diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:01:24 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:01:24 -0700 |
| commit | 38fc24e886980663ceeaf0c2155b78bec4497619 (patch) | |
| tree | 15d70bb3b9d8a27acbe64b8a7f6b1abe81ce64b7 /34312-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '34312-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/34312-h.htm | 22382 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img855.jpg | bin | 0 -> 373 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img863.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45002 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img871.jpg | bin | 0 -> 42576 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img871a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 12084 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img901.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15678 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img918.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36965 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img919a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7110 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img919b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8910 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img919c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 982 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img919d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 958 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img920a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 13351 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img920b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10077 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img928.jpg | bin | 0 -> 109963 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img928a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 22610 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img928b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 62573 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img928c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 29278 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img928d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 42035 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img928e.jpg | bin | 0 -> 66699 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img937.jpg | bin | 0 -> 87175 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img944.jpg | bin | 0 -> 154612 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img960a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 149892 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img960b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 343853 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img960c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 201188 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img960d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 434122 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img971.jpg | bin | 0 -> 70079 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34312-h/images/img972.jpg | bin | 0 -> 89573 bytes |
27 files changed, 22382 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/34312-h/34312-h.htm b/34312-h/34312-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f90dd12 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/34312-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,22382 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume II Slice VIII - Atherstone to Austria. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; } + hr.art { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em } + hr.foot {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; } + hr.full {width: 100%} + + table.ws {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + table.reg { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both; } + table.nobctr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; } + table.pic { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + table.math0 { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + table.math0 td {text-align: center;} + table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;} + + table.reg td { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; white-space: normal;} + table.reg td.tc5p { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr td { white-space: normal; } + table.pic td { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;} + table.nobctr p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + table.pic td p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + + td { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + td.norm { white-space: normal; } + td.denom { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + + td.tcc { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;} + td.tccm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tccb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcr { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + td.tcrb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcrm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tcl { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + td.tclb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tclm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;} + td.vb { vertical-align: bottom; } + + .caption { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .caption1 { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + .caption80 { font-size: 0.8em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + + td.lb {border-left: black 1px solid;} + td.ltb {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.rb {border-right: black 1px solid;} + td.rb2 {border-right: #808080 3px solid;} + td.tb, span.tb {border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.bb {border-bottom: black 1px solid;} + td.bb1 {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.rlb {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;} + td.allb {border: black 1px solid;} + td.cl {background-color: #e8e8e8} + + table p { margin: 0;} + + a:link, a:visited, link {text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;} + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + .center1 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .grk {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;} + + .f80 {font-size: 80%} + .f90 {font-size: 90%} + .f150 {font-size: 150%} + .f200 {font-size: 200%} + + .sp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .sp1 {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su1 {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;} + .spp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .suu {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .scs {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + .ov {text-decoration: overline} + .cl {background-color: #f5f5f5;} + .bk {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;} + .bk1 {margin-left: -1em;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0; + padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; } + span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; } + .fn { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5; + text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; } + span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;} + + div.poemr { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;} + div.poemr p { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } + div.poemr p.s { margin-top: 1.5em; } + div.poemr p.i05 { margin-left: 0.4em; } + div.poemr p.i1 { margin-left: 1em; } + div.poemr p.i2 { margin-left: 2em; } + + .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figleft1 { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figcenter {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;} + .figcenter1 {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .figure {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;} + .bold {font-weight: bold; } + + div.minind {text-align: justify;} + div.condensed, div.condensed1 { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + div.list {margin-left: 0;} + div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list1 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.prl {padding-left: 10%; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8 + "Atherstone" to "Austria" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 13, 2010 [EBook #34312] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOLUME 2 SL 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +One typographical error has been corrected. It +appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME II SLICE VIII<br /><br /> +Atherstone to Austria</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">ATHERSTONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">AUDEFROI LE BATARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">ATHERTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">AUDIENCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">ATHETOSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">ATHIAS, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">AUDIT and AUDITOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">ATHLETE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">AUDLEY, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">ATHLETIC SPORTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">ATHLONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">ATHOL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">AUDRAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">AUDRAN, EDMOND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">ATHOLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">ATHOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">ATHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">AUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">ATINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">AUERBACH, BERTHOLD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">ATITLÁN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">ATKINSON, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">AUFIDENA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">AUGEAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">ATLANTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">AUGER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">ATLANTIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">ATLANTIC CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">AUGHRIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">ATLANTIC OCEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">ATLANTIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">AUGITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">ATLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">AUGMENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">ATLAS MOUNTAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">AUGMENTATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">ATMOLYSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">AUGSBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">ATMOSPHERE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">AUGURS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">ATOLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">AUGUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">ATOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">AUGUSTA</a> (Georgia, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">ATONEMENT and DAY OF ATONEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">AUGUSTA</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">ATRATO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">AUGUSTA</a> (Sicily)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">ATREK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ATREUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">AUGUSTAN HISTORY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">ATRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">ATRIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">ATROPHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">AUGUSTINE, SAINT</a> (354-430)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">ATROPOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">AUGUSTINE, SAINT</a> (archbishop)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">AUGUSTINIAN CANONS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">ATTACAPA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">ATTACHMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">AUGUSTINIANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">ATTAINDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">AUGUSTOWO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">ATTAINT, WRIT OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">AUGUSTUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">ATTALIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">AUGUSTUS I</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">ATTAR OF ROSES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">AUGUSTUS II</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">ATTEMPT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">AUGUSTUS III</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">ATTENTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">AUGUSTUSBAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">AUK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">ATTERBURY, FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">ATTESTATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">AULIC COUNCIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">ATTHIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">AULIE-ATA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">ATTIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">AULIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">ATTICA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">AULNOY, MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">ATTIC BASE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">AULOS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D’ORLÉANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">AUMALE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">ATTILA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">AUMONT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">ATTIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">AUNCEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">ATTLEBOROUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">AUNDH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">ATTOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">ATTORNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">AUNT SALLY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">ATTORNEY-GENERAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">AURA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">ATTORNMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">AURANGABAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">ATTRITION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">AURANGZEB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">ATTWOOD, THOMAS</a> (English composer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">AURAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">ATTWOOD, THOMAS</a> (English political reformer)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">AURELIA, VIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">ATWOOD, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">AURELIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">AUBADE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">AURELIANUS, CAELIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">AUBAGNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN BAPTISTE D’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">AUBE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">AUREOLA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">AUBENAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">AURICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">AURICLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">AUBERGINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">AURICULA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">AUBERVILLIERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">AURIFABER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">AURIGA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D’</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">AURILLAC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D’</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">AURISPA, GIOVANNI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D’</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">AUROCHS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">AUBIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">AURORA</a> (Roman goddess)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">AUBREY, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">AURORA</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">AUBURN</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">AURORA</a> (Missouri, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">AUBURN</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">AURORA</a> (New York, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">AUBURN</a> (colour)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">AURORA POLARIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">AUBUSSON, PIERRE D’</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">AURUNCI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">AUBUSSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">AUSCULTATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">AUCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">AUSSIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">AUCHTERARDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">AUSTEN, JANE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">AUCHTERMUCHTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">AUSTERLITZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">AUSTIN, ALFRED</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">AUSTIN, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">AUCKLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">AUSTIN, SARAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">AUCKLAND ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">AUCTION PITCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">AUSTIN</a> (Minnesota, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">AUCTIONS and AUCTIONEERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">AUSTIN</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">AUCUBA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">AUSTRALASIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">AUDAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">AUSTRALIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">AUDE</a> (river of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">AUSTRASIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">AUDE</a> (department of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">AUSTRIA</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page845" id="page845"></a>845</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">ATHERSTONE, WILLIAM GUYBON<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1813-1898), British +geologist, one of the pioneers in South African geology, was +born in 1813, in the district of Uitenhage, Cape Colony. Having +qualified as M.D. he settled in early life as a medical practitioner +at Grahamstown, subsequently becoming F.R.C.S. In 1839 +his interest was aroused in geology, and from that date he +“devoted the leisure of a long and successful medical practice” +to the pursuit of geological science. In 1857 he published an +account of the rocks and fossils of Uitenhage (the latter described +more fully by R. Tate, <i>Quart. Journal Geol. Soc.</i>, 1867). He also +obtained many fossil reptilia from the Karroo beds, and presented +specimens to the British Museum. These were described +by Sir Richard Owen. Atherstone’s identification in 1867 as a +diamond of a crystal found at De Kalk near the junction of the +Riet and Vaal rivers, led indirectly to the establishment of the +great diamond industry of South Africa. He encouraged the +workings at Jagersfontein, and he also called attention to the +diamantiferous neck at Kimberley. He was one of the founders +of the Geological Society of South Africa at Johannesburg in +1895; and for some years previously he was a member of the +Cape parliament. He died at Grahamstown, on the 26th of +June 1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the obituary by T. Rupert Jones, <i>Natural Science</i>, vol. xiv. +(January 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHERSTONE,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a market-town in the Nuneaton parliamentary +division of Warwickshire, England, 102½ m. N.W. from London +by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5248. +It lies in the upper valley of the Anker, under well-wooded +hills to the west, and is on the Roman Watling Street, and the +Coventry canal. The once monastic church of St Mary is rebuilt, +excepting the central tower and part of the chancel. The chief +industry is hat-making. On the high ground to the west lie +ruins of the Cistercian abbey of Merevale, founded in 1149; +they include the gatehouse chapel, part of the refectory and +other remains exhibiting beautiful details of the 14th century. +Coal is worked at Baxterley, 3 m. west of Atherstone.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Atherstone (<i>Aderestone, Edridestone, Edrichestone</i>), though not +mentioned in any pre-Conquest record, is of unquestionably ancient +origin. A Saxon barrow was opened near the town in 1824. It is +traversed by Watling Street, and portions of the ancient Roman +road have been discovered in modern times. Atherstone is mentioned +in Domesday among the possessions of Countess Godiva, the +widow of Leofric. In the reign of Henry III. it passed to the monks +of Bec in Normandy, who in 1246 obtained the grant of an annual +fair at the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, and the next year of +a market every Tuesday. This market became so much frequented +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page846" id="page846"></a>846</span> +that in 1319 a toll was levied upon all goods coming into the town, +in order to defray the cost of the repair to the roads necessitated +by the constant traffic, and in 1332 a similar toll was levied on all +goods passing over the bridge called Feldenbrigge near Atherstone. +The September fair and Tuesday markets are still continued. In +the reign of Edward III. a house of Austin Friars was founded at +Atherstone by Ralph Lord Basset of Drayton, which, however, +never rose to much importance, and at its dissolution in 1536 was +valued at 30 shillings and 3 pence only.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHERTON,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Chowbent</span>, an urban district in the Leigh +parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 13 m. W.N.W. +of Manchester on the London & North-Western and Lancashire +& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 16,211. The cotton factories +are the principal source of industry; there are also iron-works +and collieries. The manor was held by the local family of +Atherton from John’s reign to 1738, when it passed by marriage +to Robert Gwillym, who assumed that name. In 1797 his +eldest daughter and co-heiress married Thomas Powys, afterwards +the second Lord Lilford. Up to 1891 the lord of the manor +held a court-leet and court-baron annually in November, but +in that year Lord Lilford sold to the local board the market +tolls, stallages and pickages, and since this sale the courts have +lapsed. The earliest manufactures were iron and cotton. Silk-weaving, +formerly an extensive industry, has now almost +entirely decayed. The first chapel or church was built in 1645. +James Wood, who became Nonconformist minister in the chapel +at Atherton in 1691, earned fame and the familiar title of +“General” by raising a force from his congregation, uncouthly +armed, to fight against the troops of the Pretender (1715).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHETOSIS<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hathetos">ἄθετος</span>, “without place”), the medical term +applied to certain slow, purposeless, deliberate movements of +the hands and feet. The fingers are separately flexed and +extended, abducted and adducted in an entirely irregular way. +The hands as a whole are also moved, and the arms, toes and feet +may be affected. The condition is usually due to some lesion of +the brain which has caused hemiplegia, and is especially common +in childhood. It is occasionally congenital (so called), and is +then due to some injury of the brain during birth. It is more +usually associated with hemiplegia, in which condition there is +first of all complete voluntary immobility of the parts affected: +but later, as there is a return of a certain amount of power over +the limbs affected, the slow rhythmic movements of athetosis +are first noticed. This never develops, however, where there is +no recovery of voluntary power. Its distribution is thus nearly +always hemiplegic, and it is often associated with more or less +mental impairment. The movements may or may not continue +during sleep. They cannot be arrested for more than a moment +by will power, and are aggravated by voluntary movements. +The prognosis is unsatisfactory, as the condition usually continues +unchanged for years, though improvement occasionally +occurs in slight cases, or even complete recovery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHIAS, JOSEPH<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (d. 1700), Jewish rabbi and printer, was +born in Spain and settled in Amsterdam. His editions of the +Hebrew Bible (1661, 1667) are noted for beauty of execution +and the general correctness of the text. He also printed a +Judaeo-German edition of the Bible in 1679, a year after the +appearance of the edition by Uri Phoebus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHLETE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="athletes">ἀθλητής</span>; Lat. <i>athleta</i>), in Greek and Roman +antiquities, one who contended for a prize (<span class="grk" title="athlon">ἀθλον</span>) in the games; +now a general term for any one excelling in physical strength. +Originally denoting one who took part in musical, equestrian, +gymnastic, or any other competitions, the name became restricted +to the competitors in gymnastic contests, and, later, +to the class of professional athletes. Whereas in earlier times +competitors, who were often persons of good birth and position, +entered the lists for glory, without any idea of material gain, +the professional class, which arose as early as the 5th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was chiefly recruited from the lower orders, with whom the +better classes were unwilling to associate, and took up athletics +entirely as a means of livelihood. Ancient philosophers, moralists +and physicians were almost unanimous in condemning the profession +of athletics as injurious not only to the mind but also to +the body. The attack made upon it by Euripides in the fragment +of the <i>Autolycus</i> is well known. The training for the contests +was very rigorous. The matter of diet was of great importance; +this was prescribed by the <i>aleiptes</i>, whose duty it also was to +anoint the athlete’s body. At one time the principal food +consisted of fresh cheese, dried figs and wheaten bread. Afterwards +meat was introduced, generally beef, or pork; but the +bread and meat were taken separately, the former at breakfast, +the latter at dinner. Except in wine, the quantity was unlimited, +and the capacity of some of the heavy-weights must have been, +if such stories as those about Milo are true, enormous. In +addition to the ordinary gymnastic exercises of the palaestra, +the athletes were instructed in carrying heavy loads, lifting +weights, bending iron rods, striking at a suspended leather sack +filled with sand or flour, taming bulls, &c. Boxers had to practise +delving the ground, to strengthen their upper limbs. The competitions +open to athletes were running, leaping, throwing the +discus, wrestling, boxing and the pancratium, or combination +of boxing and wrestling. Victory in this last was the highest +achievement of an athlete, and was reserved only for men of +extraordinary strength. The competitors were naked, having +their bodies salved with oil. Boxers wore the <i>caestus</i>, a strap of +leather round the wrists and forearms, with a piece of metal +in the fist, which was sometimes employed with great barbarity. +An athlete could begin his career as a boy in the contests set +apart for boys. He could appear again as a youth against his +equals, and though always unsuccessful, could go on competing +till the age of thirty-five, when he was debarred, it being assumed +that after this period of life he could not improve. The most +celebrated of the Greek athletes whose names have been handed +down are Milo of Crotona, Hipposthenes, Polydamas, Promachus +and Glaucus. Cyrene, famous in the time of Pindar for its +athletes, appears to have still maintained its reputation to at +least the time of Alexander the Great; for in the British Museum +are to be seen six prize vases carried off from the games at +Athens by natives of that district. These vases, found in the +tombs, probably, of the winners, are made of clay, and painted +on one side with a representation of the contest in which they +were won, and on the other side with a figure of Pallas Athena, +with an inscription telling where they were gained, and in some +cases adding the name of the eponymous magistrate of Athens, +from which the exact year can be determined.</p> + +<p>Amongst the Romans athletic contests had no doubt taken +place from the earliest times, but according to Livy (xxxix. 22) +professional Greek athletes were first introduced at Rome by +M. Fulvius Nobilior in 186 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After the institution of the +Actian games by Augustus, their popularity increased, until +they finally supplanted the gladiators. In the time of the +empire, gilds or unions of athletes were formed, each with a +temple, treasury and exercise-ground of its own. The profession, +although it ranked above that of a gladiator or an actor, was +looked upon as derogatory to the dignity of a Roman, and it is +a rare thing to find a Roman name amongst the athletes on inscriptions. +The system was entirely, and the athletes themselves +nearly always, Greek. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Games, Classical</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Krause, <i>Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hellenen</i> (1841); Friedländer, +<i>Sittengeschichte Roms</i>, ii.; Reisch, in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyc</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHLETIC SPORTS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>. Various sports were cultivated many +hundred years before the Christian era by the Egyptians and +several Asiatic races, from whom the early Greeks undoubtedly +adopted the elements of their athletic exercises (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athlete</a></span>), +which reached their highest development in the Olympic games, +and other periodical meetings of the kind (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Games, Classical</a></span>). +The original Celtic inhabitants of Great Britain were an athletic +race, and the earliest monuments of Teutonic literature abound +in records of athletic prowess. After the Norman conquest of +England the nobles devoted themselves to the chase and to the +joust, while the people had their games of ball, running at the +quintain, fencing with club and buckler, wrestling and other +pastimes on green and river. The chroniclers of the succeeding +centuries are for the most part silent concerning the sports of +the folk, except such as were regarded as a training for war, as +archery, while they love to record the prowess of the kings and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page847" id="page847"></a>847</span> +their courts. Thus it is told of Henry V. that he “was so swift +a runner that he and two of his lords, without bow or other engine, +would take a wild buck in a large park.” Several romances of +the middle ages, quoted by Strutt (<i>Sports and Pastimes of the +People of England</i>), chronicle the fact that young men of good +family were taught to run, leap, wrestle and joust. In spite of +the general silence of the historians concerning the sports of the +people, it is evident that they were indulged in very largely, +since several English sovereigns found it necessary to curtail, +and even prohibit, certain popular pastimes, on the ground that +they seduced the people from the practice of archery. Thus +Edward III. prohibited weight-putting by statute. Nevertheless +a variety of this exercise, “casting of the barre,” continued to +be a popular pastime, and was afterwards one of the favourite +sports of Henry VIII., who attained great proficiency at it. +The prowess of the same monarch at throwing the hammer is a +matter of history, and his reign seems to have been at a time of +general athletic revival. We even find his secretary, Richard +Pace, advising the sons of noblemen to practise their sports and +“leave study and learning to the children of meaner people,” +and Sir William Forest, in his <i>Poesye of Princeelye Practice</i>, thus +admonishes his high-born readers:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“In featis of maistries bestowe some diligence.</p> +<p class="i05">Too ryde, runne, lepe, or caste by violence</p> +<p class="i05">Stone, barre or plummett, or such other thinge,</p> +<p class="i05">It not refuseth any prince or kynge.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Mr Montague Shearman, to whose volume on <i>Athletics</i> in the +Badminton series the reader is referred, notes that Sir Thomas +Elyot, who wrote at about the same period, deprecated too much +study and flogging for schoolboys, saying: “A discrete master +may with as much or more ease both to himself and his scholler +lead him to play at tennis or shoote.” Elyot recommends the +perusal of Galen’s <i>De sanitate tuenda</i>, and suggests as suitable +athletic exercises within doors “deambulations, labouryng with +poyses made of ledde, lifting and throwing the heavy stone or +barre, playing at tennis,” and dwells upon “rennyng” as a +“good exercise and laudable solace.” It is probable that the +disciples of the “new learning,” who had become prominent +in Sir Thomas’s time, endeavoured to combat the influence of +athletic exercises, their point of view being exemplified by the +dictum of Roger Ascham, who, in his <i>Toxophilus</i>, declares that +“running, leaping and quoiting be too vile for scholars.”</p> + +<p>In the 16th century the great football match played annually +at Chester was abolished in favour of a series of foot-races, which +took place in the presence of the mayor. A list of the common +sports of that time is contained in some verses by Randel Holme, +a minstrel of the North country, and makes mention of throwing +the sledge, jumping, “wrastling,” stool-ball (cricket), running, +pitching the bar, shooting, playing loggets, “nine holes or ten +pins,” “football by the shinnes,” leap-frog, morris, shove-groat, +leaping the bonfire, stow-ball (golf), and many other outdoor +and indoor sports, some of them now obsolete. Shakespeare and +the other Elizabethan poets abound in allusions to sport, which +formed an important feature in school life and at every fair. +The Stuart kings were warm encouragers of sport, the <i>Basilikon +Doron</i> of James I., written for his son, containing a +recommendation to the young prince to practise “running, leaping, +wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at the caitch, or tennise, +archerie, palle-malle, and such like other fair and pleasant field +games.”</p> + +<p>An extraordinary variety of sports has been popular in Great +Britain with high and low for the past five centuries, no other +country comparing with it in this respect. Nor have Ireland +and Scotland lagged behind England in athletic prowess. Indeed, +so far as history and legend record, Ireland boasts of by far the +most ancient organized sports known, the Tailtin Games, or +Lugnasad, traditionally established by Lugaid of the Long Arm, +one of the gods of Dia and Ana, in honour of his foster-mother +Tailti, some three thousand years ago. For many centuries these +games, and others like them, were kept up in Ireland, and though +the almost constant wars which harried the country finally +destroyed their organization, yet the Irish have always been, +and still are, a very important factor in British athletics, as well +as in America and the colonies.</p> + +<p>The Scottish people have, like the Irish, ever delighted in feats +of strength and skill, especially the Celtic highlanders, the +character of whose country and mode of life have, however, +prevented organized athletics from attaining the same prominence +as in England. Nevertheless, the celebrated Highland games +held at Braemar, Bridge of Allan, Luss, Aboyne and other places +have served to bring into prominence many athletes of the first +class, although the records, on account of the roughness of the +grounds, have not generally vied with those made farther south.</p> + +<p>The Briton does not lose his love of sport upon leaving his +native soil, and the development of athletics in the United +States and the British colonies has kept step with that of the +mother-land. Upon the continent of Europe sports have +occupied a more or less prominent place in the life of the nations, +but their development has been but an echo of that in Great +Britain. A great advance, however, has been made since the +institution of the modern Olympic games.</p> + +<p>About the year 1812 the Royal Military College at Sandhurst +inaugurated regular athletic sports, but the example was not +followed until about 1840, when Rugby, Eton, Harrow, Shrewsbury +and the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich came to +the front, the “Crick Run” at Rugby having been started in +1837. At the two great English universities there were no +organized sports of any kind until 1850, when Exeter College, +Oxford, held a meeting; this example has been followed, one +after the other, by the other colleges of both institutions. The +first contest between Oxford and Cambridge occurred at Oxford +in 1864, the programme consisting of eight events, of which four +were won by each side. The same year saw the first contest of +the Civil Servants, still an annual event.</p> + +<p>In 1866 the Amateur Athletic Club was formed in London for +“gentlemen amateurs,” most of its members being old university +men. Its first championship meeting, held in that year, was the +beginning of a series afterwards continued to the present day by +the Amateur Athletic Association, founded in 1880, which has +jurisdiction over British athletic sports. The most important +individual English athletic organization is the London Athletic +Club, which antedated the Amateur Athletic Club, and whose +meetings have always been the most important events except +the championships.</p> + +<p>In America a revival of interest in athletic sports took place +about the year 1870. Ten years later was formed the National +Association of Amateur Athletes of America, which, in 1888, +became the Amateur Athletic Union. This body controls +athletics throughout the United States, and is allied with the +Canadian Amateur Athletic Association. It is supreme in +matters of amateur status, records and licensing of meetings, +and has control over the following branches of sport: basket-ball, +billiards, boxing, fencing (in connexion with the Amateur +Fencers’ League of America), gymnastics, hand-ball (fives), +running, jumping, walking, weight-putting (hammer, shot, +discus, weights), hurdle-racing, lacrosse, pole-vaulting, swimming, +tugs-of-war and wrestling. The Amateur Athletic Union has +eight sectional groups, and is allied with the Intercollegiate +Association of Amateur Athletes of America (founded 1876) and +the Western Intercollegiate Association. The first American +intercollegiate athletic meeting took place at Saratoga in 1873, +only three universities competing, though the next year there +were eight and in 1875 thirteen. Professional athletes in America +are confined almost entirely to base-ball, boxing, bicycling, +wrestling and physical training.</p> + +<p>The Canadian athletic championships are held independently +of the American. Annual championship meetings are also held +in South Africa, New Zealand and the different states of Australia. +For the Australasian championships New Zealand joins with +Australia.</p> + +<p>The organization of university sports in America differs from +that at Oxford and Cambridge, where there is no official control +on the part of the university authorities, and where a man is +eligible to represent his college or university while in residence. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page848" id="page848"></a>848</span> +In nearly all American universities and colleges athletic and other +sports are under the general control of faculty committees, to +which the undergraduate athletic committees are subordinate, +and which have the power to forbid the participation of any +student who has not attained a certain standard of scholarship. +For some years prior to 1906 no student of an American university +was allowed to represent his university in any sport for longer +than four years. Early in that year, however, many of the +most important institutions, including Harvard, Yale, Princeton +and Pennsylvania, entered upon a new agreement, that only +students who have been in residence one year should play in +’varsity teams in any branch of athletics and that no student +should play longer than three years. This, together with many +other reformatory changes, was directly due to a widespread +outcry against the growing roughness of play exhibited in +American football, basket-ball, hockey and other sports, the too +evident desire to win at all hazards, the extraordinary luxury of +the training equipment, and the enormous gate-receipts of many +of the large institutions—the Yale Athletic Association held a +surplus of about $100,000 (£20,000) in December 1905, after +deducting immense amounts for expenses. The new rule against +the participation of freshmen in ’varsity sports was to discourage +the practice of offering material advantages of different kinds to +promising athletes, generally those at preparatory schools, to +induce them to become students at certain universities.</p> + +<p>At the present day athletic sports are usually understood to +consist of those events recognized in the championship programmes +of the different countries. Those in the competitions +between Oxford and Cambridge are the 100 yards, 440 yards, +880 yards, 1-mile and 3-mile runs; 120 yards hurdle-race; +high and long jumps; throwing the hammer; and putting the +weight (shot). To the above list the English A.A.A. adds the +4-mile and 10-mile runs; the 2-mile and 7-mile walking races; +the 2-mile steeplechase; and the pole-vault. The American +intercollegiate programme is identical with that of the Oxford-Cambridge +meeting, except that a 2-mile run takes the place of +the 3-mile, and the pole-vault is added. The American A.A.U. +programme includes the 100 yards, 220 yards, 440 yards, 880 +yards, 1-mile and 5-mile runs; 120 yards high-hurdle race; +220 yards low-hurdle race; high and broad (long) jumps; throwing +the hammer; throwing 56-℔ weight; putting 16-℔ shot; +throwing the discus; and pole-vault. Of these the running +contests are called “track athletics,” and the rest “field” +events.</p> + +<p>International athletic contests of any importance have, with +the exception of the modern Olympic games, invariably taken +place between Britons, Americans and Canadians, the continental +European countries having as yet produced few track or +field athletes of the first class, although the interest in sports +in general has greatly increased in Europe during the last ten +years. In 1844 George Seward, an American professional runner, +visited England and competed with success against the best +athletes there; and in 1863 Louis Bennett, called “Deerfoot,” a +full-blooded Seneca Indian, repeated Seward’s triumphs, establishing +running records up to 12 miles. In 1878 the Canadian, +C.C. McIvor, champion sprinter of America, went to England, +but failed to beat his British professional rivals. In 1881 +L.E. Myers of New York and E.E. Merrill of Boston competed +successfully in England, Myers winning every short-distance +championship except the 100-yards, and Merrill all the walking +championships save the 7-miles. The same year W.C. Davies +of England won the 5-mile championship of America, but, like +several other British runners who have had success in America, +he competed under the colours of an American club. In 1882 the +famous English runner, W.G. George, ran against Myers in +America in races of 1 mile, ¾ mile and ½ mile, winning over the +first two distances. In 1884 Myers again went to England and +made new British records over 500, 600, 800 and 1000 yards, +and world’s records over ½ mile and 1200 yards. The next year +he won both the British ¼-mile and ½-mile championships. The +same year a team of Irish athletes, among them W.J.M. Barry, +won several Canadian championships. In 1888 a team of the +Manhattan Athletic Club, New York, competed in England with +fair success, and during the same season an Irish team from +the Gaelic Athletic Association visited America without much +success. In 1890 a team from the Salford Harriers was invited to +America by the Manhattan Athletic Club, but the evidently +commercial character of the enterprise caused its failure. One +of the Harriers, E.W. Parry, won the American steeplechase +championship. The next year saw another visit to Europe +of the Manhattan athletes, who had fair success in England and +won every event at Paris. In 1895 the London Athletic Club +team competed in New York against the New York Athletic +Club, but lost every one of the eleven events, several new records +being established. During the previous summer (1894) occurred +the first of the international matches between British and +American universities which still retain their place as the most +interesting athletic event. In that contest, which took place at +Queen’s Club, London, Oxford beat Yale by 5½ to 3½ events. +The next summer Cambridge, as the champion English university, +visited America and was beaten by Yale (3 to 8). In 1899 both +British universities competed at Queen’s Club against the combined +athletes of Harvard and Yale, who were beaten by the odd +event. The return match took place between the same universities +at New York in the summer of 1901, the Americans +winning 6 to 3 events. In 1904 Harvard and Yale beat Oxford +and Cambridge at Queen’s Club by the same score.</p> + +<p>Outside Great Britain and America the most important +athletic events are undoubtedly the revived Olympic games. +They were instituted by delegates from the different nations who +met in Paris on the 16th of June 1894, principally at the instigation +of Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the result being the formation +of an International Olympic Games Committee with Baron de +Coubertin at its head, which resolved that games should be held +every fourth year in a different country. The first modern +Olympiad took place at Athens, 6th to 12th April 1896, in the +ancient stadium, which was rebuilt through the liberality of a +Greek merchant and seated about 45,000 people. The programme +of events included the usual field and track sports, gymnastics, +wrestling, pole-climbing, lawn tennis, fencing, rifle and revolver +shooting, weight-lifting, swimming, the Marathon race and +bicycle racing. Among the contestants were representatives of +nearly every European nation, besides Americans and Australians. +Great Britain took little direct interest in the occasion and was +inadequately represented, but the United States sent five men +from Boston and four from Princeton University, who, though +none of them held American championships, succeeded in +winning every event for which they were entered. The Marathon +race of 42 kilometres (26 miles), commemorative of the famous +run of the Greek messenger to Athens with the news of the +victory of Marathon, was won by a Greek peasant. The second +Olympiad was held in Paris in June 1900. Again Great Britain +was poorly represented, but American athletes won eighteen +of the twenty-four championship events. The third Olympiad +was held at St Louis in the summer of 1904 in connexion with +the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, its success being due in +great measure to James E. Sullivan, the physical director of the +Exposition, and Caspar Whitney, the president of the American +Olympic Games Committee. The games were much more +numerous than at the previous Olympiads, including sports of +all kinds, handicaps, inter-club competitions, and contests for +aborigines. In the track and field competitions the American +athletes won every championship except weight-throwing +(56 ℔) and lifting the bar. The sports of the savages, among +whom were American Indians, Africans of several tribes, Moros, +Patagonians, Syrians, Ainus and Filipinos, were disappointing; +their efforts in throwing the javelin, shooting with bow and +arrow, weight-lifting, running and jumping, proving to be +feeble compared with those of white races. The Americanized +Indians made the best showing.</p> + +<p>The Greeks, however, were not altogether satisfied with the +cosmopolitan character of the revival of these celebrated games +of their ancestors, and resolved to give the revival a more +definitely Hellenic stamp by intercalating an additional series, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page849" id="page849"></a>849</span> +to take place at Athens, in the middle of the quadrennial period. +Their action was justified by the success which attended the +first of this additional series at Athens in 1906. This success +may have been partly due to the personal interest taken in the +games by the king and royal family of Greece, and to the presence +of King Edward VII., Queen Alexandra, and the prince and +princess of Wales; but to whatever cause it should be assigned +it was generally acknowledged that neither in France nor in +America had the games acquired the same prestige as those +held on the classical soil of Greece. In 1906 the governments +of Germany, France and the United States made considerable +grants of money to defray the expenses of the competitors +from those countries. These games aroused much more interest +in England than the earlier ones in the series, but though upwards +of fifty British competitors took part in the contests, they were +by no means representative in all cases of the best British +athletics. The American representatives were slightly less +numerous, but they were more successful. It was noteworthy +that no British or Americans took part in the rowing races in the +Bay of Phalerum, nor in the tennis, football or shooting competitions. +The Marathon race, by far the most important +event in the games, was won in 1906 by a British athlete, +M.D. Sherring, a Canadian by birth. The Americans won a total +of 75 prizes, the British 39, and the Swedes and Greeks each 28.</p> + +<p>The games of the 4th Olympiad (1908) were held in London +in connexion with the Franco-British Exhibition of that year. +An immense sensation was caused by the finish for the Marathon +race from Windsor Castle to the stadium in the Exhibition +grounds in London. The first competitor to arrive was the +Italian, Dorando Pietri, whose condition of physical collapse +was such that, appearing to be on the point of death, he had to +be assisted over the last few yards of the course. He was therefore +disqualified, and J. Hayes, an American, was adjudged the +winner; a special prize was presented to the Italian by Queen +Alexandra. In the whole series of contests the United Kingdom +made 38 wins, the Americans 22, and the Swedes 7. In the +Olympic games proper, British athletes, including two wins by +colonials from Canada and Africa, scored 25 successes, and the +Americans 18. In the track events 8 wins fell to the British, +including two Colonials, and 6 to American athletes; but the +latter gained complete supremacy in the field events, of which +they won 9, while British competitors secured only two of minor +importance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For records, &c., see the annual <i>Sporting and Athletic Register</i>; for +the Olympic games see Theodore Andrea Cook’s volume, published +in connexion with the Olympiad of 1908.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHLONE,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a market-town of Co. Westmeath, Ireland, on +both banks of the Shannon. Pop. of urban district (1901) +6617. The urban district, under the Local Government (Ireland) +Act 1900, is wholly in county Westmeath, but the same area is +divided by the Shannon between the parliamentary divisions of +South Westmeath and South Roscommon. Athlone is 78 m. +W. from Dublin by the Midland Great Western railway, and +is also served by a branch from Portarlington of the Great +Southern & Western line, providing an alternative and somewhat +longer route from the capital. The main line of the +former company continues W. to Galway, and a branch +N.W. serves counties Roscommon and Mayo. The Shannon +divides the town into two portions, known as the Leinster side +(east), and the Connaught side (west), which are connected by a +handsome bridge opened in 1844. There is a swivel railway +bridge. The rapids of the Shannon at this point are obviated +by means of a lock communication with a basin, which renders +the navigation of the river practicable above the town. The +steamers of the Shannon Development Company ply on the +river, and some trade by water is carried on with Limerick, +and with Dublin by the river and the Grand and Royal canals. +Athlone is an important agricultural centre, and there are +woollen factories. The salmon fishing both provides sport and +is a source of commercial wealth. There are two parish churches, +St Mary and St Peter, both erected early in the 19th century, +of which the first has near it an isolated church tower of earlier +date. There are three Roman Catholic chapels, a court-house +and other public offices. Early remains include portions of the +castle, of the town walls (1576), of the abbey of St Peter and of a +Franciscan foundation. On several islands of the picturesque +Lough Ree, to the north, are ecclesiastical and other remains.</p> + +<p>The military importance of Athlone dates from the erection +of the castle and of a bridge over the river by John de Grey, +bishop of Norwich and justiciar of Ireland, in 1210. It became +the seat of the presidency of Connaught under Elizabeth, and +withstood a siege by the insurgents in 1641. In the war of +1688 the possession of Athlone was considered of the greatest +importance, and it consequently sustained two sieges, the first +by William III. in person, which failed, and the second by +General Godart van Ginkel (<i>q.v.</i>), who, on the 30th of June +1691, in the face of the Irish, forded the river and took possession +of the town, with the loss of only fifty men. Ginkel was subsequently +created earl of Athlone, and his descendants held the +title till it became extinct in 1844. In 1797 the town was +strongly fortified on the Roscommon side, the works covering +15 acres and containing two magazines, an ordnance store, an +armoury with 15,000 stands of arms and barracks for 1500 men. +The works are now dismantled. Athlone was incorporated by +James I., and returned two members to the Irish parliament, +and one member to the imperial parliament till 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHOL,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a township of Worcester county, northern Massachusetts, +U.S.A., having an area of 35 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 7061, +of whom 986 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 8536. +Its surface is irregular and hilly. The village of Athol is on +Miller’s river, and is served by the Boston & Albany and the +Boston & Maine railways. The streams of the township furnish +good water-power, and manufactures of varied character are +its leading interests. Athol was first settled in 1735, and was +incorporated as a township in 1762. It was named by its +largest landowner Col. James Murray, after the ancestral home +of the Murrays, dukes of Atholl.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L.B. Caswell, <i>Athol, Mass., Past and Present</i> (Athol, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHOLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF.<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> The Stewart line of the +Scottish earls of Atholl, which ended with the 5th Stewart earl +in 1595, the earldom reverting to the crown, had originated +with Sir John Stewart of Balveny (d. 1512), who was created +earl of Atholl about 1457 (new charter 1481). The 5th earl’s +daughter, Dorothea, married William Murray, earl of Tullibardine +(cr. 1606), who in 1626 resigned his earldom in favour +of Sir Patrick Murray, on condition of the revival of the earldom +of Atholl in his wife and her descendants. The earldom thus +passed to the Murray line, and John Murray, their only son +(d. 1642), was accordingly acknowledged as earl of Atholl (the +1st of the Murrays) in 1629.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Stewart</span>, 4th earl of Atholl, in the Stewart line (d. 1579), +son of John, 3rd earl, and of Grizel, daughter of Sir John Rattray, +succeeded his father in 1542. He supported the government +of the queen dowager, and in 1560 was one of the three nobles +who voted in parliament against the Reformation and the +Confession of Faith, and declared their adherence to Roman +Catholicism. Subsequently, however, he joined the league +against Huntly, whom with Murray and Morton he defeated +at Corrichie in October 1562, and he supported the projected +marriage of Elizabeth with Arran. On the arrival of Mary from +France in 1561 he was appointed one of the twelve privy councillors, +and on account of his religion obtained a greater share +of the queen’s favour than either Murray or Maitland. He was +one of the principal supporters of the marriage with Darnley, +became the leader of the Roman Catholic nobles, and with +Lennox obtained the chief power in the government, successfully +protecting Mary and Darnley from Murray’s attempts to regain +his ascendancy by force of arms. According to Knox he openly +attended mass in the queen’s chapel, and was especially trusted +by Mary in her project of reinstating Roman Catholicism. The +fortress of Tantallon was placed in his keeping, and in 1565 he +was made lieutenant of the north of Scotland. He is described +the same year by the French ambassador as “très grand catholique +hardi et vaillant et remuant, comme l’on dict, mais de nul +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page850" id="page850"></a>850</span> +jugement et expérience.” He had no share in the murders of +Rizzio or Darnley, and after the latter crime in 1567, he joined +the Protestant lords against Mary, appeared as one of the leaders +against her at Carberry Hill, and afterwards approved of her +imprisonment at Lochleven Castle. In July he was present at the +coronation of James, and was included in the council of regency +on Mary’s abdication. He, however, was not present at Langside +in May 1568, and in July became once more a supporter of Mary, +voting for her divorce from Bothwell (1569). In March 1570 he +signed with other lords the joint letter to Elizabeth asking for +the queen’s intercession and supporting Mary’s claims, and was +present at the convention held at Linlithgow in April in opposition +to the assembly of the king’s party at Edinburgh. In 1574 +he was proceeded against as a Roman Catholic and threatened +with excommunication, subsequently holding a conference with +the ministers and being allowed till midsummer to overcome +his scruples. He had failed in 1572 to prevent Morton’s appointment +to the regency, but in 1578 he succeeded with the earl of +Argyll in driving him from office. On the 24th of March James +took the government into his own hands and dissolved the +regency, and Atholl and Argyll, to the exclusion of Morton, +were made members of the council, while on the 29th Atholl +was appointed lord chancellor. Subsequently, on the 24th of +May, Morton succeeded in getting into Stirling Castle and in +regaining his guardianship of James. Atholl and Argyll, who +were now corresponding with Spain in hopes of assistance from +that quarter, then advanced to Stirling with a force of 7000 men, +when a compromise was arranged, the three earls being all +included in the government. While on his way from a banquet +held on the 20th of April 1579 on the occasion of the reconciliation, +Atholl was seized with sudden illness, and died on the 25th, +not without strong suspicions of poison. He was buried at St. +Giles’s cathedral in Edinburgh. He married (1) Elizabeth, +daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly, by whom he had +two daughters, and (2) Margaret, daughter of Malcolm Fleming, +3rd Lord Fleming, by whom, besides three daughters, he had +John, 5th earl of Atholl, at whose death in 1595 the earldom +in default of male heirs reverted to the crown.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Murray</span>, 1st earl of Atholl in the Murray line (see above), +died in 1642. On the outbreak of the civil war he called out the +men of Atholl for the king, and was imprisoned by the marquess +of Argyll in Stirling Castle in 1640.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Murray</span>, 2nd earl and 1st marquess of Atholl (1631-1703), +son of the 1st earl and of Jean, daughter of Sir Duncan Campbell +of Glenorchy, was born on the 2nd of May 1631. In 1650 he +joined in the unsuccessful attempt to liberate Charles II. from +the Covenanters, and in 1653 was the chief supporter of Glencairn’s +rising, but was obliged to surrender with his two regiments +to Monk on the 2nd of September 1654. At the restoration +Atholl was made a privy councillor for Scotland and sheriff of +Fife, in 1661 lord justice-general of Scotland, in 1667 a commissioner +for keeping the peace in the western Highlands, in 1670 +colonel of the king’s horseguards, in 1671 a commissioner of the +exchequer, and in 1672 keeper of the privy seal in Scotland and +an extraordinary lord of session. In 1670 he became earl of +Tullibardine by the death of his cousin James, 4th earl, and on +the 7th of February 1676 he was created marquess of Atholl, +earl of Tullibardine, viscount of Balquhidder, Lord Murray, +Balvenie and Cask. He at first zealously supported Lauderdale’s +tyrannical policy, but after the raid of 1678, called the “Highland +Host,” in which Atholl was one of the chief leaders, he joined +in the remonstrance to the king concerning the severities inflicted +upon the Covenanters, and was deprived of his office of justice-general +and passed over for the chancellorship in 1681. In 1679, +however, he was present at the battle of Bothwell Brig; in July +1680 he was made vice-admiral of Scotland, and in 1681 president +of parliament. In 1684 he was appointed lord-lieutenant of +Argyll, and invaded the country, capturing the earl of Argyll +after his return from abroad in June 1685 at Inchinnan. The +excessive severities with which he was charged in this campaign +were repudiated with some success by him after the Revolution.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +The same year he was reappointed lord privy seal, and in 1687 +was made a knight of the Thistle on the revival of the order. +At the Revolution he wavered from one side to the other, showing +no settled purpose but waiting upon the event, but finally in +April 1689 wrote to William to declare his allegiance, and in May +took part in the proclamation of William and Mary as king and +queen at Edinburgh. But on the occasion of Dundee’s insurrection +he retired to Bath to drink the waters, while the bulk of his +followers joined Dundee and brought about in great measure +the defeat of the government troops at Killiecrankie. He was +then summoned from Bath to London and imprisoned during +August. In 1690 he was implicated in the Montgomery plot and +subsequently in further Jacobite intrigues. In June 1691 he +received a pardon, and acted later for the government in the +pacification of the Highlands. He died on the 6th of May 1703. +He married Amelia, daughter of James Stanley, 7th earl of Derby +(through whom the later dukes of Atholl acquired the sovereignty +of the Isle of Man), and had, besides one daughter, six +sons, of whom John became 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl; +Charles was made 1st earl of Dunmore, and William married +Margaret, daughter of Sir Robert Nairne, 1st Lord Nairne, +becoming in her right 2nd Lord Nairne.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Murray</span>, 2nd marquess and 1st duke of Atholl (1660-1724), +was born on the 24th of February 1660, and was styled during +his father’s lifetime Lord Murray, till 1696, when he was created +earl of Tullibardine. He was a supporter of William and the +Revolution in 1688, taking the oaths in September 1689, but was +unable to prevent the majority of his clan, during his father’s +absence, from joining Dundee under the command of his brother +James. In 1693 as one of the commissioners he showed great +energy in the examination into the massacre of Glencoe and in +bringing the crime home to its authors. In 1694 he obtained a +regiment, in 1695 was made sheriff of Perth, in 1696 secretary +of state, and from 1696 to 1698 was high commissioner. In the +latter year, however, he threw up office and went into opposition. +At the accession of Anne he was made a privy councillor, and in +1703 lord privy seal for Scotland. The same year he succeeded +his father as 2nd marquess of Atholl, and on the 30th of June he +was created duke of Atholl, marquess of Tullibardine, earl of +Strathtay and Strathardle, Viscount Balquhidder, Glenalmond +and Glenlyon, and Lord Murray, Balvenie and Gask. In 1704 +he was made a knight of the Thistle. In 1703-1704 an unsuccessful +attempt was made by Simon, Lord Lovat, who used the duke +of Queensberry as a tool, to implicate him in a Jacobite plot +against Queen Anne; but the intrigue was disclosed by Robert +Ferguson, and Atholl sent a memorial to the queen on the +subject, which resulted in Queensberry’s downfall. But he fell +nevertheless into suspicion, and was deprived of office in October +1705, subsequently becoming a strong antagonist of the government, +and of the Hanoverian succession. He vehemently opposed +the Union during the years 1705-1707, and entered into a project +for resisting by force and for holding Stirling Castle with the aid +of the Cameronians, but nevertheless did not refuse a compensation +of £1000. According to Lockhart, he could raise 6000 of +the best men in the kingdom for the Jacobites. On the occasion, +however, of the invasion of 1708 he took no part, on the score of +illness, and was placed under arrest at Blair Castle. On the +downfall of the Whigs and the advent of the Tories to power, +Atholl returned to office, was chosen a representative peer in +the Lords in 1710 and 1713, in 1712 was an extraordinary lord +of session, from 1713 to 1714 was once more keeper of the privy +seal, and from 1712 to 1714 was high commissioner. On the +accession of George I. he was again dismissed from office, but at +the rebellion of 1715, while three of his sons joined the Jacobites, +he remained faithful to the government, whom he assisted in +various ways, on the 4th of June 1717 apprehending Robert +Macgregor (Rob Roy), who, however, succeeded in escaping. +He died on the 14th of November 1724. He married (1) +Catherine, daughter of William Douglas, 3rd duke of Hamilton, +by whom, besides one daughter, he had six sons, of whom John +was killed at Malplaquet in 1709, William was marquess of +Tullibardine, and James succeeded his father as 2nd duke on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page851" id="page851"></a>851</span> +account of the share taken by his elder brother in the rebellion; +and (2) Mary, daughter of William, Lord Ross, by whom he had +three sons and several daughters.</p> + +<p>The <i>Atholl Chronicles</i> have been privately printed by the 7th duke +of Atholl (b. 1840). See also S. Cowan, <i>Three Celtic Earldoms</i> (1909).</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A. Lang, <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, iii. 407.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHOLL,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Athole</span>, a district in the north of Perthshire, +Scotland, covering an area of about 450 sq. m. It is bounded +on the N. by Badenoch, on the N.E. by Braemar, on the E. by +Forfarshire, on the S. by Breadalbane, on the W. and N.W. +by Lochaber. The Highland railway bisects it diagonally from +Dunkeld to the borders of Inverness-shire. It is traversed by +the Grampian mountains and watered by the Tay, Tummel, +Garry, Tilt, Bruar and other streams. Glen Garry and Glen +Tilt are the chief glens, and Loch Rannoch and Loch Tummel +the principal lakes. The population mainly centres around +Dunkeld, Pitlochry and Blair Atholl. The only cultivable soil +occurs in the valleys of the large rivers, but the deer-forest and +the shootings on moor and mountain are among the most +extensive in Scotland. It is said to have been named Athfotla +(Atholl) after Fotla, son of the Pictish king Cruithne, and was +under the rule of a Celtic <i>mormaer</i> (thane or earl) until the +union of the Picts and Scots under Kenneth Macalpine in 843. +The duke of Atholl’s seats are Blair Castle and Dunkeld House. +What is called Atholl brose is a compound, in equal parts, of +whisky and honey (or oatmeal), which was first commonly used +in the district for hoarseness and sore throat.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHOS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Agion Oros">Ἄγιον Ὄρος</span>; Turk. <i>Aineros</i>; Ital. <i>Monte Santo</i>), +the most eastern of the three peninsular promontories which +extend, like the prongs of a trident, southwards from the +coast of Macedonia (European Turkey) into the Aegean Sea. +Before the 19th century the name Athos was usually confined +to the terminal peak of the promontory, which was itself known +by its ancient name, <i>Acte</i>. The peak rises like a pyramid, with +a steep summit of white marble, to a height of 6350 ft., and can +be seen at sunset from the plain of Troy on the east, and the +slopes of Olympus on the west. On the isthmus are distinct +traces of the canal cut by Xerxes before his invasion of Greece +in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The peninsula is remarkable for the beauty of its +scenery, and derives a peculiar interest from its unique group of +monastic communities with their medieval customs and institutions, +their treasures of Byzantine art and rich collections of +documents. It is about 40 m. in length, with a breadth varying +from 4 to 7 m.; its whole area belongs to the various monasteries. +It was inhabited in the earliest times by a mixed Greek and +Thracian population; of its five cities mentioned by Herodotus +few traces remain; some inscriptions discovered on the sites +were published by W.M. Leake (<i>Travels in N. Greece</i>, 1835, +iii. 140) and Kinch. The legends of the monks attribute the +first religious settlements to the age of Constantine (274-337), +but the hermitages are first mentioned in historical documents +of the 9th century. It is conjectured that the mountain was at +an earlier period the abode of anchorites, whose numbers were +increased by fugitives from the iconoclastic persecutions (726-842). +The “coenobian” rule to which many of the monasteries +still adhere was established by St Athanasius, the founder of the +great monastery of Laura, in 969. Under a constitution approved +by the emperor Constantine Monomachos in 1045, women and +female animals were excluded from the holy mountain. In +1060 the community was withdrawn from the authority of the +patriarch of Constantinople, and a monastic republic was +practically constituted. The taking of Constantinople by the +Latins in 1204 brought persecution and pillage on the monks; +this reminded them of earlier Saracenic invasions, and led them +to appeal for protection to Pope Innocent III., who gave them +a favourable reply. Under the Palaeologi (1260-1453) they +recovered their prosperity, and were enriched by gifts from +various sources. In the 14th century the peninsula became the +chosen retreat of several of the emperors, and the monasteries +were thrown into commotion by the famous dispute over the +mystical Hesychasts.</p> + +<p>Owing to the timely submission of the monks to the Turks +after the capture of Salonica (1430), their privileges were respected +by successive sultans: a tribute is paid to the Turkish government, +which is represented by a resident <i>kaimakam</i>, and the +community is allowed to maintain a small police force. Under +the present constitution, which dates from 1783, the general +affairs of the commonwealth are entrusted to an assembly +(<span class="grk" title="oynaxis">σύναξις</span>) of twenty members, one from each monastery; a +committee of four members, chosen in turn, styled <i>epistatae</i> +(<span class="grk" title="epistatai">ἐπιστάται</span>), forms the executive. The president of the committee +(<span class="grk" title="ho protos">ὁ πρῶτος</span>) is also the president of the assembly, which holds its +sittings in the village of Karyes, the seat of government since +the 10th century. The twenty monasteries, which all belong +to the order of St Basil, are: Laura (<span class="grk" title="ae Laura">ἡ Λαῦρα</span>), founded in 963; +Vatopédi (<span class="grk" title="Batopedios">Βατοπέδιον</span>), said to have been founded by the +emperor Theodosius; Rossikon (<span class="grk" title="Rossikon">Ῥωσσικόν</span>), the Russian +monastery of St Panteleïmon; Chiliándari (<span class="grk" title="Chiliantarion">Χιλιαντάριον</span>: +supposed to be derived from <span class="grk" title="chilioi andres">χίλιοι ἄνδρες</span> or <span class="grk" title="chilia leontaria">χίλια λεοντάρια</span>), +founded by the Servian prince Stephen Nemanya (1159-1195); +Iveron (<span class="grk" title="ae monae ton Ibaeron">ἡ μονὴ τῶν Ἰβήρων</span>), founded by Iberians, or Georgians; +Esphigmenu (<span class="grk" title="tou Esphigmenou">τοῦ Ἐσφιγμένου</span>: the name is derived from the confined +situation of the monastery); Kutlumush (<span class="grk" title="Koutloumousae">Κουτλουμούση</span>); +Pandocratoros (<span class="grk" title="tou Pantokratoros">τοῦ Παντοκράτορος</span>); Philotheu (<span class="grk" title="Philotheou">Φιλοθέου</span>); +Caracallu (<span class="grk" title="tou Karakallou">τοῦ Καρακάλλου</span>); St Paul (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou Paulou">τοῦ ἁγίου Παύλου</span>); +St Denis (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou Dionusiou">τοῦ ἁγίου Διονυσίου</span>); St Gregory (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou +Graegoriou">τοῦ ἁγίου Γρηγορίου</span>); Simópetra (<span class="grk" title="Simopetra">Σιμόπετρα</span>); Xeropotámu (<span class="grk" title="tou +Xaeropotamou">τοῦ Ξηροποτάμου</span>); St Xenophon (<span class="grk" title="tou agiou Xenophontos">τοῦ ἁγίου Ξενοφῶντος</span>); Dochiaríu +(<span class="grk" title="Docheiareiou">Δοχειαρείου</span>); Constamonítu (<span class="grk" title="Konstamonitou">Κωνσταμονίτου</span>); Zográphu +(<span class="grk" title="tou Zographou">τοῦ Ζωγράφου</span>); and Stavronikítu (<span class="grk" title="tou Stavronikitou">τοῦ Σταυρονικίτου</span>, the last +built, founded in 1545). The “coenobian” monasteries (<span class="grk" title="koinobia">κοινόβια</span>), +each under the rule of an abbot (<span class="grk" title="aegoumenos">ἡγοόμενος</span>), are subjected +to severe discipline; the brethren are clothed alike, take their +meals (usually limited to bread and vegetables) in the refectory, +and possess no private property. In the “idiorrhythmic” +monasteries (<span class="grk" title="idiorrythma">ἰδιόρρυθμα</span>), which are governed by two or three +annually elected wardens (<span class="grk" title="epitropoi">ἐπίτροποι</span>), a less stringent rule +prevails, and the monks are allowed to supplement the fare of +the monastery from their private incomes. Dependent on the +several monasteries are twelve <i>sketae</i> (<span class="grk" title="skaetai">σκῆται</span>) or monastic +settlements, some of considerable size, in which a still more +ascetic mode of life prevails: there are, in addition, several +farms (<span class="grk" title="metochia">μετοχία</span>), and many hundred sanctuaries with adjoining +habitations (<span class="grk" title="kellia">κελλία</span>) and hermitages (<span class="grk" title="askaetaeria">ἀσκητήρια</span>). The +monasteries, with the exception of Rossikón (St Panteleïmon) and the +Serbo-Bulgarian Chiliándari and Zográphu, are occupied exclusively +by Greek monks. The large <i>skete</i> of St Andrew and +some others belong to the Russians; there are also Rumanian +and Georgian <i>sketae</i>. The great monastery of Rossikón, which +is said to number about 3000 inmates, has been under a Russian +abbot since 1875; it is regarded as one of the principal centres +of the Russian politico-religious propaganda in the Levant. +The tasteless style of its modern buildings is out of harmony with +the quaint beauty of the other monasteries. Furnished with +ample means, the Russian monks neglect no opportunity of +adding to their possessions on the holy mountain; their encroachments +are resisted by the Greek monks, whose wealth, however, +was much diminished by the secularization of their estates in +Rumania (1864). The population of the holy mountain numbers +from 6000 to 7000; about 3000 are monks (<span class="grk" title="kalogeroi">καλόγεροι</span>), the +remainder being lay brothers (<span class="grk" title="kosmikoi">κοσμικοί</span>). The monasteries, +which are all fortified, generally consist of large quadrangles +enclosing churches; standing amid rich foliage, they present a +wonderfully picturesque appearance, especially when viewed +from the sea. Their inmates, when not engaged in religious +services, occupy themselves with husbandry, fishing and +various handicrafts; the standard of intellectual culture is not +high. A large academy, founded by the monks of Vatopedi in +1749, for a time attracted students from all parts of the East, +but eventually proved a failure, and is now in ruins. The +muniment rooms of the monasteries contain a marvellous series +of documents, including chrysobulls of various emperors and +princes, <i>sigilla</i> of the patriarchs, <i>typica</i>, iradés and other +documents, the study of which will throw an important light +on the political and ecclesiastical history and social life of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page852" id="page852"></a>852</span> +East from the middle of the 10th century. Up to comparatively +recent times a priceless collection of classical manuscripts was +preserved in the libraries; many of them were destroyed during +the War of Greek Independence (1821-1829) by the Turks, who +employed the parchments for the manufacture of cartridges; +others fell a prey to the neglect or vandalism of the monks, who, +it is said, used the material as bait in fishing; others have been +sold to visitors, and a considerable number have been removed +to Moscow and Paris. The library of Simopetra was destroyed +by fire in 1891, and that of St Paul in 1905. There is now little +hope of any important discovery of classical manuscripts. The +codices remaining in the libraries are for the most part theological +and ecclesiastical works. Of the Greek manuscripts, numbering +about 11,000, 6618 have been catalogued by Professor Spyridion +Lambros of Athens; his work, however, does not include the +MSS. in some of the <i>sketae</i>, or those in the libraries of Laura and +Vatopedi, of which catalogues (hitherto unpublished) have been +prepared by resident monks. The canonic MSS. only of Vatopedi +and Laura have been catalogued by Benessevich in the supplement +to vol. ix. of the <i>Bizantiyskiy Vremennik</i> (St Petersburg, +1904). The Slavonic and Georgian MSS. have not been catalogued. +Apart from the illuminated MSS., the mural paintings, +the mosaics, and the goldsmith’s work of Mount Athos are of +infinite interest to the student of Byzantine art. The frescoes +in general date from the 15th or 16th century: some are attributed +by the monks to Panselinos, “the Raphael of Byzantine +painting,” who apparently flourished in the time of the Palaeologi. +Most of them have been indifferently restored by local artists, +who follow mechanically a kind of hieratic tradition, the principles +of which are embodied in a work of iconography by the monk +Dionysius, said to have been a pupil of Panselinos. The same +spirit of conservatism is manifest in the architecture of the +churches, which are all of the medieval Byzantine type. Some +of the monasteries were seriously damaged by an earthquake +in 1905.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—R.N.C. Curzon, <i>Visits to Monasteries in the Levant</i> +(London, 1849); J.P. Fallmerayer, <i>Fragmenta aus dem Orient</i> +(Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1845); +V. Langlois, <i>Le Mont Athos et ses monastères</i>, with a complete bibliography +(Paris, 1867); +Duchesne and Bayet, <i>Mémoirs sur une mission en Macédoine et au Mont Athos</i> +(Paris, 1876); +Texier and Pullan, <i>Byzantine Architecture</i> (London, 1864); +H. Brockhaus, <i>Die Kunst in den Athosklöstern</i> (Leipzig, 1891); +A. Riley, <i>Athos, or the Mountain of the Monks</i> (London, 1887); +S. Lambros, <i>Catalogue of the Greek Manuscripts on Mount Athos</i> +(2 vols., Cambridge, 1895 and 1900); +M.I. Gedeon, <span class="grk" title="o Athos">ὁ Ἄθως</span> (Constantinople, 1885); +P. Meyer, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der neueren Geschichte und des gegenwärtigen +Zustandes der Athosklöster,” in <i>Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i>, 1890; +<i>Die Haupturkunden für die Geschichte der Athosklöster</i> (Leipzig, 1894); +G. Millet, J. Pargoire and L. Petit, +<i>Recueil des inscriptions chrétiennes de l’Athos</i> (Paris, 1904); +H. Gelzer, <i>Vom Heiligen Berge und aus Makedonien</i> (Leipzig, 1904); +K. Vlachu (Blachos), <span class="grk" title="Ae Chersonaesos tou Hagiou Orous">Ἡ Χερσόνησος τοῦ Ἁγίου Ὄρους</span> (Athens, 1903); +G. Smurnakes, <span class="grk" title="To Hagiou Archaiologia Orous Atho">Τὸ Ἅγιον Ὄρος Ἀρχαιολογία ὄρους Ἀθῶ</span>, (Athens, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATHY<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (pronounced Athý), a market-town of Co. Kildare, +Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, 45 m. S.W. of +Dublin on a branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. +Pop. of urban district (1901) 3599. It is intersected by the +river Barrow, which is here crossed by a bridge of five arches. +The crossing of the river here was guarded and disputed from +the earliest times, and the name of the town is derived from +a king of Munster killed here in the 2nd century. There are +picturesque remains of Woodstock Castle of the 12th or 13th +century, and White Castle built in 1506, and rebuilt in 1575 by +a member of the family whose name it bears, and still occupied. +Both were erected to defend the ford of the Barrow. There are +also an old town gate, and an ancient cemetery with slight +monastic remains. Previous to the Union Athy returned two +members to the Irish parliament. The trade, chiefly in grain, +is aided by excellent water communication, by a branch of the +Grand Canal to Dublin, and by the river Barrow, navigable +from here to Waterford harbour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATINA,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> the name of three ancient towns of Italy.