” or “Sance” +bell, hung on the rood-screen or in a small bell cot on the chancel +gable, and sounded three times when the priest said the <i>Tersanctus</i> +(Holy, Holy, Holy) in the office of mass, was specially +obnoxious to Puritan zeal, and few of them survived the Reformation. +An early morning bell, rung in many places for no apparent +reason, is probably a relic of the <i>Ave Maria</i> or <i>Angelus</i> +bell. The inscription on some old bells, <i>Lectum fuge, discute +somnum</i> (“Away from bed, shake off sleep”), points to this use, +as also does the name “Gabriel” applied to the bell used for +ringing the Angelus. In old times bells were generally named +at their baptism, after the Virgin Mary or saints, or their donors; +thus the bells at Oseney Abbey in the 13th century were called +Hautclere, Doucement, Austyn, Marie, Gabriel and John; +sometimes they were known by mere nicknames, such as “Great +(or “Mighty”) Tom” at Oxford, or “Big Ben,” “Great Paul,” +&c., in recent times.</p> + +<p><i>Bell Inscriptions.</i>—The names of bells were often stamped +upon them in the casting; whence arose inscriptions upon church +bells, giving in monkish Latin the name of some saint, a prayer +to the Virgin, or for the soul of the donor, or a distich upon +the function of the bell itself; <i>e.g.</i>—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Funera plango, fulgura frango, Sabbata pango,</p> +<p class="i05">Excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>(I mourn for death, I break the lightning, I fix the Sabbath, I +rouse the lazy, I scatter the winds, I appease the cruel.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The character of the lettering and the foundry marks upon +old bells, are of great assistance in determining their date. +Sometimes a set of bells has each a separate verse, <i>e.g.</i> on a ring +of five in Bedfordshire:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>1st. “Hoc signum Petri pulsatum nomine Christi.”</p> +<p class="i1">(This emblem of Peter is struck in the name of Christ.)</p> + +<p class="pt1">2nd. “Nomen Magdalene campana sonat melode.”</p> +<p class="i1">(This bell named Magdalen sounds melodiously.)</p> + +<p class="pt1">3rd. “Sit nomen Domini benedictum semper in eum.”</p> +<p class="i1">(May the name of the Lord always be blessed upon him, <i>i.e.</i> on + the bell when struck.)</p> + +<p class="pt1">4th. “Musa Raphaelis sonat auribus Immanuelis.”</p> +<p class="i1">(The music of Raphael sounds in the ear of Immanuel.)</p> + +<p class="pt1">5th. “Sum Rosa pulsata mundique Maria vocata.”</p> +<p class="i1">(I, Maria, am struck and called the Rose of the world.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +</div> + +<p>The names of these five bells were thus:—Peter, Magdalen, +(?) Jesus, Raphael and Mary.</p> + +<p>Other inscriptions take the form of an invocation or prayer +for the bell itself, its donor or those who hear it, <i>e.g.</i>—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Augustine tuam campanam protege sanam.”</p> +<p class="i1">(Augustine, protect thy bell and keep it sound.)</p> + +<p class="pt1">“Sancte Johannes, ora pro animabus Johannis Pudsey, militis, + et Mariae, consortae suae.”</p> +<p class="i1">(St John, pray for the souls of John Pudsey, knight, and Mary his wife.)</p> + +<p class="pt1">“Protege pura via quos convoco virgo Maria.”</p> +<p class="i1">(Guard in the way those whom I pure Virgin Mary call.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +</div> + +<p>The “Mittags Glocke” (mid-day bell) at Strassburg, taken +down at the time of the French Revolution, bore the legend:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Vox ego sum vitae; voco vos; orate venite.”</p> +<p class="i1">(I am the voice of life: I call you: come and pray.)</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> +</div> + +<p>A bell in Rouen cathedral, melted down in 1793, was inscribed:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Je suis George d’Ambois,</p> +<p class="i05">Qui trente cinque mille pois;</p> +<p class="i05">Mais lui qui me pesera</p> +<p class="i05">Trente six mille me trouvera.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>(I am George d’Ambois, weighing 35,000 ℔; but he who weighs + me will find me 36,000.)</p> +</div> + +<p>A similar inscription is said to have been cast on the largest +of the bells placed by Edward III. in a “clocher” or bell hut +in the Little Cloisters at Westminster:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90"> +<p>“King Edward made mee thirty thousand weight and three,</p> +<p class="i05">Take mee down and wey mee and more you shall find mee.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>On the “Thor Glocke” at Strassburg above mentioned are the words:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90"> +<p>“Dieses Thor Glocke das erst mal schallt</p> +<p class="i05">Als man 1618 sahlt</p> +<p class="i05">Dass Mgte jahr regnet man</p> +<p class="i05">Nach doctor Luther Jubal jahr</p> +<p class="i05">Das Bös hinaus das Gut hinein</p> +<p class="i05">Zu läuten soll igr arbeit seyn.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The reference is to the year 1517, when Luther began his +crusade, and the verse may be Englished as follows:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90"> +<p>When first ringeth this Gate Bell</p> +<p>1618 years we tell.</p> +<p>We reckon this a year to be</p> +<p>From Dr Luther’s jubilee.</p> +<p>To ring out ill, the good ring in,</p> +<p>Its daily task shall now begin.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Large Bells.</i>—There are a few bells of world-wide renown, +and several others more or less celebrated. The great bell at +Moscow, “Tsar Kolokol,” which, according to the inscription, +was cast in 1733, was in the earth 103 years and was raised by +the emperor Nicholas in 1836. The present bell seems never +to have been actually hung or rung, having been cracked in +the furnace; and it now stands on a raised platform in the +middle of a square. It is used as a chapel. It weighs about +180 tons, height 19 ft. 3 in., circumference 60 ft. 9 in., thickness +2 ft., weight of broken piece 11 tons. The second Moscow bell, +the largest in the world in actual use, weighs 128 tons. In a +pagoda in Upper Burma hangs a bell 16 ft. in diameter, weighing +about 80 tons. The great bell at Peking weighs 53 tons; Nanking, +22 tons; Olmutz, 17 tons; Vienna (1711), 17 tons; +Notre Dame (1680), 17 tons; Erfurt, 13 tons; Great Peter, +York Minster, recast in 1845, 12½ tons; Great Paul, at St Paul’s +cathedral, 16¾ tons; Great Tom at Oxford, 7½ tons; Great +Tom at Lincoln, 5½ tons. Big Ben of the Westminster Clock +Tower weighs 13½ tons; it was cast by George Mears under +the direction of the first Lord Grimthorpe (E. Beckett Denison) +in 1858. Its four quarters were cast by Warner in 1856. The +“Kaiserglocke” of Cologne cathedral, recast in 1875, with +metal from French cannon captured in 1870-1871, weighs 27½ tons.</p> + +<p>These large bells are either not moved at all, or only slightly +swung to enable the clapper to touch their side; in some cases +they are struck by a hammer or beam from outside. The heaviest +<i>ringing</i> peals in England are those at Exeter and St Paul’s +cathedrals, tenors 72 cwt. and 62 cwt. respectively.</p> + +<p><i>Bell-ringing.</i>—The science and art of bell-ringing, as practised +upon church and tower bells, falls under two main heads:—(1) Mechanical +ringing, in connexion with the machinery of a clock or “carillon”; +(2) Ringing by hand, by means of ropes attached +to the fittings of the bells, whereby the bell itself is either moved +as it hangs mouth downwards sufficiently for the clapper just +to touch its side (called technically “chiming”); or is swung +round nearly full circle with its mouth uppermost (technically +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +“ringing”), in which case the impact of the clapper is much +heavier, and the sound produced is consequently louder and more +far-reaching. Mechanical ringing is more common on the continent +of Europe, especially in Belgium and Flanders; ringing +by hand is more common in England, where the development +of change-ringing (see below) has brought it into prominence.</p> + +<p>(1) Mechanical ringing is effected by a system of wires connected +with small hammers striking the bells, usually on their +outside, and worked either by connexion with the machinery +of a clock, so as to play tunes or artificially arranged chimes +at definite intervals; or with a key-board resembling that of +an organ. The first of these methods is familiar in the chimes +(Cambridge, Westminster, &c.) heard from many towers at the +striking of the hours and quarters; or in hymn tunes played at +intervals (<i>e.g.</i> of three hours) upon the church bells. The second +method is peculiar to the “carillon” (<i>q.v.</i>), as found everywhere +in Belgium, where with a set of from 20 or 30 to 60 or 70 bells +a much wider scope for tunes and harmonies is provided than +in English belfries, few of which have more than one octave of +bells in one key only and none more than 12 bells. The carillons +at Louvain and Bruges contain 40 bells, and that of Mechlin +44, while in the tower of Antwerp cathedral there are upwards of +90 bells, for the largest of which, cast in 1507, Charles V. stood +sponsor at its consecration.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Ringing by Hand.</i>—Church bells may be “chimed” or +“rung” (see above). One man can, as a rule, chime three bells, +with a rope in each hand and one foot in the loop of another; +but by the use of an “Ellacombe” or other chiming apparatus +one man can work six, eight or ten bells. Some prefer the +quieter sound of chiming as an introduction to divine service, +but where a band of ringers is available and change-ringing is +practised the bells as a rule are rung. The practice of “clocking” +a bell, in which the clapper, by means of a cord attached to it +and pulled from below, is allowed to swing against the bell at +rest, is often employed to save trouble; but the jar is very +likely to crack the bell. In ringing, or in true chiming, the bell +is in motion when struck.</p> + +<p>For ringing, a bell is pulled up and “set” mouth uppermost. +She (to ringers a bell is feminine) is then pulled off, first at +“handstroke” (<i>i.e.</i> with the hands on the “sally” or tufted +portion of the rope, a few feet from its lower end) and then at +“back-stroke” in the reverse direction (with the hands nearer +the lower end, the rope having at the previous pull coiled round +three-quarters of the wheel’s circumference), describing at each +pull almost a full circle till she comes back to the upright position. +At each revolution the swing is chiefly done by the weight of the +bell, the ringer giving a pull of just sufficient strength to bring +the bell back into the upright position; otherwise its swing +would become gradually shorter till it remained at rest mouth downwards.</p> + +<p><i>Change-ringing</i>.—When a given number of bells are rung over +and over again in the same order, from the highest note, or +“treble,” to the lowest, or “tenor”—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7—they are +said to be rung in “rounds.” “Changes” are variations of this +order—<i>e.g.</i> 2 1 3 5 4 7 6, 2 3 1 4 5 6 7; and “change-ringing” +is the art of ringing bells in “changes,” so that a different +“change” or rearrangement of order is produced at each pull +of the bell-ropes, until, without any repetition of the same +change, the bells come back into “rounds.” The general principle +of all methods of change-ringing is that each bell, after +striking in the first place or “lead,” works gradually “up” to +the last place or “behind,” and “down” again to the first, and +that no bell ever shifts more than one place in each change. +Thus the ringer of any bell knows that whatever his position +in one change, his place in the next will be either the same, or the +place before or the place after. He does not have to learn by +heart the different changes or variations of order; nor need he, +unless he is the “conductor,” know the exact order of any one +change. He has to bear in mind, first, which way his bell is +working, viz. whether “up” from first to last place, or “down” +from last to first; secondly, in what place his bell is striking; +thirdly, what bell or bells are striking immediately before or +after him—this being ascertained chiefly by “rope-sight,” <i>i.e.</i> +the knack, acquired by practice, of seeing which rope is being +pulled immediately before and after his own. He must also +remember and apply the rules of the particular “method” +which is being rung. The following table representing the first +twenty changes of a “plain course” of “Grandsire Triples” +(for these terms, see below) illustrates the subject-matter of this +section:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcr">1 2 3 4 5 6 7</td> <td class="tcl">“Rounds.”</td> <td class="tcr">7 5 6 1 4 2 3</td> <td class="tcl">(10th change.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">2 1 3 5 4 7 6</td> <td class="tcl">(1st change.)</td> <td class="tcr">5 7 1 6 2 4 3</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">2 3 1 4 5 6 7</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">5 1 7 2 6 3 4</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">3 2 4 1 6 5 7</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">1 5 2 7 3 6 4</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">3 4 2 6 1 7 5</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">1 2 5 3 7 4 6</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">4 3 6 2 7 1 5</td> <td class="tcl">(5th change.)</td> <td class="tcr">2 1 5 7 3 6 4</td> <td class="tcl">(15th change.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">4 6 3 7 2 5 1</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">2 5 1 3 7 4 6</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">6 4 7 3 5 2 1</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">5 2 3 1 4 7 6</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">6 7 4 5 3 1 2</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">5 3 2 4 1 6 7</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">7 6 5 4 1 3 2</td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">3 5 4 2 6 1 7</td> <td> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr"> </td> <td> </td> <td class="tcr">3 4 5 6 2 7 1</td> <td class="tcl">(20th change.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be observed that at the 1st change the third bell and +at the 15th the fifth bell, according to the rule of this “method,” +strikes a second blow in the third place (“makes third’s place”). +This stops the regular work of the bells which at the previous +change were in the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th places (“in 4, 5, 6, 7”), +causing them to take a step backwards in their course “up” or +“down,” or as it is technically called, to “dodge.” Were it not +for this, the bells would come back into “rounds” at the 14th +change. It is by the use of “place-making” and “dodging,” +according to the rules of various “methods,” that the required +number of changes, upon any number of bells, can be produced. +But in order that this may be done, without the bells coming +back into “rounds” (as, <i>e.g.</i> in the “plain course” of Grandsire +Triples, above given, they will do in seventy changes), further +modifications of the “coursing order,” called technically “Bobs” +and “Singles,” must be introduced. In ringing, notice of these +alterations as they occur is given by one of the ringers, who acts +as “conductor,” calling out “Bob” or “Single” at the right +moment to warn the ringers of certain bells to make the requisite +alteration in the regular work of their bells. (Hence, in ringing +language, to “call” a peal or touch = to conduct it.) Particulars +of these, as of other details of change-ringing, may be gathered +from books dealing with the technique of the art; but they are +best mastered in actual practice. The term “single,” applied +to five-bell ringing meant that, as the first three bells remained +unchanged, only a single pair of bells changed places, <i>e.g.</i> +1 5 4 3 2, 1 5 4 2 3. On larger numbers of bells it loses this +meaning; but the effect of this “call” is that the “coursing +order” of a single pair of bells is inverted. The origin of “Bob” is +unknown. As a “call” it was perhaps adopted as a short, sharp +sound, easily uttered and easily heard by the ringers. As +applied to a “method” or system of ringing it may refer to the +evolution of “dodging,” <i>e.g.</i> in “Treble Bob” to the zigzag +“dodging” path of the treble bell; but none of the old writers +attempts to explain it.</p> + +<p>The number of <i>possible</i> “changes” on any given series of bells +may be ascertained, according to the mathematical formula of +“permutations,” by multiplying the number of the bells together. +Thus on three bells, only 6 changes or variations of order (1 × 2 × 3) +can be produced; on four bells, 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24; on five, +24 × 5 = 120; on six, 120 × 6 = 720; on seven, 720 × 7 = 5040. +A “peal” on any such number of bells is in ordinary language +the ringing of all the possible changes. But technically, only +the full extent of changes upon seven bells, usually rung with a +“tenor behind,” is called a “peal”; a shorter performance +upon seven or more bells, or the full extent upon less than seven, +being, in ringing parlance, a “touch.” On six bells the full +extent of changes must be repeated continuously seven times +(720 × 7 = 5040), and on five bells forty-two times (l20 × 42 += 5040) to rank as a “peal.” On eight or more bells 5000 +changes in round numbers is accepted as the <i>minimum</i> standard +for a peal; and on such numbers of bells up to twelve (the +largest number used in change-ringing), peals are so arranged +that the bells come into rounds at, or at some point beyond, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +5000 changes. As many as 16,000 changes, occupying from nine +to ten hours, have been rung upon church bells. But the great +physical strain upon the ringers—to say nothing of the effect +upon those who are within hearing—makes such performances +exceptional. The word “peal” is often, though incorrectly, used +(1) for a set of church bells (“a peal of six,” “a peal of eight”), +for which the correct term is “a ring” of bells; (2) for any +shorter performance than a full peal (<i>e.g.</i> “wedding-peal,” +“muffled peal,” &c.), called in ringing language a “touch.” +Its use as equivalent for “method,” found in old campanological +works, is now obsolete.</p> + +<p>Change-ringing upon five bells is called “Doubles,” upon +seven bells “Triples,” upon nine “Caters” (Fr. <i>quatre</i>), and +upon eleven “Cinques,” from the fact that at each change two, +three, four or five pairs of bells change places with each other. +“Doubles” can be and are rung when there are only five bells; +but as a rule these “odd-bell” systems are rung with a “tenor +behind,” <i>i.e.</i> struck at the end of each change; the number of +bells in a tower being usually an even number—six, eight, ten +or twelve. In “even-bell” systems the tenor is “rung in” +or “turned in,” <i>i.e.</i> changes with the other bells, and a different +terminology is employed; change-ringing on six bells being +called “Minor”; on eight bells, “Major”; on ten bells, +“Royal”; and on twelve, “Maximus.” The principal +“methods” of change-ringing, each of which has its special +rules, are—(1) “Grandsire”; (2) “Plain Bob”; (3) “Treble Bob”; +(4) “Stedman,” from the name of its inventor, Fabian +Stedman, about 1670. In “Grandsire” the treble and one other +bell, in “Plain Bob” the treble alone, has a “plain hunt,” <i>i.e.</i> +works from the first place, or “lead,” to the last place, or +“behind,” and back again, without any dodging; in “Treble +Bob” the treble has a uniform but zigzag course, dodging in +each place on its way up and down. This is called a “Treble +Bob hunt”; and under these two heads, according to the work +of the treble, are classified a variety of “plain methods” and +“Treble Bob methods,” among the latter being the so-called +“Surprise” methods, the most complicated and difficult of all. +“Stedman’s principle,” which is <i>sui generis</i>, consists in the three +front bells ringing their six possible changes, while the remaining +pair or pairs of bells dodge. It is thus an “odd-bell” method +adapted to five, seven, nine or eleven bells; as also is +“Grandsire,” though occasionally rung on even numbers of bells. +“Treble Bob” is always, and “Plain Bob” generally, rung +on even numbers—six, eight, ten or twelve. In ringing, whenever +the treble has a uniform course, unaffected by “Bobs” or +“Singles,” it serves as a guide to the other changing bells, +according to the place in which they meet and cross its path from +“behind” to the “lead.” The order in which the different dodges +occur, and the “course bell,” <i>i.e.</i> the bell which he follows from +behind to lead, are also useful, and on large numbers of bells +indispensable, guides to the ringer.</p> + +<p>Quite distinct from the art of change-ringing is the science +of “composing,” <i>i.e.</i> arranging and uniting by the proper +“calls,” subject to certain fixed laws and conditions, a number +of groups of changes, so that no one change, or series of changes +represented in those groups, shall be repeated. A composition, +long or short, is said to be “true” if it is free from, “false” +if it involves, such repetition; and the body of ascertained laws +and conditions governing true composition in any method +constitutes the test or “proof” to be applied to a composition +in that method to demonstrate its truth or falseness. Many practical +ringers know little or nothing of the principles of composition, +and are content with performing compositions received from +composers, or published in ringing books and periodicals. An +elaborate statement of the principles of composition in the +“Grandsire” method may be found in an appendix to Snowdon’s +<i>Grandsire</i> (1888), by the Rev. C.D.P. Davies. Those which +apply to “Treble Bob” are explained in Snowdon’s <i>Treatise on +Treble Bob</i>, Part I. But, so far as can be ascertained, there is no +treatise dealing with the science of composition as a whole; nor is +it possible here to attempt a popular exposition of its principles.</p> + +<p>One of the objects kept in view by composers is musical +effect. Certain sequences or contrasts of notes strike the ear as +more musical than others; and an arrangement which brings +up the more musical changes in quicker succession improves +the musical effect of the “peal” or “touch.” On seven bells +all the possible changes must be inserted in a true peal; but on +larger numbers of bells, where the choice is from an immense +number of possible changes, the composer is free to select those +which are most musical. Unless, however, the bells of any given +“ring” are in perfect tune and harmony with each other, their +musical effect must be impaired, however well they are rung. +This gives importance to the science and art of bell-tuning, +in which great progress has been made (see above).</p> + +<p>The art of scientific change-ringing, peculiar to England, +does not seem to have been evolved before the middle of the +17th century. Societies or gilds of ringers, however, existed +much earlier. A patent roll of 39 Henry III. (1255) confirms +the “Brethren of the Guild of Westminster, who are appointed +to ring the great bells there,” in the enjoyment of the “privileges +and free customs which they have enjoyed from the time of +Edward the Confessor.” In 1602 (as appears from a MS. in the +library of All Souls’ College, Oxford) was founded a society +called the “Scholars of Cheapside.” In 1637 began the “Ancient +Society of College Youths,” so called from their meeting to practise +on the six bells at St Martin’s, College Hill, a church destroyed +in the Great Fire of London, 1666. At first only “rounds” +and “call-changes” were rung, till about 1642, when 120 +“Bob Doubles” were achieved; but slow progress was made +till 1677, when Fabian Stedman of Cambridge published his +<i>Campanologia</i>, dedicating it to this society, his method being +first rung about this time by some of its members. Before the +end of the 17th century was founded the “Society of London +Scholars,” the name of which was changed in 1746 to “Cumberland +Youths” in compliment to the victor of Culloden. These +two metropolitan societies still exist, and include in their membership +most of the leading change-ringers of England: one of the +oldest provincial societies being that of Saffron Walden in +Essex, founded in 1623, and still holding an annual ringing +festival. In the latter half of the 18th and first half of the 19th +century change-ringing, which at first seems to have been an +aristocratic pastime, degenerated in social repute. Church +bells and their ringers, neglected by church authorities, became +associated with the lower and least reputable phases of parochial +life; and belfries were too often an adjunct to the pothouse. +In the last half of the 19th century there was a great revival +of change-ringing, leading to improvements in belfries and in +ringers, and to their gradual recognition as church workers. +Diocesan or county associations for the promotion of change-ringing +and of belfry reform spread knowledge of the art and +aroused church officials to greater interest in and care for their +bells. A Central Council of Church Bell Ringers, consisting +of delegates from these various societies, meets annually in +London or at some provincial centre to discuss ringing matters, +and to collect and formulate useful knowledge upon practical +questions—<i>e.g.</i> the proper care of bells and the means of preventing +annoyance from their use in the neighbourhood of houses, +rules for the conduct of belfries, &c. It is now less likely than +ever that the Belgian carillons will be preferred in England to +the peculiarly English system of ringing bells in peal; by which, +whatever its difficulties, the musical sound of bells is most fully +brought out, and their scientific construction best stimulated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The literature of bell-lore (or campanology) +consists chiefly of scattered treatises or pamphlets upon the technique +of different methods of change-ringing, or upon the bells of +particular counties or districts. The earliest that deal with the +science and art of change-ringing are <i>Campanologia or the Art of +Ringing Improved</i> (1677), and a chapter of “Advice to a Ringer” +in the <i>School of Recreations, or Gentleman’s Tutor</i> (1684), showing +that in its early days bell-ringing was a fashionable pastime. Then +follow <i>Campanologia, or the Art of Ringing made Easy</i> (1766), <i>Clavis +Campanologia, a Key to Ringing</i> (1788), and Shipway’s <i>Campanologia</i> +(1816). The revival of change-ringing in recent years has produced +many manuals: <i>e.g.</i> Snowdon’s <i>Rope-Sight</i> (explaining the “Plain Bob” +method), <i>Grandsire, Treatise on Treble Bob, Double Norwich +Court Bob Major</i>, and <i>Standard Methods</i> (with a book of diagrams); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> +Troyte on <i>Change-Ringing</i>; <i>The Duffield Method</i>, by Sir A.P. +Heywood, Bart., its inventor. Somewhat prior to these are various +works by the Rev. H.T. Ellacombe, inventor of a chiming apparatus +which bears his name, and a pioneer in belfry reform. Among these +are accounts of the church bells of Devon, Somerset and Gloucester, +and pamphlets on <i>Belfries and Ringers, Chiming, &c.</i>; much of their +contents being summarized in <i>The Ringer’s Guide to the Church Bells +of Devon</i>, by C. Pearson (1888). A <i>Glossary of Technical Terms</i> used +in connexion with church bells and change-ringing was published +(1901) under the auspices of the Central Council of Church Bell +Ringers. On the history of church bells and customs connected with +them much curious information is given in North’s <i>English Bells +and Bell Lore</i> (1888). By the same author are monographs on the +church bells of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire and +Hertfordshire. There are similar works on the church bells of Suffolk +and Cambridgeshire, by Dr Raven; of Huntingdonshire, by the +Rev. T.M.N. Owen; and on the church bells of Essex, by the +Rev. C. Deedes. A compilation and summary of many data of bell-lore +will be found in <i>A Book about Bells</i>, by the Rev. G.S. Tyack; +and in a volume by Dr Raven in the “Antiquary’s Books” series +(Methuen, 1906), entitled <i>The Bells of England</i>, which deals with the +antiquarian side of bell-lore. See also <i>Quarterly Review</i>, No. cxc. +(September 1854); <i>Windsor Magazine</i> (December 1896); Lord Rayleigh’s +paper “On the Tones of Bells” in the <i>Phil. Mag.</i> for January 1890; +and a series of articles from the <i>Guardian</i>, reprinted as a pamphlet +under the title, <i>Church Bells and Bell-ringing</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. L. P.)</div> + +<p><i>House Bells.</i>—Buildings are commonly provided with bells, +conveniently arranged so as to enable attendants to be summoned +to the different rooms. In the old system, which has been +largely superseded by pneumatic and still more by electric bells, +the bells themselves are of the ordinary conical shape and are +provided with clappers hung loosely inside them. Being supported +on springs they continue to swing, and therefore to give +out sound as the clapper knocks against the sides, for some time +after they have been set in motion by means of the strings or +wires by which each is connected to a bell-pull in the rooms. +These wires are generally placed out of sight inside the walls, +and bell-cranks are employed to take them round corners and +to change the direction of motion as required. A lightly poised +pendulum is often attached to each bell, to show by its motion +when it has been rung. In pneumatic bells the wires are replaced +by pipes of narrow bore, and the current of air which is caused +to flow along these by the pressing of a push-button actuates +a small hammer which impinges rapidly against a bell or gong. +An electric bell consists of a small electro-magnet acting on a +soft iron armature which is supported in such a way that normally +it stands away from the magnet. When the latter is energized +by the passage of an electric current, the armature is attracted +towards it, and a small hammer attached to it strikes a blow on +the bell or gong. This “single stroke” type of bell is largely +used in railway signalling instruments. For domestic purposes, +however, the bells are arranged so that the hammer strikes a series +of strokes, continuing so long as the push-button which closes +the electric circuit is pressed. A light spring is provided against +which the armature rests when it is not attracted by the electro-magnet, +and the current is arranged to pass through this spring +and the armature on its way to the magnet. When the armature +is attracted by the magnet it breaks contact with this spring, +the current is interrupted, and the magnet being no longer +energized allows the armature to fall back on the spring and thus +restore the circuit. In this way a rapid to and fro motion is +imparted to the hammer. The electric current is supplied by a +battery, usually either of Leclanché or of dry cells. One bell +will serve for all the rooms of a house, an “indicator” being +provided to show from which it has been rung. Such indicators +are of two main types: the current either sets in motion a +pendulum, or causes a disk bearing the name or number of the +room concerned to come into view. Each push must have one +wire appropriated to itself leading from the battery through +the indicator to the bell, but the return wire from the bell to +the battery may be common to all the pushes. Bells of this kind +cease to ring whenever the electrical continuity of any of these +wires is interrupted, but in some cases, as in connexion with +burglar-alarms, it is desirable that the bell, once set in action, +shall continue to ring even though the wires are cut. +For this purpose, in “continuous ringing” bells, the current, +started by the push or alarm apparatus, instead of working +the bell, is made to operate a relay-switch and thus to bring into +circuit a second battery which continues to ring the bell, no +matter what happens to the first circuit.</p> +<div class="author">(H. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLABELLA,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the common name (popularized from the +Indian corruption of Milbank) for a tribe of Kwakiutl Indians +at Milbank, British Columbia, including the subtribes Kokaitk, +Oetlitk and Ocalitk. They were converted to Christianity +by Protestant missionaries, and number about 300.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLACOOLA<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bilqula</span>, a tribe of North American Indians +of Salishan stock, inhabiting the coast of British Columbia. +They number some 300.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLADONNA<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (from the Ital. <i>bella donna</i>, “beautiful lady,” +the berries having been used as a cosmetic), the roots and leaves of +<i>Atropa belladonna</i>, or deadly nightshade (<i>q.v.</i>), widely used in +medicine on account of the alkaloids which they contain. Of +these the more important are atropine (or atropia), hyoscyamine, +hyoscine and belladonine; atropine is the most important, +occurring as the malate to the extent of about 0.47% in the leaves, +and from 0.6 to 0.25% in the roots.</p> + +<p>Atropine, C<span class="su">17</span>H<span class="su">23</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>, was discovered in 1833 by P.L. Geiger +and Hesse and by Mein in the tissues of <i>Atropa belladonna</i>, from +which it may be extracted by means of chloroform. By crystallization +from alcohol it is obtained as colourless needles, melting +at 115°. Hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid or baryta water +gives tropic acid and tropine; on the other hand, by boiling +equimolecular quantities of these substances with dilute hydrochloric +acid, atropine is reformed. Since both these substances +have been synthesized (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tropine</a></span>), the artificial formation +of atropine is accomplished. Atropine is optically inactive; +hyoscyamine, possibly a physical isomer, which yields atropine +when heated to 108.6°, is laevorotatory.</p> + +<p><i>Medicine.</i>—The official doses of atropine are from <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">200</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span> +grain, and the sulphate, which is in general use in medicine, +has a similar dose. It is highly important to observe that the +official doses of the various pharmacopoeias may with safety +be greatly exceeded in practice. They are based on the experimental +<i>toxic</i>, as distinguished from <i>lethal</i> dose. A toxic +dose causes unpleasant symptoms, but in certain cases, such as +this, it may require very many times a toxic dose to produce +the lethal effect. In other words, whilst one-fiftieth of a grain +may cause unpleasant symptoms, it may need more than a grain +to kill. So valuable are certain of the properties of atropine +that it is often desirable to give doses of one-twentieth or one-tenth +of a grain; but these will never be ventured upon by the +practitioner who is ignorant of the great interval between the +minimum toxic and the minimum lethal dose. It actually needs +twenty to thirty grains of atropine to kill a rabbit: the animal +is, however, somewhat exceptional in this regard. The most +valuable preparations of this potent drug are the <i>liquor atropinae +sulphatis</i>, which is a 1% solution, and the <i>lamella</i>—for insertion +within the conjunctival sac—which contains one five-thousandth +part of a grain of the alkaloid.</p> + +<p><i>Pharmacology.</i>—When rubbed into the skin with such substances +as alcohol or glycerine, which are absorbed, atropine is +carried through the epidermis with them, and in this manner—or +when simply applied to a raw surface—it paralyses the +terminals of the pain-conducting sensory nerves. It acts +similarly, though less markedly, upon the nerves which determine +the secretion of the perspiration, and is therefore a local anaesthetic +or anodyne and an anhidrotic. Being rapidly absorbed +into the blood, it exercises a long and highly important series of +actions on nearly every part and function of the nervous system. +Perhaps its most remarkable action is that upon the terminals +of nearly all the secretory nerves in the body. This causes the +entire skin to become dry—as in the case of the local action above +mentioned; and it arrests the secretion of saliva and mucus in +the mouth and throat, causing these parts to become very dry +and to feel very uncomfortable. This latter result is due to +paralysis of the <i>chorda tympani</i> nerve, which is mainly responsible +for the salivary secretion. Certain nerve fibres from the sympathetic +nervous system, which can also cause the secretion of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span> +(specially viscous) saliva, are entirely unaffected by atropine. +A curious parallel to this occurs in its action on the eye. There +is much uncertainty as to the influence of atropine on the secretions +of the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and kidneys, and +it is not possible to make any definite statement, save that in all +probability the activities of the nerves innervating the gland-cells +in these organs are reduced, though they are certainly not +arrested, as in the other cases. The secretion of mucus by the +bronchi and trachea is greatly reduced and their muscular tissue +is paralysed—a fact of which much use is made in practical +medicine. The secretion of milk, if occurring in the mammary +gland, is much diminished or entirely arrested. Given internally, +atropine does not exert any appreciable sedative action upon the +nerves of pain.</p> + +<p>The action of atropine on the motor nerves is equally important. +Those that go to the voluntary muscles are depressed only by +very large and dangerous doses. The drug appears to have no +influence upon the contractile cells that constitute muscle-fibre, +any more than it has directly upon the secretory cells that +constitute any gland. But moderate doses of atropine markedly +paralyse the terminals of the nerves that go to involuntary +muscles, whether the action of those nerves be motor or inhibitory. +In the intestine, for instance, are layers of muscle-fibre which are +constantly being inhibited or kept under check by the splanchnic +nerves. These are paralysed by atropine, and intestinal peristalsis +is consequently made more active, the muscles being +released from nervous control. The motor nerves of the arteries, +of the bladder and rectal sphincters, and also of the bronchi, are +paralysed by atropine, but the nervous arrangements of those +organs are highly complex and until they are further unravelled +by physiologists, pharmacology will be unable to give much +information which might be of great value in the employment +of atropine. The action upon the vaso-motor system is, however, +fairly clear. Whether effected entirely by action on the nerve +terminals, or by an additional influence upon the vaso-motor +centre in the medulla oblongata, atropine certainly causes +extreme dilatation of the blood-vessels, so much so that the skin +becomes flushed and there may appear, after large doses, an +erythematous rash, which must be carefully distinguished, in +cases of supposed belladonna poisoning, from that of scarlet fever: +more especially as the temperature may be elevated and the +pulse is very rapid in both conditions. But whilst the characteristic +action of atropine is to dilate the blood-vessels, its first +action is to stimulate the vaso-motor centre—thereby causing +temporary contraction of the vessels—and to increase the rapidity +of the heart’s action, so that the blood-pressure rapidly rises. +Though transient, this action is so certain, marked and rapid, +as to make the subcutaneous injection of atropine invaluable +in certain conditions. The respiratory centre is similarly +stimulated, so that atropine must be regarded as a temporary +but efficient respiratory and cardiac stimulant.</p> + +<p>Toxic doses of atropine—and therefore of belladonna—raise +the temperature several degrees. The action is probably nervous, +but in the present state of our knowledge regarding the control +of the temperature by the nervous system, it cannot be further +defined. In small therapeutic and in small toxic doses atropine +stimulates the motor apparatus of the spinal cord, just as it +stimulates the centres in the medulla oblongata. This is indeed, +as Sir Thomas Fraser has pointed out, “a strychnine action.” +In large toxic and in lethal doses the activity of the spinal cord +is lowered.</p> + +<p>No less important than any of the above is the action of +atropine on the cerebrum. This has long been a debated matter, +but it may now be stated, with considerable certainty, that the +higher centres are incoordinately stimulated, a state closely +resembling that of delirium tremens being induced. In cases +of poisoning the delirium may last for many hours or even days. +Thereafter a more or less sleepy state supervenes, but it is not the +case that atropine ever causes genuine coma. The stuporose +condition is the result of exhaustion after the long period of +cerebral excitement. It is to be noted that children, who are +particularly susceptible to the influence of certain of the other +potent alkaloids, such as morphine and strychnine, will take +relatively large doses of atropine without ill-effect.</p> + +<p>The action of atropine on the eye is of high theoretical and +practical importance. The drug affects only the involuntary +muscles of the eye, just as it affects only the involuntary or +non-striated portion of the oesophagus. The result of its instillation +into the eye—and the same occurs when the atropine +has been absorbed elsewhere—is rapidly to cause wide dilatation +of the pupil. This can be experimentally shown—by the method +of exclusion—to be caused by a paralysis of the terminals of the +third cranial nerve in the <i>sphincter pupillae</i> of the iris. The +action of atropine in dilating the pupil is also aided by a stimulation +of the fibres from the sympathetic nervous system, which +innervate the remaining muscle of the iris—the <i>dilator pupillae</i>. +As a result of the extreme pupillary dilatation, the tension of the +eyeball is greatly raised. The sight of many an eye has been +destroyed by the use of atropine—in ignorance of this action on +the intra-ocular tension—in cases of incipient glaucoma. The +use of atropine is absolutely contra-indicated in any case where +the intra-ocular tension already is, or threatens to become, +unduly high. This warning applies notably to those—usually +women—who are accustomed indiscriminately to use belladonna +or atropine in order to give greater brilliancy to their eyes. The +fourth ocular result of administering atropine is the production +of a slight but definite degree of local anaesthesia of the eyeball. +It follows from the above that a patient who is definitely under +the influence of atropine will display rapid pulse, dilated pupils, +a dry skin and a sense of discomfort, due to dryness of the mouth +and throat.</p> + +<p><i>Therapeutics</i>.—The external uses of the drug are mainly +analgesic. The liniment or plaster of belladonna will relieve +many forms of local pain. Generally speaking, it may be laid +down that atropine is more likely than iodine to relieve a pain +of quite superficial origin; and conversely. Totally to be +reprobated is the use, in order to relieve pain, of belladonna or +any other application which affects the skin, in cases where +the surgeon may later be required to operate. In such cases, +it is necessary to use such anodyne measures as will not interfere +with the subsequent demands that may be made of the skin, +<i>i.e.</i> that it be aseptic and in a condition so sound that it is able +to undertake the process of healing itself after the operation +has been performed. Atropine is universally and constantly +used in ophthalmic practice in order to dilate the pupil for +examination of the retina by the ophthalmoscope, or in cases +where the inflamed iris threatens to form adhesions to neighbouring +parts. The drug is often replaced in ophthalmology +by homatropine—an alkaloid prepared from tropine—which +acts similarly to atropine but has the advantage of allowing +the ocular changes to pass away in a much shorter time. The +anhidrotic action of atropine is largely employed in controlling +the night-sweats so characteristic of pulmonary tuberculosis, +small doses of the solution of the sulphate being given at night.</p> + +<p>The uses of atropine in cardiac affections are still obscure +and dubious. It can only be laid down that the drug is a valuable +though temporary stimulant in emergencies, and that its use as +a plaster or internally often relieves cardiac pain. Recollection +of the extraordinary complexity of the problems which are +involved in the whole question of pain of cardiac origin will +emphasize the extreme vagueness of the above assertion. Professor +Schäfer recommended the use of atropine prior to the +administration of a general anaesthetic, in cases where the +action of the vagus nerve upon the heart is to be dreaded; and +there is little doubt of the value of this precaution, which has +no attendant disadvantages, in all such cases. Atropine is +often of value as an antidote, as in poisoning by pilocarpine, +muscarine (mushroom poisoning), prussic acid, &c.</p> + +<p>Omitting numerous minor applications of this drug, we may +pass to two therapeutic uses which are of unquestionable utility. +In cases of whooping-cough or any other condition in which +there is spasmodic action of the muscular fibre in the bronchi—a +definition which includes nearly every form of asthma and +many cases of bronchitis—atropine is an almost invaluable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +drug. Not only does it relieve the spasm, but it lessens the +amount of secretion—often dangerously excessive—which is +often associated with it. The relief of symptoms in whooping-cough +is sharply to be distinguished from any influence on the +course of the disease, since the drug does not abbreviate its +duration by a single day. In treating an actual and present +attack of asthma, it is advisable to give the standardized tincture +of belladonna—unless expense is no consideration, in which +case atropine may itself be used—in doses of twenty minims +every quarter of an hour as long as no evil effects appear. Relief +is thereby constantly obtained. Smaller doses of the drug +should be given three times a day between the attacks.</p> + +<p>The nocturnal enuresis or urinary incontinence of children +and of adults is frequently relieved by this drug. The excellent +toleration of atropine displayed by children must be remembered, +and if its use is “pushed” a cure may almost always be expected.</p> + +<p><i>Toxicology.</i>—The symptoms of poisoning by belladonna or +atropine are dealt with above. The essential point here to be +added is that death takes place from combined cardiac and +respiratory failure. This fact is, of course, the key to treatment. +This consists in the use of emetics or the stomach-pump, with +lime-water, which decomposes the alkaloid. These measures are, +however, usually rendered nugatory by the very rapid absorption +of the alkaloid. Death is to be averted by such measures as will +keep the heart and lungs in action until the drug has been +excreted by the kidneys. Inject stimulants subcutaneously; +give coffee—hot and strong—by the mouth and rectum, or use +large doses of caffeine citrate; and employ artificial respiration. +Do not employ such physiological antagonists as pilocarpine +or morphine, for the lethal actions of all these drugs exhibit +not mutual antagonism but coincidence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLAGIO,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province +of Como, about 15 m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of +Como, situated on the promontory which divides the two +southern arms of the Lake of Como. Pop. (1901) 3536. It is +chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and is a very +favourite resort in the spring and autumn. Some of the gardens +of its villas are remarkably fine. The manufacture of silks and +carving in olive wood are carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLAIRE,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +the Ohio river, 5 m. S. of Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop. +(1890) 9934; (1900) 9912 (1159 foreign-born); (1910) 12,946. +It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pennsylvania, and the +Ohio River & Western railways. Bellaire is the shipping centre +of the Belmont county coalfield which in 1907 produced 19.3% +of the total output of coal for the state. Iron, limestone and fireclay +are found in the vicinity; among the manufactures are +iron and steel, glass, galvanized and enamelled ware, agricultural +implements and stoves. The value of the city’s factory products +increased from $8,837,646 in 1900 to $10,712,438 in 1905, or +21.2%. Bellaire was settled about 1795, was laid out in 1836, +was incorporated as a village in 1858, and was chartered as a +city in 1874.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLAMY, EDWARD<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1850-1898), American author and +social reformer, was born at Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, on +the 25th of March 1850. He studied for a time at Union College, +Schenectady, New York, and in Germany; was admitted to the +bar in 1871; but soon engaged in newspaper work, first as an +associate editor of the <i>Springfield Union</i>, Mass., and then as an +editorial writer for the <i>New York Evening Post</i>. After publishing +three novelettes (<i>Six to One, Dr Heidenhoff’s Process</i> and <i>Miss +Ludington’s Sister</i>), pleasantly written and showing some inventiveness +in situation, but attracting no special notice, in 1888 +he caught the public attention with <i>Looking Backward, 2000-1887</i>. +in which he set forth ideas of co-operative or semi-socialistic +life in village or city communities. The book was widely +circulated in America and Europe, and was translated into +several foreign languages. It was at first judged merely as a +romance, but was soon accepted as a statement of the deliberate +wishes and methods of its author, who devoted the remainder +of his life as editor, author, lecturer and politician, to the +promotion of the communistic theories of <i>Looking Backward</i>, which +he called “nationalism”; a Nationalist party (the main points +of whose immediate programme, according to Bellamy, were +embodied in the platform of the People’s party of 1892) was +organized, but obtained no political hold. In 1897 Bellamy +published <i>Equality</i>, a sequel to <i>Looking Backward</i>. +He died at Chicopee Falls on the 22nd of May 1898.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1727-1788), English actress, +born at Fingal, Ireland, by her own account, on the 23rd of +April 1733, but more probably in 1727, was the illegitimate +daughter of Lord Tyrawley, British ambassador at Lisbon. +Her mother married there a Captain Bellamy, and the child +received the name George Anne, by mistake for Georgiana. +Lord Tyrawley acknowledged the child, had her educated in a +convent in Boulogne, and through him she came to know a +number of notable people in London. On his appointment as +ambassador to Russia, she went to live with her mother in +London, made the acquaintance of Mrs Woffington and Garrick, +and adopted the theatrical profession. Her first engagement +was at Covent Garden as Monimia in the <i>Orphan</i> in 1744. Owing +to her personal charms and the social patronage extended to her, +her success was immediate, and till 1770 she acted in London, +Edinburgh and Dublin, in all the principal tragic roles. She +played Juliet to Garrick’s Romeo at Drury Lane at the time that +Spranger Barry (<i>q.v.</i>) was giving the rival performances at Covent +Garden, and was considered the better of the Juliets. Her last +years were unhappy, and passed in poverty and ill-health. She +died on the 16th of February 1788.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Her <i>Apology</i> (6 vols., 1785) gives an account of her long career +and of her private life, the extravagance and licence of which were +notorious.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLAMY, JOSEPH<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (1719-1790), American theologian, was +born in Cheshire, Connecticut, on the 20th of February 1719. +He graduated from Yale in 1735, studied theology for a time +under Jonathan Edwards, was licensed to preach when scarcely +eighteen years old, and from 1740 until his death, on the 6th of +March 1790, was pastor of the Congregational church at Bethlehem, +Connecticut. The publication of his best-known work, <i>True +Religion Delineated</i> (1750), won for him a high reputation as a +theologian, and the book was several times reprinted both in +England and in America. Despite the fact that with the exception +of the period of the “Great Awakening” (1740-1742), when +he preached as an itinerant in several neighbouring colonies, his +active labours were confined to his own parish, his influence +on the religious thought of his time in America was probably +surpassed only by that of his old friend and teacher Jonathan +Edwards. This influence was due not only to his publications, +but also to the “school” or classes for the training of clergymen +which he conducted for many years at his home and from which +went forth scores of preachers to every part of New England and +the middle colonies (states). Bellamy’s “system” of divinity +was in general similar to that of Edwards. During the War of +Independence he was loyal to the American cause. The university +of Aberdeen conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D. +in 1768. He was a powerful and dramatic preacher. His +published works, in addition to that above mentioned, include +<i>The Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin</i> (1758), his most +characteristic work; <i>Theron, Paulinus and Aspasio; or +Letters and Dialogues upon the Nature of Love to God, Faith in +Christ, and Assurance of a Title to Eternal Life</i> (1759); <i>The Nature +and Glory of the Gospel</i> (1762); <i>A Blow at the Root of Antinomianism</i> +(1763); <i>There is but One Covenant</i> (1769); <i>Four Dialogues on +the Half-Way Covenant</i> (1769); and <i>A Careful and Strict Examination +of the External Covenant</i> (1769).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His collected <i>Works</i> were published in 3 vols. (New York, 1811-1812), +and were republished with a <i>Memoir</i> by Rev. Tryon Edwards +(2 vols., Boston, 1850).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLARMINE<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Ital. <i>Bellarmino</i>), <b>ROBERTO FRANCESCO +ROMOLO</b> (1542-1621), Italian cardinal and theologian, was +born at Monte Pulciano, in Tuscany, on the 4th of October 1542. +He was destined by his father to a political career, but feeling +a call to the priesthood he entered the Society of Jesus in 1560 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span> +After spending three years at Rome, he was sent to the Jesuit +settlement at Mondovi in Piedmont, where he studied and at +the same time taught Greek, and, though not yet in orders, +gained some reputation as a preacher. In 1567 and 1568 he +was at Padua, studying theology under a master who belonged +to the school of St Thomas Aquinas. In 1569 he was sent by the +general of his order to Louvain, and in 1570, after being ordained +priest, began to lecture on theology at the university. His +seven years’ residence in the Low Countries brought him into +close relations with modes of thought differing essentially from +his own; and, though he was neither by temperament nor +training inclined to be affected by the prevailing Augustinian +doctrines of grace and free-will, the controversy into which he +fell on these questions compelled him to define his theological +principles more clearly. On his return to Rome in 1576 he was +chosen by Gregory XIII. to lecture on controversial theology in +the newly-founded Roman College. The result of these labours +appeared some years afterwards in the far-famed <i>Disputationes +de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus hujus temporis +Haereticos</i> (3 vols., 1581, 1582, 1593). These volumes, which +called forth a multitude of answers on the Protestant side, +exhaust the controversy as it was carried on in those days, +and contain a lucid and uncompromising statement of Roman +Catholic doctrine. For many years afterwards, Bellarmine +was held by Protestant advocates as the champion of the papacy, +and a vindication of Protestantism generally took the form +of an answer to his works. In 1589 he was selected by Sixtus V. +to accompany, in the capacity of theologian, the papal legation +sent to France soon after the murder of Henry III. He was +created cardinal in 1599 by Clement VIII., and two years later +was made archbishop of Capua. His efforts on behalf of the +clergy were untiring, and his ideal of the bishop’s office may +be read in his address to his nephew, Angelo della Ciaia, who +had been raised to the episcopate (<i>Admonitio ad episcopum +Theanensem, nepotem suum</i>, Rome, 1612). Being detained +in Rome by the desire of the newly-elected pope, Paul V., he +resigned his archbishopric in 1605. He supported the church +in its conflicts with the civil powers in Venice, France and +England, and sharply criticized James I. for the severe legislation +against the Roman Catholics that followed the discovery of the +Gunpowder Plot. When health failed him, he retired to Monte +Pulciano, where from 1607 to 1611 he acted as bishop. In 1610 +he published his <i>De Potestate summi Pontificis in rebus temporalibus</i> +directed against the posthumous work of William Barclay of +Aberdeen, which denied the temporal power of the pope. +Bellarmine trod here on difficult ground, for, although maintaining +that the pope had the indirect right to depose unworthy +rulers, he gave offence to Paul V. in not asserting more strongly +the direct papal claim, whilst many French theologians, and +especially Bossuet, condemned him for his defence of ultramontanism. +As a <i>consultor</i> of the Sacred Office, Bellarmine +took a prominent part in the first examination of Galileo’s +writings. His conduct in this matter has been constantly misrepresented. +He had followed with interest Galileo’s scientific +discoveries and a respectful admiration grew up between them. +Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system, as has +been maintained by Reusch (<i>Der Process Galilei’s und die +Jesuiten</i>, Bonn, 1879, p. 125); all he claimed was that it should +be presented as an hypothesis until it should receive scientific +demonstration. When Galileo visited Rome in December 1615 +he was warmly received by Bellarmine, and the high regard in +which he was held is clearly testified in Bellarmine’s letters +and in Galileo’s dedication to the cardinal of his discourse on +“flying bodies.” The last years of Bellarmine’s life were mainly +devoted to the composition of devotional works and to securing +the papal approbation of the new order of the Visitation, founded +by his friend St Francis de Sales, and the beatification of St +Philip Neri. He died in Rome on the 17th of September 1621. +Bellarmine, whose life was a model of Christian virtue, is the +greatest of modern Roman Catholic controversialists, but the +value of his theological works is seriously impaired by a very +defective exegesis and a too frequent use of “forced” conclusions. +His devotional treatises were very popular among English +Roman Catholics in the penal days.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Of the older editions of Bellarmine’s complete +works the best is that in 7 vols. published at Cologne (1617-1620); +modern editions appeared in 8 vols. at Naples (1856-1862, reprinted +1872), and in 12 vols. at Paris (1870-1874). For complete bibliography +of all works of Bellarmine, of translations and controversial +writings against him, see C. Sommervogel, <i>Bibliothèque de la Compagnie +de Jésus</i> (Brussels and Paris, 1890 et seq.), vol. i. cols. 1151-1254; +<i>id., Addenda</i>, pp. x.-xi. vol. viii., cols. 1797-1807. The main source +for the life of Bellarmine is his Latin <i>Autobiography</i> (Rome, 1675; +Louvain, 1753), which was reprinted with original text and German +translation in the work of Dollinger and Reusch entitled <i>Die Selbst-biographie +des Cardinals Bellarmin</i> (Bonn, 1887). The <i>Epistolae +Familiares</i>, a very incomplete collection of letters, was published by +J. Fuligatti (Rome, 1650), who is also the author of <i>Vita del cardinale +Bellarmino della Compagnia di Giesù</i> (Rome, 1624). Cf. D. Bartoli, +<i>Della vita di Roberto cardinal Bellarmino</i> (Rome, 1678), and M. Cervin, +<i>Imago virtutum Roberti card. Bellarmini Politiani</i> (Siena, 1622), +All these are panegyrics of small historical value. The best modern +studies are J.B. Couderc’s <i>Le Vénérable Cardinal Bellarmin</i> (2 vols., +Paris, 1893), and X. le Bachelet’s article in A. Vacant’s <i>Dict. de +theól, cat.</i> cols. 560-599, with exhaustive bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLARY,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ballari</span>, a city and district of British India, +in the Madras presidency. The city is 305 m. by rail from Madras. +Pop. (1901) 58,247. The fort rises from a huge mass of granite +rock, which with a circumference of nearly 2 m., juts up abruptly +to a height of 450 ft. above the plain. The length of this rock +from north-east to south-west is about 1150 ft. To the E. and +S. lies an irregular heap of boulders, but to the W. is an unbroken +precipice, and the N. is walled by bare rugged ridges. It is +defended by two distinct lines of works. The upper fort is a +quadrangular building on the summit, with only one approach, +and was deemed impregnable by the Mysore princes. But as it +has no accommodation for a garrison, it is now only occupied by +a small guard of British troops in charge of prisoners. The ex-nawab +of Kurnool was confined in it for forty years for the +murder of his wife. It contains several cisterns, excavated in +the rock. Outside the turreted rampart are a ditch and covered +way. The lower fort lies at the eastern base of the rock and +measures about half a mile in diameter. It contains the barracks +and the commissariat stores, the Protestant church, orphanage, +Masonic lodge, post-office and numerous private dwellings. +The fort of Bellary was originally built by Hanumapa, in the 16th +century. It was first dependent on the kingdom of Vijayanagar, +afterwards on Bijapur, and subsequently subject to the nizam +and Hyder Ali. The latter erected the present fortifications +according to tradition with the assistance of a French engineer +in his service, whom he afterwards hanged for not building the +fort on a higher rock adjacent to it. Bellary is an important +cantonment and the headquarters of a military division. There +is a considerable trade in cotton, in connexion with which there +are large steam presses, and some manufacture of cotton cloth. +There is a cotton spinning mill. In 1901 Bellary was chosen as +one of the places of detention in India for Boer prisoners of war.</p> + +<p>The district of <span class="sc">Bellary</span> has an area of 5714 sq. m. It +consists chiefly of an extensive plateau between the Eastern and +Western Ghats, of a height varying from 800 to 1000 ft. above +the sea. The most elevated tracts are on the west, where the +surface rises towards the culminating range of hills, and on the +south, where it rises to the elevated tableland of Mysore. +Towards the centre the almost treeless plain presents a monotonous +aspect, broken only by a few rocky elevations that rise +abruptly from the black soil. The hill ranges in Bellary are +those of Sandur and Kampli to the west, the Lanka Malla to the +east and the Copper Mountain (3148 ft.) to the south-west. +The district is watered by five rivers: the Tungabhadra, +formed by the junction of two streams, Tunga and Bhadra, +the Haggari, Hindri, Chitravati and Pennar, the last considered +sacred by the natives. None of the rivers is navigable and all +are fordable during the dry season. The climate of Bellary is +characterized by extreme dryness, due to the passing of the air +over a great extent of heated plains, and it has a smaller rainfall +than any other district in south India. The average daily +variation of the thermometer is from 67° to 83° F. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +prevailing diseases are cholera, fever, small-pox, ophthalmia, +dysentery and those of the skin among the lower classes. Bellary +is subject to disastrous storms and hurricanes, and to famines +arising from a series of bad seasons. There were memorable +famines in 1751, 1793, 1803, 1833, 1854, 1866, 1877 and 1896.</p> + +<p>In 1901 the population was 947,214, showing an increase of 8% +in the decade. The principal crops are millet, other food-grains, +pulse, oil-seeds and cotton. There are considerable manufactures +of cotton and woollen goods, and cotton is largely +exported. The district is traversed by the Madras and Southern +Mahratta railways, meeting on the eastern border at Guntakal +junction, where another line branches off to Bezwada.</p> + +<p>Little is known of the early history of the district. It contains +the ruined capital of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, +and on the overthrow of that state by the Mahommedans, in +1564, the tract now forming the district of Bellary was split up +into a number of military holdings, held by chiefs called poligars. +In 1635 the Carnatic was annexed to the Bijapur dominions, +from which again it was wrested in 1680 by Sivaji, the founder +of the Mahratta power. It was then included in the dominions +of Nizam-ul-mulk, the nominal viceroy of the great Mogul in the +Deccan, from whom again it was subsequently conquered by +Hyder Ali of Mysore. At the close of the war with Tippoo +Sultan in 1792, these territories fell to the share of the nizam of +Hyderabad, by whom they were ceded to the British in 1800, +in return for protection by a force of British troops to be stationed +at his capital. In 1808 the “Ceded Districts,” as they were +called, were split into two districts, Cuddapah and Bellary. In +1882 the district of Anantapur, which had hitherto formed part +of Bellary, was formed into a separate collectorate.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Bellary Gazetteer</i>, 1904.