</p> + +<p>1. A town (mod. <i>Àtena</i>) of Lucania, upon the Via Popillia, +7 m. N. of Tegianum, towards which an ancient road leads, in +the valley of the river now known as Diano. Its ancient importance +is vouched for by its walls of rough cyclopean work, which +may have had a total extent of some 2 m. (see G. Patroni in +<i>Notizie degli scavi</i>, 1897, 112; 1901, 498). The date of these +walls has not as yet been ascertained, recent excavations, which +led to the discovery of a few tombs in which the earliest objects +showing Greek influence may go back to the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +not having produced any decisive evidence on the point. To +the Roman period belong the remains of an amphitheatre and +numerous inscriptions.</p> + +<p>2. A town (mod. <i>Atina</i>) of the Volsci, 12 m. N. of Casinum, +and about 14 m. E. of Arpinum, on a hill 1607 ft. above sea-level. +The walls, of carefully worked polygonal blocks of stone, are +still preserved in parts, and the modern town does not fill the +whole area which they enclose. Cicero speaks of it as a prosperous +country town, which had not as yet fallen into the hands of large +proprietors; and inscriptions show that under the empire it was +still flourishing. One of these last is a boundary stone relating +to the assignation of lands in the time of the Gracchi, of which +six other examples have been found in Campania and Lucania.</p> + +<p>3. A town of the Veneti, mentioned by Pliny, <i>H.N.</i> iii. 131.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATITLÁN,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Santiago de Atitlán</span>, a town in the department +of Sololá, Guatemala, on the southern shore of Lake Atitlán. +Pop. (1905) about 9000, almost all Indians. Cotton-spinning +is the chief industry. Lake Atitlán is 24 m. long and 10 m. broad, +with 64 m. circumference. It occupies a crater more than +1000 ft. deep and about 4700 ft. above sea-level. The peaks of +the Guatemala Cordillera rise round it, culminating near its +southern end in the volcanoes of San Pedro (7000 ft.) and Atitlán +(11,719 ft.). Although the lake is fed by many small mountain +torrents, it has no visible outlet, but probably communicates +by an underground channel with one of the rivers which drain +the Cordillera. Mineral springs abound in the neighbourhood. +The town of Sololá (<i>q.v.</i>) is near the north shore of the lake.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATKINSON, EDWARD<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1827-1905), American economist, +was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 10th of February +1827. For many years he was engaged in managing various +business enterprises, and became, in 1877, president of the +Boston Manufacturers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company, a post +which he held till his death. He was a strong controversialist +and a prolific writer on such economic subjects as banking, +railways, cotton manufacture, the tariff and free trade, and the +money question. He was appointed in 1887 a special commissioner +to report upon the status of bimetallism in Europe. He also +made a special study of mill construction and fire prevention, +and invented an improved cooking apparatus, called the +“Aladdin oven.” He was an active supporter of anti-imperialism. +He died at Boston on the 11th of December 1905.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His principal works were +<i>Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills</i> (1881); +<i>Distribution of Products</i> (1885); +<i>Industrial Progress of the Nation</i> (1889); +<i>Taxation and Work</i> (1892); +<i>Science of Nutrition</i> (10th ed., 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATKINSON, SIR HARRY ALBERT<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1831-1892), British +colonial statesman, prime minister and speaker of the legislative +council, New Zealand, was born at Chester in 1831, and in 1855 +emigrated to Taranaki, New Zealand, where he became a farmer. +In 1860 the Waitara war broke out, and from its outset Atkinson, +who had been selected as a captain of the New Plymouth Volunteers, +distinguished himself by his contempt for appearances +and tradition, and by the practical skill, energy and courage +which he showed in leading his Forest Rangers in the tiresome +and lingering bush warfare of the next five years. For this work +he was made a major of militia, and thanked by the government. +Elected to the house of representatives in 1863, he joined Sir +Frederick Weld’s ministry at the end of November 1864 as +minister of defence, and, during eleven months of office, was +identified with the well-known “self-reliance” policy, a proposal +to dispense with imperial regulars, and meet the Maori with +colonials only. Parliament accepted this principle, but turned +out the Weld ministry for other reasons. For four years Atkinson +was out of parliament; in October 1873 he re-entered it, and +a year later became minister of lands under Sir Julius Vogel. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page853" id="page853"></a>853</span> +Ten months later he was treasurer, and such was his aptitude +for finance that, except during six months in 1876, he thenceforth +held that post whenever his party was in power. From +October 1874 to January 1891 Atkinson was only out of office +for about five years. Three times he was premier, and he was +always the most formidable debater and fighter in the ranks +of the Conservative opponents of the growing Radical party +which Sir George Grey, Sir Robert Stout and John Ballance led +in succession. It was he, who was mainly responsible for the +abolition of the provinces into which the colony was divided +from 1853 to 1876. He repealed the Ballance land-tax in 1879, +and substituted a property-tax. He greatly reduced the cost +of the public service in 1880, and again in 1888. In both these +years he raised the customs duties, amongst other taxes, and +gave them a quasi-protectionist character. In 1880 he struck +10% off all public salaries and wages; in 1887 he reduced the +salary of the governor by one-third, and the pay and number +of ministers and members of parliament. By these resolute steps +revenue was increased, expenditure checked, and the colony’s +finance reinstated. Atkinson was an advocate of compulsory +national assurance, and the leasing as opposed to the selling of +crown lands. Defeated in the general election of December 1890, +he took the appointment of speaker of the legislative council. +There, while leaving the council chamber after the sitting of the +28th of June 1892, he was struck down by heart disease and +died in a few minutes. Though brusque in manner and never +popular, he was esteemed as a vigorous, upright and practical +statesman. He was twice married, and had seven children, of +whom three sons and a daughter survived him.</p> +<div class="author">(W. P. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATLANTA,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> the capital and the largest city of Georgia, U.S.A., +and the county-seat of Fulton county, situated at an altitude of +1000-1175 ft., in the N.W. part of the state, near the +Chattahoochee river. Pop. (1860) 9554; (1880) 37,409; (1890) +65,533; (1900) 89,872, of whom 35,727 were negroes and +2531 were foreign-born; (1910) 154,839. It is served by the +Southern, the Central of Georgia, the Georgia, the Seaboard +Air Line, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis (which enters +the city over the Western & Atlantic, one of its leased lines), +the Louisville & Nashville, the Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, +and the Atlanta & West Point railways. These railway +communications, and the situation of the city (on the Piedmont +Plateau) on the water-parting between the streams flowing into +the Atlantic Ocean and those flowing into the Gulf of Mexico, +have given Atlanta its popular name, the “Gate City of the +South.” Atlanta was laid out in the form of a circle, the radius +being 1¾ m. and the centre the old railway station, the Union +Depot (the new station is called the Terminal); large additions +have been made beyond this circle, including West End, Inman +Park on the east, and North Atlanta. Among the best residence +streets are Peachtree and West Peachtree streets to the north, +and the older streets to the south of the business centre of the +city—Washington Street, Whitehall, Pryor and Capitol Avenues. +Among the principal office buildings are the Empire, the Equitable, +the Prudential, the Fourth National, the Austell, the +Peters, the Century, the English-American and the Candler +buildings; and there are many fine residences, particularly in +Peachtree and Washington streets, Inman Park and Ponce de +Leon Circle. Among prominent public buildings are the State +Capitol (completed 1889), containing a law library of about 65,000 +volumes and a collection of portraits of famous Georgians, the +north-west front of the Capitol grounds containing an equestrian +statue (unveiled in 1907) of John Brown Gordon (1832-1904), +a distinguished Confederate general in the American Civil War +and governor of Georgia in 1887-1890; the court house; the +Carnegie library, in which the young men’s library, organized +in 1867, was merged in 1902; the post office building; and +the Federal prison (about 4 m. south of the city). The principal +parks are: the Piedmont (189 acres), the site of the Piedmont +Exposition of 1887 and of the Cotton States and International +Exposition of 1895; the Grant, given to the city by L.P. Grant, +an Atlanta railroad builder, in 1882, and subsequently enlarged +by the city (in its south-east corner is Fort Walker); the Lakewood, +6 m. south of the city; and Ponce de Leon Park, owned +by an electric railway company and having mineral springs and a +fine baseball ground. Four miles south of the centre of Atlanta +is Fort McPherson, an important United States military post, +occupying a reservation of 40 acres and having barracks for the +accommodation of 1000 men. In Oakland Cemetery is a large +monument to Confederate soldiers; another monument in +Oakland, “To the unknown Confederate Dead,” is a reproduction +of the Lion of Lucerne; in West View Cemetery (4 m. west +of the city) is a memorial erected by the United Confederate +Veterans. The city obtains its water-supply from the +Chattahoochee river (above the mouth of Peachtree Creek), whence +the water is pumped by four pumps, which have a daily capacity +of 55,000,000 gallons. Atlanta is widely known for its public +spirit and enterprise, to which the expositions of 1881, 1887 and +1895 bear witness. The air is bracing, largely because of the +city’s altitude; the mean annual temperature is 60.8° F. (winter +44.1°, spring 60.5°, summer 77°, autumn 61.5°).</p> + +<p>Atlanta is an important educational centre. Its public-school +system was organized in 1871. Here are the Georgia School of +Technology, founded in 1885 (opened 1888) as a branch of the +university of Georgia; the Atlanta College of Physicians and +Surgeons (established in 1898 by the union of the Atlanta +Medical College, organized in 1855, and the Southern Medical +College, organized in 1878); the Atlanta School of Medicine +(1905); the Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine; the Atlanta +Theological Seminary (1901, Congregational), the only theological +school of the denomination in the South in 1908; the +Atlanta Dental College; the Southern College of Pharmacy +(1903); Washington Seminary (1877) for girls; and the following +institutions for negroes—Atlanta University, founded in 1869, +which is one of the best institutions in the country for the higher +education of negroes, standing particularly for “culture” +education (as opposed to industrial training), which has done +particularly good work in the department of sociology, under +the direction of Prof. W.E.B. du Bois (b. 1868), one of the +most prominent teachers of negro descent in the country, and +which had in 1908 339 students; Clark University, founded in +1870 by the Freedman’s Aid and Southern Educational Society +of the Methodist Episcopal Church; the Atlanta Baptist College, +founded in 1867; Morris Brown College (African Methodist +Episcopal, founded in 1882, and opened in 1885), which has +college preparatory, scientific, academic, normal and missionary +courses, correspondence courses in English and theology, +an industrial department, and departments of law, theology +(Turner Theological Seminary), nurse-training, music and art; +the Gammon Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal, +chartered in 1888), which has its buildings just outside the city +limits; and the Spelman Seminary for women and girls (Baptist) +opened in 1881 as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary—the +present name being adopted in 1883 in honour of the parents +of Mrs John D. Rockefeller—and incorporated in 1888. At +Decatur (pop. 1418 in 1900), a residential suburb, 6 m. east-north-east +of Atlanta, is the Agnes Scott College (1890) for white girls; +connected with the college is a school of music, art and expression, +and an academy.</p> + +<p>The city’s principal charitable institutions are the Grady +Memorial hospital (opened in 1892), supported by the city and +named in honour of Henry W. Grady; the Presbyterian hospital; +the Baptist Tabernacle Infirmary; the Wesley Memorial +hospital; St Joseph’s infirmary; the Municipal hospital for +contagious diseases; the Florence Crittenden home. Three +miles south-east of the city is a (state) soldiers’ home, for +aged, infirm and disabled Confederate veterans. The Associated +Charities of Atlanta was organized in 1905.</p> + +<p>The principal newspapers are the <i>Constitution</i> (morning), +edited from 1880 until 1889 by Henry W. Grady (1851-1889),<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +one of the most eloquent of Southern orators, who did much to +promote the reconciliation of the North and the South after the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page854" id="page854"></a>854</span> +Civil War, and whose statue stands opposite the post office; +the <i>Journal</i> (evening), of which Hoke Smith (b. 1855), a prominent +political leader, secretary of the interior in President +Cleveland’s cabinet in 1893-1896, and later governor of Georgia, +was long the proprietor; and the <i>Georgian</i> (evening), founded +in 1906 as a Prohibition organ.</p> + +<p>As regards commerce and manufactures, Atlanta ranks first +among the cities of Georgia. In 1907 its whosesale and retail +trade was estimated at $100,000,000. The city is said to receive +two-fifths of the total freight delivered in the state of Georgia. +From 1895 to 1907 the bank clearings increased from about +$65,000,000 to about $260,000,000. In recognition of the city’s +financial strength, Atlanta has been designated by the secretary +of the treasury as one of the cities whose bonds will be accepted +as security for Federal deposits. Atlanta is the Southern headquarters +for a number of fire and life insurance companies, and +is the third city of the United States in the amount of insurance +business written and reported to resident agents, the annual +premium receipts averaging about $10,000,000. It is an important +horse and mule market, and handles much tobacco.</p> + +<p>The development of manufactures has been especially notable. +In 1880 the capital invested in manufacturing industries was +approximately $2,468,000; in 1890 it was $9,508,962; in 1900 +it had increased to $16,045,156; and in 1905, when only establishments +under the “factory system” were counted in the +census, to $21,631,162. In 1900 the total product was valued +at $16,707,027, and the factory product at $14,418,834; and in +1905 the factory product was valued at $25,745,650, an increase +of 78.6% in five years. Among the products are cotton goods +(the product value of which in 1905 was 14% of the total value +of the city’s manufactures), foundry and machine-shop products, +lumber, patent medicines, confectionery, men’s clothing, mattresses, +spring-beds and other furniture. Since 1904 part of the +power utilized for manufacturing has been obtained from the +Chattahoochee river, 15 m. from the city. There are many +manufactories just outside the city limits.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—Atlanta owes its origin to the development of +pioneer railroads of Georgia. In 1836 the Western & Atlantic, +the first road built into North Georgia, was chartered, and the +present site of Atlanta was chosen as its southern terminal, +which it reached in 1843, and which was named “Terminus.” +The Georgia and the Central of Georgia then projected branches +to Terminus in order to connect with the Western & Atlantic, +and completed them in 1845 and 1846. The town charter of +1843 changed the name to Marthasville, in honour of the daughter +of Governor Wilson Lumpkin; and the city charter of 1847 +changed this to Atlanta. The population in 1850 was 2572; +in 1860, 9554. Manufacturing interests soon became important, +and during the Civil War Atlanta was the seat of Confederate +military factories and a depot of supplies. In 1864 it was +the objective point of the first stage of General William T. +Sherman’s invasion of Georgia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American Civil War</a></span>), which +is therefore generally known as the “Atlanta campaign.”</p> + +<p>After the battles around Marietta (<i>q.v.</i>), and the crossing of +the Chattahoochee river on the 8th and 9th of July, Sherman +continued his advance against Atlanta. His plan of operations +was directed primarily to the seizure of the Decatur railway, +by which the Confederate commander, General J.E. Johnston, +might receive support from Virginia and the Carolinas. The +three Union armies under Sherman’s command, outnumbering +the Confederates about 3 to 2, began their movement on the +16th of July; the Army of the Cumberland (Gen. G.H. Thomas) +on the right marching from Marietta by the fords of the Upper +Chattahoochee on Atlanta, the Army of the Ohio (Gen. J.M. +Schofield) in the centre direct on Decatur, and the Army of the +Tennessee (Gen. J.B. McPherson) still farther east towards +Stone Mountain. At the moment of marching out to meet the +enemy, Johnston was relieved of his command and was replaced +by Gen. J.B. Hood (July 17). Hood at once prepared to attack +Thomas as soon as that general should have crossed Peachtree +Creek (6 m. north of the city) and thus isolated himself from Schofield +and McPherson. Sherman’s confidence in Thomas and his +troops was, however, justified. Hood’s attack (battle of Peachtree +Creek, July 20) was everywhere repulsed, and Schofield +and McPherson closed up at the greatest speed. Hood had to +retire to Atlanta, with a loss of more than 4000 men, and the +three Union armies gradually converged on the north and east +sides of the city. But Hood, who had been put in command as a +fighting general, was soon ready to attack afresh. This time +he placed Gen. W.J. Hardee’s corps, the largest of his army, +to the south of Atlanta, facing the left flank of McPherson’s +army. As Hardee’s attack rolled up the Union army from left +to right, the remainder of the Confederate army was to issue +from the Atlanta fortifications and join in the battle. Hardee +opened his attack at noon on the 22nd of July (battle of Atlanta). +The troops of the Army of the Tennessee were swiftly driven +back, and their commander, McPherson, killed; but presently +the Federals re-formed and a severe struggle ensued, in which +most of Hood’s army joined. The veterans of the Army of the +Tennessee, led by Gen. J.A. Logan, offered a stubborn resistance, +however, and Schofield’s army now intervened. After prolonged +attacks lasting to nightfall, Hood had once more to draw off, +with about 10,000 men killed and wounded. The Confederates +now abandoned all idea of regaining the Decatur line, and based +themselves on Jonesboro’ and the Macon railway. Sherman +quickly realized this, and the Army of the Tennessee, now +commanded by Gen. O.O. Howard, was counter-marched from +left to right, until it formed up on the right of the Union line +about Ezra Church (about 4 m. west of Atlanta). The railway +from Chattanooga to Atlanta, destroyed by Johnston as he fell +back in May and June, was now repaired and working up to +Thomas’s camps. Hood had meanwhile extended his entrenchments +southwards to cover the Macon railway, and Howard’s +movement led to another engagement (battle of Ezra Church, +July 28) in which the XV. corps under Logan again bore the +brunt of Hood’s attack. The Confederates were once more +unsuccessful, and the losses were so heavy that the “fighting” +policy ordered by the Confederate government was countermanded. +Sherman’s cavalry had hitherto failed to do serious +damage to the railway, and the Federal general now proceeded +to manoeuvre with his main body so as to cut off Hood from his +Southern railway lines (August). Covered by Howard at Ezra +Church, Schofield led this advance, but the new Confederate +lines baffled him. A bombardment of the Atlanta fortifications +was then begun, but it had no material result. Another cavalry +raid effected but slight damage to the line, and Sherman now +decided to take his whole force to the south side. This apparently +dangerous movement (August 25) is a remarkable illustration +of Sherman’s genius for war, and in fact succeeded completely. +Only a small force was left to guard the Chattanooga +railway, and the Union forces, Howard on the right, Thomas in +the centre, and Schofield on the left, reached the railway after +some sharp fighting (action of Jonesboro’, September 1). The +defence of Atlanta was now hopeless; Hood’s forces retreated +southward the same evening, and on the 2nd of September the +Union detachment left behind on the north side entered Atlanta +unopposed.</p> + +<p>All citizens were now ordered to leave, the place was turned +into a military camp, and when Sherman started on his “March +to the Sea,” on the 15th of November, a large part of the city +was burned. Consequently the present city is a product of the +post-bellum development of Georgia. The military government +of Georgia was established here in 1865. In 1868 Atlanta was +made the capital of the state.</p> + +<p>In 1881 an International Cotton Exposition was held in +Atlanta. This was American, even local, in character; its +inception was due to a desire to improve the cultivation and +manufacture of cotton; but it brought to the notice of the +whole country the industrial transformation wrought in the +Southern states during the last quarter of the 19th century. +In 1887 the Piedmont Exposition was held in Atlanta. The +Cotton States and International Exposition, also held at Atlanta, +in 1895, attracted widespread attention, and had exhibits from +thirty-seven states and thirteen foreign countries.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Grady was succeeded as managing editor by Clark Howell +(b. 1863); and Joel Chandler Harris was long a member of the +editorial staff.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page855" id="page855"></a>855</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIC,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cass county, Iowa, +U.S.A., on East Nishnabatna river, about 80 m. W. by S. of +Des Moines. Pop. (1890) 4351; (1900) 5046; (1905, state +census) 5180 (625 foreign-born); (1910) 4560. It is served by +the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway, and by an inter-urban +electric line connecting with Elkhorn and Kimballton, +and is the trade centre of a fine agricultural country; among +its manufactures are machine-shop products, canned corn, flour, +umbrellas, drugs and bricks. The municipality owns the water-works +and electric-lighting plant. Atlantic was chartered as +a city in 1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIC CITY,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a city of Atlantic county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., on the Atlantic Ocean, 58 m. S.E. of Philadelphia and +137 m. S. by W. of New York. Pop. (1890) 13,055; (1900) +27,838, of whom 6513 were of negro descent and 3189 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 46,150. It is served by the +Atlantic City (Philadelphia & Reading) and the West Jersey & +Seashore (Pennsylvania system) railways. Atlantic City is the +largest and most popular all-the-year-round resort in the United +States, and has numerous fine hotels. The city extends for 3 m. +along a low sandy island (Absecon Beach), 10 m. long by ¾ m. +wide, separated from the mainland by a narrow strip of salt +water and 4 or 5 m. of salt marshes, partly covered with water +at highest storm tide. There are good bathing, boating, sailing, +fishing and wild-fowl shooting. A “Board Walk” stretches +along the beach for about 5 m.—the newest part of it is of +concrete—and along or near this walk are the largest hotels, +and numerous shops, and places of amusement; from the walk +into the ocean extend several long piers. Other features of the +place are the broad driveway (Atlantic Avenue) and an automobile +boulevard. There are several seaside sanitoriums and +hospitals, including the Atlantic City hospital, the Mercer +Memorial home, and the Children’s Seashore home. On the +north end of the beach is Absecon Lighthouse, 160 ft. high. +The municipality owns the water-works. Oysters are dredged +here and are shipped hence in large quantities. There was a +settlement of fishermen on the island in the latter part of the +18th century. In 1852 a movement was made to develop it as +a seaside resort for Philadelphia, and after the completion of +the Camden & Atlantic City railway in 1854 the growth of the +place was rapid. A heavy loss occurred by fire on the 3rd of +April 1902.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIC OCEAN,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> +a belt of water, roughly of an <img style="width:16px; height:21px" src="images/img855.jpg" alt="" />-shape, +between the western coasts of Europe and Africa and the eastern +coasts of North and South America. It extends +northward to the Arctic Basin and southward to the +<span class="sidenote">Extent.</span> +Great Southern Ocean. For purposes of measurement the polar +boundaries are taken to be the Arctic and Antarctic circles, +although in discussing the configuration and circulation it is +impossible to adhere strictly to these limits. The Atlantic +Ocean consists of two characteristic divisions, the geographical +equator forming a fairly satisfactory line of division into North +and South Atlantic. The North Atlantic, by far the best-known +of the main divisions of the hydrosphere, is remarkable for the +immense length of its coast-line and for the large number of +enclosed seas connected with it, including on the western side the +Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St Lawrence and +Hudson Bay, and on the eastern side the Mediterranean and +Black Sea, the North Sea and the Baltic. The North Atlantic +is connected with the Arctic Basin by four main channels: (1) +Hudson Strait, about 60 m. wide, communicating with the gulfs +and straits of the North American Arctic archipelago; (2) +Davis Strait, about 200 m. wide, leading to Baffin Bay; (3) +Denmark Strait, between Greenland and Iceland, 130 m. wide; +and (4) the “Norwegian Sea,” about 400 m. wide, extending +from Iceland to the Faeroe Islands, the Shetland Islands and +the coast of Norway. The width of the North Atlantic in lat. 60°, +approximately where it breaks up into the branches just named, +is nearly 2000 m.; in about lat. 50° N. the coasts of Ireland +and Newfoundland approach to 1750 m.; the breadth then +increases rapidly to lat. 40° N., and attains its maximum of +4500 m. in lat. 25° N.; farther south the minimum breadth is +reached between Africa and South America, Cape Palmas being +only 1600 m. distant from Cape St Roque. In marked contrast +to this, the South Atlantic is distinguished by great simplicity +of coast-line; inland seas there are none, and it attains its +greatest breadth as it merges with the Southern Ocean; in lat. +35° S. the width is 3700 m.</p> + +<p>The total area of the North Atlantic, not counting inland seas +connected with it, is, according to G. Karstens, 36,438,000 sq. +kilometres, or 10,588,000 sq. m.; including the inland seas the +area is 45,641,000 sq. kilometres or 13,262,000 sq. m. The area +of the South Atlantic is 43,455,000 sq. kilometres, or 12,627,000 +sq. m. Although not the most extensive of the great oceans, +the Atlantic has by far the largest drainage area. The “long +slopes” of the continents on both sides are directed towards the +Atlantic, which accordingly receives the waters of a large proportion +of the great rivers of the world, including the St Lawrence, +the Mississippi, the Orinoco, the Amazon, the rivers of the La +Plata, the Congo, the Niger, the Loire, the Rhine, the Elbe and +the great rivers of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. Sir J. +Murray estimates the total area of land draining to the Atlantic +to be 13,432,000 sq. m., or with the Arctic area nearly 20,000,000 +sq. m., nearly four times the area draining to the Pacific Ocean, +and almost precisely four times the area draining to the Indian +Ocean. Murray’s calculations give the amount of precipitation +received on this area at 15,800 cub. m. annually, and the river +discharge from it at 3900 cub. m.</p> + +<p>The dominant feature of the relief of the Atlantic basin is a +submarine ridge running from north to south from about lat. +50° N. to lat. 40° S., almost exactly in the central +line, and following the <img style="width:16px; height:21px" src="images/img855.jpg" alt="" />-shape of the coasts. Over +<span class="sidenote">Relief of the bed.</span> +this ridge the average depth is about 1700 fathoms. +Towards its northern end the ridge widens and rises to the plateau +of the Azores, and in about 50° N. lat. it merges with the “Telegraph +Plateau,” which extends across nearly the whole ocean +from Ireland to Newfoundland. North of the fiftieth parallel +the depths diminish towards the north-east, two long submarine +ridges of volcanic origin extend north-eastwards to the south-west +of Iceland and to the Faeroe Islands, and these, with their +intervening valleys, end in a transverse ridge connecting Greenland, +through Iceland and the Faeroe Islands, with North-western +Scotland and the continental mass of Europe. The +mean depth over this ridge is about 250 fathoms, and the maximum +depth nowhere reaches 500 fathoms. The main basin of the +Atlantic is thus cut off from the Arctic basin, with which the +area north of the ridge has complete deep-water communication. +This intermediate region, which has Atlantic characteristics +down to 300 fathoms, and at greater depths belongs more +properly to the Arctic Sea, commonly receives the name of +Norwegian Sea. On both sides of the central ridge deep troughs +extend southwards from the Telegraph plateau to the Southern +Ocean, the deep water coming close to the land all the way down +on both sides. In these troughs the depth is seldom much less +than 3000 fathoms, and this is exceeded in a series of patches +to which Murray has given the name of “Deeps.” In the eastern +trough the Peake Deep lies off the Bay of Biscay in 20° W. long., +Monaco Deep and Chun Deep off the north-west of Africa, +Moseley Deep off the Cape Verde Islands, Krech Deep off the +Liberian coast, and Buchanan Deep off the mouth of the Congo. +The western trough extends northwards into Davis Strait, +forming a depression in the Telegraph plateau; to the south of +Newfoundland and Nova Scotia are Sigsbee Deep, Libbey Deep +and Suhm Deep, each of small area; north-east of the Bahamas +Nares Deep forms the largest and deepest depression in the +Atlantic, in which a sounding of 4561 fathoms was obtained +(70 m. north of Porto Rico) by the U.S. ship “Blake” in +1883. Immediately to the south of Nares Deep lies the smaller +Makarov Deep; and off the coast of South America are Tizard +Deep and Havergal Deep.</p> + +<p>Before the Antarctic expeditions of 1903-1904 our knowledge +of the form of the sea bottom south of 40° S. lat. was almost +wholly derived from the soundings of the expedition of Sir J.C. +Ross in the “Erebus” and “Terror” (1839-1843), and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page856" id="page856"></a>856</span> +bathymetrical maps published were largely the result of deductions +based on one sounding taken by Ross in 68° 34′ S. lat., +12° 49′ W. long., in which he recorded a depth exceeding 4000 +fathoms. The Scottish Antarctic expedition has shown this +sounding to be erroneous; the “Scotia” obtained samples of +bottom, in almost the same spot, from a depth of 2660 fathoms. +Combining the results of recent soundings, Dr W.S. Bruce, the +leader of the Scottish expedition, finds that there is a ridge +“extending in a curve from Madagascar to Bouvet Island, and +from Bouvet Island to the Sandwich group, whence there is a +forked connexion through the South Orkneys to Graham’s Land, +and through South Georgia to the Falkland Islands and the +South American continent.” Again, the central ridge of the +South Atlantic extends a thousand miles farther south than was +supposed, joining the east and west ridge, just described, between +the Bouvet Islands and the Sandwich group.</p> + +<p>The foundations of our knowledge of the relief of the Atlantic +basin may be said to have been laid by the work of H.M.S. +“Challenger” (1873-1876), and the German ship “Gazelle” +(1874-1876), the French expedition in the “Travailleur” (1880), +and the U.S. surveying vessel “Blake” (1877 and later). Large +numbers of additional soundings have been made in recent years +by cable ships, by the expeditions of H.S.H. the prince of Monaco, +the German “Valdivia” expedition under Professor Chun (1898), +and the combined Antarctic expeditions (1903-1904).</p> + +<p>The Atlantic Ocean contains a relatively small number of +islands. The only continental groups, besides some islands in +the Mediterranean, are Iceland, the British Isles, +<span class="sidenote">Islands.</span> +Newfoundland, the West Indies, and the Falklands, +and the chief oceanic islands are the Azores, Madeira, the +Canaries, the Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St Helena, Tristan +da Cunha and Bouvet Island.</p> + +<p>The mean depth of the North Atlantic is, according to G. +Karstens, 2047 fathoms. If we include the enclosed +seas, the North Atlantic has a mean depth of 1800 +<span class="sidenote">Mean depth, and bottom deposits.</span> +fathoms. The South Atlantic has a mean depth of +2067 fathoms.</p> + +<p>The greater part of the bottom of the Atlantic is covered by +a deposit of Globigerina ooze, roughly the area between 1000 and +3000 fathoms, or about 60% of the whole. At a depth of about +3000 fathoms, <i>i.e.</i> in the “Deeps,” the Globigerina ooze gradually +gives place to red clay. In the shallower tropical waters, +especially on the central ridge, considerable areas are covered by +Pteropod ooze, a deposit consisting largely of the shells of pelagic +molluscs. Diatom ooze is the characteristic deposit in high +southern latitudes. The terrigenous deposits consist of blue +muds, red muds (abundant along the coast of Brazil, where the +amount of organic matter present is insufficient to reduce the iron +in the matter brought down by the great rivers to produce blue +muds), green muds and sands, and volcanic and coral detritus.</p> + +<p>The question of the origin of the Atlantic basin, like that of the +other great divisions of the hydrosphere, is still unsettled. Most +geologists include the Atlantic with the other oceans in the view +they adopt as to its age; but E. Suess and M. Neumayr, while +they regard the basin of the Pacific as of great antiquity, believe +the Atlantic to date only from the Mesozoic age. Neumayr +finds evidence of the existence of a continent between Africa +and South America, which protruded into the central North +Atlantic, in Jurassic times. F. Kossmat has shown that the +Atlantic had substantially its present form during the Cretaceous +period.</p> + +<p>In describing the mean distribution of temperature in the +waters of the Atlantic it is necessary to treat the northern and +southern divisions separately. The heat equator, or +line of maximum mean surface temperature, starts +<span class="sidenote">Distribution of temperature.</span> +from the African coast in about 5° N. lat., and closely +follows that parallel to 40° W. long., where it bends +northwards to the Caribbean Sea. North of this line, near which +the temperature is a little over 80° F., the gradient trends somewhat +to the east of north, and the temperature is slightly higher +on the western than on the eastern side until, in 45° N. lat., the +isothermal of 60° F. runs nearly east and west. Beyond this +parallel the gradient is directed towards the north-west, and +temperatures are much higher on the European than on the +American side. From the surface to 500 fathoms the general +form of the isothermals remains the same, except that instead +of an equatorial maximum belt there is a focus of maximum +temperature off the eastern coast of the United States. This +focus occupies a larger area and becomes of greater relative +intensity as the depth increases until, at 500 fathoms, it becomes +an elongated belt extending right across the ocean in about +30° N. lat. Below 500 fathoms the western centres of maximum +disappear, and higher temperatures occur in the eastern Atlantic +off the Iberian peninsula and north-western Africa down to at +least 1000 fathoms; at still greater depths temperature gradually +becomes more and more uniform. The communication between +the Atlantic and Arctic basins being cut off, as already described, +at a depth of about 300 fathoms, the temperatures in the Norwegian +Sea below that level are essentially Arctic, usually below +the freezing-point of fresh water, except where the distribution +is modified by the surface circulation. The isothermals of mean +surface temperature in the South Atlantic are in the lower +latitudes of an ~-shape, temperatures being higher on the +American than on the African side. In latitudes south of 30° S. +the curved form tends to disappear, the lines running more and +more directly east and west. Below the surface a focus of maximum +temperature appears off the coast of South America in +about 30° S. lat., and of minimum temperature north and north-east +of this maximum. This distribution is most marked at +about 300 fathoms, and disappears at 500 fathoms, beyond +which depth the lines tend to become parallel and to run east +and west, the gradient slowly diminishing.</p> + +<p>The Atlantic is by far the saltest of the great oceans. Its +saltest waters are found at the surface in two belts, one extending +east and west in the North Atlantic between 20° and +30° N. lat., and another of almost equal salinity +<span class="sidenote">Salinity.</span> +extending eastwards from the coast of South America in 10° to +20° S. lat. In the equatorial region between these belts the +salinity is markedly less, especially in the eastern part. North +of the North Atlantic maximum the waters become steadily +fresher as latitude increases until the channels opening into the +Arctic basin are reached. In all of these water of relatively +high salinity usually appears for a long distance towards the +north on the eastern side of the channel, while on the western +side the water is comparatively fresh; but great variations occur +at different seasons and in different years. In the higher latitudes +of the South Atlantic the salinity diminishes steadily and tends +to be uniform from east to west, except near the southern +extremity of South America, where the surface waters are very +fresh. Our knowledge of the salinity of waters below the surface +is as yet very defective, large areas being still unrepresented by +a single observation. The chief facts already established are +the greater saltness of the North Atlantic compared with the +South Atlantic at all depths, and the low salinity at all depths +in the eastern equatorial region, off the Gulf of Guinea.</p> + +<p>The wind circulation over the Atlantic is of a very definite +character. In the South Atlantic the narrow land surfaces of +Africa and South America produce comparatively little +effect in disturbing the normal planetary circulation. +<span class="sidenote">Meteorology.</span> +The tropical belt of high atmospheric pressure is very +marked in winter; it is weaker during the summer months, and +at that season the greater relative fall of pressure over the land +cuts it off into an oval-shaped anticyclone, the centre of which +rests on the coolest part of the sea surface in that latitude, near +the Gulf of Guinea. South of this anticyclone, from about the +latitude of the Cape, we find the region where, on account of +the uninterrupted sea surface right round the globe, the planetary +circulation is developed to the greatest extent known; the +pressure gradient is steep, and the region is swept continuously +by strong westerly winds—the “roaring forties.”</p> + +<p>In the North Atlantic the distribution of pressure and resulting +wind circulation are very largely modified by the enormous +areas of land and frozen sea which surround the ocean on three +sides. The tropical belt of high pressure persists all the year +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page857" id="page857"></a>857</span> +round, but the immense demand for air to supply the ascending +currents over the heated land surfaces in summer causes the +normal descending movement to be largely reinforced; hence the +“North Atlantic anticyclone” is much larger, and its circulation +more vigorous, in summer than in winter. Again, during the +winter months pressure is relatively high over North America, +Western Eurasia and the Arctic regions; hence vast quantities +of air are brought down to the surface, and circulation must be +kept up by ascending currents over the ocean. The Atlantic +anticyclone is, therefore, at its weakest in winter, and on its polar +side the polar eddy becomes a trough of low pressure, extending +roughly from Labrador to Iceland and Jan Mayen, and traversed +by a constant succession of cyclones. The net effect of the +surrounding land is, in fact, to reverse the seasonal variations +of the planetary circulation, but without destroying its type. +In the intermediate belt between the two high-pressure areas +the meteorological equator remains permanently north of the +geographical equator, moving between it and about 11° N. lat.</p> + +<p>The part of this atmospheric circulation which is steadiest +in its action is the trade winds, and this is, therefore, the most +effective in producing drift movement of the surface waters. +The trade winds give rise, in the region most exposed to their +influence, to two westward-moving drifts—the equatorial +currents, which are separated in parts of their course by currents +moving in the opposite direction along the equatorial belt. +These last may be of the nature of “reaction” currents; they +are collectively known as the equatorial counter-current. On +reaching the South American coast, the southern equatorial +current splits into two parts at Cape St Roque: one branch, +<span class="sidenote">Currents.</span> +the Brazil current, is deflected southwards and follows +the coast as a true stream current at least as far as +the river Plate. The second branch proceeds north-westwards +towards the West Indies, where it mingles with the waters of +the northern equatorial; and the two drifts, blocked by the +<-shape of the land, raise the level of the surface in the Gulf +of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and in the whole area outside the +West Indies. This congestion is relieved by what is probably +the most rapid and most voluminous stream current in the world, +the Gulf Stream, which runs along the coast of North America, +separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water, the “cold +wall,” to a point off the south-east of Newfoundland. At this +point the Gulf Stream water mixes with that from the Labrador +current (see below), and a drift current eastwards is set up under +the influence of the prevailing westerly winds: this is generally +called the Gulf Stream drift. When the Gulf Stream drift +approaches the eastern side of the Atlantic it splits into two +parts, one going southwards along the north-west coast of Africa, +the Canaries current, and another turning northwards and +passing to the west of the British Isles. Most of the Canaries +current re-enters the northern equatorial, but a certain proportion +keeps to the African coast, unites with the equatorial return +currents, and penetrates into the Gulf of Guinea. This last +feature of the circulation is still somewhat obscure; it is probably +to be accounted for by the fact that on this part of the coast the +prevailing winds, although to a considerable extent monsoonal, +are off-shore winds, blowing the surface waters out to sea, and +the place of the water thus removed is filled up by the water derived +either from lower levels or from “reaction” currents.</p> + +<p>The movements of the northern branch of the Gulf Stream +drift have been the object of more careful and more extended +study than all the other currents of the ocean put together, +except, perhaps, the Gulf Stream itself. The cruises of the +“Porcupine” and “Lightning” which led directly to the +despatch of the “Challenger” expedition, were altogether +within its “sphere of influence”; so also was the great Norwegian +Atlantic expedition. More recently, the area has been +further explored by the German expedition in the ss. “National,” +the Danish “Ingolf” expedition, and the minor expeditions +of the “Michael Sars,” “Jackal,” “Research,” &c., and since +1902 it has been periodically examined by the International +Council for the Study of the Sea. Much has also been done by +the discussion of observations made on board vessels belonging +to the mercantile marine of various countries. It may now +be taken as generally admitted that the current referred to +breaks into three main branches. The first passes northwards, +most of it between the Faeroe and Shetland Islands, to the coast +of Norway, and so on to the Arctic basin, which, as Nansen has +shown, it fills to a great depth. The second, the Irminger +stream, passes up the west side of Iceland; and the third goes +up to the Greenland side of Davis Strait to Baffin Bay. These +branches are separated from one another at the surface by +currents moving southwards: one passes east of Iceland; the +second, the Greenland current, skirts the east coast of Greenland; +and the third, the Labrador current already mentioned, follows +the western side of Davis Strait.</p> + +<p>The development of the equatorial and the Brazil currents +in the South Atlantic has already been described. On the polar +side of the high-pressure area a west wind drift is under the +control of the “roaring forties,” and on reaching South Africa +part of this is deflected and sent northwards along the west +coast as the cold Benguella current which rejoins the equatorial. +In the central parts of the two high-pressure areas there is +practically no surface circulation. In the North Atlantic this +region is covered by enormous banks of gulf-weed (<i>Sargassum +bucciferum</i>), hence the name Sargasso Sea. The Sargasso Sea +is bounded, roughly, by the lines of 20°-35° N. lat. and 40°-75° +W. long.</p> + +<p>The sub-surface circulation in the Atlantic may be regarded +as consisting of two parts. Where surface water is banked up +against the land, as by the equatorial and Gulf Stream drift +currents, it appears to penetrate to very considerable depths; +the escaping stream currents are at first of great vertical thickness +and part of the water at their sources has a downward movement. +In the case of the Gulf Stream, which is not much impeded by +the land, this descending motion is relatively slight, being +perhaps largely due to the greater specific gravity of the water; +it ceases to be perceptible beyond about 500 fathoms. On the +European-African side the descending movement is more +marked, partly because the coast-line is much more irregular +and the northward current is deflected against it by the earth’s +rotation, and partly because of the outflow of salt water from +the Mediterranean; here the movement is traceable to at least +1000 fathoms. The northward movement of water across the +Norwegian Sea extends down from the surface to the Iceland-Shetland +ridge, where it is sharply cut off; the lower levels of +the Norwegian Sea are filled with ice-cold Arctic water, close +down to the ridge. The south-moving currents originating from +melting ice are probably quite shallow. The second part of the +circulation in the depth is the slow “creep” of water of very +low temperature along the bottom. The North Atlantic being +altogether cut off from the Arctic regions, and the vertical +circulation being active, this movement is here practically +non-existent; but in the South Atlantic, where communication +with the Southern Ocean is perfectly open, Antarctic water can +be traced to the equator and even beyond.</p> + +<p>The tides of the Atlantic Ocean are of great complexity. The +tidal wave of the Southern Ocean, which sweeps uninterruptedly +round the globe from the east to west, generates a secondary wave +between Africa and South America, which travels north at a +rate dependent only on the depth of the ocean. With this “free” +wave is combined a “forced” wave, generated, by the direct +action of the sun and moon, within the Atlantic area itself. +Nothing is known about the relative importance of these two +waves.</p> +<div class="author">(H. N. D.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oceans and Oceanography</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATLANTIS,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> <span class="sc">Atlantis</span>, or <span class="sc">Atlantica</span>, a legendary island +in the Atlantic Ocean, first mentioned by Plato in the <i>Timaeus</i>. +Plato describes how certain Egyptian priests, in a conversation +with Solon, represented the island as a country larger than +Asia Minor and Libya united, and situated just beyond the +Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). Beyond it lay an +archipelago of lesser islands. According to the priests, Atlantis +had been a powerful kingdom nine thousand years before the +birth of Solon, and its armies had overrun the lands which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page858" id="page858"></a>858</span> +bordered the Mediterranean. Athens alone had withstood +them with success. Finally the sea had overwhelmed Atlantis, +and had thenceforward become unnavigable owing to the +shoals which marked the spot. In the <i>Critias</i> Plato adds a +history of the ideal commonwealth of Atlantis. It is impossible +to decide how far this legend is due to Plato’s invention, and +how far it is based on facts of which no record remains. Medieval +writers, for whom the tale was preserved by the Arabian geographers, +believed it true, and were fortified in their belief by +numerous traditions of islands in the western sea, which offered +various points of resemblance to Atlantis. Such in particular +were the Greek Isles of the Blest, or Fortunate Islands, the +Welsh Avalon, the Portuguese Antilia or Isle of Seven Cities, +and St Brendan’s island, the subject of many sagas in many +languages. These, which are described in separate articles, +helped to maintain the tradition of an earthly paradise which +had become associated with the myth of Atlantis; and all +except Avalon were marked in maps of the 14th and 15th +centuries, and formed the object of voyages of discovery, in one +case (St Brendan’s island) until the 18th century. In early +legends, of whatever nationality, they are almost invariably +described in terms which closely resemble Homer’s account of +the island of the Phaeacians (<i>Od.</i> viii.)—a fact which may be +an indication of their common origin in some folk-tale current +among several races. Somewhat similar legends are those of +the island of Brazil (<i>q.v.</i>), of Lyonnesse (<i>q.v.</i>), the sunken land +off the Cornish coast, of the lost Breton city of Is, and of Mayda +or Asmaide—the French <i>Isle Verte</i> and Portuguese <i>Ilha Verde</i> +or “Green Island”—which appears in many folk-tales from +Gibraltar to the Hebrides, and until 1853 was marked on English +charts as a rock in 44° 48′ N. and 26° 10′ W. After the Renaissance, +with its renewal of interest in Platonic studies, numerous +attempts were made to rationalize the myth of Atlantis. The +island was variously identified with America, Scandinavia, the +Canaries and even Palestine; ethnologists saw in its inhabitants +the ancestors of the Guanchos, the Basques or the ancient +Italians; and even in the 17th and 18th centuries the credibility +of the whole legend was seriously debated, and sometimes +admitted, even by Montaigne, Buffon and Voltaire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the theory that Atlantis is to be identified with Crete in the +Minoan period, see “The Lost Continent” in <i>The Times</i> (London) +for the 19th of February 1909. See also “Dissertation sur l’Atlantide” +in T.H. Martin’s <i>Études sur le Timée</i> (1841).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATLAS,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the “endurer,” a son of the +Titan Iapetus and Clymene (or Asia), brother of Prometheus. +Homer, in the <i>Odyssey</i> (i. 52) speaks of him as “one who knows +the depths of the whole sea, and keeps the tall pillars which +hold heaven and earth asunder.” In the first instance he seems +to have been a marine creation. The pillars which he supported +were thought to rest in the sea, immediately beyond the most +western horizon. But as the Greeks’ knowledge of the west +increased, the name of Atlas was transferred to a hill in the +north-west of Africa. Later, he was represented as a king of that +district, rich in flocks and herds, and owner of the garden of the +Hesperides, who was turned into a rocky mountain when Perseus, +to punish him for his inhospitality, showed him the Gorgon’s +head (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> iv. 627). Finally, Atlas was explained as +the name of a primitive astronomer, who was said to have made +the first celestial globe (Diodorus iii. 60). He was the father of +the Pleiades and Hyades; according to Homer, of Calypso. In +works of art he is represented as carrying the heavens or the +terrestrial globe. The Farnese statue of Atlas in the Naples +museum is well known.</p> + +<p>The plural form <span class="sc">Atlantes</span> is the classical term in architecture +for the male sculptured figures supporting a superstructure as +in the baths at Pompeii, and in the temple at Agrigentum in +Sicily. In 18th-century architecture half-figures of men with +strong muscular development were used to support balconies +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caryatides</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telamones</a></span>).</p> + +<p>A figure of Atlas supporting the heavens is often found as a +frontispiece in early collections of maps, and is said to have been +first thus used by Mercator. The name is hence applied to a +volume of maps (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Map</a></span>), and similarly to a volume which +contains a tabular conspectus of a subject, such as an atlas of +ethnographical, subjects or anatomical plates. It is also used +of a large size of drawing paper.</p> + +<p>The name “atlas,” an Arabic word meaning “smooth,” +applied to a smooth cloth, is sometimes found in English, and +is the usual German word, for “satin.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATLAS MOUNTAINS,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> the general name for the mountain +chains running more or less parallel to the coast of North-west +Africa. They extend from Cape Nun on the west to the Gulf +of Gabes on the east, a distance of some 1500 m., traversing +Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. To their south lies the Saharan +desert. The Atlas consist of many distinct ranges, but they can +be roughly divided into two main chains: (1) the Maritime +Atlas, <i>i.e.</i> the ranges overlooking the Mediterranean from Ceuta +to Cape Bon; (2) the inner and more elevated ranges, which, +starting from the Atlantic at Cape Ghir in Sús, run south of the +coast ranges and are separated from them by high plateaus. +This general disposition is seen most distinctly in eastern Morocco +and Algeria. The western inner ranges are the most important +of the whole system, and in the present article are described +first as <i>the Moroccan Ranges</i>. The maritime Atlas and the inner +ranges in Algeria and Tunisia are then treated under the heading +<i>Eastern Ranges</i>.</p> + +<p><i>The Moroccan Ranges.</i>—This section of the Atlas, known to +the inhabitants of Morocco by its Berber name, Idráren Dráren +or the “Mountains of Mountains,” consists of five distinct +ranges, varying in length and height, but disposed more or less +parallel to one another in a general direction from south-west +to north-east, with a slight curvature towards the Sahara.</p> + +<p>1. The main range, that known as the Great Atlas, occupies +a central position in the system, and is by far the longest and +loftiest chain. It has an average height of over 11,000 ft., +whereas the loftiest peaks in Algeria do not exceed 8000 ft., +and the highest in Tunisia are under 6000 ft. Towards the Dahra +district at the north-east end the fall is gradual and continuous, +but at the opposite extremity facing the Atlantic between Agadir +and Mogador it is precipitous. Although only one or two peaks +reach the line of perpetual snow, several of the loftiest summits +are snowclad during the greater part of the year. The northern +sides and tops of the lower heights are often covered with dense +forests of oak, cork, pine, cedar and other trees, with walnuts +up to the limit of irrigation. Their slopes enclose well-watered +valleys of great fertility, in which the Berber tribes cultivate +tiny irrigated fields, their houses clinging to the hill-sides. The +southern flanks, being exposed to the hot dry winds of the Sahara, +are generally destitute of vegetation.</p> + +<p>At several points the crest of the range has been deeply eroded +by old glaciers and running waters, and thus have been formed +a number of devious passes. The central section, culminating in +Tizi n ’Tagharat or Tinzár, a peak estimated at 15,000 ft. high, +maintains a mean altitude of 11,600 ft., and from this great mass +of schists and sandstones a number of secondary ridges radiate +in all directions, forming divides between the rivers Dra’a, Sús, +Um-er-Rabíā, Sebú, Mulwíya and Ghír, which flow respectively +to the south-west, the west, north-west, north, north-east and +south-east. All are swift and unnavigable, save perhaps for a +few miles from their mouths. With the exception of the Dra’a, +the streams rising on the side of the range facing the Sahara do +not reach the sea, but form marshes or lagoons at one season, +and at another are lost in the dry soil of the desert.</p> + +<p>For a distance of 100 m. the central section nowhere presents +any passes accessible to caravans, but south-westward two gaps +in the range afford communication between the Tansíft and +Sús basins, those respectively of Gindáfi and Bíbáwan. A few +summits in the extreme south-west in the neighbourhood of Cape +Ghir still exceed 11,000 ft., and although the steadily rising +ground from the coast and the prominence of nearer summits +detract from the apparent height, this is on an average greater +than that of the European Alps. The most imposing view is +to be obtained from the plain of Marrákesh, only some 1000 ft. +above sea-level, immediately north of the highest peaks. Besides +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page859" id="page859"></a>859</span> +huge masses of old schists and sandstones, the range contains +extensive limestone, marble, diorite, basalt and porphyry formations, +while granite prevails on its southern slopes. The presence +of enormous glaciers in the Ice Age is attested by the moraines +at the Atlantic end, and by other indications farther east. The +best-known passes are: (1) The Bíbáwan in the upper Wad Sús +basin (4150 ft.); (2) the Gindáfi, giving access from Marrákesh +to Tárudánt, rugged and difficult, but low; (3) the Tagharat, +difficult and little used, leading to the Dra’a valley (11,484 ft.); +(4) the Gláwi (7600 ft.); (5) Tizi n ’Tilghemt (7250 ft.), leading +to Tafilet (Tafílált) and the Wad Ghír.</p> + +<p>2. The lower portion of the Moroccan Atlas (sometimes called +the Middle Atlas), extending north-east and east from an +undefined point to the north of the Great Atlas to near the +frontier of Algeria, is crossed by the pass from Fez to Tafílált. +Both slopes are wooded, and its forests are the only parts of +Morocco where the lion still survives. From the north this +range, which is only partly explored, presents a somewhat +regular series of snowy crests.</p> + +<p>3. The Anti-Atlas or Jebel Saghru, also known as the Lesser +Atlas, running parallel to and south of the central range, is one +of the least elevated chains in the system, having a mean altitude +of not more than 5000 ft., although some peaks and even passes +exceed 6000 ft. At one point it is pierced by a gap scarcely five +paces wide with walls of variegated marbles polished by the +transport of goods. As to the relation of the Anti-Atlas to the +Atlas proper at its western end nothing certain is known.</p> + +<p>The two more or less parallel ranges which complete the +western system are less important:—(4) the Jebel Bani, south of +the Anti-Atlas, a low, narrow rocky ridge with a height of 3000 ft. +in its central parts; and (5) the Mountains of Ghaiáta, north of +the Middle Atlas, not a continuous range, but a series of broken +mountain masses from 3000 to 3500 ft. high, to the south of Fez, +Táza and Tlemçen.</p> + +<p><i>The Eastern Ranges.</i>—The eastern division of the Atlas, which +forms the backbone of Algeria and Tunisia, is adequately known +with the exception of the small portion in Morocco forming the +province of Er-Ríf. The lesser range, nearer the sea, known to +the French as the Maritime Atlas, calls for little detailed notice. +From Ceuta, above which towers Jebel Músa—about 2800 ft.—to +Melilla, a distance of some 150 m., the Ríf Mountains face +the Mediterranean, and here, as along the whole coast eastward +to Cape Bon, many rugged rocks rise boldly above the general +level. In Algeria the Maritime Atlas has five chief ranges, +several mountains rising over 5000 ft. The Jurjura range, +extending through Kabylia from Algiers to Bougie, contains the +peaks of Lalla Kedija (7542 ft.), the culminating point of the +maritime chains, and Babor (6447 ft.). (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algeria</a></span>.) +The Mejerda range, which extends into Tunisia, has no heights +exceeding 3700 ft. It was in these coast mountains of Algeria +that the Romans quarried the celebrated Numidian marbles.</p> + +<p>The southern or main range of the Eastern division is known +by the French as the Saharan Atlas. On its western extremity +it is linked by secondary ranges to the mountain system of +Morocco. The Saharan Atlas is essentially one chain, though +known under different names: Jebel K’sur and Jebel Amur on +the west, and Jebel Aures in the east. The central part, the +Záb Mountains, is of lower elevation, the Saharan Atlas reaching +its culminating point, Jebel Shellia (7611 ft. above the sea), in +the Aures. This range sends a branch northward which joins the +Mejerda range of the Maritime Atlas, and another branch runs +south by Gafsa to the Gulf of Gabes. Here Mount Sidi Ali bu +Musin reaches a height of 5700 ft., the highest point in Tunisia. +In the Saharan Atlas the passes leading to or from the desert +are numerous, and in most instances easy. Both in the east (at +Batna) and the west (at Ain Sefra) the mountains are traversed +by railways, which, starting from Mediterranean seaports, take +the traveller into the Sahara.</p> + +<p><i>History and Exploration.</i>—The name Atlas given to these +mountains by Europeans—but never used by the native races—is +derived from that of the mythical Greek god represented as +carrying the globe on his shoulders, and applied to the high and +distant mountains of the west, where Atlas was supposed to +dwell. From time immemorial the Atlas have been the home +of Berber races, and those living in the least accessible regions +have retained a measure of independence throughout their +recorded history. Thus some of the mountain districts of +Kabylia had never been visited by Europeans until the French +military expedition of 1857. But in general the Maritime range +was well known to the Romans. The Jebel Amur was traversed +by the column which seized El Aghuat in 1852, and from that +time dates the survey of the mountains.</p> + +<p>The ancient caravan route from Mauretania to the western +Sudan crossed the lower Moroccan Atlas by the pass of Tilghemt +and passed through the oasis of Tafílált, formerly known as +Sajilmása [”Sigilmassa”], on the east side of the Anti-Atlas. +The Moroccan system was visited, and in some instances crossed, +by various European travellers carried into slavery by the +Salli rovers, and was traversed by René Caillé in 1828 on his +journey home from Timbuktu, but the first detailed exploration +was made by Gerhard Rohlfs in 1861-1862. Previous to that +almost the only special report was the misleading one of Lieut. +Washington, attached to the British embassy of 1837, who from +insufficient data estimated the height of Mount Tagharat, to +which he gave the indefinite name of Miltsin (<i>i.e.</i> <i>Mul et-Tizin</i>, +“Lord of the Peaks”), as 11,400 ft. instead of about 15,000 ft.</p> + +<p>In 1871 the first scientific expedition, consisting of Dr (afterwards +Sir) J.D. Hooker, Mr John Ball and Mr G. Maw, explored +the central part of the Great Atlas with the special object of +investigating its flora and determining its relation to that of the +mountains of Europe. They ascended by the Ait Mízan valley +to the Tagharat pass (11,484 ft.), and by the Amsmiz valley to +the summit of Jebel Tezah (11,972 ft.). In the Tagharat pass +Mr Maw was the only one of the party who reached the watershed; +but from Jebel Tezah a good view was obtained southward +across the great valley of the Sús to the Anti-Atlas, which +appeared to be from 9000 to 10,000 ft. high. Dr Oskar Lenz +in 1879-1880 surveyed a part of the Great Atlas north of Tárudant, +determined a pass south of Iligh in the Anti-Atlas, and +penetrated thence across the Sahara to Timbuktu. He was +followed in 1883-1884 by Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, whose +extensive itineraries include many districts that had never before +been visited by any Europeans. Such were parts of the first and +middle ranges, crossed once; three routes over the Great Atlas, +which was, moreover, followed along both flanks for nearly its +whole length; and six journeys across the Anti-Atlas, with +a general survey of the foot of this range and several passages +over the Jebel Bani. Then came Joseph Thomson, who explored +some of the central parts, and made the highest ascent yet +achieved, that of Mount Likimt, 13,150 ft., but broke little new +ground, and failed to cross the main range (1888); and Walter +B. Harris, who explored some of the southern slopes and crossed +the Atlas at two points during his expedition to Tafílált in 1894. +In 1901 and again in 1905 the marquis de Segonzac, a Frenchman, +made extensive journeys in the Moroccan ranges. He crossed +the Great Atlas in its central section, explored its southern +border, and, in part, the Middle and Anti-Atlas ranges. A +member of his expeditions, de Flotte Rocquevaire, made a +triangulation of part of the western portion of the main Atlas, +his labours affording a basis for the co-ordination of the work +of previous explorers. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Morocco</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algeria</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tunisia</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sahara</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Vicomte Ch. de Foucauld, <i>Reconnaissance au Maroc +1883-1884</i> (Paris, 1888, almost the sole authority for the geography +of the Atlas; his book gives the result of careful surveys, and is +illustrated with a good collection of maps and sketches); Hooker, +Ball and Maw, <i>Marocco and the Great Atlas</i> (London, 1879, a most +valuable contribution, always scientific and trustworthy, especially +as to botany and geology); Joseph Thomson, <i>Travels in the Atlas +and Southern Morocco</i> (London, 1889, valuable geographical and +geological data); Louis Gentil, <i>Mission de Segonzac, &c.</i> (Paris, +1906; the author was geologist to the 1905 expedition); Gerhard Rohlfs, +<i>Adventures in Morocco</i> (London, 1874); Walter B. Harris, +<i>Tafilet, a Journey of Exploration in the Atlas Mountains, &c.</i> +(London, 1895), full of valuable information; Budgett Meakin, <i>The Land +of the Moors</i> (London, 1901), first and last chapters; Dr Oskar Lenz +<i>Timbuktu: Reise durch Marokko</i>, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">ATMOLYSIS<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="atmos">ἀτμός</span>, vapour: <span class="grk" title="lyein">λύειν</span>, to loosen), a term +invented by Thomas Graham to denote the separation of a +mixture of gases by taking advantage of their different rates of +diffusion through a porous septum or diaphragm (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATMOSPHERE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="atmos">ἀτμός</span>, vapour; <span class="grk" title="sphaira">σφαῖρα</span>, a sphere), the +aeriform envelope encircling the earth; also the envelope of a +particular gas or gases about any solid or liquid. Meteorological +phenomena seated more directly in the atmosphere obtained +early recognition; thus Hesiod, in his <i>Works and Days</i>, speculated +on the origin of winds, ascribing them to the heating effects of +the sun on the air. Ctesibius of Alexandria, Hero and others, +founded the science of pneumatics on observations on the +physical properties of air. Anaximenes made air the primordial +substance, and it was one of the Aristotelian elements. A direct +proof of its material nature was given by Galileo, who weighed +a copper ball containing compressed air.</p> + +<p>Before the development of pneumatic chemistry, air was +regarded as a distinct chemical unit or element. The study of +calcination and combustion during the 17th and 18th centuries +culminated in the discovery that air consists chiefly of a mixture +of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen. Cavendish, Priestley, +Lavoisier and others contributed to this result. Cavendish +made many analyses: from more than 500 determinations of +air in winter and summer, in wet and clear weather, and in town +and country, he discerned the mean composition of the atmosphere +to be, oxygen 20.833% and nitrogen 79.167% The +same experimenter noticed the presence of an inert gas, in very +minute amount; this gas, afterwards investigated by Rayleigh +and Ramsay, is now named argon (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The constancy of composition shown by repeated analyses of +atmospheric air led to the view that it was a chemical compound +of nitrogen and oxygen; but there was no experimental confirmation +of this idea, and all observations tended to the view +that it is simply a mechanical mixture. Thus, the gases are not +present in simple multiples of their combining weights; atmospheric +air results when oxygen and nitrogen are mixed in the +prescribed ratio, the mixing being unattended by any manifestation +of energy, such as is invariably associated with a chemical +action; the gases may be mechanically separated by atmolysis, +<i>i.e.</i> by taking advantage of the different rates of diffusion of the +two gases; the solubility of air in water corresponds with the +“law of partial pressures,” each gas being absorbed in amount +proportional to its pressure and coefficient of absorption, and +oxygen being much more soluble than nitrogen (in the ratio of +.04114 to .02035 at 0°); air expelled from water by boiling is +always richer in oxygen.</p> + +<p>Various agencies are at work tending to modify the composition +of the atmosphere, but these so neutralize each other as to leave +it practically unaltered. Minute variations, however, do occur. +Bunsen analysed fifteen examples of air collected at the same +place at different times, and found the extreme range in the +percentage of oxygen to be from 20.97 to 20.84. Regnault, +from analyses of the air of Paris, obtained a variation of 20.999 +to 20.913; country air varied from 20.903 to 21.000; while air +taken from over the sea showed an extreme variation of 20.940 +to 20.850. Angus Smith determined London air to vary in +oxygen content from 20.857 to 20.95, the air in parks and open +spaces showing the higher percentage; Glasgow air showed +similar results, varying from 20.887 in the streets to 20.929 in +open spaces.</p> + +<p>In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, there are a number of +other gases and vapours generally present in the atmosphere. +Of these, argon and its allies were the last to be definitely isolated. +Carbon dioxide is invariably present, as was inferred by Dr +David Macbride (1726-1778) of Dublin in 1764, but in a proportion +which is not absolutely constant; it tends to increase +at night, and during dry winds and fogs, and it is greater in +towns than in the country and on land than on the sea. Water +vapour is always present; the amount is determined by instruments +termed hygrometers (<i>q.v.</i>). Ozone (<i>q.v.</i>) occurs, in an +amount supposed to be associated with the development of +atmospheric electricity (lightning, &c.); this amount varies +with the seasons, being a maximum in spring, and decreasing +through summer and autumn to a minimum in winter. Hydrogen +dioxide occurs in a manner closely resembling ozone. Nitric +acid and lower nitrogen oxides are present, being formed by +electrical discharges, and by the oxidation of atmospheric +ammonia by ozone. The amount of nitric acid varies from +place to place; rain-water, collected in the country, has been +found to contain an average of 0.5 parts in a million, but town +rain-water contains more, the greater amounts being present +in the more densely populated districts. Ammonia is also +present, but in very varying amounts, ranging from 135 to 0.1 +parts (calculated as carbonate) in a million parts of air. Ammonia +is carried back to the soil by means of rain, and there plays an +important part in providing nitrogenous matter which is afterwards +assimilated by vegetable life.</p> + +<p>The average volume composition of the gases of the atmosphere +may be represented (in parts per 10,000) as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2065.94</td> <td class="tcl">Ozone</td> <td class="tcr">0.015</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7711.60</td> <td class="tcl">Aqueous vapour</td> <td class="tcr">140.00</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Argon (about)</td> <td class="tcr rb2">79.00</td> <td class="tcl">Nitric acid</td> <td class="tcr">0.08</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcr rb2">3.36</td> <td class="tcl">Ammonia</td> <td class="tcr">0.005</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In addition to these gases, there are always present in the +atmosphere many micro-organisms or bacteria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacteriology</a></span>); +another invariable constituent is dust (<i>q.v.</i>), which +plays an important part in meteorological phenomena.</p> + +<p>Reference should be made to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Barometer</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Climate</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span> for the measurement and variation of the +pressure of the atmosphere, and the discussion of other properties.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span>. 1. It was not until the +middle of the 18th century that experiments due to Benjamin +Franklin showed that the electric phenomena of the atmosphere +are not fundamentally different from those produced in the +laboratory. For the next century the rate of progress was slow, +though the ideas of Volta in Italy and the instrumental devices of +Sir Francis Ronalds in England merit recognition. The invention +of the portable electrometer and the water-dropping electrograph +by Lord Kelvin in the middle of the 19th century, and the +greater definiteness thus introduced into observational results, +were notable events. Towards the end of the 19th century came +the discovery made by W. Linss (<b>6</b>)<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and by J. Elster and H. +Geitel (<b>7</b>) that even the most perfectly insulated conductors lose +their charge, and that this loss depends on atmospheric conditions. +Hard on this came the recognition of the fact that freely +charged positive and negative ions are always present in the +atmosphere, and that a radioactive emanation can be collected. +Whilst no small amount of observational work has been done in +these new branches of atmospheric electricity, the science has +still not developed to a considerable extent beyond preliminary +stages. Observations have usually been limited to a portion of +the year, or to a few hours of the day, whilst the results from +different stations differ much in details. It is thus difficult to +form a judgment as to what has most claim to acceptance as the +general law, and what may be regarded as local or exceptional.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Potential Gradient</i>.—In dry weather the electric potential in +the atmosphere is normally positive relative to the earth, and +increases with the height. The existence of <i>earth currents</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) +shows that the earth, strictly speaking, is not all at one potential, +but the natural differences of potential between points on the +earth’s surface a mile apart are insignificant compared to the +normal potential difference between the earth and a point one +foot above it. What is aimed at in ordinary observations of +atmospheric potential is the measurement of the difference of +potential between the earth and a point a given distance above it, +or of the difference of potential between two points in the same +vertical line a given distance apart. Let a conductor, say a +metallic sphere, be supported by a metal rod of negligible +electric capacity whose other end is earthed. As the whole +conductor must be at zero (<i>i.e.</i> the earth’s) potential, there must +be an induced charge on the sphere, producing at its centre a +potential equal but of opposite sign to what would exist at the +same spot in free air. This neglects any charge in the air +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page861" id="page861"></a>861</span> +displaced by the sphere, and assumes a statical state of conditions +and that the conductor itself exerts no disturbing influence. +Suppose now that the sphere’s earth connexion is broken and +that it is carried without loss of charge inside a building at zero +potential. If its potential as observed there is −V (volts), then +the potential of the air at the spot occupied by the sphere was ++V. This method in one shape or another has been often +employed. Suppose next that a fixed insulated conductor is +somehow kept at the potential of the air at a given point, then the +measurement of its potential is equivalent to a measurement of +that of the air. This is the basis of a variety of methods. In the +earliest the conductor was represented by long metal wires, +supported by silk or other insulating material, and left to pick +up the air’s potential. The addition of sharp points was a step in +advance; but the method hardly became a quantitative one +until the sharp points were replaced by a flame (fuse, gas, lamp), +or by a liquid jet breaking into drops. The matter leaving the +conductor, whether the products of combustion or the drops of +a liquid, supplies the means of securing equality of potential +between the conductor and the air at the spot where the matter +quits electrical connexion with the conductor. Of late years +the function of the collector is discharged in some forms of +apparatus by a salt of radium. Of flame collectors the two best +known are Lord Kelvin’s portable electrometer with a fuse, or +F. Exner’s gold leaf electroscope in conjunction with an oil lamp +or gas flame. Of liquid collectors the representative is Lord +Kelvin’s water-dropping electrograph; while Benndorf’s is the +form of radium collector that has been most used. It cannot be +said that any one form of collector is superior all round. Flame +collectors blow out in high winds, whilst water-droppers are apt +to get frozen in winter. At first sight the balance of advantages +seems to lie with radium. But while gaseous products and even +falling water are capable of modifying electrical conditions in +their immediate neighbourhood, the “infection” produced by +radium is more insidious, and other drawbacks present themselves +in practice. It requires a radium salt of high radioactivity +to be at all comparable in effectiveness with a good water-dropper. +Experiments by F. Linke (<b>8</b>) indicated that a water-dropper +having a number of fine holes, or having a fine jet under a considerable +pressure, picks up the potential in about a tenth of the +time required by the ordinary radium preparation protected by a +glass tube. These fine jet droppers with a mixture of alcohol and +water have proved very effective for balloon observations.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.—<i>Annual Variation Potential Gradient.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Place and Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sept.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok (<b>10</b>), 1903-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">150</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sodankylä (<b>31</b>), 1882-1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potsdam (<b>9</b>), 1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kew (<b>12</b>), 1898-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">153</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greenwich (<b>13</b>), 1893-1894, 1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Florence (<b>14</b>), 1883-1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Perpignan (<b>15</b>), 1886-1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lisbon (<b>16</b>), 1884-1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tokyo (<b>17</b>), 1897-1898, 1900-1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">165</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">176</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Batavia (<b>18</b>)(2 m.), 1887-1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Batavia (7.8 m.) 1890-1895</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">112</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>3. Before considering observational data, it is expedient to +mention various sources of uncertainty. Above the level plain of +absolutely smooth surface, devoid of houses or vegetation, the +equipotential surfaces under normal conditions would be strictly +horizontal, and if we could determine the potential at one metre +above the ground we should have a definite measure of the +potential gradient at the earth’s surface. The presence, however, +of apparatus or observers upsets the conditions, while above +uneven ground or near a tree or a building the equipotential +surfaces cease to be horizontal. In an ordinary climate a building +seems to be practically at the earth’s potential; near its walls the +equipotential surfaces are highly inclined, and near the ridges +they may lie very close together. The height of the walls in the +various observatories, the height of the collectors, and the +distance they project from the wall vary largely, and sometimes +there are external buildings or trees sufficiently near to influence +the potential. It is thus futile to compare the absolute voltages +met with at two stations, unless allowance can be made for the +influence of the environment. With a view to this, it has become +increasingly common of late years to publish not the voltages +actually observed, but values deduced from them for the +potential gradient in the open in volts per metre. Observations +are made at a given height over level open ground near the +observatory, and a comparison with the simultaneous results +from the self-recording electrograph enables the records from the +latter to be expressed as potential gradients in the open. In the +case, however, of many observatories, especially as regards the +older records, no data for reduction exist; further, the reduction +to the open is at best only an approximation, the success attending +which probably varies considerably at different stations. +This is one of the reasons why in the figures for the annual and +diurnal variations in Tables I., II. and III., the potential has been +expressed as percentages of its mean value for the year or the day. +In most cases the environment of a collector is not absolutely +invariable. If the shape of the equipotential surfaces near it is +influenced by trees, shrubs or grass, their influence will vary +throughout the year. In winter the varying depth of snow may +exert an appreciable effect. There are sources of uncertainty +in the instrument itself. Unless the insulation is perfect, the +potential recorded falls short of that at the spot where the radium +is placed or the water jet breaks. The action of the collector is +opposed by the leakage through imperfect insulation, or natural +dissipation, and this may introduce a fictitious element into the +apparent annual or diurnal variation. The potentials that have +to be dealt with are often hundreds and sometimes thousands of +volts, and insulation troubles are more serious than is generally +appreciated. When a water jet serves as collector, the pressure +under which it issues should be practically constant. If the +pressure alters as the water tank empties, a discontinuity occurs +in the trace when the tank is refilled, and a fictitious element may +be introduced into the diurnal variation. When rain or snow is +falling, the potential frequently changes rapidly. These changes +are often too rapid to be satisfactorily dealt with by an ordinary +electrometer, and they sometimes leave hardly a trace on the +photographic paper. Again rain dripping from exposed parts +of the apparatus may materially affect the record. It is thus +customary in calculating diurnal inequalities either to take no +account of days on which there is an appreciable rainfall, or else +to form separate tables for “dry” or “fine” days and for “all” +days. Speaking generally, the exclusion of days of rain and of +negative potential comes pretty much to the same thing, and the +presence or absence of negative potential is not infrequently +the criterion by reference to which days are rejected or are +accepted as normal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>4. The potential gradient near the ground varies with the season +of the year and the hour of the day, and is largely dependent on the +weather conditions. It is thus difficult to form even a rough estimate +of the mean value at any place unless hourly readings exist, extending +over the whole or the greater part of a year. It is even somewhat +precipitate to assume that a mean value deduced from a single +year is fairly representative of average conditions. At Potsdam, +G. Lüdeling (<b>9</b>) found for the mean value for 1904 in volts per metre +242. At Karasjok in the extreme north of Norway G.C. Simpson (<b>10</b>) +in 1903-1904 obtained 139. At Kremsmünster for 1902 P.B. Zölss(<b>11</b>) +gives 98. At Kew (<b>12</b>) the mean for individual years from 1898 to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page862" id="page862"></a>862</span> +1904 varied from 141 in 1900 to 179 in 1899, the mean from the +seven years combined being 159. The large difference between +the means obtained at Potsdam and Kremsmünster, as compared +to the comparative similarity between the results for Kew and +Karasjok, suggests that the mean value of the potential gradient +may be much more dependent on local conditions than on difference +of latitude.</p> + +<p>At any single station potential gradient has a wide range of +values. The largest positive and negative values recorded are met +with during disturbed weather. During thunderstorms the record +from an electrograph shows large sudden excursions, the trace usually +going off the sheet with every flash of lightning when the thunder +is near. Exactly what the potential changes amount to under such +circumstances it is impossible to say; what the trace shows depends +largely on the type of electrometer. Large rapid changes are also +met with in the absence of thunder during heavy rain or snow fall. +In England the largest values of a sufficiently steady character to +be shown correctly by an ordinary electrograph occur during winter +fogs. At such times gradients of +400 or +500 volts per metre are +by no means unusual at Kew, and voltages of 700 or 800 are occasionally +met with.</p> + +<p>5. Annual Variation.—Table I. gives the annual variation of the +potential gradient at a number of stations arranged according to +latitude, the mean value for the whole year being taken in each case +as 100. Karasjok as already mentioned is in the extreme north of +Norway (69° 17′ N.); Sodankylä was the Finnish station of the +international polar year 1882-1883. At Batavia, which is near the +equator (6° 11′ S.) the annual variation seems somewhat irregular. +Further, the results obtained with the water-dropper at two heights—viz. +2 and 7.8 metres—differ notably. At all the other stalions +the difference between summer and winter months is conspicuous. +From the European data one would be disposed to conclude that +the variation throughout the year diminishes as one approaches the +equator. It is decidedly less at Perpignan and Lisbon than at +Potsdam, Kew and Greenwich, but nowhere is the seasonal difference +more conspicuous than at Tokyo, which is south of Lisbon.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.—<i>Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient</i>.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Station.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Karasjok.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Sodankylä.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Kew(<b>19</b>, <b>12</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Greenwich.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Florence.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Perpignan.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lisbon.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Tokyo.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Batavia.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cape<br />Horn(<b>20</b>).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1903-4.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1882-83.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1862-<br />1864.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1898-<br />1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1893-96.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1883-85.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1886-88.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1884-86.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1897-98<br />1900-1.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1887-<br />1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1890-<br />1895.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1882-83.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Days.</td> <td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Quiet.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fine.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dry.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dry.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Pos.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb"><i>h</i><br /><i>l</i></td> <td class="tcrm allb">5.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.0<br />2.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.5<br />1.0</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.35<br />1.3 </td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.0<br />1.8</td> <td class="tcrm allb"> </td> <td class="tcrm allb">8.4<br />1.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.0<br />0.5</td> <td class="tcrm allb">1.7<br />2.0</td> <td class="tcrm allb">2</td> <td class="tcrm allb">7.8</td> <td class="tcrm allb">3.5<br />2.0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Hour.</td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">63</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">68</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">154</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">167</td> <td class="tcr rb">158</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">149</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Noon.</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">146</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">151</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">147</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">98</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> III.—<i>Diurnal Variation Potential Gradient</i>.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Station.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Karasjok.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Sodankylä.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Kew.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Greenwich.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Bureau<br />Central (<b>21</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Eiffel<br />Tower (<b>21</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Perpignan (<b>21</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Batavia.<br />(2 m.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1903-4.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1882-83.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">1898-1904.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1894 and ’96.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1894-99.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1896-98.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1885-95.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1887-90.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Equinox.</td><td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb f80">Summer.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Hour.</td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">149</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">139</td> <td class="tcr rb">142</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">67</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">89</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">166</td> <td class="tcr rb">153</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">64</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">84</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Noon.</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">77</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">32</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcr rb">76</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">81</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">88</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">136</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">133</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">134</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">137</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb">130</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td> <td class="tcr rb">147</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td> <td class="tcr rb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">118</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb">148</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">113</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td> <td class="tcr rb">109</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb">115</td> <td class="tcr rb">101</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb">149</td> <td class="tcr rb">152</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">99</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">105</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">93</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">108</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">148</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">146</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page863" id="page863"></a>863</span></p> + +<p>At the temperate stations the maximum occurs near midwinter; +in the Arctic it seems deferred towards spring.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>—Table II. gives the mean diurnal variation +for the whole year at a number of stations arranged in order of +latitude, the mean from the 24 hourly values being taken as 100. +The data are some from “all” days, some from “quiet,” “fine” +or “dry” days. The height, <i>h</i>, and the distance from the wall, <i>l</i>, +were the potential is measured are given in metres when known. +In most cases two distinct maxima and minima occur in the 24 +hours. The principal maximum is usually found in the evening +between 8 and 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the principal minimum in the morning from +3 to 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> At some stations the minimum in the afternoon is indistinctly +shown, but at Tokyo and Batavia it is much more conspicuous +than the morning minimum.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:334px; height:580px" src="images/img863.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>7. In Table III. the diurnal inequality is shown for “winter” +and “summer” respectively. In all cases the mean value for the +24 hours is taken as 100. By “summer” is meant April to September at +Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia; May to August at Kew, Bureau Central +(Paris), Eiffel Tower and Perpignan; and May to July at Karasjok. +“Winter” includes October to March at Sodankylä, Greenwich and Batavia; +November to February at Kew and Bureau Central; November to January at +Karasjok, and December and January at Perpignan. Mean results from March, +April, September and October at Kew are assigned to “Equinox.”</p> + +<p>At Batavia the difference between winter and summer is comparatively +small. Elsewhere there is a tendency for the double period, usually so +prominent in summer, to become less pronounced in winter, the afternoon +minimum tending to disappear. Even in summer the double period is not +prominent in the arctic climate of Karasjok or on the top of the Eiffel +Tower. The diurnal variation in summer at the latter station is shown +graphically in the top curve of fig. 1. It presents a remarkable +resemblance to the adjacent curve, which gives the diurnal variation at +mid-winter at the Bureau Central. The resemblance between these curves is +much closer than that between the Bureau Central’s own winter and +summer curves. All three Paris curves show three peaks, the first +and third representing the ordinary forenoon and afternoon maxima. +In summer at the Bureau Central the intermediate peak nearly disappears +in the profound afternoon depression, but it is still recognizable. +This three-peaked curve is not wholly peculiar to Paris, being +seen, for instance, at Lisbon in summer. The December and June +curves for Kew are good examples of the ordinary nature of the +difference between midwinter and midsummer. The afternoon minimum at +Kew gradually deepens as midsummer approaches. Simultaneously the +forenoon maximum occurs earlier and the afternoon maximum later +in the day. The two last curves in the diagram contrast the diurnal +variation at Kew in potential gradient and in barometric pressure +for the year as a whole. The somewhat remarkable resemblance +between the diurnal variation for the two elements, first remarked on +by J.D. Everett (<b>19</b>), is of interest in connexion with recent theoretical +conclusions by J.P. Elster and H.F.K. Geitel and by H. Ebert.</p> + +<p>In the potential curves of the diagram the ordinates represent the +hourly values expressed—as in Tables II. and III.—as percentages +of the mean value for the day. If this be overlooked, a wrong impression +may be derived as to the absolute amplitudes of the changes. +The Kew curves, for instance, might suggest that the range (maximum +less minimum hourly value) was larger in June than in December. +In reality the December range was 82, the June only 57 volts; but +the mean value of the potential was 243 in December as against 111 +in June. So again, in the case of the Paris curves, the absolute value +of the diurnal range in summer was much greater for the Eiffel +Tower than for the Bureau Central, but the mean voltage was 2150 +at the former station and only 134 at the latter.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Fourier Coefficients.</i>—Diurnal inequalities such as those of +Tables II. and III. and intended to eliminate irregular changes, but +they also to some extent eliminate regular changes if the hours of +maxima and minima or the character of the diurnal variation alter +throughout the year. The alteration that takes place in the regular +diurnal inequality throughout the year is best seen by analysing it +into a Fourier series of the type</p> + +<p class="center" style="clear: both;"> c<span class="su">1</span> sin(t + a<span class="su">1</span>) + c<span class="su">2</span> sin(2t + a<span class="su">2</span>) + c<span class="su">3</span> sin(3t + a<span class="su">3</span>) + c<span class="su">4</span> sin(4t + a<span class="su">4</span>) + ...</p> + +<p class="noind">where t denotes time counted from (local) midnight, c<span class="su">1</span>, c<span class="su">2</span>, c<span class="su">3</span>, C<span class="su">4</span>, ... +are the amplitudes of the component harmonic waves of periods +24, 12, 8 and 6 hours; a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, a<span class="su">3</span>, a<span class="su">4</span>, are the corresponding phase +angles. One hour of time t is counted as 15°, and a delay of one hour +in the time of maximum answers to a diminution of 15° in a<span class="su">1</span>, of 30° +in a<span class="su">2</span>, and so on. If a<span class="su">1</span>, say, varies much throughput the year, or +if the ratios of c<span class="su">2</span>, c<span class="su">3</span>, c<span class="su">4</span>, ... to c<span class="su">1</span>, vary much, then a diurnal inequality +derived from a whole year, or from a season composed of several +months, represents a mean curve arising from the superposition of +a number of curves, which differ in shape and in the positions of +their maxima and minima. The result, if considered alone, inevitably +leads to an underestimate of the average amplitude of the +regular diurnal variation.</p> + +<p>It is also desirable to have an idea of the size of the irregular +changes which vary from one day to the next. On stormy days, as +already mentioned, the irregular changes hardly admit of +satisfactory treatment. Even on the quietest days irregular changes +are always numerous and often large.</p> + +<p>Table IV. aims at giving a summary of the several phenomena +for a single station, Kew, on electrically quiet days. The first line +gives the mean value of the potential gradient, the second the mean +excess of the largest over the smallest hourly value on individual +days. The hourly values are derived from smoothed curves, the +object being to get the mean ordinate for a 60-minute period. If +the actual crests of the excursions had been measured the figures +in the second line would have been even larger. The third line gives +the range of the <i>regular</i> diurnal inequality, the next four lines the +amplitudes of the first four Fourier waves into which the regular +diurnal inequality has been analysed. These mean values, ranges +and amplitudes are all measured in volts per metre (in the open). +The last four lines of Table IV. give the phase angles of the first +four Fourier waves.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IV.—<i>Absolute Potential Data at Kew</i> (<b>12</b>).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="allb" colspan="2"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sept.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Mean Potential Gradient</td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">201</td> <td class="tcr rb">224</td> <td class="tcr rb">180</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">98</td> <td class="tcr rb">114</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">153</td> <td class="tcr rb">200</td> <td class="tcr rb">243</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Mean of individual daily ranges</td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">203</td> <td class="tcr rb">218</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">164</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">117</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">196</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">213</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb">Range in Diurnal inequality</td> <td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb">57</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">63</td> <td class="tcr rb">52</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb cl" rowspan="4">Amplitudes of Fourier waves</td> +<td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">34</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">c<span class="su">4</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">°</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb bb cl" rowspan="4">Phase angles of Fourier waves</td> +<td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">204</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td> <td class="tcr rb">79</td> <td class="tcr rb">48</td> <td class="tcr rb">142</td> <td class="tcr rb">154</td> <td class="tcr rb">192</td> <td class="tcr rb">202</td> <td class="tcr rb">208</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">170</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">193</td> <td class="tcr rb">188</td> <td class="tcr rb">183</td> <td class="tcr rb">185</td> <td class="tcr rb">182</td> <td class="tcr rb">199</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">212</td> <td class="tcr rb">175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr rb">125</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">107</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td class="tcr rb bb">235</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">225</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">307</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">314</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">314</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">277</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">293</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">313</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">330</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">288</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">238</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">249</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be noticed that the difference between the greatest and +least hourly values is, in all but three winter months, actually +larger than the mean value of the potential gradient for the day; +it bears to the range of the regular diurnal inequality a ratio varying +from 2.0 in May to 3.6 in November.</p> + +<p>At midwinter the 24-hour term is the largest, but near midsummer +it is small compared to the 12-hour term. The 24-hour term is very +variable both as regards its amplitude and its phase angle (and so +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page864" id="page864"></a>864</span> +its hour of maximum). The 12-hour term is much less variable, +especially as regards its phase angle; its amplitude shows distinct +maxima near the equinoxes. That the 8-hour and 6-hour waves, +though small near midsummer, represent more than mere accidental +irregularities, seems a safe inference from the regularity apparent +in the annual variation of their phase angles.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> V.—<i>Fourier Series Amplitudes and Phase Angles.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Place.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Summer.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">c1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">c2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a1.</td> <td class="tcc allb">a2.</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kew</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862-64</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.283</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.160</td> <td class="tcr rb">184</td> <td class="tcr rb">193</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.127</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.229</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">179</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">.102</td> <td class="tcr rb">.103</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">180</td> <td class="tcr rb">.079</td> <td class="tcr rb">.213</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bureau Central</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894-98</td> <td class="tcr rb">.220</td> <td class="tcr rb">.104</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">.130</td> <td class="tcr rb">.200</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">197</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eiffel Tower</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896-98</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">.133</td> <td class="tcr rb">.085</td> <td class="tcr rb">216</td> <td class="tcr rb">171</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sonnblick (<b>22</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902-03</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">.208</td> <td class="tcr rb">.120</td> <td class="tcr rb">178</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903-04</td> <td class="tcr rb">.356</td> <td class="tcr rb">.144</td> <td class="tcr rb">189</td> <td class="tcr rb">155</td> <td class="tcr rb">.165</td> <td class="tcr rb">.093</td> <td class="tcr rb">141</td> <td class="tcr rb">144</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kremsmünster (<b>23</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">.280</td> <td class="tcr rb">.117</td> <td class="tcr rb">224</td> <td class="tcr rb">194</td> <td class="tcr rb">.166</td> <td class="tcr rb">.153</td> <td class="tcr rb">241</td> <td class="tcr rb">209</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Potsdam</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.269</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.101</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">194</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">185</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.096</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">.152</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">343</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">185</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>9. Table V. gives some data for the 24-hour and 12-hour Fourier +coefficients, which will serve to illustrate the diversity between +different stations. In this table, unlike Table IV., amplitudes are +all expressed as decimals of the mean value of the potential gradient +for the corresponding season. “Winter” means generally the four +midwinter, and “summer” the four midsummer, months; but at +Karasjok three, and at Kremsmünster six, months are included in +each season. The results for the Sonnblick are derived from a +comparatively small number of days in August and September. +At Potsdam the data represent the arithmetic means derived +from the Fourier analysis for the individual months comprising +the season. The 1862-1864 data from Kew—due to J.D. +Everett (<b>19</b>)—are based on “all” days; the others, except Karasjok +to some extent, represent electrically quiet days. The cause +of the large difference between the two sets of data for c<span class="su">1</span> at +Kew is uncertain. The potential gradient is in all cases lower in +summer than winter, and thus the reduction in c<span class="su">1</span> in summer would +appear even larger than in Table V. if the results were expressed in +absolute measure. At Karasjok and Kremsmünster the seasonal +variation in a<span class="su">1</span> seems comparatively small, but at Potsdam and the +Bureau Central it is as large as at Kew. Also, whilst the winter +values of a<span class="su">1</span> are fairly similar at the several stations the summer +values are widely different. Except at Karasjok, where the diurnal +changes seem somewhat irregular, the relative amplitude of the +12-hour term is considerably greater in summer than in winter. The +values of a<span class="su">2</span> at the various stations differ comparatively little, and +show but little seasonal change. Thus the 12-hour term has a much +greater uniformity than the 24-hour term. This possesses significance +in connexion with the view, supported by A.B. Chauveau (<b>21</b>), +F. Exner (<b>24</b>) and others, that the 12-hour term is largely if not +entirely a local phenomenon, due to the action of the lower +atmospheric strata, and tending to disappear even in summer at high +altitudes. Exner attributes the double daily maximum, which is +largely a consequence of the 12-hour wave, to a thin layer near the +ground, which in the early afternoon absorbs the solar radiation of +shortest wave length. This layer he believes specially characteristic +of arid dusty regions, while comparatively non-existent in moist +climates or where foliage is luxuriant. In support of his theory +Exner states that he has found but little trace of the double maximum +and minimum in Ceylon and elsewhere. C. Nordmann (<b>25</b>) describes +some similar results which he obtained in Algeria during August and +September 1905. His station, Philippeville, is close to the shores +of the Mediterranean, and sea breezes persisted during the day. +The diurnal variation showed only a single maximum and minimum, +between 5 and 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 4 and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> respectively. So again, a few +days’ observations on the top of Mont Blanc (4810 metres) by +le Cadet (<b>26</b>) in August and September 1902, showed only a single +period, with maximum between 3 and 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, and minimum about +3 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Chauveau points to the reduction in the 12-hour term as +compared to the 24-hour term on the Eiffel Tower, and infers the +practical disappearance of the former at no great height. The close +approach in the values for c<span class="su">1</span> in Table V. from the Bureau Central +and the Eiffel Tower, and the reduction of c<span class="su">2</span> at the latter station, are +unquestionably significant facts; but the summer value for c<span class="su">2</span> at +Karasjok—a low level station—is nearly as small as that at the +Eiffel Tower, and notably smaller than that at the Sonnblick (3100 +metres). Again, Kew is surrounded by a large park, not devoid of +trees, and hardly the place where Exner’s theory would suggest a +large value for c<span class="su">2</span>, and yet the summer value of c<span class="su">2</span> at Kew is the +largest in Table V.</p> + +<p>10. Observations on mountain tops generally show high potentials +near the ground. This only means that the equipotential surfaces +are crowded together, just as they are near the ridge of a house. +To ascertain how the increase in the voltage varies as the height +in the free atmosphere increases, it is necessary to employ kites +or balloons. At small heights Exner (<b>27</b>) has employed captive +balloons, provided with a burning fuse, and carrying a wire +connected with an electroscope on the ground. He found the gradient +nearly uniform for heights up to 30 to 40 metres above the ground. +At great heights free balloons seem necessary. The balloon carries +two collectors a given vertical distance apart. The potential difference +between the two is recorded, and the potential gradient is thus +found. Some of the earliest balloon observations made the gradient +increase with the height, but such a result is now regarded as +abnormal. A balloon may leave the earth with a charge, or become +charged through discharge of ballast. These possibilities may not +have been sufficiently realized at first. Among the most important +balloon observations are those by le Cadet (<b>1</b>) F. Linke (<b>28</b>) and +H. Gerdien (<b>29</b>). The following are samples from a number of days’ +results, given in le Cadet’s book. h is the height in metres, P the +gradient in volts per metre.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan ="2">Aug. 9, 1893 <span style="font-size: 2em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">{</span></td> <td class="tcc"><i>h</i></td> <td class="tcr">824</td> <td class="tcr">830</td> <td class="tcr">1060</td> <td class="tcr">1255</td> <td class="tcr">1290</td> <td class="tcr">1745</td> <td class="tcr">1940</td> <td class="tcr">2080</td> <td class="tcr">2310</td> <td class="tcr">2520</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><i>P</i></td> <td class="tcr">37</td> <td class="tcr">43</td> <td class="tcr">43</td> <td class="tcr">41</td> <td class="tcr">42</td> <td class="tcr">34</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">16</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan ="2">Sep. 11, 1897 <span style="font-size: 2em; font-family: 'Courier New'; color: #a8a8a8;">{</span></td> <td class="tcc"><i>h</i></td> <td class="tcr">1140</td> <td class="tcr">1378</td> <td class="tcr">1630</td> <td class="tcr">1914</td> <td class="tcr">237</td> <td class="tcr">2786</td> <td class="tcr">3136</td> <td class="tcr">3364</td> <td class="tcr">3912</td> <td class="tcr">4085</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc"><i>P</i></td> <td class="tcr">43</td> <td class="tcr">38</td> <td class="tcr">33</td> <td class="tcr">25</td> <td class="tcr">22</td> <td class="tcr">21</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">13</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The ground value on the last occasion was 150. From observations +during twelve balloon ascents, Linke concludes that below the +1500-metre level there are numerous sources of disturbance, the +gradient at any given height varying much +from day to day and hour to hour; but at +greater heights there is much more uniformity. +At heights from 1500 to 6000 +metres his observations agreed well with +the formula</p> + +<p class="center">dV/dh = 34 − 0.006 h,</p> + +<p class="noind">V denoting the potential, h the height in +metres. The formula makes the gradient +diminish from 25 volts per metre at 1500 +metres height to 10 volts per metre at +4000 metres. Linke’s mean value for +dV/dh at the ground was 125. Accepting +Linke’s formula, the potential at 4000 +metres is 43,750 volts higher than at 1500 +metres. If the mean of the gradients +observed at the ground and at 1500 metres be taken as an approximation +to the mean value of the gradient throughout the lowest 1500 +metres of the atmosphere, we find for the potential at 1500 metres +level 112,500 volts. Thus at 4000 metres the potential seems of +the order of 150,000 volts. Bearing this in mind, one can readily +imagine how close together the equipotential surfaces must lie +near the summit of a high sharp mountain peak.</p> + +<p>11. At most stations a negative potential gradient is exceptional, +unless during rain or thunder. During rain the potential is usually +but not always negative, and frequent alternations of sign are not +uncommon. In some localities, however, negative potential gradient +is by no means uncommon, at least at some seasons, in the absence +of rain. At Madras, Michie Smith (<b>30</b>) often observed negative +potential during bright August and September days. The phenomenon +was quite common between 9.30 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and noon during +westerly winds, which at Madras are usually very dry and dusty. +At Sodankylä, in 1882-1883, K.S. Lemström and F.C. Biese (<b>31</b>) +found that out of 255 observed occurrences of negative potential, +106 took place in the absence of rain or snow. The proportion of +occurrences of negative potential under a clear sky was much above +its average in autumn. At Sodankylä rain or snowfall was often +unaccompanied by change of sign in the potential. At the polar +station Godthaab (<b>32</b>) in 1882-1883, negative potential seemed sometimes +associated with aurora (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aurora Polaris</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Lenard, Elster and Geitel, and others have found the potential +gradient negative near waterfalls, the influence sometimes extending +to a considerable distance. Lenard (<b>33</b>) found that when pure water +falls upon water the neighbouring air takes a negative charge. +Kelvin, Maclean and Gait (<b>34</b>) found the effect greatest in the air +near the level of impact. A sensible effect remained, however, after +the influence of splashing was eliminated. Kelvin, Maclean and Galt +regard this property of falling water as an objection to the use of a +water-dropper indoors, though not of practical importance when it +is used out of doors.</p> + +<p>12. Elster and Geitel (<b>35</b>) have measured the charge carried by +raindrops falling into an insulated vessel. Owing to observational +difficulties, the exact measure of success attained is a little difficult +to gauge, but it seems fairly certain that raindrops usually carry a +charge. Elster and Geitel found the sign of the charge often fluctuate +repeatedly during a single rain storm, but it seemed more often than +not opposite to that of the simultaneous potential gradient. Gerdien +has more recently repeated the experiments, employing an apparatus +devised by him for the purpose. It has been found by C.T.R. +Wilson (<b>36</b>) that a vessel in which freshly fallen rain or snow has been +evaporated to dryness shows radioactive properties lasting for a +few hours. The results obtained from equal weights of rain and snow +seem of the same order.</p> + +<p>13. W. Linss (<b>6</b>) found that an insulated conductor charged either +positively or negatively lost its charge in the free atmosphere; the +potential V after time t being connected with its initial value V<span class="su">0</span> +by a formula of the type V = V<span class="su">0</span>e<span class="sp">−at</span> where a is constant. This was +confirmed by Elster and Geitel (<b>7</b>), whose form of dissipation apparatus +has been employed in most recent work. The percentage of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span> +charge which is dissipated per minute is usually denoted by <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> or +<i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> according to its sign. The mean of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> is usually denoted +by <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> or simply by <i>a</i>, while <i>q</i> is employed for the ratio <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>/<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>. +Some observers when giving mean values take Σ(<i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>/<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>) as the +mean value of <i>q</i>, while others take Σ(<i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>)/Σ(<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>). +The Elster and Geitel apparatus is furnished with a cover, serving to protect +the dissipator from the direct action of rain, wind or sunlight. It is +usual to observe with this cover on, but some observers, <i>e.g.</i> +A. Gockel, have made long series of observations without it. The +loss of charge is due to more than one cause, and it is difficult to +attribute an absolutely definite meaning even to +results obtained with the cover on. Gockel (<b>37</b>) says +that the results he obtained without the cover when +divided by 3 are fairly comparable with those obtained +under the usual conditions; but the appropriate +divisor must vary to some extent with the climatic +conditions. Thus results obtained for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> or <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> without +the cover are of doubtful value for purposes +of comparison with those found elsewhere with it on. +In the case of <i>q</i> the uncertainty is much less.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VI.—<i>Dissipation. Mean Values.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Place.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Season.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Observer or<br />Authority.</td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>q</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903-4</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Simpson (<b>10</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wolfenbüttel</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>39</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.05</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potsdam</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lüdeling (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.33</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kremsmüster</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zölss (<b>42</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zölss (<b>41</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freiburg</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gockel (<b>43</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Innsbruck</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Czermak (<b>44</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.95</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.94</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">Jan. to June</td> <td class="tcl rb">Defant (<b>45</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mattsee (Salzburg)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcc rb">July to Sept.</td> <td class="tcl rb">von Schweidler (<b>46</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.99</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Seewalchen</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">July to Sept.</td> <td class="tcl rb">von Schweidler (<b>38</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trieste</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902-3</td> <td class="tcc rb">Year</td> <td class="tcl rb">Mazelle (<b>47</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.09</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Misdroy</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Lüdeling (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.58</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Swinemünde</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">Aug. and Sept.</td> <td class="tcl rb">Lüdeling (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heligoland (sands)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">Summer</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.71</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Heligoland plateau</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>40</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Juist (Island)</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Elster and Geitel (<b>48</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Atlantic and German Ocean</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">August</td> <td class="tcl rb">Boltzmann (<b>49</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Arosa (1800 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">Feb. to April</td> <td class="tcl rb">Saake (<b>50</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rothhorn (2300 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">September</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gockel (<b>43</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sonnblick (3100 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">September</td> <td class="tcl rb">Conrad (<b>22</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mont Blanc (4810 m.)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">September</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">le Cadet (<b>43</b>)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">10.3 </td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>Table VI. gives the mean values of <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> and <i>q</i> found at various places. The +observations were usually confined to a few hours of the day, very commonly +between 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, and in absence of information as to the diurnal +variation it is impossible to say how much this influences the results. The +first eight stations lie inland; that at Seewalchen (<b>38</b>) was, however, adjacent +to a large lake. The next five stations are on the coast or on islands. The +final four are at high levels. In the cases where the observations were +confined to a few months the representative nature of the results is more +doubtful.</p> + +<p>On mountain summits <i>q</i> tends to be large, <i>i.e.</i> a negative charge is +lost much faster than a positive charge. Apparently <i>q</i> has also a +tendency to be large near the sea, but this phenomenon is not seen +at Trieste. An exactly opposite phenomenon, it may be remarked, +is seen near waterfalls, <i>q</i> becoming very small. Only Innsbruck +and Mattsee give a mean value of <i>q</i> less than unity. Also, as later +observations at Innsbruck give more normal values for <i>q</i>, some doubt +may be felt as to the earlier observations there. The result for +Mattsee seems less open to doubt, for the observer, von Schweidler, +had obtained a normal value for <i>q</i> during the previous year at +Seewalchen. Whilst the average <i>q</i> in at least the great majority of +stations exceeds unity, individual observations making <i>q</i> less than +unity are not rare. Thus in 1902 (<b>51</b>) the percentage of cases in which +<i>q</i> fell short of 1 was 30 at Trieste, 33 at Vienna, and 35 at +Kremsmünster; at Innsbruck <i>q</i> was less than 1 on 58 days out of 98.</p> + +<p>In a long series of observations, individual values of <i>q</i> show +usually a wide range. Thus during observations extending over +more than a year, <i>q</i> varied from 0.18 to 8.25 at Kremsmünster and +from 0.11 to 3.00 at Trieste. The values of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> also +show large variations. Thus at Trieste <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> varied from 0.12 to 4.07, +and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> from 0.11 to 3.87; at Vienna <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> varied from 0.32 to 7.10, +and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> from 0.78 to 5.42; at Kremsmünster <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> varied from 0.14 +to 5.83.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Annual Variation.</i>—When observations are made at irregular +hours, or at only one or two fixed hours, it is doubtful how representative +they are. Results obtained at noon, for example, probably +differ more from the mean value for the 24 hours at one season than +at another. Most dissipation results are exposed to considerable +uncertainty on these grounds. Also it requires a long series of +years to give thoroughly representative results for any element, +and few stations possess more than a year or two’s dissipation data. +Table VII. gives comparative results for winter (October to March) +and summer at a few stations, the value for the season being the +arithmetic mean from the individual months composing it. At +Karasjok (<b>10</b>), Simpson observed thrice a day; the summer value +there is nearly double the winter both for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>. The +Kremsmünster (<b>42</b>) figures show a smaller but still distinct excess in the +summer values. At Trieste (<b>47</b>), Mazelle’s data from all days of the +year show no decided seasonal change in <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> or <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>; but when +days on which the wind was high are excluded the summer value is +decidedly the higher. At Freiburg (<b>43</b>), <i>q</i> seems decidedly larger in +winter than in summer; at Karasjok and Trieste the seasonal effect +in <i>q</i> seems small and uncertain.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VII.—<i>Dissipation.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Place</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Winter</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="4">Summer</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">±</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>q</i></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">±</span></td> <td class="tcc allb"><i>q</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok 1903-1904</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Kremsmüster 1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freiburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trieste 1902-1903</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.59</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.07</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.13</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Trieste calm days</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.35</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>15. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>—P.B. Zölss (<b>41</b>, <b>42</b>) has published diurnal +variation data for Kremsmünster for more than one year, and +independently for midsummer (May to August) and midwinter +(December to February). His figures show a double daily period in +both <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>, the principal maximum occurring about 1 or +2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> The two minima occur, the one from 5 to 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, the other +from 7 to 8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>; they are nearly equal. Taking the figures answering +to the whole year, May 1903 to 1904, <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> varied throughout the +day from 0.82 to 1.35, and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> from 0.85 to 1.47. At midsummer +the extreme hourly values were 0.91 and 1.45 for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, 0.94 and 1.60 +for <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>. The corresponding figures at midwinter were 0.65 and +1.19 for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, 0.61 and 1.43 for <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>. Zölss’ data for <i>q</i> show also a +double daily period, but the apparent range is small, and the hourly +variation is somewhat irregular. At Karasjok, +Simpson found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> both larger +between noon and 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> than between +either 8 and 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> or 6 and 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> The 6 +to 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> values were in general the smallest, +especially in the case of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>; the evening +value for <i>q</i> on the average exceeded the +values from the two earlier hours by +some 7%.</p> + +<p>Summer observations on mountains have +shown diurnal variations very large and +fairly regular, but widely different from +those observed at lower levels. On the +Rothhorn, Gockel (<b>43</b>) found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> particularly +variable, the mean 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> value being +4½ times that at 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> <i>q</i> (taken as +Σ(<i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>/<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>) varied from 2.25 at 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and +2.52 at 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> to 7.82 at 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 8.35 at +7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> On the Sonnblick, in early September, +V. Conrad (<b>22</b>) found somewhat similar +results for <i>q</i>, the principal maximum occurring +at 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, with minima at 9 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and +6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>; the largest hourly value was, +however, scarcely double the least. Conrad +found <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> largest at 4 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and least at 6 +<span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the largest value being double the +least; <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> was largest at 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and least at +2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the largest value being fully 2½ times +the least. On Mont Blanc, le Cadet (<b>43</b>) found <i>q</i> largest from 1 to 3 +<span class="scs">P.M.</span>, the value at either of these hours being more than double that +at 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> On the Patscherkofel, H. von Ficker and A. Defant (<b>52</b>), +observing in December, found <i>q</i> largest from 1 to 2 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and least +between 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and noon, but the largest value was only 1½ times +the least. On mountains much seems to depend on whether there +are rising or falling air currents, and results from a single season +may not be fairly representative.</p> + +<p>16. Dissipation seems largely dependent on meteorological conditions, +but the phenomena at different stations vary so much as to +suggest that the connexion is largely indirect. At most stations <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> +and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> both increase markedly as wind velocity rises. From the +observations at Trieste in 1902-1903 E. Mazelle (<b>47</b>) deduced an +increase of about 3% in <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> for a rise of 1 km. per hour in wind +velocity. The following are some of his figures, the velocity <i>v</i> being +in kilometres per hour:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"><i>v</i></td> <td class="tcc allb">0 to 4.</td> <td class="tcc allb">20 to 24.</td> <td class="tcc allb">40 to 49.</td> <td class="tcc allb">60 to 69.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><i>a</i></td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.03</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"><i>q</i></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.13</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.19</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.00</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.96</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">For velocities from 0 to 24 km. per hour <i>q</i> exceeded unity in 74 cases +out of 100; but for velocities over 50 km. per hour <i>q</i> exceeded unity +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page866" id="page866"></a>866</span> +in only 40 cases out of 100. Simpson got similar results at Karasjok; +the rise in <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> with increased wind velocity seemed, however, +larger in winter than in summer. Simpson observed a fall in <i>q</i> for +wind velocities exceeding 2 on Beaufort’s scale. On the top of the +Sonnblick, Conrad observed a <i>slight</i> increase of <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> as the wind +velocity increased up to 20 km. per hour, but for greater velocities +up to 80 km. per hour no further decided rise was observed.</p> + +<p>At Karasjok, treating summer and winter independently, +Simpson (<b>10</b>) found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> both increase in a nearly linear +relation with temperature, from below −20° to +15° C. For example, +when the temperature was below −20° mean values were +0.76 for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and 0.91 for <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>; for temperatures between -10° +and -5° the corresponding means were 2.45 and 2.82; while for +temperatures between +10° and +15° they were 4.68 and 5.23. +Simpson found no certain temperature effect on the value of <i>q</i>. At +Trieste, from 470 days when the wind velocity did not exceed 20 km. +per hour, Mazelle (<b>47</b>) found somewhat analogous results for temperatures +from 0° to 30° C.; <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span>, however, increased faster than +<i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, <i>i.e.</i> <i>q</i> increased with temperature. When he considered all +days irrespective of wind velocity, Mazelle found the influence of +temperature obliterated. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (<b>22</b>) found +<i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> increase appreciably as temperature rose up to 4° or 5° C.; but +at higher temperatures a decrease set in.</p> + +<p>Observations on the Sonnblick agree with those at low-level +stations in showing a diminution of dissipation with increase of +relative humidity. The decrease is most marked as saturation +approaches. At Trieste, for example, for relative humidities between +90 and 100 the mean <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> was less than half that for relative +humidities under 40. With certain dry winds, notably Föhn winds +in Austria and Switzerland, dissipation becomes very high. Thus at +Innsbruck Defant (<b>45</b>) found the mean dissipation on days of Föhn +fully thrice that on days without Föhn. The increase was largest +for <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span>, there being a fall of about 15% in <i>q</i>. In general, <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and +<i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> both tend to be less on cloudy than on bright days. At Kiel (<b>53</b>) +and Trieste the average value of <i>q</i> is considerably less for wholly +overcast days than for bright days. At several stations enjoying +a wide prospect the dissipation has been observed to be specially +high on days of great visibility when distant mountains can be +recognized. It tends on the contrary to be low on days of fog or +rain.</p> + +<p>The results obtained as to the relation between dissipation and +barometric pressure are conflicting. At Kremsmünster, Zölss (<b>42</b>) +found dissipation vary with the absolute height of the barometer, +<i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> having a mean value of 1.36 when pressure was below the normal, +as against 1.20 on days when pressure was above the normal. He +also found <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> on the average about 10% larger when pressure was +falling than when it was rising. On the Sonnblick, Conrad (<b>22</b>) +found dissipation increase decidedly as the absolute barometric +pressure was larger, and he found no difference between days of +rising and falling barometer. At Trieste, Mazelle (<b>47</b>) found no +certain connexion with absolute barometric pressure. Dissipation +was above the average when cyclonic conditions prevailed, but this +seemed simply a consequence of the increased wind velocity. At +Mattsee, E.R. von Schweidler (<b>46</b>) found no connexion between +absolute barometric pressure and dissipation, also days of rising +and falling pressure gave the same mean. At Kiel, K. Kaehler (<b>53</b>) +found <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> both greater with rising than with falling +barometer.</p> + +<p>V. Conrad and M. Topolansky (<b>54</b>) have found a marked connexion +at Vienna between dissipation and ozone. Regular observations +were made of both elements. Days were grouped according to the +intensity of colouring of ozone papers, 0 representing no visible +effect, and 14 the darkest colour reached. The mean values of <i>a</i><span class="su">+</span> +and <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> answering to 12 and 13 on the ozone scale were both about +double the corresponding values answering to 0 and 1 on that scale.</p> + +<p>17. A charged body in air loses its charge in more than one way. +The air, as is now known, has always present in it ions, some carrying +a positive and others a negative charge, and those having the +opposite sign to the charged body are attracted and tend to discharge +it. The rate of loss of charge is thus largely dependent on the +extent to which ions are present in the surrounding air. It depends, +however, in addition on the natural mobility of the ions, and also on +the opportunities for convection. Of late years many observations +have been made of the ionic charges in air. The best-known apparatus +for the purpose is that devised by Ebert. A cylinder condenser +has its inner surface insulated and charged to a high positive or +negative potential. Air is drawn by an aspirator between the surfaces, +and the ions having the opposite sign to the inner cylinder +are deposited on it. The charge given up to the inner cylinder is +known from its loss of potential. The volume of air from which the +ions have been extracted being known, a measure is obtained of the +total charge on the ions, whether positive or negative. The conditions +must, of course, be such as to secure that no ions shall escape, +otherwise there is an underestimate. I+ is used to denote the charge +on positive ions, I- that on negative ions. The unit to which they +are ordinarily referred is 1 electrostatic unit of electricity per cubic +metre of air. For the ratio of the mean value of I<span class="su">+</span> to the mean +value of I<span class="su">−</span>, the letter Q is employed by Gockel (<b>55</b>), who has made +an unusually complete study of ionic charges at Freiburg. Numerous +observations were also made by Simpson (<b>10</b>)—thrice a day—at +Karasjok, and von Schweidler has made a good many observations +about 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> at Mattsee (<b>46</b>) in 1905, and Seewalchen (<b>38</b>) in 1904. +These will suffice to give a general idea of the mean values met with.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Station.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Authority.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Q</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Freiburg</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gockel</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.41</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Karasjok</td> <td class="tcl rb">Simpson</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.17</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mattsee</td> <td class="tcl rb">von Schweidler</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.19</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Seewalchen</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">von Schweidler</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.45</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.38</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.17</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>Gockel’s mean values of I<span class="su">+</span> and Q would be reduced to 0.31 and +1.38 respectively if his values for July—which appear +abnormal—were omitted. I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">−</span> both show a considerable range of values, +even at the same place during the same season of the year. Thus +at Seewalchen in the course of a month’s observations at 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, I<span class="su">+</span> +varied from 0.31 to 0.67, and I<span class="su">−</span> from 0.17 to 0.67.</p> + +<p>There seems a fairly well marked annual variation in ionic contents, +as the following figures will show. Summer and winter represent +each six months and the results are arithmetic means of the monthly values.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Freiburg.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="3">Karasjok.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Q</td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">I<span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Q</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Winter</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.49</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.22</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Summer</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.34</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.44</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.13</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>If the exceptional July values at Freiburg were omitted, the +summer values of I<span class="su">+</span> and Q would become 0.33 and 1.25 respectively.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>—At Karasjok Simpson found the mean +values of I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">−</span> throughout the whole year much the same +between noon and 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> as between 8 and 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> Observations +between 6 and 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> gave means slightly lower than those from +the earlier hours, but the difference was only about 5% in I<span class="su">+</span> and +10% in I<span class="su">−</span>. The evening values of Q were on the whole the largest. +At Freiburg, Gockel found I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">−</span> decidedly larger in the early +afternoon than in either the morning or the late evening hours. +His greatest and least mean hourly values and the hours of their +occurrence are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Winter.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="4">Summer.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">I<span class="su">−</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td><td class="tcc rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td><td class="tcc rb">Max.</td><td class="tcc rb">Min.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0.333</td><td class="tcc rb">0.193</td><td class="tcc rb">0.242</td><td class="tcc rb">0.130</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.430</td><td class="tcc rb">0.244</td><td class="tcc rb">0.333</td><td class="tcc rb">0.192</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">7 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">2 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">8 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">4 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">9 to</td><td class="tcc rb">4 PM</td><td class="tcc rb">9 to</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"> </td><td class="tcc rb bb"> </td><td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> </td><td class="tcc rb bb">10 PM</td><td class="tcc rb bb"> </td><td class="tcc rb bb">10 PM</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Gockel did not observe between 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span></p> + +<p>19. Ionization seems to increase notably as temperature rises. +Thus at Karasjok Simpson found for mean values:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">Temp. less than −20°</td> <td class="tcc">−10° to −5°</td> <td class="tcc">10° to 15°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">I<span class="su">+</span> = 0.18, I<span class="su">−</span> = 0.36</td> <td class="tcc">I<span class="su">+</span> = 0.36, I<span class="su">−</span> = 0.30</td> <td class="tcc">I<span class="su">+</span> = 0.45, I<span class="su">−</span> = 0.43</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Simpson found no clear influence of temperature on Q. Gockel +observed similar effects at Freiburg—though he seems doubtful +whether the relationship is direct—but the influence of temperature +on I+ seemed reduced when the ground was covered with snow. +Gockel found a diminution of ionization with rise of relative +humidity. Thus for relative humidities between 40 and 50 mean +values were 0.306 for I<span class="su">+</span> and 0.219 for I<span class="su">−</span>; whilst for relative +humidities between 90 and 100 the corresponding means were +respectively 0.222 and 0.134. At Karasjok, Simpson found a slight +decrease in I<span class="su">−</span> as relative humidity increased, but no certain change +in I<span class="su">+</span>. Specially large values of I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">−</span> have been observed +at high levels in balloon ascents. Thus on the 1st of July 1901, +at a height of 2400 metres, H. Gerdien (<b>29</b>) obtained 0.86 for I<span class="su">+</span> and +1.09 for I<span class="su">−</span>.</p> + +<p>20. In 1901 Elster and Geitel found that a radioactive emanation +is present in the atmosphere. Their method of measuring the +radioactivity is as follows (<b>48</b>): A wire not exceeding 1 mm. in diameter, +charged to a negative potential of at least 2000 volts, is supported +between insulators in the open, usually at a height of about 2 metres. +After two hours’ exposure, it is wrapped round a frame supported +in a given position relative to Elster and Geitel’s dissipation apparatus, +and the loss of charge is noted. This loss is proportional to +the length of the wire. The radioactivity is denoted by A, and +A=1 signifies that the potential of the dissipation apparatus fell +1 volt in an hour per metre of wire introduced. The loss of the +dissipation body due to the natural ionization of the air is first +allowed for. Suppose, for instance, that in the absence of the wire +the potential falls from 264 to 255 volts in 15 minutes, whilst when +the wire (10 metres long) is introduced it falls from 264 to 201 volts +in 10 minutes, then</p> + +<p class="center">10A = (254 − 201) × 6 − (264 − 255) × 4 = 342; or A = 34.2.</p> + +<p class="noind">The values obtained for A seem largely dependent on the station. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page867" id="page867"></a>867</span> +At Wolfenbüttel, a year’s observations by Elster and Geitel (<b>56</b>) made +A vary from 4 to 64, the mean being 20. In the island of Juist, off +the Friesland coast, from three weeks’ observations they obtained +only 5.2 as the mean. On the other hand, at Altjoch, an Alpine +station, from nine days’ observations in July 1903 they obtained a +mean of 137, the maximum being 224, and the minimum 92. At +Freiburg, from 150 days’ observations near noon in 1903-1904, +Gockel (<b>57</b>) obtained a mean of 84, his extreme values being 10 and +420. At Karasjok, observing several times throughout the day for +a good many months, Simpson (<b>10</b>) obtained a mean of 93 and a +maximum of 432. The same observer from four weeks’ observations +at Hammerfest got the considerably lower mean value 58, with a +maximum of 252. At this station much lower values were found +for A with sea breezes than with land breezes. Observing on the +pier at Swinemünde in August and September 1904, Lüdeling (<b>40</b>) +obtained a mean value of 34.</p> + +<p>Elster and Geitel (<b>58</b>), having found air drawn from the soil highly +radioactive, regard ground air as the source of the emanation in the +atmosphere, and in this way account for the low values they obtained +for A when observing on or near the sea. At Freiburg in winter +Gockel (<b>55</b>) found A notably reduced when snow was on the ground, +I<span class="su">+</span> being also reduced. When the ground was covered by snow +the mean value of A was only 42, as compared with 81 when there +was no snow.</p> + +<p>J.C. McLennan (<b>59</b>) observing near the foot of Niagara found A +only about one-sixth as large as at Toronto. Similarly at Altjoch, +Elster and Geitel (<b>56</b>) found A at the foot of a waterfall only about +one-third of its normal value at a distance from the fall.</p> + +<p>21. <i>Annual and Diurnal Variations.</i>—At Wolfenbüttel, Elster +and Geitel found A vary but little with the season. At Karasjok, +on the contrary, Simpson found A much larger at +midwinter—notwithstanding the presence of snow—than at midsummer. +His mean value for November and December was 129, while his mean +for May and June was only 47. He also found a marked diurnal +variation, A being considerably greater between 3 and 5 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> or +8.30 to 10.30 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> than between 10 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and noon, or between 3 and +5 <span class="scs">P.M.</span></p> + +<p>At all seasons of the year Simpson found A rise notably with +increase of relative humidity. Also, whilst the mere absolute +height of the barometer seemed of little, if any, importance, he +obtained larger values of A with a falling than with a rising +barometer. This last result of course is favourable to Elster and +Geitel’s views as to the source of the emanation.</p> + +<p>22. For a wire exposed under the conditions observed by Elster +and Geitel the emanation seems to be almost entirely derived from +radium. Some part, however, seems to be derived from thorium, +and H.A. Bumstead (<b>60</b>) finds that with longer exposure of the wire +the relative importance of the thorium emanation increases. With +three hours’ exposure he found the thorium emanation only from +3 to 5% of the whole, but with 12 hours’ exposure the percentage +of thorium emanation rose to about 15. These figures refer to the +state of the wire immediately after the exposure; the rate of decay +is much more rapid for the radium than for the thorium emanation.</p> + +<p>23. The different elements—potential gradient, dissipation, +ionization and radioactivity—are clearly not independent of one +another. The loss of a charge is naturally largely dependent on the +richness of the surrounding air in ions. This is clearly shown by the +following results obtained by Simpson (<b>10</b>) at Karasjok for the mean +values of <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span> corresponding to certain groups of values of I<span class="su">±</span>. To +eliminate the disturbing influence of wind, different wind strengths +are treated separately.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> VIII.—<i>Mean Values of</i> <i>a</i><span class="su">±</span>.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Wind<br />Strength.</td> <td class="tccm allb">I<span class="su">±</span>0 to 0.1.</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.1 to 0.2</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.2 to 0.3</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.3 to 0.4</td> <td class="tccm allb">0.4 to 0.5</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0 to 1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.03</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1 to 2</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.83</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">2 to 3</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.70</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.88</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">5.33</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Simspon concluded that for a given wind velocity dissipation is +practically a linear function of ionization.</p> + +<p>24. Table IX. will give a general idea of the relations of potential +gradient to dissipation and ionization.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IX.—<i>Potential, Dissipation, Ionization.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Potential<br />gradients<br />volts per<br />metre.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3"><i>q</i></td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="5">Karasjok (Simpson (<b>10</b>)).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Kremsmünster (<b>41</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Freiburg (<b>43</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Rothhorn (<b>43</b>).</td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tccm allb"><i>a</i><span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tccm allb">I<span class="su">+</span></td> <td class="tccm allb">I<span class="su">−</span></td> <td class="tccm allb">Q</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0 to 50</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">50 to 100</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.11</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">100 to 150</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">150 to 200</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.28</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">200 to 300</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.21</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.19</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.42</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">300 to 400</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.60</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">400 to 500</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">500 to 700</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8.75</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If we regard the potential gradient near the ground as representing +a negative charge on the earth, then if the source of supply of +that charge is unaffected the gradient will rise and become high when +the operations by which discharge is promoted slacken their activity. +A diminution in the number of positive ions would thus naturally +be accompanied by a rise in potential gradient. Table IX. associates +with rise in potential gradient a reduced number of both positive +and negative ions and a diminished rate of dissipation whether of +a negative or a positive charge. The rise in <i>q</i> and Q indicates that +the diminished rate of dissipation is most marked for positive charges, +and that negative ions are even more reduced then positive.</p> + +<p>At Kremsmünster Zölss (<b>41</b>) finds a considerable similarity between +the diurnal variations in <i>q</i> and in the potential gradient, the hours of +the forenoon and afternoon maxima being nearly the same in the +two cases.</p> + +<p>No distinct relationship has yet been established between potential +gradient and radioactivity. At Karasjok Simpson (<b>10</b>) found fairly +similar mean values of A for two groups of observations, one confined +to cases when the potential gradient exceeded +400 volts, the other +confined to cases of negative gradient.</p> + +<p>At Freiburg Gockel (<b>55</b>, <b>57</b>) found that when observations were +grouped according to the value of A there appeared a distinct rise +in both <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> and I<span class="su">+</span> with increasing A. For instance, when A lay +between 100 and 150 the mean value of a- was 1.27 times greater +than when A lay between 0 and 50; while when A lay between 120 +and 150 the mean value of I+ was 1.53 times larger than when A +lay between 0 and 30. These apparent relationships refer to mean +values. In individual cases widely different values of <i>a</i><span class="su">−</span> or I<span class="su">+</span> are +associated with the same value of A.</p> + +<p>25. If V be the potential, ρ the density of free electricity at a point +in the atmosphere, at a distance r from the earth’s centre, then +assuming statical conditions and neglecting variation of V in horizontal +directions, we have</p> + +<p class="center">r<span class="sp">−2</span>(d/dr)(r² dV/dr) + 4πρ = 0.</p> + +<p>For practical purposes we may treat r² as constant, and replace +d/dr by d/dh, where h is height in centimetres above the ground.</p> + +<p>We thus find</p> + +<p class="center">ρ = −(1/4π) d²V/dh².</p> + +<p>If we take a tube of force 1 sq. cm. in section, and suppose it cut +by equipotential surfaces at heights h<span class="su">1</span> and h<span class="su">2</span> above the ground, we +have for the total charge M included in the specified portion of the +tube</p> + +<p class="center">4πM = (dV/dh)h<span class="su">1</span> − (dV/dh)h<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<p>Taking Linke’s (<b>28</b>) figures as given in § 10, and supposing +h<span class="su">1</span> = 0, h<span class="su">2</span> = 15 × 10<span class="sp">4</span>, we find for the charge in the unit tube between +the ground and 1500 metres level, remembering that the centimetre +is now the unit of length, M = (1/4π) (125 − 25)/100. Taking 1 volt +equal <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">300</span> of an electrostatic unit, we find M = 0.000265. Between +1500 and 4000 metres the charge inside the unit tube is much less, +only 0.000040. The charge on the earth itself has its surface density +given by σ = −(1/4π) × 125 volts per metre, = 0.000331 in e +ectrostatic units. Thus, on the view now generally current, in the +circumstances answering to Linke’s experiments we have on the ground a +charge of −331 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span> C.G.S. units per sq. cm. Of the corresponding +positive charge, 265 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span> lies below the 1500 metres level, 40 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span> +between this and the 4000 metres level, and only 26 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span> above +4000 metres.</p> + +<p>There is a difficulty in reconciling observed values of the ionization +with the results obtained from balloon ascents as to the variation of +the potential with altitude. According to H. Gerdien (<b>61</b>), near the +ground a mean value for d²V/dh² is −(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span>) volt/(metre)². From this +we deduce for the charge ρ per cubic centimetre (1/4π) × 10<span class="sp">−5</span> +(volt/cm²), or 2.7 × 10<span class="sp">−9</span> electrostatic units. But taking, for example, +Simpson’s mean values at Karasjok, we have observed</p> + +<p class="center">ρ ≡ I<span class="su">+</span> − I<span class="su">1</span> = 0.05 × (cm./metre)<span class="sp">3</span> = 5 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span>,</p> + +<p class="noind">and thus (calculated ρ)/(observed ρ) = 0.05 approximately. Gerdien +himself makes I<span class="su">+</span> − I<span class="su">−</span> considerably larger than Simpson, and concludes +that the observed value of ρ is from 30 to 50 times that calculated. +The presumption is either that d²V/dh² near the ground is +much larger numerically than Gerdien supposes, or else that the +ordinary instruments for measuring ionization fail to catch some +species of ion whose charge is preponderatingly negative.</p> + +<p>26. Gerdien (<b>61</b>) has made some calculations as to the probable +average value of the vertical electric +current in the atmosphere in +fine weather. This will be composed +of a conduction and a convection +current, the latter due to +rising or falling air currents carrying +ions. He supposes the field +near the earth to be 100 volts per +metre, or <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">300</span> electrostatic units. +For simplicity, he assumes I<span class="su">+</span> and +I<span class="su">−</span> each equal 0.25 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span> electrostatic +units. The specific velocities +of the ions—<i>i.e.