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL-COT,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bell-gable</span>, or <span class="sc">Bell-turret</span>, the place where +one or more bells are hung in chapels or small churches +which have no towers. Bell-cots are sometimes double, as at +Northborough and Coxwell; a very common form in France and +Switzerland admits of three bells. In these countries also they +are frequently of wood and attached to the ridge. In later +times bell-turrets were much ornamented; on the continent of +Europe they run up into a sort of small, slender spire, called +<i>flèche</i> in France, and <i>guglio</i> in Italy. A bell-cot, gable or turret +often holds the “Sanctus-bell,” rung at the saying of the +“Sanctus” at the beginning of the canon of the Mass, and at +the consecration and elevation of the Elements in the Roman +Church. This differs but little from the common bell-cot, +except that it is generally on the top of the arch dividing the +nave from the chancel. At Cleeve, however, the bell seems to +have been placed in a cot outside the wall. Sanctus-bells have +also been placed over the gables of porches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEAU, REMY<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1527-1577), French poet, and member +of the Pléiade (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Daurat</a></span>), was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou +about 1527. He studied with Ronsard and others under Jean +Daurat at the Collège de Coqueret. He was attached to Renè +de Lorraine, marquis d’Elboeuf, in the expedition against Naples +in 1557, where he did good military service. On his return he +was made tutor to the young Charles, marquis d’Elboeuf, who, +under Belleau’s training became a great patron of the muses. +Belleau was an enthusiast for the new learning and joined the +group of young poets with ardour. In 1556 he published the +first translation of Anacreon which had appeared in French. +In the next year he published his first collection of poems, the +<i>Petites inventions</i>, in which he describes stones, insects and +flowers. The <i>Amours et nouveaux échanges des pierres précieuses</i> +... (1576) contains perhaps his most characteristic work. Its +title is quoted in the lines of Ronsard’s epitaph on his tomb:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Luy mesme a basti son tombeau</p> +<p class="i05">Dedans ses Pierres Précieuses.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">He wrote commentaries to Ronsard’s <i>Amours</i> in 1560, notes +which evinced delicate taste and prodigious learning. Like +Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay, he was extremely deaf. His +days passed peacefully in the midst of his books and friends, and +he died on the 6th of March 1577. He was buried in the nave +of the Grands Augustins at Paris, and was borne to the tomb on +the pious shoulders of four poets, Ronsard, J.A. de Baïf, Philippe +Desportes and Amadis Jamyn. His most considerable work is +<i>La Bergerie</i> (1565-1572), a pastoral in prose and verse, written in +imitation of Sannazaro. The lines on April in the <i>Bergerie</i> are +well known to all readers of French poetry. Belleau was the +French Herrick, full of picturesqueness, warmth and colour. His +skies drop flowers and all his air is perfumed, and this voluptuous +sweetness degenerates sometimes into licence. Extremely +popular in his own age, he shared the fate of his friends, and +was undeservedly forgotten in the next. Regnier said: “Belleau +ne parle pas comme on parle à la ville”; and his lyrical beauty +was lost on the trim 17th century. His complete works were +collected in 1578, and contain, besides the works already +mentioned, a comedy entitled <i>La Reconnue</i>, in short rhymed lines, +which is not without humour and life, and a comic masterpiece, +a macaronic poem on the religious wars, <i>Dictamen metrificum de +bello huguenotico et reistrorum<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> piglamine ad sodales</i> (Paris, no date).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (3 vols., 1867) of Remy Belleau were edited +by A. Gouverneui; and his <i>Œuvres poétiques</i> (2 vols., 1879) by +M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux in his <i>Pléiade française</i>; see also C.A. +Sainte-Beuve, <i>Tableau historique et critique de la poésie française +au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (ed. 1876), i. pp. 155-160, and ii. pp. 296 seq.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>reîtres</i>, German soldiers of fortune.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLECOUR<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1725-1778), French actor, whose real name was +<span class="sc">Jean Claude Gilles Colson</span>, was born on the 16th of January +1725, the son of a portrait-painter. He showed decided artistic +talent, but soon deserted the brush for the stage under the name +of Bellecour. After playing in the provinces he was called to +the Comédie Française, but his <i>début</i>, on the 21st of December +1750, as Achilles in <i>Iphigénie</i> was not a great success. He soon +turned to more congenial comedy rôles, which for thirty years he +filled with great credit. He was a very natural player, and his +willingness to give others on the stage an opportunity to show +their talents made him extremely popular. He wrote a successful +play, <i>Fausses apparences</i> (1761), and was very useful to the +Comédie Française in editing and adapting the plays of others. +He died on the 19th of November 1778.</p> + +<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Rose Perrine le Roy de la Corbinaye</span>, was born +at Lamballe on the 20th of December 1730, the daughter of an +artillery officer. Under the stage name of Beaumenard she +made her first Paris appearance in 1743 as Gogo in Favart’s +<i>Le Coq du village</i>. After a year at the Opéra Comique she played +in several companies, including that of Marshal Saxe, who +is said to have been not insensible to her charms. In 1749 she +made her <i>début</i> at the Comédie Française as Dorine in <i>Tartuffe</i>, +and her success was immediate. She retired in 1756, but after +an absence of five years, during which she married, she reappeared +as Madame Bellecour, and continued her successes in soubrette +parts in the plays of Molière and de Regnard. She retired +finally at the age of sixty, but troublous times had put an end to +the pension which she received from Louis XVI. and from the +theatre, and she died in abject poverty on the 5th of August +1799. There is a charming portrait of her owned by the Théâtre +Français.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEFONTAINE,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Logan +county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 45 m. N.W. of Columbus. Pop. +(1890) 4245; (1900) 6649 (267 foreign-born); (1910) 8238. +It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis +(which has large shops here) and the Ohio Central railways; +also by the Dayton, Springfield & Urbana electric railway. It +is built on the south-west slope of a hill having an elevation of +about 1500 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of which are several +springs of clear water which suggested the city’s name. Among +the city’s manufactures are iron bridges, carriage-bodies, flour and +cement. The municipality owns and operates its water-works +system and its gas and electric-lighting plants. Bellefontaine +was first settled about 1818, was laid out as a town and made +the county-seat in 1820 and was incorporated in 1835.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEGARDE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> the name of an important French family. +Roger de Saint-Lary, baron of Bellegarde, served with distinction +in the wars against the French Protestants. He showed much +devotion to Henry III., who loaded him with favours and made +him marshal of France. He eventually fell into disgrace, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span> +however, and died by poisoning in 1579. His nephew, Roger de +Saint-Lary de Termes, a favourite with Henry III., Henry IV. +and Louis XIII., was royal master of the horse and governor of +Burgundy. His estate of Seurre in Burgundy was created a +duchy in the peerage of France (<i>duché-pairie</i>) in his favour under +the name of Bellegarde, in 1619. In 1645 the title of this duchy +was transferred to the estate of Choisy-aux-Loges in Gâtinais, +and was borne later by the family of Pardaillan de Gondrin, heirs +of the house of Saint-Lary-Bellegarde. When Seurre passed +into the possession of the princes of Condé they in the same way +acquired the title of dukes of Bellegarde.</p> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Count von</span> (1756-1845), Austrian soldier and statesman, was born at +Dresden on the 29th of August 1756, and for a short time served +in the Saxon army. Transferring his services to Austria in 1771 +he distinguished himself greatly as colonel of dragoons in the +Turkish War of 1788-1789, and served as a major-general in +the Netherlands campaigns of 1793-1794. In the campaign of +1796 in Germany, as a lieutenant field marshal, he served on +the staff of the archduke Charles, whom he accompanied to Italy +in the following year. He was also employed in the congress of +Rastatt. In 1799 he commanded a corps in eastern Switzerland, +connecting the armies of the archduke and Suvarov, and finally +joined the latter in north Italy. He conducted the siege of the +citadel of Alessandria, and was present at the decisive battle +of Novi. He served again in the latter part of the Marengo +campaign of 1800 in the rank of general of cavalry. In 1805, +when the archduke Charles left to take command in Italy, +Bellegarde became president <i>ad interim</i> of the council of war. +He was, however, soon employed in the field, and at the sanguinary +battle of Caldiero he commanded the Austrian right. In +the war of 1809 he commanded the extreme right wing of the +main army (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). Cut off from Charles +as the result of the battle of Eckmühl, he retreated into +Bohemia, but managed to rejoin before the great battles +near Vienna (Aspern and Wagram). From 1809 to 1813 Bellegarde, +now field marshal, was governor-general of Galicia, but +was often called to preside over the meetings of the Aulic +Council, especially in 1810 in connexion with the reorganization +of the Austrian army. In 1813, 1814 and 1815 he led the +Austrian armies in Italy. His successes in these campaigns +were diplomatic as well as military, and he ended them by +crushing the last attempt of Murat in 1815. From 1816 to 1825 +(when he had to retire owing to failing eyesight) he held various +distinguished civil and military posts. He died in 1845.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Smola, <i>Das Leben des F.M. van Bellegarde</i> (Vienna, 1847).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLE-ÎLE-EN-MER,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> an island off the W. coast of France, +forming a canton of the department of Morbihan, 8 m. S. by W. of +the peninsula of Quiberon. Pop. (1906) 9703. Area, 33 sq. m. +The island is divided into the four communes of Le Palais, +Bangor, Sauzon and Locmaria. It forms a treeless plateau with +an average height of 130 ft. above sea-level, largely covered +with moors and bordered by a rugged and broken coast. The +climate is mild, the fig-tree and myrtle growing in sheltered spots +and the soil, where cultivated, is productive. The inhabitants +are principally engaged in agriculture and the fisheries, and in +the preservation of sardines, anchovies, &c. The breed of draught +horses in the island is highly prized. The chief town, Le Palais +(pop. 2637), has an old citadel and fortifications, and possesses a +port which is accessible to vessels drawing 13 ft. of water. +Belle-Île must have been inhabited from a very early period, +as it possesses several stone monuments of the class usually +called Druidic.</p> + +<p>The Roman name of the island seems to have been <i>Vindilis</i>, +which in the middle ages became corrupted to Guedel. In 1572 +the monks of the abbey of Ste Croix at Quimperlé ceded the +island to the Retz family, in whose favour it was raised to a +marquisate in the following year. It subsequently came into +the hands of the family of Fouquet, and was ceded by the latter +to the crown in 1718. It was held by English troops from 1761 +to 1763 when the French got it in exchange for Nova Scotia. +A few of the inhabitants of the latter territory migrated to +Belle-Île, which is partly peopled by their descendants. In +the state prison of Nouvelle Force at Le Palais political prisoners +have at various times been confined.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Comte</span>, and later <span class="sc">Duc, de</span> (1684-1761), French soldier and +statesman, was the grandson of Nicholas Fouquet, superintendent +of finances under Louis XIV., and was born at Villefranche +de Rouergue. Although his family was in disgrace, he entered +the army at an early age and was made proprietary colonel of a +dragoon regiment in 1708. He rose during the War of the Spanish +Succession to the rank of brigadier, and in March 1718 to that +of <i>maréchal de camp</i>. In the Spanish War of 1718-1719 he was +present at the capture of Fontarabia in 1718 and at that of St +Sebastian in 1719. When the duke of Bourbon became prime +minister, Belle-Isle was imprisoned in the Bastille, and then +relegated to his estates, but with the advent of Cardinal Fleury +to power he regained some measure of favour and was made +a lieutenant-general. In the War of the Polish Succession he +commanded a corps under the orders of Marshal Berwick, captured +Trier and Trarbach and took part in the siege of Philippsburg +(1734). When peace was made in 1736 the king, in recognition +both of his military services and of the part he had taken +in the negotiations for the cession of Lorraine, gave him the +government of the three important fortresses of Metz, Toul +and Verdun—an office which he kept till his death. His +military and political reputation was now at its height, and he +was one of the principal advisers of the government in military +and diplomatic affairs. In 1741 he was sent to Germany as +French plenipotentiary to carry out, in the interests of France, +a grand scheme of political reorganization in the moribund +empire, and especially to obtain the election of Charles, elector +of Bavaria, as emperor. His diplomacy was thus the mainspring +of the War of the Austrian Succession (<i>q.v.</i>), and his military +command in south Germany was full of incidents and vicissitudes. +He had been named marshal of France in 1741, and received a +large army, with which it is said that he promised to make +peace in three months under the walls of Vienna. The truth of +this story is open to question, for no one knew better than Belle-Isle +the limitations imposed upon commanders by the military +and political circumstances of the times. These circumstances +in fact rendered his efforts, both as a general and as a statesman, +unavailing, and the one redeeming feature in the general failure +was his heroic retreat from Prague. In ten days he led 14,000 +men into and across the Bohemian Forest, suffering great privations +and harassed by the enemy, but never allowing himself +to be cut off, and his subordinate Chevert defended Prague so +well that the Austrians were glad to allow him to rejoin his +chief. The campaign, however, had discredited Belle-Isle; +he was ridiculed at Paris by the wits and the populace, even +Fleury is said to have turned against him, and, to complete his +misfortunes, he was taken prisoner by the English in going +from Cassel to Berlin through Hanover. He remained a year +in England, in spite of the demands of Louis XV. and of the +emperor Charles VII. During the campaign of 1746 he was +in command of the “Army of Piedmont” on the Alpine frontier, +and although he began his work with a demoralized and inferior +army, he managed not only to repel the invasion of the Spanish +and Italian forces but also to carry the war back into the plain +of Lombardy. At the peace, having thus retrieved his military +reputation, he was created duke and peer of France (1748). +In 1757 his credit at court was considerable, and the king named +him secretary for war. During his three years’ ministry he undertook +many reforms, such as the development of the military +school for officers, and the suppression of the proprietary +colonelcies of nobles who were too young to command; and he +instituted the Order of Merit. But the Seven Years’ War was +by that time in progress and his efforts had no immediate effect. +He died at Versailles on the 26th of January 1761. Belle-Isle +interested himself in literature; was elected a member of the +French Academy in 1740, and founded the Academy of Metz +in 1760. The dukedom ended with his death, his only son +having been killed in 1758 at the battle of Crefeld.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span></p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Louis Charles Armand Fouquet</span>, known as +the Chevalier de Belle-Isle (1693-1746), was also a soldier and +a diplomatist. He served as a junior officer in the War of the +Spanish Succession and as brigadier in the campaign of 1734 +on the Rhine and Moselle, where he won the grade of <i>maréchal +de camp</i>. He was employed under his brother in political +missions in Bavaria and in Swabia in 1741-1742, became a +lieutenant-general, fought in Bohemia, Bavaria and the Rhine +countries in 1742-1743, and was arrested and sent to England +with the marshal in 1744. On his release he was given a command +in the Army of Piedmont. He fell a victim to his romantic +bravery at the action of Exilles (Col de l’Assiette) on the 19th +of July 1746.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jean de Maugre, <i>Oraison funèbre du maréchal de Belleisle</i> +(Montmédy, 1762); R.P. de Neuville, <i>Mémoires du maréchal duc +de Belleisle</i> (Paris, 1761); D.C. (Chevrier), <i>La Vie politigue et militaire +du maréchal duc de Belleisle</i> (London, 1760), and <i>Testament +politique du maréchal duc de Belleisle</i> (Hague, 1762); <i>Le Codicille et +l’esprit ou commentaire des maximes du maréchal duc de Belleisle</i> +(Amsterdam, 1761); F.M. Chayert, <i>Notice sur le maréchal de Belleisle</i> +(Metz, 1856); L. Leclerc, <i>Éloge du maréchal de Belleisle</i> (Metz, +1862); E. Michel, <i>Éloge du maréchal de Belleisle</i> (Paris, 1862); and +Jobez, <i>La France sous Louis XV</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1868-1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> the more northern of the two +channels connecting the Gulf of St Lawrence with the Atlantic +Ocean. It separates northern Newfoundland from Labrador, +and extends N.E. and S.W. for 35 m., with a breadth +of 10 to 15 m. It derives its name from a precipitous granite +island, 700 ft. in height, at its Atlantic entrance. On this lighthouses +are maintained by the government of Canada and constant +communication with the mainland is kept up by wireless telegraphy. +The strait is in the most direct route from Europe +to the St Lawrence, but is open only from June till the end of +November, and even during this period navigation is often +rendered dangerous by floating ice and fogs. Through it Jacques +Cartier sailed in 1534. The southern or Cabot Strait, between +Cape Ray in Newfoundland and Cape North in Cape Breton, +was discovered later, and the expansion below Belle Isle was +long known as <i>La Grande Baie</i>. Cabot Strait is open all the year, +save for occasional inconvenience from drift ice.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLENDEN<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ballantyne</span> or <span class="sc">Bannatyne</span>), <b>JOHN</b> (fl. +1533-1587), Scottish writer, was born about the end of the +15th century, in the south-east of Scotland, perhaps in East +Lothian. He appears to have been educated, first at the university +of St Andrews and then at that of Paris, where he took, the +degree of doctor. From his own statement, in one of his poems, +we learn that he had been in the service of James V. from the +king’s earliest years, and that the post he held was clerk of +accounts. At the request of James he undertook translations of +Boece’s <i>Historia Scotorum</i>, which had appeared at Paris in 1527, +and the first five books of Livy. As a reward for his versions, +which he finished in 1533, he was appointed archdeacon of +Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a strenuous opponent of +the Reformation and was compelled to go into exile. He is said +by some authorities to have died at Rome in 1550; by others +to have been still living in 1587. His translation of Boece, +entitled <i>The History and Chronicles of Scotland</i>, is a remarkable +specimen of Scottish prose, distinguished by its freedom and +vigour of expression. It was published in 1536; and was +reprinted in 2 vols., edited by Maitland, in 1821. The translation +of Livy was not printed till 1822 (also in 2 vols.). Two MSS. of +the latter are extant, one, the older, in the Advocates’ library, +Edinburgh (which was the basis of the normalized text of 1822), +the other (<i>c.</i> 1550) in the possession of Mr Ogilvie Forbes of +Boyndlie. An edition of the work was edited for the Scottish +Text Society by Mr W.A. Craigie (2 vols. 1901, 1903). The +second volume of this edition contains also a complete reprint +of the portions of the holograph first draft which were discovered +in the British Museum in 1902. Two poems by Bellenden—<i>The +Proheme to the Cosmographe</i> and the <i>Proheme of the History</i>—appeared +in the 1536 edition of the <i>History of Scotland</i>. Others, +bearing his name in the well-known Bannatyne MS. collection, +made by his namesake George Bannatyne (<i>q.v.</i>), may or may not +be his. Sir David Lyndsay, in his prologue to the <i>Papyngo</i>, +speaks vaguely of:</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Ane cunnyng Clark quhilk wrythith craftelie</p> +<p class="i05">Ane plant of poetis callit Ballendyne,</p> +<p class="i05">Quhose ornat workis my wit can nocht defyne.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief sources of information regarding Belleriden’s life are the +<i>Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland</i>, his own works and +the ecclesiastical records.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLENDEN, WILLIAM,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> Scottish classical scholar. Hardly +anything is known of him. He lived in the reign of James I. +(VI. of Scotland), who appointed him <i>magister libellorum supplicum</i> +or master of requests. King James is also said to have provided +Bellenden with the means of living independently at Paris, +where he became professor at the university, and advocate in +the parliament. The date of his birth cannot be fixed, and it +can only be said that he died later than 1625. The first of the +works by which he is known was published anonymously in 1608, +with the title <i>Ciceronis Princeps</i>, a laborious compilation of all +Cicero’s remarks on the origin and principles of regal government, +digested and systematically arranged. In 1612 there appeared +a similar work, devoted to the consideration of consular authority +and the Roman senate, <i>Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque +Romanus</i>. His third work, <i>De Statu Prisci Orbls</i>, 1615, is a +good outline of general history. All three works were combined +in a single large volume, entitled <i>De Statu Libri Tres</i>, 1615, which +was first brought into due notice by Dr Samuel Parr, who, in +1787, published an edition with a preface, famous for the elegance +of its Latinity, in which he eulogized Burke, Fox and Lord +North as the “three English luminaries.” The greatest of +Bellenden’s works is the extensive treatise <i>De Tribus Luminibus +Romanorum</i>, printed and published posthumously at Paris in +1633. The book is unfinished, and treats only of the first +luminary, Cicero; the others intended were apparently Seneca +and Pliny. It contains a most elaborate history of Rome and +its institutions, drawn from Cicero, and thus forms a storehouse +of all the historical notices contained in that voluminous author. +It is said that nearly all the copies were lost on the passage to +England. One of the few that survived was placed in the university +library at Cambridge, and freely drawn upon by Conyers +Middieton, the librarian, in his <i>History of the Life of Cicero</i>. +Both Joseph Warton and Dr Parr accused Middleton of deliberate +plagiarism, which was the more likely to have escaped detection +owing to the small number of existing copies of Bellenden’s work.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEROPHON,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bellerophontes</span>, in Greek legend, +son of Glaucus or Poseidon, grandson of Sisyphus and local hero +of Corinth. Having slain by accident the Corinthian hero +Bellerus (or, according to others, his own brother) he fled to +Tiryns, where his kinsman Proetus, king of Argos, received him +hospitably and purged him of his guilt. But Anteia (or Stheneboea), +wife of Proetus, became enamoured of Bellerophon, and, +when he refused her advances, charged him with an attempt +upon her virtue. Proetus thereupon sent him to Iobates, his +wife’s father, king of Lycia, with a letter or sealed tablet, in +which were instructions, apparently given by means of signs, to +take the life of the bearer. Arriving in Lycia, he was received +as a guest and entertained for nine days. On the tenth, being +asked the object of his visit, he handed the letter to the king, +whose first plan for complying with it was to send him to slay +the Chimaera, a monster which was devastating the country. +Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus (<i>q.v.</i>), kept up in the air out of the +way of the Chimaera, but yet near enough to kill it with his spear, +or, as he is at other times represented, with his sword or with a bow. +He was next ordered out against the Solymi, a hostile tribe, and +afterwards against the Amazons, from both of which expeditions +he not only returned victorious, but also on his way back slew +an ambush of chosen warriors whom Iobates had placed to +intercept him. His divine origin was now proved; the king +gave him his daughter in marriage; and the Lycians presented +him with a large and fertile estate on which he lived (Apollodorus, +ii. 3; Homer, <i>Iliad</i>, vi. 155). Bellerophon is said to have +returned to Tiryns and avenged himself on Anteia: he persuaded +her to fly with him on his winged horse, and then flung her into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span> +the sea near the island of Melos (Schol. Aristoph., <i>Pax</i>, 140). +His ambitious attempt to ascend to the heavens on Pegasus +brought upon him the wrath of the gods. His son was smitten +by Ares in battle; his daughter Laodameia was slain by Artemis; +he himself, flung from his horse, lamed or blinded, became a +wanderer over the face of the earth until his death (Pindar, +<i>Isthmia</i>, vi. [vii.], 44; Horace, <i>Odes</i>, iv. 11, 26). +Bellerophon was honoured as a hero at Corinth and in Lycia. +His story formed the subject of the <i>Debates</i> of Sophocles, +and of the <i>Bellerophontes</i> and <i>Stheneboea</i> of Euripides. +It has been suggested that Perseus, the local hero of Argos, and Bellerophon +were originally one and the same, the difference in their exploits being the +result of the rivalry of Argos and Corinth. Both are connected +with the sun-god Helios and with the sea-god Poseidon, the +symbol of the union being the winged horse Pegasus. Bellerophon +has been explained as a hero of the storm, of which his conflict +with the Chimaera is symbolical. The most frequent representations +of Bellerophon in ancient art are (1) slaying the Chimaera, +(2) departing from Argos with the letter, (3) leading Pegasus to +drink. Among the first is to be noted a terra-cotta relief from +Melos in the British Museum, where also, on a vase of black ware, +is what seems to be a representation of his escape from Stheneboea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H.A. Fischer, <i>Bellerophon</i> (1851); +R. Engelmann, <i>Annali</i> of the Archaeological Institute at Rome (1874); +O. Treuber, <i>Gechichte der Lykier</i> (1887); +articles in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Real-Encyclopadie</i>, +W.H. Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>, +Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; +L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLES-LETTRES<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (Fr. for “fine literature”), a term used +to designate the more artistic and imaginative forms of literature, +as poetry or romance, as opposed to more pedestrian and exact +studies. The term appears to have been first used in English by Swift (1710).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEVILLE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada, +and capital of Hastings county, 106 m. E.N.E. of Toronto, +on Bay of Quinté and the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) +9117. Communication is maintained with Lake Ontario and +St Lawrence ports by several lines of steamers. It is the commercial +centre of a fine agricultural district, and has a large +export trade in cheese and farm produce. The principal industries +are planing mills and cement works, cheese factories and distilleries. +There are several educational institutions, including a +business college, a convent, and a government institute for the +deaf and dumb. Albert College, under the control of the Methodist +church, was formerly a university, but now confines itself to +secondary education.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEVILLE,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of St Clair county, +Illinois, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state 14 m. S.E. +of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1890) 15,361; (1900) 17,484, +of whom 2750 were foreign-born; (1910) 21,122. Belleville is +served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and +the Southern railways, also by extensive interurban electric +systems; and a belt line to O’Fallon, Illinois, connects Belleville +with the Baltimore & Ohio South Western railway. A large +element of the population is of German descent or German +birth, and two newspapers are published in German, besides +three dailies, three weeklies and a semi-weekly in English. +Among the industrial establishments of the city are stove and +range factories, flour mills, rolling mills, distilleries, breweries, +shoe factories, copper refining works, nail and tack factories, +glass works and agricultural implement factories. The value +of the city’s factory products increased from $2,873,334 in 1900 +to $4,356,615 in 1905 or 51.6%. Belleville is in a rich agricultural +region, and in the vicinity there are valuable coal mines, +the first of which was sunk in 1852; from this dates the industrial +development of the city. Belleville was first settled in 1813, +was incorporated as a city in 1850, and was re-incorporated +in 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLEY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Ain, 52 m. S.E. of Bourg by +the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), town, 3709; commune, +5707. It is situated on vine-covered hills at the southern +extremity of the Jura, 3 m. from the right bank of the Rhone. +Apart from the cathedral of St Jean, which, with the exception +of the choir of 1413, is a modern building, there is little of +architectural interest in the town. Belley is the seat of a bishopric +and a prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance. The +manufacture of morocco leather goods and the quarrying of the +lithographic stone of the vicinity are carried on, and there is +trade in cattle, grain, wine, truffles and dressed pork. Belley +is of Roman origin, and in the 5th century became an episcopal +see. It was the capital of the province of Bugey, which was a +dependency of Savoy till 1601, when it was ceded to France. +In 1385 the town was almost entirely destroyed by an act of +incendiarism, but was subsequently rebuilt by the dukes of +Savoy, who surrounded it with ramparts of which little is left.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1791-1863), Italian poet, +was born at Rome, and after a period of literary employment +in poor circumstances was enabled by marriage with a lady of +means to follow his own special bent. He is remembered for +his vivid popular poetry in the Roman dialect, a number of +satirical sonnets which in their own way are unique.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Morandi’s edition, <i>I sonetti romaneschi</i> (1886-1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLIGERENCY,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the state of carrying on war (Lat. <i>bellum</i>, +war, and <i>gerere</i>, to wage) in accordance with the law of nations. +Insurgents are not as such excluded from recognition as belligerents, +and, even where not recognized as belligerents by the +government against which they have rebelled, they may be so +recognized by a neutral state, as in the case of the American +Civil War, when the Southern states were recognized as +belligerents by Great Britain, though regarded as rebels by the +Northern states. The recognition by a neutral state of +belligerency does not, however, imply recognition of independent +political existence. The regulations annexed to the Hague +Convention, relating to the laws and customs of war (29th of July +1899), contain a section entitled “Belligerents” which is +divided into three chapters, dealing respectively with (i.) The +Qualifications of Belligerents; (ii.) Prisoners of War; (iii.) The +Sick and Wounded. To entitle troops to the special privileges +attaching to belligerency, chapter i. provides that all regular, +militia or volunteer forces shall alike be commanded by persons +responsible for the acts of their men, that all such shall carry +distinctive emblems, recognizable at a distance, that arms shall +be carried openly and operations conducted in accordance with +the usages of war observed among civilized mankind. It provides, +nevertheless, for the emergency of the population of a territory, +which has not already been occupied by the invader, spontaneously +taking up arms to resist the invading forces, without +having had time to comply with the above requirements; they, +too, are to be treated as belligerents “if they respect the laws +and customs of war.” In naval war, privateering having been +finally abolished as among the parties to it by the declaration +of Paris, a privateer is not entitled, as between such parties, +to the rights of belligerency. As between states, one of whom +is not a party to the Declaration, the right to grant letters of +marque would remain intact for both parties, and the privateer, +<i>as between them</i>, would be a belligerent; as regards neutrals, +the situation would be complicated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Privateer</a></span>). On +prisoners of war and sick and wounded, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">War</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (d. 1549), lord deputy of +Ireland, was a son of Edward Bellingham of Erringham, Sussex, +his mother being a member of the Shelley family. As a soldier +he fought in France and elsewhere, then became an English +member of parliament and a member of the privy council, and +in 1547 took part in some military operations in Ireland. In +May 1548 he was sent to that country as lord deputy. Ireland +was then in a very disturbed condition, but the new governor +crushed a rebellion of the O’Connors in Leinster, freed the Pale +from rebels, built forts, and made the English power respected +in Münster and Connaught. Bellingham, however, was a +headstrong man and was constantly quarrelling with his council; +but one of his opponents admitted that he was “the best man of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +war that ever he had seen in Ireland.” His short but successful +term of office was ended by his recall in 1549.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Bagwell, <i>Ireland Under the Tudors</i>, vol. i. (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLINGHAM,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> a city of Whatcom county, Washington, +U.S.A., on the E. side of Bellingham Bay, 96 m. N. of Seattle. +Pop. (1900) 11,062; (1905, state est.) 26,000; (1910, U.S. census) +24,298. Area about 23 sq. m. It is served by the Great +Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Canadian Pacific, and +the Bellingham Bay & British Columbia railways—being a +terminus of the last named, which operates only 62 m. of line +and connects with the Mt. Baker goldfields and the Nooksack +valley farm and orchard region. A suburban electric line was +projected in 1907. About 2½ m. south-east of the city is the +main body of Lake Whatcom, 13 m. long, 1¼ m. wide, and 318 ft. +higher than the city and the source of its water-supply, a gravity +system which cost $1,000,000, being owned by the city. Bellingham +has two Carnegie libraries. Among the principal buildings +are the county court-house, the city hall, the Young Men’s +Christian Association building, and Beck’s theatre, with a +seating capacity of 2200. The largest of the state’s normal +colleges is situated here; in 1907 it had a faculty of 25 and +350 students; there are two high schools, two business colleges, +and one industrial school also in the city. The excellent harbour, +and the fact that Bellingham is nearer to the great markets of +Alaska than any other city in the states, make the port an important +shipping centre. In the value of manufactured product +the city was fourth in the state in 1905 (being passed only by +Tacoma, Seattle and Spokane), with a value of $3,293,988; +according to a census taken by the local chamber of commerce +the value of the product in 1906 was $7,751,464. The principal +industrial establishments are shingle (especially cedar) and +saw-mills, salmon canneries and factories for the manufacture +of tin cans, and machinery used in the canning of salmon. Motive +and electric lighting power is brought 52 m. from the falls +of the north fork of the Nooksack river, where there is a power +plant which furnishes 3500 horsepower. There are deposits +of clay and limestone in the surrounding country, and cement +is manufactured in the vicinity of the city. The blue-grey +Chuckanut sandstone is quarried on the shore of Chuckanut +Bay, south of Bellingham; and a coarse, dark-brown sandstone +is quarried on Sucia Island, west of the city. There are quarries +also on Waldron Island. Bellingham was formed in 1903 by +the consolidation of the cities of New Whatcom (pop. in 1900, +6834) and Fairhaven (pop. in 1900, 4228), and was chartered +as a city of the first class in 1904; it is named from Bellingham +Bay, which Vancouver is supposed to have named, in 1792, +in honour of Sir Henry Bellingham.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLINI,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the name of a family of craftsmen in Venice, three +members of which fill a great place in the history of the Venetian +school of painting in the 15th century and the first years of the 16th.</p> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">Jacopo Bellini</span> (<i>c.</i> 1400-1470-71) was the son of a tinsmith +or pewterer, Nicoletto Bellini, by his wife Franceschina. +When the accomplished Umbrian master Gentile da Fabriano +came to practise at Venice, where art was backward, several +young men of the city took service under him as pupils. Among +these were Giovanni and Antonio of Murano and Jacopo Bellini. +Gentile da Fabriano left Venice for Florence in 1422, and the +two brothers of Murano stayed at home and presently founded +a school of their own (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vivarini</a></span>). But Jacopo Bellini followed +his teacher to Florence, where the vast progress lately made, +alike in truth to natural fact and in sense of classic grace and style, +by masters like Donatello and Ghiberti, Masaccio and Paolo +Uccello, offered him better instruction than he could obtain even +from his Umbrian teacher. But his position as assistant to +Gentile brought him into trouble. As a stranger coming to +practise in Florence, Gentile was jealously looked on. One day +some young Florentines threw stones into his shop, and the +Venetian pupil ran out and drove them off with his fists. Thinking +this might be turned against him, he went and took service on +board the galleys of the Florentine state; but returning after a +year, found he had in his absence been condemned and fined for +assault. He was arrested and imprisoned, but the matter was +soon compromised, Jacopo submitting to a public act of penance +and his adversary renouncing further proceedings. Whether +Jacopo accompanied his master to Rome in 1426 we cannot +tell; but by 1429 we find him settled at Venice and married +to a wife from Pesaro named Anna (family name uncertain), +who in that year made a will in favour of her first child then +expected. She survived, however, and bore her husband two +sons, Gentile and Giovanni (though some evidences have been +thought to point rather to Giovanni having been his son by another +mother), and a daughter Nicolosia. In 1436 Jacopo was at +Verona, painting a Crucifixion in fresco for the chapel of S. +Nicholas in the cathedral (destroyed by order of the archbishop +in 1750, but the composition, a vast one of many figures, has been +preserved in an old engraving). Documents ranging from 1437 +to 1465 show him to have been a member of the Scuola or mutual +aid society of St John the Evangelist at Venice, for which he +painted at an uncertain date a series of eighteen subjects of the +Life of the Virgin, fully described by Ridolfi but now destroyed +or dispersed. In 1439 we find him buying a panel of tarsia work +at the sale of the effects of the deceased painter Jacobello del +Fiore, and in 1440 entering into a business partnership with +another painter of the city called Donato. About this time he +must have paid a visit to the court of Ferrara, where there +prevailed a spirit of free culture and humanism most congenial +to his tastes. Pisanello, the first great naturalist artist of north +Italy, whose influence on Jacopo at the outset of his career had +been only second to that of Gentile da Fabriano, had been some +time engaged on a portrait of Leonello d’Este, the elder son of +the reigning marquis Niccolo III. Jacopo (according to an almost +contemporary sonneteer) competed with a rival portrait, which +was declared by the father to be the better of the two. In the +next year, the last of the marquis Niccolo’s life, we find him +making the successful painter a present of two bushels of wheat. +The relations thus begun with the house of Este seem to have been +kept up, and among Jacopo’s extant drawings are several that +seem to belong to the scheme of a monument erected to the +memory of the marquis Niccolo ten years later. He was also +esteemed and employed by Sigismondo Malatesta at the court +of Rimini. In 1443 Jacopo took as an articled pupil a nephew +whom he had brought up from charity; in 1452 he painted a +banner for the Scuola of St Mary of Charity at Venice, and the +next year received a grant from the confraternity for the marriage +of his daughter Nicolosia with Andrea Mantegna, a marriage +which had the effect of transferring the gifted young Paduan +master definitively from the following of Squarcione to that +of Bellini. In 1456 he painted a figure of Lorenzo Giustiniani, +first patriarch of Venice, for his monument in San Pietro de +Castello, and in 1457, with a son for salaried assistant, three +figures of saints in the great hall of the patriarch. For some +time about these years Jacopo and his family would seem to +have resided at, or at least to have paid frequent visits to Padua, +where he is reported to have carried out works now lost, including +an altar-piece painted with the assistance of his sons in 1459-1460 +for the Gattamelata chapel in the Santo, and several portraits +which are described by 16th-century witnesses but have disappeared. +At Venice he painted a Calvary for the Scuola of St Mark (1466). +His activity can be traced in documents down to August 1470, but in +November 1471 his wife Anna describes herself as his relict, so +that he must have died some time in the interval.</p> + +<p>The above are all the facts concerning the life of Jacopo +Bellini which can be gathered from printed and documentary +records. The materials which have reached posterity for a +critical judgment on his work consist of four or five pictures only, +together with two important and invaluable books of drawings. +These prove him to have been a worthy third, following the +Umbrian Gentile da Fabriano and the Veronese Pisanello, in +that trio of remarkable artists who in the first half of the 15th +century carried towards maturity the art of painting in Venice +and the neighbouring cities. Of his pictures, an important +signed example is a life-size Christ Crucified in the archbishop’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span> +palace at Verona. The rest are almost all Madonnas: two +signed, one in the Tadini gallery at Lovere, another in the +Venice academy; a third, unsigned and long ascribed in error to +Gentile da Fabriano, in the Louvre, with the portrait of Sigismondo +Malatesta as donor; a fourth, richest of all in colour and +ornamental detail, recently acquired from private hands for the +Uffizi at Florence. Plausibly, though less certainly, ascribed to +him are a fifth Madonna at Bergamo, a warrior-saint on horseback +(San Crisogono) in the church of San Trovaso at Venice, a Crucifixion +in the Museo Correr, and an Adoration of the Magi in +private possession at Ferrara. Against this scanty tale of +paintings we have to set an abundance of drawings and studies +preserved in two precious albums in the British Museum and the +Louvre. The former, which is the earlier in date, belonged to +the painter’s elder son Gentile and was by him bequeathed to +his brother Giovanni. It consists of ninety-nine paper pages, +all drawn on both back and front with a lead point, an instrument +unusual at this date. Two or three of the drawings have been +worked over in pen; of the remainder many have become dim +from time and rubbing. The album at the Louvre, discovered +in 1883 in the loft of a country-house in Guienne, is equally rich +and better preserved, the drawings being all highly finished in +pen, probably over effaced preliminary sketches in chalk or lead. +The range of subjects is much the same in both collections, and +in both extremely varied, proving Jacopo to have been a craftsman +of many-sided curiosity and invention. He passes indiscriminately +from such usual Scripture scenes as the Adoration +of the Magi, the Agony in the Garden, and the Crucifixion, to +designs from classic fable, copies from ancient bas-reliefs, stories +of the saints, especially St Christopher and St George, the latter +many times repeated (he was the patron saint of the house of +Este), fanciful allegories of which the meaning has now become +obscure, scenes of daily life, studies for monuments, and studies +of animals, especially of eagles (the emblem of the house of Este), +horses and lions. He loves to marshal his figures in vast open +spaces, whether of architecture or mountainous landscape. In +designing such spaces and in peopling them with figures of +relatively small scale, we see him eagerly and continually putting +to the test the principles of the new science of perspective. His +castellated and pinnacled architecture, in a mixed medieval and +classical spirit, is elaborately thought out, and scarcely less so his +groups and ranges of barren hills, broken in clefts or ascending +in spiral terraces. With a predilection for tall and slender +proportions, he draws the human figure with a flowing generalized +grace and no small freedom of movement; but he does not +approach either in mastery of line or in vehemence of action a +Florentine draughtsman such as Antonio Pollaiuolo. Jacopo’s +influence on the development of Venetian art was very great, +not only directly through his two sons and his son-in-law Mantegna, +but through other and independent contemporary workshops +of the city, in none of which did it remain unfelt.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">Gentile Bellini</span> (1429-1430-1507), the elder son of +Jacopo, first appears independently as the painter of a Madonna, +much in his father’s manner, dated 1460, and now in the Berlin +museum. We have seen how in the previous year he and his +brother assisted their father in the execution of an altar-piece +for the Santo at Padua. In July 1466 we find him contracting +with the officers of the Scuola of St Mark as an independent +artist to decorate the doors of their organ. These paintings still +exist in a blackened condition. They represent four saints, +colossal in size, and designed with much of the harsh and searching +austerity which characterized the Paduan school under Squarcione. +In December of the same year Gentile bound himself to +execute for the great hall of the same company two subjects of +the Exodus, to be done better than, or at least as well as, his +father’s work in the same place. These paintings have perished. +For the next eight years the history of Gentile’s life and work +remains obscure. But he must have risen steadily in the esteem +of his fellow-citizens, since in 1474 we find him commissioned +by the senate to restore, renew, and when necessary replace, the +series of paintings, the work of an earlier generation of artists, +which were perishing from damp on the walls of the Hall of the +Great Council in the ducal palace. This was evidently intended +to be a permanent employment, and in payment the painter was +to receive the reversion of a broker’s stall in the Fondaco dei +Tedeschi; a lucrative form of sinecure frequently allotted to +artists engaged for tasks of long duration. In continuation of +this work Gentile undertook a series of independent paintings +on subjects of Venetian history for the same hall, but had +apparently only finished one, representing the delivery of the +consecrated candle by the pope to the doge, when his labours +were interrupted by a mission to the East. The sultan +Mahommed II. had despatched a friendly embassy to Venice, +inviting the doge to visit him at Constantinople and at the same +time requesting the despatch of an excellent painter to work at +his court. The former part of the sultan’s proposal the senate +declined, with the latter they complied; and Gentile Bellini with +two assistants was selected for the mission, his brother Giovanni +being at the same time appointed to fill his place on the works +for the Hall of the Great Council. Gentile gave great satisfaction +to the sultan, and returned after about a year with a knighthood, +some fine clothes, a gold chain and a pension. The surviving +fruits of his labours at Constantinople consist of a large painting +representing the reception of an ambassador in that city, now in +the Louvre; a highly finished portrait of the sultan himself, now +one of the treasures, despite its damaged condition, of the +collection of the late Sir Henry Layard; an exquisitely wrought +small portrait in water-colour of a scribe, found in 1905 by a +private collector in the bazaar at Constantinople and now in the +collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston; and two pen-and-ink +drawings of Turkish types, now in the British Museum. Early +copies of two or three other similar drawings are preserved in +the Städel Institute at Frankfurt; such copies may have been +made for the use of Gentile’s Umbrian contemporary, Pinturicchio, +who introduced figures borrowed from them into +some of his decorative frescoes in the Appartamento Borgia +at Rome.</p> + +<p>A place had been left open for Gentile to continue working +beside his brother Giovanni (with whom he lived always on terms +of the closest amity) in the ducal palace; and soon after 1480 +he began to carry out his share in the great series of frescoes, +unfortunately destroyed by fire in 1577, illustrating the part +played by Venice in the struggles between the papacy and the +emperor Barbarossa. These works were executed not on the +wall itself but on canvas (the climate of Venice having so +many times proved fatal to wall paintings), and probably in oil, +a method which all the artists of Venice, following the example +set by Antonello da Messina, had by this time learnt or were +learning to practise. The subjects allotted to Gentile, in addition +to the above-mentioned presentation of the consecrated candle, +were as follows: the departure of the Venetian ambassadors +to the court of Barbarossa, Barbarossa receiving the ambassadors, +the pope inciting the doge and senate to war, the pope bestowing +a sword and his blessing on the doge and his army (a drawing in +the British Museum purports to be the artist’s original sketch +for this composition), and according to some authorities also the +gift of the symbolic ring by the pope to the victorious doge on +his return. These works received the highest praise both from +contemporary and from later Venetian critics, but no fragment +of them survived the fire of 1577. Their character can to some +extent be judged by a certain number of kindred historical and +processional works by the same hand which have been preserved. +Of such the Academy at Venice has three which were painted +between 1490 and 1500 for the Scuola of St John the Evangelist, +and represent certain events connected with a famous relic +belonging to the Scuola, namely, a supposed fragment of the +true cross. All have been, much injured and re-painted; nevertheless +one at least, showing the procession of the relic through +St Mark’s Place and the thanksgiving of a father who owed to +it the miraculous cure of his son, still gives a good idea of the +painter’s powers and style. Great accuracy and firmness of +individual portraiture, a strong gift, derived no doubt from his +father’s example, for grouping and marshalling a crowd of +personages in spaces of fine architectural perspective, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span> +severity and dryness of the Paduan manner much mitigated by +the dawning splendour of true Venetian colour—these are the +qualities that no injury has been able to deface. They are again +manifest in an interesting Adoration of the Magi in the Layard +collection; and reappear still more forcibly in the last work +undertaken by the artist, the great picture now at the Brera in +Milan of St Mark preaching at Alexandria; this was commissioned +by the Scuola of St Mark in March 1505, and left by the artist +in his will, dated 18th of February 1507, to be finished by his +brother Giovanni. Of single portraits by this artist, who was +almost as famous for them as for processional groups, there +survive one of a doge at the Museo Correr in Venice, one of +Catarina Cornaro at Budapest, one of a mathematician at the +National Gallery, another of a monk in the same gallery, signed +wrongly to all appearance with the name of Giovanni Bellini, +besides one or two others in private hands. The features of +Gentile himself are known from a portrait medallion by Camelio, +and can be recognized in two extant drawings, one at Berlin +supposed to be by the painter’s own hand, and another, much +larger and more finished, at Christ Church, Oxford, which is +variously attributed to Bonsignori and A. Vivarini.</p> + +<p>III. <span class="sc">Giovanni Bellini</span> (1430-1431-1516) is generally +assumed to have been the second son of Jacopo by his wife Anna; +though the fact that she does not mention him in her will with +her other sons has thrown some slight doubt upon the matter. +At any rate he was brought up in his father’s house, and always +lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation with Gentile. +Up till the age of nearly thirty we find documentary evidence +of the two sons having served as their father’s assistants in +works both at Venice and Padua. In Giovanni’s earliest independent +works we find him more strongly influenced by the +harsh and searching manner of the Paduan school, and especially +of his own brother-in-law Mantegna, than by the more graceful +and facile style of Jacopo. This influence seems to have lasted +at full strength until after the departure of his brother-in-law +Mantegna for the court of Mantua in 1460. The earliest of +Giovanni’s independent works no doubt date from before this +period. Three of these exist at the Correr museum in Venice: +a Crucifixion, a Transfiguration, and a Dead Christ supported by +Angels. Two Madonnas of the same or even earlier date are in +private collections in America, a third in that of Signor Frizzoni +at Milan; while two beautiful works in the National Gallery +of London seem to bring the period to a close. One of these is +of a rare subject, the Blood of the Redeemer; the other is the +fine picture of Christ’s Agony in the Garden, formerly in the +Northbrook collection. The last-named piece was evidently +executed in friendly rivalry with Mantegna, whose version of +the subject hangs near by; the main idea of the composition +in both cases being taken from a drawing by Jacopo Bellini in +the British Museum sketch-book. In all these pictures Giovanni +combines with the Paduan severity of drawing and complex +rigidity of drapery a depth of religious feeling and human pathos +which is his own. They are all executed in the old tempera +method; and in the last named the tragedy of the scene is +softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise +colour. In a somewhat changed and more personal manner, +with less harshness of contour and a broader treatment of forms +and draperies, but not less force of religious feeling, are the two +pictures of the Dead Christ supported by Angels, in these days +one of the master’s most frequent themes, at Rimini and at +Berlin. Chronologically to be placed with these are two +Madonnas, one at the church of the Madonna del Orto at Venice +and one in the Lochis collection at Bergamo; devout intensity +of feeling and rich solemnity of colour being in the case of all +these early Madonnas combined with a singularly direct rendering +of the natural movements and attitudes of children.</p> + +<p>The above-named works, all still executed in tempera, are +no doubt earlier than the date of Giovanni’s first appointment +to work along with his brother and other artists in the Scuola +di San Marco, where among other subjects he was commissioned +in 1470 to paint a Deluge with Noah’s Ark. None of the master’s +works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or +confraternities or for the ducal palace, have survived. To the +decade following 1470 must probably be assigned a Transfiguration +now in the Naples museum, repeating with greatly ripened +powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early +effort at Venice; and also the great altar-piece of the Coronation +of the Virgin at Pesaro, which would seem to be his earliest +effort in a form of art previously almost monopolized in Venice +by the rival school of the Vivarini. Probably not much later +was the still more famous altar-piece painted in tempera for a +chapel in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, where it perished +along with Titian’s Peter Martyr and Tintoretto’s Crucifixion +in the disastrous fire of 1867. After 1479-1480 very much of +Giovanni’s time and energy must have been taken up by his +duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the ducal +palace, in payment for which he was awarded, first the reversion +of a broker’s place in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and afterwards, +as a substitute, a fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Besides +repairing and renewing the works of his predecessors he was +commissioned to paint a number of new subjects, six or seven +in all, in further illustration of the part played by Venice in the +wars of Barbarossa and the pope. These works, executed with +much interruption and delay, were the object of universal admiration +while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire +of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and +processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare +his manner in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile. +Of the other, the religious class of his work, including both +altar-pieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable +number have fortunately been preserved. They show him +gradually throwing off the last restraints of the 15th-century +manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the new oil +medium introduced in Venice by Antonello da Messina about +1473, and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets +of the perfect fusion of colours and atmospheric gradation of +tones. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually +fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity +and charm. The enthroned Virgin and Child become tranquil and +commanding in their sweetness; the personages of the attendant +saints gain in power, presence and individuality; enchanting +groups of singing and viol-playing angels symbolize and complete +the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of Venetian colour +invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the +landscape and the sky. The altar-piece of the Frari at Venice, +the altar-piece of San Giobbe, now at the academy, the Virgin +between SS. Paul and George, also at the academy, and the altar-piece +with the kneeling doge Barbarigo at Murano, are among +the most conspicuous examples. Simple Madonnas of the same +period (about 1485-1490) are in the Venice academy, in the +National Gallery, at Turin and at Bergamo. An interval of some +years, no doubt chiefly occupied with work in the Hall of the Great +Council, seems to separate the last-named altar-pieces from that +of the church of San Zaccaria at Venice, which is perhaps the +most beautiful and imposing of all, and is dated 1505, the year +following that of Giorgione’s Madonna at Castelfranco. Another +great altar-piece with saints, that of the church of San Francesco +de la Vigna at Venice, belongs to 1507; that of La Corona at +Vicenza, a Baptism of Christ in a landscape, to 1510; to 1513 +that of San Giovanni Crisostomo at Venice, where the aged saint +Jerome, seated on a hill, is raised high against a resplendent +sunset background, with SS. Christopher and Augustine standing +facing each other below him, in front. Of Giovanni’s activity +in the interval between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and of +Murano and that of San Zaccaria, there are a few minor evidences +left, though the great mass of its results perished with the fire +of the ducal palace in 1577. The examples that remain consist +of one very interesting and beautiful allegorical picture in the +Uffizi at Florence, the subject of which had remained a riddle +until it was recently identified as an illustration of a French +medieval allegory, the <i>Pèlerinage de l’âme</i> by Guillaume de +Guilleville; with a set of five other allegories or moral emblems, +on a smaller scale and very romantically treated, in the academy +at Venice. To these should probably be added, as painted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span> +towards the year 1505, the portrait of the doge Loredano in the +National Gallery, the only portrait by the master which has +been preserved, and in its own manner one of the most masterly +in the whole range of painting.</p> + +<p>The last ten or twelve years of the master’s life saw him +besieged with more commissions than he could well complete. +Already in the years 1501-1504 the marchioness Isabella Gonzaga +of Mantua had had great difficulty in obtaining delivery from +him of a picture of the “Madonna and Saints” (now lost) for +which part payment had been made in advance. In 1505 she +endeavoured through Cardinal Bembo to obtain from him another +picture, this time of a secular or mythological character. What +the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered, +we do not know. Albrecht Dürer, visiting Venice for a second +time in 1506, reports of Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter +in the city, and as full of all courtesy and generosity towards +foreign brethren of the brush. In 1507 Gentile Bellini died, +and Giovanni completed the picture of the “Preaching of St +Mark” which he had left unfinished; a task on the fulfilment of +which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger of their +father’s sketch-book had been made conditional. In 1513 +Giovanni’s position as sole master (since the death of his brother +and of Alvise Vivarini) in charge of the paintings in the Hall +of the Great Council was threatened by an application on the +part of his own former pupil, Titian, for a joint-share in the +same undertaking, to be paid for on the same terms. Titian’s +application was first granted, then after a year rescinded, and +then after another year or two granted again; and the aged +master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from +his sometime pupil’s proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook +to paint a Bacchanal for the duke Alfonso of Ferrara, but died +in 1516; leaving it to be finished by his pupils; this picture is +now at Alnwick.</p> + +<p>Both in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of +Giovanni Bellini was upon the whole the most serenely and +unbrokenly prosperous, from youth to extreme old age, which +fell to the lot of any artist of the early Renaissance. He lived +to see his own school far outshine that of his rivals, the Vivarini +of Murano; he embodied, with ever growing and maturing +power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the worldly +splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence +propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione +and Titian, surpassed their master. Giorgione he outlived by +five years; Titian, as we have seen, challenged an equal place +beside his teacher. Among the best known of his other pupils +were, in his earlier time, Andrea Previtali, Cima da Conegliano, +Marco Basaiti, Niccolo Rondinelli, Piermaria Pennacchi, Martino +da Udine, Girolamo Mocetto; in later time, Pierfrancesco +Bissolo, Vincenzo Catena, Lorenzo Lotto and Sebastian del +Piombo.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Vasari, ed. Milanesi, vol. iii.; Ridolfi, <i>Le +Maraviglie</i>, &c., vol. i.; Francesco Sansovino, <i>Venezia Descritta</i>; +Morelli, <i>Notizia, &c., di un Assonimo</i>; Zanetti, <i>Pittura Veneziana</i>; +F. Aghietti, <i>Elagio Storico di Jacopo e Giovanni Bellini</i>; G. Bernasconi, +<i>Cenni intorna la vita e le opere di Jacopo Bellini</i>; Moschini, +<i>Giovanni Bellini e pittori contemporanei</i>; E. Galichon in <i>Gazette des +beaux-arts</i> (1866); Crowe and Cavalcaselle, <i>History of Painting in +North Italy</i>, vol. i.; Hubert Janitschek, “Giovanni Bellini” in +Dohme’s <i>Kunst und Künstler</i>; Julius Meyer in Meyer’s <i>Allgemeines +Künstler-Lexikon</i>, vol. iii. (1885); Pompeo Molmenti, +“I pittori Bellini” in <i>Studi e ricerche di Storia d’ Arte</i>; P. Paoletti, +<i>Raccolta di documenti inediti</i>, fasc. i.; Vasari, <i>Vite di Gentile da +Fabriano e Vittor Pisanello</i>, ed. Venturi; Corrado Ricci in <i>Rassegna +d’ Arte</i> (1901, 1903), and <i>Rivista d’ Arte</i> (1906); Roger Fry, <i>Giovanni +Bellini</i> in “The Artist’s Library”; Everard Meynell, <i>Giovanni +Bellini</i> in Newnes’s “Art Library” (useful for a nearly complete +set of reproductions of the known paintings); Corrado Ricci, +<i>Jacopo Bellini e i suoi Libri di Disegni</i>; Victor Goloubeff, <i>Les +Dessins de Jacopo Bellini</i> (the two works last cited reproduce in full, +that of M. Goloubeff by far the most skilfully, the contents of both +the Paris and the London sketch-books).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLINI, LORENZO<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1643-1704), Italian physician and +anatomist, was born at Florence on the 3rd of September 1643. +At the age of twenty, when he had already begun his researches +on the structure of the kidneys and had described the ducts +known by his name (<i>Exercitatio anatomica de structura et usu +renum</i>, 1662), he was chosen professor of theoretical medicine +at Pisa, but soon after was transferred to the chair of anatomy. +After spending thirty years at Pisa, he was invited to Florence +and appointed physician to the grand duke Cosimo III., and was +also made senior consulting physician to Pope Clement XI. +He died at Florence on the 8th of January 1704. His works +were published in a collected form at Venice in 1708.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLINI, VINCENZO<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1801-1835), operatic composer of the +Italian school, was born at Catania in Sicily, on the 1st of +November 1801. He was descended from a family of musicians, +both his father and grandfather having been composers of some +reputation. After having received his preparatory musical +education at home, he entered the conservatoire of Naples, +where he studied singing and composition under Tritto and +Zingarelli. He soon began to write pieces for various instruments, +as well as a cantata and several masses and other sacred compositions. +His first opera, <i>Adelson e Savina</i>, was performed in +1825 at a small theatre in Naples; his second dramatic work, +<i>Bianca e Fernando</i>, was produced next year at the San Carlo +theatre of the same city, and made his name known in Italy. +His next work, <i>Il Pirata</i> (1827), was written for the Scala in +Milan, to words by Felice Romano, with whom Bellini formed +a union of friendship to be severed only by his death. The +splendid rendering of the music by Tamburini, Rubini and other +great Italian singers contributed greatly to the success of the +work, which at once established the European reputation of its +composer. In almost every year of the short remainder of his +life he produced a new operatic work, which was received with +rapture by the audiences of France, Italy, Germany and England. +The names and dates of four of Bellini’s operas familiar to most +lovers of Italian music are: <i>I Montecchi e Capuleti</i> (1830), in +which the part of Romeo became a favourite with all the great +contraltos; <i>La Sonnambula</i> (1831); <i>Norma</i>, Bellini’s best and +most popular creation (1831); and <i>I Puritani</i> (1835), written for +the Italian opera in Paris, and to some extent under the influence +of French music. In 1833 Bellini had left his country to accompany +to England the singer Pasta, who had created the part of +his <i>Sonnambula</i>. In 1834 he accepted an invitation to write an +opera for the national grand opera in Paris. While he was +carefully studying the French language and the cadence of French +verse for the purpose, he was seized with a sudden illness and +died at his villa in Puteaux near Paris on the 24th of September +1835. His operatic creations are throughout replete with a +spirit of gentle melancholy, frequently monotonous and almost +always undramatic, but at the same time irresistibly sweet. +To this spirit, combined with a rich flow of <i>cantilena</i>, Bellini’s +operas owe their popularity. “I shall never forget,” wrote +Wagner, “the impression made upon me by an opera of Bellini +at a period when I was completely exhausted with the everlastingly +abstract complication used in our orchestras, when a +simple and noble melody was revealed anew to me.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also G. Labat, <i>Bellini</i> (Bordeaux, 1865); A. Pougin, <i>Bellini, +sa vie et ses œuvres</i> (Paris, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLINZONA<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Belienz</i>), the political capital of the +Swiss canton of Tessin or Ticino. It is 105 m. from Lucerne by +the St Gotthard railway, 19 m. from Lugano and 14 m. from +Locarno at the head of the Lago Maggiore, these two towns +having been till 1881 capitals of the canton jointly with Bellinzona. +The old town is built on some hills, on the left bank of the +Tessin or Ticino river, and a little below the junction of the main +Ticino valley (the Val Leventina) with that of Mesocco. It +thus blocked the road from Germany to Italy, while a great wall +was built from the town to the river bank. Bellinzona still +possesses three picturesque castles (restored in modern times), +dating in their present form from the 15th century. They +belonged for several centuries to the three Swiss cantons which +were masters of the town. The most westerly, Castello Grande +or of San Michele, belonged to Uri; the central castle, that of +Montebello, was the property of Schwyz; while the most +easterly castle, that of Sasso Corbaro, was in the hands of +Unterwalden. The 13th-century church of San Biagio (Blaise) has a +remarkable 14th-century fresco, while the collegiate church of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +San Stefano dates from the 16th century. In 1900 the population +of Bellinzona was 4949, practically all Romanists and Italian-speaking.</p> + +<p>Possibly Bellinzona is of Roman origin, but it is first mentioned +in 590. It played a considerable part in the early history of +Lombardy, being a key to several Alpine passes. In the 8th +century it belonged to the bishop of Como, while in the 13th and +14th centuries it was tossed to and fro between the cities of Milan +and Como. In 1402 it was taken from Milan by Albert von Sax, +lord of the Val Mesocco, who in 1419 sold it to Uri and Obwalden, +which, however, lost it to Milan in 1422 after the battle of Arbedo. +In 1499 (like the rest of the Milanese) it was occupied by the +French, but in 1500 it was taken by Uri. In 1503 the French king +ceded it to Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which henceforth +ruled it very harshly through their bailiffs till 1798. At that +date it became the capital of the canton Bellinzona of the +Helvetic republic, but in 1803 it was united to the newly-formed +canton of Tessin.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLMAN, KARL MIKAEL<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1740-1795), Swedish poet, son +of a civil servant, was born at Stockholm on the 4th of February +1740. When quite a child he developed an extraordinary gift +of improvising verse, during the delirium of a severe illness, +weaving wild thoughts together lyrically and singing airs of his +own composition. When he was nineteen he became clerk in +a bank and afterwards in the customs, but his habits were +irregular and he was frequently in great distress, particularly +after the death of his patron, <span class="sc">Gustavus</span> III. As early as 1757 +he published <i>Evangeliska Dödstankar</i>, meditations on the +Passion from the German of David von Schweidnitz, and during +the next few years wrote, besides other translations, a great +quantity of poems, imitative for the most part of Dalin. In +1760 appeared his first characteristic work, <i>Månan</i> (The Moon), +a satirical poem, which was revised and edited by Dalin. But +the great work of his life occupied him from 1765 to 1780, and +consists of the collections of dithyrambic odes known as <i>Fredmans +Epistlar</i> (1790) and <i>Fredmans Sånger</i> (1791). Fredman +and his friends were well-known characters in the Stockholm +pot-houses, where Bellman had studied them from the life. +No poetry can possibly smell less of the lamp than Bellman’s. +He was accustomed, when in the presence of none but confidential +friends, to announce that the god was about to visit +him. He would shut his eyes, take his zither, and begin apparently +to improvise the music and the words of a long Bacchic +ode in praise of love or wine. Most of his melodies are taken +direct, or with slight adaptations, from old Swedish ballads, and +still retain their popularity. <i>Fredman’s Epistles</i> bear the clear +impress of individual genius; his torrents of rhymes are not +without their method; wild as they seem, they all conform to +the rules of style, and among those that have been preserved +there are few that are not perfect in form. A great Swedish +critic has remarked that the voluptuous joviality and the humour +of Bellman is, after all, only “sorrow clad in rose-colour,” and +this underlying pathos gives his poems their undying charm. +His later works, <i>Bacchi Tempel</i> (The Temple of Bacchus) (1783), +eight numbers of a journal called <i>Hvad behagas?</i> (What you +Will) (1781), in 1780 a religious anthology entitled in a later +edition (1787) <i>Zions Hogtid</i> (Zion’s Holiday), and a translation +of Gellert’s <i>Fables</i>, are comparatively unimportant. He died +on the 11th of February 1795. Much of Bellman’s work was +only printed after his death, <i>Bihang till Fredmans Epistlar</i> +(Nyköping, 1809), <i>Fredmans Handskrifter</i> (Upsala, 1813), +<i>Skaldestycken</i> (“Poems,” Stockholm, 1814) being among the +most important of these posthumous works. A colossal bronze +bust of the poet by Byström (erected by the Swedish Academy +in 1829) adorns the public gardens of Stockholm, and a statue +by Alfred Nyström is in the Hasselbacken, Stockholm. Bellman +had a grand manner, a fine voice and great gifts of mimicry, +and was a favourite companion of King Gustavus III.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of his works was published at Stockholm, edited +by J.G. Carlén, with biographical notes, illustrations and music +(5 vols., 1856-1861); see also monographs on Bellman by Nils +Erdmann (Stockholm, 1895) and by F. Niedner (Berlin, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLO, ANDRÉS <a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span>(1781-1865), South American poet and +scholar, was born at Caracas (Venezuela) on the 29th of November +1781, and in early youth held a minor post in the civil administration. +He joined the colonial revolutionary party, and in 1810 +was sent on a political mission to London, where he resided for +nineteen years, acting as secretary to the legations of Chile, +Colombia and Venezuela, studying in the British Museum, +supplementing his small salary by giving private lessons in +Spanish, by journalistic work and by copying Jeremy Bentham’s +almost indecipherable manuscripts. In 1829 he accepted a +post in the Chilean treasury, settled at Santiago and took a +prominent part in founding the national university (1843), of +which he became rector. He was nominated senator, and died +at Santiago de Chile on the 15th of October 1865. Bello was +mainly responsible for the civil code promulgated on the 14th +of December 1855. His prose works deal with such various +subjects as law, philosophy, literary criticism and philology; +of these the most important is his <i>Gramática castellana</i> (1847), +the leading authority on the subject. But his position in literature +proper is secured by his <i>Silvas Americanas</i>, a poem written +during his residence in England, which conveys with extraordinary +force the majestic impression of the South American landscape.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bello’s complete works were issued in fifteen volumes by the +Chilean government (Santiago de Chile, 1881-1893); he is the subject +of an excellent biography (Santiago de Chile, 1882) by Miguel +Luis Amunátegui.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. F.-K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLO-HORIZONTE,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Minas</span>, a city of Brazil, capital of +the state of Minas Geraes since 1898, about 50 m. N.W. of +Ouro Preto, connected with the Central of Brazil railway by a +branch line 9 m. in length. Pop. (estimated) in 1906, 25,000 to +30,000. The city was built by the state on an open plateau, and +provided with all necessary public buildings, gas, water and +tramway services before the seat of government was transferred +from Ouro Preto. The cost of transfer was about £1,000,000. +The city has grown rapidly, and is considered one of the most +attractive state capitals of Brazil.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLONA<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Duellona</span>), in Roman mythology, +the goddess of war (<i>bellum</i>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>duellum</i>), corresponding to the +Greek Enyo. By later mythologists she is called sometimes +the sister, daughter or wife of Mars, sometimes his charioteer +or nurse. Her worship appears to have been promoted in Rome +chiefly by the family of the Claudii, whose Sabine origin, together +with their use of the name of “Nero,” has suggested an identification +of Bellona with the Sabine war goddess Nerio, herself +identified, like Bellona, with Virtus. Her temple at Rome, +dedicated by Appius Claudius Caecus (296 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) during a battle +with the Samnites and Etruscans (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i> vi. 201), stood in +the Campus Martius, near the Flaminian Circus, and outside +the gates of the city. It was there that the senate met to discuss +a general’s claim to a triumph, and to receive ambassadors +from foreign states. In front of it was the <i>columna bellica</i>, +where the ceremony of declaring war by the fetialis was performed. +From this native Italian goddess is to be distinguished the +Asiatic Bellona, whose worship was introduced into Rome from +Comana, in Cappadocia, apparently by Sulla, to whom she had +appeared, urging him to march to Rome and bathe in the blood +of his enemies (Plutarch, <i>Sulla</i>, 9). For her a new temple was +built, and a college of priests (<i>Bellonarii</i>) instituted to conduct +her fanatical rites, the prominent feature of which was to lacerate +themselves and sprinkle the blood on the spectators (Tibullus +i. 6. 45-50). To make the scene more grim they wore black +dresses (Tertullian, <i>De Pallio</i>) from head to foot. The festival +of Bellona, which originally took place on the 3rd of June, was +altered to the 24th of March, after the confusion of the Roman +Bellona with her Asiatic namesake.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Tiesler, <i>De Bellonae Cultu</i> (1842).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLOT, JOSEPH RENÉ<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1826-1853), French Arctic explorer, +was born at Rochefort on the 18th of March 1826, the son of a +farrier. With the aid of the authorities of his native town he +was enabled at the age of fifteen to enter the naval school, in +which he studied two years and earned a high reputation. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +then took part in the Anglo-French expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, +and received the cross of the Legion of Honour for +distinguished conduct. He afterwards took part in another +Anglo-French expedition, that of Parana, which opened the +river La Plata to commerce. In 1851 he joined the Arctic +expedition under the command of Captain Kennedy in search +of Sir John Franklin, and discovered the strait between Boothia +Felix and Somerset Land which bears his name. Early in 1852 +he was promoted lieutenant, and in the same year accompanied +the Franklin search expedition under Captain Inglefield. As on +the previous occasion, his intelligence, devotion to duty and +courage won him the esteem and admiration of all with whom he +was associated. While making a perilous journey with two +comrades for the purpose of communicating with Sir Edward +Belcher, he suddenly disappeared in an opening between the +broken masses of ice (August 1853). A pension was granted to +his family by the emperor Napoleon III., and an obelisk was +erected to his memory in front of Greenwich hospital.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLOWS, ALBERT F.<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1829-1883), American landscape-painter, +was born at Milford, Massachusetts, on the 20th of +November 1829. He first studied architecture, then turned to +painting, and worked in Paris and in the Royal Academy at +Antwerp. He painted much in England; was a member of the +National Academy of Design, and of the American Water Color +Society, New York; and an honorary member of the Royal +Belgian Society of Water-Colourists. His earlier work was <i>genre</i>, +in oils; after 1865 he used water-colours more and more exclusively +and painted landscapes. Among his water-colours +are “Afternoon in Surrey” (1868); “Sunday in Devonshire” +(1876), exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition; “New England +Village School” (1878); and “The Parsonage” (1879). He +died in Auburndale, Massachusetts, on the 24th of November 1883.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1814-1882), American +clergyman, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 11th of +June 1814. He graduated at Harvard College in 1832, and at +the Harvard Divinity School in 1837, held a brief pastorate +(1837-1838) at Mobile, Alabama, and in 1839 became pastor of +the First Congregational (Unitarian) church in New York City +(afterwards All Souls church), in charge of which he remained +until his death. Here Bellows acquired a high reputation as a +pulpit orator and lyceum lecturer, and was a recognized leader +in the Unitarian Church in America. For many years after 1846 +he edited <i>The Christian Inquirer</i>, a Unitarian weekly paper, and +he was also for some time an editor of <i>The Christian Examiner</i>. +In 1857 he delivered a series of lectures in the Lowell Institute +course, on “The Treatment of Social Diseases.” At the outbreak +of the Civil War he planned the United States Sanitary Commission, +of which he was the first and only president (1861 to 1878). +He was the first president of the first Civil Service Reform +Association organized in the United States (1877), was an +organizer of the Union League Club and of the Century Association +in New York City, and planned with his parishioner and +friend, Peter Cooper, the establishment of Cooper Union. In +1865 he proposed and organized the national conference of +Unitarian and other Christian churches, and from 1865 to 1880 +was chairman of its council. He died in New York City on the +30th of January 1882. A bronze memorial tablet by Augustus +Saint Gaudens was unveiled in All Souls church in 1886. His +published writings include <i>Restatements of Christian Doctrine in +Twenty-Five Sermons</i> (1860); <i>Unconditioned Loyalty</i> (1863), +a strong pro-Union sermon, which was widely circulated during +the Civil War; <i>The Old World in its New Face: Impressions of +Europe in 1867-1868</i> (2 vols., 1868-1869); <i>Historical Sketch of the +Union League Club</i> (1879); and <i>Twenty-Four Sermons in All Souls +Church, New York, 1865-1881</i> (1886).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Russell N. Bellows, <i>Henry Whitney Bellows</i> (Keene, N.H., +1897), a biographical sketch reprinted from T.B. Peck’s <i>Bellows +Family Genealogy</i>; John White Chadwick, <i>Henry W. Bellows: +His Life and Character</i> (New York, 1882), a memorial address; and +Charles J Stillé, <i>History of the United States Sanitary Commission</i> +(Philadelphia, 1866).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLOWS<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> and <b>BLOWING MACHINES,</b> appliances used for +producing currents of air, or for moving volumes of air from one +place to another. Formerly all such artificially-produced +currents of air were used to assist the combustion of fires and +furnaces, but now this purpose only forms a part of the uses to +which they are put. Blowing appliances, among which are +included bellows, rotary fans, blowing engines, rotary blowers +and steam-jet blowers, are now also employed for forcing pure +air into buildings and mines for purposes of ventilation, for +withdrawing vitiated air for the same reason, and for supplying +the air or other gas which is required in some chemical processes. +Appliances of this kind differ from <i>air compressors</i> in that they +are primarily intended for the transfer of quantities of air at low +pressures, very little above that of the atmosphere, whereas the +latter are used for supplying air which has previously been +raised to a pressure which may be many times that of the atmosphere +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Power Transmission</a></span>: <i>Pneumatic</i>).</p> + +<p>Among the earliest contrivances employed for producing the +movement of air under a small pressure were those used in Egypt +during the Greek occupation. These depended upon the heating +of the air, which, being raised in pressure and bulk, was made to +force water out of closed vessels, the water being afterwards +employed for moving some kind of mechanism. In the process +of iron smelting there is still used in some parts of India an +artificial blast, produced by a simple form of bellows made from +the skins of goats; bellows of this kind probably represent one +of the earliest contrivances used for producing currents of air.</p> + +<p>The <i>bellows</i><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> now in use consists, in its simplest form, of two +flat boards, of rectangular, circular or pear shape, connected +round their edges by a wide band of leather so as to include an +air chamber, which can be increased or diminished in volume by +separating the boards or bringing them nearer together. The +leather is kept from collapsing, on the separation of the boards, +by several rings of wire which act like the ribs of animals. The +lower board has a hole in the centre, covered inside by a leather +flap or valve which can only open inwards; there is also an open +outlet, generally in the form of a pipe or nozzle, whose aperture +is much smaller than that of the valve. When the upper board +is raised air rushes into the cavity through the valve to fill up +the partial vacuum produced; on again depressing the upper +board the valve is closed by the air attempting to rush out again, +and this air is discharged through the open nozzle with a velocity +depending on the pressure exerted.</p> + +<p>The current of air produced is evidently not continuous but +intermittent or in puffs, because an interval is needed to refill +the cavity after each discharge. In order to remedy this drawback +the <i>double bellows</i> are used. To understand their action +it is only necessary to conceive an additional board with valve, +like the lower board of the single bellows, attached in the same +way by leather below this lower board. Thus there are three +boards, forming two cavities, the two lower boards being fitted +with air-valves. The lowest board is held down by a weight and +another weight rests on the top board. In working these double +bellows the lowest board is raised, and drives the air from the +lower cavity into the upper. On lowering the bottom board +again a fresh supply of air is drawn in through the bottom valve, +to be again discharged when the board is raised. As the air +passes from the lower to the upper cavity it is prevented from +returning by the valve in the middle board, and in this way a +quantity of air is sent into the upper cavity each time the lowest +board is raised. The weight on the top board provides the +necessary pressure for the blast, and at the same time causes +the current of air delivered to be fairly continuous. When the +air is being forced into the upper cavity the weight is being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span> +raised, and, during the interval when the lowest board is descending, +the weight is slowly forcing the top board down and thus +keeping up the flow of air.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:319px" src="images/img706a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 1 and 2.—Common Smiths’ Bellows.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Hand-bellows for domestic use are generally shaped like a +pear, with the hinge at the narrow end. The same shape was +adopted for the older forms of smiths’ bellows, with the difference +that two bellows were used superposed, in a manner similar to +that just described, so as to provide for a continuous blast. In +the later form of smiths’ bellows the same principle is employed, +but the boards are made circular in shape and are always maintained +roughly parallel to one another. These are shown on figs. +1 and 2. Here A is the blast pipe, B the movable lowest board, +C the fixed +middle board, +close to which +the pipe A is +inserted, and D +is the movable +uppermost board +pressed upon by +the weight +shown. The +board B is raised +by means of a +hand lever L, +through either a +chain or a connecting +rod, and +lowered by a +weight. The size +of the weight on D depends on the air pressure required. +For instance, if a blast pressure of half a pound per +square inch is wanted and the boards are 18 in. in diameter, +and therefore have an area of 254 sq. in., on each of the +254 sq. in. there is to be a pressure of half a pound, so that +the weight to balance this must be half multiplied by 254, or +127 ℔ The diameter of the air-pipe can be varied to +suit the required conditions. Instead of bellows with flexible +sides, a sliding arrangement is sometimes used; this consists +of what are really two boxes fitting into one another with the +open sides both facing inwards, as if one were acting as a lid +to the other. By having a valve and outlet pipe fitted as in +the bellows and sliding them alternately apart and together, an +intermittent blast is produced. The chief defect of this arrangement +is the leakage of air caused by the difficulty in making the +joint a sufficiently good fit to be air-tight.</p> + +<p><i>Blowing Engines.</i>—Where larger quantities of air at higher +pressures than can conveniently be supplied by bellows are required, +as for blast furnaces and the Bessemer process of steel-making, +what are termed “blowing engines” are used. The +mode of action of a blowing engine is simple. When a piston, +accurately fitting a cylinder which has one end closed, is forcibly +moved towards the other end, a partial vacuum is formed +between the piston and the blank end, and if this space be +allowed to communicate with the outer atmosphere air will +flow in to fill the vacuum. When the piston has completed its +movement or “stroke,” the cylinder will have been filled with +air. On the return of the piston, if the valve through which +the air entered is now closed and a second one communicating +with a chamber or pipe is opened, the air in the cylinder is +expelled through this second valve. The action is similar to +that of the bellows, but is carried out in a machine which is much +better able to resist higher pressures and which is more convenient +for dealing with large quantities of air. The valves through +which the atmosphere or “free” air is admitted are called +“admission” or “suction” valves, and those through which +the air is driven from the cylinder are the “discharge” or +“delivery” valves. Formerly one side only of the blowing +piston was used, the engine working “single-acting”; but now +both sides of the piston are utilized, so that when it is moving +in either direction suction will be taking place on one side and +delivery on the other. All processes in connexion with which +blowing engines are used require the air to be above the pressure +of the outer atmosphere. This means that the discharge valves +do not open quite at the beginning of the delivery stroke, but +remain closed until the air in the cylinder has been reduced +in volume and so increased in pressure to that of the air in the +discharge chamber.</p> + +<p>The power used to actuate these blowing-engines is in most +cases steam, the steam cylinder being placed in line or “tandem” +with the air cylinder, so that the steam piston rod is continuous +with or directly joined to the piston rod of the air cylinder. +This plan is always adopted where the cylinders are placed +horizontally, and often in the case of vertical engines. The +engines are generally built in pairs, with two blowing cylinders +and one high-pressure and one low-pressure steam cylinder, the +piston rods terminating in connecting rods which are attached +to the pins of the two cranks on the shaft. In the centre of this +shaft, midway between the two engines, there is usually placed +a heavy flywheel which helps to maintain a uniform speed of +turning. Some of the largest blowing engines built in Great +Britain are arranged as beam engines; that is to say, there is +a heavy rocking beam of cast iron which in its middle position +is horizontal. One end of this beam is linked by a short connecting +rod to the end of the piston rod of the blowing cylinder, +while the other end is similarly linked to the top of the steam +piston rod, so that as the steam piston comes up the air piston +goes down and <i>vice versa</i>. At the steam end of the beam a third +connecting rod works the crank of a flywheel shaft.</p> + +<p>About the end of the 19th century an important development +took place which consisted in using the waste gas from blast +furnaces to form with air an explosive mixture, and employing +this mixture to drive the piston of the actuating cylinder in +precisely the same manner as the explosive mixture of coal gas +and air is used in a gas engine. Since the majority of blowing +engines are used for providing the air required in iron blast +furnaces, considerable saving should be effected in this way, +because the gas which escapes from the top of the furnace is +a waste product and costs nothing to produce.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:425px" src="images/img706b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Section of Cylinder of Early Blowing Engine (1851).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The general action of a blowing engine may be illustrated +by the sectional view shown on fig. 3, which represents the +internal view of one of the blowing cylinders of the engines +erected at the Dowlais Ironworks as far back as 1851. Many of +the details are now obsolete, but the general scheme is the same +as in all blowing engines. Here A is the air cylinder; in this is a +piston whose rod is marked R; this piston is usually made +air-tight by some form of packing fitted into the groove which +runs round its edge. In this particular case the cylinder is placed +vertically and its piston rod is actuated from the end of a rocking +beam. The top and bottom ends are closed by covers and in these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span> +are a number of openings controlled by valves opening inwards +so that air can flow freely in but cannot return. The piston is +shown moving downwards. Air is now being drawn into the +space above the piston through the valves v at the top, and the +air in the space A below the piston, drawn in during the previous +up-stroke, is being expelled through the valve v′ into the discharge +chamber B, thence passing to the outlet pipe O. The action +is reversed on the up-stroke. Thus it will be seen that air is being +delivered both during the up-stroke and the down-stroke, and +therefore flows almost continuously to the furnaces. There must, +however, be momentary pauses at the ends of the strokes when +the direction of movement is changed, and as the piston, though +worked from an evenly rotating crank shaft, moves more quickly +at the middle and slows down to no speed at the ends of its +travel, there must be a considerable variation in the speed of +delivery of the air. The air is therefore led from O into a large +storage chamber or reservoir, whence it is again taken to the +furnace; if this reservoir is made sufficiently large the elasticity +of the air in it will serve to compensate for the irregularities, and +a nearly uniform stream of air will flow from it. The valves +used in this case and in most of the older blowing engines consist +of rectangular metal plates hinged at one of the longer edges; +these plates are faced with leather or india rubber so as to allow +them to come to rest quietly and without clatter and at the same +time to make them air-tight. It will be seen that some of these +valves hang vertically and others lie flat on the bottom of the +cover. The Dowlais cylinder is very large, having a diameter +of 12 ft. and a piston stroke of 12 ft., giving a discharge of 44,000 +cub. ft. of air per minute, at a pressure of 4¼ ℔ to the square inch.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:482px; height:753px" src="images/img707a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Vertical Section of Lackenby Blowing Engines (1871).</td></tr></table> + +<p>A later design of blowing engine, built in 1871 for the Lackenby +iron-works, Middlesbrough, is shown in section in fig. 4, and +is of a type which is still the most common, especially in the +north of England. Here A, the high-pressure steam cylinder, +and C, the low-pressure one, are placed in tandem with the air +cylinders B, B, whose pistons they actuate. In these blowing +cylinders the inlet valves in the bottom are circular disk valves +of leather, eighteen in number; the inlet valves T on the top of +the cylinder are arranged in ten rectangular boxes, having +openings in their vertical sides, inside which are hung leather +flap valves. The outlet valves O are ten in number at each end +of the cylinders, and are hung against flat gratings which are +arranged round the circumference. The blast is delivered into +a wrought iron casing M which surrounds the cylinder. The +combined area of the inlet valves is 860 sq. in., or one-sixth the +area of the piston. The speed is twenty-four revolutions per +minute and the air delivered at this speed is 15,072 cubic ft. per +minute, the horse-power in the air cylinders being 258. The +circulating pump E, air pump F, and feed pumps G, G, are +worked off the cross-head on the low-pressure side.</p> + +<p>A more modern form of blowing engine erected at the Dowlais +works about the end of the 19th century, may be taken as +typical of the present design of vertical blowing engine in use +in Great Britain. The two air cylinders are placed below and in +tandem with the steam cylinders as in the last case. The piston +rods also terminate in connecting rods working on to the crank +shaft. The air cylinders are each 88 in. in diameter, and the +high and low pressure cylinders of the compound steam engine +are 30 in. and 64 in. respectively, while the common stroke of all +four is 60 in. The pressure of the air delivered varies from 4½ +to 10 ℔ per sq. in. and the quantity per minute is 25,000 cub. ft. +Each engine develops about 1200 horse-power. It is to be +noted that flap valves such as those used in the 1851 Dowlais +engine have in most cases given place to a larger number of +circular steel disk valves, held to their seats by springs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 335px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:283px; height:309px" src="images/img707b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Richardsons, Westgarth & Co.’s Blowing Engine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In a large blowing engine built in 1905 by Messrs Davy Bros. +of Sheffield for the North-Eastern Steel Company at Middlesbrough +(see <i>Engineering</i>, January 6, 1905) the same arrangement +was adopted as in that just described. The two air cylinders are +each 90 in. diameter and have a stroke of 72 in. The capacity of +this engine is 52,000 cub. ft. of air per minute, delivered at a +pressure of from 12½ to 15 ℔ per sq. in. when running at a speed +of thirty-three revolutions per minute. The air valves consist +of a large number of steel disks resting on circular seatings and +held down by springs, which for the delivery valves are so +adjusted in strength that they lift and release the air when the +desired working pressure has been reached. It is worthy of note +that in this engine no attempt is made to make the air pistons +air-tight in the usual way by having packing rings set in grooves +round the edge, but the piston is made deeper than usual and +turned so as to be a very good +fit in the cylinder and one or +two small grooves are cut +round the edge to hold the +lubricant.</p> + +<p>To illustrate a blowing +engine driven by a gas engine +supplied with blast furnace +gas, fig. 5 gives a diagrammatic +view of the blowing +cylinder of an engine built +by Messrs Richardsons, +Westgarth & Co. of +Middlesbrough about 1905. +The gas cylinder is not +shown. It will be seen +that the air cylinder is +horizontal, and it is arranged +to work in tandem with the gas motor cylinder. The chief +point of interest is to be found in the arrangement of the +details of the air cylinder. Its diameter is 86½ in. and the +length of piston stroke 55 in. As to the arrangement of the +valves, if the piston be moving in the direction shown, on +the left side of the piston at A air is being discharged, and +follows the course indicated by the arrows, so as first to pass +into the annular chamber which forms a continuation of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +space A, and thence, through the spring-controlled steel disk +valves v′, into the discharge chamber C, which ultimately leads +to the blast pipe. It will be seen that the valves v on the other +side of the annular chamber are closed. At the same time a +partial vacuum is being formed in the space B, to be filled by +the inflow of air through the valves v which are now open, the +corresponding discharge valves v′ being closed. These valves +on the inside and outside of the annular spaces referred to are +arranged so as to form a circle round the ends of the barrel of the +cylinder. The free air, instead of being drawn into the valves v +direct from the air of the engine house, is taken from an enclosed +annular chamber E, which may be in communication with the +clean, cool air outside. It will be seen that the piston is made +deep so as to allow for a long bearing surface in the cylinder. +Two metal packing rings are provided to render the piston +air-tight. The horse-power of this engine, which is designed +on the Cockerell system, is 750.</p> + +<p>Air valves of other types than those which have been mentioned +have been tried, such as sliding grid valves, rotatory slide valves +and piston valves, but it has been found that either flap or disk +lift valves are more satisfactory for air on account of the grit +which is liable to get between slide valves and their seatings. +In some of the blowing engines made by Messrs Fraser & +Chalmers (see <i>Engineer</i>, June 15, 1906), sheets of flexible bronze +act as flap valves both for admission and delivery, the part +which actually closes the opening being thickened for strength.</p> + +<p>The pressure of the air supplied by blowing engines depends +upon the purposes for which it is to be used. In charcoal +furnaces the pressure is very low, being less than 1 ℔ per sq. in.; +for blast furnaces using coal an average value of 4 ℔ is common; +for American blast furnaces using coke or anthracite coal the +pressure is as high as 10 ℔; while for the air required in the +Bessemer process of steel-making pressures up to 25 or 30 ℔ +per sq. in. are not uncommon. According to British practice +one large blowing engine is used to supply several blast furnaces, +while in America a number of smaller ones is used, one for each +furnace.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:348px; height:419px" src="images/img708.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Thwaites’ Improved Roots’ Blower.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Rotary blowers</i> occupy a position midway between blowing +engines and fan blowers, being used for purposes requiring the +delivery of large volumes of air at pressures lower than those of +blowing engines, but higher than those of fan blowers. The +blowing engine draws in, compresses and delivers its air by the +direct action of air-tight pistons; the same effect is aimed at in a +rotary blower with +the difference that +the piston revolves +instead of moving up +and down a cylinder.</p> + +<p>Two of the best-known +machines of +this kind are Roots’ +and Baker’s, both +American devices. +The mode of action +of Roots’ blower, +as made by Messrs +Thwaites Bros. of +Bradford, will be +clear from the section +shown on fig. 6. +The moving parts +work in a closed +casing B, which consists +of half-cylindrical +curved plates +placed a little more +than their own radius apart, the ends being enclosed by two +plates. Within the casing, and barely touching the curved +part of the casing and each other, revolve two parts C, D, +called “revolvers,” the speed of rotation of which is the +same, but the direction opposite. They are compelled to keep +their proper relative positions by a pair of equal spur wheels +fixed on the ends of the shafts on which they run. The free air +enters the casing through a wire screen at A and passes into the +space E.</p> + +<p>As the space E increases in volume owing to the movement +of the revolvers, air is drawn in; it is then imprisoned between +D and the casing, as shown at G, and is carried round until it is +free to enter F, from which it is in turn expelled by the lessening +of this space as the lower ends of the revolvers come together. +In this way a series of volumes of air is drawn in through A, to be +afterwards expelled from H in an almost perfectly continuous +stream, this result being brought about by the relative variation +in volume of the spaces E, F and G. In their most improved +form the revolvers are made hollow, of cast iron, and accurately +machined to a form such that they always keep close to one +another and to the end casing without actually touching, there +being never more space for the escape of air than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span>nd of an +inch. Machines after this design are made from the smallest size, +delivering 25 cub. ft., to the largest, with a capacity of 25,000 +cub. ft. per minute working up to a pressure of 3 ℔ per sq. in. +It is not found economical to attempt to work at higher pressures, +as the leakage between the revolvers and the casing becomes too +great; where a higher pressure is desired two or more blowers +can be worked in series, the air being raised in pressure by steps. +A blower using 1 H.P. will deliver 350 cub. ft. of air per minute +and one using 2¾ H.P. will deliver 800 cub. ft., at a pressure +suitable for smiths’ fires. At the higher pressure required for +cupola work—somewhere about ¾ ℔ per sq. in.—6½ H.P. will +deliver 1300, and 123 H.P. 25,000 cub. ft. per minute. In the +Baker blower three revolvers are used—a large one which acts +as the rotating piston and two smaller ones forming air locks or +valves.</p> + +<p><i>Rotary Fans</i>.—Now that power for driving them is so generally +available, rotary blowing fans have for many purposes taken +the place of bellows. They are used for blowing smiths’ fires, for +supplying the blast for iron melting cupolas and furnaces and the +forced draught for boiler fires, and for any other purpose requiring +a strong blast of air. Their construction will be clear from the +two views (figs. 7 and 8) of the form made by Messrs Günther of +Oldham, Lancashire. The fan consists of a circular casing A +having the general appearance of a snail shell. Within this +casing revolves a series of vanes B—in this case five—curved as +shown, and attached together so as to form a wheel whose centre +is a boss or hub. This boss is fixed to a shaft or spindle which +revolves in bearings supported on brackets outside the casing. +As the shaft is rotated, the vanes B are compelled to revolve in +the direction indicated by the arrow on fig. 7, and their rotation +causes the air within the casing to rotate also. Thus a centrifugal +action is set up by which there is a diminution of pressure +at the centre of the fan and an increase against the outer casing. +In consequence air is sucked in, as shown by the arrows on fig. 8, +through the openings C, C, at the centre of the casing around the +spindle. At the same time the air which has been forced towards +the outside of the casing and given a rotary motion is expelled +from the opening at D (fig. 8). All blowing fans work on the +same principle, though differences in detail are adopted by +different makers to meet the variety of conditions under which +they are to be used. Where the fan is to be employed for producing +a delivery or blast of air the opening D is connected to an +air pipe which serves to transmit the current of air, and C is left +open to the atmosphere; when, however, the main object is +suction, as in the case where the fan is used for ventilation, the +aperture C is connected through a suction pipe with the space to +be exhausted, D being usually left open. Günther fans range +in size from those which have a diameter of fan disk of 8 in. and +make 5500 revolutions per minute, to those which have a diameter +of 50 in. and run at from 950 to 1200 revolutions per +minute. For exhausting the fans are run less quickly than for +blowing, the speed for a fan of 10 in. diameter being 4800 +revolutions for blowing and 3300-4000 for exhausting, while +the 50-in. fan only runs at 550-700 when exhausting. These two +exhausting fans remove 400-500 and 12,000-15,000 cub. ft. of +air per minute respectively.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:425px; height:420px" src="images/img709a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Günther’s Blowing Fan.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:327px; height:355px" src="images/img709b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Günther’s Blowing Fan.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The useful effect of rotary fans, that is to say the proportion +of the total power used to drive the fan which is actually utilized +in producing the current of air, is very low for the smaller sizes, +but may rise to 30-70% in sizes above 5 ft. in diameter. It has +its maximum value for any given fan at a certain definite speed. +Fans are most suitable in cases where it is required to move or +deliver comparatively large volumes of air at pressures which are +little above that of the atmosphere. Where the pressure of the +current produced exceeds a quarter of a pound on the square inch +the waste of work becomes so great as to preclude their use. The +fan is not the most economical form of blower, but it is simple +and inexpensive, both in first cost and in maintenance. The +largest fans are used for ventilating purposes, chiefly in mines, +their diameters rising to 40 or even 50 ft. The useful effect of +some of these larger fans, as obtained from experiments, is as +high as 75%. In the case of the Capell fan, which differs from +other forms in that it has two series of blades, inner and outer, +separated by a curved blank piece between the inner wings, +dipping into the fan inlet, and the outer wings, very high +efficiencies have been obtained, being as great as 90% in some cases. +Capell fans are used for ventilating mines, buildings, and ships, +and for providing induced currents for use in boiler furnaces. +In the larger fans the casing, instead of having a curved section, +is more often built of sheet steel and is given a rectangular +section at right angles to the periphery. The Sirocco blowing +fan, of Messrs Davidson of Belfast, has a larger number of blades, +which are relatively narrow as measured radially, but wide +axially. It can be made much smaller in diameter than fans of +the older designs for the same output of air—a great advantage +for use in ships or in buildings where space is limited—and its +useful effect is also said to be superior. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydraulics</a></span>, +§ 213.)</p> + +<p><i>Helical or screw blowers</i>, often called “air propellers,” are used +where relatively large volumes of air have to be moved against +hardly any perceptible difference in pressure, chiefly for purposes +of ventilation and drying. Most often the propeller is used to +move air from one room or chamber to another adjoining, and +is placed in a light circular iron frame which is fixed in a hole in +the wall through which the air is to be passed. The propeller +itself consists of a series of vanes or wings arranged helically on a +revolving shaft which is fixed in the centre of the opening. The +centre line of the shaft is perpendicular to the plane of the opening +so that when the vanes revolve the air is drawn towards and +through the opening and is propelled away from it as it passes +through. The action is similar to that of a steamship screw +propeller, air taking the place of water. Such blowers are often +driven by small electric motors working directly on the end of +the shaft. For moving large volumes of air against little pressure +and suction they are very suitable, being simpler than fans, +cheaper both in first cost and maintenance for the same volume +of air delivered, and less likely to fail or get out of order. To +obtain the best effect for the power used a certain maximum +speed of rotation must not be exceeded; at higher speeds a great +deal of the power is wasted. For example, a propeller with a +vane diameter of 2½ ft. was found to deliver a volume of air +approximately proportional to the speed up to about 700 revolutions +per minute, when 8000 cub. ft. per minute were passed +through the machine; but doubling this speed to 1400 revolutions +per minute only increased delivery by 1000 cub. ft. to 9000. +At the lower of these speeds the horse-power absorbed was 0.6 +and at the higher one 1.6.</p> + +<p><i>Other Appliances for producing Currents of Air</i>.—In its primitive +form the “trompe” or water-blowing engine adopted in Savoy, +Carniola, and some parts of America, consists of a long vertical +wooden pipe terminating at its lower end in an air chest. Water +is allowed to enter the top of the pipe through a conical plug and, +falling down in streamlets, carries with it air which is drawn in +through sloping holes near the top of the pipe. In this way a +quantity of air is delivered into the chamber, its pressure depending +on the height through which the water falls. This simple +arrangement has been developed for use in compressing large +volumes of air at high pressures to be used for driving compressed +air machinery. It is chiefly used in America, and provides a +simple and cheap means of obtaining compressed air where there is +an abundant natural supply of water falling through a considerable +height. The pressure obtained in the air vessel is somewhat +less than half a pound per square inch for every foot of fall.</p> + +<p>Natural sources of water are also used for compressing and +discharging air by letting the water under its natural pressure +enter and leave closed vessels, so alternately discharging and +drawing in new supplies of air. Here the action is the same as in +a blowing engine, the water taking the place of the piston. +This method was first thoroughly developed in connexion with +the Mt. Cenis tunnel works, and its use has since been extended.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:462px; height:164px" src="images/img709c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Steam-jet Blower.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the <i>jet blower</i> (fig. 9) a jet of steam is used to induce a +current of air. Into one end of a trumpet-shaped pipe B projects +a steam pipe A. This steam pipe terminates in a small opening, +say, one-eighth of an inch, through which the steam is allowed to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +flow freely. The effect is to cause a movement of the air in the +pipe, with the result that a fresh supply is drawn in through the +annular opening at C, C, and a continuous stream of air passes +along the pipe. This is the form of blower made by Messrs +Meldrum Bros. of Manchester, and is largely used for delivering +air under the fire bars of boiler and other furnaces. In some +cases the jets of steam are allowed to enter a boiler furnace above +the fire, thus inducing a current of air which helps the chimney +draught and is often used to do away with the production of +smoke; they are also used for producing currents of air for +purposes other than those of boiler fires, and are very convenient +where considerable quantities of air are wanted at very low +pressures and where the presence of the moisture of the steam +does not matter.</p> + +<p>Sometimes jets of high-pressure air flowing at great velocities +are used to induce more slowly-moving currents of larger volumes +of air at low pressures.</p> +<div class="author">(W. C. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Old English word for this appliance was <i>blástbaelig</i>, <i>i.e.</i> +“blow-bag,” cf. German <i>Blasebalg</i>. By the 11th century the first +part of the word apparently dropped out of use, and <i>baelig, bylig</i>, bag, +is found in early glossaries as the equivalent of the Latin <i>follis. +Baelig</i> became in Middle English <i>bely</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “belly,” a sack or bag, +and so the general word for the lower part of the trunk in man and +animals, the stomach, and another form, probably northern in +origin, <i>belu, belw</i>, became the regular word for the appliance, the +plural “bellies” being still used till the 16th century, when “bellows” +appears, and the word in the singular ceases to be used. The verb +“to bellow” of the roar of a bull, or the low of a cow, is from Old +English <i>bellan</i>, to bell, roar.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLOY, DORMONT DE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> the name assumed by <span class="sc">Pierre +Laurext Buireite</span> (1727-1775), French dramatist, was born +at Saint-Flour, in Auvergne, on the 17th of November 1727. +He was educated by his uncle, a distinguished advocate in Paris, +for the bar. To escape from a profession he disliked he joined a +troupe of comedians playing in the courts of the northern +sovereigns. In 1758 the performance of his <i>Titus</i>, which had +already been produced in St Petersburg, was postponed through +his uncle’s exertions; and when it did appear, a hostile cabal +procured its failure, and it was not until after his guardian’s +death that de Belloy returned to Paris with <i>Zelmire</i> (1762), +a fantastic drama which met with great success. This was +followed in 1765 by the patriotic play, <i>Le Siège de Calais</i>. The +moment was opportune. The humiliations undergone by France +in the Seven Years’ War assured a good reception for a play in +which the devotion of Frenchmen redeemed disaster. The +popular enthusiasm was unaffected by the judgment of calmer +critics such as Diderot and Voltaire, who pointed out that the +glorification of France was not best effected by a picture of +defeat. De Belloy was admitted to the Academy in 1772. His +attempt to introduce national subjects into French drama +deserves honour, but it must be confessed that his resources +proved unequal to the task. The <i>Siège de Calais</i> was followed by +<i>Gaston et Bayard</i> (1771), <i>Pedro le cruel</i> (1772) and <i>Gabrielle de +Vergy</i> (1777). None of these attained the success of the earlier +play, and de Belloy’s death, which took place on the 5th of March +1775, is said to have been hastened by disappointment.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELL<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> or <b>INCHCAPE ROCK,</b> a sandstone reef in the North Sea, +11 m. S.E. of Arbroath, belonging to Forfarshire, Scotland. It +measures 2000 ft. in length, is under water at high tide, but at +low tide is exposed for a few feet, the sea for a distance of 100 yds. +around being then only three fathoms deep. Lying in the fairway +of vessels making or leaving the Tay and Forth, besides +ports farther north, it was a constant menace to navigation. +In the great gale of 1799 seventy sail, including the “York,” +74 guns, were wrecked off the reef, and this disaster compelled the +authorities to take steps to protect shipping. Next year Robert +Stevenson modelled a tower and reported that its erection was +feasible, but it was only in 1806 that parliamentary powers were +obtained, and operations began in August 1807. Though John +Rennie had meanwhile been associated with Stevenson as +consulting engineer, the structure in design and details is wholly +Stevenson’s work. The tower is 100 ft. high; its diameter at the +base is 42 ft., decreasing to 15 ft. at the top. It is solid for 30 ft. +at which height the doorway is placed. The interior is divided +into six storeys. After five years the building was finished at a +cost of £61,300. Since the lighting no wrecks have occurred on +the reef. A bust of Stevenson by Samuel Joseph (d. 1850) was +placed in the tower.</p> + +<p>According to tradition an abbot of Aberbrothock (Arbroath) +had ordered a bell—whence the name of the rock—to be fastened +to the reef in such a way that it should respond to the movements +of the waves, and thus always ring out a warning to mariners. +This signal was wantonly destroyed by a pirate, whose ship was +afterwards wrecked at this very spot, the rover and his men +being drowned. Southey made the incident the subject of his +ballad of “The Inchcape Rock.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELLUNO<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (anc. <i>Bellunum</i>), a city and episcopal see of Venetia, +Italy, the capital of the province of Belluno, N. of Treviso, +54 m. by rail and 28 m. direct. Pop. (1901) town, 6898; commune, +19,050. It is situated in the valley of the Piave, at its +confluence with the Ardo, 1285 ft. above sea-level, among the +lower Venetian Alps. It was a Roman <i>municipium</i>. In the +middle ages it went through various vicissitudes; it fell under +the dominion of Venice in 1511, and remained Venetian until +1797. Its buildings present Venetian characteristics; it has +some good palaces, notably the fine early Lombard Renaissance +Palazzo dei Rettori, now the seat of the prefecture. The cathedral, +erected after 1517 by Tullio Lombardo, was much damaged +by the earthquake of 1873, which destroyed a considerable +portion of the town, though the campanile, 217 ft. high, erected +in 1732-1743, stood firm. The façade was never finished. +Important remains of prehistoric settlements have been found +in the vicinity; cf. G. Ghirardini in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1883, 27, +on the necropolis of Caverzano.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELMONT, AUGUST<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1816-1890), American banker and +financier, was born at Alzei, Rhenish Prussia, on the 8th of +December 1816. He entered the banking house of the Rothschilds +at Frankfort at the age of fourteen, acted as their agent +for a time at Naples, and in 1837 settled in New York as their +American representative. He became an American citizen, +and married a daughter of Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He +was the consul-general of Austria at New York from 1844 to +1850, when he resigned in protest against Austria’s treatment of +Hungary. In 1853-1855 he was chargé d’affaires for the United +States at the Hague, and from 1855 to 1858 was the American +minister resident there. In 1860 he was a delegate to the +Democratic National Convention at Charleston, South Carolina, +actively supporting Stephen A. Douglas for the presidential +nomination, and afterwards joining those who withdrew to the +convention at Baltimore, Maryland, where he was chosen chairman +of the National Democratic Committee. He energetically +supported the Union cause during the Civil War, and exerted a +strong influence in favour of the North upon the merchants and +financiers of England and France. He remained at the head of +the Democratic organization until 1872. He died in New York +on the 24th of November 1890.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Perry Belmont</span> (1851-  ), was born in New York +on the 28th of December 1851, graduated at Harvard in 1872 +and at the Columbia Law School in 1876, and practised law in +New York for five years. He was a Democratic member of +Congress from 1881 to 1889, serving in 1885-1887 as chairman +of the committee on foreign affairs. In 1889 he was United +States minister to Spain.</p> + +<p>Another son, <span class="sc">August Belmont</span> (1853-  ), was born in +New York on the 18th of February 1853 and graduated at +Harvard in 1875. He succeeded his father as head of the banking +house and was prominent in railway finance, and in financing +and building the New York subway. In 1904 he was one of the +principal supporters of Alton B. Parker for the Democratic +presidential nomination, and served as chairman of the finance +committee of the Democratic National Committee.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A volume entitled <i>Letters, Speeches and Addresses of August +Belmont</i> (the elder) was published at New York in 1890.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELOIT,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a city of Rock county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated +on the S. boundary of the state, on Rock river, about 91 m. N.W. +of Chicago and about 85 m. S.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) +6315; (1900) 10,436, of whom 1468 were foreign-born; (1910) +15,125. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and +the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by an +inter-urban electric railway to Janesville, Wisconsin and Rockford, +Illinois. Beloit is attractively situated on high bluffs on +both sides of the river. The city is the seat of Beloit College, a +co-educational, non-sectarian institution, founded under the +auspices of the Congregational and Presbyterian churches in +1847, and having, in 1907-1908, 36 instructors and 430 students. +It has classical, philosophical (1874) and scientific (1892) courses; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +women were first admitted in 1895. The Greek department of +the college has supervised since 1895 the public presentation +nearly every year of an English version of a Greek play. The +river furnishes good water-power, and among the manufactures +are wood-working machinery, ploughs, steam pumps, windmills, +gas engines, paper-mill machinery, cutlery, flour, ladies’ shoes, +cyclometers and paper; the total value of the factory product +in 1905 was $4,485,224, 60.2% more than in 1900. Beloit, founded +by New Englanders in 1838, was chartered as a city in 1856.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELOMANCY<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (from <span class="grk" title="belos">βέλος</span>, a dart, and <span class="grk" title="manteia">μαντεία</span>, prophecy +or divination), a form of divination (<i>q.v.</i>) by means of arrows, +practised by the Babylonians, Scythians and other ancient +peoples. Nebuchadrezzar (Ezek. xxi. 21) resorted to this +practice “when he stood in the parting of the way ... to use +divination: he made his arrows bright.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELON, PIERRE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1517-1564), French naturalist, was born +about 1517 near Le Mans (Sarthe). He studied medicine at +Paris, where he took the degree of doctor, and then became a +pupil of the botanist Valerius Cordus (1515-1544) at Wittenberg, +with whom he travelled in Germany. On his return to France +he was taken under the patronage of Cardinal de Tournon, who +furnished him with means for undertaking an extensive scientific +journey. Starting in 1546, he travelled through Greece, Asia +Minor, Egypt, Arabia and Palestine, and returned in 1549. A +full account of his travels, with illustrations, was published in +1553. Belon, who was highly favoured both by Henry II. and +by Charles IX., was assassinated at Paris one evening in April +1564, when coming through the Bois de Boulogne. Besides the +narrative of his travels he wrote several scientific works of +considerable value, particularly the <i>Histoire naturelle des estranges +poissons</i> (1551), <i>De aquatilibus</i> (1553), and <i>L’Histoire de la nature +des oyseaux</i> (1555), which entitle him to be regarded as one of +the first workers in the science of comparative anatomy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELPER,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a market-town in the mid-parliamentary division +of Derbyshire, England, on the river Derwent, 7 m. N. of Derby +on the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,934. +The chapel of St John is said to have been founded by Edmund +Crouchback, second son of Henry III., about the middle of the +13th century. There is an Anglican convent of the Sisters of +St Lawrence, with orphanage and school. For a considerable +period one of the most flourishing towns in the county, Belper +owed its prosperity to the establishment of cotton works in 1776 +by Messrs Strutt, the title of Baron Belper (cr. 1856), in the +Strutt family, being taken from the town. Belper also manufactures +linen, hosiery, silk and earthenware; and after the +decline of nail-making, once an important industry, engineering +works and iron foundries were opened. The Derwent provides +water-power for the cotton-mills. John of Gaunt is said to have +been a great benefactor to Belper, and the foundations of a +massive building have been believed to mark the site of his +residence. A chapel which he founded is incorporated with a +modern schoolhouse. The scenery in the neighbourhood of +Belper, especially to the west, is beautiful; but there are +collieries, lead-mines and quarries in the vicinity of the town.</p> + +<p>Belper (Beaurepaire) until 1846 formed part of the parish of +Duffield, granted by William I. to Henry de Ferrers, earl of +Derby. There is no distinct mention of Belper till 1296, when +the manor was held by Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster, +who is said to have enclosed a park and built a hunting seat, +to which, from its situation, he gave the name Beaurepaire. +The manor thus became parcel of the duchy of Lancaster and is +said to have been the residence of John of Gaunt. It afterwards +passed with Duffield to the Jodrell family. In a great storm in +1545, 40 houses were destroyed, and the place was scourged by +the plague in 1609.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Willott, <i>Historical Records of Belper.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELSHAM, THOMAS<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1750-1829), English Unitarian minister, +was born at Bedford on the 26th of April 1750. He was educated +at the dissenting academy at Daventry, where for seven years +he acted as assistant tutor. After three years spent in a charge +at Worcester, he returned as head of the Daventry academy, a +post which he continued to hold till 1789, when, having adopted +Unitarian principles, he resigned. With Joseph Priestly for +colleague, he superintended during its brief existence a new +college at Hackney, and was, on Priestly’s departure in 1794, +also called to the charge of the Gravel Pit congregation. In +1805 he accepted a call to the Essex Street chapel, where in +gradually failing health he remained till his death in 1829. +Belsham’s first work of importance, <i>Review of Mr Wilberforce’s +Treatise entitled Practical View</i> (1798), was written after his +conversion to Unitarianism. His most popular work was the +<i>Evidences of Christianity;</i> the most important was his translation +and exposition of the Epistles of St Paul (1822). He was +also the author of a work on philosophy, <i>Elements of the Philosophy +of the Human Mind</i> (1801), which is entirely based on Hartley’s +psychology. Belsham is one of the most vigorous and able +writers of his church, and the <i>Quarterly Review</i> and <i>Gentleman’s +Magazine</i> of the early years of the 19th century abound in +evidences that his abilities were recognized by his opponents.