</i> the velocities in +unit field—he takes to be 1.3 × 300 +for the positive, and 1.6 × 300 for +the negative. The positive and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span> +negative ions travel in opposite directions, so the total current is +(<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">300</span>)(0.25 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>)(1.3 × 300 + 1.6 × 300), or 73 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span> in electrostatic +measure, otherwise 2.4 × 10<span class="sp">−16</span> amperes per sq. cm. As to the convection +current, Gerdien supposes—as in § 25—ρ = 2.7 × 10<span class="sp">−9</span> electrostatic +units, and on fine days puts the average velocity of rising +air currents at 10 cm. per second. This gives a convection current +of 2.7 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span> electrostatic units, or about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">27</span> of the conduction +current. For the total current we have approximately 2.5 × 10<span class="sp">−16</span> +amperes per sq. cm. This is insignificant compared to the size of +the currents which several authorities have calculated from +considerations as to terrestrial magnetism (<i>q.v.</i>). Gerdien’s estimate +of the convection current is for fine weather conditions. During +rainfall, or near clouds or dust layers, the magnitude of this current +might well be enormously increased; its direction would naturally +vary with climatic conditions.</p> + +<p>27. H. Mache (<b>62</b>) thinks that the ionization observed in the +atmosphere may be wholly accounted for by the radioactive emanation. +If this is true we should have q = αn², where q is the number of ions +of one sign made in 1 cc. of air per second by the emanation, α the +constant of recombination, and n the number of ions found simultaneously +by, say, Ebert’s apparatus. Mache and R. Holfmann, +from observations on the amplitude of saturation currents, deduce +q = 4 as a mean value. Taking for α Townsend’s value 1.2 × 10<span class="sp">−6</span>, +Mache finds n = 1800. The charge on an ion being 3.4 × 10<span class="sp">−10</span> Mache +deduces for the ionic charge, I<span class="su">+</span> or I<span class="su">−</span>, per cubic metre +1800 × 3.4 × 10<span class="sp">−10</span> × 10<span class="sp">6</span>, or 0.6. This is at least of the order +observed, which is all that can be expected from a calculation which +assumes I<span class="su">+</span> and I<span class="su">−</span> equal. If, however, Mache’s views were correct, we +should expect a much closer connexion between I and A than has actually +been observed.</p> + +<p>28. C.T.R. Wilson (<b>63</b>) seems disposed to regard the action of +rainfall as the most probable source of the negative charge on the +earth’s surface. That great separation of positive and negative +electricity sometimes takes place during rainfall is undoubted, and +the charge brought to the ground seems preponderatingly negative. +The difficulty is in accounting for the continuance in extensive fine +weather districts of large positive charges in the atmosphere in face +of the processes of recombination always in progress. Wilson +considers that convection currents in the upper atmosphere would +be quite inadequate, but conduction may, he thinks, be sufficient +alone. At barometric pressures such as exist between 18 and +36 kilometres above the ground the mobility of the ions varies inversely +as the pressure, whilst the coefficient of recombination α +varies approximately as the pressure. If the atmosphere at different +heights is exposed to ionizing radiation of uniform intensity the rate +of production of ions per cc., q, will vary as the pressure. In the +steady state the number, n, of ions of either sign per cc. is given by +n = √(q/α), and so is independent of the pressure or the height. The +conductivity, which varies as the product of n into the mobility, +will thus vary inversely as the pressure, and so at 36 kilometres will be +one hundred times as large as close to the ground. Dust particles +interfere with conduction near the ground, so the relative conductivity +in the upper layers may be much greater than that calculated. +Wilson supposes that by the fall to the ground of a preponderance of +negatively charged rain the air above the shower has a higher positive +potential than elsewhere at the same level, thus leading to large +conduction currents laterally in the highly conducting upper layers.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Thunder.</i>—Trustworthy frequency statistics for an individual +station are obtainable only from a long series of observations, while +if means are taken from a large area places may be included which +differ largely amongst themselves. There is the further complication +that in some countries thunder seems to be on the increase. In +temperate latitudes, speaking generally, the higher the latitude the +fewer the thunderstorms. For instance, for Edinburgh (<b>64</b>) (1771 to +1900) and London (<b>65</b>) (1763 to 1896) R.C. Mossman found the +average annual number of thunderstorm days to be respectively +6.4 and 10.7; while at Paris (1873-1893) E. Renou (<b>66</b>) found 27.3 +such days. In some tropical stations, at certain seasons of the year, +thunder is almost a daily occurrence. At Batavia (<b>18</b>) during the +epoch 1867-1895, there were on the average 120 days of thunder in +the year.</p> + +<p>As an example of a large area throughout which thunder frequency +appears fairly uniform, we may take Hungary (<b>67</b>). According to +the statistics for 1903, based on several hundred stations, the average +number of days of thunder throughout six subdivisions of the +country, some wholly plain, others mainly mountainous, varied +only from 21.1 to 26.5, the mean for the whole of Hungary being +23.5. The antithesis of this exists in the United States of America. +According to A.J. Henry (<b>68</b>) there are three regions of maximum +frequency: one in the south-east, with its centre in Florida, has an +average of 45 days of thunder in the year; a second including the +middle Mississippi valley has an average of 35 days; and a third +in the middle Missouri valley has 30. With the exception of a narrow +strip along the Canadian frontier, thunderstorm frequency is fairly +high over the whole of the United States to the east of the 100th +meridian. But to the west of this, except in the Rocky Mountain +region where storms are numerous, the frequency steadily diminishes, +and along the Pacific coast there are large areas where thunder occurs +only once or twice a year.</p> + +<p>30. The number of thunderstorm days is probably a less exact measure +of the relative <i>intensity</i> of thunderstorms than statistics +as to the number of persons killed annually by lightning per million +of the population. Table X. gives a number of statistics of this kind. +The letter M stands for “Midland.”</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> X.—<i>Deaths by Lightning, per annum, per million Inhabitants.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7.7</td> <td class="tcl">Upper Missouri and Plains</td> <td class="tcr">15</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2.8</td> <td class="tcl">Rocky Mountains and Plateau</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">England, N. M.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.8</td> <td class="tcl">South Atlantic</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   E.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.3</td> <td class="tcl">Central Mississippi</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   S. M.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.2</td> <td class="tcl">Upper   ”</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   York and W. M.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.1</td> <td class="tcl">Ohio Valley</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   N.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.0</td> <td class="tcl">Middle Atlantic</td> <td class="tcr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wales</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.9</td> <td class="tcl">Gulf States</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">England, S. E.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.8</td> <td class="tcl">New England</td> <td class="tcr">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   N. W.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.7</td> <td class="tcl">Pacific Coast</td> <td class="tcr"><1*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   S. W.</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.6</td> <td class="tcl">North and South Dakota</td> <td class="tcr">20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">London</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.1</td> <td class="tcl">California</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="4">* Note in case of Pacific coast, Table X., “<1” means “less than 1.”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The figure for Hungary is based on the seven years 1897-1903; +that for the Netherlands, from data by A.J. Monné (<b>69</b>) on the nine +years 1882-1890. The English data, due to R. Lawson (<b>70</b>), are from +twenty-four years, 1857-1880; those for the United States, due to +Henry (<b>68</b>), are for five years, 1896-1900. In comparing these data +allowance must be made for the fact that danger from lightning is +much greater out of doors than in. Thus in Hungary, in 1902 and +1903, out of 229 persons killed, at least 171 were killed out of doors. +Of the 229 only 67 were women, the only assignable explanation +being their rarer employment in the fields. Thus, <i>ceteris paribtis</i>, +deaths from lightning are much more numerous in a country than +in an industrial population. This is well brought out by the low +figure for London. It is also shown conspicuously in figures given +by Henry. In New York State, where the population is largely +industrial, the annual deaths per million are only three, but of the +agricultural population eleven. In states such as Wyoming and +the Dakotas the population is largely rural, and the deaths by lightning +rise in consequence. The frequency and intensity of thunderstorms +are unquestionably greater in the Rocky Mountain than in +the New England states, but the difference is not so great as the +statistics at first sight suggest.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XI.—<i>Annual Variation of Thunderstorms.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sept.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ediburgh</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paris</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (<i>a</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (<i>b</i>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">United States</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hong-Kong</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trevandrum</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Batavia</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.9</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>31. Even at the same place thunderstorms vary greatly in intensity +and duration. Also the times of beginning and ending are difficult +to define exactly, so that several elements of uncertainty exist in +data as to the seasonal or diurnal variation. The monthly data in +Table XI. are percentages of the total for the year. In most cases +the figures are based on the number of days of thunder at a particular +station, or at the average station of a country; but the second set +for Hungary relates to the number of lightning strokes causing fire, +and the figures for the United States relate to deaths by lightning. +The data for Edinburgh, due to R.C. Mossman (<b>64</b>), refer to 130 years, +1771 to 1900. The data for London (1763-1896) are also due to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page869" id="page869"></a>869</span> +Mossman (<b>65</b>); for Paris (1873-1893) to Renou (<b>66</b>); for the +Netherlands (1882-1900) to A.J. Monné (<b>69</b>); for France(<b>71</b>) (1886-1899) +to Frou and Hann; for Switzerland to K. Hess (<b>72</b>); for Hungary (<b>67</b>) +(1896-1903) to L. von Szalay and others; for the United States +(1890-1900) to A.J. Henry (<b>68</b>); for Hong-Kong (<b>73</b>) (1894-1903) +to W. Doberck. The Trevandrum (<b>74</b>) data (1853-1864) were due +originally to A. Broun; the Batavia data (1867-1895) are from the +Batavia <i>Observations</i>, vol. xviii.</p> + +<p>Most stations in the northern hemisphere have a conspicuous +maximum at midsummer with little thunder in winter. Trevandrum +(8° 31′ N.) and Batavia (6° 11′ S.), especially the former, show +a double maximum and minimum.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XII.—<i>Diurnal Variation of Thunderstorms.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Hour.</td> <td class="tcc allb">0-2.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2-4.</td> <td class="tcc allb">4-6.</td> <td class="tcc allb">6-8.</td> <td class="tcc allb">8-10.</td> <td class="tcc allb">10-12.</td> <td class="tcc allb">0′-2′.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2′-4′.</td> <td class="tcc allb">4′-6′.</td> <td class="tcc allb">6′-8′.</td> <td class="tcc allb">8′-10′.</td> <td class="tcc allb">10′-12′.</td></tr> + + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Finland (<b>76</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh (<b>64</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium (<b>77</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brocken (<b>78</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland (<b>72</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy (<b>77</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (i.) (<b>67</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (ii.) (<b>67</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (iii.) (<b>75</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.2</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary (iv.) (<b>75</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.3</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Trevandrum (<b>74</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td></tr> + <tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Agustia (<b>74</b>)</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">36.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.0</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>32. <i>Daily Variation.</i>—The figures in Table XII. are again +percentages. They are mostly based on data as to the hour of commencement +of thunderstorms. Data as to the hour when storms are +most severe would throw the maximum later in the day. This is +illustrated by the first two sets of figures for Hungary (<b>67</b>). The first +set relate as usual to the hour of commencement, the second to the +hours of occurrence of lightning causing fires. Of the two other sets +of figures for Hungary (<b>75</b>), (iii.) relates to the central plain, (iv.) to +the mountainous regions to north and south of this. The hour of +maximum is earlier for the mountains, thunder being more frequent +there than in the plains between 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, but less frequent +between 2 and 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> Trevandrum (8° 31′ N., 76° 59′ E., 195 ft. +above sea-level) and Agustia (8° 37′ N., 77° 20′ E., 6200 ft. above +sea-level) afford a contrast between low ground and high ground in +India. In this instance there seems little difference in the hour of +maximum, the distinguishing feature being the great concentration +of thunderstorm occurrence at Agustia between noon and 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XIII.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Nether-<br />lands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">France.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hungary.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb2">U.S.A.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Nether-<br />lands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">France.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Hungary.</td> <td class="tccm allb">U.S.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 98</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">141</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">288</td> <td class="tcc rb">233</td> <td class="tcc rb">209</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">117</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">195</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">111</td> <td class="tcc rb">300</td> <td class="tcc rb">333</td> <td class="tcc rb">336</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 95</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">229</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcc rb">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">309</td> <td class="tcc rb">280</td> <td class="tcc rb">426</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 93</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">192</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896</td> <td class="tcc rb">109</td> <td class="tcc rb">266</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">341</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">102</td> <td class="tcc rb">251</td> <td class="tcc rb">319</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcc rb">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">297</td> <td class="tcc rb">350</td> <td class="tcc rb">362</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 78</td> <td class="tcc rb">292</td> <td class="tcc rb">236</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 95</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">386</td> <td class="tcc rb">367</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 94</td> <td class="tcc rb">286</td> <td class="tcc rb">232</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb">112</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">368</td> <td class="tcc rb">563</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">126</td> <td class="tcc rb">294</td> <td class="tcc rb">258</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcc rb">108</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">401</td> <td class="tcc rb">713</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 93</td> <td class="tcc rb">299</td> <td class="tcc rb">265</td> <td class="tcc rb2">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">502</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 98</td> <td class="tcc rb">317</td> <td class="tcc rb">302</td> <td class="tcc rb2">204</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">322</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 86</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">324</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">350</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">251</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1903</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">256</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>33. Table XIII. gives some data as to the variability of thunder +from year to year. The figures for the Netherlands (<b>69</b>) and France (<b>71</b>) +are the number of days when thunder occurred somewhere +in the country. Its larger area and more varied climate give a +much larger number of days of thunder to France. Notwithstanding +the proximity of the two countries, there is not much +parallelism between the data. The figures +for Hungary (<b>67</b>) give the number of lightning +strokes causing fire; those for the +United States (<b>68</b>) give the number of persons +killed by lightning. The conspicuous +maximum in 1901 and great drop in 1902 +in Hungary are also shown by the statistics +as to the number of days of thunder. +This number at the average station of the +country fell from 38.4 in 1901 to 23.1 in +1902. On the whole, however, the +number of destructive lightning strokes +and of days of thunder do not show a +close parallelism.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> XIV.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Decade ending</td> <td class="tcc allb">1810.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1820.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1830.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1840.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1850.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1860.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1870.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tilsit</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany, South</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">66</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”    West</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">92</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">187</td> <td class="tcr rb">244</td> <td class="tcr rb">331</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”    North</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">135</td> <td class="tcr rb">245</td> <td class="tcr rb">288</td> <td class="tcr rb">352</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”    East</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">143</td> <td class="tcr rb">186</td> <td class="tcr rb">210</td> <td class="tcr rb">273</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">  ”    Whole</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">90</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">189</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">254</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">318</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>34. Table XIV. deals with the variation of thunder over longer +periods. The data for Edinburgh (<b>64</b>) and London (<b>65</b>) due to +Mossman, and those for Tilsit, due to C. Kassner (<b>79</b>), represent +the average number of days of thunder per annum. The data +for Germany, due to O. Steffens (<b>80</b>), represent the average number +of houses struck by lightning in a year per million houses; in +the first decade only seven years (1854-1860) are really included. +Mossman thinks that the apparent increase at Edinburgh and +London in the later decades is to some extent at least real. The +two sets of figures show some corroborative features, notably the +low frequency from 1860 to 1870. The figures for Germany—representing +four out of six divisions of that country—are remarkable. +In Germany as a whole, out of a million houses the number struck +per annum was three and a half times as great in the decade 1890 +to 1900 as between 1854 and 1860. Von Bezold (<b>81</b>) in an earlier +memoir presented data analogous to Steffens’, seemingly accepting +them as representing a true increase in thunderstorm destructiveness. +Doubts have, however, been expressed by others—<i>e.g.</i> A. Gockel, +<i>Das Gewitter</i>, p. 106—as to the real significance of the figures. +Changes in the height or construction of buildings, and a greater +readiness to make claims on insurance offices, may be contributory +causes.</p> + +<p>35. The fact that a considerable number of people sheltering +under trees are killed by lightning is generally accepted as a convincing +proof of the unwisdom of the proceeding. When there is +an option between a tree and an adjacent house, the latter is doubtless +the safer choice. But when the option is between sheltering +under a tree and remaining in the open it is not so clear. In +Hungary (<b>67</b>), during +the three years 1901 +to 1903, 15% of the +total deaths by lightning +occurred under +trees, as against 57% +wholly in the open. +In the United States (<b>68</b>) +in 1900, only 10% +of the deaths where the +precise conditions were +ascertained occurred +under trees, as against +52% in the open. If +then the risk under +trees exceeds that in +the open in Hungary +and the United States, +at least five or six times as many people must remain in the open as seek +shelter under trees. An isolated tree occupying an exposed position +is, it should be remembered, much more likely to be struck than the +average tree in the midst of a wood. A good deal also depends on +the species of tree. A good many years’ data for Lippe (<b>82</b>) in Germany +make the liability to lightning stroke as follows—the number +of each species being supposed the same:—Oak 57, Fir 39, Pine 5, +Beech 1. In Styria, according to K. Prohaska (<b>83</b>), the species most +liable to be struck are oaks, poplars and pear trees; beech trees +again are exceptionally safe. It should, however, be borne in mind +that the apparent differences between different species may be partly +a question of height, exposure or proximity to water. A good deal +may also depend on the soil. According to Hellmann, as quoted by +Henry (<b>82</b>), the liability to lightning stroke in Germany may be put +at chalk 1, clay 7, sand 9, loam 22.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page870" id="page870"></a>870</span></p> + +<p>36. Numerous attempts have been made to find periodic variations +in thunderstorm frequency. Among the periods suggested are +the 11-year sun-spot period, or half this (cf. v. Szalay (<b>67</b>)). Ekholm +and Arrhenius (<b>84</b>) claim to have established the existence of a +tropical lunar period, and a 25.929-day period; while P. Polis (<b>85</b>) +considers a synodic lunar period probable. A.B. MacDowall (<b>86</b>) +and others have advanced evidence in favour of the view that +thunderstorms are most frequent near new moon and fewest near +full moon. Much more evidence would be required to produce a +general acceptance of any of the above periods.</p> + +<p>37. <i>St Elmo’s Fire.</i>—Luminous discharges from masts, lightning +conductors, and other pointed objects are not very infrequent, +especially during thunderstorms. On the Sonnblick, where the +phenomenon is common, Elster and Geitel (<b>87</b>) have found St Elmo’s +fire to answer to a discharge sometimes of positive sometimes of +negative electricity. The colour and appearance differ in the two +cases, red predominating in a positive, blue in a negative discharge. +The differences characteristic of the two forms of discharge are described +and illustrated in Gockel’s <i>Das Gewitter</i>. Gockel states +(l.c. p. 74) that during snowfall the sign is positive or negative according +as the flakes are large or are small and powdery. The discharge +is not infrequently accompanied by a sizzling sound.</p> + +<p>38. Of late years many experiments have been made on the +influence of electric fields or currents on plant growth. S. Lemström +(<b>88</b>), who was a pioneer in this department, found an electric +field highly beneficial in some but not in all cases. Attempts have +been made to apply electricity to agriculture on a commercial scale, +but the exact measure of success attained remains somewhat doubtful. +Lemström believed atmospheric electricity to play an important +part in the natural growth of vegetation, and he assigned +a special rôle to the needles of fir and pine trees.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The following abbreviations are here used:—M.Z., +<i>Meteorologische Zeitschrift</i>; +P.Z., <i>Physikalische Zeitschrift</i>; +S., <i>Sitzungsberichte k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math. Naturw. Klasse</i>, + Theil ii. 2; +P.T., “Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London”; +T.M., <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, edited by Dr L.A. Bauer.</p> + +<p>Text-books:—(<b>1</b>) +G. le Cadet, <i>Étude du champ électrique de l’atmosphère</i> (Paris, 1898); +(<b>2</b>) Svante A. Arrhenius, <i>Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik</i> (Leipzig, 1903); +(<b>3</b>) A. Gockel, <i>Das Gewitter</i> (Cologne, 1905).</p> + +<p>Lists of original authorities:—(<b>4</b>) +F. Exner, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 17, 1900, p. 529 (especially pp. 542-3); +(<b>5</b>) G.C. Simpson, <i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i>, vol. 31, 1905, p. 295 + (especially pp. 305-6). +References in the text:—(<b>6</b>) +<i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 4, 1887, p. 352; +(<b>7</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 4, 1899, p. 213; +(<b>8</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 661; +(<b>9</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 114; +(<b>10</b>) <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 205 A, 1906, p. 61; +(<b>11</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 260; +(<b>12</b>) C. Chree, <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 206 A, p. 299; +(<b>13</b>) Annual volumes, <i>Greenwich Magnetical and Meteorological Observations</i>; +(<b>14</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 8, 1891, p. 357; +(<b>15</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 7, 1890, p. 319 and vol. 8, 1891, p. 113; +(<b>16</b>) Annual volumes, <i>Annaes do Obs. do Infante D. Luiz</i>; +(<b>17</b>) <i>Annual Reports</i>, Central Meteorological Observatory of Japan; +(<b>18</b>) <i>Observations made at the Mag. and Met. Obs. at Batavia</i>, vol. 18, 1895; +(<b>19</b>) J.D. Everett, <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 158, 1868, p. 347; +(<b>20</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 6, 1889, p. 95; +(<b>21</b>) A.B. Chauveau, <i>Ann. bureau central météorologique, Paris, année 1900</i>, + “Mémoires,” p. C1; +(<b>22</b>) V. Conrad, S., 113, p. 1143; +(<b>23</b>) P.B. Zölss, <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 260; +(<b>24</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 7, 1902, p. 89; +(<b>25</b>) <i>Revue générale des sciences</i>, 1906, p. 442; +(<b>26</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 8, 1903, p. 86. and vol. 9, 1904, p. 147; +(<b>27</b>) <i>S.</i>, 93, p. 222; +(<b>28</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 237; +(<b>29</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 632; +(<b>30</b>) <i>Phil. Mag.</i>, vol. 20, 1885, p. 456; +(<b>31</b>) <i>Expédition polaire finlandaise</i>, vol. 3 (Helsingfors, 1898); +(<b>32</b>) A. Paulsen, <i>Bull. de l’Acad. ... de Danemarke</i>, 1894, p. 148; +(<b>33</b>) <i>Wied. Ann.</i>, vol. 46, 1892, p. 584; +(<b>34</b>) <i>P.T.</i>, vol. 191 A, p. 187; +(<b>35</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 5, 1888, p. 95; + <i>S.</i>, 99, p. 421; <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 4, 1899, p. 15; +(<b>36</b>) <i>Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc.</i>, vol. 11, p. 428, and vol. 12, pp. 17 and 85; +(<b>37</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, pp. 267 and 873; +(<b>38</b>) E.R. v. Schweidler, <i>S.</i>, 113, p. 1433; +(<b>39</b>) <i>S.</i>, 111, July 1902; +(<b>40</b>) <i>Veröffentl. des Kg. Preuss. Met. Inst.</i>, 1904; +(<b>41</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 106; +(<b>42</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 198; +(<b>43</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 871; +(<b>44</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 93; +(<b>45</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 229; +(<b>46</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 1705; +(<b>47</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 399; +(<b>48</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 522; +(<b>49</b>) <i>S.</i>, 113, p. 1455; +(<b>50</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 627; +(<b>51</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 90; +(<b>52</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 151; +(<b>53</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 253; +(<b>54</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 749; +(<b>55</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, pp. 53 and 339; +(<b>56</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 11; +(<b>57</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 591; +(<b>58</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 9, 1904, p. 49; +(<b>59</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 4, p. 295; +(<b>60</b>) <i>P.Z.</i>, vol. 5, p. 504; +(<b>61</b>) <i>T.M.</i>, vol. 10, 1905, p. 65; +(<b>62</b>) <i>S.</i>, 114, p. 1377; +(<b>63</b>) <i>Camb. Phil. Soc. Proc.</i>, vol. 13, p. 363; +(<b>64</b>) <i>Trans. R.S. Edin.</i>, vol. 39, p. 63, and vol. 40, p. 484; +(<b>65</b>) <i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i>, vol. 24, 1898, p. 31; +(<b>66</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 11, 1894, p. 277; +(<b>67</b>) <i>Jahrbücher der Konigl. Ung. Reichsanstalt für Met. und Erdmag.</i>, + vol. 33, 1903, III. Theil with appendix by L. von Szalay; +(<b>68</b>) U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, <i>Weather Bureau Bulletin</i>, No. 30, 1901; +(<b>69</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 19, 1902, p. 297; +(<b>70</b>) <i>Q.J.R. Met. Soc.</i>, vol. 15, 1889, p. 140; +(<b>71</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 20, 1903, p. 227; +(<b>72</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 20, 1903, p. 522; +(<b>73</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 367; +(<b>74</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 175; +(<b>75</b>) J. Hegyfoky, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 20, 1903, p. 218; +(<b>76</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 575; +(<b>77</b>) S. Arrhenius, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 5, 1888, p. 348; +(<b>78</b>) G. Hellmann, <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 22, 1905, p. 223; +(<b>79</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 11, 1894, p. 239; +(<b>80</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 23, 1906, p. 468; +(<b>81</b>) <i>Berlin Sitz.</i>, 1889, No. 16; +(<b>82</b>) A.J. Henry, <i>U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Bull.</i>, No. 26, 1899; +(<b>83</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 16, 1899, p. 128; +(<b>84</b>) <i>K. Sven. Vet. Akad. Hand.</i>, Bd. 19, No. 8, Bd. 20, No. 6, + Bd. 31, Nos. 2 and 3; +(<b>85</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 11, 1894, p. 230; +(<b>86</b>) <i>Nature</i>, vol. 65, 1902, p. 367; +(<b>87</b>) <i>M.Z.</i>, vol. 8, 1891, p. 321; +(<b>88</b>) <i>Brit. Assoc. Report</i> for 1898, p. 808, also <i>Electricity + in Agriculture and Horticulture</i> (London, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Ch.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> see <i>Authorities</i> below.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>. About 1840-1845 great interest +was excited by a method of propelling railway trains through +the agency of atmospheric pressure. Various inventors worked +at the realization of this idea. On the system worked out in +England by Jacob Samuda and S. Clegg, a continuous pipe or +main was laid between the rails, and in it a partial vacuum was +maintained by means of air pumps. A piston fitting closely in +it was connected to the leading vehicle of the train by an iron +plate which passed through a longitudinal groove or aperture +running the whole length of the pipe. This aperture was covered +by a valve consisting of a continuous strip of leather, strengthened +on each side with iron plates; one edge was fastened, while the +other was free to rise, and was closed against a composition of +beeswax and tallow placed in the groove, the surface of which +was slightly melted by a heater, carried on each train, in order +to secure an air-tight joint. Connected behind the piston was +a frame carrying four wheels which lifted and sustained the +continuous valve for a distance of about 15 ft. Thus the piston +having atmospheric pressure on one side of it and a vacuum equal +to 15 or 16 in. of mercury on the other, was forced along the tube, +taking the train with it. Various advantages were claimed by +the advocates of the system, including cheapness of operation +as compared with steam locomotives, and safety from collision, +because the main was divided into sections by separating valves +and only one train could be in each section at a given time. It +was installed on about 2 m. of line between Kingstown and +Dalkey (Ireland) in 1843 and worked till 1855; it was also tried +on the London and Croydon and on the South Devon lines, but +was soon abandoned. The same principle is applied in the +system of pneumatic despatch (<i>q.v.</i>) to the transmission of small +parcels in connexion with postal and telegraph work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further particulars see three papers by J. Samuda, P.W. +Barlow and G. Berkeley, with reports of the discussions upon them, +in <i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i>, 1844 and 1845.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATOLL<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (native name <i>atollon</i> in the Maldive Islands), a horse-shoe +or ring shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon. The usual +shape is that of a partly submerged dish with a broken edge, +forming the ring of islands, standing upon a conical pedestal. +The dish is formed of coral rock and the shells of various +reef-dwelling mollusca, covered, especially at the seaward edges, with +a film of living coral polyps that continually extend the fringe, +and enlarge the diameter of the atoll. The lagoon tends to deepen +when the land is stationary by the death of the coral animals in +the still water, and the patchy disintegration of the “hard” +coral, while waves and storms tear off blocks of rock and pile +them up at the margin, increasing the height of the islands, +which become covered by vegetation. The lagoon entrance in +the open part of the horse-shoe is always to leeward of prevailing +winds, since the coral growth is there slower than where the waves +constantly renew the polyps’ food supply. The conical pedestal +rising from the depths is frequently a submarine volcanic cone +or island, though any submerged peak may be crowned by an +atoll. For the theory of atoll formation see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coral-reefs</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATOM<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="atomos">ἄτομος</span>, indivisible, from <span class="grk" title="a-">ἀ-</span> privative, +and <span class="grk" title="temnein">τέμνειν</span>, to cut), the term given in physical science to the +ultimate indivisible particle of matter, and so by analogy to something +minutely small in size. If we examine such a substance as sugar +we find that it can be broken up into fine grains, and these again +into finer, the finest particles still appearing to be of the same +nature as sugar. The same is true in the case of a liquid such as +water; it can be divided into drops and these again into smaller +drops, or into the finest spray the particles of which are too small +to be detected by our unaided vision. In fact, so far as the direct +evidence of our senses tells us, matter appears to be indefinitely +divisible. Moreover, small particles do not seem to exist in the +water until it is broken up; so far as we can see, the material +of the water is continuous not granular. This conception of +matter, <i>as infinitely divisible and continuous</i>, was taught by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span> +Anaxagoras more than four centuries before the Christian era, +and in the philosophy of Aristotle the same ideas are found. +<span class="sidenote">Theories of matter.</span> +But some phenomena are difficult to reconcile with +this view; for example, a cubic foot of air can be compressed +into less than one five-hundredth of a cubic +foot, or, if allowed to expand, the air originally occupying +the cubic foot can be made to fill, apparently uniformly, a space +of a million cubic feet or more. This enormous capacity for +expansion and contraction is astonishing if we believe matter +to be continuous, but if we imagine air to be made up of little +particles separated by relatively large empty spaces the changes +in volume are more easily conceivable. Moreover, if we attribute +such a structure to gases, we are led to attribute it to liquids +and to solids also, since gases can be liquefied without any abrupt +change, and many substances usually solid can be converted +into gases by heating them. This conception of the <i>grained</i> +structure of matter is very ancient; traces of it are to be found +in Indian philosophy, perhaps twelve centuries before the +Christian era, and the Greek philosophers Democritus and +Epicurus, in the 3rd and 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, taught it very +definitely. Their view was that “matter is not indefinitely +divisible, but that all substances are formed of indivisible particles +or atoms which are eternal and unchangeable, that the atoms +are separated from one another by void, and that these atoms, +by their combinations, form the matter we are conscious of.” +The Roman poet Lucretius (<i>De Rerum Natura</i>) was an eloquent +exponent of this theory, but throughout the middle ages, indeed +until the 17th century, it was eclipsed by the prestige of Aristotle. +In the time, however, of Boyle<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and Newton, we again find an +atomic theory of matter; Newton<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> regarded a gas as consisting +of small separate particles which repelled one another, the +tendency of a gas to expand being attributed to the supposed +repulsion between the particles.</p> + +<p>Let us consider some common phenomena in the light of these +rival theories as to the nature of matter. When a few lumps of +sugar are added to a glass of water and stirred, the sugar soon +disappears and we are left with a uniform liquid resembling +water, except that it is sweet. What has become of the sugar? +Does it still exist? The atomist would say, “Yes, it is broken +up into its atoms, and these are distributed throughout the spaces +between the particles of water.” The rival philosopher, who +believes water to be continuous and without spaces between its +particles, has a greater difficulty in accounting for the +disappearance of the sugar; he would probably say that the sugar, +and the water also, had ceased to exist, and that a new +continuous substance had been formed from them, but he could +offer no picture of how this change had taken place. Or consider +a well-marked case of what we are in the habit of calling <i>chemical +combination</i>. If 127 parts of iodine, which is an almost black +solid, and 100 parts of mercury, which is a white liquid metal, +be intimately mixed by rubbing them together in a mortar, the +two substances wholly disappear, and we obtain instead a +brilliant red powder quite unlike the iodine or the mercury; +almost the only property that is unchanged is the weight. The +question again arises, what has become of the original +substances? The atomist has an easy answer; he says that the +new body is made up by the juxtaposition of the atoms of +iodine and mercury, which still exist in the red powder. His +opponent would be disposed to say that the iodine and the +mercury ceased to exist when the red powder was formed, that +they were <i>components</i> but not <i>constituents</i> of it. The fact that +the two components can be recovered from the compound by +destroying it does not decide the question. It is remarkable +that pure chemistry, even to-day, has no very conclusive +arguments for the settlement of this controversy; but the sister +science of physics is steadily accumulating evidence in favour of +the atomic conception.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:517px; height:191px" src="images/img871.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="3">From Dalton’s <i>New System of Chemical Philosophy</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Hydrogen Gas.</td> +<td class="caption">Nitrous Gas.</td> +<td class="caption">Carbonic Acid Gas.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 256px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:206px; height:213px" src="images/img871a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p>Until the time of John Dalton, the atomic conception remained +purely qualitative, and until then it does not appear to have +advanced chemistry or to have found further confirmation in +the facts of chemistry. Dalton (1803) gave the atomic theory a +<span class="sidenote">Dalton.</span> +quantitative form, and showed that, by means of it, +a vast number of the facts of chemistry could be +predicted or explained. In fact, he did so much to make the +atomic theory of matter probable that he is popularly regarded +as its originator. Dalton lived in a period marked by great advances +in experimental chemistry. Rather before the commencement +of the 19th century the work of Lavoisier had rendered +it very probable that chemical changes are not accompanied +by any change in weight, and this principle of the conservation of +matter was becoming universally accepted; chemists were also +acquiring considerable skill in chemical analysis, that is, in the +determination of the nature and relative amounts of the elements +contained in compounds. But Sir H.E. Roscoe and A. Harden, +<i>New View of the Atomic Theory</i> (1896), have shown, from a study +of Dalton’s manuscript notes, that we do not owe his atomic +theory to such experiments. If their view is correct, the theory +appears to be a remarkable example of deductive reasoning. +Dalton, who was a mathematical physicist even more than a +chemist, had given much thought to the study of gases. Following +Newton, he believed a gas to be made up of particles or atoms, +separated from one another by considerable spaces. Certain +difficulties that he met with in his speculations led him to the +conclusion that the particles of any one kind of gas, though all +of them alike, must differ from those of another gas both in <i>size</i> +and <i>weight</i>. He thus arrived at the conception of a definite +atomic weight peculiar to the particles of each gas, and he +thought that he could determine these atomic weights, in terms +of one of them, by means of the quantitative analysis of +compounds. The conclusion that each element had a definite atomic +weight, peculiar to it, was the new idea that made his speculations +fruitful, because it allowed of quantitative deduction and +verification. He drew simple diagrams, three of which, taken +from Dalton’s <i>New System of Chemical Philosophy</i>, part ii. +(1810), are reproduced here, in which gases are represented as +composed of atoms. Knowing that the gas which he called +“nitrous gas” was composed of oxygen and nitrogen, and believing +it to be the simplest compound of these two elements, he +naturally represented its atom as formed of an atom of oxygen +and an atom of nitrogen in juxtaposition. When two elements +form more than one compound, as is the case with oxygen and +carbon, he assigned to the compound which he thought the more +complex an atom made up of two atoms of the one element and +one atom of the other; the diagram +for carbonic acid illustrates this, and +an extension of the same plan enabled +him to represent any compound, however +complex its structure. The table +here given contains some of Dalton’s +diagrams of atoms. They are not all +considered to be correct at the present +time; for example, we now think that +the ultimate particle of water is made +up of two atoms of hydrogen and one +of oxygen, and that that of ammonia +contains three atoms of hydrogen to one of nitrogen. But +these differences between Dalton’s views and our present ones +do not impair the accuracy of the arguments which follow. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span> +The diagrams show that Dalton formed a very definite conception +of the nature of chemical combination; it was the union of a +small number of atoms of one kind with a small number of +another kind to form a compound atom, or as we now say a +“molecule,” this identical process being repeated millions of +times to form a perceptible amount of a compound. The conceptions +of “element,” “compound” and “mixture” became +more precise than they had been hitherto; in an element all the +atoms are alike, in a compound all the molecules are alike, in a +mixture there are different kinds of molecules. If we accept the +hypothesis that each kind of atom has a specific and invariable +weight, we can, with the aid of the above theory, make most +important inferences concerning the proportions by weight in +which substances combine to form compounds. These inferences +are often summarized as the laws of <i>constant, multiple and +reciprocal proportions</i>.</p> + +<p>The law of <i>constant proportions</i> asserts that <i>when two elements +unite to form a compound the weights that combine are in an +invariable ratio, a ratio that is characteristic of that +compound.</i> Thus if Dalton’s diagram for the molecule, +<span class="sidenote">Law of constant proportions.</span> +or compound atom, of water be correct, it follows that +in all samples of water the total number of the hydrogen +atoms is equal to that of the oxygen atoms; consequently, the +ratio of the weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen in water is the +same as the ratio of the weights of an oxygen and a hydrogen +atom, and <i>this is invariable</i>. Different samples of water cannot +therefore differ ever so little in percentage composition, and the +same must be true for every compound as distinguished from a +mixture. Apart from the atomic theory there is no obvious +reason why this should be so. We give the name bread to a +substance containing variable proportions of flour and water. +Similarly the substance we call wine is undeniably variable in +composition. Why should not the substance we call water also +vary more or less? The Aristotelian would find no difficulty +in such a variability; it is only the disciple of Dalton to whom +it seems impossible. It is evident that we have in this law a +definite prediction that can be tested by experiment.</p> + +<p>The law of <i>multiple proportions</i> asserts that <i>if two elements +form more than one compound, then the weights of the one element +which are found combined with unit weight of the other +in the different compounds, must be in the ratio of two +or more whole numbers.</i> If we compare Dalton’s +<span class="sidenote">Law of multiple proportions.</span> +diagrams of the two oxides of carbon or of the three +oxides of nitrogen that are given in the preceding table, we at +once see the necessity of this law; for the more complex molecule +has to be formed from the simpler one by the addition of one or +more whole atoms. In the oxides of carbon the same weight +of carbon must be combined with weights of oxygen that are as +1 : 2, and in the oxides of nitrogen a fixed weight of nitrogen +must be in union with weights of oxygen that are as 1 : 2 : ½, +which are the same ratios as 2 : 4 : 1. This law has been +abundantly verified by experiment; for example, five oxides of +nitrogen are known, and independent analyses show that, if we +consider the same weight of nitrogen in every case, the weights +of oxygen combined with it are to one another as 1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 5. +The discovery of this law is due to Dalton; it is a direct deduction +from his atomic theory. Here again, apart from this theory, +there is no obvious reason why the composition of different +substances should be related in so simple a way. As Dalton +said, “The doctrine of definite proportions appears mysterious +unless we adopt the atomic hypothesis.” “It appears like the +mystical ratios of Kepler which Newton so happily elucidated.” +The chemists of Dalton’s time were not unanimous in accepting +these laws; indeed C.L. Berthollet (<i>Essai de statique +chimique</i>, 1803) expressly controverted them. He maintained that, +under varying conditions, two substances could combine in an +indefinitely large number of different ratios, that there could in +fact be a continuous variation in the combining ratio. This +view is clearly inconsistent with the atomic theory, which requires +that when the combining ratio of two substances changes it +should do so, <i>per saltum</i>, to quite another value.</p> + +<p>The law of <i>reciprocal proportions</i>, or, as it might well be named, +the law of <i>equivalence</i>, cannot be adequately enunciated in a few +words. The following gives a partial statement of it. +<span class="sidenote">Law of reciprocal proportions.</span> +<i>If we know the weights a and b of two elements that are +found in union with unit weight of a third element, then +we can predict the composition of the compounds which +the first two elements can form with each other; either the weights +a and b will combine exactly, or if not, these weights must be multiplied +by integers to obtain the composition of a compound.</i> To see +how this law follows from Dalton’s theory let us consider his +diagrams for the molecules of water, ethylene and the oxides of +carbon. In water and in ethylene experiment shows that 8 +parts by weight of oxygen and 6 parts of carbon, respectively, +are in union with one part of hydrogen; also, if the diagrams +are correct, these numbers must be in the ratio of the atomic +weights of oxygen and carbon. We can therefore predict that +all oxides of carbon will have compositions represented by the +ratio of 8m parts of oxygen to 6n parts of carbon, where m and n +are whole numbers. This prediction is verified by the result of +analysis. Similarly, if we know by experiment the composition +of water and of ammonia, we can predict the probable composition +of the oxides of nitrogen. Experiment shows that, in water +and ammonia, we have, respectively, 8 parts of oxygen and 4.67 +parts of nitrogen in union with one part of hydrogen; we can +therefore infer that the oxides of nitrogen will all have the +composition of 8m parts of oxygen to 4.67n parts of nitrogen. +Experiment alone can tell us the values of m and n; all that +the theory tells us is that they are whole numbers. In this +particular case, n turns out to be 3, and m has in succession the +values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.</p> + +<p>It is evident that these laws all follow from the idea that a +compound molecule can only alter through the addition or +subtraction of one or more complete atoms, together with the +idea that all the molecules in a pure substance are alike. +Fortunately, the compounds at first examined by the chemists +engaged in verifying these laws were comparatively simple, so +that the whole numbers referred to above were small. The +astonishing variety of ratios in which carbon and hydrogen +combine was not at first realized. Otherwise Berthollet’s +position would have been a much stronger one, and the atomic +theory might have had to wait a long while for acceptance. +Even at the present time, it would be too much to say that all +the complex organic substances have been proved by analysis +to obey these laws; all we can assert is that their composition +and properties can be satisfactorily explained on the assumption +that they do so.</p> + +<p>The above statement does not by any means exhaust the +possible predictions that can be made from the atomic theory, +but it shows how to test the theory. If chemical compounds +can be proved by experiment to obey these laws, then the +atomic theory acquires a high degree of probability; if they are +contradicted by experiment then the atomic theory must be +abandoned, or very much modified. Dalton himself made many +analyses with the purpose of establishing his views, but his +skill as an analyst was not very great. It is in the work of the +great Swedish chemist J.J. Berzelius, and somewhat later, in +the experiments of the Belgian chemist J.S. Stas, that we find +the most brilliant and vigorous verification of these laws, and +therefore of the atomic theory.</p> + +<p>We shall now give an outline of the experimental evidence for +the truth of these laws.</p> + +<p>The law of the conservation of matter, an important element +in the atomic theory, has been roughly verified by innumerable +analyses, in which, a given weight of a substance +having been taken, each ingredient in it is isolated +<span class="sidenote">Experimental evidence.</span> +and its weight separately determined; the total weight +of the ingredients is always found to be very nearly +equal to the weight of the original substance. But on account +of experimental errors in weighing and measuring, and through +loss of material in the transfer of substances from one vessel to +another, such analyses are rarely trustworthy to more than one +part in about 500; so that small changes in weight consequent +on the chemical change could not with certainty be proved or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span> +disproved. A few experimenters have carried the verification +much further. Stas, in his syntheses of silver iodide, weighed +the silver and the iodine separately, and after converting them +into the compound he weighed this also. In each of a number +of experiments he found that the weight of the silver iodide +did not differ by one twenty-thousandth of the whole from the +sum of the weights of the silver and the iodine used. His analyses +of another compound, silver iodate, confirm the law to one part +in 78,000. In E.W. Morley’s experiments on the synthesis of +water the hydrogen, the oxygen and the water that had been +formed were separately determined; taking the mean of his +results, the sum of the weights of the ingredients is not found to +differ from the weight of the product by one part in 10,000. It +is evident that if our experiments are solely directed to the +verification of this law, they should, if possible, be carried out +in a hermetically closed vessel, the vessel and its contents being +weighed before and after the chemical change. The extremely +careful experiments of this kind, by H. Landolt and others, +made it at first appear that the change in weight, if there is any, +consequent on a chemical change can rarely exceed one-millionth +of the weight of the reacting substances, and that it must often +be much less. The small discrepancies found are so easily +accounted for by attributing them to experimental errors that, +until recently, every chemist would have regarded the law +as sufficiently verified. Landolt’s subsequent experiments +showed, what was already noticed in the earlier ones, that these +minute changes in weight are nearly always losses, the products +weigh less than the components, while if they had been purely +experimental errors, due to weighing, they might have been expected +to be as frequently gains as losses. Landolt was disposed +to attribute these losses in weight to the containing +vessel, which was of glass or quartz, not being absolutely impervious, +but in 1908 he showed that, by making allowance for +the moisture adsorbed on the vessel, the errors were both positive +and negative, and were less than one in ten million. He concluded +that <i>no change of weight can be detected.</i> Modern researches (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Radioactivity</a></span>) on the complex nature of the atom have a +little shaken the belief in the absolute permanence of matter. +But it seems pretty clear that if there is any change in weight +consequent on chemical change, it is <i>too minute to be of importance +to the chemist</i>, though the methods of modern physics +may settle the question. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Element</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The law of constant proportions is easily verified to a moderate +degree of accuracy by such experiments as the following. We +can prepare, in the laboratory, a white powder that proves to be +calcium carbonate, that is, it appears to be wholly composed of +carbon dioxide and lime. We find in nature two other unlike +substances, marble and Iceland spar, each of which is wholly +composed of carbon dioxide and lime. Thus these three substances, +unlike in appearance and origin, are composed of the +same ingredients: if small variations in the combining ratio of +the components were possible, we might expect to find them +in such a case as this. But analysis has failed to find such +differences; the ratio of the weights of lime and carbon +dioxide is found to be the same in all three substances. +Such analyses, which do not always admit of great accuracy, +have been confirmed by a few carefully planned experiments +in which two components were brought together under +very varied conditions, and the resulting compound analysed. +Stas carried out such experiments on the composition of +silver chloride and of ammonium chloride, but he never found a +variation of one part in 10,000 in the composition of the +substances.</p> + +<p>The two laws discussed above were more or less accepted before +the promulgation of the atomic theory, but the law of multiple +proportions is the legitimate offspring of this theory. Berzelius +saw at once that it afforded an admirable test for the correctness +of Dalton’s views, and he made numerous experiments expressly +designed to test the law. One of these experiments may be +described. Two chlorides of copper are known, one a highly +coloured substance, the other quite white. Berzelius took 8 +grams of copper, converted it into the coloured chloride, and +sealed up the whole of this in solution, together with a weighed +strip of copper. After some time the colour entirely disappeared; +the strip of copper was then taken out and reweighed, +and it was found to have lost 8.03 grams. Thus the chlorine, +which in the coloured compound was in union with 8 grams of +copper, appears, in the colourless chloride, to be combined with +16.03 grams, or almost exactly double the amount. It is easy +to verify this result. In a series of repetitions of the experiment, +by different observers, the following numbers were obtained for +the ratio of the copper in the two chlorides: 1.98, 1.97, 2.03, +2.003, the mean value being 1.996. It will be noticed that the +ratio found is sometimes above and sometimes below the number +2, which is required by the atomic theory, and therefore the +deviations may not unreasonably be attributed to experimental +errors. Such experiments—and numerous ones of about this +degree of accuracy have been made on a variety of substances—give +a high degree of probability to the law, but leave it an open +question whether it has the exactitude of the law of the conservation +of matter, or whether it is only approximately true. The +question is, however, vital to the atomic theory. It is, therefore, +worth while to quote a verification of great exactitude from the +work of Stas and J.B.A. Dumas<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> on the composition of the +two oxides of carbon. From their work it follows that the ratio +of the weights of oxygen combined with unit weight of carbon +in the two oxides is 1.99995, or with somewhat different data, +1.9996.</p> + +<p>The law of reciprocal proportion, of which some examples have +been already given, is part of a larger law of equivalence that +underlies most of our chemical methods and calculations. One +section of the law expresses the fact that the weights of two +substances, not necessarily elements, that are equivalent in one +reaction, are often found to be equivalent in a number of other +reactions. The neutralization of acids by bases affords many +illustrations, known even before the atomic theory, of the truth +of the statement. It is universally found that the weights of two +bases which neutralize the same weight of one acid are equivalent +in their power of neutralizing other acids. Thus 5 parts by +weight of soda, 7 of potash and 3.5 of quicklime will each +neutralize 4.56 parts of hydrochloric acid or 7.875 of nitric or +6.125 parts of sulphuric acid; these weights, in fact, are mutually +equivalent to one another. The Daltonian would say that each +of these weights represents a certain group of atoms, and that +these groups can replace, or combine with, each other, to form +new molecules. The change from a binary compound, that is, +one containing two elements, to a ternary compound in which +these two elements are associated with a third, sometimes affords +a very good test for the theory. The atomic theory can picture +the change from the binary to the ternary compound simply as +the addition of one or more atoms of the third element to the +previously existing molecule; in such a case the combining +ratio of the first two elements should be absolutely the same in +both compounds. Berzelius tested this prediction. He showed +that lead sulphide, a black substance containing only lead and +sulphur, could be <i>converted</i> by oxidation into lead sulphate, a +white compound containing oxygen as well as lead and sulphur. +The whole of the lead and sulphur of the sulphide was found to +be present in the sulphate; in other words, the combining ratio +of the lead and sulphur was not altered by the addition of the +oxygen. This is found to be a general rule. It was verified very +exactly by Stas’s experiments, in which he removed the oxygen +from the ternary compound silver iodate and found that the +whole of the silver and the iodine remained in combination with +each other as silver iodide; his results prove, to one part in ten +millions, that the combining ratio of the silver and the iodine +is unaltered by the removal of the oxygen.</p> + +<p>The above gives some idea of the evidence that has been +accumulated in favour of the laws of chemical combination, laws +which can be deduced from the atomic theory. Whenever any +of these laws, or indeed any prediction from the theory, can be +tested it has so far proved to be in harmony with experiment. +The existence of the periodic law (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Element</a></span>), and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span> +researches of physicists on the constitution of matter (<i>q.v.</i>), also +furnish very strong support to the theory.</p> + +<p>Dalton was of the opinion that it was possible to determine +the weights of the elementary atoms in terms of any one by the +analysis of compounds. It is evident that this is +practicable if the number and kind of atoms contained +<span class="sidenote">Atomic weight.</span> +in the molecule of a compound can be determined. +To take the simplest possible case, if Dalton had been correct +in assuming that the molecule of water was made up of one atom +of oxygen and one of hydrogen, then the experimental fact that +water contains eight parts by weight of oxygen to one part of +hydrogen, would at once show that the atom of oxygen is eight +times as heavy as the atom of hydrogen, or that, taking the +atomic weight of hydrogen as the unit, the atomic weight of +oxygen is 8. Similarly, Dalton’s diagram for ammonia, together +with the fact that ammonia contains 4.67 parts of nitrogen to +one of hydrogen, at once leads to the conclusion that the atomic +weight of nitrogen is 4.67. But, unfortunately, the assumption +as to the number of atoms in the molecules of these two compounds +was an arbitrary one, based on no valid evidence. It is +now agreed that the molecule of water contains two atoms of +hydrogen and one of oxygen, so that the atomic weight of oxygen +becomes 16, and similarly that the molecule of ammonia contains +three atoms of hydrogen and one of nitrogen, and that consequently +the atomic weight of nitrogen is 14. On account of +this difficulty, the atomic weights published by Dalton, and the +more accurate ones of Berzelius, were not always identical with +the values now accepted, but were often simple multiples or +submultiples of these.</p> + +<p>The “symbols” for the elements used by Dalton, apparently +suggested by those of the alchemists, have been rejected in favour +of those which were introduced by Berzelius. The +latter employed the first letter, or the first two letters, +<span class="sidenote">Formulae.</span> +of the name of an element as its symbol. The symbol, like that +of Dalton, always stands for the atomic weight of the element, +that is, while H stands for one part by weight of hydrogen, +O stands for 16 parts of oxygen, and so on. The symbols +of compounds become very concise, as the number of atoms +of one kind in a molecule can be expressed by a sub-index. +Thus the symbol or formula H<span class="su">2</span>O for water expresses the view +that the molecule of water consists of one atom of oxygen +and two of hydrogen; and if we know the atomic weights +of oxygen and hydrogen, it also tells us the composition of +water by weight. Similarly, the modern formula for ammonia +is NH<span class="su">3</span>.</p> + +<p>The superiority of this notation over that of Dalton is not so +obvious when we consider such simple cases as the above, but +chemists are now acquainted with very complex molecules +containing numerous atoms; cane sugar, for example, has the +formula C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">22</span>O<span class="su">11</span>. It would be a serious business to draw +a Daltonian diagram for such a molecule.</p> + +<p>Dalton believed that the molecules of the elementary gases +consisted each of one atom; his diagram for hydrogen gas makes +the point clear. We now believe that the molecule of an element +is frequently made up of two or more atoms; thus the formulae +for the gases hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are H<span class="su">2</span>, O<span class="su">2</span>, N<span class="su">2</span>, while +gaseous phosphorus and sulphur are probably P<span class="su">4</span> and S<span class="su">6</span>, and +gaseous mercury is Hg<span class="su">1</span>,—that is, the molecule of this element +is monatomic. This view, as to the frequently complex nature +of the elementary molecule, is logically and historically connected +with the striking hypothesis of Amadeo Avogadro and A.M. +Ampère. These natural philosophers suggested that equal +volumes of all gaseous substances must contain, at the same +temperature and pressure, the same number of molecules. Their +hypothesis explains so many facts that it is now considered to be +as well established as the parts of the theory due to Dalton.<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +This principle at once enables the weights of molecules to be +compared even when their composition is unknown; it is only +necessary to determine the specific gravities of the various gases +referred to some one of them, say hydrogen; the numbers so +obtained giving the weights of the molecules referred to that of +the hydrogen molecule.</p> + +<p>The atomic theory has been of priceless value to chemists, but +it has more than once happened in the history of science that a +hypothesis, after having been useful in the discovery +and the co-ordination of knowledge, has been abandoned +<span class="sidenote">Present position of the atomic theory.</span> +and replaced by one more in harmony with later +discoveries. Some distinguished chemists have thought +that this fate may be awaiting the atomic theory, and +that in future chemists may be able to obtain all the guidance +they need from the science of the transformations of energy. +But modern discoveries in radioactivity<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> are in favour of the +existence of the atom, although they lead to the belief that the +atom is not so eternal and unchangeable a thing as Dalton and +his predecessors imagined, and in fact, that the atom itself may +be subject to that eternal law of growth and decay of which +Lucretius speaks.</p> +<div class="author">(F. H. Ne.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Robert Boyle, <i>The Sceptical Chymist</i> (1661); +<i>The Usefulness of Natural Philosophy</i> (1663).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Sir Isaac Newton, <i>Principia</i>, bk. ii. prop. 23.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Freund, <i>The Study of Chemical Composition</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It will be seen that in the three gas diagrams of Dalton that are +reproduced above, equal numbers of molecules are contained in +equal volumes, but if Dalton held this view at one time he certainly +afterwards abandoned it.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Rutherford, <i>Radioactivity</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATONEMENT<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> and <b>DAY OF ATONEMENT.</b> +“Atone” (originally—see below—“at one”) and “atonement” +terms ordinarily used as practically synonymous with +satisfaction, reparation, compensation, with a view +to reconciliation. As the English technical terms +<span class="sidenote">The religious doctrine.</span> +representing a theological doctrine which plays an +important part not only in Christianity but in most religions, +the underlying ideas require more detailed analysis. A doctrine +of atonement makes the following presuppositions. (<i>a</i>) There +is a natural relation between God and man in which God looks +favourably upon man. (<i>b</i>) This relation has been disturbed so +that God regards man’s character and conduct with disapproval, +and inflicts suffering upon him by way of punishment. In the +higher religions the disturbance is due, as just implied, to +unsatisfactory conduct on man’s part, <i>i.e.</i> sin. (<i>c</i>) The normal +relation may be restored, <i>i.e.</i> sin may be forgiven; and this +restoration is the atonement.</p> + +<p>The problem of the atonement is the means or condition of +the restoration of man to God’s favour; this has been variously +found (<i>a</i>) in the endurance of punishment; (<i>b</i>) in the payment +of compensation for the wrong done, the compensation consisting +of sacrifices and other offerings; (<i>c</i>) in the performance of +magical or other ritual, the efficacy of the ritual consisting in its +being pleasing to or appointed by God, or even in its having a +coercive power over the deity; (<i>d</i>) in repentance and amendment +of life. Most theories of atonement would combine two or more +of these, and would include repentance and amendment. Some +or all of the conditions of atonement may be fulfilled, according +to various views, either by the sinner or vicariously on his behalf +by some kinsman; or by his family, clan or nation; or by +some one else.</p> + +<p>In the Old Testament, “atonement,” “make an atonement” +represent the Hebrew <i>kippur</i> and its derivatives. It is doubtful +whether this root meant originally to “cover” or +“wipe out”; but probably it is used as a technical +<span class="sidenote">Old Testament.</span> +term without any consciousness of its etymology. +The Old Testament presents very varied teaching on +this subject without attempting to co-ordinate its doctrines in +a harmonious system. In some cases there is no suggestion of +any forgiveness; sinners are “cut off” from the chosen people; +individuals and nations perish in their iniquity.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Some passages +refer exclusively to the endurance of punishment as a condition +of pardon;<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> others to the penitence and amendment of the +sinner.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In Ezekiel xxxvi. 25-31, repentance is called forth by +the divine forgiveness.</p> + +<p>Sacrifice and other rites are also spoken of as conditions of the +restoration of man to happy relations with God. The Priestly +Code (Leviticus and allied passages) seems to confine the efficacy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span> +of sacrifice to ritual, venial and involuntary sins,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and requires +that the sacrifices should be offered at Jerusalem by the Aaronic +priests; but these limitations did not belong to the older religion; +and even in later times popular faith ascribed a larger efficacy to +sacrifice. On the other hand, other passages protest against the +ascription of great importance to sacrifice; or regard the rite +as a consequence rather than a cause of forgiveness.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The Old +Testament has no theory of sacrifice; in connexion with sin the +sacrifice was popularly regarded as payment of penalty or compensation. +Lev. xvii. 11 suggests a mystic or symbolic explanation +by its statement “the life of the flesh is in the blood; and +I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for +your lives:<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> for it is the blood that maketh atonement by reason +of the life.” The Old Testament nowhere explains why this +importance is attached to the blood, but the passage is often held +to mean that the life of the victim represented the forfeited life +of the offerer.</p> + +<p>The atoning ritual reached its climax on the Day of Atonement +יום הכפורים <span class="grk" title="aemera exilasmon">ἡμέρα ἐξιλασμοῦ</span>, in the Mishna simply “the +Day,” (<i>Yōmā</i>), observed annually on the 10th day of +the 7th month (Tisri), in the autumn, about October, +<span class="sidenote">Jewish day of atonement.</span> +shortly before the Feast of Tabernacles or vintage +festival. At one time the year began in Tisri. The +laws of the Day of Atonement belong to the Priestly Code.<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> +There is no trace of this function before the exile; the earliest +reference to any such special time of atonement being the +proposal of Ezek. xlv. 18-20 to establish two days of atonement, +in the first and seventh months.<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> No doubt, however, both the +principles and ritual are partly derived from earlier times. The +object of the observances was to cleanse the sanctuary, the +priesthood and the people from all their sins, and to renew +and maintain favourable relations between Yahweh and Israel. +The ritual includes features found on other holy days, sacrifices, +abstinence from work, &c.; and also certain unique acts. The +Day of Atonement is the only fast provided in the Law; it is +only on this occasion that (<i>a</i>) the Jews are required to “afflict +their souls,” (<i>b</i>) the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies, (<i>c</i>) the +High Priest offers incense before the mercy seat and sprinkles +it with blood, and (<i>d</i>) the scapegoat or Azazel is sent away into +the wilderness, bearing upon him all the iniquities of the people. +In later Judaism, especially from about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, great stress +was laid on the Day of Atonement, and it is now the most +important religious function of the Jews. On that day many +attend the synagogues who are seldom or never seen in them +at other times.</p> + +<p>The idea of vicarious atonement appears in the Old Testament +in different forms. The nation suffers for the sin of the individual;<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +and the individual for the sin of his kinsfolk<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> or of +the nation.<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Above all the Servant of Yahweh<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> appears as +atoning for sinners by his sufferings and death. Again, the +Old Testament speaks of the restoration of heathen nations, +and of the salvation of the heathen;<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> but does not formulate +any theory of atonement in this connexion. The Old Testament, +however, only prepares the way for the Christian doctrine of the +atonement; this is clear, inasmuch as its teaching is largely +concerned with the nation, and hardly touches on the future +life. Moreover, it could not define the relation of Christ to the +atonement. Later Judaism emphasized the idea of vicarious +atonement for Israel through the sufferings of the righteous, +especially the martyrs; but it is very doubtful whether the +idea of the atonement through the death of the Messiah is a +pre-Christian Jewish doctrine.<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p> + +<p>In the New Testament, the English version uses “atonement” +once, Rom. v. 11, for <span class="grk" title="katallagae">καταλλαγή</span> (R.V. here and elsewhere +“reconciliation”). This Greek word corresponds to +the idea suggested by the etymology of at-one-ment, +<span class="sidenote">New Testament.</span> +the re-uniting in amity of those at variance, a sense +which the word had in the 17th century but has since +lost. But the idea which is now usually expressed by “atonement” +is rather represented in the New Testament by <span class="grk" title="ilasmos">ἱλασμός</span> +and its cognates, <i>e.g.</i> 1 John ii. 2 R.V., “He (Jesus) is the +propitiation (<span class="grk" title="ilasmos">ἱλασμός</span>) for our sins.” But these words are rare, +and we read more often of “salvation” (<span class="grk" title="sotaeria">σωτηρία</span>) and “being +saved,” which includes or involves that restoration to divine +favour which is called atonement. The leading varieties of +teaching, the Sayings of Jesus, Paul, the Johannine writings, +the Epistle to the Hebrews, connect the atonement with Christ +especially with His death, and associate it with faith in Him and +with repentance and amendment of life.<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a></p> + +<p>These ideas are also common to Christian teaching generally. +The New Testament, however, does not indicate that its writers +were agreed as to any formal dogma of the atonement, as regards +the relation of the death of Christ to the sinner’s restoration to +God’s favour; but various suggestions are made as to the +solution of the problem. St Paul’s teaching connects with the +Jewish doctrine of vicarious suffering, represented in the Old +Testament by Is. liii., and probably, though not expressly, with +the ritual sacrifices. Christ suffering on behalf of sinners satisfies +the divine righteousness, which was outraged by their sin.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> +His work is an expression of God’s love to man;<a name="fa17e" id="fa17e" href="#ft17e"><span class="sp">17</span></a> the redeeming +power of Christ’s death is also explained by his solidarity with +humanity as the second Adam,<a name="fa18e" id="fa18e" href="#ft18e"><span class="sp">18</span></a>—the redeemed sinner has +“died with Christ.”<a name="fa19e" id="fa19e" href="#ft19e"><span class="sp">19</span></a> Some atoning virtue seems also attributed +to the Resurrection;<a name="fa20e" id="fa20e" href="#ft20e"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Christ’s sayings connect admission to the +kingdom of God with susceptibility to the influence of His +personality, faith in Himself and His mission, and the loyalty +that springs from faith.<a name="fa21e" id="fa21e" href="#ft21e"><span class="sp">21</span></a> In John, Christ is a “propitiation” +(<span class="grk" title="ilasmos">ἱλασμός</span>) provided by the love of God that man may be cleansed +from sin; He is also their advocate (<span class="grk" title="Paraklaetos">Παράκλητος</span>) with God that +they may be forgiven, for His name’s sake.<a name="fa22e" id="fa22e" href="#ft22e"><span class="sp">22</span></a> <i>Hebrews</i> speaks of +Christ as transcending the rites and officials of the law; He +accomplishes the realities which they could only foreshadow; +in relation to the perfect, heavenly sacrifice which atones for sin, +He is both priest and victim.<a name="fa23e" id="fa23e" href="#ft23e"><span class="sp">23</span></a></p> + +<p>The subsequent development of the Christian doctrine has +chiefly shaped itself according to the Pauline formula of vicarious +atonement; the sufferings of Christ were accepted as a +substitute for the punishment which men deserved, +<span class="sidenote">Later interpretation.