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELSHAZZAR<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Babylonian general. Until +the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, he was known +only from the book of Daniel (v. 2, 11, 13, 18) and its reproduction +in Josephus, where he is represented as the son of Nebuchadrezzar +and the last king of Babylon. As his name did not appear +in the list of the successors of Nebuchadrezzar handed down by +the Greek writers, various suggestions were put forward as to +his identity. Niebuhr identified him with Evil-Merodach, Ewald +with Nabonidos, others again with Neriglissor. The identification +with Nabonidos, the last Babylonian king according to the +native historian Berossus, goes back to Josephus. The decipherment +of the cuneiform texts put an end to all such speculations. In 1854 +Sir H.C. Rawlinson discovered the name of Bel-sarra-uzur—“O Bel, +defend the king”—in an inscription belonging +to the first year of Nabonidos which had been discovered in the +ruins of the temple of the Moon-god at Muqayyar or Ur. Here +Nabonidos calls him his “first-born son,” and prays that “he +may not give way to sin,” but that “the fear of the great +divinity” of the Moon-god may “dwell in his heart.” In the +contracts and similar documents there are frequent references +to Belshazzar, who is sometimes entitled simply “the son of the +king.”</p> + +<p>He was never king himself, nor was he son of Nebuchadrezzar. +Indeed his father Nabonidos (Nabunaid), the son of Nabu-baladsu-iqbi, +was not related to the family of Nebuchadrezzar +and owed his accession to the throne to a palace revolution. +Belshazzar, however, seems to have had more political and +military energy than his father, whose tastes were antiquarian +and religious; he took command of the army, living with it in the +camp near Sippara, and whatever measures of defence were +organized against the invasion of Cyrus appear to have been +due to him. Hence Jewish tradition substituted him for his +less-known father, and rightly concluded that his death marked +the fall of the Babylonian monarchy. We learn from the +Babylonian Chronicle that from the 7th year of Nabonidos +(548 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) onwards “the son of the king” was with the army in +Akkad, that is in the close neighbourhood of Sippara. This, +as Dr Th. G. Pinches has pointed out, doubtless accounts for the +numerous gifts bestowed by him on the temple of the Sun-god +at Sippara. So late as the 5th of Ab in the 17th year of +Nabonidos—that is to say, about three weeks after the forces of Cyrus +had entered Babylonia and only three months before his death—we +find him paying 47 shekels of silver to the temple on behalf +of his sister, this being the amount of “tithe” due from her at +the time. At an earlier period there is frequent mention of his +trading transactions which were carried out through his house-steward +or agent. Thus in 545 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he lent 20 manehs of silver +to a private individual, a Persian by race, on the security of +the property of the latter, and a year later his house-steward +negotiated a loan of 16 shekels, taking as security the produce +of a field of corn.</p> + +<p>The legends of Belshazzar’s feast and of the siege and capture +of Babylon by Cyrus which have come down to us from the book +of Daniel and the <i>Cyropaedia</i> of Xenophon have been shown by +the contemporaneous inscriptions to have been a projection +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span> +backwards of the re-conquest of the city by Darius Hystaspis. +The actual facts were very different. Cyrus had invaded +Babylonia from two directions, he himself marching towards the +confluence of the Tigris and Diyaleh, while Gobryas, the satrap +of Kurdistan, led another body of troops along the course of the +Adhem. The portion of the Babylonian army to which the +protection of the eastern frontier had been entrusted was defeated +at Opis on the banks of the Nizallat, and the invaders +poured across the Tigris into Babylonia. On the 14th of Tammuz +(June), 538 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Nabonidos fled from Sippara, where he had +taken his son’s place in the camp, and the city surrendered at +once to the enemy. Meanwhile Gobryas had been despatched +to Babylon, which opened its gates to the invader on the 16th +of the month “without combat or battle,” and a few days later +Nabonidos was dragged from his hiding-place and made a prisoner. +According to Berossus he was subsequently appointed governor +of Karmania by his conqueror. Belshazzar, however, still held +out, and it was probably on this account that Cyrus himself did +not arrive at Babylon until nearly four months later, on the +3rd of Marchesvan. On the 11th of that month Gobryas was +despatched to put an end to the last semblance of resistance in +the country “and the son (?) of the king died.” In accordance +with the conciliatory policy of Cyrus, a general mourning was +proclaimed on account of his death, and this lasted for six days, +from the 27th of Adar to the 3rd of Nisan. Unfortunately the +character representing the word “son” is indistinct on the tablet +which contains the annals of Nabonidos, so that the reading is +not absolutely certain. The only other reading possible, however, +is “and the king died,” and this reading is excluded partly by +the fact that Nabonidos afterwards became a Persian satrap, +partly by the silence which would otherwise be maintained by +the “Annals” in regard to the fate of Belshazzar. Considering +how important Belshazzar was politically, and what a prominent +place he occupied in the history of the period, such a silence +would be hard to explain. His death subsequently to the +surrender of Babylon and the capture of Nabonidos, and with it +the last native effort to resist the invader, would account for the +position he assumed in later tradition and the substitution of his +name for that of the actual king.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Th. G. Pinches, <i>P.S.B.A.</i>, May 1884; H. Winckler, <i>Zetischrift +für Assyriologie</i>, ii. 2, 3 (1887); <i>Records of the Past</i>, new series, +i. pp. 22-31 (1888); A.H. Sayce, <i>The Higher Criticism</i>, pp. 497-537 +(1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. H. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELT, THOMAS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1832-1878), English geologist and naturalist, +was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1832, and educated in that +city. As a youth he became actively interested in natural +history through the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club. In 1852 +he went to Australia and for about eight years worked at the +gold-diggings, where he acquired a practical knowledge of ore-deposits. +In 1860 he proceeded to Nova Scotia to take charge +of some gold-mines, and there met with a serious injury, which +led to his return to England. In 1861 he issued a separate work +entitled <i>Mineral Veins: an Enquiry into their Origin, founded on +a Study of the Auriferous Quartz Veins of Australia</i>. Later on he was +engaged for about three years at Dolgelly, another though small +gold-mining region, and here he carefully investigated the rocks +and fossils of the Lingula Flags, his observations being published +in an important and now classic memoir in the <i>Geological Magazine</i> +for 1867. In the following year he was appointed to take +charge of some mines in Nicaragua, where he passed four active +and adventurous years—the results being given in his <i>Naturalist +in Nicaragua</i> (1874), a work of high merit. In this volume the +author expressed his views on the former presence of glaciers in +that country. In subsequent papers he dealt boldly and suggestively +with the phenomena of the Glacial period in Britain +and in various parts of the world. After many further expeditions +to Russia, Siberia and Colorado, he died at Denver on the +21st of September 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELT<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. +form being <i>balz</i>, from which the Lat. <i>balteus</i> probably derived), +a flat strap of leather or other material used as a girdle (<i>q.v.</i>), +especially the <i>cinctura gladii</i> or sword-belt, the chief “ornament +of investiture” of an earl or knight; in machinery, a flexible +strap passing round from one drum, pulley or wheel to another, +for the purpose of power-transmission (<i>q.v.</i>). The word is applied +to any broad stripe, to the belts of the planet Jupiter, to the +armour-belt at the water-line of a warship, or to a tract of +country, narrow in proportion to its length, with special distinguishing +characteristics, such as the earthquake-belt across +a continent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELTANE,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> <span class="sc">Beltene, Beltine</span>, or <span class="sc">Beal-Tene</span> (Scottish +Gaelic, <i>bealltain</i>), the Celtic name for May-day, on which also was +held a festival called by the same name, originally common to +all the Celtic peoples, of which traces still linger in Ireland, the +Highlands of Scotland and Brittany. This festival, the most +important ceremony of which in later centuries was the lighting +of the bonfires known as “beltane fires,” is believed to represent +the Druidical worship of the sun-god. The fuel was piled on a +hill-top, and at the fire the beltane cake was cooked. This was +divided into pieces corresponding to the number of those present, +and one piece was blackened with charcoal. For these pieces +lots were drawn, and he who had the misfortune to get the black +bit became <i>cailleach bealtine</i> (the beltane carline)—a term of +great reproach. He was pelted with egg-shells, and afterwards +for some weeks was spoken of as dead. In the north-east of +Scotland beltane fires were still kindled in the latter half of the +18th century. There were many superstitions connecting them +with the belief in witchcraft. According to Cormac, archbishop +of Cashel about the year 908, who furnishes in his glossary the +earliest notice of beltane, it was customary to light two fires +close together, and between these both men and cattle were +driven, under the belief that health was thereby promoted and +disease warded off. (See <i>Transactions of the Irish Academy</i>, +xiv. pp. 100, 122, 123.) The Highlanders have a proverb, “he is +between two beltane fires.” The Strathspey Highlanders used +to make a hoop of rowan wood through which on beltane day +they drove the sheep and lambs both at dawn and sunset.</p> + +<p>As to the derivation of the word beltane there is considerable +obscurity. Following Cormac, it has been usual to regard it as +representing a combination of the name of the god Bel or Baal +or Bil with the Celtic <i>teine</i>, fire. And on this etymology theories +have been erected of the connexion of the Semitic Baal with +Celtic mythology, and the identification of the beltane fires with +the worship of this deity. This etymology is now repudiated +by scientific philologists, and the <i>New English Dictionary</i> accepts +Dr Whitley Stokes’s view that beltane in its Gaelic form can have +no connexion with <i>teine</i>, fire. Beltane, as the 1st of May, was +in ancient Scotland one of the four quarter days, the others being +Hallowmas, Candlemas, and Lammas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full description of the beltane celebration in the Highlands +of Scotland during the 18th century, see John Ramsay, <i>Scotland +and Scotsmen in the 18th Century</i>, from MSS. edited by A. Allardyce +(1888); and see further J. Robertson in Sinclair’s <i>Statistical Account +of Scotland</i>, xi. 620; Thomas Pennant, <i>Tour in Scotland</i> (1769-1770); +W. Gregor, “Notes on Beltane Cakes,” <i>Folklore</i>, vi. (1895), p. 2; +and “Notes on the Folklore of the North-East of Scotland,” p. 167 +(<i>Folklore Soc</i>. vii. 1881); A. Bertrand, <i>La Religion des Gaulois</i> (1897); +Jamieson, <i>Scottish Dictionary</i> (1808). Cormac’s <i>Glossary</i> has been +edited by O’Donovan and Stokes (1862).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELUGA<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<i>Delphinapterus leucas</i>), also called the “white +whale,” a cetacean of the family <i>Delphinidae</i>, characterized by +its rounded head and uniformly light colour. A native of the +Arctic seas, it extends in the western Atlantic as far south as +the river St Lawrence, which it ascends for a considerable +distance. In colour it is almost pure white; the maximum +length is about twelve feet; and the back-fin is replaced by a +low ridge. Examples have been taken on the British coasts; +and individuals have been kept for some time in captivity in +America and in London. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cetacea</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELVEDERE,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Belvidere</span> (Ital. for “fair-view”), an +architectural structure built in the upper part of a building or +in any elevated position so as to command a fine view. The +belvedere assumes various forms, such as an angle turret, a cupola, +a loggia or open gallery. The name is also applied to the whole +building, as the Belvedere gallery in the Vatican at Rome. For +Apollo Belvidere see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, Plate II. fig. 55.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELVIDERE,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boone county, +Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, on the Kishwaukee +river, about 78 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 3867; (1900) +6937 (1018 foreign-born); (1910) 7253. It is served by the +Chicago & North-Western railway, and by an extensive inter-urban +electric system. Among its manufactures are sewing +machines, boilers, automobiles, bicycles, roller-skates, pianos, +gloves and mittens, corsets, flour and dairy products, Borden’s +condensed milk factory being located there. Belvidere was +settled in 1836, was incorporated in 1852 and was re-incorporated +in 1881.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1778-1823), Italian +explorer of Egyptian antiquities, was born at Padua in 1778. +His family was from Rome, and in that city he spent his youth. +He intended taking monastic orders, but in 1798 the occupation +of the city by the French troops drove him from Rome and +changed his proposed career. He went back to Padua, where +he studied hydraulics, removed in 1800 to Holland, and in 1803 +went to England, where he married an Englishwoman. He was +6 ft. 7 in. in height, broad in proportion, and his wife was of +equally generous build. They were for some time compelled +to find subsistence by exhibitions of feats of strength and agility +at fairs and on the streets of London. Through the kindness +of Henry Salt, the traveller and antiquarian, who was ever +afterwards his patron, he was engaged at Astley’s amphitheatre, +and his circumstances soon began to improve. In 1812 he left +England, and after travelling in Spain and Portugal reached +Egypt in 1815, where Salt was then British consul-general. +Belzoni was desirous of laying before Mehemet Ali a hydraulic +machine of his own invention for raising the waters of the Nile. +Though the experiment with this engine was successful, the +design was abandoned by the pasha, and Belzoni resolved to +continue his travels. On the recommendation of the orientalist, +J.L. Burckhardt, he was sent at Salt’s charges to Thebes, whence +he removed with great skill the colossal bust of Rameses II., +commonly called Young Memnon, which he shipped for England, +where it is in the British Museum. He also pushed his investigations +into the great temple of Edfu, visited Elephantine and +Philae, cleared the great temple at Abu Simbel of sand (1817), +made excavations at Karnak, and opened up the sepulchre of +Seti I. (“Belzoni’s Tomb”). He was the first to penetrate into +the second pyramid of Giza, and the first European in modern +times to visit the oasis of Baharia, which he supposed to be that +of Siwa. He also identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea. +In 1819 he returned to England, and published in the following +year an account of his travels and discoveries entitled <i>Narrative +of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids, +Temples, Tombs and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia, &c.</i> He +also exhibited during 1820-1821 facsimiles of the tomb of Seti I. +The exhibition was held at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, London. +In 1822 Belzoni showed his model in Paris. In 1823 he set out +for West Africa, intending to penetrate to Timbuktu. Having +been refused permission to pass through Morocco, he chose the +Guinea Coast route. He reached Benin, but was seized with +dysentery at a village called Gwato, and died there on the 3rd +of December 1823. In 1829 his widow published his drawings +of the royal tombs at Thebes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEM, JOSEF<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1795-1850), Polish soldier, was born at Tarnow +in Galicia, and was educated at the military school at Warsaw, +where he especially distinguished himself in mathematics. +Joining a Polish artillery regiment in the French service, he took +part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and subsequently so +brilliantly distinguished himself in the defence of Danzig +(January-November 1813) that he won the cross of the Legion +of Honour. On returning to Poland he was for a time in the +Russian service, but lost his post, and his liberty as well for some +time, for his outspokenness. In 1825 he migrated to Lemberg, +where he taught the physical sciences. He was about to write a +treatise on the steam-engine, when the Polish War of Independence +summoned him back to Warsaw in November 1830. It was +his skill as an artillery officer which won for the Polish general +Skrynecki the battle of Igany (March 8, 1831), and he distinguished +himself at the indecisive battle of Ostrolenká (May 26). +He took part in the desperate defence of Warsaw against Prince +Paskievich (September 6-7, 1831). Then Bem escaped to Paris, +where he supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1833 +he went to Portugal to assist the liberal Dom Pedro against the +reactionary Dom Miguel, but abandoned the idea when it was +found that a Polish legion could not be formed. A wider field for +his activity presented itself in 1848. First he attempted to hold +Vienna against the imperial troops, and, after the capitulation, +hastened to Pressburg to offer his services to Kossuth, first +defending himself, in a long memorial, from the accusations +of treachery to the Polish cause and of aristocratic tendencies +which the more fanatical section of the Polish emigrant Radicals +repeatedly brought against him. He was entrusted with the +defence of Transylvania at the end of 1848, and in 1849, as the +general of the Szeklers (<i>q.v.</i>), he performed miracles with his little +army, notably at the bridge of Piski (February 9), where, after +fighting all day, he drove back an immense force of pursuers. +After recovering Transylvania he was sent to drive the Austrian +general Puchner out of the Banat of Temesvár. Bem defeated +him at Orsova (May 16), but the Russian invasion recalled him +to Transylvania. From the 12th to 22nd of July he was fighting +continually, but finally, on the 31st of July, his army was +annihilated by overwhelming numbers near Segesvár (Schässburg), +Bem only escaping by feigning death. Yet he fought a +fresh action at Gross-Scheueren on the 6th of August, and +contrived to bring off the fragments of his host to Temesvár, to +aid the hardly-pressed Dembinski. Bem was in command and +was seriously wounded in the last pitched battle of the war, +fought there on the 9th of August. On the collapse of the +rebellion he fled to Turkey, adopted Mahommedanism, and +under the name of Murad Pasha served as governor of Aleppo, +at which place, at the risk of his life, he saved the Christian +population from being massacred by the Moslems. Here he +died on the 16th of September 1850. The tiny, withered, sickly +body of Bem was animated by an heroic temper. Few men have +been so courageous, and his influence was magnetic. Even the +rough Szeklers, though they did not understand the language +of their “little father,” regarded him with superstitious reverence. +A statue to his honour has been erected at Maros-Vásárhely, +but he lives still more enduringly in the immortal verses of the +patriot poet Sandor Petöfi, who fell in the fatal action of the 31st +of July at Segesvár. As a soldier Bem was remarkable for his +excellent handling of artillery and the rapidity of his marches.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Johann Czetz, <i>Memoiren über Bems Feldzug</i> (Hamburg, 1850); +Kálmán Deresényi, <i>General Bem’s Winter Campaign in Transylvania, +1848-1849</i> (Hung.), (Budapest, 1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEMA<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="baema">βῆμα</span>), in ecclesiastical architecture, the semicircular +recess or exedra, in the basilica, where the judges sat, +and where in after times the altar was placed. It generally is +roofed with a half dome. The seats, <span class="grk" title="thronoi">θρόνοι</span>, of the priests were +against the wall, looking into the body of the church, that of the +bishop being in the centre. The bema is generally ascended by +steps, and railed off. In Greece the bema was the general name +of any raised platform. Thus the word was applied to the +tribunal from which orators addressed assemblies of the citizens +at Athens. That in the Pnyx, where the Ecclesia often met, +was a stone platform from 10 to 11 ft. in height. Again in the +Athenian law court counsel addressed the court from such a +platform: it is not known whether each had a separate bema +or whether there was only one to which each counsel (? and the +witnesses) in turn ascended (cf. W. Wyse in his edition of Isaeus, +p. 440). Another bema was the platform on which stood the +urns for the reception of the bronze disks (<span class="grk" title="psiaephoi">ψῆφοι</span>) by means of +which at the end of the 4th century the judges recorded their +decisions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEMBERG, HERMAN<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1861-  ), French musical composer, +was born of French parents at Buenos Aires, and studied at the +Paris Conservatoire, under Massenet, whose influence, with that +of Gounod, is strongly marked in his music. As a composer he is +known by numerous songs and pieces for the piano, as well as by +his cantata <i>La Mort de Jeanne d’Arc</i> (1886), comic opera <i>Le Baiser de Suzon</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +(1888) and grand opera <i>Elaine</i> (produced at Covent +Garden in 1892). Among his songs the dramatic recitative +<i>Ballade du Désespéré</i> is well known.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEMBO, PIETRO<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1470-1547), Italian cardinal and scholar, +was born at Venice on the 20th of May 1470. While still a boy he +accompanied his father to Florence, and there acquired a love for +that Tuscan form of speech which he afterwards cultivated in +preference to the dialect of his native city. Having completed +his studies, which included two years’ devotion to Greek under +Lascaris at Messina, he chose the ecclesiastical profession. After +a considerable time spent in various cities and courts of Italy, +where his learning already made him welcome, he accompanied +Giulio de’ Medici to Rome, where he was soon after appointed +secretary to Leo X. On the pontiff’s death he retired, with +impaired health, to Padua, and there lived for a number of years +engaged in literary labours and amusements. In 1529 he accepted +the office of historiographer to his native city, and shortly +afterwards was appointed librarian of St Mark’s. The offer of a +cardinal’s hat by Pope Paul III. took him in 1539 again to Rome, +where he renounced the study of classical literature and devoted +himself to theology and classical history, receiving before long +the reward of his conversion in the shape of the bishoprics of +Gubbio and Bergamo. He died on the 18th of January 1547. +Bembo, as a writer, is the <i>beau ideal</i> of a purist. The exact +imitation of the style of the genuine classics was the highest +perfection at which he aimed. This at once prevented the graces +of spontaneity and secured the beauties of artistic elaboration. +One cannot fail to be struck with the Ciceronian cadence that +guides the movement even of his Italian writings.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works (collected edition, Venice, 1729) include a <i>History of +Venice</i> (1551) from 1487 to 1513, dialogues, poems, and what we +would now call essays. Perhaps the most famous are a little treatise +on Italian prose, and a dialogue entitled <i>Gli Asolani</i>, in which +Platonic affection is explained and recommended in a rather long-winded +fashion, to the amusement of the reader who remembers the +relations of the beautiful Morosina with the author. The edition of +Petrarch’s <i>Italian Poems</i>, published by Aldus in 1501, and the +<i>Terzerime</i>, which issued from the same press in 1502, were edited +by Bembo, who was on intimate terms with the great typographer. +See <i>Opere de P. Bembo</i> (Venice, 1729); Casa, <i>Vita di Bembo</i>, in +2nd vol. of his works.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEMBRIDGE BEDS,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> in geology, strata forming part of the +fluvio-marine series of deposits of Oligocene age, in the Isle of +Wight and Hampshire, England. They lie between the Hamstead +beds above and the Osborne beds below. The Bembridge +marls, freshwater, estuarine and marine clays and marls (70-120 +ft.) rest upon the Bembridge limestone, a freshwater pool deposit +(15-25 ft.), with large land snails (<i>Amphidromus</i> and <i>Helices</i>), +freshwater snails (<i>Planorbis, Limnaea</i>), and the fruits of <i>Chara</i>. +The marls contain, besides the freshwater <i>Limnaea</i> and <i>Unio</i>, +such forms as <i>Meretrix, Ostrea</i> and <i>Melanopsis</i>. A thin calcareous +sandy layer in this division has yielded the remains of many +insects and fossil leaves.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Geology of the Isle of Wight,” <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, 2nd ed. +1889.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1860-  ), American economist, +was born at Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of +April 1860. He was educated at Amherst and Johns Hopkins +University. He held the professorship of history and political +economy in Vanderbilt University from 1887 to 1892, was +associate professor of political economy in the university of +Chicago from 1892 to 1895, and assistant statistician to the +Illinois bureau of labour statistics, 1896. In 1901 he became +superintendent of the Cleveland water works. He wrote +much on municipal government, his more important works +being some chapters in <i>History of Co-operation in the United +States</i> (1888); <i>Municipal Ownership of Gas in the U.S.</i> (1891); +<i>Municipal Monopolies</i> (1899).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉMONT, CHARLES<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1848-  ), French scholar, was born +at Paris on the 16th of November 1848. In 1884 he graduated +with two theses, <i>Simon de Montfort</i> and <i>La Condamnation de +Jean Sansterre</i> (<i>Revue historique</i>, 1886). His <i>Les Chartes des +libertés anglaises</i> (1892) has an introduction upon the history of +Magna Carta, &c., and his <i>History of Europe from 395 to 1270</i>, in +collaboration with G. Monod, was translated into English. He +was also responsible for the continuation of the <i>Gascon Rolls</i>, +the publication of which had been begun by Francisque Michel +in 1885 (supplement to vol. i., 1896; vol. ii., for the years +1273-1290, 1900; vol. iii., for the years 1290-1307, 1906). He +received the honorary degree of Litt. Doc. at Oxford in 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEN<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (from Old Eng. <i>bennan</i>, within), in the Scottish phrase “a +but and a ben,” the inner room of a house in which there is only +one outer door, so that the entrance to the inner room is through +the outer, the but (Old Eng. <i>butan</i>, without). Hence “a but and +a ben” meant originally a living room and sleeping room, and so +a dwelling or a cottage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENARES,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> the Holy City of the Hindus, which gives its name +to a district and division in the United Provinces of India. It +is one of the most ancient cities in the world. The derivation of +its ancient name <i>Varanasi</i> is not known, nor is that of its alternative +name <i>Kasi</i>, which is still in common use among Hindus, +and is popularly explained to mean “bright.” The original site +of the city is supposed to have been at Sarnath, 3½ m. north of +the present city, where ruins of brick and stone buildings, with +three lofty <i>stupas</i> still standing, cover an area about half a mile +long by a quarter broad. Sakya Muni, the Buddha, came here +from Gaya in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (from which time some of the +remains may date), in order to establish his religion, which shows +that the place was even then a great centre. Hsüan Tsang, the +celebrated Chinese pilgrim, visited Benares in the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +and described it as containing 30 Buddhist monasteries, with +about 3000 monks, and about 100 temples of Hindu gods. +Hinduism has now supplanted Buddhism, and the Brahman fills +the place of the monk. The modern temples number upwards +of 1500. Even after the lapse of so great a time the city is still +in its glory, and as seen from the river it presents a scene of great +picturesqueness and grandeur. The Ganges here forms a fine +sweep of about 4 m. in length, the city being situated on the +outside of the curve, on the northern bank of the river, which is +higher than the other. Being thus elevated, and extending +along the river for some 4 m., the city forms a magnificent +panorama of buildings in many varieties of oriental architecture. +The minarets of the mosque of Aurangzeb rise above all. The +bank of the river is entirely lined with stone, and there are many +very fine ghats or landing-places built by pious devotees, and +highly ornamented. These are generally crowded with bathers +and worshippers, who come to wash away their sins in the sacred +river Ganges. Near the Manikarnika ghat is the well held to +have been dug by Vishnu and filled with his sweat; great +numbers of pilgrims bathe in its venerated water. Shrines and +temples line the bank of the river. But in spite of its fine +appearance from the river, the architecture of Benares is not +distinguished, nor are its buildings of high antiquity. Among +the most conspicuous of these are the mosque of Aurangzeb, +built as an intentional insult in the middle of the Hindu quarter; +the Bisheshwar or Golden Temple, important less through +architectural beauty than through its rank as the holiest spot +in the holy city; and the Durga temple, which, like most of the +other principal temples, is a Mahratta building of the 17th +century. The temples are mostly small and are placed in the +angles of the streets, under the shadow of the lofty houses. +Their forms are not ungraceful, and many of them are covered +over with beautiful and elaborate carvings of flowers, animals +and palm branches. The observatory of Raja Jai Singh is a +notable building of the year 1693. The internal streets of the +town are so winding and narrow that there is not room for a +carriage to pass, and it is difficult to penetrate them even on +horseback. The level of the roadway is considerably lower than +the ground-floors of the houses, which have generally arched +rooms in front, with little shops behind them; and above these +they are richly embellished with verandahs, galleries, projecting +oriel windows, and very broad overhanging eaves supported by +carved brackets. The houses are built of <i>chanar</i> stone, and are +lofty, none being less than two storeys high, most of them three, +and several of five or six storeys. The Hindus are fond of painting +the outside of their houses a deep red colour, and of covering +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +the most conspicuous parts with pictures of flowers, men, women, +bulls, elephants and gods and goddesses in all the many forms +known in Hindu mythology.</p> + +<p>Benares is bounded by a road which, though 50 m. in circuit, +is never distant from the city more than five kos (7½ m.); hence +its name, Panch-kos road. All who die within this boundary, +be they Brahman or low caste, Moslem or Christian, are sure of +admittance into Siva’s heaven. To tread the Panch-kos road is +one of the great ambitions of a Hindu’s life. Even if he be an +inhabitant of the sacred city he must traverse it once in the +year to free himself from the impurities and sins contracted +within the holy precincts. Thousands from all parts of India +make the pilgrimage every year. Benares, having from time +immemorial been a holy city, contains a vast number of Brahmans, +who either subsist by charitable contributions, or are +supported by endowments in the numerous religious institutions +of the city. Hindu religious mendicants, with every conceivable +bodily deformity, line the principal streets on both sides. Some +have their legs or arms distorted by long continuance in one +position; others have kept their hands clenched until the finger +nails have pierced entirely through their hands. But besides an +immense resort to Benares of poor pilgrims from every part of +India, as well as from Tibet and Burma, numbers of rich Hindus +in the decline of life go there for religious salvation. These +devotees lavish large sums in indiscriminate charity, and it is +the hope of sharing in such pious distributions that brings +together the concourse of religious mendicants from all quarters +of the country.</p> + +<p>The city of Benares had a population in 1901 of 209,331. +The European quarter lies to the west of the native town, on both +sides of the river Barna. Here is the cantonment of Sikraul, no +longer of much military importance, and the suburb of Sigra, +the seat of the chief missionary institutions. The principal +modern buildings are the Mint, the Prince of Wales’ hospital +(commemorating the visit of King Edward VII. to the city in +1876) and the town hall. The Benares college, including a first-grade +and a Sanskrit college, was opened in 1791, but its fine +buildings date from 1852. The Central Hindu College was opened +in 1898. Benares conducts a flourishing trade by rail and river +with the surrounding country. It is the junction between the +Oudh & Rohilkhand and East Indian railways, the Ganges being +crossed by a steel girder bridge of seven spans, each 350 ft. long. +The chief manufactures are silk brocades, gold and silver thread, +gold filigree work, German-silver work, embossed brass vessels +and lacquered toys; but the brasswork for which Benares used +to be famous has greatly degenerated.</p> + +<p>The Hindu kingdom of Benares is said to have been founded +by one Kas Raja about 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Subsequently it became part +of the kingdom of Kanauj, which in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1193 was conquered by +Mahommed of Ghor. On the downfall of the Pathan dynasty +of Delhi, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1599, it was incorporated with the Mogul +empire. On the dismemberment of the Delhi empire, it was +seized by Safdar Jang, the nawab wazir of Oudh, by whose +grandson it was ceded to the East India Company by the treaty +of 1775. The subsequent history of Benares contains two +important events, the rebellion of Chait Singh in 1781, occasioned +by the demands of Warren Hastings for money and troops +to carry on the Mahratta War, and the Mutiny of 1857, when the +energy and coolness of the European officials, chiefly of General +Neill, carried the district successfully through the storm.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Benares</span> extends over both sides of the +Ganges and has an area of 1008 sq. m. The surface of the +country is remarkably level, with numerous deep ravines in the +calcareous conglomerate. The soil is a clayey or a sandy loam, +and very fertile except in the Usar tracts, where there is a saline +efflorescence. The principal rivers are the Ganges, Karamnasa, +Gumti and Barna. The principal crops are barley, rice, wheat, +other food-grains, pulse, sugar-cane and opium. The main line +of the East Indian railway runs through the southern portion of +the district, with a branch to Benares city; the Oudh & +Rohilkhand railway through the northern portion, starting from +the city; and a branch of the Bengal & North-Western railway +also terminates at Benares. The climate of Benares is cool in +winter but very warm in the hot season. The population in +1901 was 882,084, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade due +to the effects of famine.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Division of Benares</span> has an area of 10,431 sq. m., and +comprises the districts of Benares, Mirzapur, Jaunpur, Ghazipur +and Ballia. In 1901 the population was 5,069,020, showing a +decrease of 6% in the decade.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.B. Havell, <i>Benares</i> (1906); M.A. Sherring, <i>The Sacred +City of the Hindus</i> (1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENBOW, JOHN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1653-1702), English admiral, the son of a +tanner in Shrewsbury, was born in 1653. He went to sea when +very young, and served in the navy as master’s mate and master, +from 1678 to 1681. When trading to the Mediterranean in 1686 in +a ship of his own he beat off a Salli pirate. On the accession of +William III. he re-entered the navy as a lieutenant and was +rapidly promoted. It is probable that he enjoyed the protection +of Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, under whom he had +already served in the Mediterranean. After taking part in the +bombardment of St Malo (1693), and superintending the blockade +of Dunkirk (1696), he sailed in 1698 for the West Indies, where he +compelled the Spaniards to restore two vessels belonging to the +Scottish colonists at Darien (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paterson, William</a></span>) which they +had seized. On his return he was appointed vice-admiral, and +was frequently consulted by the king. In 1701 he was sent again +to the West Indies as commander-in-chief. On the 19th of +August 1702, when cruising with a squadron of seven ships, he +sighted, and chased, four French vessels commanded by M. du +Casse near Santa Marta. The engagement is the most disgraceful +episode in English naval history. Benbow’s captains were +mutinous, and he was left unsupported in his flagship the +“Breda.” His right leg was shattered by a chain-shot, despite +which he remained on the quarter-deck till morning, when the +flagrant disobedience of the captains under him, and the disabled +condition of his ship, forced him reluctantly to abandon the chase. +After his return to Jamaica, where his subordinates were tried by +court-martial, he died of his wounds on the 4th of November +1702. A great deal of legendary matter has collected round his +name, and his life is really obscure.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Yonge’s <i>Hist. of the British Navy</i>, vol. i.; Campbell’s <i>British +Admirals</i>, vol. iii.; also Owen and Blakeway’s <i>History of Shrewsbury.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENCE-JONES, HENRY<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1814-1873), English physician and +chemist, was born at Thorington Hall, Suffolk, in 1814, the +son of an officer in the dragoon guards. He was educated at +Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. Subsequently he studied +medicine at St George’s hospital, and chemistry at University +College, London. In 1841 he went to Giessen in Germany to work +at chemistry with Liebig. Besides becoming a fellow, and afterwards +senior censor, of the Royal College of Physicians, and a +fellow of the Royal Society, he held the post of secretary to the +Royal Institution for many years. In 1846 he was elected +physician to St George’s hospital. He died in London on the +20th of April 1873. Dr Bence-Jones was a recognized authority +on diseases of the stomach and kidneys. He wrote, in addition +to several scientific books and a number of papers in scientific +periodicals, <i>The Life and Letters of Faraday</i> (1870).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENCH<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (an O. E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic +languages, cf. Ger. <i>Bank</i>, Dan. <i>baenk</i> and the Eng. doublet +“bank”), a long narrow wooden seat for several persons, with or +without a back. While the chair was yet a seat of state or dignity +the bench was ordinarily used by the commonalty. It is still +extensively employed for other than domestic purposes, as in +schools, churches and places of amusement. Bench or Banc, in +law, originally was the seat occupied by judges in court; hence +the term is used of a tribunal of justice itself, as the King’s Bench, +the Common Bench, and is now applied to judges or magistrates +collectively as the “judicial bench,” “bench of magistrates.” +The word is also applied to any seat where a number of people sit +in an official capacity, or as equivalent to the dignity itself, as +“the civic bench,” the “bench of aldermen,” the “episcopal +bench,” the “front bench,” <i>i.e.</i> that reserved for the leaders of +either party in the British House of Commons. King’s Bench +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +(<i>q.v</i>.) was one of the three superior courts of common law at +Westminster, the others being the common pleas and the exchequer. +Under the Judicature Act 1873, the court of king’s +bench became the king’s bench division of the High Court of +Justice. The court of common pleas was sometimes called the +common bench.</p> + +<p>Sittings in bane were formerly the sittings of one of the superior +courts of Westminster for the hearing of motions, special cases, +&c., as opposed to the <i>nisi prius</i> sittings for trial of facts, where +usually only a single judge presided. By the Judicature Act +1873 the business of courts sitting in bane was transferred to +divisional courts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENCH-MARK,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a surveyor’s mark cut in stone or some durable +material, to indicate a point in a line of levels for the determination +of altitudes over a given district. The name is taken from the +“angle-iron” which is inserted in the horizontal incision as a +“bench” or support for the levelling staff. The mark of the +“broad-arrow” is generally incised with the bench-mark so that +the horizontal bar passes through its apex.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENCH TABLE<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (Fr. <i>banc</i>; Ital. <i>sedile</i>; Ger. <i>Bank</i>), the +stone seat which runs round the walls of large churches, and +sometimes round the piers; it very generally is placed in the +porches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEND,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1) (From Old Eng. <i>bendan</i>), a bending or curvature, +as in “the bend of a river,” or technically the ribs or “wales” +of a ship. (2) (From Old Eng. <i>bindan</i>, to bind), a nautical term +for a knot, the “cable bend,” the “fisherman’s bend.” (3) +(From the Old Fr. <i>bende</i>, a ribbon), a term of heraldry, signifying +a diagonal band or stripe across a shield from the dexter chief +to the sinister base; also in tanning, the half of a hide from +which the thinner parts have been trimmed away, “bend-leather” being the thickest and best sole-leather.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENDA,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> the name of a family of German musicians, of whom +the most important is Georg (d. 1795), who was a pupil of his +elder brother Franz (1709-1786), <i>Concertmeister</i> in Berlin. +Georg Benda was a famous clavier player and oboist, but his +chief interest for modern musical history lies in his melodramas. +Being a far more solid musician than Rousseau he earns the +title of the musical pioneer of that art-form (<i>i.e.</i> the accompaniment +of spoken words by illustrative music) in a sense which +cannot be claimed for Rousseau’s earlier <i>Pygmalion</i>. Benda’s +first melodrama, <i>Ariadne auf Naxos</i>, was written in 1774 after +his return from a visit to Italy. He was a voluminous composer, +whose works (instrumental and dramatic) were enthusiastically +taken up by the aristocracy in the time of Mozart. Mozart’s +imagination was much fired by Benda’s new vehicle for dramatic +expression, and in 1778 he wrote to his father with the greatest +enthusiasm about a project for composing a duodrama on the +model of Benda’s <i>Ariadne auf Naxos</i> and <i>Medea</i>, both of which +he considered excellent and always carried about with him. He +concluded at the time that that was the way the problems of +operatic recitative should be solved, or rather shelved, but the +only specimen he has himself produced is the wonderful melodrama +in his unfinished operetta, <i>Zaide</i>, written in 1780.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENDER<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Bendery</span>), a town of Russia, in the +government of Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dniester, +37 m. by rail S.E. of Kishinev. It possesses a tobacco factory, +candle-works and brick-kilns, and is an important river port, +vessels discharging here their cargoes of corn, wine, wool, cattle, +flour and tallow, to be conveyed by land to Odessa and to Yassy +in Rumania. Timber also is floated down the Dniester. The +citadel was dismantled in 1897. The town had in 1867 a population +of 24,443, and in 1900 of 33,741, the greater proportion +being Jews. As early as the 12th century the Genoese had a +settlement on the site of Bender. In 1709 Charles XII., after +the defeat of Poltava, collected his forces here in a camp which +they called New Stockholm, and continued there till 1713. +Bender was taken by the Russians in 1770, in 1789 and in 1806, +but it was not held permanently by Russia till 1812.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENDIGO<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Sandhurst</span>), a city of Bendigo county, +Victoria, Australia, 101 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. +(1901) 31,020. It is the centre of a large gold-field consisting +of quartz ranges, with some alluvial deposits, and many of the +mines are deep-level workings. The discovery of alluvial gold +in 1851 brought many immigrants to the district; but the +opening up of the quartz reefs in 1872 was the principal factor +in the importance of Bendigo. It became a municipality in +1855 and a city in 1871. It is the seat of Anglican and Roman +Catholic bishops. Besides mining, the local industries are the +manufacture of Epsom pottery, bricks and tiles, iron-founding, +stone-cutting, brewing, tanning and coach-building. The surrounding +district produces quantities of wheat and fruits for +export, and much excellent wine is made.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENDL, KAREL<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Karl</span> (1838-1897), Bohemian composer, +was born on the 16th of April 1838 at Prague. He studied at +the organ school, and in 1858 had already composed a number +of small choral works. In 1861 his <i>Poletuje holubice</i> won a prize and at once became a favourite with the local choral societies. +In 1864 Bendl went to Brussels, where for a short time he held +the post of second conductor of the opera. After visiting +Amsterdam and Paris he returned to Prague. Here in 1865 +he was appointed conductor of the choral society known as +<i>Hlahoe</i>, and he held the post until 1879, when Baron Dervies +engaged his services for his private band. Bendl’s first opera +<i>Lejla</i> was successfully produced in 1868. It was followed by +<i>Bretislav a Jitka</i> (1870), <i>Stary Zenich</i>, a comic opera (1883), +<i>Karel Skreta</i> (1883), <i>Dite Tabera</i>, a prize opera (1892), and +<i>Matki Mila</i> (1891). Other operas by Bendl are <i>Indicka princezna, +Cernohorci</i>, a prize opera, and the two operas <i>Carovny +Kvet</i> and <i>Gina</i>. His ballad <i>Svanda dudak</i> acquired much +popularity; he published a mass in D minor for male voices and +another mass for a mixed choir; two songs to <i>Ave Maria</i>; a +violin sonata and a string quartet in F; and a quantity of songs +and choruses, many of which have come to be regarded as +national possessions of Bohemia. Bendl died on the 20th of +September 1897 at Prague.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDEK, LUDWIG,<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> <span class="sc">Ritter von</span> (1804-1881), Austrian +general, was born at Ödenburg in Hungary on the 14th of July +1804, his father being a doctor. He received his commission in +the Austrian army as ensign in 1822, becoming lieutenant in 1825, +first lieutenant in 1831 and captain in 1835. He was employed +for a considerable time in the general staff, and had risen to the +rank of colonel, when he won his first laurels in the suppression +of the rising of 1846 in Galicia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In this +campaign his bold leadership in the field and his capacity for +organization were so far conspicuous that he was made a <i>Ritter</i> +(knight) of the Leopold order by his sovereign, and a freeman +(<i>Ehrenbürger</i>) by the city of Lemberg. In 1847 he commanded +a regiment in Italy, and on the outbreak of war with Sardinia he +was placed in command of a mixed brigade, at the head of which +he displayed against regular troops the same qualities of unhesitating +bravery and resolution which had given him the +victory in many actions with the Galician rebels. His conduct at +Curtatone won for him the commandership of the Leopold order, +and shortly afterwards the knighthood of the Maria Theresa +order. At the action of Mortara his tactical skill and bravery +were again conspicuous, and Radetzky particularly distinguished +him in despatches. The archduke Albert, with whom he served, +is said to have given him the sword of his father, the great +archduke Charles. He was promoted major-general soon afterwards +over the heads of several colonels senior to him, and was +sent as a brigade commander to Hungary. Again he was +distinguished as a fighting general at Raab, Komorn, Szegedin +and many other actions, and was three times wounded. Benedek +then received the cross for military merit, and soon afterwards +was posted to the staff of the army in Italy. In 1852 he was made +lieutenant field marshal, and in 1857 commander successively of +the II., the IV. and the VIII. corps, and also a <i>Geheimrath</i>. In the +political crisis of 1854 he had command of a corps in the army of +observation under Hess on the Turkish frontier. In the war of +1859 in Italy, Benedek commanded the VIII. corps, and at the +battle of Solferino was in command of the right of the Austrian +position. That portion of the struggle which was fought out +between Benedek and the Piedmontese army is sometimes called +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +the battle of San Martino. Benedek, with magnificent gallantry, +held his own all day, and in the end covered the retreat of the rest +of the Austrian army to the Mincio. His reward was the commandership +of the order of Maria Theresa, and Vienna and many +other cities followed the example of Lemberg in 1846. His +reputation was now at its highest, and his great popularity was +enhanced, in the prevailing discontent with the reactionary and +clerical government of previous years, by the fact that he was a +Protestant and not of noble birth. He was promoted <i>Feldzeugmeister</i> +and in 1860 appointed quartermaster-general to the army, +and soon afterwards governor-general and commander-in-chief +in Hungary, in succession to the archduke Albert. In 1861 he +was made commander-in-chief in Venetia and the adjoining +provinces of the empire, and in the following year he received +the grand cross of the Leopold order. In 1864 he resigned the +quartermaster-generalship and devoted himself exclusively to +the command of the army in Italy. In 1861 he had been made a +life-member of the house of peers. In 1866 war with Prussia and +with Italy became imminent. Benedek was appointed to command +the Army of the North against the Prussians, the control +of affairs in Italy being taken over by the archduke Albert. For +the story of the campaign of Königgrätz, in which the Austrians +under Benedek’s command were decisively defeated, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven +Weeks’ War</a></span>. Benedek took over his new command as a +stranger to the country and to the troops. Only the personal +command of the emperor and the requests of the archduke +Albert prevailed upon him to “sacrifice his honour,” as he +himself said, in a task for which he felt himself ill prepared. +When he took the field his despondency was increased by the +passive obstruction which he met with amongst his own officers, +many of whom resented being placed under a man of the middle +class instead of the archduke Albert, and by the general state of +unpreparedness which he found existing at the front. Further, +his own staff was self-willed to the verge of disloyalty, and his +assistants, Lieutenant Field Marshal von Henikstein, and Major-General +Krismanic in particular, endeavoured to control Benedek’s +operations in the spirit of the 18th-century strategists. Under +these circumstances, and against the superior numbers, <i>moral</i> +and armament of the Prussians, the Austrians were foredoomed +to defeat. A series of partial actions convinced Benedek that +success was unattainable, and he telegraphed to the emperor +advising him to make peace; the emperor refused on the ground +that no decisive battle had been fought; Benedek, thereupon, +instead of retreating across the Elbe, determined to bring on a +decisive engagement, and took up a position with the whole of +his forces near Königgrätz with the Elbe in his rear. Here he was +completely defeated by the Prussians on the 3rd of July, but they +could not prevent him from making good his retreat over the +river in magnificent order on the evening of the battle. He conducted +the operations of his army in retreat up to the great +concentration at Vienna under the archduke Albert, and was +then suspended from his command and a court-martial ordered; +the emperor, however, in December determined that the inquiry +should be stopped. Benedek from this time lived in absolute +retirement, and having given his word of honour to the archduke +Albert that he would not attempt to rehabilitate himself before +the world, he published no defence of his conduct, and even +destroyed his papers relating to the campaign of 1866. This +attitude of self-sacrificing loyalty he maintained even when on +the 8th of November 1866 the official <i>Wiener Zeitung</i> published +an article in which he was made responsible for all the disasters +of the war. The history of the campaign from the Austrian point +of view as at present known leaves much unexplained, and the +published material is primarily of a controversial character. The +official <i>Österreichs Kämpfe</i> speaks of the unfortunate general in +the following terms: “A career full of achievements, distinction +and fame deserved a less tragic close. A dispassionate judgment +will not forget the ever fortunate and successful deeds which he +accomplished earlier in the service of the emperor, and will ensure +for him, in spite of his last heavy misfortune (<i>Last</i>), an honourable +memory.” Praise of his earlier career could not well be denied, +and the official history is careful not to extend its eulogy to cover +the events of 1866; the recognition in these words cannot +therefore be set against the general opinion of subsequent critics +that Benedek was the victim of political necessities, perhaps of +court intrigues. For the rest of his life Benedek lived at Graz, +where he died on the 27th of April 1881.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Friedjung, <i>Benedeks nachgelassene Papiere</i> (Leipzig, 1901, +3rd and enlarged ed., 1904), and <i>Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft +in Deutschland 1859-1866</i> (Stuttgart, 1897, 6th ed., 1904); v. +Schlichtling, <i>Moltke und Benedek</i> (Berlin, 1900), also therewith +A. Krauss, <i>Moltke, Benedek und Napoleon</i> (Vienna, 1901); and +a <i>roman à clé</i> by Gräfin Salburg, entitled <i>Königsglaube</i> (Dresden, +1906). The brief memoir in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i> represents +the court view of Benedek’s case.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDETTI, VINCENT,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1817-1900), French diplomatist, +was born at Bastia, in the island of Corsica, on the 29th +of April 1817. In the year 1840 he entered the service of the +French foreign office, and was appointed to a post under the +marquis de la Valette, who was consul-general at Cairo. He +spent eight years in Egypt, being appointed consul in 1845; in +1848 he was made consul at Palermo, and in 1851 he accompanied +the marquis, who had been appointed ambassador at Constantinople, +as first secretary. For fifteen months during the progress +of the Crimean War he acted as chargé d’affaires. In the second +volume of his essays he gives some recollections of his experiences +in the East, including an account of Mehemet Ali, and a (not very +friendly) sketch of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. In 1855, after +refusing the post of minister at Teheran, he was employed in the +foreign office at Paris, and acted as secretary to the congress at +Paris (1855-1856). During the next few years he was chiefly +occupied with Italian affairs, in which he was much interested, +and Cavour said of him he was an Italian at heart. He was chosen +in 1861 to be the first envoy of France to the king of Italy, but he +resigned his post next year on the retirement of E.A. Thouvenel, +who had been his patron, when the anti-Italian party began to +gain the ascendancy at Paris. In 1864 he was appointed +ambassador at the court of Prussia.</p> + +<p>Benedetti remained in Berlin till the outbreak of war in 1870, +and during these years he played an important part in the +diplomatic history of Europe. His position was a difficult one, +for Napoleon did not keep him fully informed as to the course of +French policy. In 1866, during the critical weeks which followed +the attempt of Napoleon to intervene between Prussia and +Austria, he accompanied the Prussian headquarters in the advance +on Vienna, and during a visit to Vienna he helped to arrange the +preliminaries of the armistice signed at Nikolsburg. It was after +this that he was instructed to present to Bismarck French +demands for “compensation,” and in August, after his return to +Berlin, as a result of his discussions with Bismarck a draft treaty +was drawn up, in which Prussia promised France her support in +the annexation of Belgium. This treaty was never concluded, +but the draft, which was in Benedetti’s handwriting, was kept by +Bismarck and, in 1870, a few days after the outbreak of the war, +was published by him in <i>The Times</i>. During 1867 Benedetti was +much occupied with the affair of Luxemburg. In July 1870, +when the candidature of the prince of Hohenzollern for the throne +of Spain became known, Benedetti was instructed by the duc de +Gramont to present to the king of Prussia, who was then at Ems, +the French demands, that the king should order the prince +to withdraw, and afterwards that the king should promise that +the candidature would never be renewed. This last demand +Benedetti submitted to the king in an informal meeting on the +promenade at Ems, and the misleading reports of the conversation +which were circulated were the immediate cause of the war +which followed, for the Germans were led to believe that Benedetti +had insulted the king, and the French that the king had insulted +the ambassador. Benedetti was severely attacked in his own +country for his conduct as ambassador, and the duc de Gramont +attempted to throw upon him the blame for the failures of French +diplomacy. He answered the charges brought against him in a +book, <i>Ma Mission en Prusse</i> (Paris, 1871), which still remains +one of the most valuable authorities for the study of Bismarck’s +diplomacy. In this Benedetti successfully defends himself, and +shows that he had kept his government well informed; he had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +even warned them a year before as to the proposed Hohenzollern +candidature. Even if he had been outwitted by Bismarck in the +matter of the treaty of 1866, the policy of the treaty was not his, +but was that of E. Drouyn de Lluys. The idea of the annexation +of part of Belgium to France had been suggested to him first by +Bismarck; and the use to which Bismarck put the draft was not +one which he could be expected to anticipate, for he had carried +on the negotiations in good faith. After the fall of the Empire he +retired to Corsica. He lived to see his defence confirmed by later +publications, which threw more light on the secret history of the +times. He published in 1895 a volume of <i>Essais diplomatiques</i>, +containing a full account of his mission to Ems, written in 1873; +and in 1897 a second series dealing with the Eastern question. He +died on the 28th of March 1900, while on a visit to Paris. He +received the title of count from Napoleon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Rothan, <i>La Politique Française en 1866</i> (Paris, 1879); and +<i>L’Affaire de Luxemburg</i> (Paris, 1881); Sorel, <i>Histoire diplomatique</i> +(Paris, 1875); Sybel, Die Begründung des deutschen Reiches (Munich, +1889), &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Benedictus</span>), the name taken by fourteen of +the popes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict I.</span> was pope from 573 to 578. He succeeded +John III., and occupied the papal chair during the incursions of +the Lombards, and during the series of plagues and famines which +followed these invasions.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict II.</span> was pope from 684 to 685. He succeeded Leo +II., but although chosen in 683 he was not ordained till 684, +because the leave of the emperor Constantine was not obtained +until some months after the election.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict III.</span> was pope from 855 to 858. He was chosen by +the clergy and people of Rome, but the election was not confirmed +by the emperor, Louis II., who appointed an anti-pope, Anastasius +(the librarian). But the candidature of this person, who had +been deposed from the presbyterate under Leo IV., was indefensible. +The imperial government at length recognized +Benedict and discontinued its opposition, with the result that he +was at last successful. The mythical pope Joan is usually placed +between Benedict and his predecessor, Leo IV.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict IV.</span> was pope from 900 to 903.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict V.</span> was pope from 964 to 965. He was elected by +the Romans on the death of John XII. The emperor Otto I. did +not approve of the choice, and carried off the pope to Hamburg, +where he died.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict VI.</span> was pope from 972 to 974. He was chosen with +great ceremony and installed pope under the protection of the +emperor, Otto the Great. On the death of the emperor the +turbulent citizens of Rome renewed their outrages, and the pope +himself was strangled by order of Crescentius, the son of the +notorious Theodora, who replaced him by a deacon called Franco. +This Franco took the name of Boniface VII.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict VII.</span> was pope from 974 to 983. He was elected +through the intervention of a representative of the emperor, Count +Sicco, who drove out the intruded Franco (afterwards Pope +Boniface VII.). Benedict governed Rome quietly for nearly nine +years, a somewhat rare thing in those days.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict VIII.</span>, pope from 1012 to 1024, was called originally +Theophylactus. He was a member of the family of the count +of Tusculum, and was opposed by an anti-pope, Gregory, but +defeated him with the aid of King Henry II. of Saxony, whom he +crowned emperor in 1014. In his pontificate the Saracens began +to attack the southern coasts of Europe, and effected a settlement +in Sardinia. The Normans also then began to settle in Italy. In +Italy Benedict supported the policy of the emperor, Henry II., +and at the council of Pavia (1022) exerted himself in favour of +ecclesiastical discipline, then in a state of great decadence.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict IX.</span>, pope from 1033 to 1056, son of Alberic, count +of Tusculum, and nephew of Benedict VIII., was also called +Theophylactus. He was installed pope at the age of twelve +through the influence of his father. The disorders of his conduct, +though tolerated by the emperors, Conrad II. and Henry III., +who were then morally responsible for the pontificate, at length +disgusted the Romans, who drove him out in 1044 and appointed +Silvester III. his successor. Silvester remained in the papal chair +but a few weeks, as the people of Tusculum quickly recovered +their influence and reinstated their pope. Benedict, however, +was obliged to bow before the execration of the Romans. He sold +his rights to his godfather, the priest Johannes Gratianus, who +was installed under the name of Gregory VI. (1045). The +following year Henry III. obtained at the council of Sutri the +deposition of the three competing popes, and replaced them by +Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II. +But before the close of 1047 Clement II. died, probably from +poison administered by Benedict, who was reinstalled for the +third time. At last, on the 17th of July 1048, the marquis of +Tuscany drove him from Rome, where he was never seen again. +He lived several years after his expulsion and appears to have +died impenitent.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict X.</span> (Johannes “Mincius,” <i>i.e.</i> the lout or dolt, +bishop of Velletri) was pope from 1058 to 1059. He was elected +on the death of Stephen IX. through the influence of the Roman +barons, who, however, had pledged themselves to take no action +without Hildebrand, who was then absent from Rome. Hildebrand +did not recognize him, and put forward an opposition +pope in the person of Gerard, bishop of Florence (pope as +Nicholas II.), whom he supported against the Roman aristocracy. +With the help of the Normans, Hildebrand seized the castle of +Galeria, where Benedict had taken refuge, and degraded him +to the rank of a simple priest.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict XI.</span> (Niccolo Boccasini), pope from 1303 to 1304, +the son of a notary, was born in 1240 at Treviso. Entering the +Dominican order in 1254, he became lector, prior of the convent, +provincial of his order in Lombardy, and in 1296 its general. +In 1298 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Sabina, and in +1300 cardinal bishop of Ostia and Velletri. In 1302 he was +papal legate in Hungary. On the 22nd of October 1303 he was +unanimously elected pope. He did much to conciliate the +enemies made by his predecessor Boniface VIII., notably +France, the Colonnas and King Frederick II. of Sicily; nevertheless +on the 7th of June 1304 he excommunicated William +of Nogaret and all the Italians who had captured Boniface in +Anagni. Benedict died at Perugia on the 7th of July 1304; +if he was really poisoned, as report had it, suspicion would fall +primarily on Nogaret. His successor Clement V. transferred +the papal residence to Avignon. Among Benedict’s works +are commentaries on part of the Psalms and on the Gospel of +Matthew. His beatification took place in 1733.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Grandjean, “Registres de Benoît XI.” (Paris, 1883 ff.), +<i>Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome.</i></p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict XII.</span> (Jacques Fournier), pope from 1334 to 1342, +the son of a miller, was born at Saverdun on the Arriège. Entering +the Cistercian cloister Bolbonne, and graduating doctor +of theology at Paris, he became in 1311 abbot of Fontfroide, +in 1317 bishop of Pamiers and in 1326 of Mirepoix. Created +cardinal priest of Santa Prisca in 1327 by his uncle John XXII. +he was elected his successor on the 20th of December 1334. +Benedict made appointments carefully, reformed monastic +orders and consistently opposed nepotism. Unable to remove +his capital to Rome or to Bologna, he began to erect a great +palace at Avignon. In 1336 he decided against a pet notion of +John XXII. by saying that souls of saints may attain the fulness +of the beatific vision <i>before</i> the last judgment. In 1339 he entered +upon fruitless negotiations looking toward the reunion of the +Greek and Roman churches. French influence made futile his +attempt to come to an understanding with the emperor Louis +the Bavarian. He died on the 25th of April 1342.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the source publications of G. Daumet (<i>Lettres closes, patentes +et curiales</i>, ... Paris, 1899 ff.), and J.-M. Vidal (<i>Lettres communes</i>, ... +Paris, 1903 ff.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict XIII.</span> (Pedro de Luna), (<i>c.</i> 1328-1422 or 1423), +anti-pope, belonged to one of the most noble families in Aragon. +His high birth, his legal learning—he was for a long time professor +of canon law at Montpellier—and the irreproachable purity +of his life, recommended him to Pope Gregory XI, who created +him cardinal in 1375. He was almost the only one who succeeded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +in making a firm stand in the tumultuous conclave of 1378; +but the deliberation with which he made up his mind as to the +validity of the election of Urban VI. was equalled, when he took +the side of Clement VII., by the ardour and resourcefulness which +he displayed in defending the cause of the pope of Avignon; +it was mainly to him that the latter owed his recognition by +Castile, Aragon and Navarre. When elected pope, or rather +anti-pope, by the cardinals of Avignon, on the 28th of September +1394, it was he who by his astuteness, his resolution, and, it +may be added, by his unswerving faith in the justice of his cause, +was to succeed in prolonging the lamentable schism of the West +for thirty years. The hopes he had aroused that, by a voluntary abdication, +he would restore unity to the church, were vain; though called +upon by the princes of France to carry out his plan, abandoned +by his cardinals, besieged and finally kept +under close observation in the palace of the popes (1398-1403), +he stood firm, and tired out the fury of his opponents. Escaping +from Avignon, he again won obedience in France, and his one +thought was how to triumph over his Italian rival, if necessary, +by force. He yielded, however, to the instances of the +government of Charles VI., and pretending that he wished +to have an interview with Gregory XII., with a view to their +simultaneous abdication, he advanced to Savona, and then to +Porto Venere. The failure of these negotiations, for which he +was only in part responsible, led to the universal movement of +indignation and impatience, which ended, in France, in the +declaration of neutrality (1408), and at Pisa, in the decree of +deposition against the two pontiffs (1409). Benedict XIII., +who had on his part tried to call together a council at Perpignan, +was by this time recognized hardly anywhere but in his native land, in +Scotland, and in the estates of the countship of Armagnac. He remained +none the less full of energy and of illusions, repulsed the overtures of +Sigismund, king of the Romans, who had come to Perpignan to persuade him +to abdicate, and, abandoned by nearly all his adherents, he took refuge +in the impregnable castle of Peñiscola, on a rock dominating the +Mediterranean (1415). The council of Constance then deposed him, as a +perjurer, an incurable schismatic and a heretic (26th July 1417). After +struggling with the popes of Rome, Urban VI., Boniface IX., Innocent +VII. and Gregory XII., and against the popes of Pisa, Alexander V. and +John XXIII., Pedro de Luna, clinging more than ever to that apostolic +seat which he still professed not to desire, again took up the struggle +against Martin V., although the latter was recognized throughout almost +all Christendom, and, before his death (29th November 1422, or 23rd May +1423), he nominated four new cardinals in order to carry the schism on +even after him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Fr. Ehrle, <i>Archiv für Lit. und Kirchengesch.</i> vols. v., vi., vii.; +N. Valois, <i>La France et le grand schisme d’occident</i> (4 vols., Paris, +1896-1902); Fr. Ehrle, “Martin de Alpartils chronica actitatorum +temporibus domini Benedicti XIII.” (<i>Quellen und Forschungen aus +dem Geb. der Gesch.</i>, Görres-Gesellschaft, Paderborn, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. V.)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict XIII.</span> (Piero Francesco Orsini), pope from 1724 to +1730, at first styled Benedict XIV., was born on the 2nd of +February 1649, of the ducal family of Orsini-Gravina. In +1667 he became a Dominican (as Vincentius Maria), studied +theology and philosophy, was made a cardinal in 1672 and archbishop +of Benevento in 1686. Elected pope on the 29th of May +1724, he attempted to reform clerical morals; but neither the +decrees of the Latin council (1725) nor his personal precepts had +much effect. He confirmed the bull <i>Unigenitus</i>; but, despite +the Jesuits, allowed the Dominicans to preach the Augustinian +doctrine of grace. State affairs he left entirely to the unpopular +Cardinal Nicolo Coscia. He died on the 21st of February 1730. His works, were published in 3 vols. at Ravenna in 1728.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Benedict XIV.</span> (Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini), pope from +1740 to 1758, was born at Bologna on the 31st of March 1675. +At the age of thirteen he entered the Collegium Clementinum +at Rome. He served the Curia in many and important capacities, +yet devoted his leisure time to theological and canonistic study. +Benedict XIII. made him archbishop of Theodosia <i>in partibus</i>, +then of Ancona (1727), and the next year created him cardinal +priest. In 1731 Clement XII. translated him to his native city +of Bologna, where as archbishop he was both efficient and popular. +He published valuable works, notably <i>De servorum Dei beatificatione +et canonizatione, De sacrificio missae</i>, as well as a treatise +on the feasts of Christ and the Virgin and of some saints honoured +in Bologna. In a conclave which had lasted for months he was elected +on the 17th of August 1740 the successor of Clement XII. +Benedict XIV. was not merely earnest and conscientious, but of incisive +intellect, and unfailingly cheerful and witty. In several respects he +bettered the economic conditions of the papal states, but was +disinclined to undertake the needed thorough-going reform of its +administration. In foreign politics he made important concessions to +Portugal, Naples, Sardinia, Spain, and was the first pope expressly to +recognize the king of Prussia as such. In 1741 he issued the bull +<i>Immensa pastorum principis</i>, demanding more humane treatment for the +Indians of Brazil and Paraguay, and in the bulls <i>Ex quo singulari</i> +(1742) and <i>Omnium sollicitudinum</i> (1744) he rebuked the missionary +methods of the Jesuits in accommodating their message to the heathen +usages of the Chinese and of the natives of Malabar. In accord with the +spirit of the age he reduced the number of holy days in several Catholic +countries. To the end of his life he kept up his studies and his +intercourse with other scholars, and founded several learned societies. +His masterpiece, <i>Libri octo de synoda diocesana</i>, begun in Bologna, +appeared during his pontificate. He died on the 3rd of May 1758.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works, published in twelve quarto volumes at Rome (1747-1751), +appeared in more nearly complete editions at Venice in 1767 +and at Prato, 1839-1846; also <i>Briefe Benedicts XIV.</i>, ed. F.X. +Kraus (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1888); <i>Benedicti XIV. Papae opera +inedita</i>, ed. F. Heiner (Freiburg, 1904). See Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, +ii. 572 ff.; Wetzer and Welter, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, ii. +317 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (d. 1268), Benedictine abbot of +Notre Dame de la Grasse (1224) and bishop of Marseilles (1229), +twice visited the Holy Land (1239 and 1260), where he helped +the Templars build the great castle of Safet. He founded a +short-lived order, the Brothers of the Virgin, suppressed by the +council of Lyons (1274), and died a Franciscan. His writings +include a letter to Innocent IV. and <i>De constructione Castri +Saphet</i> (Baluze, <i>Miscellanea</i>, ii.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 480-<i>c.</i> 544), the patriarch of Western +monks. Our only authority for the facts of St Benedict’s life is bk. ii +of St Gregory’s <i>Dialogues</i>. St Gregory declares that he obtained his +information from four of St Benedict’s disciples, whom he names; and +there can be no serious reason for doubting that it is possible to +reconstruct the outlines of St Benedict’s career (see Hodgkin, <i>Italy +and her Invaders</i>, iv. 412). A precise chronology and a pedigree have +been supplied for Benedict, according to which he was born in 480, of +the great family of the Anicii; but all we know is what St Gregory tells +us, that he was born of good family in Nursia, near Spoleto in Umbria. +His birth must have occurred within a few years of the date assigned; +the only fixed chronological point is a visit of the Gothic king Totila +to him in 543, when Benedict was already established at Monte Cassino +and advanced in years (<i>Dial</i>. ii. 14, 15). He was sent by his parents +to frequent the Roman schools, but shocked by the prevailing +licentiousness he fled away. It has been usual to represent him as a +mere boy at this time, but of late years various considerations have +been pointed out which make it more likely that he was a young man. He +went to the mountainous districts of the Abruzzi, and at last came to +the ruins of Nero’s palace and the artificial lake at Subiaco, 40 m. +from Rome. Among the rocks on the side of the valley opposite the palace +he found a cave in which he took up his abode, unknown to all except one +friend, Romanus, a monk of a neighbouring monastery, who clothed him in +the monastic habit and secretly supplied him with food. No one who has +seen the spot will doubt that the Sacro Speco is indeed the cave wherein +Benedict spent the three years of opening manhood in solitary prayer, +contemplation and austerity. After this period of formation his fame +began to spread abroad, and the monks of a neighbouring monastery +induced him to become their abbot; but their lives were irregular and +dissolute, and on his trying to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span> +put down abuses they attempted to poison him. He returned +to his cave, but disciples flocked to him, and in time he formed +twelve monasteries in the neighbourhood, placing twelve monks +in each, and himself retaining a general control over all. In time +patricians and senators from Rome entrusted their young sons +to his care, to be brought up as monks; in this manner came to +him his two best-known disciples, Maurus and Placidus. Driven +from Subiaco by the jealousy and molestations of a neighbouring +priest, but leaving behind him communities in his twelve monasteries, +he himself, accompanied by a small band of disciples, +journeyed south until he came to Cassino, a town halfway between +Rome and Naples. Climbing the high mountain that overhangs +the town, he established on the summit the monastery with which +his name has ever since been associated, and which for centuries +was a chief centre of religious life for western Europe. He +destroyed the remnants of paganism that lingered on here, and by +his preaching gained the rustic population to Christianity. Few +other facts of his career are known: there is record of his founding +a monastery at Terracina; his death must have occurred soon +after Totila’s visit in 543.</p> + +<p><i>Rule of St Benedict.</i>—In order to understand St Benedict’s +character and spirit, and to discover the secret of the success of +his institute, it is necessary, as St Gregory says, to turn to his +Rule. St Gregory’s characterization of the Rule as “conspicuous +for its discretion” touches the most essential quality. The relation +of St Benedict’s Rule to earlier monastic rules, and of his +institute to the prevailing monachism of his day, is explained in +the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>. Here it is enough to say that nowadays +it is commonly recognized by students that the manner of life +instituted by St Benedict was not intended to be, and as a matter +of fact was not, one of any great austerity, when judged by the +standard of his own day (see E.C. Butler, <i>Lausiac History of +Palladius</i>, part i. pp. 251-256). His monks were allowed proper +clothes, sufficient food, ample sleep. The only bodily austerities +were the abstinence from flesh meat and the unbroken fast till +mid-day or even 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, but neither would appear so onerous in +Italy even now, as to us in northern climes. Midnight office was +no part of St Benedict’s Rule: the time for rising for the night +office varied from 1.30 to 3.0, according to the season, and the +monks had had unbroken sleep for 7½ or even 8 hours, except in +the hot weather, when in compensation they were allowed the +traditional Italian summer siesta after the mid-day meal. The +canonical office was chanted throughout, but the directly religious +duties of the day can hardly have taken more than 4 or 5 hours—perhaps +8 on Sundays. The remaining hours of the day were +divided between work and reading, in the proportion (on the +average of the whole year) of about 6 and 4 hours respectively. +The “reading” in St Benedict’s time was probably confined to +the Bible and the Fathers. The “work” contemplated by St +Benedict was ordinarily field work, as was natural in view of +the conditions of the time and best suited to the majority of the +monks; but the principle laid down is that the monks should do +whatever work is most useful. There were from the beginning +young boys in the monastery, who were educated by the monks +according to the ideas of the time. We have seen St Benedict +evangelizing the pagan population round Monte Cassino; +and a considerable time each day is assigned to the reading +of the Fathers. Thus the germs of all the chief works +carried on by his monks in later ages were to be found in his +own monastery.</p> + +<p>The Rule consists of a prologue and 73 chapters. Though it has +resisted all attempts to reduce it to an ordered scheme, and +probably was not written on any set plan, still it is possible +roughly to indicate its contents: after the prologue and introductory +chapter setting forth St Benedict’s intention, follow +instructions to the abbot on the manner in which he should govern +his monastery (2,3); next comes the ascetical portion of the Rule, +on the chief monastic virtues (4-7); then the regulations for the +celebration of the canonical office, which St Benedict calls “the +Work of God” or “the divine work,” his monks’ first duty, “of +which nothing is to take precedence” (8-20); faults and punishments +(23-30); the cellarer and property of the monastery +(31, 32); community of goods (33, 34); various officials and daily +life (21, 22, 35-57); reception of monks (58-61); miscellaneous +(62-73).</p> + +<p>The most remarkable chapters, in which St Benedict’s wisdom +stands out most conspicuously, are those on the abbot (2,3, 27,64). +The abbot is to govern the monastery with full and unquestioned +patriarchal authority; on important matters he must consult +the whole community and hear what each one, even the youngest, +thinks; on matters of less weight he should consult a few of the +elder monks; but in either case the decision rests entirely with +him, and all are to acquiesce. He must, however, bear in mind +that he will have to render an account of all his decisions and to +answer for the souls of all his monks before the judgment seat of +God. Moreover, he has to govern in accordance with the Rule, +and must endeavour, while enforcing discipline and implanting +virtues, not to sadden or “overdrive” his monks, or give them +cause for “just murmuring.” In these chapters pre-eminently +appears that element of “discretion,” as St Gregory calls it, or +humanism as it would now be termed, which without doubt has +been a chief cause of the success of the Rule. There is as yet no +satisfactory text of the Rule, either critical or manual; the best +manual text is Schmidt’s <i>editio minor</i> (Regensburg, 1892). Of +the many commentaries the most valuable are those of Paulus +Diaconus (the earliest, <i>c.</i> 800), of Calmet and of Martène (Migne, +<i>Patrol. Lat.</i> lxvi.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—An old English translation of St Gregory’s +<i>Dialogues</i> is reprinted in the Quarterly Series (Burns & Oates). +On St Benedict’s life and Rule see Montalembert, <i>Monks of the West</i>, +bk. iv.; Abbate L. Tosti, <i>S. Benedetto</i> (translated 1896); also +Indexes to standard general histories of the period; Thomas Hodgkin’s +<i>Italy and Her Invaders</i> and Gregorovius’ <i>History of the City +of Rome</i> may be specially mentioned. But by far the best summaries +in English are those contained in the relevant portions of +F.H. Dudden’s <i>Gregory the Great</i> (1905), i. 107-115, ii. 160-169; on +the recent criticism of the text and contents of the Rule, see Otto +Zöckler, <i>Askese und Mönchtum</i> (1897), 355-371; and E.C. Butler, +articles in <i>Downside Review</i>, December 1899, and <i>Journal of Theological +Studies</i>, April 1902.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1804-1885), musical composer, was +born in Stuttgart on the 27th of November 1804. He was the +son of a Jewish banker, and learnt composition from Hummel +at Weimar and Weber at Dresden; with the latter he enjoyed +for three years an intimacy like that of a son, and it was Weber +who introduced him in Vienna to Beethoven on the 5th of October +1823. In the same year he was appointed Kapellmeister of the +Kärnthnerthor theatre at Vienna, and two years later (in 1825) +he became Kapellmeister of the San Carlo theatre at Naples. +Here his first opera, <i>Giacinta ed Ernesto</i>, was brought out in 1829, +and another, written for his native city, <i>I Portoghesi in Goa</i>, was +given there in 1830; neither of these was a great success, and in +1834 he went to Paris, leaving it in 1835 at the suggestion of +Malibran for London, where he spent the remainder of his life. +In 1836 he was given the conductorship of an operatic enterprise +at the Lyceum Theatre, and brought out a short opera, <i>Un anno +ed un giorno</i>, previously given in Naples. In 1838 he became +conductor of the English opera at Drury Lane during the period +of Balfe’s great popularity; his own operas produced there were +<i>The Gipsy’s Warning</i> (1838), <i>The Bride of Venice</i> (1843), and +<i>The Crusaders</i> (1846). In 1848 he conducted Mendelssohn’s +<i>Elijah</i> at Exeter Hall, for the first appearance of Jenny Lind in +oratorio, and in 1850 he went to America as the accompanist on +that singer’s tour. On his return in 1852 he became musical +conductor under Mapleson’s management at Her Majesty’s +theatre (and afterwards at Drury Lane), and in the same year +conductor of the Harmonic Union. Benedict wrote recitatives +for the production of an Italian version of Weber’s <i>Oberon</i> in +1860. In the same year was produced his beautiful cantata +<i>Undine</i> at the Norwich festival, in which Clara Novello appeared +in public for the last time. His best-known opera, <i>The Lily of +Killarney</i>, written on the subject of Dion Boucicault’s play +<i>Colleen Bawn</i> to a libretto by Oxenford, was produced at Covent +Garden in 1862. His operetta, <i>The Bride of Song</i>, was brought +out there in 1864. <i>St Cecilia</i>, an oratorio, was performed at +the Norwich festival in 1886; <i>St Peter</i> at the Birmingham +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +festival of 1870; <i>Graziella</i>, a cantata, was given at the +Birmingham festival of 1882, and in August 1883 was produced +in operatic form at the Crystal Palace. Here also a symphony +by him was given in 1873. Benedict conducted every Norwich +festival from 1845 to 1878 inclusive, and the Liverpool Philharmonic +Society’s concerts from 1876 to 1880. He was the +regular accompanist at the Monday Popular Concerts in London +from their start, and with few exceptions acted as conductor +of these concerts. He contributed an interesting life of Weber +to the series of biographies of “Great Musicians.” In 1871 he +was knighted, and in 1874 was made knight commander of the +orders of Franz Joseph (Austria) and Frederick (Württemberg). +He died in London on the 5th of June 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICT BISCOP<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (628?-690), also known as <span class="sc">Biscop +Baducing</span>, English churchman, was born of a good Northumbrian +family and was for a time a thegn of King Oswiu. He then went +abroad and after a second journey to Rome (he made five +altogether) lived as a monk at Lerins (665-667). It was under +his conduct that Theodore of Tarsus came from Rome to Canterbury +in 669, and in the same year Benedict was appointed abbot +of St Peter’s, Canterbury. Five years later he built the +monastery of St Peter at Wearmouth, on land granted him by +Ecgfrith of Northumbria, and endowed it with an excellent +library. A papal letter in 678 exempted the monastery from +external control, and in 682 Benedict erected a sister foundation +(St Paul) at Jarrow. He died on the 12th of January 690, +leaving a high reputation for piety and culture. Saxon architecture +owes nearly everything to his initiative, and Bede was +one of his pupils.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTINE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a liqueur manufactured at Fécamp, France. +The composition is a trade secret, but, according to König, the +following are among the substances used in the manufacture of +imitations of the genuine article: fresh lemon peel, cardamoms, +hyssop tops, angelica, peppermint, thyme, cinnamon, nutmegs, +cloves and arnica flowers. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fécamp</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTINES,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Black Monks</span>, monks living according +to the Rule of St Benedict (<i>q.v.</i>) of Nursia. Subiaco in the +Abruzzi was the cradle of the Benedictines, and in that neighbourhood +St Benedict established twelve monasteries. Afterwards +giving up the direction of these, he migrated to Monte +Cassino and there established the monastery which became the +centre whence his Rule and institute spread. From Monte +Cassino he founded a monastery at Terracina. These fourteen +are the only monasteries of which we have any knowledge as +being founded before St Benedict’s death; for the mission of +St Placidus to Sicily must certainly be regarded as mere romance, +nor does there seem to be any solid reason for viewing more +favourably the mission of St Maurus to Gaul. There is some +ground for believing that it was the third abbot of Monte Cassino +who began to spread a knowledge of the Rule beyond the circle +of St Benedict’s own foundations. About 580-590 Monte +Cassino was sacked by the Lombards, and the community came +to Rome and was established in a monastery attached to the +Lateran Basilica, in the centre of the ecclesiastical world. It +is now commonly recognized by scholars that when Gregory the +Great became a monk and turned his palace on the Caelian Hill +into a monastery, the monastic life there carried out was fundamentally +based on the Benedictine Rule (see F.H. Dudden, +<i>Gregory the Great</i>, i. 108). From this monastery went forth +St Augustine and his companions on their mission to England in +596, carrying their monachism with them; thus England was +the first country out of Italy in which Benedictine life was +firmly planted. In the course of the 7th century Benedictine +life was gradually introduced in Gaul, and in the 8th it was carried +into the Germanic lands from England. It is doubtful whether +in Spain there were Benedictine monasteries, properly so called, +until a later period. In many parts the Benedictine Rule met +the much stricter Irish Rule of Columbanus, introduced by the +Irish missionaries on the continent, and after brief periods, first +of conflict and then of fusion, it gradually absorbed and supplanted +it; thus during the 8th century it became, out of Ireland +and other purely Celtic lands, the only rule and form of monastic +life throughout western Europe,—so completely that Charlemagne +once asked if there ever had been any other monastic +rule.</p> + +<p>What may be called the inner side of Benedictine life and +history is treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>; here it is possible +to deal only with the broad facts of the external history. The +chief external works achieved for western Europe by the Benedictines +during the early middle ages may be summed up under +the following heads.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Conversion of the Teutonic Races.</i>—The tendency of +modern historical scholarship justifies the maintenance of the +tradition that St Augustine and his forty companions were the +first great Benedictine apostles and missioners. Through their +efforts Christianity was firmly planted in various parts of +England; and after the conversion of the country it was English +Benedictines—Wilfrid, Willibrord, Swithbert, Willehad—who +evangelized Friesland and Holland; and another, Winfrid or +Boniface, who, with his fellow-monks Willibald and others, +evangelized the greater part of central Germany and founded and +organized the German church. It was Anschar, a monk of Corbie, +who first preached to the Scandinavians, and other Benedictines +were apostles to Poles, Prussians and other Slavonic peoples. +The conversion of the Teutonic races may properly be called the +work of the Benedictines.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Civilization of north-western Europe.</i>—As the result of +their missionary enterprises the Benedictines penetrated into all +these lands and established monasteries, so that by the 10th or +11th century Benedictine houses existed in great numbers +throughout the whole of Latin Christendom except Ireland. +These monasteries became centres of civilizing influences by the +method of presenting object-lessons in organized work, in +agriculture, in farming, in the arts and trades, and also in +well-ordered life. The unconscious method by which such great +results were brought about has been well described by J.S. Brewer +(<i>Preface</i> to Works of Giraldus Cambrensis, Rolls Series, iv.) and +F.A. Gasquet.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Education.</i>—Boys were educated in Benedictine houses from +the beginning, but at first they were destined to be monks. The +monasteries, however, played a great part in the educational side +of the Carolingian revival; and certainly from that date schools +for boys destined to live and work in the world were commonly +attached to Benedictine monasteries. From that day to this +education has been among the recognized and principal works of +Benedictines.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Letters and Learning.</i>—This side of Benedictine life is most +typically represented by the Venerable Bede, the gentle and +learned scholar of the early middle ages. In those times the +monasteries were the only places of security and rest in western +Europe, the only places where letters could in any measure be +cultivated. It was in the monasteries that the writings of Latin +antiquity, both classical and ecclesiastical, were transcribed and +preserved.</p> + +<p>In a gigantic system embracing hundreds of monasteries and +thousands of monks, and spread over all the countries of western +Europe, without any organic bond between the different houses, +and exposed to all the vicissitudes of the wars and conquests of +those wild times, to say that the monks often fell short of the ideal +of their state, and sometimes short of the Christian, and even the +moral standard, is but to say that monks are men. Failures there +have been many, and scandals not a few in Benedictine history; +but it may be said with truth that there does not appear to have +been ever a period of widespread or universal corruption, however +much at times and in places primitive love may have waxed cold. +And when such declensions occurred, they soon called forth efforts +at reform and revival; indeed these constantly recurring reform-movements +are one of the most striking features of Benedictine +history, and the great proof of the vitality of the institute throughout +the ages.</p> + +<p>The first of these movements arose during the Carolingian +revival (<i>c.</i> 800), and is associated with the name of Benedict of +Aniane. Under the auspices of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious +he initiated a scheme for federating into one great order, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +himself as abbot general, all the monasteries of Charles’s empire, +and for enforcing throughout a rigid uniformity in observance. +For this purpose a synod of abbots was assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle +in 817, and a series of 80 <i>Capitula</i> passed, regulating the +life of the monasteries. The scheme as a whole was short-lived +and did not survive its originator; but the <i>Capitula</i> were commonly +recognized as supplying a useful and much-needed supplement +to St Benedict’s Rule on points not sufficiently provided +for therein. Accordingly these <i>Capitula</i> exercised a wide influence +among Benedictines even outside the empire. And Benedict of +Aniane’s ideas of organization found embodiment a century later +in the order of Cluny (910), which for a time overshadowed the +great body of mere Benedictines (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cluny</a></span>). Here it will suffice +to say that the most distinctive features of the Cluny system were +(1) a notable increase and prolongation of the church services, +which came to take up the greater part of the working day; (2) +a strongly centralized government, whereby the houses of the +order in their hundreds were strictly subject to the abbot of Cluny.</p> + +<p>Though forming a distinct and separate organism Cluny claimed +to be, and was recognized as, a body of Benedictine houses; but +from that time onwards arose a number of independent bodies, or +“orders,” which took the Benedictine Rule as the basis of their +life. The more important of these were: in the 11th and 12th centuries, +the orders of Camaldulians, Vallombrosians, Fontevrault +and the Cistercians, and in the 13th and 14th the Silvestrines, +Celestines and Olivetans (see separate articles). The general +tendency of these Benedictine offshoots was in the direction of +greater austerity of life than was practised by the Black Monks +or contemplated by St Benedict’s Rule—some of them were +semi-eremitical; the most important by far were the Cistercians, +whose ground-idea was to reproduce exactly the life of St +Benedict’s own monastery. These various orders were also +organized and governed according to the system of centralized +authority devised by St Pachomius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Monasticism</a></span>) and +brought into vogue by Cluny in the West. What has here to be +traced is the history of the great body of Benedictine monasteries +that held aloof from these separatist movements.</p> + +<p>For the first four or five centuries of Benedictine history there +was no organic bond between any of the monasteries; each house +formed an independent autonomous family, managing its own +affairs and subject to no external authority or control except that +of the bishop of the diocese. But the influence of Cluny, even on +monasteries that did not enter into its organism, was enormous; +many adopted Cluny customs and practices and moulded their +life and spirit after the model it set; and many such monasteries +became in turn centres of revival and reform in many lands, so +that during the 10th and 11th centuries arose free unions of +monasteries based on a common observance derived from a +central abbey. Fleury and Hirsau are well-known examples. +Basing themselves on St Gregory’s counsel to St Augustine, +Dunstan, Aethelwold and Oswald adopted from the observance +of foreign monasteries, and notably Fleury and Ghent, what was +suitable for the restoration of English monachism, and so produced +the <i>Concordia Regularis</i>, interesting as the first serious attempt to +bring about uniformity of observance among the monasteries of +an entire nation. In the course of the 12th century sporadic and +limited unions of Black Monk monasteries arose in different parts. +But notwithstanding all these movements, the majority of the +great Black Monk abbeys continued to the end of the 12th century +in their primeval isolation. But in the year 1215, at the fourth +Lateran council, were made regulations destined profoundly to +modify Benedictine polity and history. It was decreed that the +Benedictine houses of each ecclesiastical province should henceforth +be federated for the purposes of mutual help and the +maintenance of discipline, and that for these ends the abbots +should every third year meet in a provincial chapter (or synod), +in order to pass laws binding on all and to appoint visitors who, +in addition to the bishops, should canonically visit the monasteries +and report on their condition in spirituals and temporals to the +ensuing chapter. The English monks took the lead in carrying +out this legislation, and in 1218 the first chapter of the province of +Canterbury was held at Oxford, and up to the dissolution under +Henry VIII. the triennial chapters took place with wonderful +regularity. Fitful attempts were made elsewhere to carry out the +decrees, and in 1336 Benedict XII. by the bull <i>Benedictina</i> tried +to give further development to the system and to secure its +general observance. The organization of the Benedictine houses +into provinces or chapters under this legislation interfered in the +least possible degree with the Benedictine tradition of mutual +independence of the houses; the provinces were loose federations +of autonomous houses, the legislative power of the chapter and +the canonical visitations being the only forms of external interference. +The English Benedictines never advanced farther along +the path of centralization; up to their destruction this polity +remained in operation among them, and proved itself by its +results to be well adapted to the conditions of the Benedictine +Rule and life.</p> + +<p>In other lands things did not on the whole go so well, and +many causes at work during the later middle ages tended +to bring about relaxation in the Benedictine houses; above all +the vicious system of commendatory abbots, rife everywhere +except in England. And so in the period of the reforming +councils of Constance and Basel the state of the religious orders +was seriously taken in hand, and in response to the public demand +for reforming the Church, “in head and members,” reform +movements were set on foot, as among others, so among the +Benedictines of various parts of Europe. These movements +issued in the congregational system which is the present polity +among Benedictines. In the German lands, where the most +typical congregation was the Bursfeld Union (1446), which +finally embraced over 100 monasteries throughout Germany, +the system was kept on the lines of the Lateran decree and +the bull <i>Benedictina</i>, and received only some further developments +in the direction of greater organization; but in Italy +the congregation of S. Justina at Padua (1421), afterwards +called the Cassinese, departed altogether from the old lines, +setting up a highly centralized government, after the model +of the Italian republics, whereby the autonomy of the monasteries +was destroyed, and they were subjected to the authority +of a central governing board. With various modifications or +restrictions this latter system was imported into all the Latin +lands, into Spain and Portugal, and thence into Brazil, and +into Lorraine and France, where the celebrated congregation +of St Maur (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurists</a></span>) was formed early in the 17th century. +During this century the Benedictine houses in many parts of +Catholic Europe united themselves into congregations, usually +characterized by an austerity that was due to the Tridentine +reform movement.</p> + +<p>In England the Benedictines had, from every point of view, +flourished exceedingly. At the time of the Dissolution there +were nearly 300 Black Benedictine houses, great and small, +men and women, including most of the chief religious houses +of the land (for lists see tables and maps in Gasquet’s <i>English +Monastic Life</i>, and <i>Catholic Dictionary</i>, art. “Benedictines”). +It is now hardly necessary to say that the grave charges brought +against the monks are no longer credited by serious historians +(Gasquet, <i>Henry VIII. and the Monasteries</i>; J. Gairdner, +Prefaces to the relevant volumes of <i>Calendars of State Papers +of Henry VIII.</i>). In Mary’s reign some of the surviving monks +were brought together, and Westminster Abbey was restored. +Of the monks professed there during this momentary revival, +one, Sigebert Buckley, lived on into the reign of James I.; and +being the only survivor of the Benedictines of England, he +in 1607 invested with the English habit and affiliated to Westminster +Abbey and to the English congregation two English +priests, already Benedictines in the Italian congregation. By +this act the old English Benedictine line was perpetuated; +and in 1619 a number of English monks professed in Spain were +aggregated by pontifical act to these representatives of the old +English Benedictines, and thus was constituted the present +English Benedictine congregation. Three or four monasteries +of the revived English Benedictines were established on the +continent at the beginning of the 17th century, and remained +there till driven back to England by the French Revolution.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span></p> + +<p>The Reformation and the religious wars spread havoc among +the Benedictines in many parts of northern Europe; and as +a consequence, in part of the rule of Joseph II. of Austria, +in part of the French Revolution, nearly every Benedictine +monastery in Europe was suppressed—it is said that in the +early years of the 19th century scarcely thirty in all survived. +But the latter half of the century witnessed a series of remarkable +revivals, and first in Bavaria, under the influence of Louis I. +The French congregation (which does not enjoy continuity with +the Maurists) was inaugurated by Dom Guéranger in 1833, and +the German congregation of Beuron in 1863. Two vigorous +congregations have arisen in the United States. These are +all new creations since 1830. In Italy, Spain, Portugal and +Brazil only a few monasteries survive the various revolutions, +and in a crippled state; but signs are not wanting of renewed +life: St Benedict’s own monasteries of Subiaco and Monte +Cassino are relatively flourishing. In Austria, Hungary and +Switzerland there are some thirty great abbeys, most of which +have had a continued existence since the middle ages. The +English congregation is composed of three large abbeys (Downside, +Ampleforth and Woolhampton), a cathedral priory (Hereford) +and a nunnery (Stanbrook Abbey, Worcester); there +are besides in England three or four abbeys belonging to foreign +congregations, and several nunneries subject to the bishops. +Each congregation has its president, who is merely a president, +with limited powers, and not a general superior like the +Provincials of other orders; so that the primitive Benedictine +principle of each monastery being self-contained and autonomous +is preserved. Similarly each congregation is independent +and self-governing, there being no superior-general or central +authority, as in other orders. Leo XIII. established an international +Benedictine College in Rome for theological studies, +and conferred on its abbot the title of “Abbot Primate,” with +precedence among Black Monk abbots. He is only <i>primus +inter pares</i>, and exercises no kind of superiority over the +other abbots or congregations. Thus the Benedictine polity +may be described as a number of autonomous federations +of autonomous monasteries. The individual monks, too, belong +not to the order or the congregation, but each to the monastery +in which he became a monk. The chief external work of the +Benedictines at the present day is secondary education; there +are 114 secondary schools or <i>gymnasia</i> attached to the abbeys, +wherein the monks teach over 12,000 boys; and many of +the nunneries have girls’ schools. In certain countries (among +them England) where there is a dearth of secular priests, Benedictines +undertake parochial work.</p> + +<p>The statistics of the order (1905) show that of Black Benedictines +there are over 4000 choir-monks and nearly 2000 +lay brothers—figures that have more than doubled since 1880. +If the Cistercians and lesser offshoots of the order be added, +the sum total of choir-monks and lay brothers exceeds 11,000.</p> + +<p>In conclusion a word must be said on the Benedictine nuns. +From the beginning the number of women living the Benedictine +life has not fallen far short of that of the men. St Gregory +describes St Benedict’s sister Scholastica as a nun (<i>sanctimonialis</i>), +and she is looked upon as the foundress of Benedictine nuns. +As the institute spread to other lands nunneries arose on all +sides, and nowhere were the Benedictine nuns more numerous +or more remarkable than in England, from Saxon times to the +Reformation. A strong type of womanhood is revealed in the +correspondence of St Boniface with various Saxon Benedictine +nuns, some in England and some who accompanied him to the +continent and there established great convents. In the early +times the Benedictine nuns were not strictly enclosed, and +could, when occasion called for it, freely go out of their convent +walls to perform any special work: on the other hand, they did +not resemble the modern active congregations of women, +whose ordinary work lies outside the convent. It has to +be said that in the course of the middle ages, especially the +later middle ages, grave disorders arose in many convents; +and this doubtless led, in the reform movements initiated by +the councils of Constance and Basel, and later of Trent, to the +introduction of strict enclosure in Benedictine convents, which +now is the almost universal practice. At the present day +there are of Black Benedictine nuns 262 convents with 7000 +nuns, the large majority being directly subject to the diocesan +bishops; if the Cistercians and others be included, there are +387 convents with nearly 11,000 nuns. In England there are +a dozen Benedictine nunneries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>—The chief general authority for Benedictine +history up to the middle of the 12th century is Mabillon’s <i>Annales</i>, +in 6 vols. folio; for the later period no such general work exists, but +the various countries, congregations or even abbeys have to be taken +separately. Montalembert’s <i>Monks of the West</i> gives the early +history very fully; the later history, to the beginning of the 18th +century, may be found in Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i>, v. and +vi. (1792). A useful sketch, with references to the best literature, +is in Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i. §§ 17-28; +see also the article “Benedictinerorden” in Wetzer u. Welter, +<i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.), and “Benedikt von Nursia und der +Benediktinerorden,” in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.). +For England see Ethelred Taunton, <i>English Black Monks</i> (1897); +and for the modern history (19th century) the series entitled +“Succisa Virescit” in the <i>Downside Review</i>, 1880 onwards, by +J.G. Dolan. On the inner spirit and working of the institute see +F.A. Gasquet, <i>Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History</i> (being the +preface to the 2nd ed., 1895, of the trans. of Montalembert) and +<i>English Monastic Life</i> (1904); and Newman’s two essays on the +Benedictines, among the <i>Historical Sketches</i>. On Benedictine +nuns much will be found in the above-mentioned authorities, and +also in Lina Eckenstein, <i>Woman in Monasticism</i> (1896). On Benedictines +and the Arts see F.H. Kraus, <i>Geschichte der christlichen +Kunst</i> (Freiburg-i-B., 1896-1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTION<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (Lat. <i>benedictio</i>, from <i>benedicere</i>, to bless), +generally, the utterance of a blessing or of a devout wish for the +prosperity and happiness of a person or enterprise. In the usage +of the Catholic Church, both East and West, though the benediction +as defined above has its place as between one Christian +and another, it has also a special place in the sacramental system +in virtue of the special powers of blessing vested in the priesthood. +Sacerdotal benedictions are not indeed sacraments—means of +grace ordained by Christ himself,—but sacramentals (<i>sacramenta +minora</i>) ordained by the authority of the Church and +exercised by the priests, as the plenipotentiaries of God, in virtue +of the powers conferred on them at their ordination; “that +whatever they bless may be blessed, and whatever they consecrate +may be consecrated.” The power to bless in this +ecclesiastical sense is reserved to priests alone; the blessing of +the paschal candle on Holy Saturday by the deacon being the +one exception that proves the rule, for he uses for the purpose +grains of incense previously blessed by the priest at the altar. +But though by some the benediction has thus been brought into +connexion with the supreme means of grace, the sacrifice of the +Mass, the blessing does not in itself confer grace and does not act +on its recipients <i>ex opere operato</i>. It must not be supposed, +however, that the Catholic idea of a sacerdotal blessing has anything +of the vague character associated with a benediction by +Protestants. Both by Catholics and by Protestants blessings may +be applied to things inanimate as well as animate; but while +in the reformed Churches this involves no more than an appeal +to God for a special blessing, or a solemn “setting apart” of +persons or objects for sacred purposes, in the Catholic idea it +implies a special power, conferred by God, of the priests over +the invisible forces of evil. It thus stands in the closest relation +to the rite of exorcism, of which it is the complement.</p> + +<p>According to Catholic doctrine, the Fall involved the subjection, +not only of man, but of all things animate and inanimate, +to the influence of evil spirits; in support of which St Paul’s +epistles to the Romans (viii.) and to Timothy (1 Tim. iv. 4-5) +are quoted. This belief is, of course, not specifically Christian; +it has been held at all times and everywhere by men of the most +various races and creeds; and, if there be any validity in the +contention that that is true which has been held <i>semper, ubique, +et ab omnibus</i>, no fact is better established. In general it may +be said, then, that whereas exorcism is practised in order to +cast out devils already in possession, benediction is the formula +by which they are prevented from entering in. Protestants +have condemned these formulae as so much magic, and in this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span> +modern science tends to agree with them; but to orthodox +Protestants at least Catholics have a perfect right to reply that, +in taking this line, they are but repeating the accusation brought +by the Pharisees against Christ, viz. that he cast out devils +“by Beelzebub, prince of the devils.”</p> + +<p>Though, however, the discomfiture of malignant spirits still +plays an important part in the Catholic doctrine of benedictions, +this has on the whole tended to become subordinated to other +benefits. This is but natural; for, though the progress of +knowledge has not disproved the existence of devils, it has +greatly limited the supposed range of their activities. According +to Father Patrick Morrisroe, dean and professor of liturgy at +Maynooth, the efficacy of benedictions is fourfold: (1) the +excitation of pious emotions and affections of the heart, and by +their means the remission of venial sins and of the temporal punishments +due for these; (2) freedom from the power of evil spirits; +(3) preservation and restoration of bodily health; (4) various +other benefits, temporal and spiritual. Benedictions, moreover, +are twofold: (<i>a</i>) invocative, <i>i.e.</i> those invoking the divine +benignity for persons and things without changing their condition, +<i>e.g.</i> children or food; (<i>b</i>) constitutive, <i>i.e.</i> those which +give to persons or things an indelible religious character, <i>i.e.</i> +monks and nuns, or the furniture of the altar. The second of +these brings the act of benediction into contact with the principle +of consecration (<i>q.v.</i>); for by the formal blessing by the duly +constituted authority persons, places and things are consecrated, +<i>i.e.</i> reserved to sacred uses and preserved from the contaminating +influence of evil spirits. Thus graveyards are consecrated, <i>i.e.</i> +solemnly blessed in order that the powers of evil may not disturb +the bodies of the faithful departed; thus, too, the blessing of +bells gives them a special power against evil demons.</p> + +<p>Though the giving of blessings as a sacerdotal function is +proper to the whole order of priests, particular benedictions +have, by ecclesiastical authority, been reserved for the bishops, +who may, however, delegate some of them; <i>i.e.</i> the benediction +of abbots, of priests at their ordination, of virgins taking the veil, +of churches, cemeteries, oratories, and of all articles for use in +connexion with the altar (chalices, patens, vestments, &c.), of +military colours, of soldiers and of their arms. The holy oil is +also blessed by bishops in the Roman Catholic Church; in the +Greek Church, on the other hand, the oil for the chrism at baptism +is blessed by the priest. To the pope alone is reserved the blessing +of the pallium, the golden rose, the “Agnus-Dei” and royal swords; +he alone, too, can issue blessings that involve some days’ +indulgence. The ceremonies prescribed for the various benedictions +are set forth in the <i>Rituale Romanum</i> (tit. viii.). In general it +is laid down (cap. i.) that the priest, in benedictions outside the +Mass, shall be vested in surplice and stole, and shall give the +blessing standing and bare-headed. Certain prayers are said +before each benediction, after which he sprinkles the person or +thing to be blessed with holy water and, where prescribed, censes +them. He is attended by a minister with a vase of holy water, +an <i>aspergillum</i> and a copy of the <i>Rituale</i> or missal. In all +benedictions the sign of the cross is made. In the blessing of the holy +water (cap. ii.), the essential instrument of all benedictions, the +object is dearly to establish its potency against evil spirits. +First the “creature of salt” is exorcized, “that ... thou +mayest be to all who take thee health of body and soul; that +wherever thou art sprinkled every phantasy and wickedness and +wile of diabolic deceit may flee and leave that place, and every +unclean spirit”; a prayer to God for the blessing of the salt +follows; then the “creature of water” is exorcized, “that thou +mayest become exorcized water for the purpose of putting to +flight every power of the enemy, that thou mayest avail to uproot +and expel this enemy with all his apostate angels, by the virtue +of the same our Lord Jesus Christ, &c.”; and again a prayer +to God follows that the water may “become a creature in the +service of His mysteries, for the driving out of demons, &c.” +In the formulae of blessings that follow, the special efficacy +against devils is implied by the aspersion with holy water; the +benedictions themselves are usually merely invocative of the +divine protection or assistance, though, <i>e.g.</i>, in the form for +blessing sick animals the priest prays that “all diabolic power in +them may be destroyed, and that they may be ill no longer.” It +is to be remarked that the “laying on of hands,” which in the Old +and the New Testament alike is the usual “form” of blessing, is not +used in liturgical benedictions, the priest being directed merely +to extend his right hand towards the person to be blessed. The +appendix <i>de Benedictionibus</i> to the <i>Rituale Romanum</i> contains +formulae, often of much simple beauty, for blessing all manner of +persons and things, from the congregation as a whole and sick +men and women, to railways, ships, blast-furnaces, lime-kilns, +articles of food, medicine and medical bandages and all manner +of domestic animals.</p> + +<p>The <i>Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament</i>, commonly called +simply “Benediction” (Fr. <i>salut</i>, Ger. <i>Segen</i>), is one of the +most popular of the services of the Roman Catholic Church. It +is usually held in the afternoon or evening, sometimes at the +conclusion of Vespers, Compline or the Stations of the Cross, +and consists in the singing of certain hymns and canticles, more +particularly the <i>O salutaris hostia</i> and the <i>Tantum ergo</i>, +before the host, which is exposed on the altar in a monstrance and +surrounded by not less than ten lighted candles. Often litanies +and hymns to the Virgin are added. At the conclusion the priest, +his shoulders wrapped in the humeral veil, takes the monstrance +and with it makes the sign of the cross over the kneeling +congregation, whence the name Benediction. The service, the details +of which vary in different countries, is of comparatively modern +origin. Father Thurston traces it to a combination in the 16th +and 17th centuries of customs that had their origin in the 13th, +<i>i.e.</i> certain gild services in honour of the Blessed Virgin, and +the growing habit, resulting naturally from the doctrine of +transubstantiation, of ascribing a supreme virtue to the act of +looking on the Holy Sacrament.</p> + +<p>In the reformed Churches the word “benediction” is technically +confined to the blessing with which the priest or minister +dismisses the congregation at the close of the service.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the article “Benediktionen,” by E.C. Achelis in Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897); <i>The Catholic Encyclopaedia</i> +(London and New York, 1908) s. “Blessing,” by P. Morrisroe, +and “Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament,” by Herbert Thurston, S.J.; +in all of which further authorities are cited.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTUS,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i. 68 sqq.), so +called from the opening word of the Latin version. The hymn +has been used in Christian worship since at least the 9th century, +and was adopted into the Anglican Order of Morning Prayer from +the Roman service of matin-lauds. In the Prayer-Book of 1549 +there was no alternative to the <i>Benedictus</i>; it was to be used +“throughout the whole year.” In 1552 the <i>Jubilate</i> was inserted +without any restriction as to how often it should take the place of +the <i>Benedictus</i>. Such restriction is clearly implied in the words +“except when that (Benedictus) shall happen to be read in the +chapter for the day, or for the Gospel on Saint John Baptist’s +day,” which were inserted in 1662. The rubric of 1532 had this +curious wording: “And after the Second Lesson shall be used +and said, Benedictus in English, as followeth.”</p> + +<p>The name is also given to a part of the Roman Catholic mass +service beginning <i>Benedictus qui venit</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDICTUS ABBAS<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (d. 1194), abbot of Peterborough, whose +name is accidentally connected with the <i>Gesta Henrici Regis +Secundi</i>, one of the most valuable of English 12th-century +chronicles. He first makes his appearance in 1174, as the +chancellor of Archbishop Richard, the successor of Becket in +the primacy. In 1175 Benedictus became prior of Holy Trinity, +Canterbury; in 1177 he received from Henry II. the abbacy of +Peterborough, which he held until his death. As abbot he +distinguished himself by his activity in building, in administering +the finances of his house and in collecting a library. He is +described in the <i>Chronicon Petroburgense</i> as “blessed both in name +and deed.” He belonged to the circle of Becket’s admirers, and +wrote two works dealing with the martyrdom and the miracles of +his hero. Fragments of the former work have come down to us +in the compilation known as the <i>Quadrilogus</i>, which is printed in +the fourth volume of J.C. Robertson’s <i>Materials for the History of Thomas Becket</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span> +(Rolls series); the miracles are extant in their +entirety, and are printed in the second volume of the same +collection. Benedictus has been credited with the authorship +of the <i>Gesta Henrici</i> on the ground that his name appears in the +title of the oldest manuscript. We have, however, conclusive +evidence that Benedictus merely caused this work to be transcribed +for the Peterborough library. It is only through the force +of custom that the work is still occasionally cited under the name +of Benedictus. The question of authorship has been discussed +by Sir T.D. Hardy, Bishop Stubbs and Professor Liebermann; +but the results of the discussion are negative. Stubbs conjecturally +identified the first part of the <i>Gesta</i> (1170-1177) with the +<i>Liber Tricolumnis</i>, a register of contemporary events kept by +Richard Fitz Neal (<i>q.v.</i>), the treasurer of Henry II. and author of +the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i>; the latter part (1177-1192) was by +the same authority ascribed to Roger of Hoveden, who makes +large use of the <i>Gesta</i> in his own chronicle, copying them with +few alterations beyond the addition of some documents. This +theory, so far as concerns the <i>Liber Tricolumnis</i>, is rejected by +Liebermann and the most recent editors of the <i>Dialogus</i> +(A. Hughes, C.G. Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford, 1902). We can +only say that the <i>Gesta</i> are the work of a well-informed +contemporary who appears to have been closely connected with the +court and is inclined on all occasions to take the side of Henry II. +The author confines himself to the external history of events, and +his tone is strictly impersonal. He incorporates some official +documents, and in many places obviously derives his information +from others which he does not quote. There is a break in his work +at the year 1177, where the earliest manuscript ends; but the +reasons which have been given to prove that the authorship +changes at this point are inconclusive. The work begins at +Christmas 1169, and concludes in 1192; it is thus in form a +fragment, covering portions of the reign of Henry II. and Richard I.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Stubbs’ <i>Gesta regis Henrici Secundi Benedicti abbatis</i> +(2 vols., Rolls series, 1867), and particularly the preface to the first +volume; F. Liebermann in <i>Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario</i> +(Göttingen, 1875); in <i>Ostenglische Geschichtsquellen</i> (Hanover, 1892); +and in Pertz’s <i>Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores</i>, vol. xxvii. +pp. 82, 83; also the introduction to the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i> in +the Oxford edition of 1902.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICH<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1811-1873), German +dramatist and librettist, was born at Leipzig on the 21st of +January 1811, and was educated at the Thomasschule at Leipzig. +He joined the stage in 1831, his first engagement being with the +travelling company of H.E. Bethmann in Dessau, Cöthen, +Bernburg and Meiningen. Subsequently he was tenor in several +theatres in Westphalia and on the Rhine, and became manager +of the theatre at Wesel, where he produced a comedy, <i>Das +bemooste Haupt</i> (1841), which met with great success. After an +engagement in Cologne, he managed the new theatre at Elberfeld +(1844-1845) and in 1849 was appointed teacher on the staff of +the Rhenish school of music in Cologne. In 1855 he was +appointed intendant of the municipal theatre in Frankfort-On-Main, +but retired in 1861, and died in Leipzig on the 26th of +September 1873. Benedix’s comedies, the scenes of which are +mostly laid in upper middle-class life, still enjoy some popularity; +the best-known are: <i>Dr Wespe; Die Hochzeitsreise; Der Vetter; +Das Gefängnis; Das Lügen; Ein Lustspiel; Der Störenfried; +Die Dienstboten; Aschenbrödel; Die zärtlichen Verwandten</i>. +The chief characteristics of his farces are a clear plot and bright, +easy and natural dialogue. Among his more serious works are: +<i>Bilder aus dem Schauspielerleben</i> (Leipzig, 1847); <i>Der mündliche +Vortrag</i> (Leipzig, 1859-1860); <i>Das Wesen des deutschen Rhythmus</i> +(Leipzig, 1862) and, posthumously, <i>Die Shakespearomanie</i> (1873), +in which he attacks the extreme adoration of the British poet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Benedix’s <i>Gesammelte dramatische Werke</i> appeared in 27 vols. +(Leipzig, 1846-1875); a selection under the title <i>Volkstheater</i> in +20 vols. (Leipzig, 1882); and a collection of smaller comedies as +<i>Haustheater</i> in 2 vols. (both ed., Leipzig, 1891); see Benedix’s +autobiography in the <i>Gartenlaube</i> for 1871.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEFICE<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (Lat. <i>beneficium</i>, benefit), a term first applied +under the Roman empire to portions of land, the usufruct of +which was granted by the emperors to their soldiers or others +for life, as a reward or <i>beneficium</i> for past services, and as a +retainer for future services. A list of all such <i>beneficia</i> was +recorded in the <i>Book of Benefices</i> (<i>Liber Beneficiorum</i>), which was +kept by the principal registrar of benefices (<i>Primiscrinius Beneficiorum</i>). +In imitation of the practice observed under the Roman +empire, the term came to be applied under the feudal system +to portions of land granted by a lord to his vassal for the +maintenance of the latter on condition of his rendering military +service; and such grants were originally for life only, and the +land reverted to the lord on the death of the vassal. In a +similar manner grants of land, or of the profits of land, appear +to have been made by the bishops to their clergy for life, on the +ground of some extraordinary merit on the part of the grantee. +The validity of such grants was first formally recognized by the +council of Orleans, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 511, which forbade, however, under any +circumstances, the alienation from the bishoprics of any lands so +granted. The next following council of Orleans, 533, broke in +upon this principle, by declaring that a bishop could not reclaim +from his clergy any grants made to them by his predecessor, +excepting in cases of misconduct. This innovation on the ancient +practice was confirmed by the subsequent council of Lyons, 566, +and from this period these grants ceased to be regarded as +personal, and their substance became annexed to the churches,—in +other words, they were henceforth enjoyed <i>jure tituli</i>, and no +longer <i>jure personali</i>. How and when the term <i>beneficia</i> came +to be applied to these episcopal grants is uncertain, but they are +designated by that term in a canon of the council of Mainz, 813.