</span> +and so the divine righteousness was satisfied—a +formula, however, which left much room for controversy. +The creeds and confessions are usually vague. Thus the +Apostles’ Creed, “I believe in the forgiveness of sins”; the +Nicene Creed, “I believe in one Lord Jesus Christ ... who for +us men and for our salvation came down from heaven ... I +acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins”; the +Athanasian Creed, “Who (Christ) suffered for our salvation.” +In the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England we have +(ii.) “Christ suffered ... to reconcile his Father to us, and to +be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual +sins of men”; and (xxxi.) “The offering of Christ once made +is that perfect redemption, propitiation, and satisfaction, for +all the sins of the whole world.” The council of Trent declared +that “<i>Christus ... nobis sua sanctissima passione ligno crucis +justificationem meruit et pro nobis deo patri satisfecit</i>,” “Christ +earned our justification by His most holy passion and satisfied +God the Father for us.” The Confession of Augsburg uses words +equivalent to the Articles quoted above which were based upon +it. The Westminster Confession declares: “The Lord Jesus +Christ, by His perfect obedience and sacrifice of Himself, which +He through the Eternal Spirit once offered up to God, hath +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span> +fully satisfied the justice of His Father, and purchased not only +reconciliation, but an everlasting inheritance in the kingdom +of heaven, for all those whom the Father hath given unto Him.”</p> + +<p>Individual theologians have sought to define more exactly +the points on which the standards are vague. For instance, +how was justice satisfied by Christ? The early Fathers, from +Irenaeus (d. <i>c.</i> 200) to Anselm (d. 1109),<a name="fa24e" id="fa24e" href="#ft24e"><span class="sp">24</span></a> held, <i>inter alia</i>, that +Christ paid a ransom to Satan to induce him to release men from +his power. Anselm and the scholastics regarded the atonement +as an offering to God of such infinite value as to outweigh men’s +sins, a view sometimes styled the “Commerical Theory.”<a name="fa25e" id="fa25e" href="#ft25e"><span class="sp">25</span></a> The +leading reformers emphasized the idea that Christ bore the punishment +of sin, sufferings equivalent to the punishments deserved +by men, a view maintained later on by Jonathan Edwards +junior. But the intellectual activity of the Reformation also +developed other views; the Socinians, with their humanitarian +theory of the Person of Christ, taught that He died only to +assure men of God’s forgiving love and to afford them an example +of obedience—“Forgiveness is granted upon the ground of +repentance and obedience.”<a name="fa26e" id="fa26e" href="#ft26e"><span class="sp">26</span></a> Grotius put forward what has been +called the <i>Governmental</i> Theory, viz. that the atonement took +place not to satisfy the wrath of God, but in the practical +interests of the divine government of the world, “The sufferings +and death of the Son of God are an exemplary exhibition of +God’s hatred of moral evil, in connexion with which it is safe and +prudent to remit that penalty, which so far as God and the divine +attributes are concerned, might have been remitted without it.”<a name="fa27e" id="fa27e" href="#ft27e"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p> + +<p>The formal legal view continued to be widely held, though +it was modified in many ways by various theologians. For +instance, it has been held that Christ atoned for mankind +not by enduring the penalty of sin, but by identifying +<span class="sidenote">Modern views.</span> +Himself with the sinner in perfect sympathy, and +feeling for him an “equivalent repentance” for his sin. Thus +McLeod Campbell (<i>q.v.</i>) held that Christ atoned by offering up +to God a perfect confession of the sins of mankind and an +adequate repentance for them, with which divine justice is +satisfied, and a full expiation is made for human guilt. A similar +view was held by F.D. Maurice.<a name="fa28e" id="fa28e" href="#ft28e"><span class="sp">28</span></a> Others hold that the effect of +the atoning death of Christ is not to propitiate God, but to +reconcile man to God; it manifests righteousness, and thus +reveals the heinousness of sin; it also reveals the love of God, +and conveys the assurance of His willingness to forgive or receive +the sinner; thus it moves men to repentance and faith, and +effects their salvation; so substantially Ritschl.<a name="fa29e" id="fa29e" href="#ft29e"><span class="sp">29</span></a> In England +much influence has been exerted by Dr R.W. Dale’s <i>Atonement</i> +(1875), the special point of which is that the death of Christ is +not required by the personal demand of God to be propitiated, +but by the necessity of honouring an ideal law of righteousness; +thus, “the death of Christ is the objective ground on which the +sins of men are remitted, because it was an act of submission to +the righteous authority of the law by which the human race was +condemned ... and because in consequence of the relation +between Him and us—His life being our own—His submission +is the expression of ours, and carries ours with it ... (and) +because in His submission to the awful penalty of sin ... there +was a revelation of the righteousness of God, which must otherwise +have been revealed in the infliction of the penalties of sin +on the human race.”<a name="fa30e" id="fa30e" href="#ft30e"><span class="sp">30</span></a> This view, however, leads to a dilemma; +if the law of righteousness is simply an expression of the divine +will, satisfaction to law is equivalent to propitiation offered to +God; if the law has an independent position, the view is inconsistent +with pure monotheism.</p> + +<p>The present position may be illustrated from a work representing +the more liberal Anglican theology. Bishop Lyttelton +in <i>Lux Mundi</i><a name="fa31e" id="fa31e" href="#ft31e"><span class="sp">31</span></a> stated that the death of Christ is propitiatory +towards God because it expressed His perfect obedience, it +manifested God’s righteous wrath against sin, and in virtue +of Christ’s human nature involved man’s recognition of the +righteousness of God’s condemnation of sin; also because in +some mysterious way death has a propitiatory value; and +finally because Christ is the representative of the human race. +Towards man, the death of Christ has atoning efficacy because +it delivers from sin, bestows the divine gift of life and conveys +the assurance of pardon. The benefits of the atonement are +appropriated by “the acceptance of God’s forgiveness in Christ, +our self-identification with Christ’s atoning attitude, and then +working out, by the power of the life bestowed upon us, all the +(moral and spiritual) consequence of forgiveness.”</p> + +<p>At present the belief in an objective atonement is still widely +held; whether in the form of penal theories—the old forensic +view that the death of Christ atones by paying the penalty of +man’s sin—or in the form of governmental theories; that the +Passion fulfilled a necessity of divine government by expressing +and vindicating God’s righteousness. But there is also a widespread +inclination to minimize, ignore or deny the objective +aspect of the atonement, the effect of the death of Christ on +God’s attitude towards men; and to follow the moral theories +in emphasizing the subjective aspect of the atonement, the +influence of the Passion on man. There is a tendency to eclectic +views embracing the more attractive features of the various +theories; and attempts are made to adapt, interpret and +qualify the imagery and language of older formulae, in order +so to speak, to issue them afresh in new editions, compatible +with modern natural science, psychology and historical criticism. +Such attempts are necessary in a time of transition, but they +involve a measure of obscurity and ambiguity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Atonement: H. Bushnell, <i>Vicarious Sacrifice</i> +(1871); J. McLeod Campbell, <i>Nature of the Atonement</i> (1869); +T.J. Crawford, <i>Doctrine of the Holy Spirit respecting the Atonement</i> +(1871); R.W. Dale, <i>Atonement</i> (1875); J. Denney, <i>Death of Christ</i>, +<i>Atonement and the Modern Mind</i> (1903); A. Lyttelton, <i>Lux Mundi</i>, +pp. 201 ff. (Atonement), (1889); R. Moberly, <i>Atonement and Personality</i>; +A. Ritschl, <i>Die christliche Lehre van der Rechtfertigung +und Versohnung</i> (1870-1874); G.B. Stevens, <i>Christian Doctrine +of Salvation</i> (1905).</p> + +<p>Day of Atonement: articles in Hastings’ <i>Bible Dictionary</i>, and +in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. H. Be.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. Exodus xii. 15, &c.; Josh. vii. 24 (Achan); Jer. li. 62 +(Babylon).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> 2 Sam. xii. 13, 14 (David); Isaiah xl. 2 (Jerusalem): in such +cases, however, the context implies repentance.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Ezek. xviii., Micah vi.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Lev. iv. 2, “sin unwittingly,” <i>bishegagā</i>, <i>c.</i> 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Psalm l. 10, li. 16-19; Isaiah i. 11; Micah vi. 6-8.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Heb. <i>nephesh</i>, also translated “soul.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Lev. xvi., xxiii. 27-32; Numb. xxix. 7-11.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> So Davidson, &c. with LXX. The A.V. with Hebrew text has +“seventh day of the month.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> Achan, Josh. vii. 10-15.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> 2 Sam. xxi. 1-9; Deut. v. 9, 10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ezek. xxi. 3, 4.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Isaiah liii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Isaiah xix. 25, xlix. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Köberle, <i>Sunde und Gnade</i>, pp. 592 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Mark x. 45; Matt. xxvi. 28; 1 Cor. xv. 3; John xi. 48-52; +Heb. ii. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Rom. iii. 25.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17e" id="ft17e" href="#fa17e"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Rom. v. 8.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18e" id="ft18e" href="#fa18e"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Rom. v. 15-19.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19e" id="ft19e" href="#fa19e"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Rom. vi. 8.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20e" id="ft20e" href="#fa20e"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Rom. iv. 25.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21e" id="ft21e" href="#fa21e"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Matt. xxv. 34 f.; Mark viii. 34 ff., ix. 36 f., x. 21.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22e" id="ft22e" href="#fa22e"><span class="fn">22</span></a> 1 John ii. 1, 2, 12, iii. 5, 8, iv. 10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23e" id="ft23e" href="#fa23e"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Heb. ii. 17, ix. 14.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24e" id="ft24e" href="#fa24e"><span class="fn">24</span></a> Stevens, <i>Christian Doctrine of Salvation</i>, p. 138.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25e" id="ft25e" href="#fa25e"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 151.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26e" id="ft26e" href="#fa26e"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Shedd, <i>Hist. of Christ. Doctr.</i> ii. 385 ff.; cf. van Oosterzee, <i>Christ. +Dogmatics</i>, 611.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27e" id="ft27e" href="#fa27e"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Shedd ii. 358 f.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28e" id="ft28e" href="#fa28e"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Crawford, <i>Scripture Doctrine of the Atonement</i>, pp. 327 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29e" id="ft29e" href="#fa29e"><span class="fn">29</span></a> Orr, <i>Ritschlian Theology</i>, pp. 149 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30e" id="ft30e" href="#fa30e"><span class="fn">30</span></a> Dale, <i>Atonement</i>, pp. 430 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31e" id="ft31e" href="#fa31e"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Pp. 209, 212, 214, 216, 219, 221, 225.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATRATO,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a river of western Colombia, South America, rising +on the slopes of the Western Cordilleras, in 5° 36′ N. lat., and +flowing almost due north to the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, where +it forms a large delta. Its length is about 400 m., but owing to +the heavy rainfall of this region it discharges no less than 175,000 +cub. ft. of water per second, together with a very large quantity +of sediment, which is rapidly filling the gulf. The river is navigable +to Quibdo (250 m.), and for the greater part of its course +for large vessels, but the bars at its mouth prevent the entrance +of sea-going steamers. Flowing through the narrow valley +between the Cordillera and coast range, it has only short tributaries, +the principal ones being the Truando, Sucio and Murri. +The gold and platinum mines of Choco were on some of its +affluents, and the river sands are auriferous. The Atrato at one +time attracted considerable attention as a feasible route for a +trans-isthmian canal, which, it was estimated, could be excavated +at a cost of £11,000,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATREK,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a river which rises in 37° 10′ N. lat. and 59° E., in the +mountains of the north-east of the Persian province of Khorasan, +and flows west along the borders of Persia and the Russian +Transcaspian province, till it falls, after a course of 350 m., +into the south-eastern corner of the Caspian, a short distance +north-north-west of Astarabad.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATREUS,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Pelops and Hippodameia, +and elder brother of Thyestes. Having murdered his stepbrother +Chrysippus, Atreus fled with Thyestes to Mycenae, +where he succeeded Eurystheus in the sovereignty. His wife +Aërope was seduced by Thyestes, who was driven from Mycenae. +To avenge himself, Thyestes sent Pleisthenes (Atreus’ son whom +Thyestes had brought up as his own) to kill Atreus, but Pleisthenes +was himself slain by his own father. After this Atreus, +apparently reconciled to his brother, recalled him to Mycenae +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span> +and invited him to a banquet to eat of his son, whom Atreus had +slain. Thyestes fled in horror. Subsequently Atreus married +the daughter of Thyestes, Pelopia, who had by her own father +a son, Aegisthus, who was adopted by Atreus. Thyestes was +found by Agamemnon and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus, and +imprisoned at Mycenae. Aegisthus being sent to murder +Thyestes, mutual recognition took place, and Atreus was slain +by the father and son, who seized the throne, and drove Agamemnon +and Menelaus out of the country (Thucydides i. 9; +Hyginus, <i>Fabulae</i>; Apollodorus). Homer does not speak of the +horrors of the story, which are first found in the tragedians; +he merely states (<i>Iliad</i>, ii. 105) that Atreus at his death left the +kingdom to Thyestes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Voigt in <i>Dissert. philol. Halenses.</i> vi. (1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATRI,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Teramo, +6 m. W. of the station of that name on the railway from Ancona +to Foggia, and 18 m. due E.S.E. of Teramo, on the site of the +ancient <i>Hadria</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). Pop. (1901) 13,448. Its Gothic cathedral +(1285-1305) is remarkably fine; and the interior, though spoilt +by restoration in 1657, contains some important frescoes of the +end of the 15th century by Andrea di Lecce and his pupils. The +crypt was originally a cistern of the Roman period. The palace +of the Acquaviva family, who were dukes of Atri from 1398 to +1775, is a massive building situated in the principal square.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATRIUM<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (either from <i>ater</i>, black, referring to the blackening +of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek +<span class="grk" title="aethrion">αἴθριον</span>, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, +where the style of building is supposed to have originated), the +principal entrance hall or court of a Roman dwelling, giving +access and light to the rooms round it. The centre of the roof +over the atrium was open to the sky and called the <i>compluvium</i>; +the rain-water from the roof collected in the gutters was +discharged into a marble tank underneath, which was known as +the <i>impluvium</i>. In the early periods of Roman civilization the +atrium was the common public apartment, and was used for +the reception of visitors and clients, and for ordinary domestic +purposes, as cooking and dining. In it were placed the ancestral +pictures, the marriage-couch, the hearth and generally a small +altar. At a somewhat later period, and among the wealthy, +separate apartments were built for kitchens and dining-rooms, +and the atrium was kept as a general reception-room for clients +and visitors. There were many varieties of the atrium, depending +on the way in which the roof was carried. These are described +by Vitruvius under the title of <i>cavaedium</i>.</p> + +<p>Other buildings, both consecrated and unconsecrated, were +called by the term (corresponding to the English “hall”), such +as the Atrium Vestae, where the vestal virgins lived, and the +Atrium Libertatis, the residence of the censor, where Asinius +Pollio established the first public library at Rome.</p> + +<p>The word <i>atrium</i> in Rome had a second signification, being +given to an open court with porticos round, sometimes placed +in front of a temple. A similar arrangement was adopted by +the early Christians with relation to the Basilica, in front of +which there was an open court surrounded by colonnades or +arcades. The church of San Clemente at Rome, that of Sant’ +Ambrogio at Milan and the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria still +retain their atria.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATROPHY<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="a-">ἀ-</span> priv., <span class="grk" title="trophae">τροφἠ</span>, nourishment), a term in +medicine used to describe a state of wasting due to some interference +with the function of healthy nutrition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pathology</a></span>). +In the living organism there are always at work changes involving +the waste of its component tissues, which render necessary, in +order to maintain and preserve life, the supply and proper assimilation +of nutritive material. It is also essential for the maintenance +of health that a due relation exist between these processes +of waste and repair, so that the one may not be in excess of the +other. When the appropriation of nutriment exceeds the waste, +hypertrophy (<i>q.v.</i>) or increase in bulk of the tissues takes place. +When, on the other hand, the supply of nutritive matter is +suspended or diminished, or when the power of assimilation is +impaired, atrophy or wasting is the result. Thus the whole +body becomes atrophied in many diseases; and in old age every +part of the frame, with the single exception of the heart, undergoes +atrophic change. Atrophy may, however, affect single +organs or parts of the body, irrespective of the general state of +nutrition, and this may be brought about in a variety of ways. +One of the most frequently observed of such instances is atrophy +from disuse, or cessation of function. Thus, when a limb is +deprived of the natural power of motion, either by paralysis +or by painful joint disease, the condition of exercise essential +to its nutrition being no longer fulfilled, atrophy of all its textures +sooner or later takes place. The brain in imbeciles is frequently +observed to be shrivelled, and in many cases of blindness there +is atrophy of the optic nerve and optic tract. This form of +atrophy is likewise well exemplified in the case of those organs +and structures of the body which subserve important ends +during foetal life, but which, ceasing to be necessary after birth, +undergo a sort of natural atrophy, such as the thymus gland, +and certain vessels specially concerned in the foetal circulation. +The uterus after parturition undergoes a certain amount of +atrophy, and the ovaries, after the child-bearing period, become +shrunken. Atrophy of a part may also be caused by interruption +to its normal blood-supply, as in the case of the ligature +or obstruction of an artery. Again, long-standing disease, by +affecting the nutrition of an organ and by inducing the deposit +of morbid products, may result in atrophy, as frequently happens +in affections of the liver and kidneys. Parts that are subjected +to continuous pressure are liable to become atrophied, as is +sometimes seen in internal organs which have been pressed upon +by tumours or other morbid growths, and is well illustrated in +the Chinese practice of foot-binding. Atrophy may manifest +itself simply by loss of substance; but, on the other hand, it is +often found to co-exist with degenerative changes in the textures +affected and the formation of adventitious growth, so that the +part may not be reduced in bulk although atrophied as regards +its proper structure. Thus, in the case of the heart, when +affected with fatty degeneration, there is atrophy of the proper +muscular texture, but as this is largely replaced by fatty matter, +the organ may undergo no diminution in volume, but may, on +the contrary, be increased in size. Atrophy is usually a gradual +and slow process, but sometimes it proceeds rapidly. In the +disease known by the name of <i>acute yellow atrophy of the liver</i>, +that organ undergoes such rapidly destructive change as results +in its shrinking to half, or one-third, of its normal size in the +course of a few days. The term <i>progressive muscular atrophy</i> +(synonyms, <i>wasting</i> or <i>creeping palsy</i>) is applied to an affection +of the muscular system, which is characterized by the atrophy +and subsequent paralysis of certain muscles, or groups of muscles, +and is associated with morbid changes in the anterior roots of +the nerves of the spinal cord. This disease begins insidiously, +and is often first observed to affect the muscles of one hand, +generally the right. The attention of the sufferer is first attracted +by the power of the hand becoming weakened, and then there is +found to be a wasting of certain of its muscles, particularly those +of the ball of the thumb. Gradually other muscles in the arms +and legs become affected in a similar manner, their atrophy +being attended with a corresponding diminution in power. +Although sometimes arrested, this disease tends to progress, +until in course of time the greater part of the muscular system +is implicated and a fatal result ensues.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATROPOS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the eldest of the three Fates +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fate</a></span>). Her name, the “Unalterable” (<span class="grk" title="a-">ἀ-</span> privative, and +<span class="grk" title="trepein">τρέπειν</span>, to turn), indicates her function, that of rendering the +decisions of her sisters irreversible or immutable. Atropos is +most frequently represented with scales, a sun-dial or a cutting +instrument, the “abhorred shears,” with which she slits the +thin-spun thread of life that has been placed on the spindle by +Clotho and drawn off by Lachesis.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTA, TITUS QUINCTIUS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Quinticius</span> (d. 77 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman +comedy writer, was, like Titinius and Afranius, distinguished +as a writer of <i>fabulae togatae</i>, national comedies. He had the +reputation of being a vivid delineator of character, especially +female. He also seems to have published a collection of epigrams. +The scanty fragments contain many archaisms, but are lively in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span> +style. According to Horace (<i>Epistles</i>, ii 1. 79) the plays of +Atta were still put on the stage in his time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Aulus Gellius vii. 9; fragments in Neukirch, <i>De fabula togata +Romanorum</i> (1833); Ribbeck, <i>Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae</i> (1855).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTACAPA<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (Choctaw for “cannibal”), a tribe of North-American +Indians, whose home was in south-west Louisiana; +they are now practically extinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTACHMENT,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span><a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in law, a process from a court of record, +awarded by the justices at their discretion, on a bare suggestion, +or on their own knowledge, and properly grantable in cases of +contempt. It differs from arrest (<i>q.v.</i>), in that he who arrests +a man carries him to a person of higher power to be forthwith +disposed of; but he that attaches keeps the party attached, +and presents him in court at the day assigned, as appears by the +words of the writ. Another difference is, that arrest is only upon +the body of a man, whereas an attachment is often upon his +goods. It is distinguished from distress in not extending to +lands, as the latter does; nor does a distress touch the body, +as an attachment does. Every court of record has power to fine +and imprison for contempt of its authority. Attachment being +merely a process to bring the defendant before the court, is not +necessary in cases of contempt in the presence of the court itself. +Attachment will be granted in England against peers and +members of parliament only for such gross contempts as rescues, +disobedience to the sovereign’s writs and the like. Attachment +will not lie against a corporation. The county courts in this +respect are regulated by acts of 1846 and 1849. They can only +punish for contempts committed in presence of the court (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Contempt of Court</a></span>). Attachments are granted on a rule in +the first instance to show cause, which must be personally served +before it can be made absolute, except for non-payment of costs +on a master’s allocatur, and against a sheriff for not obeying a +rule to return a writ or to bring in the body. The offender is +then arrested, and when committed will be compelled to answer +interrogatories, exhibited against him by the party at whose +instance the proceedings have been had; and the examination +when taken is referred to the master, who reports thereon, and +on the contempt being reported, the court gives judgment according +to its discretion, in the same manner as upon a conviction +for a misdemeanour at common law. Sir W. Blackstone observes +that “this method of making the defendant answer upon oath +to a criminal charge is not agreeable to the genius of the common +law in any other instance”; and the elasticity of the legal definitions +of contempt of court, especially with respect to comments +on judicial proceedings, is the subject of much complaint.</p> + +<p><i>Attachment of Debts.</i>—It was suggested by the common law +commissioners in 1853 that a remedy analogous to that of +Foreign Attachment (see below) might be made available to +creditors, after judgment, against debts due to their debtors. +Accordingly, the Common Law Procedure Act 1854 enacted +that any creditor, having obtained judgment in the superior +courts, should have an order that the judgment debtor might +be examined as to any debts due and owing to him before a master +of the court. The rules and regulations under the Judicature +Act 1873 retained the process for attachment of debts as established +by the Procedure Act of 1854. On affidavit that the judgment +was still unsatisfied, and that any other person within the +jurisdiction was indebted to the judgment debtor, the judge +was empowered to attach all debts due from such third person +(called the <i>garnishee</i>) to the judgment debtor, to answer the +judgment debt. This order binds the debts in the hands of the +garnishee, and if he does not dispute his liability execution +issues against him at once. If he disputes his liability the question +must be tried. Payment by the garnishee or execution +against him is a complete discharge as against the judgment +debtor. These provisions were, by an order in council of the +18th of November 1867, extended to the county courts. By +the Wages Attachment Abolition Act 1870 it is enacted that +no order for the attachment of the wages of any servant, labourer +or workman shall be made by the judge of any court of record or +inferior court, and by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894 it is +enacted that the wages of a seaman or apprentice are not subject +to attachment.</p> + +<p>In the United States attachment of debts is a statutory remedy +accorded in most of the states in certain circumstances for the +security of creditors, by the seizure by the sheriff of the debtor’s +goods or the imposition of a lien upon his land, before judgment, +and sometimes at the very commencement of the action. In +some states it is only allowed in special cases, as when the +debtor has absconded, or is a non-resident or guilty of fraud; +in a few it may be had, as of right, at the commencement of +ordinary actions. The common-law courts of the United States +(by act of Congress) follow the practice in this regard of the state +in which they sit. Such attachments (on mesne process) can +generally be dissolved by the substitution of a bond with surety. +The body can also be attached in most states on civil actions +of tort (for a wrongful or negligent act to the damage of another), +but not in actions on contract.</p> + +<p><i>Foreign Attachment</i> is an important custom prevailing in the +city of London, whereby a creditor may attach money owing to +his debtor, or property belonging to him in the possession of third +parties. The person holding the property or owing the money +must be within the city at the time of being served with the +process, but all persons are entitled to the benefit of the custom. +The plaintiff having commenced his action, and made a satisfactory +affidavit of his debt, is entitled to issue attachment, +which thereupon affects all the money or property of the +defendant in the hands of the third party, the garnishee. The +garnishee, of course, has as against the attachment all the +defences which would be available to him against the defendant, +his alleged creditor. The garnishee may plead payment under +the attachment, if there has been no fraud or collusion, in bar +to an action by the defendant for his debt or property. The +court to which this process belongs is the mayor’s court of +London, the procedure in which is regulated by the Mayor’s +Court of London Procedure Act 1857. This custom, and all +proceedings relating thereto, are expressly exempted from the +operation of the Debtor’s Act 1869. Similar customs exist in +Bristol and a few other towns in England and also in Scotland.</p> + +<p><i>A Writ of Attachment</i> enforces answers and obedience to decrees +and orders of the High Court of Justice, and is made out without +order upon an affidavit of the due service of the process, &c., +with whose requirements compliance is sought. A corporation, +however, is proceeded against by distringas and not by +attachment. It was formerly competent to the plaintiff to compel +the appearance of a defendant in chancery by attachment, but +the usual course was to enter appearance for him in case of +default. It is one of the modes of execution allowed for the +recovery of property other than land or money.</p> + +<p><i>Attachment of the Forest</i> was the proceeding in the courts of +attachments, Woodmote, or Forty Days’ courts. These courts +have fallen into desuetude. They were held before the verderers +of the royal forests in different parts of the kingdom once in +every forty days, for the purpose of inquiring into all offences +against “vert (greensward) and venison.” The attachment was +by the bodies of the offenders, if taken in the very act of killing +venison, or stealing wood, or preparing so to do, or by fresh +and immediate pursuit after the act was done; else they must +be attached by their goods. These attachments were received +by the verderers and enrolled, and certified under their seals to +the Swainmote, or Court of Justice-seat, which was the superior +of the forest courts.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “To attach” is first used in English in the legal sense of arrest +or seizure, and the sense of “fasten to” is comparatively late. The +Old French <i>atachier</i>, modern <i>attacher</i>, from which the English +“attach” is derived, is from a word for a peg or nail, in English +“tack,” which is found in many forms in Scandinavian and Celtic +languages, and is ultimately connected with the root seen in Latin +<i>tangere</i>, to touch. The Italian <i>attacare</i>, especially in the phrase +<i>attacare battaglia</i>, to join battle, gave the French <i>attaquer</i>, +whence the English “attack,” which is therefore by origin a doublet of +“attach.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTAINDER<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>ataindre, ateindre</i>, to attain, +<i>i.e.</i> to strike, accuse, condemn; Lat. <i>attingere, tangere</i>, to touch; +the meaning has been greatly affected by the confusion with Fr. <i>taindre, +teindre</i>, to taint, stain, Lat. <i>tingere</i>, to dye), in English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span> +law, was the immediate and inseparable consequence from the +common law upon the sentence of death. When it was clear +beyond all dispute that the criminal was no longer fit to live +he was called <i>attaint</i>, and could not, before the Evidence Act +1843, be a witness in any court. This attainder took place after +judgment of death, or upon such circumstances as were equivalent +to judgment of death, such as judgment of outlawry on a capital +crime, pronounced for absconding from justice. Conviction +without judgment was not followed by attainder. The consequences +of attainder were (1) forfeiture, (2) corruption of blood. +On attainder for treason, the criminal forfeited to the crown +his lands, rights of entry on lands, and any interest he might +have in lands for his own life or a term of years. For murder, +the offender forfeited to the crown the profit of his freeholds +during life, and in the case of lands held in fee-simple, the lands +themselves for a year and a day; subject to this, the lands +escheated to the lord of the fee. These forfeitures related back +to the time of the offence committed. Forfeitures of goods +and chattels ensued not only on attainder, but on conviction +for a felony of any kind, or on flight from justice, and had +no relation backwards to the time of the offence committed. +By <i>corruption of blood</i>, “both upwards and downwards,” the +attainted person could neither inherit nor transmit lands. The +lands escheated to the lord of the fee, subject to the crown’s +right of forfeiture. The doctrine of attainder has, however, +ceased to be of much importance. The Forfeiture Act 1870 +enacted that henceforth no confession, verdict, inquest, conviction +or judgment of or for any treason or felony, or <i>felo de se</i>, +should cause any attainder or corruption of blood, or any +forfeiture or escheat. Sentence of death, penal servitude or +imprisonment with hard labour for more than twelve months, +after conviction for treason or felony, disqualifies from holding +or retaining a seat in parliament, public offices under the crown +or otherwise, right to vote at elections, &c., and such disability +is to remain until the punishment has been suffered or a pardon +obtained. Provision was made for the due administration of +convicts’ estates, in the interests of themselves and their families. +Forfeiture consequent on outlawry was exempted from the provisions +of the act. The United States constitution (Art. III. +s. 3) says: “The Congress shall have power to declare the +punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work +corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the +person attainted.”</p> + +<p><i>Bills of Attainder</i>, in English legal procedure, were formerly +a parliamentary method of exercising judicial authority. They +were ordinarily initiated in the House of Lords and the proceedings +were the same as on other bills, but the parties against +whom they were brought might appear by counsel and produce +witnesses in both Houses. In the case of an impeachment (<i>q.v.</i>), +the House of Commons was prosecutor and the House of Lords +judge; but such bills being <i>legislative</i> in form, the consent of +crown, lords and commons was necessary to pass them. Bishops, +who do not exercise but who claim the right to vote in cases of +impeachment (<i>q.v.</i>), have a right to vote upon bills of attainder, +but their vote is not conclusive in passing judgment upon +the accused. First passed in 1459, such bills were employed, +more particularly during the reigns of the Tudor kings, as a +species of extrajudicial procedure, for the direct punishment of +political offences. Dispensing with the ordinary judicial forms +and precedents, they took away from the accused whatever +advantages he might have gained in the courts of law; such +evidence only was admitted as might be necessary to secure +conviction; indeed, in many cases bills of attainder were passed +without any evidence being produced at all. In the reign of +Henry VIII. they were much used, through a subservient +parliament, to punish those who had incurred the king’s +displeasure; many distinguished victims who could not have been +charged with any offence under the existing laws being by this +means disposed of. In the 17th century, during the disputes +with Charles I., the Long Parliament made effective use of the +same procedure, forcing the sovereign to give his consent. +After the Restoration it became less frequent, though the Jacobite +movement in Scotland produced several instances of attainder, +without, however, the infliction of the extreme penalty of death. +The last bill of attainder passed in England was in the case of +Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders of 1798.</p> + +<p>A bill for reversing attainder took a form contrary to the +usual rule. It was first signed by the sovereign and presented +by a peer to the House of Lords by command of the crown, then +passed through the ordinary stages and on to the commons, to +whom the sovereign’s assent was communicated before the first +reading was taken, otherwise the whole proceedings were null +and void.</p> + +<p>A <i>Bill of Pains and Penalties</i> resembles a bill of attainder +in object and procedure, but imposes a lesser punishment than +death. The most notable instances of the passing of a bill of +pains and penalties are those of Bishop Atterbury in 1722, and +of Queen Caroline, wife of George IV., in 1820.</p> + +<p>The constitution of the United States declares that “no bill +of attainder or <i>ex post facto</i> law shall be passed.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTAINT, WRIT OF,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> an obsolete method of procedure in +English law, for inquiring by a jury of twenty-four whether +a false verdict had been given in a trial before an ordinary jury +of twelve. If it were found that an erroneous judgment had been +given, the wrong was redressed and the original jury incurred +infamy, with imprisonment and forfeiture of their goods, +which punishments were, however, commuted later for a +pecuniary penalty. In criminal cases a writ of attaint was +issued at suit of the king, and in civil cases at the suit of either +party. In criminal cases it appears to have become obsolete +by the end of the 15th century. Procedure by attaint in civil +cases had also been gradually giving place to the practice of +granting new trials, and after the decision in Bushell’s case in +1670 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jury</a></span>) it became obsolete, and was finally abolished +by the Juries Act 1825, except as regards jurors guilty of +embracery (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTALIA,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> an ancient city of Pamphylia, which derived its +name from Attalus II., king of Pergamum; the modern Adalia +(<i>q.v.</i>). It was important as the nearest seaport to the rich +districts of south-west Phrygia. A much-frequented “half-sea” +route led through it to the Lycus and Maeander valleys, +and so to Ephesus and Smyrna. This was the natural way +from any part of central Asia Minor to Syria and Egypt, and +accordingly we hear of Paul and Barnabas taking ship at Attalia +for Antioch. Originally the port of Perga, Attalia eclipsed the +old Pamphylian capital in early Christian times and became +the metropolis. There are extensive remains of the ancient +walls, including some portions which go back to the foundation +of the Pergamenian city. The most conspicuous monument +is the triple Gate of Hadrian, flanked by a tower built by the +empress Julia. This lies about half-way round the <i>enceinte</i> +and formerly admitted the road from Perga.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTAR<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> [or <span class="sc">Otto</span>] <b>OF ROSES</b> (Pers. <i>’aṭar</i>, essence), a perfume +consisting of essential oil of roses, prepared by distilling, or, +in some districts, by macerating the flowers. The manufacture +is chiefly carried out in India, Persia and the Balkans; the last +named supplying the bulk of the European demand. It is used +by perfumery manufacturers as an ingredient. The genuine +attar of roses is costly and it is frequently adulterated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTEMPT<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (Lat. <i>adtemptare, attentare</i>, to try), in law, an act +done with intent to commit a crime, and forming one of a series +of acts which would constitute its actual commission if it were +not interrupted. An attempt must proceed beyond mere preparation, +but at the same time it must fall short of the ultimate +purpose in any part of it. The actual point, however, at which +an act ceases to be an attempt, and becomes criminal, depends +upon the circumstances of each particular case. A person may +be guilty of an attempt to commit a crime, even if its commission +in the manner proposed was impossible. Every attempt to +commit a treason, felony or indictable misdemeanour is in itself +an indictable misdemeanour, punishable by fine or imprisonment, +unless the attempt to commit is specifically punishable by statute +as a felony, or in a defined manner as a misdemeanour; and a +person who has been indicted for a felony or misdemeanour may, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span> +if the evidence so warrants, be found guilty only of the attempt, +provided that it too is a misdemeanour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTENTION<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>ad-tendo</i>, await, expect; the condition +of being “stretched” or “tense”), in psychology, the concentration +of consciousness upon a definite object or objects. +The result is brought about, not by effecting any change in the +perceptions themselves, but simply by isolating them from other +objects. Since all consciousness involves this isolation, attention +may be defined generally as the necessary condition of consciousness. +Such a definition, however, throws no light upon the nature +of the psychological process, which is partly explained by the +general law that the greater the number of objects on which +attention is concentrated the less will each receive (“pluribus +intentus, minor est ad singula sensus”), and conversely. There +are also special circumstances which determine the amount of +attention, <i>e.g.</i> influences not subject to the will, such as the +vividness of the impression (<i>e.g.</i> in the case of a shock), strong +change in pleasurable or painful sensations. Secondly, an exercise +of volition is employed in fixing the mind upon a definite +object. This is a purely voluntary act, which can be strengthened +by habit and is variable in different individuals; to it the name +“attention” is sometimes restricted. The distinction is expressed +by the words “reflex” or “passive,” and “volitional” +or “active.” It is important to notice that in every case of +attention to an object, there must be in consciousness an implicit +apprehension of surrounding objects from which the particular +object is isolated. These objects are known as the “psychic fringe,” +and are essential to the systematic unity of the attention-process. +Attempts have been made to examine the attention-process +from the physiological standpoint by investigating the +muscular and neural changes which accompany it, and even to +assign to it a specific local centre. It has, for example, been +remarked that uniformity of environment, resulting in practically +automatic activity, produces mental equilibrium and the +comparative disappearance of attention-processes; whereas the +necessity of adapting activity to abnormal conditions produces +a comparatively high degree of attention. In other words, +attention is absent where there is uniformity of activity in +accordance with uniform, or uniformly changing, environment. +In spite of the progress made in this branch of study, it has to +be remembered that all psycho-physical experiments are to some +extent vitiated by the fact that the phenomena can scarcely +remain normal under inspection.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.F. Stout, <i>Analytic Psychology</i> (London, 1896), especially +part ii. chap. 2; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brain</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTERBOM, PER DANIEL AMADEUS<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1790-1855), Swedish +poet, son of a country parson, was born in the province of +Östergötland on the 19th of January 1790. He studied in the +university of Upsala from 1805 to 1815, and became professor +of philosophy there in 1828. He was the first great poet of the +romantic movement which, inaugurated by the critical work of +Lorenzo Hammersköld, was to revolutionize Swedish literature. +In 1807, when in his seventeenth year, he founded at Upsala +an artistic society, called the Aurora League, the members of +which included V.F. Palmblad, A.A. Grafström (d. 1870), Samuel +Hedborn (d. 1849), and other youths whose names were destined +to take a foremost rank in the literature of their generation. +Their first newspaper, <i>Polyfem</i>, was a crude effort, soon +abandoned, but in 1810 there began to appear a journal, <i>Fosforos</i>, +edited by Atterbom, which lasted for three years and finds a +place in classic Swedish literature. It consisted entirely of +poetry and aesthetico-polemical essays; it introduced the study +of the newly arisen Romantic school of Germany, and formed +a vehicle for the early works, not of Atterbom only, but of +Hammersköld, Dahlgren, Palmblad and others. Later, the +members of the Aurora League established the <i>Poetisk Kalender</i> +(1812-1822), in which their poems appeared, and a new critical +organ, <i>Svensk Litteraturtidning</i> (1813-1824). Among Atterbom’s +independent works the most celebrated is <i>Lycksalighetens Ö</i> +(<i>The Fortunate Island</i>), a romantic drama of extraordinary +beauty, published in 1823. Before this he had published a +somewhat in the manner of Novalis. Of a dramatized fairy tale, +<i>Fågel blå</i> (<i>The Blue Bird</i>), only a fragment, which is among the +most exquisite of his writings, is preserved. As a purely lyrical +poet he has not been excelled in Sweden, but his more ambitious +works are injured by his weakness for allegory and symbolism, +and his consistent adoption of the mannerisms of Tieck and +Novalis. In his later years he became less violent in literary +controversy. He became in 1835 professor of aesthetics and +literature at Upsala, and four years later he was admitted to the +Swedish Academy. He died on the 21st of July 1855. His +<i>Svenska Siare och Skalder</i> (6 vols., 1841-1855, supplement, +1864) consists of a series of biographies of Swedish poets and men +of letters, which forms a valuable history of Swedish letters down +to the end of the “classical” period. Atterbom’s works were +collected (13 vols., Örebro) in 1854-1870.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTERBURY, FRANCIS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1662-1732), English man of letters, +politician and bishop, was born in the year 1662, at Milton or +Middleton Keynes in Buckinghamshire, a parish of which his +father was rector. He was educated at Westminster school and +at Christ Church, Oxford, where he became a tutor. In 1682 +he published a translation of <i>Absalom and Ahithophel</i> into Latin +verse; but neither the style nor the versification was that of the +Augustan age. In English composition he succeeded much +better. In 1687 he published <i>An Answer to some Considerations +on the Spirit of Martin Luther and the Original of the Reformation</i>, +a reply to Obadiah Walker, who, elected master of University +College in 1676, had printed in a press set up by him there an +attack on the Reformation, written by Abraham Woodhead. +Atterbury’s treatise, though highly praised by Bishop Burnet, +is perhaps more distinguished for the vigour of his rhetoric than +for the soundness of his arguments, and the Papists were so much +galled by his sarcasms and invectives that they accused him of +treason, and of having, by implication, called King James a Judas.</p> + +<p>After the Revolution, Atterbury, though bred in the doctrines +of non-resistance and passive obedience, readily swore fealty +to the new government. He had taken holy orders in 1687, +preached occasionally in London with an eloquence which raised +his reputation, and was soon appointed one of the royal chaplains. +But he ordinarily resided at Oxford, where he was the chief +adviser and assistant of Dean Aldrich, under whom Christ Church +was a stronghold of Toryism. Thus he became the inspirer of +his pupil, Charles Boyle, in the attack (1698) on the Whig scholar, +Richard Bentley (<i>q.v.</i>), arising out of Bentley’s impugnment +of the genuineness of the <i>Epistles of Phalaris</i>. He was figured +by Swift in the <i>Battle of the Books</i> as the Apollo who directed +the fight, and was, no doubt, largely the author of Boyle’s essay. +Bentley spent two years in preparing his famous reply, which +proved not only that the letters ascribed to Phalaris were +spurious, but that all Atterbury’s wit, eloquence and skill in +controversial fence was only a cloak for an audacious pretence +of scholarship.</p> + +<p>Atterbury was soon occupied, however, in a dispute about +matters still more important and exciting. The rage of religious +factions was extreme. High Church and Low Church divided +the nation. The great majority of the clergy were on the High +Church side; the majority of King William’s bishops were +inclined to latitudinarianism. In 1700 Convocation, of which +the lower house was overwhelmingly Tory, had not been suffered +to meet for ten years. This produced a lively controversy, into +which Atterbury threw himself with characteristic energy, +publishing a series of treatises written with much wit, audacity +and acrimony. By the mass of the clergy he was regarded as +the most intrepid champion that had ever defended their rights +against the oligarchy of Erastian prelates. In 1701 he was +rewarded with the archdeaconry of Totnes and a prebend in +Exeter cathedral. The lower house of Convocation voted him +thanks for his services; the university of Oxford created him a +doctor of divinity; and in 1704, soon after the accession of Anne, +while the Tories still had the chief weight in the government, +he was promoted to the deanery of Carlisle.</p> + +<p>Soon after he had obtained this preferment the Whig party +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span> +came into power. From that party he could expect no favour. +Six years elapsed before a change of fortune took place. At +length, in the year 1710, the prosecution of Sacheverell produced +a formidable explosion of High Church fanaticism. At such a +moment Atterbury could not fail to be conspicuous. His inordinate +zeal for the body to which he belonged, his turbulent +and aspiring temper, his rare talents for agitation and for +controversy, were again signally displayed. He bore a chief part +in framing that artful and eloquent speech which the accused +divine pronounced at the bar of the Lords, and which presents +a singular contrast to the absurd and scurrilous sermon which +had very unwisely been honoured with impeachment. During +the troubled and anxious months which followed the trial, +Atterbury was among the most active of those pamphleteers +who inflamed the nation against the Whig ministry and the Whig +parliament. When the ministry had been changed and the +parliament dissolved, rewards were showered upon him. The +lower house of Convocation elected him prolocutor, in which +capacity he drew up, in 1711, the often-cited <i>Representation of +the State of Religion</i>; and, in August 1711, the queen, who had +selected him as her chief adviser in ecclesiastical matters, +appointed him dean of Christ Church on the death of his old +friend and patron Aldrich.</p> + +<p>At Oxford he was as conspicuous a failure as he had been at +Carlisle, and it was said by his enemies that he was made a bishop +because he was so bad a dean. Under his administration Christ +Church was in confusion, scandalous altercations took place, +and there was reason to fear that the great Tory college would +be ruined by the tyranny of the great Tory doctor. In 1713 he +was removed to the bishopric of Rochester, which was then +always united with the deanery of Westminster. Still higher +dignities seemed to be before him. For, though there were many +able men on the episcopal bench, there was none who equalled +or approached him in parliamentary talents. Had his party +continued in power it is not improbable that he would have been +raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury. The more splendid +his prospects the more reason he had to dread the accession +of a family which was well known to be partial to the Whigs, +and there is every reason to believe that he was one of those +politicians who hoped that they might be able, during the life +of Anne, to prepare matters in such a way that at her decease +there might be little difficulty in setting aside the Act of +Settlement and placing the Pretender on the throne. Her sudden +death confounded the projects of these conspirators, and, +whatever Atterbury’s previous views may have been, he acquiesced +in what he could not prevent, took the oaths to the house of +Hanover, and did his best to ingratiate himself with the royal +family. But his servility was requited with cold contempt; +and he became the most factious and pertinacious of all the +opponents of the government. In the House of Lords his oratory, +lucid, pointed, lively and set off with every grace of pronunciation +and of gesture, extorted the attention and admiration even of +a hostile majority. Some of the most remarkable protests which +appear in the journals of the peers were drawn up by him; and, +in some of the bitterest of those pamphlets which called on the +English to stand up for their country against the aliens who had +come from beyond the seas to oppress and plunder her, critics +easily detected his style. When the rebellion of 1715 broke out, +he refused to sign the paper in which the bishops of the province +of Canterbury declared their attachment to the Protestant +succession, and in 1717, after having been long in indirect +communication with the exiled family, he began to correspond +directly with the Pretender.</p> + +<p>In 1721, on the discovery of the plot for the capture of the +royal family and the proclamation of King James, Atterbury +was arrested with the other chief malcontents, and in 1722 +committed to the Tower, where he remained in close confinement +during some months. He had carried on his correspondence +with the exiled family so cautiously that the circumstantial +proofs of his guilt, though sufficient to produce entire moral +conviction, were not sufficient to justify legal conviction. He +could be reached only by a bill of pains and penalties. Such a bill +the Whig party, then decidedly predominant in both Houses, +was quite prepared to support, and in due course a bill passed +the Commons depriving him of his spiritual dignities, banishing +him for life, and forbidding any British subject to hold +intercourse with him except by the royal permission. In the Lords +the contest was sharp, but the bill finally passed by eighty-three +votes to forty-three.</p> + +<p>Atterbury took leave of those whom he loved with a dignity +and tenderness worthy of a better man, to the last protesting +his innocence with a singular disingenuousness. After a short +stay at Brussels he went to Paris, and became the leading man +among the Jacobite refugees there. He was invited to Rome +by the Pretender, but Atterbury felt that a bishop of the Church +of England would be out of place at the Vatican, and declined +the invitation. During some months, however, he seemed to +stand high in the good graces of James. The correspondence +between the master and the servant was constant. Atterbury’s +merits were warmly acknowledged, his advice was respectfully +received, and he was, as Bolingbroke had been before him, the +prime minister of a king without a kingdom. He soon, however, +perceived that his counsels were disregarded, if not distrusted. +His proud spirit was deeply wounded. In 1728 he quitted Paris, +fixed his residence at Montpelier, gave up politics, and devoted +himself entirely to letters. In the sixth year of his exile he had +so severe an illness that his daughter, Mrs Morice, herself very ill, +determined to run all risks that she might see him once more. +She met him at Toulouse, received the communion from his +hand, and died that night.</p> + +<p>Atterbury survived the severe shock of his daughter’s death +two years. He even returned to Paris and to the service of the +Pretender, who had found out that he had not acted wisely in +parting with one who, though a heretic, was the most able man +of the Jacobite party. In the ninth year of his banishment he +published a luminous, temperate and dignified vindication of +himself against John Oldmixon, who had accused him of having, +in concert with other Christ Church men, garbled the new edition +of Clarendon’s <i>History of the Rebellion</i>. The charge, as respected +Atterbury, had not the slightest foundation; for he was not one +of the editors of the <i>History</i>, and never saw it till it was printed. +A copy of this little work he sent to the Pretender, with a letter +singularly eloquent and graceful. It was impossible, the old +man said, that he should write anything on such a subject without +being reminded of the resemblance between his own fate and +that of Clarendon. They were the only two English subjects +who had ever been banished from their country and debarred +from all communication with their friends by act of parliament. +But here the resemblance ended. One of the exiles had been so +happy as to bear a chief part in the restoration of the royal house. +All that the other could now do was to die asserting the rights +of that house to the last. A few weeks after this letter was +written Atterbury died, on the 22nd of February 1732. His body +was brought to England, and laid, with great privacy, under the +nave of Westminster Abbey. No inscription marks his grave.</p> + +<p>It is agreeable to turn from Atterbury’s public to his private +life. His turbulent spirit, wearied with faction and treason, now +and then required repose, and found it in domestic endearments, +and in the society of the most illustrious literary men of his +time. Of his wife, Katherine Osborn, whom he married while at +Oxford, little is known; but between him and his daughter +there was an affection singularly close and tender. The gentleness +of his manners when he was in the company of a few friends +was such as seemed hardly credible to those who knew him only +by his writings and speeches. Though Atterbury’s classical +attainments were not great, his taste in English literature was +excellent; and his admiration of genius was so strong that it +overpowered even his political and religious antipathies. His +fondness for Milton, the mortal enemy of the Stuarts and of the +Church, was such as to many Tories seemed a crime; and he +was the close friend of Addison. His favourite companions, +however, were, as might have been expected, men whose politics +had at least a tinge of Toryism. He lived on friendly terms with +Swift, Arbuthnot and Gay. With Prior he had a close intimacy, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span> +which some misunderstanding about public affairs at last dissolved. +Pope found in Atterbury not only a warm admirer, but +a most faithful, fearless and judicious adviser.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Williams, <i>Memoirs and Correspondence of Atterbury with +Notes</i>, &c. (1869); <i>Stuart Papers</i>, vol. i.: <i>Letters of Atterbury to the +Chevalier St George</i>, &c. (1847); J. Nichols, <i>Epistolary Correspondence</i>, +&c. (1783-1796); and H.C. Beeching, <i>Francis Atterbury</i>, (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTESTATION<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Lat. <i>adtestare, attestare</i>, to bear witness, <i>testis</i>, +a witness), the verification of a deed, will or other instrument +by the signature to it of a witness or witnesses, who endorse or +subscribe their names under a memorandum, to the effect that +it was signed or executed in their presence. The essence of +attestation is to show that at the execution of the document +there was present some disinterested person capable of giving +evidence as to what took place. The clause at the end of the +instrument, immediately preceding the signatures of the witnesses +to the execution, and stating that they have witnessed +it, is known as the attestation clause. In Scots law, the corresponding +clause is called the testing-clause (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deed</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will +or Testament</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Witness</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTHIS<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (an adjective meaning “Attic”), the name given to +a monograph or special treatise on the religious and political +history, antiquities and topography of Attica and Athens. +During the 4th and 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, a class of writers arose, +who, making these subjects their particular study, were called +atthidographi, or compilers of atthides. The first of these +was Clidemus or Clitodemus (about 378 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); the last, Ister +of Cyrene (died 212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); the most important was Philochorus +(first half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), of whose work considerable +fragments have been preserved. The names of the other atthidographi +known to us are Phanodemus, Demon, Androtion, +Andron, Melanthius. They laid no claim to literary skill; their +style was monotonous and soon became wearisome. They were in +fact chroniclers or annalists—not historians. Their only object +was to set down, in plain and simple language, all that seemed +worthy of note in reference to the legends, history, constitution, +religion and civilization of Attica. They followed the order +of the olympiads and archons, and their work was supported +by the authority of original documents, monuments and inscriptions. +Their writings were much used by historians, as well +as by the scholiasts and grammarians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTIC<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> “in the Attic style”), an architectural term given +to the masonry rising above the main cornice of a building, +the earliest example known being that of the monument of Thrasyllus +at Athens. It was largely employed by the Romans, who +in their arches of triumph utilized it for inscriptions or for bas-relief +sculpture. It was used also to increase the height of +enclosure walls such as those of the Forum of Nerva. By the +Italian revivalists it was utilized as a complete storey, pierced +with windows, as found in Palladio’s work at Vicenza and in +Greenwich hospital. The largest attic in existence is that +which surmounts the entablature of St Peter’s at Rome, +which measures 39 ft. in height. The term is also employed +in modern terminology to designate an upper storey in a +roof, and the feature is sometimes introduced to hide a roof +behind.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTICA,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a district of ancient Greece, triangular in shape, +projecting in a south-easterly direction into the Aegean Sea, +the base line being formed by the continuous chain of Mounts +Cithaeron and Parnes, the apex by the promontory of Sunium. +It was washed on two sides by the sea, and the coast is broken +up into numerous small bays and harbours, which, however, +are with few exceptions exposed to the south wind. The surface +of Attica, as of the rest of Greece, is very mountainous, and +between the mountain chains lie several plains of no great size, +open on one side to the sea. On the west its natural boundary +is the Corinthian Gulf, so that it would include Megaris; indeed, +before the Dorian invasion, which resulted in the foundation of +Megara, the whole country was politically one, in the hands of +the Ionian race. This is proved by the column which, as we +learn from Strabo, once stood on the Isthmus of Corinth, bearing +on one side in Greek the inscription, “This land is Peloponnesus, +not Ionia,” and on the other, “This land is not Peloponnesus, +but Ionia.”</p> + +<p>The position of Attica was one main cause of its historical +importance. Hence in part arose the maritime character of +its inhabitants; and when they had once taken to the sea, +the string of neighbouring islands, Ceos, Cythnos and others, +some of which lay within sight of their coasts, and from one to +another of which it was possible to sail without losing sight of +land, served to tempt them on to further enterprises. Similarly +on land, the post it occupied between northern Greece and the +Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other states, +both in respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, towards +which it was drawn by mutual hostility to Boeotia, which lay +between them; and also in respect of offensive combinations +of other powers, as that between Thebes and Sparta, which +throughout an important part of Greek history were closely +associated in their politics, through mutual dread of their +powerful neighbour.</p> + +<p>The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic +feature, are a continuation of that chain which, starting from +Tymphrestus at the southern extremity of Pindus, +passes through Phocis and Boeotia under the names +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range +which, as Cithaeron in its western and Parnes in its eastern +portion, separates Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs +southward towards the Saronic Gulf in Aegaleos and Hymettus, +which bound the plain of Athens. Again, the eastern extremity +of Parnes is joined by another line of hills, which, separating +from Mount Oeta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after entering +Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking +the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Sunium +to rise once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the extreme +west of the whole district, Cithaeron is bent round at right +angles in the direction of the isthmus, at the northern approach +to which it abuts against the mighty mass of Mount Geraneia, +which is interposed between the Corinthian and the Saronic +Gulf. Both Cithaeron and Parnes are about 4600 ft. high, +Pentelicus 3635, and Hymettus 3370, while Aegaleos does not +rise higher than 1534 ft. At the present day they are extremely +bare, and in this respect almost repellent; but the lack of colour +is compensated by the delicacy of the outlines, the minute +articulation of the minor ridges and valleys, and the symmetrical +grouping of the several mountains.</p> + +<p>The soil is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture +not only on the rocky mountain sides but to some extent +also in the maritime plains. This fact had considerable +influence on the inhabitants, both by enforcing +<span class="sidenote">Soil.</span> +industrious habits and by leading them at an early period to +take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to +form a marked contrast to the rest of the district. Thucydides +attributes to the nature of the soil (i. 2 <span class="grk" title="to leptogeon">τὸ λεπτόγεων</span>), which +presented no attraction to invaders, the permanence of the same +inhabitants in the country, whence arose the claim to indigenousness +on which the Athenians so greatly prided themselves; +while at the same time the richer ground fostered that fondness +for country life, which is proved by the enthusiastic terms in +which it is always spoken of by Aristophanes. That we are not +justified in judging of the ancient condition of the soil by, +the aridity which prevails at the present day, is shown by +the fact that out of the 182 demes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>) into +which Attica was divided, one-tenth were named from trees or +plants.</p> + +<p>The climate of Attica has always been celebrated. In approaching +Attica from Boeotia a change of temperature is felt +as soon as a person descends from Cithaeron or Parnes, +and the sea breeze, which in modern times is called +<span class="sidenote">Climate.</span> +<span class="grk" title="ho embates">ὁ ἐμβάτης</span>, or that which sets towards shore, moderates the +heat in summer. The Attic comedians and Plato speak with +enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the +Athenian intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic +atmosphere. It was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span> +the air was thought to be purest. So Euripides describes the +inhabitants as “ever walking gracefully through the most +luminous ether” (<i>Med.</i> 829); and Milton—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“Where, on the Aegean shore, a city stands,</p> +<p class="i05">Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil—</p> +<p class="i05">Athens, the eye of Greece.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Or again Xenophon says “one would not err in thinking that +this city is placed near the centre of Greece—nay, of the civilized +world—because, the farther removed persons are from it, the +severer is the cold or heat they meet with” (<i>Vectigal.</i> i. 6). +The air is so clear that one can see from the Acropolis the lines +of white marble that streak the sides of Pentelicus. The brilliant +colouring which is so conspicuous in an Athenian sunset is +due to the same cause. The epithet “violet-crowned,” used +of Athens by Pindar, is due either to the blue haze on the +surrounding hills, or to the use of violets (or irises) for festal +wreaths. This otherwise perfect climate is slightly marred by +the prevalence of the north wind. This is expressed on the +Horologium of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, called the Temple or +Tower of the Winds, at Athens, where Boreas is represented +as a bearded man of stern aspect, thickly clad, and wearing +strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell, which he holds +in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character.</p> + +<p>Of the flora of Attica, the olive is the most important. This +tree, we learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one +time to have been found in that country only; and +the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (<i>Oed. Col.</i> 700) +<span class="sidenote">Vegetation.</span> +teach us that it was the land in which it flourished +best. So great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the +early legend of the struggle between the gods of sea and land, +Poseidon and Athena, for the patronage of the country, the +sea-god is represented as having to retire vanquished before the +giver of the olive; and at a later period the evidences of this +contention were found in an ancient olive tree in the Acropolis, +together with three holes in the rock, said to have been made by +the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well +hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country, +for Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian +Phytalus, <i>i.e.</i> “the gardener.” Both Cithaeron and +Parnes must have been wooded in former times; for on the +former are laid the picturesque silvan scenes in the <i>Bacchae</i> of +Euripides, and it was from the latter that the wood came which +caused the neighbouring deme of Acharnae to be famous for +its charcoal—the <span class="grk" title="anthrakes Parnesioi">ἄνθρακες Παρνήσιοι</span> of the <i>Acharnians</i> of +Aristophanes (348). From the thymy slopes of Hymettus +<span class="sidenote">Minerals.</span> +came the famous Hymettian honey. Among the +other products we must notice the marble—both that +of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of unrivalled purity and +whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and the blue +marble of Hymettus—the <i>trabes Hymettiae</i> of Horace—which +used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces. +But the richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the +silver mines of Laurium, the yield of which was so considerable +as to render silver the principal medium of exchange in Greece, +so that “a silver piece” (<span class="grk" title="argurion">ἀργύριον</span>) was the Greek equivalent +term for money. Hence Aeschylus speaks of the Athenians as +possessing a “fountain of silver” (<i>Pers.</i> 235), and Aristophanes +makes his chorus of birds promise the audience that, if they +show him favour, owls from Laurium (<i>i.e.</i> silver pieces with the +emblem of Athens) shall never fail them (<i>Birds</i>, 1106). The +reputation of these coins for purity of metal and accuracy of +weight was so great that they had a very wide circulation, and +in consequence it was thought undesirable to make any alteration +in the types lest their genuineness should be doubted. This +accounts for the somewhat inartistic character which the +Athenian coins maintained to the last (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>: +<i>Greek</i>, § Athens). In Strabo’s time, though the mines had +almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in considerable +quantities from the scoriae; and at the present day a large +amount of lead is got in the same way, the work being chiefly +carried on by two companies, one of which is French and the +ether Greek. In the ancient workings, many of which are in the +same condition as they were left 1800 years ago, there are in all +2000 shafts and galleries.</p> + +<p>It has been already mentioned that the base line of Attica +is formed by the chain of Cithaeron and Parnes, running from +west to east; and that from this transverse chains run +southward, dividing Attica into a succession of plains. +<span class="sidenote">Plain of Megara.</span> +The westernmost of these, which is separated from the +innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Alcyonium, +by an offshoot of Cithaeron, and is bounded on the east by a +ridge which ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned +peak called Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for +geographical purposes that we include this district under Attica, +for both the Dorian race of the inhabitants, and its dangerous +proximity to Athens, caused it to be at perpetual feud with +that city; but its position as an outpost for the Peloponnesians, +together with the fact of its having once been Ionian soil, sufficiently +explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians towards +the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its +commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were +three in number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, +which, owing to the nature of the ground, makes a long detour; +the other two starting from Megara, and passing, the one by a +lofty though gradual route over the ridge of Geraneia, the other +along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous precipices of the +Scironian rocks.</p> + +<p>To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded +on the one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that +of Aegaleos, through a depression in which was the +line of the sacred way, where the torchlight processions +<span class="sidenote">Plain of Eleusis.</span> +from Athens used to descend to the coast, the “brightly +gleaming shores” (<span class="grk" title="lampades aktai">λαμπάδες ἀκταί</span>) of Sophocles (<i>Oed. Col.</i> +1049). The deep bay which here runs into the land is bounded +on its southern side by the rocky island of Salamis, which was at +all times an important possession to the Athenians on account +of its proximity to their city; and the winding channel which +separates that island from the mainland in the direction of the +Peiraeus was the scene of the battle of Salamis, while on the last +declivities of Mt. Aegaleos, which here descends to the sea, was +the spot where, as Byron wrote—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“A king sate on the rocky brow</p> +<p class="i05">Which looks o’er sea-born Salamis.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The eastern portion of the plain of Eleusis was called the Thriasian +plain, and the city itself was situated in the recesses of the bay +just mentioned.</p> + +<p class="noind">Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of Athens, +which is the most extensive of all, reaching from the foot of +Parnes to the sea, and bounded on the west by +Aegaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most +<span class="sidenote">Plain of Athens.</span> +conspicuous feature is the broad line of dark green +along its western side, formed by the olive-groves of Colonus +and the gardens of the Academy, which owe their fertility +to the waters of the Cephisus. This river is fed by copious +sources on the side of Mt. Parnes, and thus, unlike the +other rivers of Attica, has a constant supply of water, +which was diverted in classical times, as it still is, into the +neighbouring plantations (cf. Sophocles, <i>Oed. Col.</i> 685). The +position of Colonus itself is marked by two bare knolls of light-coloured +earth, which caused the poet in the same chorus to +apply the epithet “white” (<span class="grk" title="argeta">ἀργῆτα</span>) to that place. On the +opposite side of the plain runs the other river, the Ilissus, which +rises from two sources on the side of Mt. Hymettus, and skirts +the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but this, notwithstanding +its celebrity, is a mere brook, which stands in pools a +great part of the year, and in summer is completely dry. The +situation of Athens relatively to the surrounding objects is +singularly harmonious; for, while it forms a central point, so +as to be the eye of the plain, and while the altar-rock of the +Acropolis and the hills by which it is surrounded are conspicuous +from every point of view, there is no such exactness in its position +as to give formality, since it is nearer to the sea than to Parnes, +and nearer to Hymettus than to Aegaleos. The most striking +summit in the neighbourhood of the city is that of Lycabettus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span> +on the north-eastern side; and the variety is still further increased +by the continuation of the ridge which it forms for some +distance northwards through the plain. Three roads lead to +Athens from the Boeotian frontier over the intervening mountain +barrier—the easternmost over Parnes, from Delium and Oropus +by Decelea, which was the usual route of the invading Lacedaemonians +during the Peloponnesian War; the westernmost over +Cithaeron, by the pass of Dryoscephalae, or the “Oakheads,” +leading from Thebes by Plataea to Eleusis, and so to Athens, +which we hear of in connexion with the battle of Plataea, and +with the escape of the Plataeans at the time of the siege of that +city in the Peloponnesian War; the third, midway between the +two, by the pass of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged +height overlooking the Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by +Thrasybulus in the days of the Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast +to the south-west of Athens rises the hill of Munychia, a +mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the town of +Peiraeus. It was probably at one time an island; this was +Strabo’s opinion, and at the present day the ground which joins +it to the mainland is low and swampy, and seems to have been +formed by alluvial soil brought down by the Cephisus. On one +side of this, towards Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of +Phalerum, on the other the harbour of Peiraeus, a completely +land-locked inlet, safe, deep and spacious, the approach to which +was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern side of the +hill was further indented by two small but commodious havens, +which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.</p> + +<p>The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athens is formed +by the graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its name +from the deme of Pentele at its foot, but was far more +commonly known as Brilessus in ancient times. This +<span class="sidenote">Eastern Attica.</span> +mountain did not form a continous chain with Hymettus, +for between them intervenes a level space of ground +2 m. in width, which formed the entrance to the Mesogaea, an +elevated undulating plain in the midst of the mountains, reaching +nearly to Sunium. At the extremity of Hymettus, where it +projects into the Saronic Gulf, was the promontory of Zoster +(“the Girdle”), which was so called because it girdles and +protects the neighbouring harbour; but in consequence of the +name, a legend was attached to it, to the effect that Latona had +loosed her girdle there. From this promontory to Sunium there +runs a lower line of mountains, and between these and the sea +a fertile strip of land intervenes, which was called the Paralia. +Beyond Sunium, on the eastern coast, were two safe ports, +that of Thoricus, which is defended by the island of Helene, +forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that of Prasiac, +now called Porto Raphti (“the Tailor”), from a statue at the +entrance to which the natives have given that name. In the +north-east corner is the little plain of Marathon (<i>q.v.</i>), the scene +of the battle against the Persians (490 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It lies between +Parnes, Pentelicus and the sea. The bay in front is sheltered by +Euboea, and on the north by a projecting tongue of land, called +Cynosura. The mountains in the neighbourhood were the home +of the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being poor mountaineers, +and having nothing to lose, were the principal advocates of +political reform; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, or inhabitants +of the plains, being wealthy landholders, formed the +strong conservative element, and the Parali, or occupants of the +sea-coast, representing the mercantile interest, held an intermediate +position between the two (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>). Finally, +there was one district of Attica, the territory of Oropus, which +properly belonged to Boeotia, as it was situated to the north of +Parnes; but on this the Athenians always endeavoured to retain +a firm hold, because it facilitated their communications with +Euboea. The command of that island was of the utmost importance +to them; for, if Aegina could rightly be called “the +eyesore of the Peiraeus,” Euboea was quite as truly a thorn +in the side of Attica; for we learn from Demosthenes (<i>De Cor.