</p> + +<p>The term benefice, according to the canon law, implies always +an ecclesiastical office, <i>propter quod beneficium datur</i>, but it does +not always imply a cure of souls. It has been defined to be the +right which a clerk has to enjoy certain ecclesiastical revenues +on condition of discharging certain services prescribed by the +canons, or by usage, or by the conditions under which his office +has been founded. These services might be those of a secular +priest with cure of souls, or they might be those of a regular +priest, a member of a religious order, without cure of souls; +but in every case a benefice implied three things: (1) An +obligation to discharge the duties of an office, which is altogether +spiritual; (2) The right to enjoy the fruits attached to that +office, which is the benefice itself; (3) The fruits themselves, +which are the temporalities. By keeping these distinctions in +view, the right of patronage in the case of secular benefices +becomes intelligible, being in fact the right, which was originally +vested in the donor of the temporalities, to present to the bishop +a clerk to be admitted, if found fit by the bishop, to the office to +which those temporalities are annexed. Nomination or presentation +on the part of the patron of the benefice is thus the first +requisite in order that a clerk should become legally entitled +to a benefice. The next requisite is that he should be admitted +by the bishop as a fit person for the spiritual office to which the +benefice is annexed, and the bishop is the judge of the sufficiency +of the clerk to be so admitted. By the early constitutions of the +Church of England a bishop was allowed a space of two months +to inquire and inform himself of the sufficiency of every presentee, +but by the ninety-fifth of the canons of 1604 that interval +has been abridged to twenty-eight days, within which the bishop +must admit or reject the clerk. If the bishop rejects the clerk +within that time he is liable to a <i>duplex querela</i> in the +ecclesiastical courts, or to a <i>quare impedit</i> in the common +law courts, and the bishop must then certify the reasons of his refusal. +In cases where the patron is himself a clerk in orders, and wishes +to be admitted to the benefice, he must proceed by way of petition +instead of by deed of presentation, reciting that the benefice is +in his own patronage, and petitioning the bishop to examine +him and admit him. Upon the bishop having satisfied himself +of the sufficiency of the clerk, he proceeds to institute him to the +spiritual office to which the benefice is annexed, but, before such +institution can take place, the clerk is required to make a declaration +of assent to the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion and to the +Book of Common Prayer according to a form prescribed in the +Clerical Subscription Act 1865, to make a declaration against +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +simony in accordance with that act, and to take and subscribe +the oath of allegiance according to the form in the Promissory +Oaths Act 1868. The bishop, by the act of institution, commits +to the clerk the cure of souls attached to the office to which the +benefice is annexed. In cases where the bishop himself is patron +of the benefice, no presentation or petition is required to be +tendered by the clerk, but the bishop having satisfied himself +of the sufficiency of the clerk, collates him to the benefice and +office. It is not necessary that the bishop himself should personally +institute or collate a clerk; he may issue a fiat to his vicar-general, +or to a special commissary for that purpose. After the +bishop or his commissary has instituted the presentee, he issues +a mandate under seal, addressed to the archdeacon or some +other neighbouring clergyman, authorizing him to induct the +clerk into his benefice,—in other words, to put him into legal +possession of the temporalities, which is done by some outward +form, and for the most part by delivery of the bell-rope to +the clerk, who thereupon tolls the bell. This form of induction +is required to give the clerk a legal title to his <i>beneficium</i>, +although his admission to the office by institution is sufficient +to vacate any other benefice which he may already possess.</p> + +<p>By a decree of the Lateran council of 1215, which was enforced +in England, no clerk can hold two benefices with cure of +souls, and if a beneficed clerk shall take a second benefice with +cure of souls, he vacates <i>ipso facto</i> his first benefice. Dispensations, +however, could be easily obtained from Rome, before the +reformation of the Church of England, to enable a clerk to hold +several ecclesiastical dignities or benefices at the same time, and +by the Peterpence, Dispensations, &c. Act 1534, the power to +grant such dispensations, which had been exercised previously +by the court of Rome, was transferred to the archbishop of +Canterbury, certain ecclesiastical persons having been declared +by a previous statute (1529) to be entitled to such dispensations. +The system of pluralities carried with it, as a necessary consequence, +systematic non-residence on the part of many incumbents, +and delegation of their spiritual duties in respect of their +cures of souls to assistant curates. The evils attendant on this +system were found to be so great that the Pluralities Act 1838 +was passed to abridge the holding of benefices in plurality, +and it was enacted that no person should hold under any +circumstances more than two benefices, and this privilege +was made subject to the restriction that his benefices were +within ten statute miles of each other. By the Pluralities Act +1850, the restriction was further narrowed, so that no spiritual +person could hold two benefices except the churches of such +benefices were within three miles of each other by the nearest +road, and the annual value of one of such benefices did not exceed +£100. By this statute the term benefice is defined to +mean benefice with cure of souls and no other, and therein to +comprehend all parishes, perpetual curacies, donatives, endowed +public chapels, parochial chapelries and chapelries or districts +belonging or reputed to belong, or annexed or reputed to be +annexed, to any church or chapel. The Pluralities Acts Amendment +Act 1885, however, enacted that, by dispensation from the +archbishop, two benefices could be held together, the churches +of which are within four miles of each other, and the annual value +of one of which does not exceed £200.</p> + +<p>All benefices except those under the clear annual value of £50 +pay their first fruits (one year’s profits) and tenths (of yearly +profits) to Queen Anne’s Bounty for the augmentation of the +maintenance of the poorer clergy. Their profits during vacation +belong to the next incumbent. Tithe rent charge attached to a +benefice is relieved from payment of one-half of the agricultural +rates assessed thereon. Benefices may be exchanged by agreement +between incumbents with the consent of the ordinary, and +they may, with the consent of the patron and ordinary, be united +or dissolved after being united. They may also be charged with +the repayment of money laid out for their permanent advantage, +and be augmented wholly by the medium of Queen Anne’s +Bounty.</p> + +<p>A benefice is avoided or vacated—(1) by death; (2) by resignation, +if the bishop is willing to accept the resignation: by the Incumbents’ +Resignation Act 1871, Amendment Act 1887, any clergyman +who has been an incumbent of one benefice continuously for +seven years, and is incapacitated by permanent mental or bodily +infirmities from fulfilling his duties, may, if the bishop thinks fit, +have a commission appointed to consider the fitness of his +resigning; and if the commission report in favour of his resigning, +he may, with the consent of the patron (or, if that is refused, +with the consent of the archbishop) resign the cure of souls into +the bishop’s hands, and have assigned to him, out of the benefice, +a retiring-pension not exceeding one-third of its annual value, +which is recoverable as a debt from his successor; (3) by cession, +upon the clerk being instituted to another benefice or some other +preferment incompatible with it; (4) by deprivation and sentence +of an ecclesiastical court; under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892, +an incumbent who has been convicted of offences against the law +of bastardy, or against whom judgment has been given in a +divorce or matrimonial cause, is deprived, and on being found +guilty in the consistory court of immorality or ecclesiastical +offences (not in respect of doctrine or ritual), he may be deprived +or suspended or declared incapable of preferment; (5) by act of +law in consequence of simony; (6) by default of the clerk in +neglecting to read publicly in the church the Book of Common +Prayer, and to declare his assent thereto within two months after +his induction, pursuant to an act of 1662.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Advowson</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glebe</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Incumbent</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vicar</a></span>; also Phillimore, +<i>Eccles. Law</i>; Cripps, <i>Law of Church and Clergy</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEFICIARY<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>beneficium</i>, a benefit), in law, one +who holds a benefice; one who is beneficially entitled to, or +interested in, property, <i>i.e.</i> entitled to it for his own benefit, and +not merely holding it for others, as does an executor or trustee. +In this latter sense it is nearly equivalent to <i>cestui que trust</i>, a +term which it is gradually superseding in modern law.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1798-1854), German +psychologist, was born at Berlin on the 17th of February 1798, +studied at the universities of Halle and Berlin, and served as a +volunteer in the war of 1815. After studying theology under +Schleiermacher and De Wette, he turned to pure philosophy, +studying particularly English writers and the German modifiers +of Kantianism, such as Jacobi, Fries and Schopenhauer. In 1820 +he published his <i>Erkenntnisslehre</i>, his <i>Erfahrungsseelenlehre als +Grundlage alles Wissens</i>, and his inaugural dissertation <i>De Veris +Philosophiae Initiis</i>. His marked opposition to the philosophy +of Hegel, then dominant in Berlin, was shown more clearly in the +short tract, <i>Neue Grundlegung zur Metaphysik</i> (1822), intended +to be the programme for his lectures as privat-docent, and in the +able treatise, <i>Grundlegung zur Physlk der Sitten</i> (1822), written, in +direct antagonism to Kant’s <i>Metaphysic of Ethics</i>, to deduce +ethical principles from a basis of empirical feeling. In 1822 his +lectures were prohibited at Berlin, according to his own belief +through the influence of Hegel with the Prussian authorities, who +also prevented him from obtaining a chair from the Saxon +government. He retired to Göttingen, lectured there for some +years, and was then allowed to return to Berlin. In 1832 he +received an appointment as <i>professor extraordinarius</i> in the +university, which he continued to hold till his death. On the 1st +of March 1854 he disappeared, and more than two years later his +remains were found in the canal near Charlottenburg. There was +some suspicion that he had committed suicide in a fit of mental +depression.</p> + +<p>The distinctive peculiarity of Beneke’s system consists, first, +in the firmness with which he maintained that in empirical +psychology is to be found the basis of all philosophy; and +secondly, in his rigid treatment of mental phenomena by the +genetic method. According to him, the perfected mind is a +development from simple elements, and the first problem of +philosophy is the determination of these elements and of the +processes by which the development takes place. In his <i>Neue +Psychologie</i>, (essays iii., viii. and ix.), he defined his position with +regard to his predecessors and contemporaries, and both there +and in the introduction to his <i>Lehrbuch</i> signalized as the two great +stages in the progress of psychology the negation of innate ideas +by Locke, and of faculties, in the ordinary acceptation of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +term, by Herbart. The next step was his own; he insisted that +psychology must be treated as one of the natural sciences. As is +the case with them, its content is given by experience alone, and +differs from theirs only in being the object of the internal as +opposed to the external sense. But by this Beneke in no wise +meant a psychology founded on physiology. These two sciences, +in his opinion, had quite distinct provinces and gave no mutual +assistance. Just as little help is to be expected from the science +of the body as from mathematics and metaphysics, both of which +had been pressed by Herbart into the service of psychology. The +true method of study is that applied with so much success in the +physical sciences—critical examination of the given experience, +and reference of it to ultimate causes, which may not be themselves +perceived, but are nevertheless hypotheses necessary to account +for the facts. (See on method, <i>Neue Psych.</i>, essay i.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Starting from the two assumptions that there is nothing, or at +least no formed product, innate in the mind, and that definite +faculties do not originally exist, and from the fact that our minds +nevertheless actually have a definite content and definite modes of +action, Beneke proceeds to state somewhat dogmatically his +scientifically verifiable hypotheses as to the primitive condition of +the soul and the laws according to which it develops. Originally the +soul is possessed of or is an immense variety of powers, faculties or +forces (conceptions which Beneke, in opposition to Herbart, holds to +be metaphysically justifiable), differing from one another only in +tenacity, vivacity, receptivity and grouping. These primitive +immaterial forces, so closely united as to form but one being (essence), +acquire definiteness or form through the action upon them of <i>stimuli</i> +or excitants from the outer world. This action of external +impressions which are appropriated by the internal powers is the first +fundamental process in the genesis of the completed mind. If the +union of impression and faculty be sufficiently strong, consciousness +(not <i>self</i>-consciousness) arises, and definite sensations and +perceptions begin to be formed. These primitive sensations, however, +are not to be identified with the sensations of the special senses, +for each of these senses is a system of many powers which have grown +into a definite unity, have been educated by experience. From ordinary +experience it must be concluded that a second fundamental process +is incessantly going on, viz. the formation of new powers, which +takes place principally during sleep. The third and most important +process results from the fact that the combination between stimulus +and power may be weak or strong; if weak, then the two elements +are said to be movable, and they may flow over from one to another +of the already formed psychical products. Any formed faculty +does not cease to exist on the removal of its stimulus; in virtue of +its fundamental property, <i>tenacity</i>, it sinks back as a trace +(<i>Spur</i>) into unconsciousness, whence it may be recalled by the +application to it of another stimulus, or by the attraction towards +it of some of the movable elements or newly-formed original powers. +These traces and the flowing over of the movable elements are the most +important conceptions in Beneke’s psychology; by means of them +he gives a rationale of reproduction and association, and strives to +show that all the formed faculties are simply developments from +traces of earlier processes. Lastly, similar forms, according to the +degree of their similarity, attract one another or tend to form closer +combinations.</p> + +<p>All psychical phenomena are explicable by the relation of impression +and power, and by the flow of movable elements; the whole +process of mental development is nothing but the result of the action +and interaction of the above simple laws. In general this growth +may be said to take the direction of rendering more and more definite +by repetition and attraction of like to like the originally indefinite +activities of the primary faculties. Thus the sensations of the +special senses are gradually formed from the primary sensuous feelings +(<i>sinnliche Empfindungen</i>); concepts are formed from intuitions +of individuals by the attraction of the common elements, and +the consequent flow towards them of movable forms. Judgment is +the springing into consciousness of a concept alongside of an +intuition, or of a higher concept alongside of a lower. Reasoning is +merely a more complex judgment. Nor are there special faculties +of judging or reasoning. The understanding is simply the mass of +concepts lying in the background of unconsciousness, ready to be +called up and to flow with force towards anything closely connected +with them. Even memory is not a special faculty; it is simply the +fundamental property of tenacity possessed by the original faculties. +The very distinction between the great classes, Knowledge, Feeling +and Will, may be referred to elementary differences in the original +relations of faculty and impression.</p> + +<p>This is the groundwork of Beneke’s philosophy. It should be +carefully compared with the association psychology of modern +British thinkers, most of whose results and processes will be found +there worked into a comprehensive system (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Association of +Ideas</a></span>). In logic, metaphysics and ethics Beneke’s speculations +are naturally dependent on his psychology.</p> + +<p>The special value of Beneke’s works, as has been already said, +consists in the many specimens of acute psychological analysis +scattered throughout them. As a complete explanation of psychical +facts, the theory seems defective. The original hypotheses, peculiar +to Beneke, on which the whole depends, are hastily assumed and +rest on a clumsy mechanical metaphor. As is the case with all +empirical theories of mental development, the higher categories +or notions, which are apparently shown to result from the simple +elements, are really presupposed at every step. Particularly +unsatisfactory is the account of consciousness, which is said to arise +from the union of impression and faculty. The necessity of +consciousness for any mental action whatsoever is apparently granted, +but the conditions involved in it are never discussed or mentioned. +The same defect appears in the account of ethical judgment; no +amount of empirical fact can ever yield the notion of absolute duty. +His results have found acceptance mainly with practical teachers. +Undoubtedly his minute analysis of temperament and careful +exposition of the means whereby the young, unformed mind may be +trained are of infinite value; but the truth of many of his doctrines +on these points lends no support to the fundamental hypotheses, +from which, indeed, they might be almost entirely severed.</p> + +<p>Beneke was a most prolific writer, and besides the works mentioned +above, published large treatises in the several departments of +philosophy, both pure and as applied to education and ordinary +life. A complete list of his writings will be found in the appendix +to Dressler’s edition of the <i>Lehrbuch der Psychologie als +Naturwissenschaft</i> (1861). +The chief are:—<i>Psychologische Skizzen</i> (1825, 1827); +<i>Lehrbuch der Psychologie</i> (1832); +<i>Metaphysik und Religionsphilosophie</i> (1840); +<i>Die neue Psychologie</i> (1845); <i>Pragmatische Psychologie +oder Seelenlehre in der Anwendung auf das Leben</i> (1832).</p> + +<p>Among German writers, who, though not professed followers of +Beneke, have been largely influenced by him, may be mentioned +Ueberweg and Karl Fortlage (1806-1881). In England, perhaps, +the only writer who shows traces of acquaintance with his works +is J.D. Morell (<i>Introd. to Mental Philosophy</i>). The most eminent +members of the school are J.G. Dressler (whose <i>Beneke oder +Seelenlehre als Naturwissenschaft</i> is an admirable exposition), +Fried. Dittes and G. Raue. The compendium by the last-named author +passed through four editions in Germany, and has been translated into +French, Flemish and English. The English translation, <i>Elements +of Psychology</i> (1871), gives a lucid and succinct view of the whole +system.</p> + +<p>Among more recent works on Beneke are O.E. Hummel, <i>Die +Unterrichtslehre Benekes</i> (Leipzig, 1885); on his ethical theory, +C.H.Th. Kühn, <i>Die Sittenlehre F.E. Benekes</i> (1892); +Joh. Friedrich, <i>F.E. Beneke</i> (Wiesbaden, 1898, +with biography and list of works); +Otto Gramzow, <i>F.E. Benekes Leben und Philos.</i> (Bern, 1899, +with full bibliography); on his theory of knowledge, +H. Renner, <i>Benekes Erkenninistheorie</i> (Halle, 1902); +on his metaphysics, <i>Die Metaphysik Benekes</i>, +by A. Wandschneider (Berlin, 1903); +Brandt, <i>Beneke, the Man and His Philosophy</i> (New York, 1895); +Falckenberg, <i>Hist. of Phil.</i> (Eng. trans., 1895); +and H. Höffding, <i>Hist. of Mod. Phil.</i> vol. ii. +(Eng. trans., 1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ad.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENETT, ETHELDRED<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1776-1845), one of the earliest of +English women geologists, the second daughter of Thomas +Benett, of Pyt House near Tisbury, was born in 1776. Later +she resided at Norton House, near Warminster, in Wiltshire, +and for more than a quarter of a century devoted herself to +collecting and studying the fossils of her native county. She +contributed “A Catalogue of the Organic Remains of the County of +Wilts” to Sir R.C. Hoare’s <i>County History</i>, and a limited +number of copies of this work were printed as a separate volume (1831) +and privately distributed. She died on the 11th of January 1845.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEVENTO,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, +Italy, capital of the province of Benevento, 60 m. by rail and +32 m. direct N.E. of Naples, situated on a hill 400 ft. above +sea-level at the confluence of the Calore and Sabbato. Pop. +(1901) town, 17,227; commune, 24,137. It occupies the site of +the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or Maluentum, +supposed in the imperial period to have been founded by Diomedes. +It was the chief town of the Samnites, who took refuge +here after their defeat by the Romans in 314 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It appears not +to have fallen into the hands of the latter until Pyrrhus’s absence +in Sicily, but served them as a base of operations in the last +campaign against him in 275 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> A Latin colony was planted +there in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it was then that the name was changed for +the sake of the omen, and probably then that the Via Appia was +extended from Capua to Beneventum. It remained in the hands +of the Romans during both the Punic and the Social Wars, and +was a fortress of importance to them. The position is strong, +being protected by the two rivers mentioned, and the medieval +fortifications, which are nearly 2 m. in length, probably follow +the ancient line, which was razed to the ground by Totila in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span> +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 542. After the Social War it became a <i>municipium</i> and +under Augustus a colony. Being a meeting point of six main +roads,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> it was much visited by travellers. Its importance is +vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses, +of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour +of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114, with +important reliefs relating to its history (E. Petersen in +<i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1892, 241; A. von Domaszewzki in +<i>Jahreshefte des Österreich. archäologischen Instituts</i>, ii., 1899, 173). +There are also considerable remains of the ancient theatre, a +large <i>cryptoporticus</i> 197 ft. long known as the ruins of Santi +Quaranta, and probably an emporium (according to Meomartini, +the portion preserved is only a fraction of the whole, which once +measured 1791 ft. in length) and an ancient brick arch (called +the Arco del Sacramento), while below the town is the Ponte +Lebroso, a bridge of the Via Appia over the Sabbato, and along +the road to Avellino are remains of <i>thermae</i>. Many inscriptions +and ancient fragments may be seen built into the houses; in +front of the Madonna delle Grazie is a bull in red Egyptian +granite, and in the Piazza Papiniano the fragments of two +Egyptian obelisks erected in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 88 in front of the temple of +Isis in honour of Domitian. In 1903 the foundations of this +temple were discovered close to the Arch of Trajan, and many +fragments of fine sculptures in both the Egyptian and the +Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had +apparently been used as the foundation of a portion of the city +wall, reconstructed in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 663 under the fear of an attack by +Constans, the Byzantine emperor, the temple having been +destroyed under the influence of the bishop, St Barbatus, to +provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini, O. Marucchi +and L. Savignoni in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1904, 107 sqq.). Not +long after it had been sacked by Totila Benevento became the +seat of a powerful Lombard duchy and continued to be independent +until 1053, when the emperor Henry III. ceded it to +Leo IX. in exchange for the bishopric of Bamberg; and it +continued to be a papal possession until 1806, when Napoleon +granted it to Talleyrand with the title of prince. In 1815 it +returned to the papacy, but was united to Italy in 1860. Manfred +lost his life in 1266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far from +the town. Much damage has been done by earthquakes from +time to time. The church of S. Sofia, a circular edifice of about +760, now modernized, the roof of which is supported by six +ancient columns, is a relic of the Lombard period; it has a fine +cloister of the 12th century constructed in part of fragments of +earlier buildings; while the cathedral with its fine arcaded +façade and incomplete square campanile (begun in 1279) dates +from the 9th century and was rebuilt in 1114. The bronze doors, +adorned with bas-reliefs, are good; they may belong to the +beginning of the 13th century. The interior is in the form of a +basilica, the double aisles being borne by ancient columns, and +contains <i>ambones</i> and a candelabrum of 1311, the former resting +on columns supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and +coloured marble mosaic. The castle at the highest point of the +town was erected in the 14th century.</p> + +<p>Benevento is a station on the railway from Naples to Foggia, +and has branch lines to Campobasso and to Avellino.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Meomartini, <i>Monumenti e opere d’Arte di Benevento</i> (Benevento, +1899); T. Ashby, <i>Mélanges de l’école française</i>, 1903, 416.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These were (1) the prolongation of the Via Appia from Capua, +(2) its continuation to Tarentum and Brundisium, of which there +were two different lines between Beneventum and Aquilonia at +different dates (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appia, Via</a></span>), (3) the Via Traiana to Brundisium +by Herdoniae, (4) the road to Telesia and Aesernia, (5) the road +to Aesernia by Bovianum, (6) the road to Abellinum and Salernum.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENEVOLENCE<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (Lat. <i>bene</i>, well, and <i>volens</i>, wishing), a term +for an act of kindness, or a gift of money, or goods, but used in a +special sense to indicate sums of money, disguised as gifts, which +were extorted by various English kings from their subjects, +without consent of parliament. Among the numerous methods +which have been adopted by sovereigns everywhere to obtain +support from their people, that of demanding gifts has frequently +found a place, and consequently it is the word and not the method +which is peculiar to English history. Edward II. and Richard II. +had obtained funds by resorting to forced loans, a practice which +was probably not unusual in earlier times. Edward IV., however, +discarded even the pretence of repayment, and in 1473 the word +<i>benevolence</i> was first used with reference to a royal demand for a +gift. Edward was very successful in these efforts, and as they +only concerned a limited number of persons he did not incur +serious unpopularity. But when Richard III. sought to emulate +his brother’s example, protests were made which led to the +passing of an act of parliament in 1484 abolishing benevolences +as “new and unlawful inventions.” About the same time the +Chronicle of Croyland referred to a benevolence as a “nova et +inaudita impositio muneris ut per benevolentiam quilibet daret +id quod vellet, immo verius quod nollet.” In spite of this act +Richard demanded a further benevolence; but it was Henry VII. +who made the most extensive use of this system. In 1491 he sent +out commissioners to obtain gifts of money, and in 1496 an act +of parliament enforced payment of the sums promised on this +occasion under penalty of imprisonment. Henry’s chancellor, +Cardinal Morton, archbishop of Canterbury, was the traditional +author of a method of raising money by benevolences known as +“Morton’s Fork.” If a man lived economically, it was reasoned +he was saving money and could afford a present for the king. If, +on the contrary, he lived sumptuously, he was evidently wealthy +and could likewise afford a gift. Henry VII. obtained considerable +sums of money in this manner; and in 1545 Henry VIII. +demanded a “loving contribution” from all who possessed lands +worth not less than forty shillings a year, or chattels to the value +of £15; and those who refused to make payment were summoned +before the privy council and punished. Elizabeth took loans +which were often repaid; and in 1614 James I. ordered the +sheriffs and magistrates in each county and borough to collect a +general benevolence from all persons of ability, and with some +difficulty about £40,000 was collected. Four counties had, however, +distinguished themselves by protests against this demand, +and the act of Richard III. had been cited by various objectors. +Representatives from the four counties were accordingly called +before the privy council, where Sir Edward Coke defended the +action of the king, quoted the Tudor precedents and urged that +the act of 1484 was to prevent exactions, not voluntary gifts such +as James had requested. Subsequently Oliver St John was fined +and imprisoned for making a violent protest against the benevolence, +and on the occasion of his trial Sir Francis Bacon defended +the request for money as voluntary. In 1615 an attempt to exact +a benevolence in Ireland failed, and in 1620 it was decided to +demand one for the defence of the Palatinate. Circular letters +were sent out, punishments were inflicted, but many excuses were +made and only about £34,000 was contributed. In 1621 a further +attempt was made, judges of assize and others were ordered to +press for contributions, and wealthy men were called before the +privy council and asked to name a sum at which to be rated. +About £88,000 was thus raised, and in 1622 William Fiennes, 1st +Viscount Saye and Sele, was imprisoned for six months for +protesting. This was the last time benevolences were actually +collected, although in 1622 and 1625 it was proposed to raise +money in this manner. In 1633 Charles I. consented to collect +a benevolence for the recovery of the Palatinate for Charles +Louis, the son of his sister Elizabeth, but no further steps were +taken to carry out the project.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. iii. (Oxford, +1895); H. Hallam, <i>Constitutional History of England</i>, vol. i. (London, +1855); T.P. Taswell-Langmead, <i>English Constitutional History</i> +(London, 1896); S.R. Gardiner, <i>History of England, passim</i> (London, +1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENFEY, THEODOR<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (1809-1881), German philologist, son of +a Jewish trader at Nörten, near Göttingen, was born on the 28th +of January 1809. Although originally designed for the medical +profession, his taste for philology was awakened by a careful +instruction in Hebrew which he received from his father. After +brilliant studies at Göttingen he spent a year at Munich, where +he was greatly impressed by the lectures of Schelling and Thiersch, +and afterwards settled as a teacher in Frankfort. His pursuits +were at first chiefly classical, and his attention was diverted to +Sanskrit by an accidental wager that he would learn enough of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +the language in a few weeks to be able to review a new book upon +it. This feat he accomplished, and rivalled in later years when +he learned Russian in order to translate V.P. Vasilev’s work on +Buddhism. For the time, however, his labours were chiefly in +classical and Semitic philology. At Göttingen, whither he had +returned as privat-docent, he wrote a little work on the names of +the Hebrew months, proving that they were derived from the +Persian, prepared the great article on India in Ersch and Grüber’s +<i>Encyclopaedia</i>, and published from 1839 to 1842 the <i>Lexicon of +Greek Roots</i> which gained him the Volney prize of the Institute +of France. From this time his attention was principally given +to Sanskrit. He published in 1848 his edition of the <i>Sāma-veda</i>; +in 1852-1854 his <i>Manual of Sanskrit</i>, comprising a grammar and +chrestomathy; in 1858 his practical Sanskrit grammar, afterwards +translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the +<i>Pantscha Tantra</i>, with an extensive dissertation on the fables +and mythologies of primitive nations. All these works had been +produced under the pressure of poverty, the government, +whether from parsimony or from prejudice against a Jew, +refusing to make any substantial addition to his small salary +as extra-professor at the university. At length, in 1862, the +growing appreciation of foreign scholars shamed it into making +him an ordinary professor, and in 1866 Benfey published the +laborious work by which he is on the whole best known, his +great <i>Sanskrit-English Dictionary</i>. In 1869 he wrote a history +of German philological research, especially Oriental, during the +19th century. In 1878 his jubilee as doctor was celebrated by +the publication of a volume of philological essays dedicated to +him and written by the first scholars in Germany. He had +designed to close his literary labours by a grammar of Vedic +Sanskrit, and was actively preparing it when he was interrupted +by illness, which terminated in his death at Göttingen on the +26th of June 1881.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A collection of his various writings was published in 1890, prefaced +by a memoir by his son.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENGAL,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> a province of British India, bounded on the E. by +the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, the boundary line +being the Madhumati river and the Ganges; on the S. by the +Bay of Bengal and Madras; on the W. by the Central Provinces +and United Provinces; and on the N. by Nepal and Sikkim. +It has an area of 141,580 sq. m. and a population of 54,096,806. +It consists of the provinces of Behar, Orissa and Chota Nagpur, +and the western portion of the Ganges valley, but without the +provinces of Northern and Eastern Bengal; and is divided into +the six British divisions of the presidency, Bhagalpur, Patna, +Burdwan, Chota Nagpur and Orissa, and various native states. +The province was reconstituted in 1905, when the Chittagong, +Dacca and Rajshahi divisions, the district of Malda and the state +of Hill Tippera were transferred from Bengal to a new province, +Eastern Bengal and Assam; the five Hindi-speaking states of +Chota Nagpur, namely Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur +and Jashpur, were transferred from Bengal to the Central +Provinces; and Sambalpur and the five Oriya states of Bamra, +Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from +the Central Provinces to Bengal. The province of Bengal, +therefore, now consists of the thirty-three British districts of +Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli, Howrah, +Twenty-four Parganas, Calcutta, Nadia, Murshidabad, Jessore, +Khulna, Patna, Gaya, Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur, +Darbhanga, Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Santal +Parganas, Cuttack, Balasore, Angul and Khondmals, Puri, +Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum, Singhbum and +Sambalpur, and the native states of Sikkim and the tributary +states of Orissa and Chota Nagpur.</p> + +<p>The name Bengal is derived from Sanskrit geography, and +applies strictly to the country stretching southwards from +Bhagalpur to the sea. The ancient Banga formed one of the five +outlying kingdoms of Aryan India, and was practically conterminous +with the delta of Bengal. It derived its name, according +to the etymology of the Pundits, from a prince of the Mahabharata, +to whose portion it fell on the primitive partition of the +country among the Lunar race of Delhi. But a city called +Bangala, near Chittagong, which, although now washed away, +is supposed to have existed in the Mahommedan period, appears +to have given the name to the European world. The word +Bangala was first used by the Mussulmans; and under their rule, +like the Banga of old Sanskrit times, it applied specifically to +the Gangetic delta, although the later conquests to the east of +the Brahmaputra were eventually included within it. In their +distribution of the country for fiscal purposes, it formed the +central province of a governorship, with Behar on the north-west, +and Orissa on the south-west, jointly ruled by one deputy of the +Delhi emperor. Under the English the name has at different +periods borne very different significations. Francis Fernandez +applies it to the country from the extreme east of Chittagong +to Point Palmyras in Orissa, with a coast line which Purchas +estimates at 600 m., running inland for the same distance and +watered by the Ganges. This territory would include the +Mahommedan province of Bengal, with parts of Behar and +Orissa. The loose idea thus derived from old voyagers became +stereotyped in the archives of the East India Company. All its +north-eastern factories, from Balasore, on the Orissa coast, to +Patna, in the heart of Behar, belonged to the “Bengal Establishment,” +and as British conquests crept higher up the rivers, +the term came to be applied to the whole of northern India. +The presidency of Bengal, in contradistinction to those of Madras +and Bombay, eventually included all the British territories +north of the Central Provinces, from the mouths of the Ganges +and Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. In 1831 +the North-Western Provinces were created, which are now +included with Oudh in the United Provinces; and the whole +of northern India is now divided into the four lieutenant-governorships +of the Punjab, the United Provinces, Bengal, and +Eastern Bengal and Assam, and the North-West Frontier Province +under a commissioner.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Geography</i>.—Three sub-provinces of the present +lieutenant-governorship of Bengal—namely, Bengal proper, +Behar and Orissa—consist of great river valleys; the fourth, +Chota Nagpur, is a mountainous region which separates them +from the central India plateau. Orissa embraces the rich deltas +of the Mahanadi and the neighbouring rivers, bounded by the +Bay of Bengal on the S.E., and walled in on the N.W. by tributary +hill states. Proceeding west, the sub-province of Bengal proper +stretches to the banks of the Ganges and inland from the sea-board +to the Himalayas. Its southern portion is formed by the +delta of the Ganges; its northern consists of the Ganges valley. +Behar lies on the north-west of Bengal proper, and comprises, +the higher valley of the Ganges from the spot where it issues +from the United Provinces. Between Behar and Orissa lies the +province of Chota Nagpur, of which a portion was given in 1905 +to the Central Provinces. The valley of the Ganges, which is +now divided between Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam, +is one of the most fertile and densely-populated tracts of country +in the world. It teems with every product of nature. Tea, +indigo, turmeric, lac, waving white fields of the opium-poppy, +wheat and innumerable grains and pulses, pepper, ginger, betel-nut, +quinine and many costly spices and drugs, oil-seeds of sorts, +cotton, the silk mulberry, inexhaustible crops of jute and other +fibres; timber, from the feathery bamboo and coroneted palm +to the iron-hearted <i>sál</i> tree—in short, every vegetable product +which feeds and clothes a people, and enables it to trade with +foreign nations, abounds. Nor is the country destitute of mineral +wealth. The districts near the sea consist entirely of alluvial +formations; and, indeed, it is stated that no substance so coarse +as gravel occurs throughout the delta, or in the heart of the +provinces within 400 m. of the river mouths.</p> + +<p>The climate varies from the snowy regions of the Himalayas +to the tropical vapour-bath of the delta and the burning winds +of Behar. The ordinary range of the thermometer, +<span class="sidenote">Climate.</span> +on the plains is from about 52° F. in the coldest +month to 103° in the shade in summer. A temperature below +60° is considered very cold, while with care the temperature of +well-built houses rarely exceeds 95° in the hot weather. The +rainfall varies from 37 in. in Behar to about 65 in. in the delta.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span></p> + +<p>Lower Bengal exhibits the two typical stages in the life of a +great river. In the northern districts the rivers run along the +valleys, receive the drainage from the country on +either side, absorb broad tributaries and rush forward +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +with an ever-increasing volume. But near the centre of the +provinces the rivers enter upon a new stage of their career. +Their main channels bifurcate, and each new stream so created +throws off its own set of distributaries to right and left. The +country which they thus enclose and intersect forms the delta +of Bengal. Originally conquered by the fluvial deposits from the +sea, it now stretches out as a vast dead level, in which the rivers +find their velocity checked, and their current no longer able to +carry along the silt which they have brought down from northern +India. The streams, accordingly, deposit their alluvial burden +in their channels and upon their banks, so that by degrees their +beds rise above the level of the surrounding country. In this +way the rivers in the delta slowly build themselves up into +canals, which every autumn break through or overflow their +margins, and leave their silt upon the adjacent flats. Thousands +of square miles in Lower Bengal annually receive a top-dressing +of virgin soil from the Himalayas,—a system of natural manuring +which renders elaborate tillage a waste of labour, and defies the +utmost power of over-cropping to exhaust its fertility. As the +rivers creep farther down the delta, they become more and more +sluggish, and their bifurcations and interfacings more complicated. +The last scene of all is a vast amphibious wilderness of swamp +and forest, amid whose solitudes their network of channels +insensibly merges into the sea. The rivers, finally checked by +the sea, deposit their remaining silt, which emerges as banks +or blunted promontories, or, after a year’s battling with the +tide, adds a few feet or it may be a few inches to the foreshore.</p> + +<p>The Ganges gives to the country its peculiar character and +aspect. About 200 m. from its mouth it spreads out into +numerous branches, forming a large delta, composed, where it +borders on the sea, of a labyrinth of creeks and rivers, running +through the dense forests of the Sundarbans, and exhibiting +during the annual inundation the appearance of an immense sea. +At this time the rice fields to the extent of many hundreds of +square miles are submerged. The scene presents to a European +eye a panorama of singular novelty and interest—rice fields +covered with water to a great depth; the ears of grain floating +on the surface; the stupendous embankments, which restrain +without altogether preventing the excesses of the inundations; +and peasants going out to their daily work with their cattle in +canoes or on rafts. The navigable streams which fall into the +Ganges intersect the country in every direction and afford great +facilities for internal communication. In many parts boats can +approach by means of lakes, rivulets and water-courses to the +door of almost every cottage. The lower region of the Ganges +is the richest and most productive portion of Bengal, abounding +in valuable produce. The other principal rivers in Bengal are +the Sone, Gogra, Gandak, Kusi, Tista; the Hugli, formed by the +junction of the Bhagirathi and Jalangi, and farther to the west, +the Damodar and Rupnarayan; and in the south-west, the Mahanadi +or great river of Orissa. In a level country like Bengal, where +the soil is composed of yielding and loose materials, the courses +of the rivers are continually shifting from the wearing +away of their different banks, or from the water being turned +off by obstacles in its course into a different channel. As this +channel is gradually widened the old bed of the river is left dry. +The new channel into which the river flows is of course so much +land lost, while the old bed constitutes an accession to the +adjacent estates. Thus, one man’s property is diminished, +while that of another is enlarged or improved; and a distinct +branch of jurisprudence has grown up, the particular province +of which is the definition and regulation of the alluvial rights +alike of private property and of the state.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The greater part of Bengal is occupied by the +alluvial deposits of the Ganges, but in the south-west rises the +plateau of Chota Nagpur composed chiefly of gneissic rocks. +The great thickness of the Gangetic alluvium is shown by a +borehole at Calcutta which was carried to a depth of about +460 ft. below the present level of the sea without entering any +marine deposit. Over the surface of the gneissic rocks are +scattered numerous basins of Gondwana beds. Some of these +are undoubtedly faulted into their present positions, and to this +they owe their preservation. In the Rajmahal Hills basaltic +lava flows are interbedded with the Gondwana deposits, and in +the Karharbari coalfield the Gondwana beds are traversed by +dikes of mica-peridotite and basalt, which are supposed to be of +the same age as the Rajmahal lavas. The Gondwana series is +economically of great importance. It includes numerous seams +of coal, many of which are worked on an extensive scale (at +Giridih, Raniganj, &c.). The quality of the coal is good, but +unfortunately it contains a large amount of ash, the average +being as high as 17%.</p> + +<p><i>People.</i>—In the sub-provinces under the lieutenant-governor +of Bengal dwell a great congeries of peoples, of widely diverse +origin, speaking different languages and representing far +separated eras of civilization. The province, in fact, became so +unwieldy that this was the chief reason for its partition in 1905. +The people exhibit every stage of human progress, and every +type of human enlightenment and superstition from the educated +classes to primitive hill tribes. On the same bench of a Calcutta +college sit youths trained up in the strictest theism, others +indoctrinated in the mysteries of the Hindu trinity and pantheon, +with representatives of every link in the chain of superstition—from +the harmless offering of flowers before the family god to +the cruel rites of Kali, whose altars in the most civilized districts +of Bengal, as lately as the famine of 1866, were stained with +human blood. Indeed, the very word Hindu is one of absolutely +indeterminate meaning. The census officers employ it as a +convenient generic to include 42 millions of the population of +Bengal, comprising elements of transparently distinct ethnical +origin, and separated from each other by their language, customs +and religious rites. But Hinduism, understood even in this wide +sense, represents only one of many creeds and races found within +Bengal. The other great historical cultus, which during the +last twelve centuries did for the Semitic peoples what +Christianity accomplished among the European Aryans, has won to +itself one-fifth of the population of Bengal. The Mahommedans +number some 9,000,000 in Bengal, but the great bulk of their +numbers was transferred to Eastern Bengal and Assam. They +consist largely of the original inhabitants of the country, who +were proselytized by the successive Pathan and Mogul invasions. +In the face of great natural catastrophes, such as river inundations, +famines, tidal waves and cyclones of the lower provinces +of Bengal, the religious instinct works with a vitality unknown +in European countries. Until the British government stepped +in with its police and canals and railroads, between the people +and what they were accustomed to consider the dealings of +Providence, scarcely a year passed without some terrible +manifestation of the power and the wrath of God. Mahratta invasions +from central India, piratical devastations on the sea-board, +banditti who marched about the interior in bodies of 50,000 men, +floods which drowned the harvests of whole districts, and +droughts in which a third of the population starved to death, +kept alive a sense of human powerlessness in the presence of an +omnipotent fate. Under the Mahommedans a pestilence turned +the capital into a silent wilderness, never again to be re-peopled. +Under British rule it is estimated that 10 millions perished +within the Lower Provinces alone in the famine of 1769-1770; +and the first surveyor-general of Bengal entered on his maps a +tract of many hundreds of square miles as bare of villages and +“depopulated by the Maghs.” But since the advent of British +administration the history of Bengal has substantially been a +record of prosperity; the teeming population of its river valleys +is one of the densest in the world, and the purely agricultural +districts of Saran and Muzaffarpur in the Patna division support +over 900 persons to the square mile, a number hardly surpassed +elsewhere except in urban areas.</p> + +<p><i>Language.</i>—Excluding immigrants the languages spoken by +the people of Bengal belong to one or other of four linguistic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +families—Aryan, Dravidian, Munda and Tibeto-Burman. Of +these the languages of the Aryan family are by far the most +important, being spoken by no less than 95% of the population +according to the census of 1901. The Aryan languages are spoken +in the plains by almost the whole population; the Munda and +Dravidian in the Chota Nagpur plateau and adjoining tracts; +and the Tibeto-Burman in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Jalpaiguri. +The most important Aryan languages are Bengali (<i>q.v.</i>), Bihari, +Eastern Hindi and Oriya. On the average in the province, +before partition, out of every 1000 persons 528 spoke Bengali, +341 Hindi and Bihari, and 79 Oriya. As a rule Bengali is the +language of Bengal proper, Hindi of Behar and Chota Nagpur, +and Oriya of Orissa.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The staple crop of the province is rice, to which +about 66% of the cropped area is devoted. There are three +harvests in the year—the <i>boro</i>, or spring rice; <i>áus</i>, or autumn +rice; and <i>áman</i>, or winter rice. Of these the last or winter rice +is by far the most extensively cultivated, and forms the great +harvest of the year. The <i>áman</i> crop is grown on low land. In +May, after the first fall of rain, a nursery ground is ploughed +three times, and the seed scattered broadcast. When the seedlings +make their appearance another field is prepared for transplanting. +By this time the rainy season has thoroughly set in, +and the field is dammed up so as to retain the water. It is then +repeatedly ploughed until the water becomes worked into the +soil, and the whole reduced to thick mud. The young rice is then +taken from the nursery, and transplanted in rows about 9 in. apart. +<i>Áman</i> rice is much more extensively cultivated than <i>áus</i>, +and in favourable years is the most valuable crop, but being +sown in low lands is liable to be destroyed by excessive rainfall. +Harvest takes place in December or January. <i>Áus</i> rice is +generally sown on high ground. The field is ploughed when the +early rains set in, ten or twelve times over, till the soil is reduced +nearly to dust, the seed being sown broadcast in April or May. +As soon as the young plants reach 6 in. in height, the land is +harrowed for the purpose of thinning the crop and to clear it of +weeds. The crop is harvested in August or September. <i>Boro</i>, or +spring rice, is cultivated on low marshy land, being sown in a +nursery in October, transplanted a month later, and harvested +in March and April. An indigenous description of rice, called <i>uri</i> +or <i>jaradhán</i>, grows in certain marshy tracts. The grain is very +small, and is gathered for consumption only by the poorest. +Wheat forms an important food staple in Behar, whence there is +a considerable export to Calcutta. Oil-seeds are very largely +grown, particularly in Behar. The principal oil-seeds are <i>sarisha</i> +(mustard), <i>til</i> (sesamum) and <i>lisi</i> or <i>masina</i> (linseed). +Jute (<i>pat</i> or <i>kosta</i>) forms a very important commercial staple +of Bengal. The cultivation of this crop has rapidly increased of late years. +Its principal seat of cultivation, however, is Eastern Bengal, +where the superior varieties are grown. The crop grows on +either high or low lands, is sown in April and cut in August. +Apart from the quantity exported and the quantity made up by +hand, it supports a prosperous mill industry, chiefly in the +neighbourhood of Calcutta and Howrah. In 1905 there were thirty-six +jute mills in the province and 2¼ million acres were cropped. +The value of jute and of the goods manufactured from it +represents more than a third of the aggregate value of the trade +of Calcutta. Indigo used to be an important crop carried on +with European capital in Behar, but of late years the industry +has almost been destroyed by the invention of artificial indigo. +Tea cultivation is the other great industry carried on by European +capital, but that is chiefly confined to Assam, the industry in +Darjeeling and the Dwars being on a small scale. Opium is +grown in Behar with its head station at Patna. The cultivation +of the cinchona plant in Bengal was introduced as an experiment +about 1862, and is grown on government plantations in Darjeeling.</p> + +<p><i>Mineral Products.</i>—The chief mineral product in Bengal is coal, +which disputes with the gold of Mysore for the place of premier +importance in the mining industries of India. The most important +mine in point of area, accessibility and output is Raniganj, +with an area of 500 sq. m. Another of rising importance is that of +Jherria, with an area of 200 sq. m., which is situated only 16 m. to +the west of Raniganj; while Daltonganj also has an area of 200 +sq. m. The small coalfield of Karharbari with an area of only +11 sq. m. yields the best coal in Bengal. Besides these four +coalfields there are twenty-five others of various sizes, which are +only in the initial stages of development.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—The sea-borne trade of Bengal is almost entirely +concentrated at Calcutta (<i>q.v.</i>), which also serves as the chief port +for Eastern Bengal and Assam, and for the United Provinces. +The principal imports are cotton piece goods, railway materials, +metals and machinery, oils, sugar, cotton, twist and salt; and the +principal exports are jute, tea, hides, opium, rice, oil-seeds, indigo +and lac. The inter-provincial trade is mostly carried on with +Eastern Bengal and Assam, the United Provinces and the Central +Provinces. From the United Provinces come opium, hides, raw +cotton, wheat, shellac and oil-seeds; and from Assam, tea, +oil-seeds and jute. The frontier trade of Bengal is registered +with Nepal, Sikkim, Tibet and Bhutan, but except with Nepal +the amount is insignificant.</p> + +<p><i>Railways.</i>—Bengal is well supplied with railways, which +naturally have the seaport of Calcutta as the centre of the system. +South of the Ganges, the East Indian follows the river from the +North-Western Provinces, with its terminus at Howrah on the +Hugli, opposite Calcutta. A chord line passes by the coalfield of +Raniganj, which enables this great railway to be worked more +economically than any other in India. The Bengal-Nagpur, +from the Central Provinces, also has its terminus at Howrah, +and the section of this railway through Midnapore carries the East +Coast line from Madras. North of the Ganges the Eastern +Bengal runs north to Darjeeling, and maintains a service of river +steamers on the Brahmaputra. The Bengal Central serves the +lower Gangetic delta. Both of these have their termini at Sealdah, +an eastern suburb of Calcutta. Northern Behar is traversed by +the Bengal & North-Western, with an extension eastwards +through Tirhoot to join the Eastern Bengal. In addition there +are a few light lines and steam tramways.</p> + +<p><i>Canals and Rivers.</i>—Rivers and other waterways still carry a +large part of the traffic of Bengal, especially in the delta. The +government maintains two channels through the Sundarbans, +known as the Calcutta and Eastern canals, and likewise does its +best to keep open the Nadiya rivers, which form the communication +between the main stream of the Ganges and the Hugli. +There is further a route by water between Calcutta and Midnapore. +The most important canals, those in Orissa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahanadi</a></span>) and +on the Sone river in southern Behar, have been constructed +primarily for irrigation, though they are also used for navigation. +Except as a protection against famine, expenditure on irrigation +is not remunerative in Bengal, on account of the abundance of +rivers, and the general dampness of the climate.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—The administration of Bengal is conducted +by a lieutenant-governor, with a chief secretary, two secretaries +and three under-secretaries. There is no executive council, as in +Madras and Bombay; but there is a board of revenue, consisting +of two members. For legislative purposes the lieutenant-governor +has a council of twenty members, of whom not more +than ten may be officials. Of the remaining members seven are +nominated on the recommendation of the Calcutta corporation, +groups of municipalities, groups of district boards, selected public +associations and the senate of Calcutta university. The number +of divisions or commissionerships is 6, of which Chota Nagpur +ranks as “non-regulation.” The number of districts is 33.</p> + +<p><i>Army.</i>—In Lord Kitchener’s reconstitution of the Indian +army in 1904 the old Bengal command was abolished and its +place taken by the Eastern army corps, which includes all the +troops from Meerut to Assam. The boundaries of the 8th +division include those of the former Oudh, Allahabad, Assam +and Presidency districts; and the troops now quartered in +Bengal only consist of the Presidency brigade with its headquarters +at Fort William.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The history of so large a province as Bengal forms +an integral part of the general history of India. The northern +part, Behar (<i>q.v.</i>), constituted the ancient kingdom of Magadha, +the nucleus of the imperial power of the successive great dynasties +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +of the Mauryas, Andhras and Guptas; and its chief town, Patna, +is the ancient Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), once +the capital of India. The Delta or southern part of Bengal lay +beyond the ancient Sanskrit polity, and was governed by a +number of local kings belonging to a pre-Aryan stock. The +Chinese travellers, Fa Hien in the 5th century, and Hsüan +Tsang in the 7th century, found the Buddhist religion prevailing +throughout Bengal, but already in a fierce struggle with +Hinduism—a struggle which ended about the 9th or 10th century +in the general establishment of the latter faith. Until the end +of the 12th century Hindu princes governed in a number of petty +principalities, till, in 1199, Mahommed Bakhtiyar Khilji was +appointed to lead the first Mussulman invasion into Bengal. +The Mahommedan conquest of Behar dates from 1197 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and +the new power speedily spread southwards into the delta. From +about this date until 1340 Bengal was ruled by governors +appointed by the Mahommedan emperors in the north. From +1340 to 1539 its governors asserted a precarious independence, +and arrogated the position of sovereigns on their own account. +From 1540 to 1576 Bengal passed under the rule of the Pathan +or Afghan dynasty, which commonly bears the name of Sher +Shah. On the overthrow of this house by the powerful arms of +Akbar, Bengal was incorporated into the Mogul empire, and +administered by governors appointed by the Delhi emperor, +until the treaties of 1765, which placed Bengal, Behar and +Orissa under the administration of the East India Company. +The Company formed its earliest settlements in Bengal in the +first half of the 17th century. These settlements were of a purely +commercial character. In 1620 one of the Company’s factors +dates from Patna; in 1624-1636 the Company established itself, +by the favour of the emperor, on the ruins of the ancient Portuguese +settlement of Pippli, in the north of Orissa; in 1640-1642 +an English surgeon, Gabriel Boughton, obtained establishments +at Balasore, also in Orissa, and at Hugli, some miles above +Calcutta. The vexations and extortions to which the Company’s +early agents were subjected more than once almost induced +them to abandon the trade, and in 1677-1678 they threatened +to withdraw from Bengal altogether. In 1685, the Bengal +factors, driven to extremity by the oppression of the Mogul +governors, threw down the gauntlet; and after various successes +and hairbreadth escapes, purchased from the grandson of +Aurangzeb, in 1696, the villages which have since grown up into +Calcutta, the metropolis of India. During the next fifty years +the British had a long and hazardous struggle alike with the +Mogul governors of the province and the Mahratta armies which +invaded it. In 1756 this struggle culminated in the great outrage +known as the Black Hole of Calcutta, followed by Clive’s battle +of Plassey and capture of Calcutta, which avenged it. That +battle, and the subsequent years of confused fighting, established +British military supremacy in Bengal, and procured the treaties +of 1765, by which the provinces of Bengal, Behar and Orissa +passed under British administration. To Warren Hastings +(1772-1785) belongs the glory of consolidating the British power, +and converting a military occupation into a stable civil government. +To another member of the civil service, John Shore, +afterwards Lord Teignmouth (1786-1793), is due the formation +of a regular system of Anglo-Indian legislation. Acting through +Lord Cornwallis, then governor-general, he ascertained and +defined the rights of the landholders in the soil. These landholders +under the native system had started, for the most part, +as collectors of the revenues, and gradually acquired certain +prescriptive rights as quasi-proprietors of the estates entrusted +to them by the government. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared +their rights perpetual, and made over the land of Bengal to the +previous quasi-proprietors or <i>zamíndárs</i>, on condition of the +payment of a fixed land tax. This piece of legislation is known +as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. But the +Cornwallis code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, +failed to give adequate recognition to the rights of the undertenants +and the cultivators. His Regulations formally reserved +the latter class of rights, but did not legally define them, or +enable the husbandmen to enforce them in the courts. After +half a century of rural disquiet, the rights of the cultivators +were at length carefully formulated by Act X. of 1859. This +measure, now known as the land law of Bengal, effected for the +rights of the under-holders and cultivators what the Cornwallis +code in 1793 had effected for those of the superior landholders. +The status of each class of persons interested in the soil, from +the government as suzerain, through the <i>zamíndárs</i> or superior +landholders, the intermediate tenure-holders and the undertenants, +down to the actual cultivator, is now clearly defined. +The act dates from the first year after the transfer of India from +the company to the crown; for the mutiny burst out in 1857. +The transactions of that revolt chiefly took place in northern +India, and are narrated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indian Mutiny</a></span>. In +Bengal the rising began at Barrackpore, was communicated +to Dacca in Eastern Bengal, and for a time raged in Behar, +producing the memorable defence of the billiard-room at Arrah +by a handful of civilians and Sikhs—one of the most splendid +pieces of gallantry in the history of the British arms. Since +1858, when the country passed to the crown, the history of Bengal +has been one of steady progress. Five great lines of railway +have been constructed. Trade has enormously expanded; new +centres of commerce have sprung up in spots which formerly +were silent jungles; new staples of trade, such as tea and jute, +have rapidly attained importance; and the coalfields and iron +ores have opened up prospects of a new and splendid era in the +internal development of the country.</p> + +<p>During the decade 1891-1901 Bengal was fortunate in escaping +to a great extent the two calamities of famine and plague which +afflicted central and western India. The drought of 1896-1897 +did indeed extend to Bengal, but not to such an extent as to +cause actual famine. The distress was most acute in the densely +populated districts of northern Behar, and in the remote hills +of Chota Nagpur. Plague first appeared at Calcutta in a sporadic +form in April 1898, but down to April of the following year the +total number of deaths ascribed to plague throughout the +province was less than 1000, compared with 191,000 for Bombay. +At the beginning of 1900, however, there was a serious recrudescence +of plague at Calcutta, and a malignant outbreak in the +district of Patna, which caused 1000 deaths a week. In the +early months of 1901, plague again appeared in the same regions. +The number of deaths in 1904 was 75,436, the highest recorded +up to that date.</p> + +<p>The earthquake of the 12th of June 1897, which had its centre +of disturbance in Assam, was felt throughout eastern and +northern Bengal. In all the large towns the masonry buildings +were severely damaged or totally wrecked. The permanent way +of the railways also suffered. The total number of deaths +returned was only 135. Far more destructive to life was the +cyclone and storm-wave that broke over Chittagong district on +the night of the 24th of October 1897. Apart from damage to +shipping and buildings, the low-lying lands along the coast were +completely submerged, and in many villages half the inhabitants +were drowned. The loss of human lives was reported to be about +14,000, and the number of cattle drowned about 15,000. As +usual in such cases, a severe outbreak of cholera followed in the +track of the storm-wave. Another natural calamity on a large +scale occurred at Darjeeling in October 1899. Torrential rains +caused a series of landslips, carrying away houses and breaking +up the hill railway.</p> + +<p>The most notable event, however, of recent times was the +partition of the province, which was decided upon by Lord +Curzon, and carried into execution in October 1905. Serious +popular agitation followed this step, on the ground (<i>inter alia</i>) +that the Bengali population, the centre of whose interests and +prosperity was Calcutta, would now be divided under two +governments, instead of being concentrated and numerically +dominant under the one; while the bulk would be in the new +division. In 1906-1909 the unrest developed to a considerable +extent, requiring special attention from the Indian and home +governments; but as part of the general history of India the +movement may be best discussed under that heading (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">India</a></span>: +<i>History</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Parliamentary Papers relating to the reconstitution of the +provinces of Bengal and Assam (Cd. 2658 and Cd. 2746, 1905); +Colonel E.T. Dalton, <i>The Ethnology of Bengal</i> (1872); Sir W.W. +Hunter, <i>Annals of Rural Bengal</i> (1868), and <i>Orissa</i> (1872); Sir H.H. +Risley, <i>Tribes and Castes of Bengal</i> (1891); C.E. Buckland, <i>Bengal +under the Lieutenant-Governors</i> (1901); and Sir James Bourdillon, +<i>The Partition of Bengal</i> (Society of Arts, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENGAL, BAY OF,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> a portion of the Indian Ocean, resembling +a triangle in shape, lying between India and Burma. A zone +50 m. wide extending from the island of Ceylon and the Coromandel +coast to the head of the bay, and thence southwards +through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar islands, is +bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m. +beyond this lies the 500-fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the +Ganges, however, the intervals between these depths are very +much extended by deltaic influence. The bay receives many +large rivers, of which the most important are the Ganges and +Brahmaputra on the north, the Irrawaddy on the east, and the +Mahanadi, Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery on the west. On the +west coast it has no harbours, Madras having a mere open +roadstead, but on the east there are many good ports, such as +Akyab, Moulmein, Rangoon and Tavoy river. The islands in +the bay are very numerous, including the Andaman, Nicobar +and Mergui groups. The group of islands, Cheduba and others, +in the north-east, off the Burmese coast, are remarkable for a +chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active. Thus in +December 1906 a new island of mud was thrown up, and measured +307 by 217 yds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENGALI,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> with <span class="sc">Oriya</span> and <span class="sc">Assamese</span>, three of the four forms +of speech which compose the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan +Languages (<i>q.v.</i>). This group includes all the Aryan languages +spoken in India east of the longitude of Benares, and its members +are the following:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Number of speakers in<br />British India, 1901.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Bengali</td> <td class="tcr cl">44,624,048</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oriya</td> <td class="tcr">9,687,429</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Assamese</td> <td class="tcr cl">1,350,846</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bihari</td> <td class="tcr">34,579,844</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Total</td> <td class="tcr">90,242,167</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Of these Bihari is treated separately. In the present article we +shall devote ourselves to the examination of Bengali together +with the two other closely connected languages. The reader is +throughout assumed to be in possession of the facts described +under the heads <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Bengali is spoken in the province of Bengal proper, <i>i.e.</i> in, and +on both sides of the delta of the Ganges, and also in the Eastern +Bengal portion of the province of Eastern Bengal and +Assam. The name “Bengali” is an English word, +<span class="sidenote">Language.</span> +derived from the English word “Bengal.” Natives call the +language <i>Banga-Bhāṣā</i>, or the language of Banga, <i>i.e.</i> “Bengal.” +“Oŗiyā” is the native name for the language of Ōḍra or Orissa. +Assamese, again an English word, is spoken in the Assam Valley. +Its native name is <i>Asamiyā</i>, pronounced <i>Ohåmiyā</i>. All these +languages have alphabets derived from early forms of the +well-known Nagari character of northern India. That of +Bengali dates from about the 11th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It is a cursive +script which admits of considerable speed in writing. The +Assamese alphabet is the same as that of Bengali, but has one +additional character to represent the sound of <i>w</i>, which has to be +expressed in the former language in a very awkward fashion. In +Orissa, till lately, writing was done on a talipot palm-leaf, on +which the letters were scratched with an iron stylus. In such +circumstances straight lines would tend to split the leaf, and +accordingly the alphabet received a peculiar curved appearance +typical of it and of one or two other South Indian methods of +writing.</p> + +<p>The three languages are all the immediate descendants of +Māgadhī Prakrit (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), the headquarters of which were +in south Behar, near the modern city of Patna. From here it +spread in three lines—southwards, where it developed into +Oriya; south-eastwards into Bengal proper, where it became +Bengali; and eastwards, through Northern Bengal, into Assam, +where it became Assamese. It thus appears that the language of +Northern Bengal, though usually and conveniently treated as a +dialect of Bengali, is not so in reality, but is a connecting link +between Assamese and Bihari, the language of Behar. It is +noteworthy that Northern Bengali and Assamese often agree in +their grammar with Oriya, as against standard Bengali.</p> + +<p>Omitting border forms of speech, Bengali, as a vernacular, +has two main dialects, a western and an eastern, the former +being the standard. The boundary-line between the two may +be roughly put at the 89th degree of east longitude. The eastern +dialect has many marked peculiarities, amongst which we may +mention a tendency to disaspiration, the pronunciation of <i>c</i> as +<i>ts</i>, of <i>ch</i> as <i>s</i>, and of <i>j</i> as <i>z</i>. In the northern part of the tract a +medial <i>r</i> is often elided, and in the extreme east there is a broader +pronunciation of the vowel <i>a</i>, like that in the English word +“ball,” <i>k</i> is sounded like the <i>ch</i> in “loch,” and both <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i> +are pronounced like <i>s</i>. The letter <i>p</i> is often sounded like <i>w</i>, and +<i>s</i> like <i>h</i>, which again, when initial, is dropped. The distinction +between cerebral and dental letters is lost, so that the words +<i>āţh</i> and <i>sāt</i> are both pronounced <i>’āt</i>. In the south-east, near +Chittagong, corruption has gone even further, and the local +dialect, which is practically a new language, is unintelligible +to a man from Western Bengal. Throughout the eastern +districts there is a strong tendency to epenthesis, <i>e.g. kāli</i> is +pronounced <i>kāĭl</i>. A more important dialectic difference in +Bengali is that between the literary speech and the vernacular. +The literary vocabulary is highly Sanskritized, so much so +that it is not understood by any native of Bengal who has +not received special instruction in it. Its grammar preserves +numerous archaic or pseudo-archaic forms, which are invariably +contracted in the colloquial speech of even the most highly +educated. For instance, “I do” is expressed in the literary +dialect by <i>karitēchi</i>, but in the vernacular by <i>kỏrcci</i> or <i>kỏcci</i>. +Oriya and Assamese may be said to have no dialects. There +are a few local variations, but the standard form of speech, as a +whole, is used everywhere in the respective tracts where the +languages are spoken.</p> + +<p>The three languages, being all children of a common parent, +present many similar features. Oriya on the whole preserves +the usual accentuation of the Indo-Aryan Languages (<i>q.v.</i>), +seldom having the stress syllable farther back than the antepenultimate. +Bengali, on the other hand, throws the accent +as far back as possible, and this produces the contracted forms +which we observe in the colloquial language, the first syllable +of a word being strongly accented, and the rest being hurried +over. Literary Bengali preserves the full form of the word, and +in reading aloud this full form is adhered to. Assamese follows +Bengali in its accentuation, but the language has never been the +toy of euphuism. In its literature colloquial words are employed, +and are written as they are pronounced colloquially.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the following account of the three languages, Bengali, literary +and colloquial, will be primarily dealt with, and then the points of +difference between it and the other two will be described. Abbreviations +used: A. = Assamese, Bg. = Bengali, O. = Oriya, Pr. = Prakrit, +Mg. Pr. = Māgadhi Prakrit, Skr. = Sanskrit.</p> + +<p><i>Vocabulary.</i>—As already said, Literary Bengali abounds in +<i>tatsamas</i>, or words borrowed in modern times from Sanskrit (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>), and these have also intruded themselves +into the speech of the educated. So much has the false taste for +these learned words obtained the mastery that, in the literary language, +when a genuine Bengali or <i>tadbhava</i> word is used in literature +it is frequently not put into writing, but the corresponding learned +<i>tatsama</i> is written in its place, although the <i>tadbhava</i> is read. It is +as though a French writer wrote <i>sicca</i> when he wished the word +<i>sèche</i> to be pronounced. Similarly, the Bengali word for the goddess +of Fortune is <i>Lakkhī</i>, but in books this is always written in the Skr. +form <i>Lakṣmī</i>, although no Bengali would dream of saying anything +but <i>Lakkhī</i>, even when reciting a purple passage <i>ore rotunda</i>. In fact, +the vocal organs of most Bengalis are incapable of uttering the sound +connoted by the letters <i>Lakṣmī</i>. The result is that the spelling of a +Bengali word rarely represents its pronunciation. Oriya also borrows +freely from Sanskrit, but there is no confusion between <i>tatsamas</i> +and <i>tadbhavas</i>, as in Bengali. Assamese, on the other hand, is remarkably +free from these parasites, its vocabulary being mainly +<i>tadbhava</i>. In Eastern Bengal, where Mussulmans predominate, +there is a free use of words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +Owing to geographical and historical circumstances, Oriya is to +some extent infected by Telugu and Marathi idioms, while the +Tibeto-Burman dialects and Ahom have left their marks upon Assamese.</p> + +<p><i>Phonetics.</i>—The three forms of speech agree in sounding the vowel +<i>a</i> like the <i>ỏ</i> in “hot.” When writing phonetically, this sound is +represented in the present article by <i>ỏ</i>. The pronunciation of this +frequently recurring vowel gives a tone to the general sound of the +languages which at once strikes a foreigner. In Bg. and A. a final +vowel preceded by a single consonant is generally not pronounced. +In Bg. this is only true for nouns, a final <i>a</i> being freely sounded +in adjectives and verbs. In O., on the other hand, a final <i>a</i> is always +pronounced. The sound of such a final <i>a</i> is in all three languages +the same as that of the <span class="correction" title="amended from seccond">second</span> <i>o</i> in “promote”; thus, the Bg. <i>bara</i> +is pronounced <i>bỏŗō</i>. In Bg. a medial <i>a</i> sometimes has the sound of +the first <i>o</i> in “promote,” as, for instance, in the word <i>ban</i> (<i>bon</i>), a +forest. In A. and Eastern Bg. a medial <i>a</i> is often sounded like the +<i>a</i> in “ball,” and is then transliterated <i>ả</i>. <i>Ā</i> has preserved as a rule +its proper sound of <i>a</i> in “father.” The distinction between <i>i</i> and <i>ī</i> +and between <i>u</i> and <i>ū</i> is everywhere lost in pronunciation, although +in <i>tatsama</i> words the Sanskrit spelling is followed in literature. Thus, +in Bg., the Skr. <i>vyatīta</i> is pronounced <i>bétítō</i>, with the accent on the +first syllable. In A. the distinction between these long and short +vowels is obliterated more than elsewhere, the reason being, as in +Bg., the changes of pronunciation due to the shifting back of the +accent. In O., the Skr. vowel <i>ŗ</i> is pronounced <i>ru</i>. Elsewhere it is +<i>ri</i>. In O. the vowel <i>ē</i> is always long, but in Bg. it may be long or +short, and in A. it is always short. The syllable <i>ya</i> preceded by a +consonant has in Bg. the sound of a short <i>e</i>, so that <i>vyakti</i> is pronounced +<i>bekti</i>. Moreover, in the same language the letter <i>ē</i> is often +pronounced like the <i>a</i> in the German <i>Mann</i>, a sound here phonetically +represented by <i>a</i>; thus, <i>dēkha</i> is sometimes pronounced <i>dekhō</i>, +and sometimes <i>dảkhō</i> or even <i>dảkō</i>. The syllable <i>yā</i>, when following +a consonant, also has this <i>ả</i>-sound, so that the English word “bank” +is written <i>byānk</i> in Bengali characters. <i>Ō</i> in O. is always long. +In Bg., when it has not got the accent it is shortened to the sound of +the first <i>o</i> in “promote,” a sound which, as we have seen, is also +sometimes taken by a medial <i>a</i>. In A. <i>ō</i> approaches the sound of <i>u</i>, +and it actually becomes <i>u</i> when followed by <i>i</i> in the next syllable. +The diphthongs <i>āī</i> (in <i>tatsamas</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the Skr. <i>āi</i>) and <i>ai</i> (in <i>tadbhavas</i>) +are sounded like <i>oi</i> in “oil” in Bg. and O., while in A. they have the +sound of <i>oi</i> in “going.” Similarly, in Bg. and O. the diphthongs +<i>āū</i> and <i>au</i> are sounded like the <i>au</i> in the German <i>Haus</i>, but in A. +like <i>au</i> in the French <i>jaune</i>, or the second <i>o</i> in “promote.” In +colloquial Bg. the two syllables <i>āi</i> often have the sound of <i>ē</i>, as in +<i>khāitē</i> (<i>khētē</i>), to eat.</p> + +<p>In Eastern Bengal <i>k</i> has often the sound of <i>ch</i> in “loch.” In A. +the consonants <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i> are both pronounced like <i>s</i>, and <i>j</i> and <i>jh</i> +become <i>zh</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the <i>s</i> in “pleasure”) or (when final) <i>z</i>. The same +tendency is observable in Bg., though it is usually considered vulgar. +In parts of Eastern Bengal <i>c</i> is pronounced like <i>ts</i>. O. as a rule has +the proper sound of these letters, but towards the south <i>c</i> and <i>ch</i> +become <i>ts</i> and <i>tsh</i> when not followed by a palatal letter. The letters +<i>ḍ</i> and <i>ḍh</i>, when medial, are pronounced as a strongly burred <i>r</i>, and +are then transliterated <i>ŗ</i> and <i>ŗh</i> respectively. In A. and Eastern Bg. +there is a strong tendency to pronounce both dentals and cerebrals +as semi-cerebrals, as is done by the neighbouring Tibeto-Burmans. +In A. <i>ŗ</i> and <i>ŗh</i> become <i>r</i> and <i>rh</i> respectively. In Bg. and A. <i>ṇ</i> has +universally become <i>n</i>, but is properly pronounced in O. <i>Y</i> is usually +pronounced as <i>j</i>, unless it is a merely euphonic bridge to avoid a +hiatus between two vowels, as in <i>kariyā</i> for <i>kari-ā</i>. In A. the resultant +<i>j</i> has the usual <i>z</i>-sound. When <i>y</i> is the final element of a +conjunct consonant, in Bg. (except in the south-east) it is very +faintly pronounced. In compensation the preceding member of the +conjunct is doubled and the preceding vowel is shortened if possible, +thus <i>vākya</i> becomes <i>bảkk<span class="sp">y</span>ō</i>. In A., while the <i>y</i> is usually preserved, +an <i>i</i> is inserted before the conjunct, so that we have <i>bāikyō</i>. <i>M</i> and +<i>v</i> when similarly situated are altogether elided in Bg., and this is also +the case with <i>v</i> in A., in which language <i>m</i> under these circumstances +becomes <i>w</i>; thus, <i>smaraṇa</i> becomes Bg. <i>śśỏrỏn</i>, A. <i>swỏrỏn</i>, and <i>dvārā</i> +becomes Bg. and A. <i>ddārā</i>. <i>R</i> is generally pronounced correctly, +except that when a member of a compound it is often not pronounced +in colloquial Bg.; thus <i>karma</i> (<i>kỏmmō</i>). In North-eastern Bengali +and in A. a medial <i>r</i> is commonly dropped; thus, Bg. <i>karilām</i> +(<i>kaïlām</i>), A. <i>kari</i> (<i>kaï</i>).<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The vulgar commonly confound <i>n</i> and <i>l</i>. +O. has retained the old cerebral <i>ḷ</i> of Pr., which has disappeared in +Bg. and A. The semi-vowel <i>v</i> (<i>w</i>) becomes <i>b</i> in Bg. and O., but retains +its proper sound when medial in A. When Bg. wishes to represent +a <i>w</i>, it has to write <i>ōyā</i>; thus, for <i>chāwā</i> it writes <i>chāōyā</i>. Similarly +<i>bārō</i>, twelve, <span class="su">+</span><i>yāri</i>, friendship, when compounded together to mean +“a collection of twelve friends,” is pronounced <i>bārwāri</i>. Bg. pronounces +all uncompounded sibilants as if they were <i>ś</i>, like the +English <i>sh</i> in “shin.” This was already the case in Mg. Pr. (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>). O., on the contrary, pronounces all three like the dental +<i>s</i> in “sin,” while A. sounds them like a rough <i>h</i>, almost like the <i>ch</i> +in “loch.” In Eastern Bg. <i>s</i> becomes frankly <i>h</i>, and is then often +dropped. The compound <i>kṣ</i> is everywhere treated as if it were <i>khy</i>, +In colloquial Bg. there is a tendency to disaspiration; thus <i>dēkha</i> +is pronounced <i>dảkō</i> and the Pr. <i>hattha-</i>, a hand, becomes <i>hāt</i>, not +<i>hāth</i>. In Eastern Bg. there is a cockney tendency to drop <i>h</i>, so that +we have <i>’āt</i>, a hand, and <i>kaïlām</i> for <i>kahilām</i>, I said.</p> + +<p>The above remarks show that O. has, on the whole, preserved +the original sounds of the various letters better than Bg. or A.</p> + +<p><i>Declension.</i>—The distinction of gender has disappeared from all +three languages. Sex is distinguished either by the use of qualifying +terms, such as “male” or “female,” or by the employment of +different words, as in the case of our “bull” and “cow.” The +plural number is almost always denoted by the addition of some +word meaning “many” or “collection” to the singular, although +we sometimes find a true plural used in the case of nouns denoting +human beings. Case was originally indicated by postpositions (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>), but in many instances these have been +joined to the noun, so that they form one word with it. The following +is the full declension of the singular of the word <i>ghōŗā</i>, a horse, in +the three languages:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Oriya.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Bengali.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Assamese.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nom.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōrā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Acc.-Dat.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗāku</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗākē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōrāk</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Instr.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗārē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗātē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōrārē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Abl.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗāru</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗā-haïtē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōrāyē</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gen.</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗāra</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōŗār</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>ghōrār</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Loc.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ghōŗārē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ghōŗāte</i> or <i>ghōrāy</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>ghōrāt</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In Bg. and A. a noun often takes <i>ē</i> (<i>e</i>) in the nominative singular, +when it is the subject of a transitive verb; thus Bg. <i>bēdeē</i> (from <i>bēd</i>) +<i>balē</i>, the Veda says. In Bg. the nominative plural may, in the case +of human beings, be formed by adding <i>ā</i> to the genitive singular; +thus, <i>santān</i>, a son; gen. sing., <i>santānēr</i>; nom. plur., <i>santānēra</i>. +The same is the case with the pronouns; thus <i>āmār</i>, of me; <i>āmarā</i>, +we; <i>tāhār</i>, his; <i>tāhārā</i>, they. In Bihari (<i>q.v.</i>) the pronouns follow +the same rule, and, as is explained under that head, the nominative +plural is really an oblique form of the genitive. With this exception, +the plural in all our three languages is either the same as the singular, +or (when the idea of plurality has to be emphasized) is formed by the +addition of nouns of multitude, such as <i>gaṇ</i> in Bg., <i>māna</i> in O., or +<i>bilāk</i> in A.</p> + +<p>We shall see that pronominal suffixes are freely used in all three +languages in the conjugation of verbs. In the Outer languages of +the north-west of India (for the list of these, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan +Languages</a></span>) pronominal suffixes are also commonly added to nouns +to signify possession. In most of the languages of the Eastern +Group such pronominal suffixes added to nouns have fallen into +disuse, but in A. they are still commonly employed with nouns of +relationship; thus, <i>bāp</i>, a father; <i>bopāi</i>, my father; <i>bāper</i>, your +father; <i>bāpek</i>, his father. Their retention in A. is no doubt due +to the example of the neighbouring Tibeto-Burman languages, in +which such pronominal <i>prefixes</i> are a common feature.</p> + +<p>In all three languages the adjective does not change for gender, +for number or for case.</p> + +<p>The personal pronouns have at the present day lost their old +nominatives, and have new nominatives formed from the oblique +base. In the first and second persons the singulars have fallen into +disuse in polite conversation, and the plurals are used honorifically +for the singular, as in the case of the English “you” for “thou.” +For the plural, new plurals are formed from the new singular (old +plural) bases. In A., however, the old singular of the first person is +retained, and the old plural plays its proper function. The Bg. +pronouns are, <i>mui</i> (old), I; <i>āmi</i> (modern), I; <i>tui</i> (old), thou; <i>tumi</i> +(modern), thou; <i>sē</i>, <i>tini</i>, he; <i>ē</i>, <i>ini</i>, this; <i>ō</i>, <i>uni</i>, that; <i>jē</i>, <i>jini</i>, +who; <i>kē</i>, who?; <i>ki</i>, what?; <i>kōn</i>, what (adjective)?; <i>kēha</i>, anyone; +<i>kichu</i>, anything; <i>kōna</i>, any. Most of the forms in the other languages +closely follow these. The words in O. for “I” and “thou” +are <i>ambhē</i> and <i>tumbhē</i> respectively. All these pronouns have plurals +and oblique forms to which the case suffixes are added. These must +be learnt from the grammars.</p> + +<p><i>Conjugation</i>.—It is in the conjugation of the verb that colloquial +Bg. differs most from the literary dialect. There is no distinction +in any of the three languages between singular and plural. Most +of the old singular forms have survived in a non-honorific sense, but +they are rarely employed in polite language except in the third +person. The old plural forms are generally employed for the singular +also. The usual base for the verb substantive, when employed as an +auxiliary, is <i>ach</i>, be, derived from the Skr. <i>ŗcchati</i>. O., however, +forms its past from the base <i>tha</i> (Skr. <i>sthita-</i>), and in South-western +Bengal the base <i>ţha</i>, derived from the same original, is used for both +present and past time. Only two of the old Skr.-Pr. tenses have +survived in the finite verb, the simple present and the imperative. +Thus, Bg. <i>kari</i>, I do; <i>kar</i>, do thou. The past is formed by adding +pronominal suffixes to the old past participle in <i>il</i> (Skr. <i>-illa-</i>, a +pleonastic suffix, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prakrit</a></span>), and the future by adding them to +the old future participle in <i>b</i> (Skr. <i>-tavya-</i>, Pr. <i>-avva-</i>). Thus, Bg. +<i>karil-ām</i>, done + by-me, I did; <i>karib-a</i>, it-is-to-be-done + by-me, I +shall do. In Bg. there are two modern participles, a present (<i>kar-itē</i>) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +and a past (<i>kar-iyā</i>), and from these there are formed periphrastic +tenses by suffixing auxiliary verbs. Thus, +<i>karite-chi</i> (colloquial, <i>kỏrci</i> or <i>kỏcci</i>), I am doing; +<i>karitē-chilām</i> (coll. <i>korcilum</i> or <i>kỏccilum</i>), I was doing; +<i>kariyā-chi</i> (coll., <i>korsi</i>), I have done; +<i>kariyā-chilām</i> (coll., <i>korsilum</i>), I had done. +A past conditional is formed by adding pronominal suffixes +to the present participle; thus, <i>karitām</i> (coll., <i>kortum</i> +or <i>kottum</i>), (if) I had done. Similar tenses are formed in O. and A., +but the periphrastic tenses are formed with verbal nouns and not +with participles. Thus, O. <i>karu-achī</i>, A. <i>kari-chõ</i>, I am a-doing, +I am doing. O. and A. have each a very complete series of gerunds +or verbal nouns which are fully declined. In Bg. only one gerund, +that of the genitive, is in common use.</p> + +<p>In order to illustrate the conjugation of the verb, we here give +that of the root <i>kar</i>, do, in its present, past and future tenses.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Oriya.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Literary<br />Bengali.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Colloquial<br />Bengali.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Assamese.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karñ</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kari</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏri</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karõ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Thou doest</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kara</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kara</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏrō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (non-honorific) does</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏrē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kare</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (honorific) does</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karanti</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karen</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏren</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kare</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I did</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karilū</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karilām</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏllum, kỏrlum</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårilõ</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Thou didst</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karila</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karilē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏllē, kỏrlē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårilā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (non-honorific) did</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karilā</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karila</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏllō, kỏrlō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårile</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (honorific) did</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karilē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karilen</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏllen, kỏrlen</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårile</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">I shall do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karibū</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kariba</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏrbō</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kårim</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Thou wilt do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kariba</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karibē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏrbē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kåribā</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">He (non-honorific) will do</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kariba</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>karibë</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kỏrbē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>kåriba</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">He (honorific) will do</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>karibē</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>kariben</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>kỏrben</i></td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>kåriba</i></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>All the three languages have negative forms of the verb substantive, +and A. has a complete negative conjugation for all verbs, +made by prefixing the negative syllable <i>na</i> under certain euphonic +rules.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Bengali Literature.</i>—The oldest recognized writer in Bengali +is the Vaishnava poet Caṇḍī Dās, who flourished about the +end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century. +His language does not differ much from the +<span class="sidenote">Literature.</span> +Bengali of to-day. He founded a school of poets who wrote +hymns in honour of Krishna, many of whom, in later times, +became connected with the religious revival instituted by +Caitanya in the early part of the 16th century. In the 15th +century Kāśī Rām translated the <i>Mahābhārata</i>, and Krttibās +Ojhā the <i>Rāmāyaṇa</i> into the vernacular. The principal figure +of the 17th century was Mukunda Rām who has left us two +really admirable poems entitled <i>Caṇḍī</i> and <i>Śrīmanta Saudāgar</i>. +Parts of the former have been translated by Professor Cowell +into English verse, and both well deserve putting into an English +dress. With Bhārat Candra, whose much admired but artificial +Bidyā Sundar appeared in the 18th century, the list of old +Bengali authors may be considered as closed. They wrote in +genuine nervous Bengali, and the conspicuous success of many +of them shows how baseless is the contention of some native +writers of the present day that modern literary Bengali needs +the help of its huge imported Sanskrit vocabulary to express +anything but the simplest ideas. This modern literary Bengali +arose early in the 19th century, as a child of the revival of +Sanskrit learning in Calcutta, under the influence of the college +founded by the English in Fort William. Each decade it has +become more and more the slave of Sanskrit. It has had some +excellent writers, notably the late Bankim Candra, whose novels +have received the honour of being translated into several +languages, including English. Even he, however, sometimes +laboured under the fetters imposed upon him by a strange +vocabulary, and all competent European scholars are agreed +that no work of first-class originality has much chance of arising +in Bengal till some great genius purges the language of its +pseudo-classical element.</p> + +<p><i>Oriya Literature</i> does not go back beyond the 16th century, +though examples of the language are found in inscriptions of the +13th century. Nearly all the works are connected with the +history of Krishna, and the translation of the <i>Bhāgavata Purāṇa</i> +into Oriya in the first half of the 16th century still exercises +great influence on the masses. Dīna Kŗṣṇa Dās (17th century) +was the author of another popular work entitled <i>Rasa Kallola</i>, +or “The Waves of Sentiment,” which deals with the early life +of Krishna. Every verse in it begins with the letter <i>k</i>. It is not +always decent, but is immensely popular. Upēndra Bhañja, Rājā +of Gumsur, a petty hill state, is the most famous of Oriya poets, +and was the most prolific. His work is insipid to a European +taste, and when not unintelligible is often obscene. Oriya +poetry, from first to last, has been an artificial production, the +work of <i>paṇḍits</i>, who clung to the rules of Sanskrit rhetoric, +and loaded their verses with so many ideas and words borrowed +from that language that it is rarely understood, except by the +learned. The whole literature is, in fact, overshadowed by the +great temple of Jagannāth (a name of Krishna) at Puri in +Orissa.</p> + +<p><i>Assamese Literature.</i>—The Assamese are justly proud of their +national literature. It has an independent growth, and its +strength lies in history, a branch of letters in which other Indian +languages are almost entirely wanting. They have chronicles +going back for the past 600 years, and a knowledge of their +contents is a necessary part of the education of the upper +classes of the country. In poetry, the Vaishnava reformer, +Sankar Deb, who flourished some 450 years ago, was a voluminous +writer. His best known work is a translation of the +<i>Bhāgavata Purāṇa</i>. About the same time Ananta Kandali +translated the <i>Mahābhārata</i> and the <i>Rāmāyaṇa</i> into his native +tongue. Medicine was a science much studied, and there are +translations of all the principal Sanskrit works on the subject. +Forty or fifty dramatic works in the vernacular are known and are +still acted. Some of them date back to the time of Śankar Dēb.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—There is no work dealing with the three languages +as a group. Both the <i>Comparative Grammars</i> of Beames and Hoernle +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-Aryan Languages</a></span>) are silent about Assamese. The +fullest details concerning them all will be found in vol. v. of the +<i>Linguistic Survey of India</i>, parts i. and ii. (Calcutta, 1903). In this +each dialect and subdialect is treated with great minuteness and with +copious examples.</p> + +<p>The first Bengali grammar and dictionary in a European language +was the <i>Vocabulario em Idioma Bengalla e Portuguez</i> of Manoel da +Assumpçam (Lisbon, 1743). N.B. Halhed wrote the first Bengali +grammar in the English language (Hooghly, 1778), but the real +father of Bengali philology was the great missionary, William Carey +(<i>Grammar</i>, Serampore, 1801; <i>Dictionary, ib</i>., 1825). W. Yates’s +<i>Grammar</i>, as edited and improved by T. Wenger (Calcutta, 1847) +and others, is still on sale. It is entirely confined to the literary +Bengali of the paṇḍits. Its great rival has been Śyāmā Caraṇ +Sarkār’s <i>Grammar</i> (Calcutta, 1850), of which there have been +numerous reprints. In 1894 J. Beames published his <i>Grammar</i> +(Oxford), now the standard work on the subject. It is largely based +on Śyāmā Caraṇ’s work, but with much new material, especially +that dealing with the colloquial side of the language. G.F. Nicholl’s +<i>Grammar</i> (London, 1885) is an independent study of the language, +in which the vernacular works of the best native grammarians have +been freely utilized. There is no good Bengali dictionary. G.C. +Haughton’s <i>Dictionary</i> (London, 1833) is perhaps still the best, +but J. Mendies’ (Calcutta, about 1870) is also well known, and is the +parent of countless others which have issued from the Calcutta +presses. <i>A Small Dictionary of Colloquial Bengali Words</i>, by J.M.C. +and G.A.C. (Calcutta, 1904), may also be studied with advantage. +Cf. also Śyāmā-caraṇ Gāṇguli, <i>Bengali Spoken and Written</i> (Calcutta, +1906). For Bengali literature, see R.C. Dutt, <i>The Literature of +Bengal</i> (Calcutta and London, 1895), and Hara Prasād Śāstrī, <i>The +Vernacular Literature of Bengal before the Introduction of English +Education</i> (Calcutta, n.d.). The most complete work is <i>Bangabhāsā +o Sāhitya</i> by Dīnēś Candra Sēn (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1901) in the +Bengali language.</p> + +<p>For Oriya there are E. Hallam’s (Calcutta, 1874), T. Maltby’s +(Calcutta, 1874) and J. Browne’s (London, 1882) <i>Grammars</i>. The +last two are in the Roman character. They are all mere sketches of +the language. Sutton’s (Cuttack, 1841) is still the only <i>Dictionary</i> +which the present writer has found of any practical use. For Oriya +literature, see App. IX. of Hunter’s <i>Orissa</i> (London, 1872), and +Monmohan Chakravarti’s “Notes on the Language and Literature of Orissa” +in the <i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>, vol. lxvi. +(1897), part i. pp. 317 ff., and vol. lxvii. (1898), part i. pp. 332 ff.</p> + +<p>The first Assamese <i>Grammar</i> was Nathan Brown’s (Sibsagar, 1848, +3rd ed. 1893), and it is still the one usually studied. G.F. Nicholl +gives an Assamese grammar as a supplement to his Bengali <i>Grammar</i> +already quoted. Like that work, it is quite independent, and is not +a revised edition of Brown. M. Bronson’s <i>Dictionary</i> (Sibsagar, +1867) was for long the only vocabulary available, and a very useful +and practical work it was. It is now superseded by Hem Candra +Baŗuā’s <i>Hema-koṣa</i> (Shillong, 1900). For Assamese literature, see +Ananda Rām Dhekiāl Phukan’s <i>A Few Remarks on the Assamese Language</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +(Sibsagar, 1855), partly reprinted in the <i>Indian Antiquary</i>, +vol. xxv. (1896), pp. 57 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. A. Gr.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Mg. Pr. every <i>r</i> becomes <i>l</i>. For an explanation of the apparent +non-observance of this rule in languages of the Eastern Group, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bihari</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENGAZI<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (anc. <i>Hesperides-Berenice</i>), a seaport on the north +coast of Africa, capital of the sanjak of Bengazi or Barca, +formerly in the vilayet of Tripoli, but, since 1875, dependent +directly on the ministry of the interior at Constantinople. It +is situated on a narrow strip of land between the Gulf of Sidra +and a salt marsh, in 30° 7′ N. lat. and 20° 3′ E. long. Though +for the most part poorly built, it has one or two buildings of +some pretension—an ancient castle, a mosque, a Franciscan +monastery, government buildings and barracks. Senussi +influence is strong and there is a large <i>zawia</i> (convent). The +harbour is half silted up with sand and the ruins of fortifications +and is accessible only to vessels of light draught. A lighthouse +has been erected at the entrance, but reefs render approach +difficult, and the outer anchorage is fully exposed to west and +north and not good holding. The export trade is largely in +barley, shipped to British and other maltsters. The Sudan +produce (ivory, ostrich feathers, &c.) formerly brought to +Bengazi by caravan, has now been almost wholly diverted to +Tripoli, the eastern tracks from Wadai and Borku by way of +Kufra to Aujila having become so unsafe that their natural +difficulties are no longer worth braving. Consular vigilance has +also killed the once considerable slave trade. Trade in other +commodities, however, is on the increase, exports now amounting +to nearly half a million sterling and imports to half that figure. +The neighbouring coast is frequented by Greek and Italian +sponge-fishers, the industry being a valuable one. The province +of Bengazi, being still without telegraphs or roads, is one of +the most backward in the Ottoman empire.</p> + +<p>Founded by the Greeks of Cyrenaica under the name Hesperides, +the town received from Ptolemy III. the name of +Berenice in compliment to his wife. The ruins of the ancient +town, which superseded Cyrene and Barca as chief place in the +province after the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, are now nearly buried in +the sand. The modern town lies south-west of the original +site. Certain large natural pits which are found in the plain +behind, and have luxuriant gardens at the bottom, are supposed +to have originated the myth of the Gardens of the Hesperides. +Ancient tombs are found, which in 1882 yielded fine Greek +vases to G. Dennis, then British vice-consul. The present name +is derived from that of a Moslem saint whose tomb, near the +sea-coast, is an object of veneration. The population, amounting +to about 25,000, is greatly mixed. Levantines, Maltese, Greeks +and Jews form the trading community, but since 1895, when a +branch of the Agenzia Italiana Commerciale was established +at Bengazi, Italians have exercised an increasing influence on +Cyrenaic commerce. Turks, Arabs and Berbers are the ruling +castes, and negroes act as labourers and domestics. Many of +these found their way to Crete, and becoming porters, &c. in +Canea and Candia, were notorious for turbulence and fanaticism. +In 1897 and 1898 the European admirals forcibly deported +consignments of the worst characters back to Bengazi. In 1858 +and again in 1874 the town was devastated by plague (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tripoli</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cyrenaica</a></span>).</p> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1687-1752), Lutheran +divine and scholar, was born at Winnenden in Württemberg, +on the 24th of June 1687. His father died in 1693, and Bengel +was educated by a friend, who became a master in the gymnasium +at Stuttgart. In 1703 Bengel left Stuttgart and entered the +university of Tübingen, where, in his spare time, he devoted +himself specially to the works of Aristotle and Spinoza, and in +theology to those of Philipp Spener, Johann Arndt and August +Franke. His knowledge of the metaphysics of Spinoza was such +that he was selected by one of the professors to prepare materials +for a treatise <i>De Spinosismo</i>, which was afterwards published. +After taking his degree, Bengel devoted himself to theology. +Even at this time he had religious doubts; it is interesting in +view of his later work that one cause of his perplexities was the +difficulty of ascertaining the true reading of certain passages +in the Greek New Testament. In 1707 Bengel entered the ministry +and was appointed to the parochial charge of Metzingen-unter-Urach. +In the following year he was recalled to Tübingen +to undertake the office of <i>Repetent</i> or theological tutor. Here he +remained till 1713, when he was appointed head of a seminary +recently established at Denkendorf as a preparatory school of +theology. Before entering on his new duties he travelled +through the greater part of Germany, studying the systems of +education which were in use, and visiting the seminaries of the +Jesuits as well as those of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. +Among other places he went to Heidelberg and Halle, and had +his attention directed at Heidelberg to the canons of scripture +criticism published by Gerhard von Mästricht, and at Halle +to C. Vitringa’s <i>Anacrisis ad Apocalypsin</i>. The influence exerted +by these upon his theological studies is manifest in some of his +works. For twenty-eight years—from 1713 to 1741—he was +master (<i>Klosterpräceptor</i>) of the <i>Klosterschule</i> at Denkendorf, +a seminary for candidates for the ministry established in a former +monastery of the canons of the Holy Sepulchre. To these years, +the period of his greatest intellectual activity, belong many of +his chief works. In 1741 he was appointed prelate (<i>i.e.</i> <i>General +Superintendent</i>) at Herbrechtingen, where he remained till 1749, +when he was raised to the dignity of consistorial counsellor and +prelate of Alpirspach, with a residence in Stuttgart. He now +devoted himself to the discharge of his duties as a member of +the consistory. A question of considerable difficulty was at that +time occupying the attention of the church courts, viz. the +manner in which those who separated themselves from the church +were to be dealt with, and the amount of toleration which +should be accorded to meetings held in private houses for the +purpose of religious edification. The civil power (the duke of +Württemberg was a Roman Catholic) was disposed to have +recourse to measures of repression, while the members of the +consistory, recognizing the good effects of such meetings, were +inclined to concede considerable liberty. Bengel exerted himself +on the side of the members of the consistory. In 1751 the +university of Tübingen conferred upon him the degree of doctor of +divinity. He died after a short illness, in 1752.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works on which Bengel’s reputation rests as a Biblical scholar +and critic are his edition of the Greek New Testament, and his +<i>Gnomon</i> or <i>Exegetical Commentary</i> on the same.</p> + +<p>(A.) His edition of the Greek Testament was published at Tübingen +in 1734, and at Stuttgart in the same year, but without the critical +apparatus. So early as 1725, in an addition to his edition of Chrysostom’s +<i>De Sacerdotio</i>, he had given an account in his <i>Prodromus +Novi Testamenti Graeci recte cauteque adornandi</i> of the principles on +which his intended edition was to be based. In preparation for his +work Bengel was able to avail himself of the collations of upwards of +twenty MSS., none of them, however, of great importance, twelve +of which had been collated by himself. In constituting the text, he +imposed upon himself the singular restriction of not inserting any +various reading which had not already been <i>printed</i> in some preceding +edition of the Greek text. From this rule, however, he deviated +in the case of the Apocalypse, where, owing to the corrupt state of +the text, he felt himself at liberty to introduce certain readings on +manuscript authority. In the lower margin of the page he inserted +a selection of various readings, the relative importance of which he +denoted by the first five letters of the Greek alphabet in the following +manner:—α was employed to denote the reading which in his judgment +was the true one, although he did not venture to place it in the +text; β, a reading better than that in the text; γ, one equal to the +textual reading; δ and ε, readings inferior to those in the text. +R. Étienne’s division into verses was retained in the inner margin, +but the text was divided into paragraphs. The text was followed +by a critical apparatus, the first part of which consisted of an +introduction to the criticism of the New Testament, in the thirty-fourth +section of which he laid down and explained his celebrated canon, +“<i>Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua</i>” (“The difficult reading is to be +preferred to that which is easy”), the soundness of which, as a +general principle, has been recognized by succeeding critics. The +second part of the critical apparatus was devoted to a consideration +of the various readings, and here Bengel adopted the plan of stating +the evidence both <i>against</i> and <i>in favour</i> of a particular reading, thus +placing before the reader the materials for forming a judgment. +Bengel was the first definitely to propound the theory of families or +recensions of MSS. His investigations had led him to see that a +certain affinity or resemblance existed amongst many of the authorities +for the Greek text—MSS., versions, and ecclesiastical writers; +that if a peculiar reading, <i>e.g.</i>, was found in one of these, it was generally +found also in the other members of the same class; and this +general relationship seemed to point ultimately to a common origin +for all the authorities which presented such peculiarities. Although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +disposed at first to divide the various documents into three classes, +he finally adopted a classification into two—the African or older +family of documents, and the Asiatic, or more recent class, to which +he attached only a subordinate value. The theory was afterwards +adopted by J.S. Semler and J.J. Griesbach, and worked up into an +elaborate system by the latter critic. Bengel’s labours on the text +of the Greek Testament were received with great disfavour in many +quarters. Like Brian Walton and John Mill before him, he had to +encounter the opposition of those who believed that the certainty +of the word of God was endangered by the importance attached to +the various readings. J.J. Wetstein, on the other hand, accused +him of excessive caution in not making freer use of his critical +materials. In answer to these strictures, Bengel published a <i>Defence +of the Greek Text of His New Testament</i>, which he prefixed to his +<i>Harmony of the Four Gospels</i>, published in 1736, and which contained +a sufficient answer to the complaints, especially of Wetstein, which +had been made against him from so many different quarters. +The text of Bengel long enjoyed a high reputation among scholars, +and was frequently reprinted. An enlarged edition of the critical +apparatus was published by Philip David Burk in 1763.</p> + +<p>(B.) The other great work of Bengel, and that on which his reputation +as an exegete is mainly based, is his <i>Gnomon Novi Testamenti, +or Exegetical Annotations on the New Testament</i>, published in +1742. It was the fruit of twenty years’ labour, and exhibits with a +brevity of expression, which, it has been said, “condenses more +matter into a line than can be extracted from pages of other writers,” +the results of his study. He modestly entitled his work a <i>Gnomon</i> +or index, his object being rather to guide the reader to ascertain +the meaning for himself, than to save him from the trouble of personal +investigation. The principles of interpretation on which he proceeded +were, to import nothing <i>into</i> Scripture, but to draw <i>out of</i> it +everything that it really contained, in conformity with grammatico-historical +rules; not to be hampered by dogmatical considerations; +and not to be influenced by the symbolical books. Bengel’s hope +that the <i>Gnomon</i> would help to rekindle a fresh interest in the study +of the New Testament was fully realized. It has passed through +many editions, has been translated into German and into English, +and is still one of the books most valued by expositors of the New +Testament. John Wesley made great use of it in compiling his +<i>Expository Notes upon the New Testament</i> (1755).</p> + +<p>Besides the two works already described, Bengel was the editor +or author of many others, classical, patristic, ecclesiastical and +expository. The more important are: <i>Ordo Temporum</i>, a treatise +on the chronology of Scripture, in which he enters upon speculations +regarding the end of the world, and an <i>Exposition of the Apocalypse</i> +which enjoyed for a time great popularity in Germany, and was +translated into several languages.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For full details regarding Bengel the reader is +referred to Oskar Wächter’s <i>J.A. Bengels Lebensabriss</i> and to the +<i>Memoir of His Life and Writings</i> (<i>J.A. Bengels Leben und Wirken</i>), +by J.C.F. Burk, translated into English by Rev. R.F. Walker +(London, 1837); see also Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, and +E. Nestle, <i>Bengel als Gelehrter</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENGUELLA<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (São Felipe de Benguella), a town of Portuguese +West Africa, capital of Benguella district, on a bay of the same +name, in 12° 33′ S., 13° 25′ E. Benguella was founded in 1617 by +the Portuguese under Manoel Cerveira Pereira. It was long the +centre of an important trade, especially in slaves to Brazil and +Cuba, but has now greatly declined. The anchorage, about a mile +from the town, in 4 to 6 fathoms, is nothing but an open roadstead. +Besides the churches of S. Felipe and S. Antonio, the +hospital, and the fortress, there are only a few stone-built houses. +The white population numbers about 1500. A short way beyond +Benguella is Bahia Tarta, where salt is manufactured and sulphur +excavated.</p> + +<p>About 20 m. north of Benguella is Lobito Bay, a natural +harbour chosen (1903) as the starting-point of a railway to +Katanga. At Lobito steamers can come close inshore and +discharge cargo direct. Lobito is connected with Benguella by +a railway which passes about midway through Katumbella, a +town at the mouth of the river of the same name, and the sea +terminus of an ancient route from the heart of Central Africa +through Bihe. Old Benguella is a small town about 120 m. north +of Lobito Bay.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENÍ,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a river of Bolivia, a tributary of the Madeira, rising in +the elevated Cordilleras near the city of La Paz and at first known +as the Rio de La Paz, and flowing east, and north-east, to a +junction with the Mamoré at 10° 20′ S. lat. to form the Madeira. +Fully one-half of its length is through the mountainous districts +of central Bolivia, where it is fed by a large number of rivers and +streams from the snowclad peaks, and may be described as a +raging torrent. Below Reyes its course is through the forest-covered +hills and open plains of northern Bolivia, where some of +the old Indian missions were located. The lower river is navigable +for 217 m. from Reyes to the Esperanza rapids, 18 m. above +its confluence with the Mamoré, where a fall of 20 ft. in a distance +of 330 yds. obstructs free navigation. Its principal affluent is +the Madre de Dios, or Mayu-tata, which rises in the eastern +Cordilleras about 35 m. east of Cuzco, and flows in an east and +north-east direction through northern Bolivia to a junction with +the Bení 120 m. above its mouth. The principal tributaries of +the Madre de Dios are the Inambari and Paucartambo, both large +rivers, and the Chandless, Marcapata, and Tambopata. In +length and size of its tributaries the Madre de Dios is a more +important river than the Bení itself, and is navigable during the +wet season to the foot of the Andes, 180 m. from Cuzco.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENÍ<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (<span class="sc">El Bení</span>), a department of north-eastern Bolivia, +bounded N. and E. by Brazil, S. by the departments of +Santa Cruz and Cochabamba, and W. by La Paz and the +national territory contiguous to Peru and Brazil. Pop. (est., +1900) 32,180, including 6000 wild Indians; area (est., probably +too high) 102,111 sq. m. The “Llanos de Mojos,” famous for +their flourishing Jesuit mission settlements of the 17th and 18th +centuries, occupy the eastern part of this department and are still +inhabited by an industrious peaceful native population, devoted +to cattle raising and primitive methods of agriculture. Cattle +and forest products, including rubber and coca, are exported to a +limited extent. The capital, Trinidad (pop. 2556), is situated on +the Mamoré river in an open fertile country, and was once a +flourishing Jesuit mission.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENI-AMER<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Amir</span>), a tribe of African “Arabs” of Hamitic +stock, ethnologically intermediate between Abyssinians and +Nubians. They are of the Beja family, and occupy the coast of +the Red Sea south of Suakin and portions of the adjacent +coast-country of Eritrea, north of Abyssinia. They are of very +mixed Beja and Abyssinian blood, and speak a dialect half Beja +and half Tigré, locally known as <i>Hassa</i>. They marry the women +of the Bogos and other mountain tribes; but are too proud to let +their daughters marry Abyssinians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Anglo-Egyptian Sudan</i>, ed. Count Gleichen (London, 1905); +A.H. Keane, <i>Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan</i> (1884); G. Sergi, <i>Africa: +Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica</i> (Turin, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENI-ISRAEL<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (“Sons of Israel”), a colony of Jews settled on +the Malabar coast in Kolaba district, Bombay presidency, +chiefly centring in the native state of Janjira. With the Jews +of Cochin, they represent a very ancient Judaic invasion of India, +and are to be entirely distinguished from those Jews who have +come to India in modern days for purposes of trade. Some +authorities believe that the Beni-Israel settled in Kolaba in the +15th century, but they themselves have traditions which indicate +a far longer connexion with India (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: § 3).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENIN,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> the name of a country, city and river of British West +Africa, west of the main channel of the Niger, forming part of the +protectorate of Southern Nigeria. The name was formerly applied +to the coast from the Volta, in 0° 40′ E., to the Rio del Rey, in 8° +40′ E., and included the Slave Coast, the whole delta of the Niger +and a small portion of the country to the eastward. Some trace +of this earlier application remains in the name “Bight of Benin,” +still given to that part of the sea which washes the Slave Coast, +whilst up to 1894 “Benin” was used to designate the French +possessions on the coast now included in Dahomey.</p> + +<p>In its restricted sense Benin is the country formerly ruled by +the king of Benin city. This area, at one time very extensive, +gradually contracted as subject tribes and towns acquired +independence. It may be described as bounded W. by Lagos, +S. by the territory of the Jakri and other tribes of the Niger +delta, E. by the Niger river, and N. by Yorubaland. The +coast-line held by Benin had passed out of its sovereignty by the +middle of the 19th century. In physical characteristics, climate, +flora and fauna, Benin in no way differs from the rest of the +southern portion of Nigeria (<i>q.v.</i>). The coast is low, intersected +by creeks, and forms one huge mangrove swamp; on the rising +ground inland are dense forests in which the cotton and mahogany +trees are conspicuous.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span></p> + +<p>Benin river (known also as the Jakri outlet), though linked to +the Niger system by a network of creeks, is an independent stream. +It is formed by the junction of two rivers, the Ethiope and the +Jamieson, which rise (north of 6° N,) on the western side of the +hills which slope east to the Niger river. They unite about 50 m. +above the sea. The general course of the Benin is westerly. It +enters the Atlantic in about 5° 46′ N., 5° 3′ E., and at its mouth +is 2 m. wide. It is here obstructed by a sand-bar over which there +is 12-14 ft. of water at high tide. The river is navigable by small +steamers up to Sapele, a town on the south bank immediately +below the junction of the head streams. The Ologi and Gwato +creeks enter the Benin on the right or north bank, and on the +same side (8 m. above the mouth of the river) a channel, the Lagos +creek, 170 m. long, branches off to the north-west, affording a +waterway to Lagos. From the south or left bank of the Benin +the Forcados mouth of the Niger can be reached by the Nana +creek.</p> + +<p>The Beni are a pure negro tribe, speaking a distinct language, +but having many characteristics common to those of the Yoruba- +and Ewe-speaking tribes. Like the Ashanti and Dahomeyans +the Beni had a well-organized and powerful government and +possessed a culture rare among negro races (see below, <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>Benin city is situated in a clearing of the forest, about 25 m. +from the river-port of Gwato, on Gwato creek. The principal +building is the British residency, which is constructed of brick +and timber. A primary school, supported by the native chiefs, +was opened in 1901, and a meteorological station was established +in 1902. In 1904 the town was placed in telegraphic communication +with the rest of the protectorate and with Europe. Of the +ancient city, whose buildings excited the admiration of travellers +in the 17th and 18th centuries, scarcely a trace remains. The +houses are neatly built of clay, coloured with red ochre, and +frequently ornamented with rudely carved pillars. The port of +Gwato, which lies about 30 m. north-north-east of the mouth of +the Benin river, has a special interest as the place where Giovanni +Belzoni, the explorer of Egyptian antiquities, died in 1823 when +starting on an expedition to Timbuktu. No trace of his grave can +now be found. Wari (formerly known also as Owari, Oywheré, +&c.) is a much-frequented port on a branch of the Niger of the +same name reached from the Forcados mouth, and is 55 m. south +of Benin city.</p> + +<p>Since the abolition of the slave trade the chief export of the +country is palm-oil. Other trade products were from time to +time—with the desire to preserve the isolation and independence +of the country—placed under fetish, <i>i.e.</i> their export was forbidden, +so that in 1897 the only article in which trade was allowed +by the king was palm-oil. After the British occupation, an +extensive trade developed in oil, kernels, timber, ivory, rubber, +&c. In the rubber and timber industries great strides have been +made. The chiefs and people have shown considerable aptitude +in adapting themselves to the new order of things. Among the +articles prized by the Beni is coral, of which the chiefs wear great +quantities as ornaments.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Benin was discovered by the Portuguese about the +year 1485, and they carried on a brisk trade in slaves, who were +taken to Elmina and sold to the natives of the Gold Coast. At +that time and for more than two centuries afterwards, Benin +seems to have been one of the most powerful states of West +Africa. It was known to Europeans in the 17th century as the +Great Benin. The towns of Lagos and Badagry were both +founded by Benin colonists. Benin city was the seat of a +theocracy of priests, in whose hands the oba or king, nominally +supreme, appears to have often been a puppet. He was revered +by his subjects as a species of divinity, and seldom left the +enclosure surrounding the royal palace. The religion and +mythology of the Beni, like those of the Yorubas, are based on +spirit- and ancestor-worship (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Negro</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>: <i>Ethnology</i>); +the chief spirit or juju was worshipped with human sacrifices to +an appalling extent, the Benin fetish being considered the most +powerful in all West Africa. The usual form of sacrifice was +crucifixion. Many chiefs, in no way politically dependent on +Benin, used to send annual presents to the juju. The Benin +people do not appear to have indulged in wanton cruelty, and it is +stated that they usually stupefied the victims before putting them +to death. The people were skilled in brass work; their carving +and design were alike excellent. Carved ivory objects abound, +and there are many evidences of the skill attained by native +artists, who perhaps owed something to their contact with the +Portuguese. The weaving of cloth was also carried on. The Beni +remained politically and socially almost unaffected by European +influence until the occupation of their country by the British in +1897, their connexion with the white men having previously been +almost confined to matters of trade. The Portuguese withdrew +from the coast in the 18th century, but one of the most striking +proofs of their commercial influence is the fact that a corrupt +Lusitanian dialect was spoken by the older natives up to the last +quarter of the 19th century. The first English expedition to +Benin was in 1553; after that time a considerable trade grew up +between England and that country, ivory, palm-oil and pepper +being the chief commodities exported from Benin. The Dutch +afterwards established factories and maintained them for a +considerable time, chiefly with a view to the slave trade. In +1788 Captain Landolphe founded a factory called Barodo, near +the native village of Obobi for the French Compagnie d’Oywheré; +and it lasted till 1792, when it was destroyed by the English. In +1863 Sir Richard Burton, then British consul at Fernando Po, +went to Benin to try and put a stop to human sacrifices, an +attempt in which he did not succeed. At that time the decline +in power of the kingdom of Benin was obvious, and the city was +in a decaying condition. In 1885 the coast-line of Benin was +placed under British protection, and steps were taken to enter +into friendly relations with the king. Consul G.F.N.B. +Annesley<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> saw the king in 1890, with the hope of making a treaty, +but failed in his object. In March 1892 Captain H.L. Gallwey, +British vice-consul, succeeded in concluding a treaty with the +king Overami. The treaty, however, proved of no avail, and +the king kept as aloof as of old from any outside interference. +In January 1897 J.R. Phillips, acting consul-general, and eight +Europeans were brutally massacred on the road from Gwato to +Benin city, whilst on a mission to the king. Phillips had persisted +in starting for Benin despite the repeated request of the king +that he should delay his visit until he (the king) had finished the +celebration of the annual “customs.” Two Europeans, Captain +Alan Boisragon and R.F. Locke, alone escaped. A punitive +expedition was organized under the command of Admiral Sir +Harry Rawson, the success of which was a remarkable example +of good organization hastily improvised. The news of the +massacre of Phillips’s party reached Rear-Admiral Rawson, the +commander-in-chief on the Cape station, on the 4th of January +1897. The flagship was at Simons Town. The small craft were +dispersed. Two ships at Malta had been ordered to join the Cape +command. A transport was chartered in the Thames for the +purposes of the expedition. In twenty-nine days a force of 1200 +men, coming from three places between 3000 and 4500 m. from +the Benin river, was landed, organized, equipped and provided +with transport. Five days later the city of Benin was taken, and +in twelve days more the men were re-embarked, and the ships +coaled and ready for any further service. On the 17th of February +Benin was occupied after considerable fighting. The town, which +was found to be reeking of human sacrifices, was partly burned, +and on the 22nd the expedition started on its return. The king +and chiefs responsible for the massacre were placed on their trial +by Sir Ralph Moor, high commissioner for Southern Nigeria; +the king was deposed and deported to Calabar, and the chiefs, six +in all, were executed. The chief offender was not brought to +justice until a second punitive expedition in 1899 completed the +pacification of the country. After the removal of the king in +September 1897 a council of chiefs was appointed. This council +carries on the government of the whole Beni country, and is +presided over by a British resident.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—H.L. Roth, <i>Great Benin, its Customs, Art and +Horrors</i> (Halifax, 1903), a comprehensive and profusely +illustrated work, with an annotated bibliography; +C.H. Read and O.M. Dalton, <i>Antiquities from Benin ... in +the British Museum</i> (1899); +Pitt Rivers, <i>Works of Art from Benin</i> (1900); +R.E. Dennett, <i>At the Back of the Black Man’s Mind</i> (London, 1906); +Sir R. Burton, <i>Wanderings in West Africa</i> (London, 1863); +H.L. Gallwey, “Journeys in the Benin Country,” <i>Geog. Jnl.</i>, +vol. i., London, 1893; +A. Boisragon, <i>The Benin Massacre</i> (London, 1897); +R.H. Bacon, <i>Benin, the City of Blood</i> (London, 1898), +by a member of the punitive expedition of 1897; +the annual <i>Reports on Southern Nigeria</i>, +issued by the Colonial Office, London.