</i> +p. 307) that at one period the pirates that made it their +headquarters so infested the neighbouring sea as to prevent all +navigation.</p> + +<p>The place in Attica which has been the chief scene of excavations +(independently of Athens and its <span class="correction" title="amended from vicinty">vicinity</span>) is Eleusis (<i>q.v.</i>), +where the remains of the sanctuary of Demeter, the +home of the Eleusinian Mysteries, together with other +<span class="sidenote">Excavations.</span> +buildings in its neighbourhood, were cleared by the +Greek Archaeological Society in 1882-1887 and 1895-1896. Of +the other classical ruins in Attica the best-known is the temple +of Athena at Sunium, which forms a conspicuous object on the +headland, to which it gave the name of Cape Colonnae, still used +by the peasants. It is in the Doric style, of white marble, and +eleven columns of the peristyle and one of the pronaos are now +standing. At Thoricus there is a theatre, which was cleared +of earth by the archaeologists of the American School in 1886. +In the neighbourhood of Rhamnus are the remains of two temples +that stood side by side, the larger of which was dedicated to +Nemesis, the smaller probably to Themis, of which goddess a fine +statue was discovered in its ruins in the course of the excavations +of the Greek Archaeological Society in 1890. The same Society, +in 1884,1886 and 1887, excavated the sanctuary of Amphiaraus, +4 m. from Oropus; in ancient times this was the resort of +numerous invalids, who came thither to consult the healing +divinity. Within it were found a temple of Amphiaraus, a large +altar, and a long colonnade, which may have been the dormitory +where the patients slept in hope of obtaining counsel in dreams. +There were also baths and a small theatre, and numerous inscriptions +relating to the arrangement and observances of the +sanctuary and oracle. The walls and towers also of the city +of Eleutherae and the fortress of Phyle are fine specimens of +Hellenic fortifications.</p> + +<p>Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times +little need be said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes +of Athens. The population, however, has undergone a great +change, independently of the large admixture of Slavonic blood +that has affected the Greeks of the mainland generally, by the +immigration of Albanian colonists, who now occupy a great +part of the country. The district formed part of the <i>nome</i> +(administrative division) of Boeotia and Attica until 1899, +when it became a separate <i>nome</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—J.G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias’s Description of Greece</i>, +vols. ii. and v. (London, 1898); W.M. Leake, <i>The Demi of Attica</i> +(2nd ed., London, 1841); Chr. Wordsworth, <i>Athens and Attica</i> +(4th ed., London, 1869); C. Bursian, <i>Geographic von Griechenland</i>, +vol. i. (Leipzig, 1862); Baedeker’s <i>Greece</i> (4th Eng. ed., Leipzig, +1908); <i>Karten von Attica</i>, published by the German Archaeological +Institute of Athens, with explanatory text, chiefly by Professor +Milchhofer (1875-1903); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eleusis</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: +<i>Topography</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. F. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTIC BASE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>, the term given in architecture to the base of +the Roman Ionic order, consisting of an upper and lower torus, +separated by a scotia (<i>q.v.</i>) and fillets. It was the favourite +base of the Romans, and was employed by them for columns +of the Corinthian and Composite orders, and in Byzantine and +Romanesque work would seem to have been generally adopted +as a model.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTICUS, TITUS POMPONIUS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (109-32 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman patron +of letters, was born at Rome three years before Cicero, with +whom he and the younger Marius were educated. His name was +Titus Pomponius, that of Atticus, by which he is known, being +given him afterwards from his long residence in Athens (86-65) +and his intimate acquaintance with the Greek literature and +language. His family is said to have been of noble and ancient +descent; his father belonged to the equestrian order, and was +very wealthy. When Pomponius was still a young man his +father died, and he at once took the prudent resolution of +transferring himself and his fortune to Athens, in order to +escape the dangers of the civil war, in which he might have been +involved through his connexion with the murdered tribune, +Sulpicius Rufus. Here he lived in retirement, devoting himself +entirely to study. On his return to Rome, he took possession +of an inheritance left him by his uncle and assumed the name +of Quintus Caecilius Pomponianus. From this time he kept aloof +from political strife, attaching himself to no particular party, +and continuing on intimate terms with men so opposed as Caesar +and Pompey, Antony and Octavian. His most intimate friend, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span> +however, was Cicero, whose correspondence with him extended +over many years, and who seems to have found his prudent +counsel and sympathy a remedy for all his many troubles. +His private life was tranquil and happy. He did not marry +till he was fifty-three years of age, and his only child became +the wife of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished minister +of Augustus. In 32, being seized with an illness believed to be +incurable, he starved himself to death. Of his writings none +is extant, but mention is made of two: a Greek history of +Cicero’s consulship, and some annals, in Latin, an epitome of +the events of Roman history down to the year 54. His most +important work was his edition of the letters addressed to him +by Cicero. He also formed a large library at Athens, and +engaged a staff of slaves to make copies of valuable works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Life by Cornelius Nepos; Berwick, <i>Lives of Messalla Corvinus +and T.P.A.</i> (1813); Fialon, <i>Thesis in T.P.A.</i> (1861); Boissier, +<i>Cicéron et ses amis</i> (1888: Eng. trans. A.D. Jones, 1897); Peter, +<i>Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 101-177), +Greek rhetorician, was born at Marathon in Attica. He belonged +to a wealthy and distinguished family, and received a careful +education under the most distinguished masters of the time, +especially in rhetoric and philosophy. His talents gained him +the favourable notice of Hadrian, who appointed him praefect +of the free towns in the province of Asia (125). On his return +to Athens, he attained great celebrity as an orator and teacher +of rhetoric, and was elected to the office of archon. In 140 he +was summoned by Antoninus Pius to undertake the education +of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and received many marks +of favour, amongst them the consulship (143). He is principally +celebrated, however, for the vast sums he expended on public +purposes. He built at Athens a great race-course of Pentelic +marble, and a splendid musical theatre, called the Odeum in +memory of his wife Regilla, which still exists. At Corinth he +built a theatre, at Delphi a stadium, at Thermopylae hot baths, +at Canusium in Italy an aqueduct. He even contemplated +cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, but was afraid +to carry out his plan because the same thing had been unsuccessfully +attempted before by the emperor Nero. Many of the +partially ruined cities of Greece were restored by Atticus, and +numerous inscriptions testify their gratitude to their benefactor. +His latter years were embittered by family misfortune, and +having incurred the enmity of the Athenians, he withdrew from +Athens to his villa near Marathon, where he died. He enjoyed +a very high reputation amongst his contemporaries, and wrote +numerous works, of which the only one to come down to us is +a rhetorical exercise <i>On the Constitution</i> (ed. Hass, 1880), advocating +an alliance of the Thebans and Peloponnesians against +Archelaus, king of Macedonia. The genuineness of this speech, +which is of little merit, has been disputed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Philostratus, <i>Vit. Soph.</i> ii. 1; Fiorillo, <i>Herodis Attici quae supersunt</i> +(1801); <i>A Biographical Notice of A.H.</i> (London, 1832), privately +printed; Fuelles, <i>De Herodis Attici Vita</i> (1864); Vidal-Lablache, +<i>Hérode Atticus</i> (1871).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTILA<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (d. 453), king of the Huns, became king in 433, along +with his brother Bleda, on the death of his uncle Roua. We hear +but little as to Bleda, who died about 445, possibly slain by his +brother’s orders. In the first eight years of his reign Attila was +chiefly occupied in the wars with other barbarian tribes, by which +he made himself virtually supreme in central Europe. His own +special kingdom comprised the countries which are now called +Hungary and Transylvania, his capital being possibly not far from +the modern city of Buda-Pest; but having made the Ostrogoths, +the Gepidae and many other Teutonic tribes his subject-allies, +and having also sent his invading armies into Media, he +seems for nearly twenty years to have ruled practically without +a rival from the Caspian to the Rhine. Very early in his reign, +Honoria, grand-daughter of the emperor Theodosius II., being +subjected to severe restraint on account of an amorous intrigue +with one of the chamberlains of the palace, sent her ring to the +king of the Huns and called on him to be her husband and her +deliverer. Nothing came of the proposed engagement, but the +wrongs of Honoria, his affianced wife, served as a convenient +pretext for some of the constantly recurring embassies with which +Attila, fond of trampling on the fallen majesty of Rome, worried +and bullied the two courts of Constantinople and Ravenna. +Another frequent subject of complaint was found in certain +sacred vessels which the bishop of Sirmium had sent as a bribe +to the secretary of Attila, and which had been by him, fraudulently, +as his master contended, pawned to a silversmith at Rome. +There were also frequent and imperious demands for the surrender +of fugitives who had sought shelter from the wrath of Attila +within the limits of the empire. One of the return embassies +from Constantinople, that sent in 448, had the great advantage +of being accompanied by a rhetorician named Priscus, whose +minute journalistic account of the negotiations, including as it +does a vivid picture of the great Hun in his banquet-hall, is by +far the most valuable source of information as to the court and +camp of Attila. What lends additional interest to the story is +the fact that in the ambassador’s suite there was an interpreter +named Vigilas, who for fifty pounds of gold had promised to +assassinate Attila. This base design was discovered by the +Hunnish king, but had never been revealed to the head of the +embassy or to his secretary. The situations created by this +strange combination of honest diplomacy and secret villainy are +described by Priscus with real dramatic power.</p> + +<p>In 450 Theodosius II., the incapable emperor of the East, +died, and his throne was occupied by a veteran soldier named +Marcian, who answered the insulting message of Attila in a +manlier tone than his predecessor. Accordingly the Hun, who +had something of the bully in his nature, now turned upon +Valentinian III., the trembling emperor of the West, and +demanded redress for the wrongs of Honoria, and one-half of +Valentinian’s dominions as her dowry. Allying himself with +the Franks and Vandals, he led his vast many-nationed army +to the Rhine in the spring of 451, crossed that river, and sacked, +apparently, most of the cities in Belgic Gaul. Most fortunately +for Europe, the Teutonic races already settled in Gaul rallied +to the defence of the empire against invaders infinitely more +barbarous than themselves. Prominent in this new coalition +was Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, whose capital city was +Toulouse. His firm fighting alliance with the Roman general +Aëtius, with whom he had had many a conflict in previous years, +was one of the best auguries for the new Europe that was to +arise out of the ruins of the Roman empire. Meanwhile Attila +had reached the Loire and was besieging the strong city of +Orléans. The citizens, under the leadership of their bishop +Anianus, made a heroic defence, but the place was on the point +of being taken when, on the 24th of June, the allied Romano-Gothic +army was seen on the horizon. Attila, who knew the +difficulty that he should have in feeding his immense army if +his march was further delayed, turned again to the north-east, +was persuaded by the venerable bishop Lupus to spare the city +of Troyes, but halted near that place in the Catalaunian plains +and offered battle to his pursuers Aëtius and Theodoric. The +battle which followed—certainly one of the decisive battles of +the world—has been well described by the Gothic historian +Jordanes as “ruthless, manifold, immense, obstinate.” It +lasted for the whole day, and the number of the slain is variously +stated at 175,000 and 300,000. All such estimates are, of course, +untrustworthy, but there is no doubt that the carnage was +terrible. The Visigothic king was slain, but the victory, though +hardly earned, remained with his people and his allies. Attila +did not venture to renew the engagement on the morrow, but +retreated, apparently in good order, on the Rhine, recrossed +that river and returned to his Pannonian home. From thence +in the spring of 452 he again set forth to ravage or to conquer +Italy. Her great champion Aëtius showed less energy in her +cause than he had shown in his defence of Gaul. After a +stubborn contest, Attila took and utterly destroyed Aquileia, +the chief city of Venetia, and then proceeded on his destructive +course, capturing and burning the cities at the head of the +Adriatic, Concordia, Altinum and Patavium (Padua). The +fugitives from these cities, but especially from the last, seeking +shelter in the lagoons of the Adriatic, laid the foundations of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span> +that which was one day to become the glorious city of Venice. +Upon Milan and the cities of western Lombardy the hand of +Attila seems to have weighed more lightly, plundering rather +than utterly destroying; and at last when Pope Leo I., at the +head of a deputation of Roman senators, appeared in his camp +on the banks of the Mincio, entreating him not to pursue his +victorious career to the gates of Rome, he yielded to their +entreaties and consented to cross the Alps, with a menace, +however, of future return, should the wrongs of Honoria remain +unredressed. As he himself jokingly said: he knew how to +conquer men, but the Lion and the Wolf (Leo and Lupus) were +too strong for him. No further expeditions to Italy were +undertaken by Attila, who died suddenly in 453, in the night +following a great banquet which celebrated his marriage with +a damsel named Ildico. Notwithstanding some rumours of +violence it is probable that his death was natural and due to +his own intemperate habits.</p> + +<p>Under his name of Etzel, Attila plays a great part in Teutonic +legend (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nibelungenlied</a></span>) and under that of Atli in +Scandinavian Saga, but his historic lineaments are greatly +obscured in both. He was short of stature, swarthy and broad-chested, +with a large head which early turned grey, snub nose +and deep-set eyes. He walked with proud step, darting a +haughty glance this way and that as if he felt himself lord +of all.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authorities for the life of Attila are Priscus, Jordanes, +the <i>Historia Miscella</i>, Apollonius Sidonius and Gregory of +Tours.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTIS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Atys</span>, a deity worshipped in Phrygia, and later +throughout the Roman empire, in conjunction with the Great +Mother of the Gods. Like Aphrodite and Adonis in Syria, +Baal and Astarte at Sidon, and Isis and Osiris in Egypt, the +Great Mother and Attis formed a duality which symbolized the +relations between Mother Earth and her fruitage. Their worship +included the celebration of mysteries annually on the return of +the spring season. Attis was also known as Papas, and the +Bithynians and Phrygians, according to evidence of the time +of the late Empire, called him Zeus. He was never worshipped +independently, however, though the worship of the Great +Mother was not always accompanied by his. He was confused +with Pan, Sabazios, Men and Adonis, and there were resemblances +between the orgiastic features of his worship and that +of Dionysus. His resemblance to Adonis has led to the theory +that the names of the two are identical, and that Attis is only +the Semitic companion of Syrian Aphrodite grafted on to the +Phrygian Great Mother worship (Haakh, <i>Stuttgarter-Philolog.-Vers.</i>, 1857, 176 ff.). It is likely, however, that Attis, like the +Great Mother, was indigenous to Asia Minor, adopted by the +invading Phrygians, and blended by them with a deity of their +own.</p> + +<p><i>Legends.</i>—According to Pausanias (vii. 17), Attis was a +beautiful youth born of the daughter of the river Sangarius, +who was descended from the hermaphroditic Agdistis, a monster +sprung from the earth by the seed of Zeus. Having become +enamoured of Attis, Agdistis struck him with frenzy as he was +about to wed the king’s daughter, with the result that he deprived +himself of manhood and died. Agdistis in repentance prevailed +upon Zeus to grant that the body of the youth should never +decay or waste. In Arnobius (v. 5-8) Attis emasculates himself +under a pine tree, which the Great Mother bears into her cave +as she and Agdistis together wildly lament the death of the youth. +Zeus grants the petition as in the version of Pausanias, but +permits the hair of Attis to grow, and his little finger to move. +The little finger, <i>digitus</i>, <span class="grk" title="daktylos">δάκτυλος</span>, is interpreted as the phallus +by Georg Kaibel (<i>Gottinger Nachrichten</i>, 1901, p. 513). In +Diodorus (in. 58, 59) the Mother is the carnal lover of Attis, +and, when her father the king discovers her fault and kills her +lover, roams the earth in wild grief. In Ovid (<i>Fasti</i>, iv. 223 ff.) +she is inspired with chaste love for him, which he pledges himself +to reciprocate. On his proving unfaithful, the Great Mother +slays the nymph with whom he has sinned, whereupon in madness +he mutilates himself as a penalty. Another form of the legend +(Paus. vii. 17), showing the influence of the Aphrodite-Adonis +myth, relates that Attis, the impotent son of the Phrygian +Caläust Lydia to institute the worship of the Great +Mother, and was there slain by a boar sent by Zeus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Mother of the Gods</a></span>; J.G. Frazer, <i>Adonis, Attis, +Osiris</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTLEBOROUGH,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a township of Bristol county, in south-east +Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 7577; (1900) 11,335, of +whom 3237 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 16,215 It is +traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and +by inter-urban electric lines. It has an area of 28 sq. m. The +population is largely concentrated in and about the village +which bears the name of the township. In Attleborough are +the Attleborough Home Sanitarium, and a public library (1885). +The principal manufactures of the township are jewelry, silverware, +cotton goods, cotton machinery, coffin trimmings, and +leather. In 1905 the total value of the township’s factory +products was $10,050,384, of which $5,544,285 was the value of +jewelry, Attleborough ranking fourth among the cities of the +country in this industry, and producing 10.4% of the total +jewelry product of the United States. Attleborough was incorporated +in 1694, though settled soon after 1661 (records since +1672) as part of Rehoboth. In 1887 the township was divided in +population, wealth and area by the creation of the township +of <span class="sc">North Attleborough</span>—pop. (1890) 6727; (1900) 7253, of +whom 1786 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 7878. This +township produced manufactured goods in 1900 to the value +of $3,990,731, jewelry valued at $2,785,567; it maintains the +Richards memorial library.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Daggett, <i>A Sketch of the History of Attleborough to 1887</i> +(Boston, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTOCK,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a town and fort of British India, in the Rawalpindi +district of the Punjab, 47 m. by rail from Peshawar, and situated +on the eastern bank of the Indus. Pop. (1901) 2822. The place +is of both political and commercial importance, as the Indus is +here crossed by the military and trade route through the Khyber +Pass into Afghanistan. Alexander the Great, Tamerlane and +Nadir Shah are believed to have successively crossed the Indus +at or about this spot in their respective invasions of India. The +river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yds. +broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated skins of oxen. +The rocky gorges through which it flows, with a distant view of +the Hindu Kush, form some of the finest scenery in the world. +In 1883 an iron girder bridge of five spans was opened, which +carries the North-Western railway to Peshawar, and has also a +subway for wheeled traffic and foot passengers. The fort of +Attock was built by the emperor Akbar in 1581, on a low hillock +beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and the whole +structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is of +little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is +divided only by a ravine. On the opposite side of the river is +the village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar +according to some, or by Nadir Shah according to others. The +military importance of Attock has diminished, but it still has a +small detachment of British troops.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTORNEY<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>atorné</i>, a person appointed to act +for another, from <i>atourner</i>, legal Lat. <i>attornare</i>, attorn, literally +to turn over to another or commit business to another), in English +law, in its widest sense, any substitute or agent appointed to +act in “the turn, stead or place of another.” Attorneys are of +two kinds, attorneys-in-fact and attorneys-at-law. An attorney-in-fact +is simply an agent, the extent of whose capacity to act +is bounded only by the powers embodied in his authority, his +<i>power of attorney</i>. An attorney-at-law was a public officer, +conducting legal proceedings on behalf of others, known as his +clients, and attached to the supreme courts of common law at +Westminster. Attorneys-at-law corresponded to the solicitors +of the courts of chancery and the proctors of the admiralty, +ecclesiastical, probate and divorce courts. Since the passing of +the Judicature Act of 1873, however, the designation “attorney” +has become obsolete in England, all persons admitted as solicitors, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span> +attorneys or proctors of an English court being henceforth called +“solicitors of the supreme court” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solicitor</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the United States an attorney-at-law exercises all the +functions distributed in England between barristers, attorneys +and solicitors, and his full title is “attorney and counsellor-at-law.” +When acting in a court of admiralty he is styled “proctor” +or “advocate.” Formerly, in some states, there existed a +grade among lawyers of attorneys-at-law, which was inferior +to that of counsellors-at-law, and in colonial times New Jersey +established a higher rank still—that of serjeant-at-law. Now +the term attorney-at-law is precisely equivalent to that of lawyer. +Attorneys are admitted by some court to which the legislature +confides the power, and on examination prescribed by the court, +or by a board of state examiners, as the case may be. The term +of study required is generally two or three years, but in some +states less. In one no examination is required. College graduates +are often admitted to examination after a shorter term of study +than that required from those not so educated. In the courts +of the United States, admission is regulated by rules of court +and based upon a previous admission to the state bar. In +almost all states aliens are not admitted as attorneys, and in +many states women are ineligible, but during recent years several +states have passed statutes permitting them to practise. Since +1879 women have been eligible to practise before the U.S. +Supreme Court, if already admitted to practise in some state +court, under the same conditions as men. A <i>state attorney</i> or +<i>district attorney</i> is the local public prosecutor. He is either +elected by popular vote at the state elections for the district in +which he resides and goes out of office with the political party +for which he was elected, or he is appointed by the governor of +the state for that district and for the same term. He represents +the state in criminal prosecutions and also in civil actions within +his district. There is a <i>United States district attorney</i> in each +federal district, similarly representing the federal government +before the courts.</p> + +<p>An attorney is an officer of the court which admits him to +practise, and he is subject to its discipline. He is liable to his +client in damages for failure to exercise ordinary care and skill, +and he can bring action for the value of his services. He has a +lien on his client’s papers, and usually on any judgment in favour +of his client to secure the payment of his fees. (See also under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bar, The</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTORNEY-GENERAL,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> in England, the chief law officer +appointed to manage all the legal affairs and suits in which the +crown is interested. He is appointed by letters-patent authorizing +him to hold office during the sovereign’s pleasure. He is +<i>ex officio</i> the leader of the bar, and only counsel of the highest +eminence are appointed to the office. The origin of the office +is uncertain, but as far back as 1277 we find an <i>attornatus regis</i> +appointed to look after the interests of the crown, in proceedings +affecting it before the courts. He has precedence in all the +courts, and in the House of Lords he has precedence of the lord +advocate, even in Scottish appeals, but unlike the lord advocate +and the Irish attorney-general he is not necessarily made a privy +councillor. He is a necessary party to all proceedings affecting +the crown, and has extensive powers of control in matters relating +to charities, lunatics’ estates, criminal prosecutions, &c. The +attorney-general and the solicitor-general are always members +of the House of Commons (except for temporary difficulties in +obtaining a seat) and of the ministry, being selected from the +party in power, and their advice is at the disposal of the government +and of each department of the government, while in the +House of Commons they defend the legality of ministerial action +if called in question. Previously to 1895 there was no restriction +placed on the law officers as to their acceptance of private +practice, but since that date this privilege has been withdrawn, +and the salary of the attorney-general is fixed at £7000 a year and +in addition such fees according to the ordinary professional +scales as he may receive for any litigious business he may conduct +on behalf of the crown. The crown has also as a legal adviser +an attorney-general in Ireland. In Scotland he is called lord +advocate (<i>q.v.</i>). There is also an attorney-general in almost all +the British colonies, and his duties are very similar to those of +the same officer in England. In the self-governing colonies he +is appointed by the administration of the colony, and in the +crown colonies by royal warrant under the signet and sign-manual. +There is an attorney-general for the duchy of Cornwall +and also one for the duchy of Lancaster, each of whom sues in +matters relating to that duchy.</p> + +<p>The United States has an officer of this name, who has a seat +in the cabinet. His duties are in general to represent the federal +government before the United States Supreme Court, to advise +the president on questions of law, and to advise similarly the +heads of the state departments with reference to matters affecting +their department. His opinions are published by the government +periodically for the use of its officials and they are frequently +cited by the courts. Every state but one or two has a similar +officer. He represents the state in important legal matters, and +is often required to assist the local prosecutor in trials for capital +offences. He appears for the public interest in suits affecting +public charities. He is generally elected by the people for the +same term as the governor and on the same ticket.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTORNMENT<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>tourner</i>, to turn), in English real +property law, the acknowledgment of a new lord by the tenant +on the alienation of land. Under the feudal system, the relations +of landlord and tenant were to a certain extent reciprocal. +So it was considered unreasonable to the tenant to subject him +to a new lord without his own approval, and it thus came about +that alienation could not take place without the consent of the +tenant. Attornment was also extended to all cases of lessees +for life or for years. The necessity for attornment was abolished +by an act of 1705. The term is now used to indicate an acknowledgment +of the existence of the relationship of landlord +and tenant. An attornment-clause, in mortgages, is a clause +whereby the mortgagor attorns tenant to the mortgagee, thus +giving the mortgagee the right to distrain, as an additional +security.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTRITION<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (Lat. <i>attritio</i>, formed from <i>atterere</i>, to rub away), +a rubbing away; a term used in pathology and geology. Theologians +have also distinguished “attrition” from “contrition” +in the matter of sin, as an imperfect stage in the process of repentance; +attrition being due to servile fear of the consequences +of sin, contrition to filial fear of God and hatred of sin for His +sake. It has been held among the Roman Catholics that in the +sacrament of penance attrition becomes contrition.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1765-1838), English composer, the +son of a coal merchant who had musical tastes, was born in +London on the 23rd of November 1765. At the age of nine he +became a chorister in the Chapel Royal, where he remained for +five years. In 1783 he was sent to study abroad at the expense +of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), who had been +favourably impressed by his skill at the harpsichord. After +spending two years at Naples, Attwood proceeded to Vienna, +where he became a favourite pupil of Mozart. On his return +to London in 1787 he held for a short time an appointment +as one of the chamber musicians to the prince of Wales. In 1796 +he was chosen organist of St Paul’s, and in the same year he was +made composer to the Chapel Royal. His court connexion +was further confirmed by his appointment as musical instructor +to the duchess of York, and afterwards to the princess of Wales. +For the coronation of George IV. he composed the anthem, +“The King shall rejoice,” a work of high merit. The king, +who had neglected him for some years on account of his connexion +with the princess of Wales, now restored him to favour, +and in 1821 appointed him organist to his private chapel at +Brighton. Soon after the institution of the Royal Academy +of Music in 1823, Attwood was chosen one of the professors. +He was also one of the original members of the Philharmonic +Society, founded in 1813. He wrote the anthem, “O Lord, +grant the King a Long Life,” which was performed at the coronation +of William IV., and he was composing a similar work for +the coronation of Queen Victoria when he died at his house in +Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, on the 24th of March 1838. He was buried +under the organ in St Paul’s cathedral. His services and anthems +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span> +were published in a collected form after his death by his pupil +Walmisley. Of his secular compositions several songs and glees +are well known and popular. The numerous operas which he +composed in early life are now practically forgotten. Of his +songs the most popular was “The Soldier’s Dream,” and the best +of his glees were “In peace Love tunes the shepherd’s reed,” +and “To all that breathe the air of Heaven.” Attwood was a +friend of Mendelssohn, for whom he professed an admiration +at a time when the young German’s talent was little appreciated +by the majority of English musicians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATTWOOD, THOMAS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1783-1856), English political reformer, +was born at Halesowen, Worcestershire, on the 6th of +October 1783. In 1800 he entered his father’s banking business +in Birmingham, where he was elected high bailiff in 1811. He +took a leading part in the public life of the city, and became very +popular with the artisan class. He is now remembered for his +share in the movement which led to the carrying of the Reform +Act of 1832. He was one of the founders, in January 1830, of +the Political Union, branches of which were soon formed throughout +England. Under his leadership vast crowds of working-men +met periodically in the neighbourhood of Birmingham to +demonstrate in favour of reform of the franchise, and Attwood +used his power over the multitude to repress any action on their +part which might savour of illegality. His successful exertions +in favour of reform made him a popular hero all over the country, +and he was presented with the freedom of the city of London. +After the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 he was elected one +of the members for the new borough of Birmingham, for which +he sat till 1839. He failed in the House of Commons to maintain +the reputation which he had made outside it, for in addition +to an eager partisanship in favour of every ultra-democratic +movement, he was wearisomely persistent in advocating his +peculiar monetary theory. This theory, which became with +him a monomania, was that the existing currency should be +rectified in favour of state-regulated and inconvertible paper-money, +and the adoption of a system for altering the standard +of value as prices fluctuated. His waning influence with his +constituents led him to retire from parliament in 1837, and, +though invited to re-enter political life in 1843, he had by that +time become a thoroughly spent force. He died at Great Malvern +on the 6th of March 1856.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His grandson, C.M. Wakefield, wrote his life “for private +circulation” (there is a copy in the British Museum), and his +economic theories are set forth in a little book, <i>Gemini</i>, +by T.B. Wright and J. Harlow, published in 1844.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ATWOOD, GEORGE<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1746-1807), English mathematician, +was born in the early part of the year 1746. He entered +Westminster school, and in 1759 was elected to a scholarship at +Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1769, with the +rank of third wrangler and first Smith’s prizeman. Subsequently +he became a fellow and a tutor of the college, and in 1776 was +elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In the year +1784 he left Cambridge, and soon afterwards received from +William Pitt the office of a patent searcher of the customs, +which required but little attendance, and enabled him to devote +a considerable portion of his time to his special studies. He +died in July 1807. Atwood’s published works, exclusive of papers +contributed to the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, for one of +which he obtained the Copley medal, are as follows:—<i>Analysis +of a Course of Lectures on the Principles of Natural Philosophy</i> +(Cambridge, 1784); <i>Treatise on the Rectilinear Motion and +Rotation of Bodies</i> (Cambridge, 1784), which gives some +interesting experiments, by means of which mechanical truths can +be ocularly exhibited and demonstrated, and describes the machine, +since called by Atwood’s name, for verifying experimentally the +laws of simple acceleration of motion; <i>Review of the Statutes +and Ordinances of Assize which have been established in England from +the 4th year of King John, 1202, to the 37th of his present Majesty</i> +(London, 1801), a work of some historical research; <i>Dissertation +on the Construction and Properties of Arches</i> (London, 1801), +with supplement, pt. i., 1801, pt. ii., 1804, an elaborate work, +now completely superseded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBADE<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (a French word from <i>aube</i>, the dawn), the dawn-song +of the troubadours of Provence, developed by the Minnesingers +(<i>q.v.</i>) of Germany into the <i>Tagelied</i>, the song of +the parting at dawn of lovers at the warning of the watchman. +In France in modern times the term is applied to the performance +of a military band in the early morning in honour of some +distinguished person.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBAGNE,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department +of Bouches-du-Rhône on the Huveaune, 11 m. E. of Marseilles +by rail. Pop. (1906) 6039. The town carries on the manufacture +of earthenware and pottery, leather, &c. and the cultivation of +fruit and wine. There is a fountain to the memory of the +statesman, F. Barthélemy (d. 1830), born at Aubagne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a department of north-eastern France, bounded N. by +the department of Marne, N.W. by Seine-et-Marne, W. by +Yonne, S. by Yonne and Cote-d’Or, and E. by Haute-Marne; +it was formed in 1790 from Basse-Champagne, and a small +portion of Burgundy. Area, 2326 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 243,670. +The department belongs to the Seine basin, and is watered +chiefly by the Seine and the Aube. These rivers follow the +general slope of the department, which is from south-east, +where the Bois du Mont (1200 ft.), the highest point, is situated, +to north-west. The southern and eastern districts are fertile +and well wooded. The remainder of the department, with the +exception of a more broken and picturesque district in the +extreme north-west, forms part of the sterile and monotonous +plain known as Champagne Pouilleuse. The climate is mild +but damp. The annual rainfall over the greater part varies +from 24 to 28 in.; but in the extreme south-east it at times +reaches a height of 36 in. Aube is an agricultural department; +more than one third of its surface consists of arable land of +which the chief products are wheat and oats, and next to them rye, +barley and potatoes; vegetables are extensively cultivated in +the valleys of the Seine and the Aube. The vine flourishes +chiefly on the hills of the south-east; the wines of Les Riceys, +Bar-sur-Aube, Bouilly and Laines-aux-Bois are most esteemed. +The river valleys abound in natural pasture, and sainfoin, +lucerne and other forage crops are largely grown; cattle-raising +is an important source of wealth, and the cheeses of Troyes are +well known. There are excellent nurseries and orchards in the +neighbourhood of Troyes, Bar-sur-Seine, Méry-sur-Seine and +Brienne. Chalk, from which <i>blanc de Troyes</i> is manufactured, +and clay are abundant; and there are peat workings and quarries +of building-stone and limestone. The spinning and weaving of +cotton and the manufacture of hosiery, of both of which Troyes +is the centre, are the main industries of the department; +there are also a large number of distilleries, tanneries, +oil works, tile and brick works, flour-mills, saw-mills and +dye-works. The Eastern railway has works at Romilly, and there +are iron works at Clairvaux and wire-drawing works at Plaines; +but owing to the absence of coal and iron mines, metal working +is of small importance. The exports of Aube consist of timber, +cereals, agricultural products, hosiery, wine, dressed pork, &c.; +its imports include wool and raw cotton, coal and machinery, +especially looms. The department is served by the Eastern +railway, of which the main line to Belfort crosses it. The river +Aube is navigable for 28 m. (from Arcis-sur-Aube to its confluence +with the Seine); the Canal de la Haute-Seine extends beside the +Seine from Bar-sur-Seine to Marcilly (just outside the department) +a distance of 46 m.; below Marcilly the Seine is canalized.</p> + +<p>Aube is divided into 5 arrondissements with 26 cantons and +446 communes. It falls within the educational circumscription +(<i>académie</i>) of Dijon and the military circumscription of +the XX. army corps; its court of appeal is in Paris. It +constitutes the diocese of Troyes and part of the archiepiscopal +province of Sens. The capital of the department is Troyes; of the +arrondissements the capitals are Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, Arcis-sur-Aube, +Bar-sur-Seine and Nogent-sur-Seine. The architecture of the department +is chiefly displayed in its churches, many of which possess stained +glass of the 16th century. Besides the cathedral and other +churches of Troyes, those of Mussy-sur-Seine (13th century), +Chaource (16th century) and Nogent-sur-Seine (15th and 16th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span> +centuries), are of note. The abbey buildings of Clairvaux are +the type of the Cistercian abbey.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBENAS,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department +of Ardèche, 19 m. S.W. of Privas by road. Pop. (1906) 3976 +(town), 7064 (commune). Aubenas is beautifully situated on the +slope of a hill, on the right bank of the Ardèche, but its streets +generally are crooked and narrow. It has a castle of the 13th +and 16th centuries, now occupied by several of the public +institutions of the town. These include a tribunal and chamber of +commerce, and a conditioning-house for silk. Iron and coal +mines are worked in the vicinity. As the centre of the silk trade +of southern France Aubenas is a place of considerable traffic. +It has also a large silk spinning and weaving industry, and +carries on tanning and various minor industries together with +trade in silk. The district is rich in plantations of mulberries +and olives.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBER, DANIEL FRANÇOIS ESPRIT<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (1782-1871), French +musical composer, the son of a Paris printseller, was born at +Caen in Normandy on the 29th of January 1782. Destined by +his father to the pursuits of trade, he was allowed, nevertheless, +to indulge his fondness for music, and learnt to play at an early +age on several instruments, his first teacher being the Tirolean +composer, I.A. Ladurner. Sent at the age of twenty to London +to complete his business training, he was obliged to leave England +in consequence of the breach of the treaty of Amiens (1804). +He had already attempted musical composition, and at this +period produced several <i>concertos pour basse</i>, in the manner of +the violoncellist, Lamarre, in whose name they were published. +The praise given to his concerto for the violin, which was played +at the Conservatoire by Mazas, encouraged him to undertake +the resetting of the old comic opera, <i>Julie</i> (1811). Conscious by +this time of the need of regular study of his chosen art, he placed +himself under the severe training of Cherubini, by which the +special qualities of the young composer were admirably developed. +In 1813 he made his <i>début</i> in an opera in one act, the <i>Séjour +militaire</i>, the unfavourable reception of which put an end for +some years to his attempts as composer. But the failure in +business and death of his father, in 1819, compelled him once +more to turn to music, and to make that which had been his +pastime the serious employment of his life. He produced another +opera, the <i>Testament et les billets-deux</i> (1819), which was no +better received than the former. But he persevered, and the +next year was rewarded by the complete success of his <i>Bergère +châtelaine</i>, an opera in three acts. This was the first in a long +series of brilliant successes. In 1822 began his long association +with A.E. Scribe, who shared with him, as librettist, the success +and growing popularity of his compositions. The opera of +<i>Leicester</i>, in which they first worked together (1823), is +remarkable also as showing evidences of the influence of Rossini. But +his own style was an individual one, marked by lightness and +facility, sparkling vivacity, grace and elegance, clear and piquant +melody—characteristically French. In <i>La Muette de Portici</i>, +familiarly known as <i>Masaniello</i>, Auber achieved his greatest +musical triumph. Produced at Paris in 1828, it rapidly became a +European favourite, and its overture, songs and choruses were +everywhere heard. The duet, “Amour sacré de la patrie,” was +welcomed like a new <i>Marseillaise</i>; sung by Nourrit at Brussels +in 1830, it became the signal for the revolution which broke +out there. Of Auber’s remaining operas (about 50 in all) the +more important are: <i>Le Maçon</i> (1825), <i>La Fiancée</i> (1829), <i>Fra +Diavolo</i> (1830), <i>Lestocq</i> (1834), <i>Le Cheval de bronze</i> (1835), +<i>L’Ambassadrice</i> (1836), <i>Le Domino noir</i> (1837), <i>Le Lac des +fées</i> (1839), <i>Les Diamants de la couronne</i> (1841), <i>Haydée</i> (1847), +<i>Marco Spada</i> (1853), <i>Manon Lescaut</i> (1856), and <i>La Fiancée du +roi des Garbes</i> (1864). Official and other dignities testified the +public appreciation of Auber’s works. In 1829 he was elected +member of the Institute, in 1830 he was named director of the +court concerts, and in 1842, at the wish of Louis Philippe, he +succeeded Cherubini as director of the Conservatoire. He was +also a member of the Legion of Honour from 1825, and attained +the rank of commander in 1847. Napoleon III. made Auber his +Imperial Maître de Chapelle in 1857.</p> + +<p>One of Auber’s latest compositions was a march, written for +the opening of the International Exhibition in London in 1862. +His fascinating manners, his witty sayings, and his ever-ready +kindness and beneficence won for him a secure place in the respect +and love of his fellow-citizens. He remained in his old home +during the German siege of Paris, 1870-71, but the miseries +of the Communist war which followed sickened his heart, and +he died in Paris on the 13th of May 1871.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Adolph Kohut, “Auber,” vol. xvii. of <i>Musiker Biographien</i> +(Leipzig, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBERGINE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (diminutive of Fr. <i>auberge</i>, a variant of <i>alberge</i>, +a kind of peach), or <span class="sc">Egg Plant</span> (<i>Solanum melongena</i>, var. +<i>ovigerum</i>), a tender annual widely cultivated in the warmer parts +of the earth, and in France and Italy, for the sake of its fruits, +which are eaten as a vegetable. The seed should be sown early +in February in a warm pit, where the plants are grown till shifted +into 8-in. or 10-in. pots, in well-manured soil. Liquid manure +should be given occasionally while the fruit is swelling; about +four fruits are sufficient for one plant. The French growers +sow them in a brisk heat in December, or early in January, +and in March plant them out four or eight in a hot-bed with a +bottom heat of from 60° to 68°, the sashes being gradually more +widely opened as the season advances, until at about the end of +May they may be taken off. The two main branches which are +allowed are pinched to induce laterals, but when the fruits are +set all young shoots are taken off in order to increase their size. +The best variety is the large purple, which produces oblong +fruit, sometimes reaching 6 or 7 in. in length and 10 or 12 in. in +circumference. The fruit of the ordinary form almost exactly +resembles the egg of the domestic fowl. It is also grown as +an ornamental plant, for covering walls or trellises; especially +the black-fruited kind.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBERVILLIERS,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aubervilliers-les-Vertus</span>, a town +of northern France, in the department of Seine, on the canal +St Denis, 2 m. from the right bank of the Seine and 1 m. N. of +the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 33,358. Its manufactures +include cardboard, glue, oils, colours, fertilizers, chemical +products, perfumery, &c. During the middle ages and till +modern times Aubervilliers was the resort of numerous pilgrims, +who came to pay honour to Notre Dame des Vertus. In 1814 +the locality was the scene of a stubborn combat between the +French and the Allies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNAC, FRANÇOIS HÉDELIN,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> <span class="sc">Abbé d’</span> (1604-1676), +French author, was born at Paris on the 4th of August 1604. +His father practised at the Paris bar, and his mother was a +daughter of the great surgeon Ambroise Paré. François Hédelin +was educated for his father’s profession, but, after practising +for some time at Nemours he abandoned law, took holy orders, +and was appointed tutor to one of Richelieu’s nephews, the +duc de Fronsac. This patronage secured for him the abbey +of Aubignac and of Mainac. The death of the duc de Fronsac +in 1646 put an end to hopes of further preferment, and the +Abbé d’Aubignac retired to Nemours, occupying himself with +literature till his death on the 25th of July 1676. He took an +energetic share in the literary controversies of his time. Against +Gilles Ménage he wrote a <i>Térence justifié</i> (1656); he laid claim +to having originated the idea of the “<i>Carte de tendre</i>” of Mlle de +Scudéry’s <i>Clélie</i>; and after being a professed admirer of Corneille +he turned against him because he had neglected to mention the +abbé in his <i>Discours sur le poème dramatique</i>. He was the author +of four tragedies: <i>La Cyminde</i> (1642), <i>La Pucelle d’Orléans</i> (1642), +<i>Zénobie</i> (1647) and <i>Le Martyre de Sainte Catherine</i> (1650). +<i>Zénobie</i> was written with the intention of affording a model in which +the strict rules of the drama, as understood by the theorists, were +observed. In the choice of subjects for his plays, he seems to +have been guided by a desire to illustrate the various kinds of +tragedy—patriotic, antique and religious. The dramatic authors +whom he was in the habit of criticizing were not slow to take +advantage of the opportunity for retaliation offered by the +production of these mediocre plays. It is as a theorist that +D’Aubignac still arrests attention. It has been proved that to +Jean Chapelain belongs the credit of having been the first to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span> +establish as a practical law the convention of the unities that +plays so large a part in the history of the French stage; but +the laws of dramatic method and construction generally were +codified by d’Aubignac in his <i>Pratique du théâtre.</i> The book +was only published in 1657, but had been begun at the desire +of Richelieu as early as 1640. His <i>Conjectures académiques sur +l’Iliade d’Homère</i>, which was not published until nearly forty +years after his death, threw doubts on the existence of Homer, +and anticipated in some sense the conclusions of Friedrich August +Wolf in his <i>Prolegomena ad Homerum</i> (1795).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The contents of the <i>Pratique du théâtre</i> are summarized by F. +Brunetière in his notice of Aubignac in the <i>Grande Encydopédie.</i> +See also G. Saintsbury, <i>Hist. of Criticism</i>, bk. v., and +H. Rigault, <i>Hist. de la querelle des anciens et modernes.</i> (1859).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNÉ, CONSTANT D’<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Baron de Surineau</span>] (<i>c.</i> 1584-1647), +French adventurer, was the son of Théodore Agrippa +d’Aubigné, and the father of Madame de Maintenon. Born +a Protestant, he became by turns Catholic or Protestant as it +suited his interests. He betrayed the Protestants in 1626, +revealing to the court, after a voyage to England, the projects +of the English upon La Rochelle. He was renounced by his +father; then imprisoned by Richelieu’s orders at Niort, where +he was detained ten years. After having tried his fortunes in +the Antilles, he died in Provence, leaving in destitution his wife, +Jeanne de Cardillac, whom he had married in 1627. He had two +children, Charles, father of the duchess of Noailles, and Françoise, +known in history as Madame de Maintenon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Lavallée, <i>La Famille d’Aubigné et l’enfance de Madame de +Maintenon</i> (Paris, 1863).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNÉ, JEAN HENRI MERLE D’<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1794-1872), Swiss +Protestant divine and historian, was born on the 16th of August +1794, at Eaux Vives, near Geneva. The ancestors of his father, +Aimé Robert Merle d’Aubigné (1755-1799), were French Protestant +refugees. Jean Henri was destined by his parents to a +commercial life; but at college he decided to be ordained. He +was profoundly influenced by Robert Haldane, the Scottish +missionary and preacher who visited Geneva. When in 1817 he +went abroad to further his education, Germany was about to +celebrate the tercentenary of the Reformation; and thus early +he conceived the ambition to write the history of that great +epoch. At Berlin he received stimulus from teachers so unlike +as J.A.W. Neander and W.M.L. de Wette. After presiding for +five years over the French Protestant church at Hamburg, he +was, in 1823, called to become pastor of a congregation in +Brussels and preacher to the court. He became also president of +the consistory of the French and German Protestant churches. +At the Belgian revolution of 1830 he thought it advisable to +undertake pastoral work at home rather than to accept an +educational post in the family of the Dutch king. The Evangelical +Society had been founded with the idea of promoting +evangelical Christianity in Geneva and elsewhere, but it was found +that there was also needed a theological school for the training +of pastors. On his return to Switzerland, d’Aubigné was invited +to become professor of church history in an institution of the +kind, and continued to labour in the cause of evangelical +Protestantism. In him the Evangelical Alliance found a hearty +promoter. He frequently visited England, was made a D.C.L. +by Oxford University, and received civic honours from the city +of Edinburgh. He died suddenly in 1872.</p> + +<p>His principal works are—<i>Discours sur l’étude de l’histoire de +Christianisme</i> (Geneva, 1832); <i>Le Luthéranisme et la Réforme</i> +(Paris, 1844); <i>Germany, England and Scotland, or Recollections +of a Swiss Pastor</i> (London, 1848); <i>Trois siècles de lutte +en Écosse, ou deux rois et deux royaumes; Le Protecteur ou la +république d’Angleterre aux jours de Cromwell</i> (Paris, 1848); +<i>Le Concile et l’infaillibililé</i> (1870); <i>Histoire de la Réformation +au XVI<span class="sp">ième</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1835-1853; new ed:, 1861-1862, +in 5 vols.); and <i>Histoire de la Réformation en Europe au temps +de Calvin</i> (8 vols., 1862-1877).</p> + +<p>The first portion of his <i>Histoire de la Réformation</i>, which +was devoted to the earlier period of the movement in Germany, +gave him at once a foremost place amongst modern French +ecclesiastical historians, and was translated into most European +tongues. The second portion, dealing with reform in the time +of Calvin, was not less thorough, and had a subject hitherto less +exhaustively treated, but it did not meet with the same success. +This part of the subject, with which he was most competent to +deal, was all but completed at the time of his death. Among +his minor treatises, the most important are the vindication of +the character and aims of Oliver Cromwell, and the sketch of the +contendings of the Church of Scotland.</p> + +<p>Indefatigable in sifting original documents, Aubigné had +amassed a wealth of authentic information; but his desire to +give in all cases a full and graphic picture, assisted by a vivid +imagination, betrayed him into excess of detail concerning minor +events, and in a few cases into filling up a narrative by +inference from later conditions. Moreover, in his profound sympathy +with the Reformers, he too frequently becomes their apologist. +But his work is a monument of painstaking sincerity, and brings +us into direct contact with the spirit of the period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBIGNÉ, THÉODORE AGRIPPA D’<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1552-1630), French +poet and historian, was born at St Maury, near Pons, in Saintonge, +on the 8th of February 1552. His name Agrippa (<i>aegre partus</i>) +was given him through his mother dying in childbirth. In his +childhood he showed a great aptitude for languages; according +to his own account he knew Latin, Greek and Hebrew at six years +of age; and he had translated the <i>Crito</i> of Plato before he +was eleven. His father, a Huguenot who had been one of the +conspirators of Amboise, strengthened his Protestant sympathies +by showing him, while they were passing through that town on +their way to Paris, the heads of the conspirators exposed upon +the scaffold, and adjuring him not to spare his own head in order +to avenge their death. After a brief residence he was obliged +to flee from Paris to avoid persecution, but was captured and +threatened with death. Escaping through the intervention of +a friend, he went to Montargis. In his fourteenth year he was +present at the siege of Orléans, at which his father was killed. +His guardian sent him to Geneva, where he studied for a +considerable time under the direction of Beza. In 1567 he made +his escape from tutelage, and attached himself to the Huguenot +army under the prince of Condé. Subsequently he joined Henry +of Navarre, whom he succeeded in withdrawing from the corrupting +influence of the house of Valois (1576), and to whom he +rendered valuable service, both as a soldier and as a counsellor, +in the wars that issued in his elevation to the throne as Henry IV. +After a furious battle at Casteljaloux, and suffering from fever +from his wounds, he wrote his <i>Tragiques</i> (1571). He was in the +battle of Coutras (1587), and at the siege of Paris (1590). His +career at camp and court, however, was a somewhat chequered +one, owing to the roughness of his manner and the keenness of +his criticisms, which made him many enemies and severely tried +the king’s patience. In his <i>tragédie-ballet Circe</i> (1576) he did not +hesitate to indulge in the most outspoken sarcasm against the +king and other members of the royal family. Though he more +than once found it expedient to retire into private life he never +entirely lost the favour of Henry, who made him governor of +Maillezais. After the conversion of the king to Roman Catholicism, +d’Aubigné remained true to the Huguenot cause, and +a fearless advocate of the Huguenot interests. The first two +volumes of the work by which he is best known, his <i>Histoire +universelle depuis 1550 jusqu’à l’an 1601</i>, appeared in 1616 +and 1618 respectively. The third volume was published in 1619, but, +being still more free and personal in its satire than those which +had preceded it, it was immediately ordered to be burned by the +common hangman. The work is a lively chronicle of the incidents +of camp and court life, and forms a very valuable source for the +history of France during the period it embraces. In September +1620 its author was compelled to take refuge in Geneva, where +he found a secure retreat for the last ten years of his life, though +the hatred of the French court showed itself in procuring a +sentence of death to be recorded against him more than once. +He devoted the period of his exile to study, and the +superintendence of works for the fortifications of Bern and Basel which were +designed as a material defence of the cause of Protestantism. +He died at Geneva on the 29th of April 1630.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of his works according to the original MSS. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span> +was begun by E. Réaume and F. de Caussade (1879). It contains +all the literary works, the <i>Aventures du baron de Faeneste</i> (1617), +and the <i>Mémoires</i> (6 vols., 1873-1892). The best edition of the +<i>Histoire universelle</i> is by A. de Ruble. The <i>Mémoires</i> were edited +by L. Lalanne (1854).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBIN,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department of +Aveyron on the Enne, 30 m. N.W. of Rodez. In 1906 the urban +population was 2229, the communal population 9986. Aubin is +the centre of important coal-mines worked in the middle ages, +and also has iron-mines, the product of which supplies iron works +close to the town. Sheep-breeding is important in the vicinity. +The church dates from the 12th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBREY, JOHN<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1626-1697), English antiquary, was born at +Easton Pierse or Percy, near Malmesbury, Wiltshire, on the 12th +of March 1626, his father being a country gentleman of +considerable fortune. He was educated at the Malmesbury grammar +school under Robert Latimer, who had numbered Thomas +Hobbes among his earlier pupils, and at his schoolmaster’s house +Aubrey first met the philosopher about whom he was to leave +so many curious and interesting details. He entered Trinity +College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the +Civil War. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple, +but was never called to the bar. He spent much of his time in +the country, and in 1649 he brought into notice the megalithic +remains at Avebury. His father died in 1652, leaving to Aubrey +large estates, and with them, unfortunately, complicated lawsuits. +Aubrey, however, lived gaily, and used his means to +gratify his passion for the company of celebrities and for every +sort of knowledge to be gleaned about them. Anthony à Wood +prophesied that he would one day break his neck while running +downstairs after a retreating guest, in the hope of extracting a +story from him. He took no active share in the political troubles +of the time, but from his description of a meeting of the Rota +Club, founded by James Harrington, the author of <i>Oceana</i>, he +appears to have been a theorizing republican. His reminiscences +on this subject date from the Restoration, and are probably +softened by considerations of expediency. In 1663 he became +a member of the Royal Society, and in the next year he met +Joan Somner, “in an ill hour,” he tells us. This connexion did +not end in marriage, and a lawsuit with the lady complicated +his already embarrassed affairs. He lost estate after estate, +until in 1670 he parted with his last piece of property, Easton +Pierse. From this time he was dependent on the hospitality of +his numerous friends. In 1667 he had made the acquaintance of +Anthony à Wood at Oxford, and when Wood began to gather +materials for his invaluable <i>Athenae Oxonienses</i>, Aubrey offered +to collect information for him. From time to time he forwarded +memoranda to him, and in 1680 he began to promise the +“Minutes for Lives,” which Wood was to use at his discretion. +He left the task of verification largely to Wood. As a hanger-on +in great houses he had little time for systematic work, and he +wrote the “Lives” in the early morning while his hosts were +sleeping off the effects of the dissipation of the night before. +He constantly leaves blanks for dates and facts, and many +queries. He made no attempt at a fair copy, and, when fresh +information occurred to him, inserted it at random. He made some +distinction between hearsay and authentic information, but had +no pretence to accuracy, his retentive memory being the chief +authority. The principal charm of his “Minutes” lies in the +amusing details he has to recount about his personages, and in +the plainness and truthfulness that he permits himself in face of +established reputations. In 1592 he complained bitterly that +Wood had destroyed forty pages of his MS., probably because of +the dangerous freedom of Aubrey’s pen. Wood Was prosecuted +eventually for insinuations against the judicial integrity of the +earl of Clarendon. One of the two statements called in question +was certainly founded on information provided by Aubrey. +This perhaps explains the estrangement between the two antiquaries +and the ungrateful account that Wood gives of the elder +man’s character. “He was a shiftless person, roving and +magotic-headed, and sometimes little better than crased. And +being exceedingly credulous, would stuff his many letters sent +to A.W. with follies and misinformations, which sometimes +would guide him into the paths of error.”<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1673 Aubrey +began his “Perambulation” or “Survey” of the county of +Surrey, which was the result of many years’ labour in collecting +inscriptions and traditions in the country. He began a “History +of his Native District of Northern Wiltshire,” but, feeling that +he was too old to finish it as he would wish, he made over his +material, about 1695, to Thomas Tanner, afterwards bishop of +St Asaph. In the next year he published his only completed, +though certainly not his most valuable work, the <i>Miscellanies</i>, a +collection of stories on ghosts and dreams. He died at Oxford +in June 1697, and was buried in the church of St Mary Magdalene.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Beside the works already mentioned, his papers included: +“Architectonica Sacra,” notes on ecclesiastical antiquities; and +“Life of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury,” which served as the basis +of Dr Blackburn’s Latin life, and also of Wood’s account. His +survey of Surrey was incorporated in R. Rawlinson’s <i>Natural +History and Antiquities of Surrey</i> (1719); his antiquarian notes on +Wiltshire were printed in <i>Wiltshire; the Topographical Collections +of John Aubrey</i>, corrected and enlarged by J.E. Jackson (Devizes, +1862); part of another MS. on “The Natural History of Wiltshire” +was printed by John Britton in 1847 for the Wiltshire Topographical +Society; the <i>Miscellanies</i> were edited in 1890 for the <i>Library of Old +Authors</i>; the “Minutes for Lives” were partially edited in 1813. +A complete transcript, <i>Brief Lives chiefly of Contemporaries set down +by John Aubrey between the Years 1669 and 1696</i>, was edited for the +Clarendon Press in 1898 by the Rev. Andrew Clark from the MSS. +in the Bodleian, Oxford.</p> + +<p>See also John Britton, <i>Memoir of John Aubrey</i> (1845); David +Masson, in the <i>British Quarterly Review</i>, July 1856; Émile Montégut, +<i>Heures de lecture d’un critique</i> (1891); and a catalogue of Aubrey’s +collections in <i>The Life and Times of Anthony Wood</i> ..., by Andrew +Clark (Oxford, 1891-1900, vol. iv. pp. 191-193), which contains +many other references to Aubrey.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Life of Anthony à Wood written by Himself” (<i>Athen. Oxon.</i>, +ed. Bliss).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBURN,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Androscoggin county, +Maine, U.S.A., on the Androscoggin river, opposite Lewiston +(with which it practically forms an industrial unit), in the S.W. +part of the state. Pop. (1890) 11,250; (1900) 12,951, of whom +2076 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 15,064. It is served +by the Grand Trunk and the Maine Central railways. The river +furnishes abundant water-power, and the city ranked fourth in +the state as a manufacturing centre in 1905. Boots and shoes +are the principal products; in 1905 seven-tenths of the city’s +wage-earners were engaged in their manufacture, and Auburn’s +output ($4,263,162 = 66.5% of the total factory product of the +city) was one-third of that of the whole state. Other manufactures +are butter, bread and other bakery products, cotton +goods, furniture and leather. The municipality owns and +operates its waterworks. Auburn was first settled in 1786, +and was incorporated in 1842, but the present charter dates +only from 1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBURN,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cayuga county, +New York, U.S.A., 25 m. S.W. of Syracuse, on an outlet of +Owasco Lake. Pop. (1890) 25,858; (1900) 30,345, of whom +5436 were foreign-born, 2084 being from Ireland and 1023 from +England; (1910) 34,668. It is served by the Lehigh Valley +and the New York Central & Hudson River railways, and by +inter-urban electric lines. The city is attractively situated +amidst a group of low hills in the heart of the lake country of +western New York; the streets are wide, with a profusion of +shade trees. Auburn has a city hall, the large Burtis +Auditorium, the Auburn hospital, two orphan asylums, and the +Seymour library in the Case Memorial building. There is a +fine bronze statue of William H. Seward, who made his home +here after 1823, and was buried in Fort Hill Cemetery. In +Auburn are the Auburn (State) prison (1816), in connexion +with which there is a women’s prison; the Auburn Theological +Seminary (Presbyterian), founded in 1819, chartered in 1820, +and opened for students in 1821; the Robinson school for girls; +and the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union, for the +education of working girls, with a building erected in 1907. +The city owns its water-supply system, the water being pumped +from Owasco Lake, about 2½ m. S.S.E. of the city. There is a +good water-power, and the city has important manufacturing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span> +interests. The principal manufactures are cordage and twine, +agricultural implements, engines, pianos, boots and shoes, +cotton and woollen goods, carpets and rugs, rubber goods, +flour and machinery. The total factory product in 1905 was +valued at $13,420,863; of this $2,890,301 was the value of +agricultural implements, in the manufacture of which Auburn +ranked fifth among the cities of the United States. There are +a number of grey and blue limestone quarries, one of which is +owned and operated by the municipality.</p> + +<p>Settled soon after the close of the War of Independence, +Auburn was laid out in 1793 by Captain John L. Hardenburgh, +a veteran of the war, and for some years was known as Hardenburgh’s +Corners. In 1805, when it was made the county-seat, +it was renamed Auburn. It was incorporated in 1814, and was +chartered as a city in 1848.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Hawley, <i>Early Chapters of Cayuga History</i> (Auburn, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBURN<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (from the Low Lat. <i>alburnus</i>, whitish, light-coloured), +ruddy-brown; the meaning has changed from the original one +of brownish-white or light yellow (<i>citrinus</i>, in <i>Promptorium +Parvulorum</i>), probably through the intensification of the idea +of brown caused by the early spelling “abron” or “abrown.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBUSSON, PIERRE D’<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1423-1503), grand-master of the +order of St John of Jerusalem, and a zealous opponent of the +Turks, was born in 1423. He belonged to a noble French family, +and early devoted himself to the career of a soldier in the service +of the emperor Sigismund. Under the archduke Albert of +Austria he took part in a campaign against the Turks, and on his +return to France sided with the Armagnacs against the Swiss, +greatly distinguishing himself at the battle of St Jacob in 1444. +He then joined the order of the knights of Rhodes, and successfully +conducted an expedition against the pirates of the Levant +and an embassy to Charles VII. He soon rose to the most +important offices in the order, and in 1476 was elected grand-master. +It was the period of the conquests of Mahommed II., +who, supreme in the East, now began to threaten Europe. In +December 1479 a large Turkish fleet appeared in sight of Rhodes; +a landing was effected, and a vigorous attack made upon the city. +But in July of the next year, being reinforced from Spain, the +knights forced the Mussulmans to retire, leaving behind them +9000 dead. The siege, in which d’Aubusson was seriously +wounded, enhanced his renown throughout Europe. Mahommed +was furious, and would have attacked the island again but for +his death in 1481. His succession was disputed between his +sons Bayezid and Jem. The latter, after his defeat by Bayezid, +sought refuge at Rhodes under a safe-conduct from the grand-master +and the council of the knights. What followed remains +a stain on d’Aubusson’s memory. Rhodes not being considered +secure, Jem with his own consent was sent to France. Meanwhile, +in spite of the safe-conduct, d’Aubusson accepted an +annuity of 45,000 ducats from the sultan; in return for which he +undertook to guard Jem in such a way as to prevent his design +of appealing to the Christian powers to aid him against his +brother. For six years Jem, in spite of frequent efforts to +escape, was kept a close prisoner in various castles of the Rhodian +order in France, until in 1489 he was handed over to Pope +Innocent VIII., who had been vying with the kings of Hungary +and Naples for the possession of so valuable a political weapon. +D’Aubusson’s reward was a cardinal’s hat (1489), and the +power to confer all benefices connected with the order without +the sanction of the papacy; the order of St John received the +wealth of the suppressed orders of the Holy Sepulchre and St +Lazarus. The remaining years of his life d’Aubusson spent in +the attempt to restore discipline and zeal in his order, and to +organize a grand international crusade against the Turks. The +age of the Renaissance, with Alexander Borgia on the throne of +St Peter, was, however, not favourable to such an enterprise; +the death of Jem in 1495 had removed the most formidable +weapon available against the sultan; and when in 1501 d’Aubusson +led an expedition against Mytilene, dissensions among his +motley host rendered it wholly abortive. The old man’s last +years were embittered by chagrin at his failure, which was +hardly compensated by his success in extirpating Judaism in +Rhodes, by expelling all adult Jews and forcibly baptizing their +children. In the summer of 1503 he died.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See P. Bouhours, <i>Hist, de Pierre d’Aubusson</i> (Paris, 1676; Hague, +1793; abridged ed. Bruges, 1887); G.E. Streck, <i>Pierre d’Aubusson, +Grossmeister</i>, &c. (Chemnitz, 1873); J.B. Bury in <i>Cambridge Mod. +Hist.</i> vol. i. p. 85, &c. (for relations with Jem).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUBUSSON,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a town of France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Creuse, picturesquely situated on the river +Creuse 24 m. S.E. of Guéret by rail. Pop. (1906) 6475. It has +celebrated manufactories of carpets, &c., employing about 2000 +workmen, the artistic standard of which is maintained by a +national school of decorative arts, founded in 1869. Nothing +certain is known as to the foundation of this industry, but it +was in full activity at least as far back as 1531. From the 10th +to the 13th century Aubusson was the centre of a viscounty, +and the viscountess Marguerite, wife of Rainaud VI., was sung +by many a troubadour. After the death of the viscount Guy II. +(a little later than 1262) Aubusson was incorporated in the +countship of La Marche by Hugh XII. of Lusignan, and shared +in its fortunes. Louis XIV. revived the title of viscount of +Aubusson in favour of François, first marshall de la Feuillade +(1686). From the family of the old viscounts was descended +Pierre d’Aubusson (<i>q.v.</i>). Admiral Sallandrouze de Lamornaix +(1840-1902) belonged to a family of tapestry manufacturers +established at Aubusson since the beginning of the 19th century. +Aubusson was also the native place of the novelists Leonard +Sylvain, Julien Sandeau and Alfred Assollant (1827-1886).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Le Père Anselme, <i>Hist. généalogique de la maison de +France</i>, vol. v. pp. 318 et seq.; P. Mignaton, <i>Hist. de la maison +d’Aubusson</i> (Paris, 1886); Cyprien Pérathon, <i>Hist. d’Aubusson</i> +(Limoges, 1886).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCH,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a city of south-western France, capital of the department +of Gers, 55 m. W. of Toulouse on the Southern railway. +Pop. (1906) 9294. Auch is built on the summit and sides of +a hill at the foot of which flow the yellow waters of the Gers. +It consists of a lower and upper quarter united in several places +by flights of steps. The streets are in general steep and narrow, +but there is a handsome promenade in the upper town, laid out +in the 18th century by the <i>intendant</i> Antoine Mégret d’Etigny. +Three bridges lead from the left to the right bank of the Gers, +on which the suburb of Patte d’Oie is situated. The most interesting +part of the town lies in the old quarter around the +Place Salinis, a spacious terrace which commands an extensive +view over the surrounding country. On its eastern side it +communicates with the left bank of the river by a handsome +series of steps; on its north side rises the cathedral of Sainte-Marie. +This church, built from 1489 to 1662, belongs chiefly to +the Gothic style, of which it is one of the finest examples in +southern France. The façade, however, with its two square and +somewhat heavy flanking towers dates from the 17th century, +and is Greco-Roman in architecture. Sainte-Marie contains +many artistic treasures, the chief of which are the magnificent +stained-glass windows of the Renaissance which light the apsidal +chapels, and the 113 choir-stalls of carved oak, also of Renaissance +workmanship. The archbishop’s palace adjoins the cathedral; +it is a building of the 18th century with a Romanesque hall and +a tower of the 14th century. Opposite the south side of the +cathedral stands the lycée on the site of a former Jesuit college. +Only scanty remains are left of the once celebrated abbey of +St Orens. The ecclesiastical seminary contains an important +library with a collection of manuscripts, and there is a public +library in the Carmelite chapel, a building of the 17th century. +The former palace of the <i>intendants</i> of Gascony is now used as +the <i>préfecture</i>. Auch is the seat of an archbishopric, a prefect +and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and +of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, training-colleges, +a school of design, a branch of the Bank of France and an important +lunatic asylum. The manufactures include agricultural +implements, leather, vinegar and plaited sandals, and there is +a trade in brandy, wine, cattle, poultry and wool; there are +quarries of building-stone in the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>Auch (Elimberris) was the capital of a Celtiberian tribe, the +Ausci, and under the Roman domination was one of the most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span> +important cities in Gaul. In the 4th century this importance +was increased by the foundation of its bishopric, and after the +destruction of Eauze in the 9th century it became the metropolis +of Novempopulana. Till 732, Auch stood on the right bank of the +Gers, but in that year the ravages of the Saracens drove the +inhabitants to take refuge on the left bank of the river, where +a new city was formed. In the 10th century Count Bernard of +Armagnac founded the Benedictine abbey of St Orens, the monks +of which, till 1308, shared the jurisdiction over Auch with the +archbishops—an arrangement which gave rise to constant strife. +The counts of Armagnac possessed a castle in the city, which was +the capital of Armagnac in the middle ages. During the Religious +Wars of the 16th century Auch remained Catholic, except for a +short occupation in 1569 by the Huguenots under Gabriel, count +of Montgomery. In the 18th century it was capital of Gascony, +and seat of a generality. Antoine Mégret d’Etigny, intendant +from 1751 to 1767, did much to improve the city and its +commerce.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCHMUTY, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1756-1822), British general, +was born at New York in 1756, and served as a loyalist in the +American War of Independence, being given an ensigncy in the +royal army in 1777, and in 1778 a lieutenancy in the 45th Foot, +without purchase. When his regiment returned to England +after the war, having neither private means nor influence, he +exchanged into the 52nd, in order to proceed to India. He took +part in the last war against Hyder Ali; he was given a staff +appointment by Lord Cornwallis in 1790, served in the operations +against Tippoo Sahib, and continued in various staff appointments +up to 1797, when he returned to England a brevet lieut.-colonel. +In 1800 he was made lieut.-colonel and brevet colonel; +and in the following year, as adjutant-general to Sir David +Baird in Egypt, took a distinguished share in the march across +the desert and the capture of Alexandria. On his return to +England in 1803 he was knighted, and three years later he went +out to the River Plate as a brigadier-general. Auchmuty was +one of the few officers who came out of the disastrous Buenos +Aires expedition of 1806-7 with enhanced reputation. While +General Whitelocke, the commander, was cashiered, Auchmuty +was at once re-employed and promoted major-general, and was +sent out in 1810 to command at Madras. In the following year +he commanded the expedition organized for the conquest of +Java, which the governor-general, Lord Minto, himself accompanied. +The storming of the strongly fortified position of +Meester Cornelis (28th August 1811), stubbornly defended by +the Dutch garrison under General Janssens, practically achieved +the conquest of the island, and after the action of Samarang +(September 8th) Janssens surrendered. Auchmuty received the +thanks of parliament and the order of K.C.B. (G.C.B. in 1815), +and in 1813, on his return home, was promoted to the rank of +lieut.-general. In 1821 he became commander-in-chief in Ireland, +and a member of the Irish privy council. He died suddenly on +the 11th of August 1822.