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mr Annesley (b. 1851), after having served in the Prussian army, +and in the Turkish army during the war of 1877, was in the British +consular service from 1879 to 1892. In 1888 he became consul to +the Congo Free State.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENITOITE,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a mineral discovered in 1907 near the headwaters +of the San Benito river, San Benito Co., California, and +described by Prof. G.D. Louderback. It is a titano-silicate of +barium (BaTiSi<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">9</span>), crystallizing in the hexagonal system, +with a hardness of 6.5, and specific gravity 3.65. It may be +colourless or blue, the colour varying sometimes in different +parts, and passing to a deep sapphire blue. The blue variety is +cut as a gem stone, and often resembles blue spinel, though its +softness distinguishes it from spinel and sapphire. It is a +brilliant stone, with high refractive index, and is strongly +dichroic, being pale when viewed parallel to the principal axis +and dark when viewed transversely.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENJAMIN,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> a tribe of Israel, named after the youngest son of +Jacob and Rachel. As distinct from the others Benjamin was +born not beyond the Jordan but in Palestine, between Bethel and +Ephrath. His mother, dying in childbed, gave him the name +Ben-oni, “Son of my sorrow,” which was changed by his father +to Ben-jamin, meaning probably “Son of the right hand” (<i>i.e.</i> +“of prosperity,” or, perhaps, “son of the south”; Gen. xxxv. +16-18). Of his personal history little is recorded. He was the +favourite of his father and brothers (with which contrast the +spirit of the stories in Judg. xix.-xxi.), and the reputation of +fierceness ascribed to him in the blessing of Jacob (“Benjamin +is a wolf that teareth,” Gen. xlix. 27) agrees with what is told of +the tribe’s warriors (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ehud</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saul</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jonathan</a></span>). It is a curious +feature that its noted slingers were said to be left-handed (Judg. +xx. 16, cf. iii. 15) and even ambidextrous (1 Chron. xii. 2). The +late references to this tribe in the Israelite wanderings in the +wilderness are of little value. On entering Palestine it is allotted +a portion encompassed by the districts of Ephraim, Dan and +Judah. In the time of the “judges” the tribe of Benjamin was +almost exterminated (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Judges, Book of</a></span>), 600 men alone +escaping (Judges xix. sqq.). The tribe was built up again by the +rape of the maidens of Shiloh at one of their annual festivals +(for which cf. Judges ix. 27), but a later narrative gives currency +to a tradition that 400 virgins were also brought to Shiloh, the +survivors of a massacre of the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead. At +all events, Benjamin claimed the honour of providing the great +king of Israel whose heroic deliverance of Jabesh-Gilead is +referred to elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saul</a></span>), and it is noteworthy that the +tribe only now attain historical importance. If the genealogies +associated it with Joseph the father of Ephraim and Manasseh, +its fortunes were for a time bound up with the northern kingdom +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">David</a></span>). Although its territory lies open on the west and +east, its physical features unite it to Judah, and what is known of +its mixed population<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> makes it difficult to determine how far the +youngest of the tribes of Israel enjoyed any independent position +previous to the monarchy. Its neutral position between Judah +and Ephraim gave it an importance which was religious as well as +political. Anathoth the home of Abiathar and Jeremiah, Gibeon +the old Canaanite sanctuary, the royal sanctuary at Bethel, its +associations with Samuel and the prophetic gilds of the times +of Elijah and Elisha, and finally Jerusalem itself, the centre of +worship, give “the least of all the tribes” a unique value in the +history of Old Testament religion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H.W. Hogg, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>, col. 534 sqq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Jerusalem and its district was Jebusite until its capture by David +(see 2 Sam. v.); for Beeroth and Gibeon, see 2 Sam. iv. 2 seq., +xxi. 2, and note the Benjamite and Judahite names which find +analogies in the Edomite genealogies. See, on these points, +S.A. Cook, <i>Jew. Quarterly Review</i> (1906), pp. 528 sqq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENJAMIN OF TUDELA<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (in Navarre), a Jewish rabbi of the +12th century. He visited Constantinople, Egypt, Assyria and +Persia, and penetrated to the frontiers of China. His journeys +occupied him for about thirteen years. He was credulous, but +his <i>Itinerary</i>, or <i>Massa’oth</i>, contains some curious notices of the +countries he visited and of the condition of the Jews. Thus his +work is of much value for the Jewish history of the 12th century. +It is from Benjamin that we know that the Jews of Palestine and +other parts of the East were noted for the arts of dyeing and +glass-making.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Itinerary</i> was translated from the Hebrew into Latin by Arias +Montanus in 1575, and appeared in a French version by Baratier +in 1734. There have been various English translations. One was +published by Asher in 1840; another (with critical Hebrew text) by +M.N. Adler (<i>Jewish Quarterly Review</i>, vols. xvi.-xviii.; also +reprinted as a separate volume, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (1811-1884), Anglo-American +lawyer, of Jewish descent, was born a British subject at St Thomas +in the West Indies on the 11th of August 1811, and was successively +an American lawyer, a leading Confederate politician and +a distinguished English barrister. He eventually died in Paris a +domiciled Frenchman. After 1818 his parents lived in Charleston, +South Carolina, and he went to Yale in 1825 for his education, but +left without taking a degree, and entered an attorney’s office in +New Orleans. He was admitted to the New Orleans bar in 1832. +He compiled with his friend John Slidell a valuable digest of +decisions of the superior courts of New Orleans and Louisiana; +and as a partner in the firm of Slidell, Benjamin & Conrad, he +enjoyed a good practice. In 1848 he was admitted a councillor +of the supreme court, and in 1852 he was elected a senator for +Louisiana, and thereafter he took an active part in politics, +declining to accept a judgeship of the supreme court. In 1861 he +withdrew from the Senate, left Washington and actively espoused +the Confederate cause. He joined Jefferson Davis’s provisional +government as attorney-general, becoming afterwards his +secretary for war (1861-1862), and chief secretary of state +(1862-1865). Although at times subject to fierce criticism with +regard to matters of administration and finance, he was recognized +as one of the ablest men on the Confederate side, and he +remained with Jefferson Davis to the last, sharing his flight after +the surrender at Appomattox, and only leaving him shortly before +his capture, because he found himself unable to go farther on +horseback. He escaped from the coast of Florida in an open boat, +and after many vicissitudes reached England, an exile. In 1866 his +remaining property was lost in the banking failure of Overend & Gurney.</p> + +<p>In London Benjamin was able to earn a little money by +journalism, and on the 13th of January 1866 he entered Lincoln’s +Inn. He received a hospitable welcome from the legal profession. +The influence of English judges who knew his abilities and his +circumstances enabled him to be called to the bar on the 6th of +June 1866, dispensing with the usual three years as a student, +and he acquired his first knowledge of the practice and methods +of English courts as the pupil of Mr C.E. (afterwards Baron) +Pollock. Pollock fully recognized his abilities and they became +and remained firm friends. Benjamin was naturally an apt and +useful pupil; for instance, an opinion of Mr Pollock, which for +long guided the London police in the exercise of their right to +search prisoners, is mentioned by him as having been really +composed by Benjamin while he was still his pupil. Benjamin +joined the northern circuit, and a large proportion of his early +practice came from solicitors at Liverpool who had correspondents +in New Orleans. His business gradually increased, and having +received a patent of precedence, he was on the 2nd of November +1872 called within the bar as a queen’s counsel. In addition to +his knowledge of law and of commercial matters he had considerable +eloquence, and a power of marshalling facts and arguments +that rendered him extremely effective, particularly before judges. +He was less successful in addressing juries, and towards the close +of his career did not take <i>Nisi prius</i> work, but in the court of +appeal and House of Lords and before the judicial committee of +the privy council he enjoyed a very large practice, making for +some time fully £15,000 a year. The question of raising him to +the bench was seriously considered by Lord Cairns, who, however, +seems to have thought that the ungrudging hospitality and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +goodwill with which Benjamin had been received by the English +legal profession had gone far enough. Towards the close of his +career he was in ill health, and he suffered from the results of a fall +from a tramcar. He retired in 1882 to a house in Paris which he +had built and where he had been in the habit of passing his vacations +with his wife, who was a Frenchwoman. He never returned +to practice, but came back to London to be entertained by the +bench and bar of England at a banquet in the Inner Temple Hall +on the 30th of June 1883. He died at Paris on the 6th of May +1884.</p> + +<p>Benjamin was thick-set and stout, with an expression of great +shrewdness. An early portrait of him is to be found in Jefferson +Davis’s <i>Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government</i>. His political +history may be traced in that work, and in John W. Draper’s +<i>American Civil War</i> and von Holst’s <i>Constitutional History of +the United States</i>. Many allusions to his English career will be +found in works describing English lawyers of his period, and there +are some interesting reminiscences of him by Baron Pollock in the +<i>Fortnightly Review</i> for March 1898. His <i>Treatise on the Law of +Sale of Personal Property with References to the American Decisions +and to the French Code and Civil Law</i>—a bulky volume known to +practitioners as <i>Benjamin on Sales</i>—is the principal text-book +on its subject, and a fitting monument of the author’s career at +the English bar, of his industry and learning. Many of his +American speeches have been published.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Judah P. Benjamin</i>, by Pierce Butler (Philadelphia, 1907, with +a good bibliography).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEN LEDI<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (Gaelic, “the hill of God”), a mountain of +Perthshire, Scotland, 2875 ft. high, 5 m. by road N.W. of +Callander. It is situated close to some of the most romantic +scenery in the Highlands, and is particularly well known through +Scott’s <i>Lady of the Lake</i>. Its name is supposed to point to the +time when Beltane rites were observed on its summit. A cairn +was built on the top in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria’s +jubilee. On one of the sides of the mountain is a tarn which +bears the name of Lochan nan Corp, “the little loch of the dead,” +from an accident to a funeral party by which 200 lives were lost.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSÉ<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (1858-  ), Spanish painter, was +born at Valencia, studied painting under Domingo, and showed +from the first such marked talent that he was sent to the Spanish +school in Rome. He was one of the select circle pensioned by +the Spanish government for residence in Italy and executed +several state orders for the decoration of public buildings; but +he owes his chief fame to his large historical paintings, notably +the “Vision in the Coliseum.” He became the leader of the +Spanish art colony in Rome, where he practised as painter and +sculptor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEN LOMOND,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a mountain in the north-west of Stirlingshire, +Scotland. It is situated near the eastern bank of Loch Lomond, +about 9 m. from the head and about 15 from the foot. It is +3192 ft. high, and the prevailing rocks are granite, mica schist, +diorite, porphyry and quartzite, the last, where it crops out on +the surface, gleaming in the distance like snow. Duchray Water, +a head-stream of the Forth, rises in the north-east shoulder. The +hill, which is covered with grass to the top, is a favourite climb, +being ascended from Rowardennan (the easiest) or Inversnaid +on the lake, or Aberfoyle 10 m. inland due east. The view from +the summit extends northward as far as the Grampians, with +occasional glimpses of Ben Nevis; westward to Jura in the +Atlantic; south-westward to Arran in the Firth of Clyde; +southward to Tinto Hill, the Lowthers and Cairnsmore; and +eastward to Edinburgh Castle and Arthur’s Seat.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENLOWES, EDWARD<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1603?-1676), English poet, son of +Andrew Benlowes of Brent Hall, Essex, was born about 1603. +He matriculated at St John’s College, Cambridge, in 1620, and +on leaving the university he made a prolonged tour on the +continent of Europe. He was a Roman Catholic in middle life, +but became a convert to Protestantism in his later years. He +dissipated his fortune by openhanded generosity to his friends +and relations, and possibly by serving in the Civil War; so that +he was in great poverty at the time of his death, which occurred +on the 18th of December 1676. The last eight years of his life +were passed at Oxford. Many of his writings are in Latin. His +most important work is <i>Theophila, or Love’s Sacrifice, a Divine +Poem</i> (1652). The poem deals with mystical religion, telling +how the soul, represented by Theophila, ascends by humility, +zeal and contemplation, and triumphs over the sins of the senses. +It is written in a curious stanza of three lines of unequal length +rhyming together. Until recent times justice has hardly been +done to Benlowes’ poetical merits and indisputable piety. Samuel +Butler, who satirized him in his “Character of a Small Poet,” +found abundant matter for ridicule in his eccentricities; and +Pope and Warburton noted him as a patron of bad poets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Theophila</i> was reprinted by S.W. Singer; and in <i>Minor Poets +of the Caroline Period</i>, vol. i. (1905), Mr Saintsbury reprints <i>Theophila</i> +and two other poems by Benlowes, “The Summary of Wisedome,” +and “A Poetic Descant upon a Private Music-Meeting.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEN MACDHUI,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> more correctly <span class="sc">Ben Muichdhui</span> (Gaelic for +“the mountain of the black pig,” in allusion to its shape), the +second highest mountain (4296 ft.) in Great Britain, one of the +Cairngorm group, on the confines of south-western Aberdeenshire +and south-western Banffshire, not far from the eastern boundary +of Inverness-shire. It is about 11 m. from Castleton of Braemar +and about 10 from Aviemore. The ascent is usually made from +Castleton of Braemar, by way of the Linn of Dee, Glen Lui and +Glen Derry. From the head of Glen Derry, with its blasted +trees, the picture of desolation, it becomes more toilsome, but is +partly repaid by the view of the remarkable columnar cliffs of +Corrie Etchachan. The summit is flat and quite bare of vegetation, +but the panorama in every direction is extremely grand. +At the foot of a vast gully, 2500 ft. above the sea, lies Loch Avon +(or A’an), a narrow lake about 1½ m. long, with water of the +deepest blue and a margin of bright yellow sand. At the western +end of the lake is the Shelter Stone, an enormous block of granite +resting upon two other blocks, which can accommodate a dozen +persons. Beautiful rock crystals occur in veins in the corries. +The summit of Cairngorm, 3½ m. north of that of Ben Macdhui, +may be reached from the latter with scarcely any descent, by +following the rugged ridge flanking the western side of Loch Avon. +The other great peaks of the group are Braeriach (4248 ft.) and +Cairntoul (4241 ft.), and 6 m. to the east are the twin masses of +Ben a Bourd, the northern top of which is 3924 ft. and the southern +3860 ft. high. Ben A’an, an adjoining hill, is 3843 ft. high.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (1858-  ), American +classical scholar, was born on the 6th of April 1858, in +Providence, Rhode Island. He graduated from Brown University +in 1878 and also studied at Harvard (1881-1882) and in +Germany (1882-1884). He taught in secondary schools in +Florida (1878-1879), New York (1879-1881), and Nebraska +(1885-1889), and became professor of Latin in the University +of Wisconsin in 1889, of classical philology at Brown University +in 1891, and of Latin at Cornell University in 1892. His syntactical +studies, notably various papers on the subjunctive, are +based on a statistical examination of Latin texts and are marked +by a fresh system of nomenclature; he ranks as one of the leaders +of the “New American School” of syntacticians, who insist +on a preliminary re-examination of all available data. Of great +importance are his advocacy of “quantitative” reading of Latin +verse and his <i>Critique of Some Recent Subjunctive Theories</i> in +vol. ix. (1898) of <i>Cornell Studies in Classical Philology</i>, of which +he was an editor. Bennett’s <i>Latin Grammar</i> (1895) is the first +successful attempt in America to adopt the method of the brief, +scholarly <i>Schulgrammatik</i>. Besides the Latin classics commonly +read in secondary courses and other text-books in “Bennett’s +Latin Series,” he edited Tacitus’s <i>Dialogus de Oratoribus</i> (1894), +and Cicero’s <i>De Senectute</i> (1897) and <i>De Amicitia</i> (1897). He +wrote, with George P. Bristol, <i>The Teaching of Greek and Latin +in Secondary Schools</i> (1900), and <i>The Latin Language</i>, (1907), +and with William Alexander Hammond translated <i>The Characters +of Theophrastus</i> (1902).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, JAMES GORDON<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (1794-1872), American journalist, +founder and editor of the New York Herald, was born at +Newmills in Banffshire, Scotland, in 1794 (not in 1800, as has been +stated). He was educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +in a seminary at Aberdeen, but in the spring of 1819, giving up +the career which had been chosen for him, he emigrated to +America. Landing at Halifax, Nova Scotia, he earned a poor +living there for a short time by giving lessons in French, Spanish +and bookkeeping; he passed next to Boston, where starvation +threatened him until he got employment in a printing-office; +and in 1822 he went to New York. An engagement as translator +of Spanish for the <i>Courier</i> of Charleston, South Carolina, took +him there for a few months in 1823. On his return to New York +he projected a school, gave lectures on political economy and did +subordinate work for the journals. During the next ten years +he was employed on various papers, was the Washington correspondent +first of the <i>New York Enquirer</i>, and later of the <i>Courier +and Enquirer</i> in 1827-1832, his letters attracting much attention; +he founded the short-lived <i>Globe</i> in New York in 1832; and in +1833-1834 was the chief editor and one of the proprietors of the +<i>Pennsylvanian</i> at Philadelphia. On the 6th of May 1835 he +published the first number of a small one-cent paper, bearing +the title of <i>New York Herald</i>, and issuing from a cellar, in which +the proprietor and editor played also the part of salesman. +“He started with a disclaimer of all principle, as it is called, all +party, all politics”; and to this he consistently adhered. By +his industry, sagacity and unscrupulousness, and by the variety +of his news, the “spicy” correspondence, and the supply of +personal gossip and scandal, he made the paper a great commercial +success. He devoted his attention particularly to the gathering +of news, and was the first to introduce many of the methods +of the modern American reporter. He published on the 13th +of June 1835, the first Wall Street financial article to appear in +any American newspaper; printed a vivid and detailed account +of the great fire of December 1835, in New York; was the first, +in 1846, to obtain the report in full by telegraph of a long political +speech; and during the Civil War maintained a staff of sixty-three +war correspondents. Bennett continued to edit the +Herald almost till his death, at New York, on the 1st of +June 1872.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Gordon Bennett</span> (1841-  ), took over the +management of the paper during the last year of its founder’s +life, and succeeded him in its control. It was he who sent +Henry M. Stanley on his mission to find Livingstone in Central +Africa, and he fitted out the “Jeannette” Polar Expedition, and +in 1883 established (with John W. Mackay) the Commercial +Cable Company.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, JOHN,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> one of the finest English madrigalists, +whose first set of madrigals appeared in 1599. In 1614 Ravenscroft, +in a collection including five of his madrigals, writes a +eulogy which reads like an obituary notice. The first set of +madrigals was reprinted in 1845 by the Musical Antiquarian +Society. Bennett’s works consist of this set and several contributions +to such collections as the <i>Triumphs of Oriana</i>, and to +various collections of church music.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (1812-1875), English physician +and pathologist, was born in London on the 31st of August 1812. +He was educated at Exeter, and being destined for the medical +profession was articled to a surgeon in Maidstone. In 1833 he +began his studies at Edinburgh, and in 1837 graduated with the +highest honours. During the next four years he studied in Paris +and Germany, and on his return to Edinburgh in 1841 published +a <i>Treatise on Cod-liver Oil as a Therapeutic Agent</i>. In the same +year he began to lecture as an extra-academical teacher on +histology, drawing attention to the importance of the microscope +in the investigation of disease; and as physician to the Royal +Dispensary he instituted courses of “polyclinical medicine.” +In 1843 he was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine +at Edinburgh, and performed the duties of that chair with great +energy till incapacitated by failing health. He resigned in 1874. +In August 1875 he was able to be present at the meeting of the +British Medical Association in Edinburgh, on which occasion he +received the degree of LL.D., but the fatigue he then underwent +brought on a relapse, and he was compelled to have the operation +of lithotomy performed. He sank rapidly and died on the 25th +of September at Norwich. His publications were very numerous +including <i>Lectures on Clinical Medicine</i> (1850-1856), which in +second and subsequent editions were called <i>Clinical Lectures +on the Principles and Practice of Medicine</i>, and were translated +into various languages, including Russian and Hindu; <i>Leucocythaemia</i> +(1852), the first recorded cure of which was published +by him in 1845; <i>Outlines of Physiology</i> (1858), reprinted from +the 8th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>; <i>Pathology and +Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis</i> (1853); <i>Textbook of +Physiology</i> (1871-1872).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1816-1875), English +musical composer, the son of Robert Bennett, an organist, was +born at Sheffield on the 13th of April 1816. Having lost his +father at an early age, he was brought up at Cambridge by his +grandfather, from whom he received his first musical education. +He entered the choir of King’s College chapel in 1824. In 1826 +he entered the Royal Academy of Music, and remained a pupil of +that institution for the next ten years, studying pianoforte under +W.H. Holmes and Cipriani Potter, and composition under Lucas +and Dr Crotch. It was during this time that he wrote several of +his most appreciated works, in which may be traced influences +of the contemporary movement of music in Germany, which +country he frequently visited during the years 1836-1842. At +one of the Rhenish musical festivals in Düsseldorf he made the +personal acquaintance of Mendelssohn, and soon afterwards +renewed it at Leipzig, where the talented young Englishman was +welcomed by the leading musicians of the rising generation. At +one of the celebrated Gewandhaus concerts he played his third +pianoforte concerto, which was received enthusiastically. An enthusiastic +account of the event was written by Robert Schumann, +who pronounced Bennett to be the most “<i>musikalisch</i>” of all +Englishmen, and “an angel of a musician” (copying Gregory’s +pun on <i>Angli</i> and <i>Angeli</i>). But it was Mendelssohn’s influence +that dominated Bennett’s mode of utterance. A good example +of this may be studied in Bennett’s <i>Capriccio in D minor</i>. His +great success on the continent established his position on his +return to England. In 1834 he was elected organist of St Anne’s +chapel (now church), Wandsworth. In this year he composed +his <i>Overture to Parisina</i>, and his Concerto in C minor, modelled +on Mozart. An unpublished concerto in F minor, and the +overture to the <i>Naiads</i>, impressed the firm of Broadwood so +favourably in 1836 that they offered the composer a year in +Leipzig, where the <i>Naiads</i> overture was performed at a Gewandhaus +concert on the 13th of February 1837. Bennett visited +Leipzig a second time in 1840-1841, when he composed his +<i>Caprice in E</i> for pianoforte and orchestra and his overture <i>The +Wood Nymphs</i>. He settled in London, devoting himself chiefly +to practical teaching. In 1844 he married Mary Anne, daughter +of Captain James Wood, R.N. He was made musical professor +at Cambridge in 1856, the year in which he was engaged as +permanent conductor of the Philharmonic Society. This latter +post he held until 1866, when he became principal of the Royal +Academy of Music. Owing to his professional duties his latter +years were not fertile, and what he then wrote was scarcely equal +to the productions of his youth. The principal charm of Bennett’s +compositions (not to mention his absolute mastery of the musical +form) consists in the tenderness of their conception, rising +occasionally to sweetest lyrical intensity. Except the opera, +Bennett tried his hand at almost all the different forms of vocal +and instrumental writing. As his best works in various branches +of art, we may mention, for pianoforte solo, and with accompaniment +of the orchestra, his three sketches, <i>The Lake, The Millstream</i> +and <i>The Fountain</i>, and his 3rd pianoforte concerto; for +the orchestra, his <i>Symphony in G minor</i>, and his overture <i>The +Naiads</i>; and for voices, his cantata <i>The May Queen</i>, written for +the Leeds Festival in 1858. For the jubilee of the Philharmonic +Society he wrote the overture <i>Paradise and the Peri</i> in 1862. He +also wrote a sacred cantata, <i>The Woman of Samaria</i>, first performed +at the Birmingham Musical Festival in 1867. In 1870 +the university of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary degree +of D.C.L. A year later he was knighted, and in 1872 he received +a public testimonial before a large audience at St James’s Hall, the +money subscribed being devoted to the foundation of a scholarship +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +at the Royal Academy of Music. Shortly before his death he +produced a sonata called the <i>Maid of Orleans</i>, an elaborate piece +of programme music based on Schiller’s tragedy. He died at his +house in St John’s Wood, London, on the 15th of February 1875. +See the <i>Life</i>, by his son (1908).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEN NEVIS,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> the highest mountain in the British Isles, in +Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is 4406 ft. above the level of the sea, +and is situated 4½ m. E.S.E. of Fort William, the meridian of 5° W +passing through it. As viewed from Banavie on the Caledonian +Canal, it has the appearance of two great masses, one higher +than the other, and though its bulk is impressive, its outline is +much less striking than that of many other Highland hills. Its +summit consists of a plateau 100 acres in area, with a slight slope +to the south, terminating on its north-eastern side in a sheer fall +of more than 1500 ft. Snow lies in some of the gorges all the year +round. The rocks of its lower half are mainly granite and gneiss; +its upper half is composed of porphyritic greenstone, and a variety +of minerals occur. Its circumference at the base is about 30 m. +It may be described as flanked on the west and south by the Glen +and Water of Nevis, on the east by the river and Glen of Treig, +and on the north by the river and Glen of Spean. From 1881 till +1904 meteorological observations were taken from the summit of +Ben Nevis, the observers at first making the ascent daily for the +purpose. In 1883, however, an observatory, equipped at a cost +of £4000 (raised by public subscription), was opened by Mrs +Cameron Campbell of Monzie, who provided the site. The +observatory, which was connected by wire with the post office at +Fort William, was provisioned by the Scottish Meteorological +Society, to whom it belonged. The burden of maintaining it, +however, proving too great for the society’s means, appeal was +made in vain to government for national support, and the station +was closed in 1904. The bridle road up the mountain leaves Glen +Nevis at Achintee; it has a gradient nowhere exceeding 1 in 5, +and the ascent is commonly effected in two to three hours. +There is a small hotel on the summit for the convenience of +tourists, especially of those anxious to witness sunrise. From +the summit every considerable peak in Scotland is visible. +Observations conducted during several months have shown that, +whilst the mean temperature at Fort William was 57° F., at the +summit of Ben Nevis it was 41° F., and that though the rainfall +at the fort amounted to 24 in., it was as much as 43 in. on the top +of the Ben.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1745-1826), +Russian general, of Hanoverian family, was born on the 10th of +February 1745 in Brunswick, and served successively as a page +at the Hanoverian court and as an officer of foot-guards. He +retired from the Hanoverian army in 1764, and in 1773 entered +the Russian service as a field officer. He fought against the +Turks in 1774 and in 1778, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the +latter year. In 1787 his conduct at the storming of Oczakov won +him promotion to the rank of brigadier, and he distinguished +himself repeatedly in the Polish War of 1793-1794 and in the +Persian War of 1796. The part played by Bennigsen in the actual +assassination of the tsar Paul I. is not fully known, but he took a +most active share in the formation and conduct of the conspiracy. +Alexander I. made him governor-general of Lithuania in 1801, +and in 1802 a general of cavalry. In 1806 he was in command of +one of the Russian armies operating against Napoleon, when he +fought the battle of Pultusk and met the emperor in person in +the sanguinary battle of Eylau (8th of February 1807). Here he +could claim to have inflicted the first reverse suffered by Napoleon, +but six months later Bennigsen met with the crushing defeat of +Friedland (14th of June 1807) the direct consequence of which +was the treaty of Tilsit. Bennigsen now retired for some years, +but in the campaign of 1812 he reappeared in the army in various +responsible positions. He was present at Borodino, and defeated +Murat in the engagement of Tarutino, but on account of a quarrel +with Marshal Kutusov, the Russian commander-in-chief, he +was compelled to retire from active military employment. After +the death of Kutusov he was recalled and placed at the head of an +army. Bennigsen led one of the columns which made the decisive +attack on the last day of the battle of Leipzig (16th-19th of +October 1813). On the same evening he was made a count by +the emperor Alexander I., and he afterwards commanded the +forces which operated against Marshal Davout in North Germany. +After the general peace he held a command from 1815 to 1818, +when he retired from active service and settled on his Hanoverian +estate of Banteln near Hildesheim. Count Bennigsen died on the +3rd of December 1826. His son, <span class="sc">Alexander Levin</span>, count von +Bennigsen (1809-1893), was a distinguished Hanoverian statesman.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (1824-1902), German politician, +was born at Lüneburg on the 10th of July 1824. He was +descended from an old Hanoverian family, his father, Karl von +Bennigsen, being an officer in the Hanoverian army, who rose +to the rank of general and also held diplomatic appointments. +Bennigsen, having studied at the university of Göttingen, +entered the Hanoverian civil service. In 1855 he was elected a +member of the second chamber; and as the government refused +to allow him leave of absence from his official duties he resigned +his post in the public service. He at once became the recognized +leader of the Liberal opposition to the reactionary government, +but must be distinguished from Count Bennigsen, a member of +the same family, and son of the distinguished Russian general, +who was also one of the parliamentary leaders at the time. +What gave Bennigsen his importance not only in Hanover, but +throughout the whole of Germany, was the foundation of the +National Verein, which was due to him, and of which he was +president. This society, which arose out of the public excitement +created by the war between France and Austria, had for +its object the formation of a national party which should strive +for the unity and the constitutional liberty of the whole +Fatherland. It united the moderate Liberals throughout Germany, and +at once became a great political power, notwithstanding all the +efforts of the governments, and especially of the king of Hanover +to suppress it. In 1866 Bennigsen used all his influence to keep +Hanover neutral in the conflict between Prussia and Austria, but +in vain. He took no part in the war, but his brother, who was +an officer in the Prussian army, was killed in Bohemia. In May +of this year he had an important interview with Bismarck, who +wished to secure his support for the reform of the confederation, +and after the war was over at once accepted the position of a +Prussian subject, and took his seat in the diet of the North +German Confederation and in the Prussian parliament. He +used his influence to procure as much autonomy as possible for +the province of Hanover, but was a strong opponent of the +Guelph party. He was one of the three Hanoverians, Windthorst +and Miquel being the other two, who at once won for the +representatives of the conquered province the lead in both the +Prussian and German parliaments. The National Verein, its +work being done, was now dissolved; but Bennigsen was chiefly +instrumental in founding a new political party—the National +Liberals,—who, while they supported Bismarck’s national policy, +hoped to secure the constitutional development of the country. +For the next thirty years he was president of the party, and was +the most influential of the parliamentary leaders. It was chiefly +owing to him that the building up of the internal institutions of +the empire was carried on without the open breach between +Bismarck and the parliament, which was often imminent. Many +amendments suggested by him were introduced in the debates +on the constitution; in 1870 he undertook a mission to South +Germany to strengthen the national party there, and was consulted +by Bismarck while at Versailles. It was he who brought +about the compromise on the military bill in 1874. In 1877 he +was offered the post of vice-chancellor with a seat in the Prussian +ministry, but refused it because Bismarck or the king would not +agree to his conditions. From this time his relations with the +government were less friendly, and in 1878 he brought about +the rejection of the first Socialist Bill. In 1883 he resigned his +seat in parliament owing to the reactionary measures of the +government, which made it impossible for him to continue his +former co-operation with Bismarck, but returned in 1887 to +support the coalition of national parties. One of the first acts +of the emperor William II. was to appoint him president of the +province of Hanover. In 1897 he resigned this post and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +retired from public life. He died on the 7th of August +1902.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See biographical notices by A. Kiepert (2nd ed., Hanover, 1902), +and E. Schreck (Hanover, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNINGTON,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> a village and one of the county-seats of +Bennington county, Vermont, U.S.A., situated in the S.W. +part of the state, about 30 m. E.N.E. of Troy, New York. Pop. +(1890) 3971; (1900) 5656 (965 foreign-born); (1910) 6211. +The township of the same name, in which it is situated, had in +1910 a population of 8698, living chiefly in the villages of +Bennington, North Bennington and Bennington Centre, the +last a summer resort. The village of Bennington is served by +the Rutland railway, and is connected by electric railway with +North Adams and Pittsfield, Mass., and Hoosick Falls, N.Y. +It is picturesquely situated at the foot of the Green Mountains, +and the summit of the neighbouring Mt. Anthony (2345 ft.) +commands a magnificent view. The village has woollen mills, +knitting mills, stereoscope, box, and collar and cuff factories +and machine shops. There are white clay and yellow ochre +works in different parts of the township. Bennington is the seat +of the Vermont state soldiers’ home. The Bennington Battle +Monument, a shaft 301 ft. high, is said to be the highest battle +monument in the world. It commemorates the success gained +on the 16th of August 1777 by a force of nearly 2000 “Green +Mountain Boys” and New Hampshire and Massachusetts +militia under General John Stark over two detachments of +General Burgoyne’s army, totalling about 1200 men, under +Col. Friedrich Baum and Col. Breyman. These came up one +after the other in search of provisions and were practically +annihilated, Col. Baum being mortally wounded and 700 men +taken prisoners. The scene of the battle is about 5 m. from the +village. The victory had an important influence on Burgoyne’s +campaign (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American War of Independence</a></span>), weakening +Burgoyne and encouraging the American militia to take the +field against him. Bennington was settled in 1761 and was +named in honour of Governor Benning Wentworth of New +Hampshire. The township was organized in 1762. It was one +of the “New Hampshire Grant” towns, both New York and +New Hampshire claiming jurisdiction over it, and, being the +home of Ethan Alien and Seth Warner, it became the centre +of activities of the “Green Mountain Boys,” of whom they were +leaders. During the fifteen years in which Vermont was an +independent commonwealth, Bennington was the headquarters +of the council of safety. In 1828-1829 W.L. Garrison edited +here a paper called <i>The Journal of the Times</i>. The village of +Bennington was incorporated in 1849.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Merrill and Merrill, <i>Sketches of Historic Bennington</i> (Cambridge, +Mass., 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENNO<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (1010-1106), bishop of Meissen, was the son of Werner, +count of Woldenburg, was educated at Gosslar, and in 1066 was +nominated by the emperor Henry IV. to the see of Meissen. In +the troubles between empire and papacy that followed Benno +took part against the emperor. In 1085 he was deposed by the +synod of Mainz, but after the death of Pope Gregory VII. he +submitted, and on the recommendation of the imperialist Pope +Clement III. was restored to his see, which he held till his death. +He did much for his diocese, both by ecclesiastical reforms on +the Hildebrandine model and by material developments. He +was long reverenced in his own diocese as a saint before, in 1523, +he was canonized by Pope Adrian VI. His canonization drew +from Luther a violent brochure “against the new false god and +old devil, who is to be lifted up at Meissen.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For bibliography, see Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist.: +Bio-bibliographie, s.v.</i> “Bennon.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1834-1901), Flemish +composer, was born on the 17th of August 1834 at Harlebeke +in Flanders. His father and a local village organist were his +first teachers. In 1851 Benoit entered the Brussels Conservatoire, +where he remained till 1855, studying chiefly under F.J. +Fétis. During this period he composed music to many melodramas, +and to an opera <i>Le Village dans les montagnes</i> for the +Park theatre, of which in 1856 he became conductor. He won +a government prize and a money grant in 1857 by his cantata +<i>Le Meurtre d’Abel</i>, and this enabled him to travel through +Germany. In course of his journeyings he found time to write +a considerable amount of music, as well as an essay <i>L’École de +musique flamande et son avenir</i>. Fétis loudly praised his +<i>Messe solennelle</i>, which Benoit produced at Brussels on his +return from Germany. In 1861 he visited Paris for the production +of his opera <i>Le Roi des Aulnes</i> (“Erlkönig”), which, though +accepted by the Théâtre Lyrique, was never mounted; while +there he conducted at the Bouffes-Parisiens. Again returning +home, he astonished a section of the musical world by the production +at Antwerp of a sacred tetralogy, consisting of his +<i>Cantate de Noël</i>, the above-mentioned <i>Mass</i>, a <i>Te Deum</i> and a +<i>Requiem</i>, in which were embodied to a large extent his theories +of Flemish music. It was in consequence of his passion for the +founding of an entirely separate Flemish school that Benoit +changed his name from Pierre to Peter. By prodigious efforts +he succeeded in gathering round him a small band of enthusiasts, +who affected to see with him possibilities in the foundation of +a school whose music should differ completely from that of the +French and German schools. In its main features this school +failed, for its faith was pinned to Benoit’s music, which is hardly +more Flemish than French or German. Benoit’s more important +compositions include the Flemish oratorios <i>De Schelde</i> and +<i>Lucifer</i>, the latter of which met with complete failure on its +production in London in 1888; the operas <i>Het Dorp int Gebirgte</i> +and <i>Isa</i>, the <i>Drama Christi</i>; an enormous mass of songs, choruses, +small cantatas and motets. Benoit also wrote a great number +of essays on musical matters. He died at Antwerp on the 8th +of March 1901.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENOÎT DE SAINTE-MORE,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Sainte-Maure</span>, 12th century +French <i>trouvère</i>, is supposed to have been a native of Sainte-Maure +in Touraine. Very little is known of his personal history. +The <i>maître</i> prefixed to his name implies that he had graduated +at the university, but there is nothing to show whether he was +a simple <i>trouvère</i> by profession or belonged to the clergy. He +was a loyal subject of Henry II. of England, to whose court he +was attached, and when he speaks of the French, it is as “they.” +Wace had begun a history of the dukes of Normandy in his +<i>Roman du Rou</i>. This he brought down to the reign of Henry I., +but here Henry II. seems to have withdrawn his patronage, and +at the end of his poem Wace refers to a <i>maistre Beneeit</i> who had +received a similar commission. There is no other contemporary +poem extant dealing with the subject except the <i>Chronique des +ducs de Normandie</i>, and it would seem reasonable to assume the +identity of Wace’s rival with Benoît de Sainte-More, whose +authorship of the chronicle has, nevertheless, been often disputed. +But a comparison of the <i>Roman de Troie</i>, which is certainly +Benoît’s work, with the <i>Chronique</i>, confirms the supposition that +they are by the same author. The poem contains over forty +thousand lines, and relates the history of the Norman dukes +from Rollo to Henry I., with a preliminary sketch of the Danish +invasions and the adventures of Hastings and his companions. +It has no claims to be considered an original authority. Benoît +drew his information from the <i>De moribus et actis primorum +Normanniae ducum</i> of Dudon de Saint Quentin as far as 1002, +following his model very closely. From that time he avails +himself of the chronicle of William of Jumieges, also of Ordericus +Vitalis and others. The <i>Chronique</i> probably dates from about +1172 to 1176. In the <i>Roman de Troie</i>, written about 1160, +Benoît expressly asserts his authorship. He mentions “Omers” +with great respect as <i>li clers merveillos</i>, but his authority for the +story is naturally not Homer, of whom he could have no first-hand +knowledge. He follows the apocryphal <i>Historia de excidio +Trojae</i> of Dares the Phrygian and the <i>Ephemerides belli Trojani</i> +of Dictys of Crete. The poem runs to about 30,000 lines. The +personages of the classical story are converted into heroes of +romance. They have their castles and their abbeys, and act +in accordance with feudal custom. The supernatural machinery +of Homer is missing both in Benoît’s original and his own +narrative. The story begins with the capture of the Golden +Fleece and comes down to the return of the Greek princes after +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +the fall of Troy. Benoît diverges very widely from the classical +tradition, and M. Léopold Constans sees reason to suppose that +the <i>trouvère</i> founded his poem on an amplified version of the +Dares narrative that has not come down to us. In the <i>Roman +de Troie</i> first appeared the episode of Troïlus and Briseïde, that +was to be developed later in the <i>Filostrato</i> of Boccaccio, which +in its turn formed the basis of Chaucer’s <i>Troilus and Creseide</i>. +The Shakespearian play of <i>Troilus and Cressida</i> is also indirectly +derived from Benoît’s story.</p> + +<p>On the strength of a certain similarity of treatment Benoît has +sometimes been credited with the authorship of the anonymous +<i>Roman d’Énéas</i> and of the <i>Roman de Thèbes</i>, a romance derived +indirectly from the <i>Thebaïs</i> of Statius. M. Constans is inclined +to negative both these attributions. It is not even certain that +the Benoît who chronicled the deeds of the Norman dukes for +Henry II. between 1172 and 1176 was the Benoît de Sainte-More +of the <i>Roman de Troie</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Chronique des ducs de Normandie</i> was edited by Francisque +Michel in 1836-1844; the <i>Roman de Troie</i> by A. Joly in 1870-1871; +the <i>Énéas</i>, by J.J. Salverda de Grave in H. Suchier’s <i>Bibliotheca +Normannica</i> in 1891; the <i>Roman de Thèbes</i> for the <i>Société des +anciens textes français</i>, by M.L. Constans in 1890. See E.D. Grand in +<i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>; L. Constans in Petit de Julleville’s <i>Hist. +de la langue et de la litt, française</i> (vol. i. pp. 171-225). where the +three romances are analysed at length. The prefaces to the editions just +mentioned discuss the authorship of the romances.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENSERADE, ISAAC DE<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (1613-1691), French poet, was born +in Paris, and baptized on the 5th of November 1613. His family +appears to have been connected with Richelieu, who bestowed on +him a pension of 600 livres. He began his literary career with the +tragedy of <i>Cléopâtre</i> (1635), which was followed by four other indifferent pieces. On Richelieu’s death Benserade lost his pension, +but became more and more a favourite at court, especially +with Anne of Austria. He provided the words for the court +ballets, and was, in 1674, admitted to the Academy, where he +wielded an influence quite out of proportion to the merit of his +work. In 1676 the failure of his <i>Métamorphoses d’Ovide</i> in the +form of rondeaux gave a blow to his reputation, but by no means +destroyed his vogue with his contemporaries. Benserade would +probably be forgotten but for his sonnet on Job (1651). This +sonnet, which he sent to a young lady with his paraphrase on Job, +having been placed in competition with the <i>Urania</i> of Voiture, a +dispute on their relative merits long divided the whole court and +the wits into two parties, styled respectively the <i>Jobelins</i> and the +<i>Uranists</i>. The partisans of Benserade were headed by the prince +de Conti and Mile de Scudéry, while Mme de Montausier and +J.G. de Balzac took the side of Voiture.</p> + +<p>Some years before his death, on the 19th of October 1691, +Benserade retired to Chantilly, and devoted himself to a translation +of the Psalms, which he nearly completed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENSLEY, ROBERT,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> an 18th-century English actor, of whom +Charles Lamb in the <i>Essays of Elia</i> speaks with special praise. +His early life is obscure, and he is said to have served in America +as a lieutenant of marines; but he appeared at Drury Lane in +1765, and at that house and at Covent Garden, and later at the +Haymarket, he played important parts up to 1796, when he +retired from the stage. He appears then to have been given +a small post under the government, a paymastership, which he +resigned in 1798. He is stated in various quarters to have died +in 1817, but Mr Joseph Knight shows in his article in the <i>Dict. +Nat. Biog.</i> that this is due to a confusion with another man +named William Bensley, who possibly belonged to the family +of printers of whom Thomas Bensley (d. 1833) was the chief +representative. On the stage he was simply “Mr Bensley,” +but though he is named William and even Richard in some +accounts, Mr Knight shows that his name was certainly Robert. +The actual date of his death is unknown, though it was probably +later than 1809, when he is said to have inherited a fortune. His +great character was Malvolio, but Charles Lamb’s fervent +admiration of his acting seems to have outrun the general +opinion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENSON, EDWARD WHITE<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1829-1896), archbishop of +Canterbury, was born on the 14th of July 1829, at Birmingham. +He came of a family of Yorkshire dalesmen, his father, whose +name was also Edward White Benson, being a manufacturing +chemist of some note. He was educated at King Edward VI.’s +school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop +of Manchester, and amongst his school-fellows were B.F. Westcott +and J.B. Lightfoot, both of whom preceded him to Trinity +College, Cambridge, where he was elected a sub-sizar in 1848, +becoming subsequently sizar and scholar. The death of his +widowed mother in 1850 left him almost without resources, with +a family of younger brothers and sisters dependent upon him. +Relations came to his aid, and presently his anxieties were +relieved by Francis Martin, bursar of Trinity, who gave him +liberal help. Benson took his degree in 1852 as a senior optime, +eighth classic and senior chancellor’s medallist, and was elected +fellow of Trinity in the following year. He became a master at +Rugby, first under E.M. Goulburn, and then (1857) under +Frederick Temple, who became his lifelong friend; he was also +ordained deacon in 1854 and priest in 1856. From Rugby he +went to be first headmaster of Wellington College, which was +opened in January 1859; and in the course of the same year he +married his cousin, Mary Sidgwick. The school flourished under +his management and also developed his administrative abilities, +but gradually his thoughts began to turn towards other work. +In 1868 he became prebendary of Lincoln and examining chaplain +to Bishop Christopher Wordsworth, an office which he also held +for a short time in 1870 for Dr Temple, just appointed to the see +of Exeter. In 1872 his acceptance of the chancellorship of +Lincoln opened a new period of his life. As chancellor, the +statutes directed him to study theology, to train others in that +study and to oversee the educational work of the diocese. To +such work Benson at once devoted himself; and did more +perhaps than any other man to reinvigorate cathedral life in +England. He started a theological college (the <i>Scholae Cancellarii</i>), +founded night schools, delivered courses of lectures on +church history, held Bible classes, and was instrumental in +founding a society of mission preachers for the diocese, the +“Novate Novale.” Early in 1877 he was consecrated first +bishop of Truro, and threw himself with characteristic vigour into +the work of organizing the new diocese. His knowledge, his +sympathy, his enthusiasm soon made themselves felt everywhere; +the ruridecanal conferences of clergy became a real force, and the +church in Cornwall was inspired with a vitality that had never +been possible when it was part of the unwieldy diocese of Exeter. +A chapter was constituted, the bishop being dean; amongst its +members was a canon missioner (the first to be appointed in +England), and the <i>Scholae Cancellarii</i> were founded after the +Lincoln pattern. Moreover, the bishop at once set to work to +build a cathedral. The foundation-stone was laid on the 20th of +May 1880, and on the 3rd of November 1887 the building, so +far as then completed, was consecrated. On the death of Dr +Tait, Benson was nominated to the see of Canterbury and was +enthroned on the 29th of March 1883. His primacy was one of +almost unprecedented activity.</p> + +<p>Frequent communications passed between him and the heads +of the Eastern Churches. With their approval a bishop was again +consecrated, after six years’ interval (1881-1887), for the Anglican +congregations in Jerusalem and the East; and the features which +had made the plan objectionable to many English churchmen +were now abolished. In 1886, after much careful investigation, +he founded the “Archbishop’s Mission to the Assyrian Christians,” +having for its object the instruction and the strengthening +from within of the “Nestorian” churches of the East (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nestorians</a></span>). An interchange of courtesies with the Metropolitan +of Kiev on the occasion of the 900th anniversary of the conversion +of Russia (1888), led to further intercourse, which has tended to a +friendlier feeling between the English and Russian churches. On +the other hand, with the efforts towards a <i>rapprochement</i> with +the Church of Rome, to which the visit of the French Abbé +Portal in 1894 gave some stimulus, the archbishop would have +nothing to do.</p> + +<p>With the other churches of the Anglican Communion the +archbishop’s relations were cordial in the extreme and grew +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +closer as time went on. Particular questions of importance, the +Jerusalem bishopric, the healing of the Colenso schism in the +diocese of Natal, the organization of native ministries and the +like, occupied much of his time; and he did all in his power to +foster the growth of local churches. But it was the work at home +which occupied most of his energies. That he in no way slighted +diocesan work had been shown at Truro. He complained now +that the bishops were “bishops of their dioceses but not bishops +of England,” and did all he could to make the Church a greater +religious force in English life. He sat on the ecclesiastical courts +commission (1881-1883) and the sweating commission (1888-1890). +He brought bills into parliament to reform Church +patronage and Church discipline, and worked unremittingly for +years in their behalf. The latter became law in 1892, and the +former was merged in the Benefices Bill, which passed in 1898, +after his death. He wrote and spoke vigorously against Welsh +disestablishment (1893); and in the following year, under his +guidance, the existing agencies for Church defence were consolidated. +He was largely instrumental in the inauguration of the +House of Laymen in the province of Canterbury (1886); he made +diligent inquiries as to the internal order of the sisterhoods of +which he was visitor; from 1884 onwards he gave regular Bible +readings for ladies in Lambeth Palace chapel. But the most +important ecclesiastical event of his primacy was the judgment +in the case of the bishop of Lincoln (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lincoln Judgment</a></span>), in +which the law of the prayer-book is investigated, as it had never +been before, from the standpoint of the whole history of the +English Church. In 1896 the archbishop went to Ireland to see the +working of the sister Church. He was received with enthusiasm, +but the work which his tour entailed over-fatigued him. On +Sunday morning the 11th of October, just after his return, whilst +on a visit to Mr Gladstone, he died in Hawarden parish church of +heart failure.</p> + +<p>Archbishop Benson left numerous writings, including a +valuable essay on <i>The Cathedral</i> (London, 1878), and various +charges and volumes of sermons and addresses. But his two +chief works, posthumously published, are his <i>Cyprian</i> (London, +1897), a work of great learning, which had occupied him at +intervals since early manhood; and <i>The Apocalypse, an Introductory +Study</i> (London, 1900), interesting and beautiful, but +limited by the fact that the method of study is that of a Greek +play, not of a Hebrew apocalypse. The archbishop’s knowledge +of the past was both wide and minute, but it was that of an +antiquary rather than of a historian. “I think,” writes his +son, “he was more interested in modern movements for their +resemblance to ancient than vice versa.” His sermons are very +noble though written in a style which is over-compressed and +often obscure. He wrote some good hymns, including “O +Throned, O Crowned” and a beautiful version of <i>Urbs Beata</i>. +His “grandeur in social function” was unequalled and his +interests were very wide. But above all else he was a great +ecclesiastic. He paid less attention to secular politics than +Archbishop Tait; but if a man is to be judged by the effect of +his work, it is Benson and not Tait who should be described as a +great statesman. His biography, by his son, reveals him as a +man of devout and holy life, impulsive indeed and masterful, +but one who learned self-restraint by strenuous endeavour.</p> + +<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Arthur Christopher Benson</span> (b. 1862), was +educated at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge. He became +fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, and was a master at +Eton College from 1885 to 1903. His literary capacity was +early shown in the remarkable fiction of his <i>Memoirs of Arthur +Hamilton</i> (1886) under the pseudonym of “Christopher Carr,” +and his <i>Poems</i> (1893) and <i>Lyrics</i> (1895) established his reputation +as a writer of verse. Among his works are <i>Fasti Etonenses</i> (1899); +his father’s <i>Life</i> (1899); <i>The Schoolmaster</i> (1902), a commentary +on the aims and methods of an assistant schoolmaster in a +public school; a study of Archbishop Laud (1887); monographs +on D.G. Rossetti (1904), Edward FitzGerald (1905) and +Walter Pater (1906), in the “English Men of Letters” series; +<i>Lord Vyet and other Poems</i> (1897), <i>Peace and other Poems</i> +(1905); <i>The Upton Letters (1905), From a College Window</i> +(1906), <i>Beside Still Waters</i> (1907). He also collaborated with +Lord Esher in editing the <i>Correspondence of Queen Victoria</i> +(1907).</p> + +<p>The third son, <span class="sc">Edward Frederick Benson</span> (b. 1867), was +educated at Marlborough College and King’s College, Cambridge. +He worked at Athens for the British Archaeological Society +from 1892 to 1895, and subsequently in Egypt for the Hellenic +Society. In 1893 his society novel, <i>Dodo</i>, brought him to the +front among the writers of clever fiction; and this was followed +by other novels, notably <i>The Vintage</i> (1898) and <i>The Capsina</i> (1899).</p> + +<p>The fourth son, <span class="sc">Robert Hugh Benson</span> (b. 1871), was educated +at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. After reading with +Dean Vaughan at Llandaff he took orders, and in 1898 became +a member of the Community of the Resurrection at Mirfield. +In 1903 he became a Roman Catholic, was ordained priest at +Rome in the following year, and returned to Cambridge as +assistant priest of the Roman Catholic church there. Among +his numerous publications are <i>The Light Invisible, By What +Authority?, The King’s Achievement, Richard Raynal, Solitary, +The Queen’s Tragedy, The Sentimentalists, Lord of the World</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.C. Benson, <i>Life of Archbishop Benson</i> (2 vols., London, +1899); J.H. Bernard, <i>Archbishop Benson in Ireland</i> (1897); +Sir L.T. Dibdin in <i>The Quarterly Review</i>, October 1897.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1858-  ), English actor, son +of William Benson of Alresford, Hants, was born at Tunbridge +Wells on the 4th of November 1858. He came of a talented +family, his elder brother, W.A.S. Benson (b. 1854), becoming +well known in the world of art as one of the pioneers in the +revival of English industrial craftsmanship, especially in the +field of the metallic arts; and his younger brother, Godfrey +Benson, being an active Liberal politician. He was educated +at Winchester and New College, Oxford, and at the university +was distinguished both as an athlete (winning the Inter-university +three miles) and as an amateur actor. In the latter respect he +was notable for producing at Oxford the first performance of a +Greek play, the <i>Agamemnon</i>, in which many Oxford men who +afterwards became famous in other fields took part. Mr Benson, +on leaving Oxford, took to the professional stage, and made +his first appearance at the Lyceum, under Irving, in <i>Romeo and +Juliet</i>, as Paris, in 1882. In the next year he went into managership +with a company of his own, taken over from Walter Bentley, +and from this time he became gradually more and more prominent, +both as an actor of leading parts himself and as the organizer +of practically the only modern “stock company” touring +through the provinces. In 1886 he married Gertrude Constance +Cockburn (Featherstonhaugh), who acted in his company and +continued to play leading parts with him. Mr Benson’s chief +successes were gained out of London for some years, but in 1890 +he had a season in London at the Globe and in 1900 at the +Lyceum, and in later years he was seen with his <i>répertoire</i> at the +Coronet. His company included from time to time many actors +and actresses who, having been trained under him, became +prominent on their own account, and both by his organization +of this regular company and by his foundation of a dramatic +school of acting in 1901, Mr Benson exercised a most important +influence on the contemporary stage. From the first he devoted +himself largely to the production of Shakespeare’s plays, reviving +many which had not been acted for generations, and his services +to the cause of Shakespeare can hardly be overestimated. From +1888 onwards he managed the Stratford-on-Avon Shakespearian +Festival. His romantic and intellectual powers as an actor, +combined with his athletic and picturesque bearing and fine +elocution, were conspicuously shown in his own impersonations, +most remarkable among which were his Hamlet (in 1900 he +produced this play without cuts in London), his Coriolanus, his +Richard II., his Lear and his Petruchio.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENSON, FRANK WESTON<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1862-  ), American painter, +was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1862. +He was a pupil of Boulanger and of Lefebvre in Paris; won +many distinctions in American exhibitions, and a silver medal +at the Paris Exhibition of 1900; and became a member of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +the “Ten Americans,” and of the National Academy of Design, +New York. Besides portraits, he painted landscape and still life; +and he was one of the decorators of the Congressional library, +Washington, D.C.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BENSON, GEORGE<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1699-1762), English dissenting minister, +was born at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, on the 1st of September +1699, of a family which had distinguished itself in church +and state. He studied at a school at Whitehaven and later at the +university of Glasgow. In 1722, on Calamy’s recommendation, +he was chosen pastor of a congregation of dissenters at Abingdon, +in Berkshire, where he continued till 1729, when, having embraced +Arminian views, he became the choice of a congregation +in Southwark; and in 1740 he was appointed by the congregation +of Crutched Friars colleague to the learned Dr Nathaniel Lardner, +whom he succeeded in 1749. His <i>Defence of the Reasonableness of +Prayer</i> appeared in 1731, and he afterwards published paraphrases +and notes on the epistles to the Thessalonians, Timothy, +Titus and Philemon, adding dissertations on several important +subjects, particularly (as an appendix to 1 Timothy) on inspiration. +In 1738 he published his <i>History of the First Planting of the +Christian Religion</i>, in 3 vols. 4to, a work of great learning and +ability. He also wrote the <i>Reasonableness of the Christian +Religion</i> (1743), the <i>History of the Life of Jesus Christ</i>, posthumously +published in 1764, a paraphrase and notes on the +seven Catholic epistles, and several other works, which gained him +great reputation as a scholar and theologian even outside his +own communion and his own country. Owing to his undoubted +Socinianism his works suffered neglect after his death, which +occurred on the 6th of April 1762.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 3, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 34533-h.htm or 34533-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/5/3/34533/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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