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCHTERARDER<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (Gaelic, “upper high land”), a police +burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, 13¾ m. S.W. of Perth by the +Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 2276. It is situated on +Ruthven Water, a right-hand tributary of the Earn. The chief +manufactures are those of tartans and other woollens, and of +agricultural implements. At the beginning of the 13th century +it obtained a charter from the earl of Strathearn, afterwards +became a royal burgh for a period, and was represented in the +Scottish parliament. Its castle, now ruinous, was built as a +hunting-lodge for Malcolm Canmore, but of the abbey which it +possessed as early as the reign of Alexander II. (1198-1249) no +remains exist. The ancient church of St Mungo, now in ruins, +was a building in the Norman or Early Pointed style. The town +was almost entirely burned down by the earl of Mar in 1716 +during the abortive Jacobite rising. It was in connexion with +this parish that the ecclesiastical dispute arose which led to the +disruption in the Church of Scotland in 1843. The estate of +Kincardine, 1 m. south, gives the title of earl of Kincardine to the +duke of Montrose. The old castle, now in ruins, was dismantled +in 1645 by the marquis of Argyll in retaliation for the destruction +of Castle Campbell in Dollar Glen on the south side of the Ochils. +The old ruined castle of Tullibardine, 2 m west of the burgh, once +belonged to the Murrays of Tullibardine, ancestors of the duke +of Atholl, who derives the title of marquis of Tullibardine from +the estate. The ancient chapel adjoining, also ruinous, was a +burial-place of the Murrays.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCHTERMUCHTY<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Gaelic, “the high ground of the wild +sow”), a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, built +on an elevation about 9 m. W. by S. of Cupar, with a station on a +branch of the North British railway from Ladybank to Mawcarse +Junction. Pop. 1387. The rapid Loverspool Burn divides +the town. The principal industries include the weaving of +linen and damasks, bleaching, distilling and malting. John +Glas, founder of the sect known as Glassites or Sandemanians, +was a native of the town. A mile and a half to the south-west +is the village of Strathmiglo (pop. 966), on the river Eden, with +a linen factory and bleaching works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1784-1849), English +statesman, was the second son of the 1st Baron Auckland. He +completed his education at Oxford, and was admitted to the bar +in 1809. His elder brother was drowned in the Thames in the +following year; and in 1814, on the death of his father, he took +his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland. He supported +the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made +president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In +1834 he held office for a few months as first lord of the admiralty, +and in 1835 he was appointed governor-general of India. He +proved himself to be a painstaking and laborious legislator, and +devoted himself specially to the improvement of native schools, +and the expansion of the commercial industry of the nation +committed to his care. These useful labours were interrupted +in 1838 by complications in Afghanistan, which excited the fears +not only of the Anglo-Indian government but of the home +authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war, and +on the 1st of October 1838 published at Simla his famous +manifesto dethroning Dost Mahommed. The early operations +were crowned with success, and the governor-general received +the title of earl of Auckland. But reverses followed quickly, +and in the ensuing campaigns the British troops suffered the +most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double mortification +of seeing his policy a complete failure and of being superseded +before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of +1841 he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and +returned to England in the following year. In 1846 he was made +first lord of the admiralty, which office he held until his death, +on the 1st of January 1849. He died unmarried, and the earldom +became extinct, the barony (see below) passing to his brother +Robert.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S.J. Trotter, <i>The Earl of Auckland</i> (“Rulers of India” series), +1893.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1745-1814), +English statesman, son of Sir Robert Eden, 3rd Bart., of Windlestone +Hall, Durham, and of Mary, daughter of William Davison, +was born in 1745, educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, +and called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1768. In 1771 +he published <i>Principles of Penal Law</i>, and was early recognized +as an authority on commercial and economic questions, and +in 1772 he was appointed an under secretary of state. He represented +New Woodstock in the parliaments of 1774 and 1780, +and Heytesbury in those of 1784 and 1790. In 1776 he was +appointed a commissioner on the board of trade and plantations. +In 1778 he carried an act for the improvement of the treatment +of prisoners, and accompanied the earl of Carlisle as a commissioner +to North America on an unsuccessful mission to settle +the disputes with the colonists. On his return in 1779 he +published his widely read <i>Four Letters to the Earl of Carlisle</i>, +and in 1780 became chief secretary for Ireland. He was elected +to the Irish House of Commons as member for Dungannon in +1781 and sworn of the Irish privy council, and while in Ireland +established the National Bank. He advised the increase of the +secret service fund, and was reputed, according to Lord Charlemont +(a political opponent), as especially skilful in the arts of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span> +corruption and in overcoming political prejudices. He resigned +in 1782, but in the following year he took office again as +vice-treasurer of Ireland under the coalition ministry, which he had +been instrumental in arranging, and was included in the privy +council, resigning with the government in December. He +opposed strongly Pitt’s propositions for free trade between England +and Ireland in 1785, but took office with Pitt as a member +of the committee on trade and plantations, and negotiated in +1786 and 1787 Pitt’s important commercial treaty with France, +and agreements concerning the East India Companies and +Holland. In 1787 he published his <i>History of New Holland</i>. +Next year he was sent as ambassador to Spain, and after his +return was created (September 1789) Baron Auckland in the +Irish peerage. The same year he was sent on a mission to +Holland, and represented English interests there with great +zeal and prudence during the critical years of 1790 to 1793, +obtaining the assistance of the Dutch fleet in 1790 on the menace +of a war with Spain, signing the convention relating to the +Netherlands the same year, and in 1793 attending the congress +at Antwerp. He retired from the public service in the latter +year, received a pension of £2300, and was created Baron Auckland +of West Auckland, Durham, in the English peerage. During +his retirement in the country at Beckenham, he continued his +intimacy with Pitt, his nearest neighbour at Holwood, who at +one time had thoughts of marrying his daughter; and with Pitt’s +sanction he published his <i>Remarks on the Apparent Cicumstances +of the War</i> in 1795, to prepare public opinion for a peace. In 1798 +he was included in Pitt’s government as joint postmaster-general, +and supported strongly the income tax and the Irish Union, +assisting in drawing up the act embodying the latter. In 1799 he +brought in a bill to check adultery by preventing the marriage +of the guilty parties, and the same year took a mischievous +part in the cabal against Sir Ralph Abercromby. He severely +criticized Pitt’s resignation in 1801, from which he had +endeavoured to dissuade him, and retained office under Addington. +This terminated his friendship with Pitt, who excluded him +from his administration in 1804 though he increased his pension. +Auckland was included in Granville’s ministry of “All the +Talents” as president of the board of trade in 1806. He held +the appointments of auditor and director of Greenwich hospital, +recorder of Grantham, and chancellor of the Marischal College +in Aberdeen. He died on the 28th of May 1814.</p> + +<p>He had married in 1776 Eleanor, sister of the first Lord Minto, +and had a large family. Emily Eden (1797-1869), the novelist, +was one of his daughters. On the death of his son George, +2nd baron and earl of Auckland (<i>q.v.</i>), the barony passed to the +1st baron’s younger son Robert John (1790-1870), bishop of +Bath and Wells, from whom the later barons were descended, +and who was also the father of Sir Ashley Eden (1831-1887), +lieutenant-governor of Bengal. The 1st baron had two distinguished +brothers—Morton Eden (1752-1830), a diplomatist, +who married Lady Elizabeth Henley, and in 1799 was created +1st Baron Henley (his family, from 1831, taking the name of +Henley instead of Eden); and Sir Robert Eden, governor of +Maryland, whose son, Sir Frederic Morton Eden (1766-1809), +was a well-known economist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lord Auckland’s <i>Journal and Correspondence</i>, published in +1861-1862, throws much light on the political history of the time.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> a city and seaport on the east coast of North +Island, New Zealand, in Eden county; capital of the province +of its name, and the seat of a bishop. Pop. (1906) 37,736; +including suburbs, 82,101. It is situated at the mouth of an arm +of Hauraki Gulf, and is only 6 m. distant from the head of +Manukau harbour on the western coast. The situation is +extremely beautiful. The Hauraki Gulf, a great square inlet +opening northward, is studded with islands of considerable +elevation; Rangitoto, which protects the harbour, is a volcanic +cone reaching nearly 1000 ft. The isthmus on which the town +stands (which position has caused it to be likened to Corinth) +can be crossed without surmounting any great elevation, and +offers a feasible canal route. A number of small extinct volcanoes, +however, appear in all directions. To the west the Titirangi hills +exceed 1400 ft. Some of the volcanic soil is barren, but much +of the district is clothed in luxuriant vegetation.</p> + +<p>Auckland harbour, one of the best in New Zealand, is approachable +by the largest vessels at the lowest tide. There are two +graving docks. Queen Street, the principal thoroughfare, +leads inland from the main dock, and contains the majority +of the public buildings. There is a small government house, +standing in beautiful grounds, adjoining Albert Park, with plantations +of oaks and pines. The government offices, art gallery +and exchange, with St Mary’s cathedral (Anglican), a building +in a combination of native timbers, St Paul’s and St Patrick’s +cathedral (Roman Catholic), are noteworthy buildings. The +art gallery and free library contain excellent pictures, and +valuable books and MSS. presented by Sir G. Grey. The museum +contains one of the best existing collections of Maori art. There +are an opera-house and an academy of music. The Auckland +University College and the grammar school are the principal +educational establishments. The parks are the Domain, with +a botanical garden, the Albert Park near the harbour, with a +bronze statue of Queen Victoria, the extensive grounds at One +Tree Hill on the outskirts, and Victoria Park on Freeman’s +Bay. The principal thoroughfares are served by electric tramway. +Of the suburbs, Newton, Parnell and Newmarket are in reality +outlying parts of the town itself. Devonport, Birkenhead and +Northcote are beautifully situated on the north shore of the +inlet, and are served by steam-ferries. Several other residential +suburbs lie among the hills on the mainland, such as Mount +Albert, Mount Eden and Epsom. Onehunga is a small port on +Manukau harbour, served by rail. In Parnell is the former +residence of Bishop Selwyn, who, arriving in the colony in 1842, +assisted to draw up the constitution of the Anglican church. +There are many associations with his name in the neighbourhood. +The prospect over the town and its environs from +Mount Eden is justly famous. The hill is terraced with former +native fortifications.</p> + +<p>Auckland has industries of sugar-refining, ship-building and +paper-, rope- and brick-making, and timber is worked. The +town was founded as capital of the colony in 1840 by Governor +Hobson. There is communication both south and north by +rail, and regular steamers serve the ports of the colony, the +principal Pacific Islands, Australia, &c. From 1853 to 1876 +Auckland was the seat of the provincial government, and until +1865 that of the central government, which was then transferred +to Wellington. The first session of the general assembly took +place here in 1854. Auckland is under municipal government.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCKLAND ISLANDS,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered +in 1806 by Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler +“Ocean,” in 50° 24′ S., 166° 7′ E. The islands, of volcanic origin, +are very fertile, and are covered with forest. They were granted +to the Messrs Enderby by the British government as a whaling +station, but the establishment was abandoned in 1852. The +islands belong politically to New Zealand.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCTION PITCH,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a card game which is a popular variation +of All Fours (<i>q.v.</i>). The name is derived from the rule that +the first card played, or <i>pitched</i>, is the trump suit, and that the +eldest hand has the privilege of pitching it or of selling out +to the highest bidder. A full pack is used, and the cards rank +as in All Fours, namely from ace down to 2, ace being highest +in cutting also. From four to seven may play, each player being +provided with seven white counters, and also with red counters +in case stakes are played for. Each player receives six cards +in every deal, three at a time, no trump being turned. The object +is to get rid of the white counters, one of which may be put into +the pool either (1) for holding the highest trump played; (2) +for having the lowest trump dealt to one; (3) for taking the +Jack (knave) of trumps; or (4) for winning the <i>game</i>, namely +the greatest number of pips that count. In case of a tie of pips +no game is scored. If the eldest hand decides to pitch and not to +sell out, he may do so, but is obliged to make four points or be +set back that number. If he decides to sell, he says “I pass,” +and the player at his left bids for the privilege of pitching the +trump or passes, &c. When a bid has been made the rest must +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span> +pass or bid higher, and the eldest hand must either accept a bid +or undertake to make as many points as the bidder. If no bid +is made he pitches the trump himself, without the obligation +of making anything. The first card played is the trump suit, +the winner of the trick leading again. In trumps a player must +follow suit if he can, and the same rule applies in plain suits, +excepting that a trump may be played at any time (“follow +suit or trump”). In play the highest card wins the trick unless +trumped. When the hand is played out each player puts a white +counter into the pool for every point won, and the first player +to get rid of all his seven white counters wins the pool and takes +from it all the red counters, which represent cash. This ends the +game. In case two players count out during the same deal, the +bidder has the first right to the pool, the rule being “bidder +counts out first.” If the two players who count out are neither +of them bidder, then they go out in regular order, <i>i.e.</i> high first, +then low, Jack and game. If a bidder fails to make his points +he is set back that number. A revoke is punished by the offender +being set back the number of points bid and forfeiting a red +counter to the pool.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCTIONS<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> and <b>AUCTIONEERS.</b> An auction (Lat. <i>auctio</i>, +increase) is a proceeding at which people are invited to compete +for the purchase of property by successive offers of advancing +sums. The advantages of conducting a sale in this way are obvious, +and we naturally find that auctions are of great antiquity. +Herodotus describes a custom which prevailed in Babylonian +villages of disposing of the maidens in marriage by delivering +them to the highest bidders in an assembly annually held for +the purpose (Book i. 196). So also among the Romans the +quaestor sold military booty and captives in war by auction—<i>sub +hasta</i>—the spear being the symbol of quiritarian ownership. +The familiarity of such proceedings is forcibly suggested by the +conduct of the Praetorian Guard when Sulpicianus was treating +for the imperial dignity after the murder of Pertinax. Apprehending +that they would not obtain a sufficient price by private +contract, the Praetorians proclaimed from their ramparts that +the Roman world was to be disposed of by public auction to the +best bidder. Thereupon Julian proceeded to the foot of the +ramparts and outbid his competitor (Gibbon, vol. i. ch. v.). +Though, however, auctions were undoubtedly common among +the Romans both in public and private transactions, the rules +whereby they were governed are by no means clearly enunciated +in the <i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i>.</p> + +<p>In England the method of conducting auctions has varied. +In some places it has been usual to set up an inch of lighted +candle, the person making the last bid before the fall of the wick +becoming the purchaser. By an act of William III. (1698), +this method of sale was prescribed for goods and merchandise +imported from the East Indies. Lord Eldon speaks of “candlestick +biddings,” where the several bidders did not know what +the others had offered. A “dumb bidding” was the name +given to a proceeding at which a price was put by the owner +under a candlestick with a stipulation that no bidding should +avail if not equal to it. In a “Dutch auction” property is +offered at a certain price and then successively at lower prices +until one is accepted.</p> + +<p>According to the practice now usual in England, a proposed +auction is duly advertised, and a printed catalogue in the case +of chattels, or particulars of sale in the case of land, together +with conditions of sale, are circulated. Sometimes, in sales of +goods, the conditions are merely suspended in the auction room. +At the appointed time and place, the auctioneer, standing in a +desk or rostrum, “puts up” the several lots in turn by inviting +biddings from the company present. He announces the acceptance +of the last bid by a tap with his hammer and so “knocks +down” the lot to the person who has made it. Sometimes +property is offered on lease to the highest bidder. “Roup” is +the Scottish term for an auction. A bid in itself is only an +offer, and may accordingly be retracted at any time before its +acceptance by the fall of the hammer or otherwise. Puffing is +unlawful. Unless a right to bid is expressly reserved on behalf +of the vendor, he must neither bid himself nor employ any one +else to bid. When a right to bid has been expressly reserved, +the seller or any one person (but no more) on his behalf may bid +at the auction. If it is simply announced that the sale is to be +subject to a reserved or upset price, no bidding by or on behalf +of the seller is permissible: it is only lawful to declare by some +appropriate terms that the property is withdrawn. Where a +sale is expressed to be without reserve, or where an upset price +has been reached, the auctioneer must, after the lapse of a +reasonable interval, accept the bid of the highest <i>bona fide</i> +bidder. By not doing so he would render the vendor liable in +damages. The auctioneer must not make a pretence of receiving +bids which are not in fact made, as it would be fraudulent to +run up the price by such an artifice. A “knock-out” is a +combination of persons to prevent competition between themselves +at an auction by an arrangement that only one of their +number shall bid, and that anything obtained by him shall be +afterwards disposed of privately among themselves. Such a +combination is not illegal. A “mock auction” is a proceeding +at which persons conspire by artifice to make it appear, contrary +to the fact, that a <i>bona fide</i> sale is being conducted, and so +attempt to induce the public to purchase articles at prices far +above their value. Those who invite the public to enter the +room where the supposed auction is proceeding, or otherwise +endeavour to attract bidders, are called “barkers.” A conspiracy +to defraud in this way is an indictable offence.</p> + +<p>American law is in general the same as the English law with +regard to auctions. As to bidding by the vendor, however, +it is less stringent. For, though puffing or by-bidding, as it is +often called, will, under both systems alike, render an auction +sale voidable at the option of a purchaser when it amounts to +fraud, the weight of authority in the United States is in favour +of the view that an owner may, without notice, employ a person +to bid for him, if he does so with no other purpose than to +prevent a sacrifice of the property under a given price.</p> + +<p>By a charter of Henry VII., confirmed by Charles I., the +business of selling by auction was confined to an officer called +an <i>outroper</i>, and all other persons were prohibited from selling +goods or merchandise by public claim or outcry (see Henry +Blackstone’s <i>Reports</i>, vol. ii. p. 557). The only qualification +now required by an auctioneer is a licence on which a duty of +£10 has to be paid, and which must be renewed before the 5th +of July in each year. A liability to a penalty of £100 is incurred +by acting as an auctioneer without being duly licensed. The +duty formerly imposed upon the purchase-money payable by +virtue of a sale at auction was abolished by an act of 1845. +An auctioneer is bound under a penalty of £20 to see that his +full name and address are displayed before the commencement +of an auction and during its continuance in the place where he +conducts it. He is the agent of the vendor only, except in so +far that, after he has knocked down a lot to the highest bidder, +he has authority to affix the name of the latter to a memorandum +of the transaction, so as to render the contract of sale enforceable +where written evidence is necessary. An auctioneer does not, +by merely announcing that a sale of certain articles will take +place, render himself liable to those who, in consequence, attend +at the time and place advertised, if the sale is not in fact proceeded +with, provided he acts in good faith. One of the chief +risks run by an auctioneer is that of being held liable for the +conversion of goods which he has sold upon the instructions of a +person whom he believed to be the owner, but who in fact had +no right to dispose of them.</p> + +<p>The number of auctioneers’ licences issued during the year +ended the 31st of March 1908 was in England 6639, in Scotland +760, and in Ireland 839. A central organization having its +headquarters in London, the Auctioneers’ Institute of the +United Kingdom, was founded in 1886, in order to elevate the +status and further the interests of auctioneers, estate agents +and valuers. It has nearly 2000 members.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUCUBA,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> the Japanese name for a small genus of the Dogwood +order (Cornaceae). The familiar Japanese laurel of gardens and +shrubberies is <i>Aucuba japonica</i>. It bears male and female +flowers on distinct plants; the red berries often last till the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span> +next season’s flowers appear. There are numerous varieties +in cultivation, differing in the variegation of their leaves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDAEUS,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Audius</span>, a church reformer of the 4th century, +by birth a Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from +the Syrian clergy for his fearless censure of their irregular lives, +and was expelled from the church, thereupon establishing an +episcopal monastic community. He was afterwards banished +into Scythia, where he worked successfully among the Goths, +not living to see the destruction of his labours by Athanaric. +The Audaeans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as +the Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing +to the Deity a human shape, an opinion which they appear to +have founded on Genesis i. 26. Theodoret groundlessly accuses +them of Manichean tendencies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The main source of information is Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> 70).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDE,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> a river of south-western France, rising in the eastern +Pyrenees and flowing into the Golfe du Lion. Rising in a small +lake a short distance east of the Puy de Carlitte, it soon takes +a northerly direction and flows for many miles through deep +gorges of great beauty as far as the plain of Axat. Beyond Axat +its course again lies through defiles which become less profound +as the river nears Carcassonne. Below that town it receives the +waters of the Fresquel and turns abruptly east. From this +point to its junction with the Cesse its course is parallel with +that of the Canal du Midi. The river skirts the northern spurs +of the Corbières, some distance below which it is joined by the +Orbieu and the Cesse. It then divides into two branches, the +northernmost of which, the Aude proper, runs east and empties +into the Mediterranean some 12 m. east-north-east of Narbonne, +while the other branch, the Canal de la Robine, turning south, +traverses that town, below which its course to the sea lies between +two extensive lagoons, the Étang de Bages et de Sigean and the +Étang de Gruissan. The Aude has a length of 140 m. and a +basin 2061 sq. m. in extent. There is practically no traffic +upon it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDE,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> a maritime department of southern France, formed +in 1790 from part of the old province of Languedoc. Area, +2448 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 308,327. It is bounded E. by the +Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Hérault and Tarn, +N.W. by Haute-Garonne, W. by Ariège, and S. by Pyrénées-Orientales. +The department is traversed on its western boundary +from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which +unites the Pyrenees with the southern Cévennes; and its +northern frontier is occupied by the Montagne Noire, the most +westerly portion of the Cévennes. The Corbières, a branch +of the Pyrenees, run in a south-west and north-east direction +along the southern district. The Aude (<i>q.v.</i>), its principal river, +has almost its entire length in the department, and its lower +course, together with its tributary the Fresquel, forms the +dividing line between the Montagne Noire and the Pyrenean system.</p> + +<p>The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagoons, the +chief of which are those of Bages et Sigean, Gruissan, Lapalme +and Leucate. The climate is warm and dry, but often sudden +in its alterations. The wind from the north-west, known as the +<i>cers</i>, blows with great violence, and the sea-breeze is often laden +with pestilential effluvia from the lagoons. The agriculture of +the department is in a flourishing condition. The meadows are +extensive and well watered, and are pastured by numerous +flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of wheat, +oats, rye and Indian corn, exceeds the consumption, and the +vineyards yield an abundant supply of both white and red wines, +those of Limoux and the Narbonnais being most highly esteemed. +Truffles are abundant. The olive and chestnut are the chief +fruits. Mines of iron, manganese, and especially of mispickel, +are worked, and there are stone-quarries and productive salt-marshes. +Brewing, distilling, cooperage, iron-founding, hat-making +and machine construction are carried on, and there +are flour-mills, brick-works, saw-mills, sulphur refineries and +leather and paper works. The formerly flourishing textile +industries are now of small importance. The department +imports coal, lime, stone, salt, raw sulphur, skins and timber +and exports agricultural and mineral products, bricks and tiles, +and other manufactured goods. It is served by the Southern +railway. The Canal du Midi, following the courses of the +Fresquel and the Aude, traverses it for 76 m.; and a branch, +the Canal de la Robine, which passes through Narbonne to the +sea, has a length of 24 m. The capital is Carcassonne, and the +department is divided into the four arrondissements of +Carcassonne, Limoux, Narbonne and Castelnaudary, with 31 cantons +and 439 communes. It belongs to the 16th military region, +and to the académie (educational division) of Montpellier, +where also is its court of appeal. It forms the diocese of +Carcassonne, and part of the province of the archbishop of Toulouse. +Carcassonne, Narbonne and Castelnaudary are the principal +towns. At Alet, which has hot springs of some note, there +are ruins of a fine Romanesque cathedral destroyed in the +religious wars of the 16th century. The extensive buildings +of the Cistercian abbey of Fontfroide, near Bizanet, include a +Romanesque church, a cloister, dormitories and a refectory +of the 12th century. A curious polygonal church of the 11th +century at Rieux-Minervois, the abbey-church at St Papoul, +with its graceful cloister of the 14th century, and the remains +of the important abbey of St Hilaire, founded in the 6th +century and rebuilt from the 12th to the 15th century, are also +of antiquarian interest. Rennes-les-Bains has mineral springs +of repute.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDEBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1759-1800), French artist +and naturalist, was born at Rochefort in 1759. He studied +painting and drawing at Paris, and gained considerable reputation +as a miniature-painter. Employed in preparing plates for the +<i>Histoire des coléoptères</i> of G.A. Olivier (1756-1814), he acquired +a taste for natural history. In 1800 appeared his first original +work, <i>L’Histoire naturelle des singes, des makis et des galéopithèques</i>, +illustrated by sixty-two folio plates, drawn and engraved by +himself. The colouring in these plates was unusually beautiful, +and was applied by a method devised by himself. Audebert +died in Paris in 1800, leaving complete materials for another +great work, <i>Histoire des colibris, des oiseaux-mouches, des jacamars +et des promérops</i>, which was published in 1802. Two hundred +copies were printed in folio, one hundred in large quarto, and +fifteen were printed with the whole text in letters of gold. +Another work, left unfinished, was also published after the +author’s death, <i>L’Histoire des grimpereaux et des oiseaux de +paradis</i>. The last two works also appeared together in two +volumes, <i>Oiseaux dorés ou à reflets métalliques</i> (1802).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDEFROI LE BATARD,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> French <i>trouvère</i>, flourished at the +end of the 12th century and was born at Arras. Of his life nothing +is known. The seigneur de Nesles, to whom some of his songs +are addressed, is probably the châtelain of Bruges who joined +the crusade of 1200. Audefroi was the author of at least five +lyric romances: <i>Argentine, Belle Idoine, Belle Isabeau, Belle +Emmelos</i> and <i>Béatrix</i>. These romances follow older <i>chansons</i> +in subject, but the smoothness of the verse and beauty of detail +hardly compensate for the spontaneity of the shorter form.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Jeanroy, <i>Les Origines de la poésie lyrique en France au moyen +âge</i> (Paris, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDIENCE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>audire</i>, to hear), the act or state of +hearing, the term being therefore transferred to those who hear +or listen, as in a theatre, at a concert or meeting. In a more +technical sense, the term is applied to the right of access to the +sovereign enjoyed by the peers of the realm individually and by +the House of Commons collectively. More particularly it means +the ceremony of the admission of ambassadors, envoys or others +to an interview with a sovereign or an important official for the +purpose of presenting their credentials. In France, <i>audience</i> +is the term applied to the sitting of a law court for hearing +actions. In Spain, <i>audiencia</i> is the name given to certain +tribunals which try appeals from minor courts. The Spanish +judges were originally known as <i>oidores</i>, hearers, from the +Spanish <i>oir</i>, to hear; but they are now called <i>ministros</i>, or +<i>magistrados togados</i>, robed judges, as the gown of the Spanish judge +is called a <i>toga</i>. The <i>audiencia pretorial</i>, <i>i.e.</i> of the praetor, +was a court in Spanish America from which there was no appeal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span> +to the viceroy, but only to the council of the Indies in Spain. +It is not the custom in Spain to speak of <i>audiencias reales</i>, royal +courts, but of the <i>audiencias del Reino</i>, courts of the kingdom.</p> + +<p>In England the <i>Audience-court</i> was an ecclesiastical court, +held by the archbishops of Canterbury and York, in which they +once exercised a considerable part of their jurisdiction, dealing +with such matters as they thought fit to reserve for their own +hearing. It has been long disused and is now merged in the +court of arches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDIFFRET-PASQUIER, EDMÉ ARMAND GASTON,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc d’</span> +(1823-1905), French statesman, was the grand-nephew and +adopted son of Baron Etienne Denis Pasquier. He was created +duke in 1844, and became auditor at the council of state in 1846. +After the revolution of 1848 he retired to private life. Under the +empire he was twice an unsuccessful candidate for the legislature, +but was elected in February 1871 to the National Assembly, +and became president of the right centre in 1873. After the +fall of Thiers, he directed the negotiations between the different +royalist parties to establish a king in France, but as he refused +to give up the tricolour for the flag of the old <i>régime</i>, the project +failed. Yet he retained the confidence of the chamber, and was +its president in 1875 when the constitutional laws were being +drawn up. Nominated senator under the new constitution, he +likewise was president of the senate from March 1876 to 1879 +when his party lost the majority. Henceforth he was less +prominent in politics. He was distinguished by his moderation +and uprightness; and he did his best to dissuade MacMahon +from taking violent advisers. In 1878 he was elected to the +French Academy, but never published anything.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDIT<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> and <b>AUDITOR.</b> An audit is the examination of the +accounts kept by the financial officers of a state, public corporations +and bodies, or private persons, and the certifying of their +accuracy. In the United Kingdom the public accounts were +audited from very early times, though, until the reign of Queen +Elizabeth, in no very systematic way. Prior to 1559 this duty +was carried out, sometimes by auditors specially appointed, +at other times by the auditors of the land revenue, or by the +auditor of the exchequer, an office established as early as 1314. +But in 1559 an endeavour was made to systematize the auditing +of the public accounts, by the appointment of two auditors of the +imprests. These officers were paid by fee and did their work +by deputy, but as the results were thoroughly unsatisfactory +the offices were abolished in 1785. An audit board, consisting +of five commissioners, was appointed in their place, but in order +to concentrate under one authority the auditing of the accounts +of the various departments, some of which had been audited +separately, as the naval accounts, the Exchequer and Audit +Act of 1866 was passed. This statute, which sets forth at length +the duties of the audit office, empowered the sovereign to appoint +a “comptroller and auditor-general,” with the requisite staff to +examine and verify the accounts prepared by the different +departments of the public service. In examining accounts of +the appropriation of the several supply grants, the comptroller +and auditor-general “ascertains first whether the payments +which the account department has charged to the grant are +supported by vouchers or proofs of payments; and second, +whether the money expended has been applied to the purpose +or purposes for which such grant was intended to provide.” +The treasury may also submit certain other accounts to the +audit of the comptroller-general. All public moneys payable +to the exchequer (<i>q.v.</i>) are paid to the “account of His Majesty’s +exchequer” at the Bank of England, and daily returns of such +payments are forwarded to the comptroller. Quarterly accounts +of the income and charge of the consolidated fund are prepared +and transmitted to him, and in case of any deficiency in the +consolidated fund, he may certify to the bank to make advances.</p> + +<p>In the United States the auditing of the Federal accounts is +in the charge of the treasury department, under the supervision +of the comptroller of the treasury, under whom are six auditors, +(1) for the treasury department, (2) for the war, (3) for the +interior, (4) for the navy, (5) for the state, &c., (6) for the post +office, as well as a register and assistant register, who keep all +general receipt and expenditure ledgers; there are official auditors +in most of the states and in many cities. In practically all +European countries there is a department of the administration, +charged with the auditing of the public accounts, as the <i>cour +des comptes</i> in France, the <i>Rechnungshof des deutschen Reiches</i> +in Germany, &c. All local boards, large cities, corporations, +and other bodies have official auditors for the purpose of examining +and checking their accounts and looking after their expenditure. +So far as regards the work which auditors discharge in +connexion with the accounts of joint-stock companies, building +societies, friendly societies, industrial and provident societies, +savings banks, &c., the word auditor is now almost synonymous +with “skilled accountant,” and his duties are discussed in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accountants</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In Scotland there is an “auditor” who is an official of the +court of session, appointed to tax costs in litigation, and who +corresponds to the English taxing-master. In France there +are legal officers, called auditors, attached to the <i>Conseil d’État</i>, +whose duties consist in drawing up briefs and preparing documents. +On the continent of Europe, lawyers skilled in military +law are called “auditors” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Military Law</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Auditor is also the designation of certain officials of the Roman +curia. The <i>auditores Rotae</i> are the judges of the court of the +Rota (so called, according to Hinschius, probably from the form +of the panelling in the room where they originally met). These +were originally ecclesiastics appointed to <i>hear</i> particular questions +in dispute and report to the pope, who retained the decision +in his own hands. In the <i>Speculum juris</i> of Durandus (published +in 1272 and re-edited in 1287 and 1291) the <i>auditores palatii +domini papae</i> are cited as permanent officials appointed to +instruct the pope on questions as they arose. The court of the +Rota appears for the first time under this name in the bull +<i>Romani Pontificis</i> of Martin V. in 1422, and the auditores by +this time had developed into a permanent tribunal to which +the definitive decision of certain disputes, hitherto relegated +to a commission of cardinals or to the pope himself, was assigned. +From this time the powers of the auditores increased until the +reform of the curia by Sixtus V., when the creation of the +congregations of cardinals for specific purposes tended gradually +to withdraw from the Rota its most important functions. It +still, however, ranks as the supreme court of justice in the papal +curia, and, as members of it, the auditores enjoy special privileges. +They are prelates, and, besides the rights enjoyed by these, have +others conceded by successive popes, <i>e.g.</i> that of holding benefices +in plurality, of non-residence, &c. When the pope says mass +pontifically the subdeacon is always an auditor. The auditores +must be in priest’s or deacon’s orders, and have always been +selected—nominally at least—after severe tests as to their moral +and intellectual qualifications. They are twelve in number, and, +by the constitution of Pius IV., four of them were to be foreigners; +one French, one Spanish, one German and one Venetian; while +the nomination of others was the privilege of certain, cities. +No bishop, unless <i>in partibus</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bishop</a></span>), may be an auditor. +On the other hand, from the auditores, as the intellectual <i>élite</i> +of the curia, the episcopate, the nunciature and the cardinalate +are largely recruited. The <i>auditor camerae</i> (<i>uditore generale +della reverenda camera apostolica</i>) is an official formerly charged +with important executive functions. In 1485, by a bull of +Innocent VIII., he was given extensive jurisdiction over all +civil and criminal causes arising in the curia, or appealed to it +from the papal territories. In addition he received the function +of watching over the execution of all sentences passed by the +curia. This was extended later, by Pius IV., to a similar executive +function in respect of all papal bulls and briefs, wherever +no special executor was named. This right was confirmed by +Gregory XVI. in 1834, and the auditor may still in principle +issue letters monitory. In practice, however, this function was +at all times but rarely exercised, and, since 1847, has fallen to +a prelate <i>locum tenens</i>, who also took over the auditor’s jurisdiction +in the papal states (Hinschius, <i>Kathol. Kirchenrecht</i>, i. 409, &c.).</p> + +<p><i>Auditores</i> (listeners), in the early Church, was another name. +for catechumens (<i>q.v</i>.).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDLEY,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Audeley</span>, <b>SIR JAMES</b> (<i>c.</i> 1316-1386), one of the +original knights, or founders, of the order of the Garter, was the +eldest son of Sir James Audley of Stratton Audley in Oxfordshire. +When the order of the Garter was founded, he was +instituted as one of the first founders, and his stall in St George’s +chapel, Windsor, was the eleventh on the side of Edward, the +Black Prince. He appears to have served in France in 1346, +and in August 1350 took part in the naval fight off Sluys. When +hostilities were renewed between England and France in 1354 +Sir James was in constant attendance upon the Black Prince, +and earned a great reputation for valour. At the battle of +Poitiers on the 19th of September 1356 he took his stand in +front of the English army, and after fighting for a long time was +severely wounded and carried from the fight. After the victory, +the prince inquired for Sir James, who was brought to the royal +tent, where Edward told him he had been the bravest knight +on his side, and granted him an annuity of five hundred marks. +Sir James made over this gift to the four esquires who had +attended him during the battle, and received from the prince +a further pension of six hundred marks. In 1359 he was one of +the leaders of an expedition into France, in 1360 he took the +fortress of Chaven in Brittany, and was present at Calais when +peace was made between England and France in October 1360. +He was afterwards governor of Aquitaine and great seneschal +of Poitou, and took part in the capture of the town of La Roche-sur-Yon +by Edmund, earl of Cambridge. He died in 1386 at +Fontenay-le-Comte, where he had gone to reside, and was buried +at Poitiers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jean Froissart, <i>Chronigues</i>, translated by T. Johnes (Hafod, +1810); G.F. Beltz, <i>Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter</i> +(London, 1841).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDLEY, THOMAS AUDLEY,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (<i>c.</i> 1488-1544), lord +chancellor of England, whose parentage is unknown, is believed +to have studied at Buckingham College, Cambridge. He was +educated for the law, entered the Middle Temple (becoming +autumn reader in 1526), was town clerk of Colchester, and was +on the commission of the peace for Essex in 1521. In 1523 he +was returned to parliament for Essex, and represented this constituency +in subsequent parliaments. In 1527 he was groom +of the chamber, and became a member of Wolsey’s household. +On the fall of the latter in 1529, he was made chancellor of the +duchy of Lancaster, and the same year speaker of the House of +Commons, presiding over the famous assembly styled the Black +or Long Parliament of the Reformation, which abolished the +papal jurisdiction. The same year he headed a deputation of +the Commons to the king to complain of Bishop Fisher’s speech +against their proceedings. He interpreted the king’s “moral” +scruples to parliament concerning his marriage with Catherine, +and made himself the instrument of the king in the attack upon +the clergy and the preparation of the act of supremacy. In +1531 he had been made a serjeant-at-law and king’s serjeant; +and on the 20th of May 1532 he was knighted, and succeeded +Sir Thomas More as lord keeper of the great seal, being appointed +lord chancellor on the 26th of January 1533. He supported the +king’s divorce from Catherine and the marriage with Anne +Boleyn; and presided at the trial of Fisher and More in 1535, +at which his conduct and evident intention to secure a conviction +has been generally censured. Next year he tried Anne Boleyn +and her lovers, was present on the scaffold at the unfortunate +queen’s execution, and recommended to parliament the new act +of succession. In 1537 he condemned to death as traitors the +Lincolnshire and the Yorkshire rebels. On the 29th of November +1538 he was created Baron Audley of Walden; and soon afterwards +presided as lord steward at the trials of Henry Pole, +Lord Montacute, and of the unfortunate marquess of Exeter. +In 1539, though inclining himself to the Reformation, he made +himself the king’s instrument in enforcing religious conformity, +and in the passing of the Six Articles Act. On the 24th of +April 1540 he was made a knight of the Garter, and subsequently +managed the attainder of Thomas Cromwell, earl of Essex, and +the dissolution of Henry’s marriage with Anne of Cleves. In +1542 he warmly supported the privileges of the Commons in the +case of George Ferrers, member for Plymouth, arrested and +imprisoned in London, but his conduct was inspired as usual +by subservience to the court, which desired to secure a subsidy, +and his opinion that the arrest was a flagrant contempt has been +questioned by good authority. He resigned the great seal on +the 21st of April 1544, and died on the 30th, being buried at +Saffron Walden, where he had prepared for himself a splendid +tomb. He received several grants of monastic estates, including +the priory of Christ Church in London and the abbey of Walden +in Essex, where his grandson, Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, +built Audley End, doubtless named after him. In 1542 he +re-endowed and re-established Buckingham College, Cambridge, +under the new name of St Mary Magdalene, and ordained in the +statutes that his heirs, “the possessors of the late monastery of +Walden,” should be visitors of the college <i>in perpetuum</i>. <i>A Book +of Orders for the Warre both by Sea and Land</i> (Harleian MS. 297, +f. 144) is attributed to his authorship. He married (1) Christina, +daughter of Sir Thomas Barnardiston, and (2) Elizabeth, +daughter of Thomas Grey, marquess of Dorset, by whom he +had two daughters. His barony became extinct at his death.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1797-1841), French naturalist, +was born at Paris on the 27th of April 1797. He began the study +of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection for +natural history, and entered the medical profession. In 1824 +he was appointed assistant to P.A. Latreille (1762-1833) in +the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural history, +and succeeded him in 1833. In 1838 he became a member of the +Academy of Sciences. He died in Paris on the 9th of November +1841. His principal work, <i>Histoire des insectes nuisibles à la +vigne</i> (1842), was completed after his death by Henry +Milne-Edwards and Émile Blanchard. His papers mostly appeared in +the <i>Annales des sciences naturelles</i>, which, with A.T. Brongniart +and J.B.A. Dumas, he founded in 1824, and in the proceedings +of the Société Entomologique de France, of which he was one of +the founders in 1832.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDRAN,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> the name of a family of French artists and engravers. +The first who devoted himself to the art of engraving +was Claude Audran, born 1597, and the last was Benoit, Claude’s +great-grandson, who died in 1772. The two most distinguished +members of the family are Gérard and Jean.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Gérard</span>, or <span class="sc">Girard, Audran</span>, the most celebrated French +engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at +Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design +and engraving by his father; and, following the example of his +brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there, +in 1666, engraved for Le Brun “Constantine’s Battle with +Maxentius,” his “Triumph,” and the “Stoning of Stephen,” +which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran +in the very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set +out for Rome, where he resided three years, and engraved +several fine plates. That great patron of the arts, J.B. Colbert, +was so struck with the beauty of Audran’s works, that he persuaded +Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return he +applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was appointed +engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement. +In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the +Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings +of Le Brun’s “Battles of Alexander” are regarded as the best +of his numerous works. “He was,” says the Abbé Fontenay, +“the most celebrated engraver that ever existed in the historical +line. We have several subjects, which he engraved from his +own designs, that manifested as much taste as character and +facility. But in the ‘Battles of Alexander’ he surpassed even +the expectations of Le Brun himself.” Gérard published in +1683 a work entitled <i>Les Proportions du corps humain mesurées +sur les plus belles figures de l’antiquité</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Jean Audran</span>, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in 1667. +After having received instructions from his father, he went to +Paris to perfect himself in the art of engraving under his uncle, +next to whom he was the most distinguished member of his family. +At the age of twenty his genius began to display itself in a +surprising manner; and his subsequent success was such, that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span> +in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the king, Louis XIV., +who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the Gobelins; +and the following year he was made a member of the Royal +Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the +graver, and nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of +this artist are those which appear not so pleasing to the eye at +first sight. In these the etching constitutes a great part; and +he has finished them in a bold, rough style. The “Rape of the +Sabines,” after Poussin, is considered his masterpiece.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDRAN, EDMOND<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1842-1901), French musical composer, +was born at Lyons on the 11th of April 1842. He studied music +at the École Niedermeyer, where he won the prize for composition +in 1859. Two years later he accepted the post of organist of +the church of St Joseph at Marseilles. He made his first appearance +as a dramatic composer at Marseilles with <i>L’Ours et le Pacha</i> +(1862), a musical version of one of Scribe’s vaudevilles. This +was followed by <i>La Chercheuse d’Esprit</i> (1864), a comic opera, +also produced at Marseilles. Audran wrote a funeral march +on the death of Meyerbeer, which was performed with some +success, and made various attempts to win fame as a writer of +sacred music. He produced a mass (Marseilles, 1873), an +oratorio, <i>La Sulamite</i> (Marseilles, 1876), and numerous minor +works, but he is known almost entirely as a composer of the +lighter forms of opera. His first Parisian success was made +with <i>Les Noces d’Olivette</i> (1879), a work which speedily found +its way to London and (as <i>Olivette</i>) ran for more than a year +at the Strand theatre (1880-1881). Audran’s music has, in fact, +met with as much favour in England as in France, and all save +a few of his works have been given in a more or less adapted +form in London theatres. Besides those already mentioned, +the following have been the most undeniably successful of +Audran’s many comic operas: <i>Le Grand Mogol</i> (Marseilles, +1876; Paris, 1884; London, as <i>The Grand Mogul</i>, 1884), <i>La +Mascotte</i> (Paris, 1880; London, as <i>The Mascotte</i>, 1881), +<i>Gillette de Narbonne</i> (Paris, 1882; London, as <i>Gillette</i>, 1883), <i>La Cigale +et la Fourmi</i> (Paris, 1886; London, as <i>La Cigale</i>, 1890), <i>Miss +Hélyett</i> (Paris, 1890; London, as <i>Miss Decima</i> 1891), <i>La Poupée</i> +(Paris, 1896; London, 1897). Audran was one of the best +of the successors of Offenbach. He had little of Offenbach’s +humour, but his music is distinguished by an elegance and a refinement of manner which lift it above the level of opéra bouffe +to the confines of genuine opéra comique. He was a fertile if not +a very original melodist, and his orchestration is full of variety, +without being obtrusive or vulgar. Many of his operas, <i>La +Mascotte</i> in particular, reveal a degree of musicianship which +is rarely associated with the ephemeral productions of the lighter +stage. He died in Paris on the 16th of August 1901.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDREHEM, ARNOUL D’<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1305-1370), French soldier, was +born at Audrehem, in the present department of Pas de Calais, +near St Omer. Nothing is known of his career before 1332, when +he is heard of at the court of the king of France. Between +1335 and 1342 he went three times to Scotland to aid King +David Bruce in his wars. In 1342 he became captain for the +king of France in Brittany; then he seems to have served in the +household of the duke of Normandy, and in 1346, as one of the +main defenders of Calais, was taken as a prisoner to England +by Edward III. From 1349 he holds an important place in the +military history of France, first as captain in Angoulême, and +from June 1351, in succession to the lord of Beaujeu, as marshal +of France. In March 1352 he was appointed lieutenant for the +king in the territory between the Loire and the Dordogne, in +June 1353 in Normandy, and in 1355 in Artois, Picardy and the +Boulonnais. It was Audrehem who arrested Charles the Bad, +king of Navarre, and his partisans, at the banquet given by the +dauphin at Rouen in 1356. At Poitiers he was one of those who +advised King John to attack the English, and, charging in the +front line of the French army, was slightly wounded and taken +prisoner. From England he was several times given safe-conducts +to France, and he took an active part in the negotiations for +the treaty of Bretigny, recovering his liberty the same time as +King John. In 1361, as the king’s lieutenant in Languedoc, he +prevented the free companies from seizing the castles, and +negotiated the treaty with their chiefs under which they followed +Henry, count of Trastamara (later Henry II. of Castile), into +Spain. In 1365 he himself joined du Guesclin in the expedition +to Spain, was taken prisoner with him by the Black Prince at +the battle of Najera (1367), and was unable to pay his ransom +until 1369. In 1368, on account of his age, he was relieved of +the office of marshal, being appointed bearer of the oriflamme, +with a pension of 2000 livres. He was sent to Spain in 1370 by +Charles V., to urge his friend du Guesclin to return to France, +and in spite of his age he took part in the battle of Pontvallain +(December 1370), but fell ill and died, probably at Saumur, +in the latter part of December 1370.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Émile Molinier, “Étude sur la vie d’Arnoul d’Audrehem, +maréchal de France,” in <i>Mémoires présentés par divers savants à +l’académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres</i>, 2<span class="sp">e</span> série, iv. (1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1780-1851), American naturalist, +is said to have been born on the 5th of May 1780 in Louisiana, +his father being a French naval officer and his mother a Spanish +Creole. He was educated in Paris, where he had lessons from +the painter, J.L. David. Returning to America in 1798 he +settled on a farm near Philadelphia, and gave himself up to the +study of natural history, and especially to drawing birds. In +1826 he went to England in the hope of getting his drawings +published, and by the following year he had obtained sufficient +subscribers to enable him to begin the publication of his <i>Birds +of America</i>, which on its completion in 1838 consisted of 435 +coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of birds the size of life. +Cuvier called it “le plus magnifique monument que l’art ait encore +élevé à la nature.” The descriptive matter to accompany the +plates appeared at Edinburgh in 5 vols. from 1831 to 1839 under +the title of <i>American Ornithological Biography.</i> During the +publication of these works Audubon divided his time between +Great Britain and America, devoting his leisure to expeditions +to various parts of the United States and Canada for the purpose +of collecting new material. In 1842 he bought an estate on the +Hudson, now Audubon Park in New York City. In 1844 he published +in America a popular octavo edition of his <i>Birds of America.</i> +He also took up the preparation of a new work, <i>The Quadrupeds +of America</i>, with the collaboration of John Bachman, the +publication of which was begun in New York in 1846 and finished in +1853-1854. He died at New York on the 27th of January 1851.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ornithology</a></span>; also <i>Audubon and his Journals</i> (1897), by his +grand-daughter Maria R. Audubon, with notes by Elliot Coues.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, at the +confluence of the Mulde and Schwarzwasser, 21 m. S.W. from +Chemnitz on the railway to Adorf. It has a school of lace-making, +foundries, and manufactures of machinery, tin-plate +and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 17,102.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUERBACH, BERTHOLD<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1812-1882), German novelist, was +born on the 28th of February 1812 at Nordstetten in the +Württemberg Black Forest. His parents were Jews, and he +was intended for the ministry; but after studying philosophy +at Tübingen, Munich and Heidelberg, and becoming estranged +from Jewish orthodoxy by the study of Spinoza, he devoted +himself to literature. He made a fortunate beginning in a +romance on the life of Spinoza (1837), so interesting in itself, +and so close in its adherence to fact, that it may be read with +equal advantage as a novel or as a biography. <i>Dichter und +Kaufmann</i> followed in 1839, and a translation of Spinoza’s +works in 1841, when Auerbach turned to the class of fiction +which has made him famous, the <i>Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten</i> +(1843), stories of peasant life in the Black Forest. In these, +as well as in <i>Barfüssele</i> (1856), <i>Edelweiss</i> (1861), and other +novels of greater compass, he depicts the life of the south German +peasant as “Jeremias Gotthelf” (Albrecht Bitzius) had painted +the peasantry of Switzerland, but in a less realistic spirit. When +this vein was exhausted Auerbach returned to his first phase +as a philosophical novelist, producing <i>Auf der Höhe</i> (1865), +<i>Das Landhaus am Rhein</i> (1869), and other romances of profound +speculative tendencies, turning on plots invented by himself. +With the exception of <i>Auf der Höhe</i>, these works did not enjoy +much popularity, and suffer from lack of form and concentration. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span> +Auerbach’s fame continues to rest upon his <i>Dorfgeschichten</i>, +although the celebrity of even these has been impaired by the +growing demand for a more uncompromising realism. Auerbach +died at Cannes on the 8th of February 1882.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first collected edition of Auerbach’s <i>Schriften</i> appeared +in 22 vols. in 1863-1864; the best edition is in 18 vols. (1892-1895). +Auerbach’s <i>Briefe an seinen Freund J. Auerbach</i> (with a preface by +F. Spielhagen) were published in 2 vols. (1884). See E. Zabel, +<i>B. Auerbach</i> (1882); and E. Lasker, <i>B. Auerbach, ein Gedenkblatt</i> +(1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUERSPERG, ANTON ALEXANDER,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> <span class="sc">Graf von</span> (1806-1876), +Austrian poet, who wrote under the pseudonym of <span class="sc">Anastasius +Grün</span>, was born on the 11th of April 1806, at Laibach, the capital +of the Austrian duchy of Carniola, and was head of the Thurn-am-Hart +branch of the Carniolan cadet line of the house of Auersperg. +He received his university education first at Graz and then at +Vienna, where he studied jurisprudence. In 1830 he succeeded +to his ancestral property, and in 1832 appeared as a member +of the estates of Carniola on the <i>Herrenbank</i> of the diet at +Laibach. Here he distinguished himself by his outspoken +criticism of the Austrian government, leading the opposition +of the duchy to the exactions of the central power. In 1832 +the title of “imperial chamberlain” was conferred upon him, +and in 1839 he married Maria, daughter of Count Attems. After +the revolution of 1848 at Vienna he represented the district of +Laibach at the German national assembly at Frankfort-on-the-Main, +to which he tried in vain to persuade his Slovene compatriots +to send representatives. After a few months, however, +disgusted with the violent development of the revolution, he +resigned his seat, and again retired into private life. In 1860 +he was summoned to the remodelled <i>Reichsrat</i> by the emperor, +who next year nominated him a life member of the Austrian +upper house (<i>Herrenhaus</i>), where, while remaining a keen upholder +of the German centralized empire, as against the federalism +of Slavs and Magyars, he greatly distinguished himself as one +of the most intrepid and influential supporters of the cause of +liberalism, in both political and religious matters, until his death +at Graz on the 12th of September 1876.</p> + +<p>Count Auersperg’s first publication, a collection of lyrics, +<i>Blätter der Liebe</i> (1830), showed little originality; but his second +production, <i>Der letzte Ritter</i> (1830), brought his genius to light. +It celebrates the deeds and adventures of the emperor Maximilian I. +(1493-1519) in a cycle of poems written in the strophic +form of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>. But Auersperg’s fame rests almost +exclusively on his political poetry; two collections entitled +<i>Spaziergänge eines Wiener Poeten</i> (1831) and <i>Schutt</i> (1835) +created a sensation in Germany by their originality and bold +liberalism. These two books, which are remarkable not merely +for their outspoken opinions, but also for their easy versification +and powerful imagery, were the forerunners of the German +political poetry of 1840-1848. His <i>Gedichte</i> (1837), if anything, +increased his reputation; his epics, <i>Die Nibelungen im Frack</i> +(1843) and <i>Der Pfaff vom Kahlenberg</i> (1850), are characterized +by a fine ironic humour. He also produced masterly translations +of the popular Slovenic songs current in Carniola (<i>Volkslieder +aus Krain</i>, 1850), and of the English poems relating to “Robin +Hood” (1864).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Anastasius Grün’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> were published by L.A. +Frankl in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1877); his <i>Briefwechsel mit L.A. Frankl</i> +(Berlin, 1897). A selection of his <i>Politische Reden und Schriften</i> +has been published by S. Hock (Vienna, 1906). See P. von Radics, +<i>Anastasius Grün</i> (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUFIDENA,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> an ancient city of the Samnites Caraceni, the site +of which is just north of the modern Alfedena,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Italy, a station +on the railway between Sulmona and Isernia, 37 m. from the +latter. Its remains are fully and accurately described by +L. Mariani in <i>Monumenti dei Lincei</i> (1901), 225 seq.: cf. <i>Notizie +degli scavi</i>, 1901, 442 seq.; 1902, 516 seq. The ancient city +occupied two hills, both over 3800 ft. above sea-level (in the valley +between were found the supposed remains of the later forum), +and the walls, of rough Cyclopean work, were over a mile in +length. A fortified outpost lay on a still higher hill to the north. +Not very much is as yet known of the city itself (though one +public building of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was excavated in 1901, +and a small sanctuary in 1902), attention having been chiefly +devoted to the necropolis which lay below it; 1400 tombs had +already been examined in 1908, though this number is conjectured +to be only a sixteenth of the whole. They are all +inhumation burials, of the advanced iron age, and date from the +7th to the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, falling into three classes—those +without coffin, those with a coffin formed of stone slabs, and +those with a coffin formed of tiles. The objects discovered are +preserved in a museum on the spot. In the Roman period we +find Aufidena figuring as a post station on the road between +Sulmo and Aesernia, which, however, runs past Castel di Sangro, +crossing the river by an ancient bridge some 5 m. to the north-east. +Castel di Sangro has remains of ancient walls, but these +are attributed to a road by Mariani, and in any case the fortified +area there was quite small, only one-sixteenth the size of Aufidena. +The attempted identification of Castel di Sangro with Aufidena +must therefore be rejected, though we must allow that it was +probably the Roman post station; the ancient city, since its +capture by the Romans in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, having lost +something of its importance.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Two churches here contain paintings +of interest in the history of Abruzzese art, and one of them, +the Madonna del Campo, contained fragments of a temple of +considerable size.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGEAS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Augeias</span>, in Greek legend, a son of Helios, the +sun-god, and king of the Epeians in Elis. He possessed an immense +wealth of herds, including twelve bulls sacred to Helios, +and white as swans. Eurystheus imposed upon Heracles the +task of clearing out all his stalls unaided in one day. This he +did by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through them. +Augeas had promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this, +alleging that Heracles had acted only in the service of Eurystheus. +Heracles thereupon sent an army against him, and, +though at first defeated, finally slew Augeas and his sons.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Apollodorus ii. 5, 7; Pindar, <i>Olympia</i>, xi, 24; Diodorus iv. 13; +Theocritus, <i>Idyll</i> 25.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGER<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>nafu-gár</i>, nave-borer; the original +initial <i>n</i> having been lost, as in “adder,” through a confusion +in the case of a preceding indefinite article), a tool for boring +(<i>q.v.</i>) or drilling.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> duke of +Castiglione (1757-1816), marshal of France, was born in Paris +in a humble station of life. At the age of seventeen he enlisted in +the carabineers and thereafter came into note as a duellist. +Having drawn his sword upon an officer who insulted him, he fled +from France and roamed about in the Levant. He served in the +Russian army against the Turks; but afterwards escaped into +Prussia and enlisted in the guards. Tiring of this, he deserted +with several others and reached the Saxon frontier. Service in +the Neapolitan army and a sojourn in Portugal filled up the years +1788-1791; but the events of the French Revolution brought +him back to his native land. He served with credit against the +Vendeans and then joined the troops opposing the Spaniards in +the south. There he rose rapidly, becoming general of division +on the 23rd of December 1793. His division distinguished itself +even more when transferred to the army of Italy; and under +Bonaparte he was largely instrumental in gaining the battle of +Millesimo and in taking the castle of Cosseria and the camp of +Ceva. At the battle of Lodi (May 10, 1796), the turning movement +of Augereau and his division helped to decide the day. +But it was at Castiglione that he rendered the most signal +services. Marbot describes him as encouraging even Bonaparte +himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle, +and, though this is exaggerated, there is no doubt that Augereau +largely decided the fortunes of those critical days. Bonaparte +thus summed up his military qualities: “Has plenty of character, +courage, firmness, activity; is inured to war; is well liked +by the soldiery; is fortunate in his operations.” In 1797 Bonaparte +sent him to Paris to encourage the Jacobinical Directors, +and it was Augereau and the troops led by him that coerced +the “moderates” in the councils and carried through the <i>coup +d’état</i> of 18 Fructidor (4th of September) 1797. He was then +sent to lead the united French forces in Germany; but peace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span> +speedily ensued; and he bore a grudge against the Directors and +Bonaparte for their treatment of him at that time. He took +no part in the <i>coup d’état</i> of Brumaire 1799, and did not +distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign which ensued. +Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte’s fortunes, he +received a marshal’s baton at the beginning of the Empire +(May 19, 1804). In the campaign of 1805 he did good service +around Constance and Bregenz, and at Jena (October 14, 1806) +his corps distinguished itself. Early in 1807 he fell ill of a fever, +and at the battle of Eylau he had to be supported on his horse, +but directed the movements of his corps with his wonted bravery. +His corps was almost annihilated and the marshal himself +received a wound from which he never quite recovered. When +transferred to Catalonia, he gained some successes but tarnished +his name by cruelty. In the campaign of 1812 in Russia and in +the Saxon campaign of 1813 his conduct was little more than +mediocre. Before the battle of Leipzig (October 16, 18, 19, 1813), +Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of +Castiglione; to which he replied, “Give me back the old soldiers +of Italy, and I will show you that I am.” In 1814 he had command +of the army of Lyons, and his slackness exposed him to +the charge of having come to an understanding with the Austrian +invaders. Thereafter he served Louis XVIII., but, after reviling +Napoleon, went over to him during the Hundred Days. The +emperor repulsed him and charged him with being a traitor to +France in 1814. Louis XVIII., when restored to the throne, +deprived him of his military title and pension. He died at his +estate of La Houssaye on the 12th of June 1816. In person he +was tall and commanding, but his loud and vulgar behaviour +frequently betrayed the soldier of fortune.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As authorities consult: Kock’s <i>Mémoires de Masséna</i>; +Bouvier, <i>Bonaparte en Italie</i>; +Count A.F. Andréossi, <i>La Campagne sur le Mein, 1800-1801</i>; +Baron A. Ducasse, <i>Précis de la campagne de l’armée de Lyon en 1814</i>; +and the <i>Memoirs</i> of Marbot.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGHRIM,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aghrim</span>, a small village in Co. Galway, +Ireland, 4 m. W. by S. of Ballinasloe. It is rendered memorable +by the decisive victory gained here on the 12th of July 1691 by +the forces of William III. under General Ginkel, over those of +James II. under the French general St Ruth, who fell in the fight. +The Irish numbering 25,000, and strongly posted behind marshy +ground, at first maintained a vigorous resistance; but Ginkel +having penetrated their line of defence, and their general being +struck down by a cannon ball at this critical moment, they were at +length overcome and routed with terrible slaughter. The loss of +the English did not exceed 700 killed and 1000 wounded; while +the Irish, in their disastrous flight, lost about 7000 men, besides +the whole material of the army. This defeat rendered the adherents +of James in Ireland incapable of further efforts, and was +speedily followed by the complete submission of the country.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGIER, GUILLAUME VICTOR ÉMILE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1820-1889), French +dramatist, was born at Valence, Drôme, on the 17th of September +1820. He was the grandson of Pigault Lebrun, and belonged +to the well-to-do <i>bourgeoisie</i> in principles and in thought as +well as by actual birth. He received a good education and studied +for the bar. In 1844 he wrote a play in two acts and in verse, +<i>La Ciguë</i>, refused at the Théâtre Français, but produced with +considerable success at the Odéon. This settled his career. +Thenceforward, at fairly regular intervals, either alone or in +collaboration with other writers—Jules Sandeau, Eugène-Marie +Labiche, Éd. Foussier—he produced plays which were in their way +eventful. <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i> (1862)—which was regarded +as an attack on the clerical party in France, and was only +brought out by the direct intervention of the emperor—caused +some political excitement. His last comedy, <i>Les Fourchambault</i>, +belongs to the year 1879. After that date he wrote +no more, restrained by an honourable fear of producing inferior +work. The Academy had long before, on the 31st of March +1857, elected him to be one of its members. He died in his +house at Croissy on the 25th of October 1889. Such, in briefest +outline, is the story of a life which Augier himself describes as +“without incident”—a life in all senses honourable. Augier, +with Dumas <i>fils</i> and Sardou, may be said to have held the +French stage during the Second Empire. The man respected +himself and his art, and his art on its ethical side—for he did not +disdain to be a teacher—has high qualities of rectitude and +self-restraint. Uprightness of mind and of heart, generous honesty, +as Jules Lemaitre well said, constituted the very soul of all +his dramatic work. <i>L’Aventurière</i> (1848), the first of Augier’s +important works, already shows a deviation from romantic +models; and in the <i>Mariage d’Olympe</i> (1855) the courtesan is +shown as she is, not glorified as in Dumas’s <i>Dame aux Camélias</i>. +In <i>Gabrielle</i> (1849) the husband, not the lover, is the sympathetic, +poetic character. In the <i>Lionnes pauvres</i> (1858) the wife who +sells her favours comes under the lash. Greed of gold, social +demoralization, ultramontanism, lust of power, these are satirized +in <i>Les Effrontés</i> (1861), <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i> (1862), <i>Contagion</i>, +first announced under the title of <i>Le Baron d’Estrigaud</i> (1866), +<i>Lions et renards</i> (1869)—which, with <i>Le Gendre de M. Poirier</i> +(1854), written in collaboration with Jules Sandeau, reach the +high-water mark of Augier’s art; in <i>Philiberte</i> (1853) he +produced a graceful and delicate drawing-room comedy; and in +<i>Jean de Thommeray</i>, acted in 1873 after the great reverses of +1870, the regenerating note of patriotism rings high and clear. +His last two dramas, <i>Madame Caverlet</i> (1876) and <i>Les +Fourchambault</i> (1879), are problem plays. But it would be unfair +to suggest that Émile Augier was a preacher only. He was a +moralist in the great sense, the sense in which the term can be +applied to Molière and the great dramatists—a moralist because +of his large and sane outlook on life. Nor does the interest of +his dramas depend on elaborate plot. It springs from character +and its evolution. His men and women move as personality, +that mysterious factor, dictates. They are real, several of them +typical. Augier’s first drama, <i>La Ciguë</i>, belongs to a time +(1844) when the romantic drama was on the wane; and his almost +exclusively domestic range of subject scarcely lends itself to lyric +outbursts of pure poetry. But his verse, if not that of a great +poet, has excellent dramatic qualities, while the prose of his prose +dramas is admirable for directness, alertness, sinew and a large +and effective wit. Perhaps it wanted these qualities to enlist +laughter on his side in such a war as he waged against false +passion and false sentiment.</p> +<div class="author">(F. T. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGITE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> an important member of the pyroxene (<i>q.v.</i>) group +of rock-forming minerals. The name (from <span class="grk" title="augae">αὐγή</span>, lustre) has +at various times been used in different senses; it is now applied +to aluminous pyroxenes of the monoclinic series which are +dark-greenish, brownish or black in colour. Like the other pyroxenes +it is characterized crystallographically by its distinct cleavages +parallel to the prism-faces (M), the angle between which is 87°. +A typical crystal is represented in fig. 1, whilst fig. 2 shows a +crystal twinned on +the orthopinacoid (r′). +Such crystals, of short +prismatic habit and +black in colour, are +common as phenocrysts +in many basalts, +and are hence known +as “basaltic augite”; +when the containing +rock weathers to a +clayey material the +augite is left as black +isolated crystals, and +such specimens, usually from Bohemia, are represented in all +mineral collections. Though typical of basaltic rocks, augite is also +an important constituent of many other kinds of igneous rocks, and +a rock composed almost wholly of augite is known as augitite. +It also occurs in metamorphic rocks; for example, in the +crystalline limestones of the Fassathal in Tirol, where the +variety known as fassaite is found as pistachio-green crystals +resembling epidote in appearance.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:329px; height:228px" src="images/img901.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Chemically, augite resembles diopside in consisting mainly +of CaMgSi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, but it contains in addition alumina and ferric +iron as (Mg, Fe″) (Al, Fe″′)<span class="su">2</span> SiO<span class="su">6</span>; the acmite (NaFe″′Si<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>,) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span> +and jadeite (NaAlSi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>) molecules are also sometimes present. +Variations in the amount of iron in mixtures of these isomorphous +molecules are accompanied by variations in the optical characters +of the augite.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGMENT<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (Lat. <i>augere</i>, to increase), in Sanskrit and Greek +grammar the vowel prefixed to indicate the past tenses of a verb; +in Greek grammar it is called <i>syllabic</i>, when only the ε is prefixed; +<i>temporal</i>, when it causes an initial vowel in the verb to +become a diphthong or long vowel.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGMENTATION,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or enlargement, a term in heraldry for +an addition to a coat of arms; in music, for the imitation in +longer notes of an original theme; in biology, an addition to the +normal number of parts; in Scots law, an increase of a minister’s +stipend by an action called “Process of Augmentation.” The +“Court of Augmentation” in Henry VIII.’s time was established +to try cases affecting the suppression of monasteries, and was +dissolved in Mary’s reign.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGSBURG,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the +kingdom of Bavaria, chief town of the district of Swabia. Pop. +(1885) 65,905; (1900) 89,109; (1905) 93,882. It lies on a high +plateau, 1500 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Wertach and +Lech, which unite below the city, 39 m. W.N.W. from Munich, +with which, as with Regensburg, Ingolstadt and Ulm, it is +connected by main lines of railway. It consists of an upper and a +lower town, the old Jakob suburb and various modern suburbs. +Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703 and have since been +converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is remarkable +for its breadth and architectural beauty. One of its +most interesting edifices is the Fugger Haus, of which the entire +front is painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augsburg +most worthy of notice is the town-hall in Renaissance style, +one of the finest in Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-1620. +One of its rooms, called the “Golden Hall,” from the profusion +of its gilding, is 113 ft. long, 59 broad and 53 high. The palace +of the bishops, where the memorable Confession of Faith was +presented to Charles V., is now used for government offices. +Among the seventeen Reman Catholic churches and chapels, the +cathedral, a basilica with two Romanesque towers, dates in its +oldest portions from the 10th century. The church of St Ulrich +and St Afra, built 1474-1500, is a Late Gothic edifice, with a +nave of magnificent proportions and a tower 300 ft. high. The +church stands on the spot where the first Christians of the district +suffered martyrdom, and where a chapel was erected in the 6th +century over the grave of St Afra. There are also a Protestant +church, St Anne’s, a school of arts, a polytechnic institution, a +picture gallery in the former monastery of St Catherine, a museum, +observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange, gymnasium, deaf-mute +institution, orphan asylum, several remarkable fountains +dating from the 16th century, &c. Augsburg is particularly well +provided with special and technical schools. The newer buildings, +all in the modern west quarter of the city, include law courts, a +theatre, and a municipal library with 200,000 volumes. The +“Fuggerei,” built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, is a miniature +town, with six streets or alleys, three gates and a church, and +consists of a hundred and six small houses let to indigent Roman +Catholic citizens at a nominal rent. The manufactures of Augsburg +are of great importance. It is the chief seat of the textile +industry in south Germany, and its cloth, cotton goods and linen +manufactories employ about 10,000 hands. It is also noted for +its bleach and dye works, its engine works, foundries, paper +factories, and production of silk goods, watches, jewelry, +mathematical instruments, leather, chemicals, &c. Augsburg is also +the centre of the acetylene gas industry of Germany. Copper-engraving, +for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried +on; but printing, lithography and publishing have acquired a +considerable development, one of the best-known Continental +newspapers being the <i>Allgemeine Zeitung</i> or <i>Augsburg Gazette</i>. +On the opposite side of the river, which is here crossed by a +bridge, lies the township of Lechhausen.</p> + +<p>Augsburg (the <i>Augusta Vindelicorum</i> of the Romans) derives +its name from the Roman emperor Augustus, who, on the +conquest of Rhaetia by Drusus, established here a Roman colony +about 14 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In the 5th century it was sacked by the Huns, and +afterwards came under the power of the Frankish kings. It was +almost entirely destroyed in the war of Charlemagne against +Tassilo III., duke of Bavaria; and after the dissolution and +division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the dukes of +Swabia. After this it rose rapidly into importance as a +manufacturing and commercial town, becoming, after Nuremberg, +the centre of the trade between Italy and the north of Europe; +its merchant princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the +Medici of Florence; but the alterations produced in the currents +of trade by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned +a great decline. In 1276 it was raised to the rank of a free +imperial city, which it retained, with many changes in its internal +constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to the kingdom of +Bavaria. Meanwhile, it was the scene of numerous events of +historical importance. It was besieged and taken by Gustavus +Adolphus in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial +forces; in 1703 it was bombarded by the electoral prince of +Bavaria, and forced to pay a contribution of 400,000 dollars; +and in the war of 1803 it suffered severely. Of its conventions +the most memorable are those which gave birth to the Augsburg +confession (1530) and to the Augsburg alliance (1686).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wagenseil, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg</i> (Augs., 1820-1822); +Werner, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Augsburg</i> (1899); Roth, <i>Augsburg’s +Reformationsgeschichte</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGSBURG, CONFESSION OF,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> the most important Protestant +statement of belief drawn up at the Reformation. In summoning +a diet for April 1530, Charles V. offered a fair hearing to all +religious parties in the Empire. Luther, Justus Jonas, Melanchthon +and Johann Bugenhagen were appointed to draw up a +statement of the Saxon position. These “Torgau Articles” +(March 1530) tell merely why Saxony had abolished certain +ecclesiastical abuses. Melanchthon, however, soon found that, +owing to attacks by Johann Eck of Ingolstadt (“404 Articles”), +Saxony must state its position in doctrinal matters as well. +Taking the Articles of Marburg (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marburg, Colloquy of</a></span>) +and of Schwabach as the point of departure, he repudiated all +connexion with heretics condemned by the ancient church. +On the 11th of May he sent the draft to Luther, who approved it, +adding that he himself “could not tread so softly and gently.” +On the 23rd of June the Confession, originally intended as the +statement of Electoral Saxony alone, was discussed and signed +by a number of other Protestant princes and cities, and read +before the diet on the 25th of June. Articles 1-21 attempt +to show that the Evangelicals had deviated from current doctrine +only in order to restore the pure and original teaching of the +church. In spite of significant omissions (the sole authority +of scripture; rejection of transubstantiation), the Confession +contains nothing contradictory to Luther’s position, and in its +emphasis on justification by faith alone enunciates a cardinal +concept of the Evangelical churches. Articles 22-28 describe +and defend the reformation of various “abuses.” On the 3rd +of August, shorn of much of its original bitterness, the so-called +<i>Confutatio pontificia</i> was read; it well expresses the views +approved in substance by the emperor and all the Catholic +party. In answer, Melanchthon was ordered to prepare an +Apology of the Confession, which the emperor refused to receive; +so Melanchthon enlarged it and published the <i>editio princeps</i> +of both Confession and Apology in 1531.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As he felt free to make slight changes, the first edition does not +represent the exact text of 1530; the edition of 1533 was further +improved, while that of 1540, rearranged and in part rewritten, is +known as the <i>Variata</i>. Dogmatic changes in this seem to have drawn +forth no protest from Luther or Brenz, so Melanchthon made fresh +alterations in 1542. Later, the <i>Variata</i> of 1540 became the creed +of the Melanchthonians and even of the Crypto-calvinists; so the +framers of the Formula of Concord, promulgated in 1580, returned +to the text handed in at the Diet. By mistake they printed from a +poor copy and not from the original, from which their German text +varies at over 450 places. Their Latin text, that of Melanchthon’s +<i>editio princeps</i>, is more nearly accurate. The <i>textus receptus</i> is that +of the Formula of Concord, the divergent Latin and German forms +being equally binding.</p> +</div> + +<p>Acceptance of the Confession and Apology was made a +condition of membership in the Schmalkalden League. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span> +Wittenberg Concord (1536) and the Articles of Schmalkalden +(1537) reaffirmed them. The Confession was the ultimate +source of much of the Thirty-nine Articles. The Religious +Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognized no Protestants save adherents +of the Confession; this was modified in 1648. To-day +the <i>Invariata</i> is of symbolical authority among Lutherans +generally, while the <i>Variata</i> is accepted by the Reformed +churches of certain parts of Germany (see Löber, pp. 79-83.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions of the received text: J.T. Müller, <i>Die symbolischen +Bücher der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche</i> (10th ed., Gütersloh, +1907), with a valuable historical introduction by Th. Kolde; +Theodor Kolde, <i>Die Augsburgische Konfession</i> (Gotha, 1896), (contains +also the Marburg, Schwabach and Torgau Articles, the <i>Confutatio</i> +and the <i>Variata</i> of 1540). For translations of these, as well as +of Zwingli’s Reckoning of his Faith, and of the Tetrapolitan +Confession, see H.E. Jacobs, <i>The Book of Concord</i> (Philadelphia, +1882-83). The texts submitted to the emperor, lost before 1570, +are reconstructed and compared with the <i>textus receptus</i> by P. +Tschackert, <i>Die unveranderte Augsburgische Konfession</i> (Leipzig, +1901). For the genesis of the Confession, see Th. Kolde, <i>Die alteste +Redaktion der Augsburger Konfession</i> (Gütersloh, 1906), also Kolde’s +article, “Augsburger Bekenntnis,” in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> +(3rd ed., vol. ii., Leipzig, 1897). The standard commentary is +still G.L. Plitt, <i>Einleitung in die Augustana</i> (Erlangen, 1867 ff.); +compare also J. Ficker, <i>Die Konfutation des Augsburgischen Bekenntnisses +in ihrer ersten Gestalt</i> (Leipzig, 1891); also A. Petzold, +<i>Die Konfutation des Vierstädtebekenntnisses</i> (Leipzig, 1900). On +its present use see G. Löber, <i>Die im evangelischen Deutschland +geltenden Ordinationsverpflichtungen geschichtlich geordnet</i> (Leipzig, +1905), 79 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGSBURG, WAR OF THE LEAGUE OF<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, the name applied +to the European war of 1688-1697. The league of Augsburg +was concluded on the 9th of July 1686 by the emperor, the +elector of Brandenburg and other princes, against the French. +Spain, Sweden, England and other non-German states joined +the league, and formed the Grand Alliance by the treaty of +Vienna (July 12, 1689). (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grand Alliance, War of the</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGURS<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span>, in ancient Rome, members of a religious college +whose duty it was to observe and interpret the signs (auspices) +of approval or disapproval sent by the gods in reference to +any proposed undertaking. The <i>augures</i> were originally called +<i>auspices</i>, but, while <i>auspex</i><a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> fell into disuse and was replaced +by <i>augur</i>, <i>auspicium</i> was retained as the scientific term for the +observation of signs.</p> + +<p>The early history of the college is obscure. Its institution +has been attributed to Romulus or Numa. It probably consisted +originally of three members, of whom the king himself was one. +This number was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus, but in 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +it was only four, two places, according to Livy (x. 6), being +vacant. The Ogulnian law in the same year increased the +number to nine, five plebeian being added to the four patrician +members. In the time of Sulla the number was fifteen, which +was increased to sixteen by Julius Caesar. This number continued +in imperial times; the college itself was certainly in +existence as late as the 4th century. The office of augur, which +was bestowed only upon persons of distinguished merit and was +much sought after by reason of its political importance, was +held for life. Vacancies were originally filled by co-optation, +but by the Domitian law (104) the selection was made, by +seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes chosen by lot, from +candidates previously nominated by the college. The insignia +of office were the <i>lituus</i>, a staff free from knots and bent at the +top, and the <i>trabea</i>, a kind of toga with bright scarlet stripes +and a purple border. The science of augury was contained in +various written works, which were consulted as occasion arose: +such were the <i>libri augurum</i>, a manual of augural ritual, and +the <i>commentarii augurum</i>, a collection of decrees or answers +given by the college to the senate in certain definite cases.</p> + +<p>The natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was +the sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed +by him as counsel to men. The latter, however, was the more +difficult of interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged +the system of divination with which the augurs were occupied. +It was the duty of the augur, before the auspices properly so +called (those from the sky and from birds) were taken, to mark +out with his staff the templum or consecrated space within +which his observations were intended to be made. The method +of procedure was as follows. At midnight, when the sky was +clear and there was an absence of wind, the augur, in the presence +of a magistrate, took up his position on a hill which afforded +a wide view. After prayer and sacrifice, he marked out the +templum both in the sky and on the ground and dedicated it. +Within its limits he then pitched a tent, in which he sat down +with covered head, asked the gods for a sign, and waited for an +answer. As the augur looked south he had the east, the lucky +quarter, on his left, and therefore signs on the left side were +considered favourable, those on the right unfavourable. The +practice was the reverse in Greece; the observers of signs looked +towards the north, so that signs on the right were regarded as +the favourable ones, and this is frequently adopted in the Roman +poets. The augur afterwards announced the result of his observations +in a set form of words, by which the magistrate was bound. +Signs of the will of the gods were of two kinds, either in answer to +a request (<i>auspicia impetrativa</i>), or incidental (<i>auspicia oblativa</i>). +Of such signs there were five classes: (1) Signs in the sky +(<i>caelestia auspicia</i>), consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning, +but not excluding falling stars and other phenomena. Lightning +from left to right was favourable, from right to left unfavourable; +but on its mere appearance, in either direction, all business in the +public assemblies was suspended for the day. Since the person +charged to take the auspices for a certain day was constitutionally +subject to no other authority who could test the truth or falsehood +of his statement that he had observed lightning, this became +a favourite device for putting off meetings of the public assembly. +Restrictions were, however, imposed in later republican times. +When a new consul, praetor or quaestor entered on his first day of +office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of +custom to report to him that lightning from the left had been +seen. (2) Signs from birds (<i>signa ex avibus</i>), with reference to the +direction of their flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other +sounds. To the first class, called <i>alites</i>, belonged the eagle and +the vulture; to the second, called <i>oscines</i>, the owl, the crow and +the raven. The mere appearance of certain birds indicated good +or ill luck, while others had a reference only to definite persons or +events. In matters of ordinary life on which divine counsel was +prayed for, it was usual to have recourse to this form of divination. +For public affairs it was, by the time of Cicero, superseded by the +fictitious observation of lightning. (3) Feeding of birds (<i>auspicia +ex tripudiis</i>), which consisted in observing whether a bird—usually +a fowl—on grain being thrown before it, let fall a particle +from its mouth (<i>tripudium sollistimum</i>). If it did so, the will of +the gods was in favour of the enterprise in question. The +simplicity of this ceremony recommended it for very general use, +particularly in the army when on service. The fowls were kept in +cages by a servant, styled <i>pullarius</i>. In imperial times <i>decuriales +pullarii</i> are mentioned. (4) Signs from animals (<i>pedestria +auspicia</i>, or <i>ex quadrupedibus</i>), <i>i.e</i>. observation of the course of, +or sounds uttered by, quadrupeds and reptiles within a fixed +space, corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds, +but much less frequently employed. It had gone out of use by +the time of Cicero. (5) Warnings (<i>signa ex diris</i>), consisting of +all unusual phenomena, but chiefly such as boded ill. Being +accidental in their occurrence, they belonged to the <i>auguria +oblativa</i>, and their interpretation was not a matter for the augurs, +unless occurring in the course of some public transaction, in +which case they formed a divine veto against it. Otherwise, +reference was made for an interpretation to the pontifices in olden +times, afterwards frequently to the Sibylline books, or the Etruscan +haruspices, when the incident was not already provided for by a +rule, as, for example, that it was unlucky for a person leaving his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span> +house to meet a raven, that the sudden death of a person from +epilepsy at a public meeting was a sign to break up the assembly.</p> + +<p>Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were +the casting of lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college +<i>sacris faciundis</i>), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of +animals slain for sacrifice (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>). Anything abnormal +found there was brought under the notice of the augurs, but +usually the Etruscan haruspices were employed for this. The +persons entitled to ask for an expression of the divine will on +a public affair were the magistrates. To the highest offices, +including all persons of consular and praetorian rank, belonged +the right of taking <i>auspicia maxima</i>; to the inferior offices of +aedile and quaestor, the <i>auspicia minora</i>; the differences between +these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which +<i>auspicia publica</i> were always taken were the election of magistrates, +their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly +to pass decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could +only be taken in Rome itself; and in case of a commander +having to renew his <i>auspicia</i>, he must either return to Rome or +select a spot in the foreign country to represent the hearth of that +city. The time for observing auspices was, as a rule, between +midnight and dawn of the day fixed for any proposed undertaking. +In military affairs this course was not always possible, as in the +case of taking auspices before crossing a river. The founding of +colonies, the beginning of a battle, the calling together an army, +the sittings of the senate, decisions of peace or war, were occasions, +not always but frequently, for taking auspices. The place where +the ceremony was performed was not fixed, but selected with a +view to the matter in hand. A spot being selected, the official +charged to make the observation pitched his tent there some +days before. A matter postponed through adverse signs from +the gods could on the following or some future day be again +brought forward for the auspices. If an error (<i>vitium</i>) occurred +in the auspices, the augurs could, of their own accord or at the +request of the senate, inform themselves of the circumstances, +and decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their decree +while he remained in office, but on retiring he could be prosecuted. +<i>Auspicia oblativa</i> referred mostly to the comitia. A magistrate +was not bound to take notice of signs reported merely by a +private person, but he could not overlook such a report from a +brother magistrate. For example, if a quaestor on his entry to +office observed lightning and announced it to the consul, the +latter must delay the public assembly for the day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the subject generally, see A. Bouché-Leclercq, <i>Histoire de la +divination dans l’antiquité</i> (1879), and his articles, with bibliography, +in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, also articles +“Augures,” “Auspicium,” by Wissowa in Pauly’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i> +(II. pt. ii., 1896), and by L.C. Purser (and others) in Smith’s <i>Dictionary +of Greek and Roman Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890). (See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divination</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astrology</a></span>, &c.)</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There is no doubt that <i>auspex</i> = <i>avi-spex</i> (“observer of birds”), +but the derivation of <i>augur</i> is still unsettled. The following have +been suggested: (1) <i>augur</i> (or <i>augus</i>) is a substantive originally +meaning “increase” (related to <i>augustus</i> as <i>robur</i> to <i>robustus</i>), +then transferred to the priest as the giver of increase or blessing; +(2) = <i>avi-gur</i>, the second part of the word pointing to (<i>a</i>) <i>garrire</i>, +“chatter,” or (<i>b</i>) <i>gerere</i>, the augur being conceived as “carrying” +or guiding the flight of the birds; (3) from a lost verb <i>augo</i> = “tell,” +“declare.” It is now generally agreed that the science of augury is +of Italian, not Etruscan, origin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUST<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (originally <i>Sextilis</i>), the sixth month in the pre-Julian +Roman year, which received its present name from the +emperor Augustus. The preceding month, <i>Quintilis</i>, had been +called “July” after Julius Caesar, and the emperor chose August +to be rechristened in his own honour because his greatest good +fortune had then happened. In that month he had been admitted +to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a triumph, had received the +allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the Janiculum, had concluded +the civil wars, and had subdued Egypt. As July contained +thirty-one days, and August only thirty, it was thought necessary to +add another day to the latter month, in order that the month of +Augustus might not be in any respect inferior to that of Julius.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Richmond county, +Georgia, U.S.A., at the head of steamboat navigation on the +Savannah river, 132 m. N.W. of Savannah by rail and 240 m. +by river course. Pop. (1890) 33,300; (1900) 39,441, of whom +18,487 were negroes and only 995 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 41,040. Augusta is served by the Southern, the +Augusta Southern (controlled by the Southern), the Atlantic +Coast Line, the Charleston & Western Carolina (controlled by +the Atlantic Coast Line), the Georgia and the Central of Georgia +railways, by an electric line to Aiken, South Carolina, and by a +line of steamers to Savannah. The city extends along the river +bank for a distance of more than 3 m., and is connected by a bridge +with Hamburg, and with North Augusta, South Carolina, two +residential suburbs. Augusta is well known as a winter resort +(mean winter temperature, 47° F.), and there are many fine winter +homes here of wealthy Northerners. There are good roads, +stretching from Augusta for miles in almost every direction. +In North Augusta there is a large hotel, and there is another +in Summerville (pop. in 1910, 4361), 2½ m. N.W., an attractive +residential suburb and winter resort, in which there are a country +club and a large United States arsenal, established in 1831. +Broad Street is the principal thoroughfare of Augusta, and Greene +Street, with a park in the centre and flanking rows of oaks and +elms, is the finest residential street. Of historical interest is +St Paul’s church (Protestant Episcopal); the present building +was erected in 1819 and is the third St Paul’s church on the +same site. The first church was “built by the gentlemen of +Augusta” in 1750. In the crypt of the church General Leonidas +Polk is buried; and in the churchyard are the graves of George +Steptoe Washington, a nephew of George Washington, and of +William Longstreet, the inventor. Among the city’s principal +buildings are the Federal building, the Richmond county court +house, the Augusta orphan asylum, the city hospital, the +Lamar hospital for negroes, and the buildings of Richmond +Academy (incorporated in 1783), of the Academy of the Sacred +Heart (for girls), of Paine’s Institute (for negroes), of Houghton +Institute, endowed in 1852 to be “free to all the children of +Augusta,” and of the medical school of the university of Georgia, +founded in 1829, and a part of the university since 1873. A +granite obelisk 50 ft. high was erected in 1861 as a memorial +to the signers for Georgia of the Declaration of Independence; +beneath it are buried Lyman Hall (1726-1790) and George Walton +(1740-1804). There are two Italian marble monuments in honour +of Confederate soldiers, and monuments to the Southern poets, +Paul Hamilton Hayne and Richard Henry Wilde (1789-1847).</p> + +<p>In commerce and manufacturing, Augusta ranks second +among the cities of Georgia. As a centre of trade for the “Cotton +Belt,” it has a large wholesale and retail business; and it is an +important cotton market. The principal manufacture is cotton +goods; among the other products are lumber, flour, cotton +waste, cotton-seed oil and cake, ice, silk, boilers and engines, +and general merchandise staples. Water-power for factories is +secured by a system of “water-power canals” from a large dam +across the Savannah, built in 1847 and enlarged in 1871; the +principal canal, owned by the city, is so valuable as nearly to +pay the interest on the municipal debt. In 1905 the value +of the city’s total factory product was $8,829,305, of which +$3,832,009, or 43.4%, was the value of the cotton goods. The +principal newspaper is the <i>Augusta Chronicle</i>, founded in 1785.</p> + +<p>Augusta was established in 1735-1736 by James Edward +Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, and was named in honour +of the princess of Wales. The Carolina colonists had a trading +post in its vicinity before the settlement by Oglethorpe. The +fort, built in 1736, was first named Fort Augusta, and in 1780, +at the time of the British occupation, was enlarged and renamed +Fort Cornwallis; its site is now marked by a Memorial Cross, +erected by the Colonial Dames of Georgia in the churchyard +of St Paul’s. Tobacco was the principal agricultural product +during the 18th century, and for its culture negro slaves were +introduced from Carolina, before the restrictions of the Georgia +Trustees on slavery were removed. During the colonial period +several treaties with Indians were made at Augusta; by the most +important, that of 1763, the Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws, +Cherokees and Catawbas agreed (in a meeting with the governors +of North and South Carolina, Virginia and Georgia) to the terms +of the treaty of Paris. At the opening of the American War of +Independence, the majority of the people of Augusta were +Loyalists. The town was taken by the British under Lieut.-Col. +Archibald Campbell (1739-1791) in January 1779, but was evacuated +a month later; it was the seat of government of Georgia +for almost the entire period from the capture of Savannah in +December 1778 until May 1780, and was then abandoned by the +Patriots and was occupied chiefly by Loyalists under Lieut.-Col. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span> +Thomas Brown. In September 1780 a force of less than 500 +patriots under Col. Elijah Clarke marched against the town +in three divisions, and while one division, attacking a neighbouring +Indian camp, drew off most of the garrison, the other two +divisions entered the town; but British reinforcements arrived +before Brown could be dislodged from a building in which he had +taken refuge, and Clarke was forced to withdraw. A stronger +American force, under Lieut.-Col. Henry Lee, renewed the siege +in May 1781 and gained possession on the 5th of June. From +1783 until 1795 Augusta was again the seat of the state government. +It was the meeting-place of the Land Court which confiscated +the property of the Loyalists of Georgia, and of the +convention which ratified for Georgia the Constitution of the +United States. In 1798 it was incorporated as a town, and in +1817 it was chartered as a city. Augusta was the home of the +inventor, William Longstreet (1759-1814), who as early as 1788 +received a patent from the state of Georgia for a steamboat, +but met with no practical success until 1808; as early as 1801 +he had made experiments in the application of steam to cotton +gins and saw-mills at Augusta. Near Augusta, on the site now +occupied by the Eli Whitney Country Club, Eli Whitney is said +to have first set up and operated his cotton gin; he is commemorated +by a mural tablet in the court house. The establishment +of a steamboat line to Savannah in 1817 aided Augusta’s +rapid commercial development. There was a disastrous fire +in 1829, an epidemic of yellow fever in 1839, and a flood in 1840, +but the growth of the city was not seriously checked; the +cotton receipts of 1846 were 212,019 bales, and in 1847 a cotton +factory was built. During the Civil War Augusta was the seat +of extensive military factories, the tall chimney of the Confederate +powder mills still standing as a memorial. The economic development +has, since the Civil War, been steady and continuous. An +exposition was held in Augusta in 1888, and another in 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> the capital of Maine, U.S.A., and the county-seat +of Kennebec county, on the Kennebec river<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (at the head +of navigation), 44 m. from its mouth, 62 m. by rail N.E. of Portland, +and 74 m. S.W. of Bangor. Pop. (1890) 10,527; (1900) +11,683, of whom 2131 were foreign-born; (1910, census) +13,211. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by several +electric lines, and by steamboat lines to Portland, Boston and +several other ports. It is built on a series of terraces, mostly on +the west bank of the river, which is spanned here by a bridge +1100 ft. long. The state house, built of granite quarried in the +vicinity, occupies a commanding site along the south border of +the city, and in it is the state library. The Lithgow library +is a city public library. Near the state house is the former +residence of James G. Blaine. On the other side of the river, +nearly opposite, is the Maine insane hospital. Among other +prominent buildings are the court house, the post office and +the city hall. In one of the parks is a soldiers’ and sailors’ +monument. By means of a dam across the river, 17 ft. high +and nearly 600 ft. long, good water-power is provided, and the +city manufactures cotton goods, boots and shoes, paper, pulp +and lumber. A leading industry is the printing and publishing +of newspapers and periodicals, several of the periodicals published +here having an enormous circulation. The total value of the +factory products in 1905 was $3,886,833. Augusta occupies +the site of the Indian village, Koussinoc, at which the Plymouth +Colony established a trading post about 1628. In 1661 Plymouth +sold its interests, and soon afterward the four purchasers abandoned +the post. In 1754, however, their heirs brought about +the erection here of Fort Western, the main building of which +is still standing at the east end of the bridge, opposite the city +hall. Augusta was originally a part of the township of Hallowell +(incorporated in 1771); in 1797 the north part of Hallowell was +incorporated as a separate town and named Harrington; and +later in the same year the name was changed to Augusta. It +became the county-seat in 1799; was chosen by the Maine +legislature as the capital of the state in 1827, but was not occupied +as such until the completion of the state house in 1831; and +was chartered as a city in 1849.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Kennebec was first explored to this point in 1607.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a seaport of the province of Syracuse, Sicily, +19 m. N. of it by rail. Pop. (1901) 16,402. It occupies a part +of the former peninsula of Xiphonia, now a small island, connected +with the mainland by a bridge. It was founded by the emperor +Frederick II. in 1232, and almost entirely destroyed by an +earthquake in 1693, after which it was rebuilt. The castle is +now a large prison. The fortified port, though unfrequented +except as a naval harbour of refuge, is a very fine one. There +are considerable saltworks at Augusta. To the south, on the +left bank of the Molinello. 1½ m. from its mouth, Sicel tombs +and Christian catacombs, and farther up the river a cave village +of the early middle ages, have been explored (<i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, +1902, 411, 631; <i>Römische Quartalschrift</i>, 1902, 205). Whether +there was ever a town bearing the name Xiphonia is doubted +by E.A. Freeman (<i>Hist. of Sic.</i> i. 583); cf., however, E. Pais, +<i>Atakta</i> (Pisa, 1891), 55, who attributes its foundation, under the +name of Tauromenion (which it soon lost), to the Zancleans +of Hybla (afterwards Megara Hyblaea).</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA BAGIENNORUM,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the chief town of the Ligurian +tribe of the Bagienni, probably identical with the modern Bene +Vagienna, on the upper course of the Tanaro, about 35 m. due +south of Turin. The town retained its position as a tribal centre +in the reorganization of Augustus, whose name it bears, and was +erected on a systematic plan. Considerable remains of public +buildings, constructed in concrete faced with small stones with +bands of brick at intervals, an amphitheatre with a major axis +of 390 ft. and a minor axis of 305 ft., a theatre with a stage +133 ft. in length, and near it the foundations of what was probably +a basilica, an open space (no doubt the forum), an aqueduct, +baths, &c., have been discovered by recent excavations, and +also one of the city gates, flanked by two towers 22 ft. sq.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Assandria and G. Vacchetta in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i> (1894), 155; +(1896), 215; (1897), 441; (1898), 299; (1900), 389; (1901), 413.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTAN HISTORY,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> the name given to a collection of the +biographies of the Roman emperors from Hadrian to Carinus +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117-284). The work professes to have been written during +the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, and is to be regarded +as the composition of six authors,—Aelius Spartianus, Julius +Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius, Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius +Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus—known as Scriptores Historiae +Augustae, writers of Augustan history. It is generally agreed, +however, that there is a large number of interpolations in the work, +which are referred to the reign of Theodosius; and that the +documents inserted in the lives are almost all forgeries. The more +advanced school of critics holds that the names of the supposed +authors are purely fictitious, as those of some of the authorities +which they profess to quote certainly are. The lives, which +(with few exceptions) are arranged in chronological order, are +distributed as follows:—To Spartianus: the biographies of +Hadrian, Aelius Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, +Pescennius Niger, Caracallus, Geta (?); to Vulcacius Gallicanus: +Avidius Cassius; to Capitolinus: Antoninus Pius, Marcus +Aurelius Antoninus, Verus, Pertinax, Clodius Albinus, the two +Maximins, the three Gordians, Maximus and Balbinus, Opilius +Macrinus (?); to Lampridius: Commodus, Diadumenus, Elagabalus, +Alexander Severus; to Pollio: the two Valerians, the +Gallieni, the so-called Thirty Tyrants or Usurpers, Claudius (his +lives of Philip, Decius, and Gallus being lost); to Vopiscus: +Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, Probus, the four tyrants (Firmus, +Saturninus, Proculus, Bonosus), Carus, Numerian, Carinus.</p> + +<p>The importance of the Augustan history as a repertory of +information is very considerable, but its literary pretensions +are of the humblest order. The writers’ standard was confessedly +low. “My purpose,” says Vopiscus, “has been to +provide materials for persons more eloquent than I.” Considering +the perverted taste of the age, it is perhaps fortunate that the +task fell into the hands of no showy declaimer who measured +his success by his skill in making surface do duty for substance, +but of homely, matter-of-fact scribes, whose sole concern was to +record what they knew. Their narrative is unmethodical and +inartificial; their style is tame and plebeian; their conception +of biography is that of a collection of anecdotes; they have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span> +no notion of arrangement, no measure of proportion, and no +criterion of discrimination between the important and the trivial; +they are equally destitute of critical and of historical insight, +unable to sift the authorities on which they rely, and unsuspicious +of the stupendous social revolution comprised within the period +which they undertake to describe. Their value, consequently, +depends very much on that of the sources to which they happen to +have recourse for any given period of history, and on the fidelity +of their adherence to these when valuable. Marius Maximus and +Aelius Junius Cordus, to whose qualifications they themselves +bear no favourable testimony, were their chief authorities for +the earlier lives of the series. Marius Maximus, who lived about +165-230, wrote biographies of the emperors, in continuation of +those of Suetonius, from Nerva to Elagabalus; Junius Cordus +dealt with the less-known emperors, perhaps down to Maximus +and Balbinus. The earlier lives, however, contain a substratum +of authentic historical fact, which recent critics have supposed to +be derived from a lost work by a contemporary writer, described +by one of these scholars as “the last great Roman historian.” +For the later lives the Scriptores were obliged to resort more +largely to public records, and thus preserved matter of the highest +importance, rescuing from oblivion many imperial rescripts and +senatorial decrees, reports of official proceedings and speeches +on public occasions, and a number of interesting and characteristic +letters from various emperors. Their incidental allusions +sometimes cast vivid though undesigned light on the circumstances +of the age, and they have made large contributions to our +knowledge of imperial jurisprudence in particular. Even their +trivialities have their use; their endless anecdotes respecting the +personal habits of the subjects of their biographies, if valueless to +the historian, are most acceptable to the archaeologist, and not +unimportant to the economist and moralist. Their errors and +deficiencies may in part be ascribed to the contemporary neglect +of history as a branch of instruction. Education was in the hands +of rhetoricians and grammarians; historians were read for their +style, not for their matter, and since the days of Tacitus, none had +arisen worth a schoolmaster’s notice. We thus find Vopiscus +acknowledging that when he began to write the life of Aurelian, +he was entirely misinformed respecting the latter’s competitor +Firmus, and implying that he would not have ventured on +Aurelian himself if he had not had access to the MS. of the +emperor’s own diary in the Ulpian library. The writers’ historical +estimates are superficial and conventional, but report the verdict +of public opinion with substantial accuracy. The only imputation +on the integrity of any of them lies against Trebellius Pollio, who, +addressing his work to a descendant of Claudius, the successor +and probably the assassin of Gallienus, has dwelt upon the latter +versatile sovereign’s carelessness and extravagance without acknowledgment +of the elastic though fitful energy he so frequently +displayed in defence of the empire. The caution of Vopiscus’s +references to Diocletian cannot be made a reproach to him.</p> + +<p>No biographical particulars are recorded respecting any of +these writers. From their acquaintance with Latin and Greek +literature they must have been men of letters by profession, and +very probably secretaries or librarians to persons of distinction. +There seems no reason to accept Gibbon’s contemptuous estimate +of their social position. They appear particularly versed in law. +Spartianus’s reference to himself as “Diocletian’s own” seems to +indicate that he was a domestic in the imperial household. They +address their patrons with deference, acknowledging their own +deficiencies, and seem painfully conscious of the profession of +literature having fallen upon evil days.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editio princeps (Milan, 1475); Casaubon (1603) showed great +critical ability in his notes, but for want of a good MS. left the +restoration of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most +remarkable monument of erudition, combined with acuteness in verbal +criticism and general vigour of intellect. Of recent years considerable +attention has been devoted by German scholars to the <i>History</i>, +especially by Peter, whose edition of the text in the Teubner series +(2nd ed., 1884) contains (praef. xxxv.-xxxvii.) a bibliography of +works on the subject preceding the publication of his own special +treatise. The edition by Jordan-Eyssenhardt (1863) should also be +mentioned. Amongst the most recent treatises on the subject are: +A. Gemoll, <i>Die Scriptores Historiae Augustae</i> (1886); H. Peter, <i>Die +Scriptores Historiae Augustae</i> (1892); G. Tropea, <i>Studi sugli +Scriptores Historiae Augustae</i> (1899-1903); J.M. Heer, <i>Der historische +Wert der Vita Commodi in der Sammlung der Scriptores Historiae +Augustae</i> (1901); C. Lécrivain, <i>Études sur l’histoire Auguste</i> (1904); +E. Kornemann, <i>Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von +Rom</i> (1905), according to whom “the last great historian of Rome” +is Lollius Urbicus; O. Schulz, <i>Das Kaiserhaus der Antonine und der +letzte Historiker Roms</i> (1907). On their style, see C. Paucker, <i>De +Latinitate Scriptorum Historiae Augustae</i> (1870); special lexicon by +C. Lessing (1901-1906). An English translation is included in <i>The +Lives of the Roman Emperors</i>, by John Bernard (1698). See further +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i> (anc. <i>ad fin.</i>), section “Authorities”; M. Schanz, +<i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i>, iii. p. 69 (for Marius Maximus +and Junius Cordus), iv. p. 47; Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman +Literature</i> (Eng. tr.), § 392; H. Peter, bibliography from 1893 to +1905 in Bursian’s <i>Jahresbericht</i>, cxxix. (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTA PRAETORIA SALASSORUM<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (mod. <i>Aosta</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), +an ancient town of Italy in the district of the Salassi, founded +by Augustus about 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> on the site of the camp of Varro +Murena, who subdued this tribe in 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and settled with +3000 praetorians. Pliny calls it the last town of Italy on the +north-west, and its position at the confluence of two rivers, at +the end of the Great and Little St Bernard, gave it considerable +military importance, which is vouched for by considerable +remains of Roman buildings. The ancient town walls, enclosing +a rectangle 793 by 624 yds., are still preserved almost in their +entire extent. The walls are 21 ft. high. They are built of +concrete faced with small blocks of stone, and at the bottom +are nearly 9 ft. thick, and at the top 6 ft. There are towers at +the angles of the <i>enceinte</i>, and others at intervals, and two at +each of the four gates, making a total of twenty towers altogether. +They are roughly 32 ft. square, and project 14 ft. from the wall. +The Torre del Pailleron on the south and the Torre del Leproso +in the west are especially well preserved. The east and south +gates exist (the latter, a double gate with three arches flanked +by two towers, is the Porta Praetoria, and is especially fine), +while the rectangular arrangement of the streets perpetuates +the Roman plan, dividing the town into 16 blocks (<i>insulae</i>). +The main road, 32 ft. wide, divides the city into two equal +halves, running from east to west, an arrangement which makes +it clear that the guarding of the road was the main <i>raison d’être</i> +of the city. Some arcades of the amphitheatre (the diameters +of which are 282 ft. and 239 ft.), and the south wall of the +theatre are also preserved, the latter to a height of over 70 ft., +and a market-place some 300 ft. square, surrounded by storehouses +on three sides with a temple in the centre, and two on +the open (south) side, and the <i>thermae</i>, have been discovered. +Outside the town is a handsome triumphal arch in honour of +Augustus. About 5 m. to the west is a single-arched Roman +bridge, the Pondel, which has a closed passage lighted by windows +for foot passengers in winter, and above it an open footpath, +both being about 3½ ft. in width. There are considerable +remains of the ancient road from Eporedia (mod. <i>Ivrea</i>) to +Augusta Praetoria, up the Valle d’ Aosta, which the modern +railway follows, notably the Pont St Martin, with a single arch +with a span of 116 ft. and a roadway 15 ft. wide, the cutting of +Donnaz, and the Roman bridges of Châtillon (Pont St Vincent) +and Aosta (Pont de Pierre), &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Promis, <i>Le antichità di Aosta</i> (Turin, 1862); E. Bérard in +<i>Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino</i>, iii. 119 seq.; <i>Notizie +degli Scavi</i>, passim; A. d’Andrade, <i>Relazione dell’ Ufficio Regionale +per la consenazione dei Monumenti del Piemonte e della Liguria</i> (Turin, +1899), 46 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1772-1841), +German theologian, born at Eschenberga, near Gotha, was of +Jewish descent, his grandfather having been a converted rabbi. +He was educated at the gymnasium at Gotha and the university +of Jena. At Jena he studied oriental languages, of which he +became professor there in 1803. Subsequently he became +ordinary professor of theology (1812), and for a time rector, at +Breslau. In 1819 he was transferred to the university of Bonn, +where he was made professor primarius. In 1828 he was appointed +chief member of the consistorial council at Coblenz. +Here he was afterwards made director of the consistory. He +died at Coblenz in 1841. Augusti had little sympathy with the +modern philosophical interpretations of dogma, and although +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span> +he took up a position of free criticism with regard to the Biblical +narratives, he held fast to the traditional faith. His works on +theology (<i>Dogmengeschichte</i>, 1805; 4th ed., 1835) are simple +statements of fact; they do not attempt a speculative treatment +of their subjects. In 1809 he published in conjunction with +W.M.L. de Wette a new translation of the Old Testament. Mention +should also be made of his <i>Grundriss einer historischkritischen +Einleitung ins Alte Testament</i> (1806), his <i>Exegetisches +Handbuch des Alten Testaments</i> (1797-1800), and his edition of +<i>Die Apokryphen des A. T.</i> (1804). In addition to these, his +most important writings are the <i>Denkwürdigkeiten aus der +Christlichen Archäologie</i>, 12 vols. (1817-1831), a partially digested +mass of materials, and the <i>Handbuch der Christ. Archäologie</i>, +3 vols. (1836-1837), which gives the substance of the larger +work in a more compact and systematic form.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINE, SAINT<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (354-430), one of the four great fathers +of the Latin Church. Augustinus—the <i>praenomen</i> Aurelius is +used indeed by his disciples Orosius and Prosper, and is found +in the oldest Augustine MSS., but is not used by himself, nor in +the letters addressed to him—was born at Tagaste, a town of +Numidia, now Suk Ahras in Constantine, on the 13th of November +354. His father, Patricius, was a burgess of Tagaste and still a +pagan at the time of his son’s birth. His mother, Monica, was +not only a Christian, but a woman of the most tender and devoted +piety, whose beautiful faith and enthusiasm and patient prayer for +both her husband and son (at length crowned with success in both +cases) have made her a type of womanly saintliness for all ages. +She early instructed her son in the faith and love of Jesus Christ, +and for a time he seems to have been impressed by her teaching. +Falling ill, he wished to be baptized; but when the danger was +past, the rite was deferred and, in spite of his mother’s +admonitions and prayers, Augustine grew up without any profession +of Christian piety or any devotion to Christian principles.</p> + +<p>Inheriting from his father a passionate nature, he formed +while still a mere youth an irregular union with a girl, by whom +he became the father of a son, whom in a fit of pious emotion he +named Adeodatus (“by God given”), and to whom he was passionately +attached. In his <i>Confessions</i> he afterwards described +this period of his life in the blackest colours; for in the +light of his conversion he saw behind him only shadows. Yet, +whatever his youthful aberrations, Augustine was from the first +an earnest student. His father, noticing his early promise, +destined him for the brilliant and lucrative career of a rhetorician, +for which he spared no expense in training him. Augustine +studied at his native town and afterwards at Madaura and +Carthage, especially devoting himself to the works of the Latin +poets, many traces of his love for which are to be found in his +writings. His acquaintance with Greek literature was much +more limited, and, indeed, it has been doubted, though without +sufficient reason, whether he could use the Greek scriptures in +the original. Cicero’s <i>Hortensius</i>, which he read in his nineteenth +year, first awakened in his mind the spirit of speculation and the +impulse towards the knowledge of the truth. But he passed +from one phase of thought to another, unable to find satisfaction +in any. Manichaeism, that mixed product of Zoroastrian and +Christian-gnostic elements, first enthralled him. He became +a fervent member of the sect, and was admitted into the class of +<i>auditors</i> or “hearers.” Manichaeism seemed to him to solve +the mysteries of the world, and of his own experiences by which +he was perplexed. His insatiable imagination drew congenial +food from the fanciful religious world of the Manichaeans, +decked out as this was with the luxuriant wealth of Oriental +myth. His strongly developed sense of a need of salvation +sought satisfaction in the contest of the two principles of Good +and Evil, and found peace, at least for the moment, in the +conviction that the portions of light present in him would be +freed from the darkness in which they were immersed. The +ideal of chastity and self-restraint, which promised a foretaste +of union with God, amazed him, bound as he was in the fetters +of sensuality and for ever shaking at these fetters. But while +his moral force was not sufficient for the attainment of this +ideal, gradually everything else which Manichaeism seemed to +offer him dissolved before his criticism. Increasingly occupied +with the exact sciences, he learnt the incompatibility of the +Manichaean astrology with the facts. More and more absorbed +in the problems of psychology, he realized the insufficiency of +dualism, which did not solve the ultimate questions but merely +set them back. The Manichaean propaganda seemed to him +invertebrate and lacking in force, and a discussion which he had +with Faustus, a distinguished Manichaean bishop and controversialist, +left him greatly disappointed.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile nine years had passed. Augustine, after finishing +his studies, had returned to Tagaste, where he became a teacher +of grammar. He must have been an excellent master, who +knew how to influence the whole personality of his pupils. It +was then that Alypius, who in the later stages of Augustine’s life +proved a true friend and companion, attached himself to him. +He remained in his native town little more than a year, during +which time he lived with his mother, who was comforted by the +bishop for the estrangement of her son from the Catholic faith +(“a son of so many tears cannot be lost”: <i>Confess.</i> III. xii. § 21), +comforted also, and above all, by the famous vision, which +Augustine thus describes: “She saw herself standing on a +certain wooden rule, and a shining youth coming towards her, +cheerful and smiling upon her the while she grieved, and was +consumed with grief: and when he had inquired of her the +causes of her grief and daily tears (for the sake, as is their wont, +of teaching, not of learning) and she had made answer that she +was bewailing my perdition, he bade her be at ease, and advised +her to look and observe, ‘That where she was, there was I also.’ +And when she looked there, she saw me standing by her on the +same rule” (<i>Confess.</i> III. xi.). Augustine now returned for a +second time to Carthage, where he devoted himself zealously +to work. Thence, probably in the spring of 383, he migrated +to Rome. His Manichaean friends urged him to take this +step, which was rendered easier by the licentious lives of the +students at Carthage. His stay at Rome may have lasted about +a year, no agreeable time for Augustine, since his patrons and +friends belonged to just those Manichaean circles with which +he had in the meantime entirely lost all intellectual touch. He, +therefore, accepted an invitation from Milan, where the people +were in search of a teacher of rhetoric.</p> + +<p>At Milan the conflict within his mind in search of truth still +continued. It was now that he separated himself openly from +the Manichaean sect. As a thinker he came entirely under the +influence of the New Academy; he professed the Sceptic +philosophy, without being able to find in it the final conclusion +of wisdom. He was, however, not far from the decision. Two +things determined his further development. He became acquainted +with the Neo-Platonic philosophy; its monism replaced +the dualism, its intellectualized world of ideas the materialism +of Manichaeism. Here he found the admonition to seek for +truth outside the material world, and from created things he +learnt to recognize the invisible God; he attained the certainty +that this God is, and is eternal, always the same, subject to +change neither in his parts nor in his motions. And while +thus Augustine’s metaphysical convictions were being slowly +remodelled, he met, in Ambrose, bishop of Milan, a man in whom +complete worldly culture and the nobility of a ripe Christian +personality were wonderfully united. He heard him preach; +but at first it was the orator and not the contents of the sermons +that enchained him. He sought an opportunity of conversation +with him, but this was not easily found. Ambrose had no leisure +for philosophic discussion. He was accessible to all who sought +him, but never for a moment free from study or the cares of +duty. Augustine, as he himself tells us, used to enter without +being announced, as all persons might; but after staying for +a while, afraid of interrupting him, he would depart again. +He continued, however, to hear Ambrose preach, and gradually +the gospel of divine truth and grace was received into his heart. +He was busy with his friend Alypius in studying the Pauline +epistles; certain words were driven home with irresistible force +to his conscience. His struggle of mind became more and more +intolerable, the thought of divine purity fighting in his heart +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span> +with the love of the world and the flesh. That sensuality was +his worst enemy he had long known. The mother of his child +had accompanied him to Milan. When he became betrothed +he dismissed her; but neither the pain of this parting nor +consideration for his not yet marriageable bride prevented him +from forming a fresh connexion of the same kind. Meanwhile, +the determination to renounce the old life with its pleasures +of sense, was ever being forced upon him with more and more +distinctness. He then received a visit from a Christian compatriot +named Pontitian, who told him about St Anthony and +the monachism in Egypt, and also of a monastery near Milan. +He was shaken to the depths when he learnt from Pontitian +that two young officials, like himself betrothed, had suddenly +formed a determination to turn their backs upon the life of the +world. He could no longer bear to be inside the house; in +terrible excitement he rushed into the garden; and now followed +that scene which he himself in the <i>Confessions</i> has described +to us with such graphic realism. He flung himself under a fig +tree, burst into a passion of weeping, and poured out his heart +to God. Suddenly he seemed to hear a voice bidding him consult +the divine oracle: “Take up and read, take up and read.” +He left off weeping, rose up, sought the volume where Alypius +was sitting, and opening it read in silence the following passage +from the Epistle to the Romans (xiii. 13, 14): “Not in rioting +and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife +and envying. But put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not +provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof.” He adds: “I +had neither desire nor need to read further. As I finished the +sentence, as though the light of peace had been poured into the +heart, all the shadows of doubt dispersed. Thus hast Thou converted +me to Thee, so as no longer to seek either for wife or other +hope of the world, standing fast in that rule of faith in which +Thou so many years before hadst revealed me to my mother” +(<i>in qua me ante lot annos ei revelaveras: Confess</i>. VIII. xii. § 30).<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The conversion of Augustine, as we have been accustomed +to call this event, took place in the late summer of 386, a few +weeks before the beginning of the vacation. The determination +to give up his post was rendered easier by a chest-trouble which +was not without danger, and which for months made him incapable +of work. He withdrew with several companions to +the country estate of Cassisiacum near Milan, which had been +lent him by a friend, and announced himself to the bishop as +a candidate for baptism. His religious opinions were still to +some extent unformed, and even his habits by no means altogether +such as his great change demanded. He mentions, for example, +that during this time he broke himself of a habit of profane +swearing, and in other ways sought to discipline his character +and conduct for the reception of the sacred rite. He received +baptism the Easter following, in his thirty-third year, and along +with him his son Adeodatus and his friend Alypius were admitted +to the Church. Monica, his mother, had rejoined him, and at +length rejoiced in the fulfilment of her prayers. She died at Ostia, +just as they were about to embark for Africa, her last hours being +gladdened by his Christian sympathy. In the account of the conversation +which he had with his mother before her end, in the +narrative of her death and burial (<i>Confess</i>. IX. x.-xi., §§ 23-28), +Augustine’s literary power is displayed at its highest.</p> + +<p>The plan of returning home, remained for the present unaccomplished. +Augustine stayed for a year in Rome, occupied +in literary work, particularly in controversy with Manichaeism. +It was not until the autumn of 388 that he returned to Tagaste, +probably still accompanied by his son, who, however, must have +died shortly afterwards. With some friends, who joined him in +devotion, he formed a small religious community, which looked +to him as its head. Their mode of life was not formally monastic +according to any special rule, but the experience of this time of +seclusion was, no doubt, the basis of that monastic system which +Augustine afterwards sketched and which derived its name from +him (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustinians</a></span>). As may be imagined, the fame of such +a convert in such a position soon spread, and invitations to a more +active ecclesiastical life came to him from many quarters. He +shrank from the responsibility, but his destiny was not to be +avoided. After two and a half years spent in retirement he went +to Hippo, to see a Christian friend, who desired to converse with +him as to his design of quitting the world and devoting himself +to a religious life. The Christian community there being in want +of a presbyter and Augustine being present at the meeting, the +people unanimously chose him and he was ordained to the +presbyterate. A few years afterwards, 395 or 396, he was made +coadjutor to the bishop, and finally became bishop of the see.</p> + +<p>Henceforth Augustine’s life is filled up with his ecclesiastical +labours, and is more marked by the series of his numerous +writings and the great controversies in which they engaged him +than by anything else. His life was spent in a perpetual strife. +During the first half this had been against himself; but even +when others stepped into his place, it always seems as though a +part of Augustine himself were incarnate in them. Augustine had +early distinguished himself as an author. He had written several +philosophical treatises, and, as teacher of rhetoric at Carthage, he +had composed a work <i>De pulchro et apto</i>, which is no longer extant. +Whenat Cassisiacum he had combated the scepticism of the New +Academy (<i>Contra Academicos</i>), had treated of the “blessed life” +(<i>De Vita beata</i>), of the significance of evil in the order of the world +(<i>De ordine</i>), of the means for the elucidation of spiritual truths +(<i>Soliloquia</i>). Shortly before the time of his baptism, he was occupied +with the question of the immortality of the soul (<i>De immortalitate +animae</i>), and in Rome and at Tagaste he was still engaged +with philosophical problems, as is evidenced by the writings <i>De +quantitate animae</i> and <i>De magistro</i>. In all these treatises is +apparent the influence of the Neo-Platonic method of thought, +which for him, as for so many others, had become the bridge to the +Christian. While still in Rome, he began to come to a reckoning +with the Manichaeans, and wrote two books on the morals of the +Catholic Church and of the Manichaeans (<i>De moribus ecclesiae +Catholicae et de moribus Manichaeorum libri duo</i>). For many years +he pursued this controversy in a long series of writings, of which +the most conspicuous is the elaborate reply to his old associate +and disputant, Faustus of Mileve (<i>Contra Faustum Manichaeum</i>, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400). It was natural that the Manichaean heresy, which had +so long enslaved his own mind, should have first exercised +Augustine’s great powers as a theological thinker and controversialist. +He was able from his own experience to give force to his +arguments for the unity of creation and of the spiritual life, and +to strengthen the mind of the Christian Church in its last struggle +with that dualistic spirit which had animated and moulded in +succession so many forms of thought at variance with Christianity.</p> + +<p>But the time was one of almost universal ecclesiastical and +intellectual excitement; and so powerful a mental activity as +his was naturally drawn forth in all directions. Following his +writings against the Manichaeans came those against the Donatists. +The controversy was one which strongly interested him, +involving as it did the whole question of the constitution of the +Church and the idea of catholic order, to which the circumstances +of the age gave special prominence. The Donatist controversy +sprang out of the Diocletian persecution in the beginning of the +century. A party in the Church of Carthage, fired with fanatic +zeal on behalf of those who had courted martyrdom by resistance +to the imperial mandates, resented deeply the appointment of +a bishop of moderate opinions, whose consecration had been +performed, they alleged, by a <i>traditor</i>, viz. a bishop who had +“delivered” the holy scriptures to the magistrates. They set up, +in consequence, a bishop of their own, of the name of Majorinus, +succeeded in 315 by Donatus. The party made great pretensions +to purity of discipline, and rapidly rose in popular favour, notwithstanding +a decision given against them both by the bishop +of Rome and by the emperor Cons tan tine. Augustine was +strongly moved by the lawlessness of the party and launched +forth a series of writings against them, the most important of +which survive. Amongst these are “Seven Books on Baptism” +(<i>De baptismo contra Donatistas</i>, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400) and a lengthy +answer, in three books, to Petilian, bishop of Cirta, who was the +most eminent theologian amongst the Donatist divines. At a +later period, about 417, Augustine wrote a treatise concerning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span> +the correction of the Donatists (<i>De correctione Donatistarum</i>) +“for the sake of those,” he says in his <i>Retractations</i>, “who were not +willing that the Donatists should be subjected to the correction +of the imperial laws.” In these writings, while vigorously +maintaining the validity of the Church as it then stood in the +Roman world, and the necessity for moderation in the exercise +of church discipline, Augustine yet gave currency, in his zeal +against the Donatists, to certain maxims as to the duty of +the civil power to control schism, which were of evil omen, +and have been productive of much disaster in the history of +Christianity.</p> + +<p>The third controversy in which Augustine engaged was the +most important, and the most intimately associated with his +distinctive greatness as a theologian. As may be supposed, +owing to the conflicts through which he had passed, the bishop +of Hippo was intensely interested in what may be called the +anthropological aspect of the great Christian idea of redemption. +He had himself been brought out of darkness into “marvellous +light,” only by entering into the depths of his own soul, and +finding, after many struggles, that there was no power but divine +grace, as revealed in the life and death of the Son of God, which +could bring rest to human weariness, or pardon and peace for +human guilt. He had found human nature in his own case too +weak and sinful to find any good for itself. In God alone he +had found good. This deep sense of human sinfulness coloured +all his theology, and gave to it at once its depth—its profound +and sympathetic adaptation to all who feel the reality of sin—and +that tinge of darkness and exaggeration which has as surely +repelled others. When the expression “Augustinism” is used, +it points especially to those opinions of the great teacher which +were evoked in the Pelagian controversy, to which he devoted +the most mature and powerful period of his life. His opponents +in this controversy were Pelagius, from whom it derives its name, +and Coelestius and Julianus, pupils of the former. Nothing is +certainly known as to the home of Pelagius. Augustine calls +him Brito, and so do Marius Mercator and Orosius. Jerome +points to his Scottish descent, in such terms, however, as to +leave it uncertain whether he was a native of Scotland or of +Ireland. He was a man of blameless character, devoted to the +reformation of society, full of that confidence in the natural +impulses of humanity which often accompanies philanthropic +enthusiasm. About the year 400 he came, no longer a young +man, to Rome, where he lived for more than a decade, and soon +made himself conspicuous by his activity and by his opinions. +His pupil Coelestius, a lawyer of unknown origin, developed +the views of his master with a more outspoken logic, and, while +travelling with Pelagius in Africa, in the year 411, was at length +arraigned before the bishop of Carthage for the following, amongst +other heretical opinions:—(1) that Adam’s sin was purely +personal, and affected none but himself; (2) that each man, +consequently, is born with powers as incorrupt as those of Adam, +and only falls into sin under the force of temptation and evil +example; (3) that children who die in infancy, being untainted +by sin, are saved without baptism. Views such as these were +obviously in conflict with the whole course of Augustine’s +experience, as well as with his interpretation of the catholic +doctrine of the Church. And when his attention was drawn +to them by the trial and excommunication of Coelestius, he +undertook their refutation, first of all in three books on the +punishment and forgiveness of sins and the baptism of infants +(<i>De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum</i>), +addressed to his friend Marcellinus, in which he vindicated the +necessity of baptism of infants because of original sin and the +grace of God by which we are justified (<i>Retract.</i> ii. 23). This +was in 412. In the same year he addressed a further treatise +to the same Marcellinus on <i>The Spirit and the Letter</i> (<i>De spiritu +et littera</i>). Three years later he composed the treatises on <i>Nature +and Grace</i> (<i>De natura et gratia</i>) and the relation of the human +to the divine righteousness (<i>De perfectione iustitiae hominis</i>). +The controversy was continued during many years in no fewer +than fifteen treatises. Upon no subject did Augustine bestow +more of his intellectual strength, and in relation to no other have +his views so deeply and permanently affected the course of +Christian thought. Even those who most usually agree with +his theological standpoint will hardly deny that, while he did +much in these writings to vindicate divine truth and to expound +the true relations of the divine and human, he also, here as elsewhere, +was hurried into extreme expressions as to the absoluteness +of divine grace and the extent of human corruption. Like +his great disciple in a later age—Luther—Augustine was prone +to emphasize the side of truth which he had most realized +in his own experience, and, in contradistinction to the Pelagian +exaltation of human nature, to depreciate its capabilities beyond +measure.</p> + +<p>In addition to these controversial writings, which mark the +great epochs of Augustine’s life and ecclesiastical activity after +his settlement as a bishop at Hippo, he was the author of other +works, some of them better known and even more important. +His great work, the most elaborate, and in some respects the +most significant, that came from his pen, is <i>The City of God</i> +(<i>De civitate Dei</i>). It is designed as a great apologetic treatise +in vindication of Christianity and the Christian Church,—the +latter conceived as rising in the form of a new civic order on +the crumbling ruins of the Roman empire,—but it is also, +perhaps, the earliest contribution to the philosophy of history, +as it is a repertory throughout of his cherished theological +opinions. This work and his <i>Confessions</i> are, probably, those +by which he is best known, the one as the highest expression of +his thought, and the other as the best monument of his living +piety and Christian experience. <i>The City of God</i> was begun in +413, and continued to be issued in its several portions for a +period of thirteen years, or till 426. The <i>Confessions</i> were +written shortly after he became a bishop, about 397, and give +a vivid sketch of his early career. To the devout utterances +and aspirations of a great soul they add the charm of personal +disclosure, and have never ceased to excite admiration in all +spirits of kindred piety. Something of this charm also belongs +to the <i>Retractations</i>, that remarkable work in which Augustine, +in 427, towards the end of his life, held as it were a review of his +literary activity, in order to improve what was erroneous and +to make clear what was doubtful in it. His systematic treatise +on <i>The Trinity</i> (<i>De Trinitate</i>) which extends to fifteen books +and occupied him for nearly thirty years, must not be passed +over. This important work, unlike most of his dogmatic writings, +was not provoked by any special controversial emergency, but +grew up silently during this long period in the author’s mind. +This has given it something more of completeness and organic +arrangement than is usual with Augustine, if it has also led him +into the prolonged discussion of various analogies, more curious +than apt in their bearing on the doctrine which he expounds. +Brief and concise is the presentation of the Catholic doctrine +in the compendium, which, about 421, he wrote at the request +of a Roman layman named Laurentius (<i>Encheiridion, sive de fide +spe et caritate</i>). In spite of its title, the compendious work on +Christian doctrine (<i>De doctrina Christiana</i>), begun as early as +393, but only finished in 426, does not belong to the dogmatic +writings. It is a sort of Biblical hermeneutic, in which homiletic +questions are also dealt with. His catechetical principles Augustine +developed in the charming writing <i>De catechizandis rudibus</i> +(<i>c.</i> 400). A large number of tractates are devoted to moral +and theological problems (<i>Contra mendacium</i>, <i>c.</i> 420; <i>De bono +conjugali</i>, 401, &c.). A widespread influence was exercised +by the treatise <i>De opere monachorum</i> (<i>c.</i> 400), in which, on the +ground of Holy Scripture, manual work was demanded of monks. +Of less importance than the remaining works are the numerous +exegetical writings, among which the commentary on the Gospel +of St John deserves a special mention. These have a value +owing to Augustine’s appreciation of the deeper spiritual meaning +of scripture, but hardly for their exegetical qualities. His +<i>Letters</i> are full of interest owing to the light they throw on many +questions in the ecclesiastical history of the time, and owing to +his relations with such contemporary theologians as Jerome. +They have, however, neither the liveliness nor the varied interest +of the letters of Jerome himself. As a preacher Augustine was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span> +of great importance. We still possess almost four hundred +sermons which may be ascribed to him with certainty. Many +others only pass under his celebrated name.</p> + +<p>The closing years of the great bishop were full of sorrow. The +Vandals, who had been gradually enclosing the Roman empire, +appeared before the gates of Hippo, and laid siege to it. Augustine +was ill with his last illness, and could only pray for his +fellow-citizens. He passed away during the siege, on the 28th +of August 430, at the age of seventy-five, and thus was spared +the indignity of seeing the city in the hands of the enemy.</p> + +<p>The character of Augustine, both as a man and as a theologian, +has been briefly indicated in the course of our sketch. None can +deny the greatness of Augustine’s soul—his enthusiasm, his +unceasing search after truth, his affectionate disposition, his +ardour, his self-devotion. And even those who may doubt the +soundness of his dogmatic conclusions, cannot but acknowledge +the depth of his spiritual convictions, and the logical force and +penetration with which he handled the most difficult questions, +thus weaving all the elements of his experience and of his profound +scriptural knowledge into a great system of Christian thought. +Of the four great Fathers of the Church he was admittedly the +greatest—more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual father, more +original and systematic than Jerome, his correspondent, and +intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great, +his pupil on the papal throne. The theological position and +influence of Augustine may be said to be unrivalled. No single +name has ever exercised such power over the Christian Church, +and no one mind ever made so deep an impression upon Christian +thought. In him scholastics and mystics, popes and the +opponents of the papal supremacy, have seen their champion. +He was the fulcrum on which Luther rested the thoughts by +which he sought to lift the past of the Church out of the +rut; yet the judgment of Catholics still proclaims the ideas of +Augustine as the only sound basis of philosophy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best complete edition of Augustine’s works is that of the +Maurines, in 11 vols. fol. published at Paris, 1679-1700, and reprinted +in Migne’s <i>Patrologie</i> (Paris, 1841-1842). Of the new critical +edition in the <i>Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum</i>, issued +by the Vienna Academy, thirteen volumes had been published in +1908, including the <i>Confessions</i>, the <i>Retractations</i>, <i>De civitate Dei</i>, +and a number of exegetical and of dogmatic polemical works, +together with a portion of the <i>Letters</i>. An English translation of +nearly the whole of Augustine’s writings will be found in the <i>Select +Library of the Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church</i> +(series 1, Buffalo, 1886, &c.). Tillemont, in his <i>Mémoires pour servir +à l’histoire ecclésiastique des VI premiers siècles</i>, has devoted a quarto +volume (vol. xiii.) to Augustine’s life and writings. The most complete +monographs are those on the Catholic side by Kloth (Aix-la-Chapelle, +1839-1840, 3 vols.) and J.J.F. Poujoulat (7th ed., Paris, +1886, 2 vols.), and on the Protestant side by Bindemann (Berlin, +Leipzig, Greifswald, 1844-1869, 3 vols,). There are interesting +sketches, from quite different points of view, by von Hertling, +<i>Augustinus</i> (2nd ed., Mainz, 1904), and Joseph McCabe, <i>St Augustine +and His Age</i> (London, 1902). See also Nourrisson, <i>La Philosophie +de St Augustin</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1866, 2 vols.); H.A. Naville, <i>St +Augustin, étude sur la développement de sa pensée jusqu’à l’époque de son +ordination</i> (Geneva, 1872); Dorner, <i>Augustinus</i> (Berlin, 1873); +Reuter, <i>Augustinische Studien</i> (Gotha, 1886); F. Scheel, <i>Die +Anschauung Augustins über Christi Person und Werk</i> (Tübingen, +1901); A. Hatzfeld, <i>Saint Augustin</i> (6th ed., Paris, 1902); G. von +Hertling, <i>Augustin</i> (Mainz, 1902); A. Egger, <i>Der heilige Augustinus</i> +(Kempten, 1904); J.N. Espenberger, <i>Die Elemente der Erbsunde +nach Augustin und der Fruhscholastik</i> (Mainz, 1905); S. Angus, +<i>The Sources of the First Ten Books of Augustine’s De Civitate Dei</i> +(Princeton, 1906); and the more modern text-books of the history +of dogma, especially Harnack.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. K.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The reference is to the vision described above.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINE, SAINT<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 613), first archbishop of Canterbury, +occupied a position of authority in the monastery of St Andrew +at Rome, when Gregory I. summoned him to lead a mission to +England in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 596. The apprehensions of Augustine’s followers +caused him to return to Rome, but the pope furnished him with +letters of commendation and encouraged him to proceed. He +landed in Thanet in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 597, and was favourably received by +Æthelberht, king of Kent, who granted a dwelling-place for +the monks in Canterbury, and allowed them liberty to preach. +Augustine first made use of the ancient church of St Martin at +Canterbury, which before his arrival had been the oratory of the +Queen Berhta and her confessor Liudhard. Æthelberht upon +his conversion employed all his influence in support of the +mission. In 601 Augustine received the pallium from Gregory +and was given authority over the Celtic churches in Britain, as +well as all future bishops consecrated in English territory, +including York. Authority over the see of York was not, +however, to descend to Augustine’s successors. In 603 he +consecrated Christ Church, Canterbury, and built the monastery +of SS. Peter and Paul, afterwards known as St Augustine’s. +At the conference of Augustine’s Oak he endeavoured in +vain to bring over the Celtic church to the observance of the +Roman Easter. He afterwards consecrated Mellitus and Justus +to the sees of London and Rochester respectively. The +date of his death is not recorded by Bede, but MS. F of the +Saxon Chronicle puts it in 614, and the <i>Annales Monasterienses</i> +in 612.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bede, <i>Eccl. Hist.</i> (ed. by Plummer), i. 23-ii. 3.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINIAN CANONS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a religious order in the Roman +Catholic Church, called also Austin Canons, Canons Regular, +and in England Black Canons, because their cassock and mantle +were black, though they wore a white surplice: elsewhere the +colour of the habit varied considerably.</p> + +<p>The canons regular (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>) grew out of the earlier institute +of canonical life, in consequence of the urgent exhortations of +the Lateran Synod of 1059. The clergy of some cathedrals +(in England, Carlisle), and of a great number of collegiate +churches all over western Europe, responded to the appeal; and +the need of a rule of life suited to the new regime produced, +towards the end of the 11th century, the so-called Rule of St +Augustine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustinians</a></span>). This Rule was widely adopted +by the canons regular, who also began to bind themselves by +the vows of poverty, obedience and chastity. In the 12th +century this discipline became universal among them; and so +arose the order of Augustinian canons as a religious order in the +strict sense of the word. They resembled the monks in so far +as they lived in community and took religious vows; but their +state of life remained essentially clerical, and as clerics their +duty was to undertake the pastoral care and serve the parish +churches in their patronage. They were bound to the choral +celebration of the divine office, and in its general tenor their +manner of life differed little from that of monks.</p> + +<p>Their houses, at first without bonds between them, soon +tended to draw together and coalesce into congregations with +corporate organization and codes of constitutions supplementary to +the Rule. The popes encouraged these centralizing tendencies; +and in 1339 Benedict XII. organized the Augustinian canons on +the same general lines as those laid down for the Benedictines, +by a system of provincial chapters and visitations.</p> + +<p>Some thirty congregations of canons regular of St Augustine +are numbered. The most important were: (1) the Lateran +canons, formed soon after the synod of 1059, by the clergy of +the Lateran Basilica; (2) Congregation of St Victor in Paris, +c. 1100, remarkable for the theological and mystical school of +Hugh, Richard and Adam of St Victor; (3) Gilbertines (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilbert of Sempringham, St</a></span>); (4) Windesheim Congregation, +<i>c.</i> 1400, in the Netherlands and over north and central Germany +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groot, Gerhard</a></span>), to which belonged Thomas à Kempis; +(5) Congregation of Ste Geneviève in Paris, a reform <i>c.</i> 1630. +During the later middle ages the houses of these various congregations +of canons regular spread all over Europe and became +extraordinarily numerous. They underwent the natural and +inevitable vicissitudes of all orders, having their periods of +depression and degeneracy, and again of revival and reform. +The book of Johann Busch, himself a canon of Windesheim, <i>De +Reformatione monasteriorum</i>, shows that in the 15th century +grave relaxation had crept into many monasteries of Augustinian +canons in north Germany, and the efforts at reform were only +partially successful. The Reformation, the religious wars and +the Revolution have swept away nearly all the canons regular, +but some of their houses in Austria still exist in their medieval +splendour. In England there were as many as 200 houses of +Augustinian canons, and 60 of them were among the “greater +monasteries” suppressed in 1538-1540 (for list see Tables in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span> +F.A. Gasquet’s <i>English Monastic Life</i>). The first foundation +was Holy Trinity, Aldgate, by Queen Maud, in 1108; Carlisle +was an English cathedral of Augustinian canons. In Ireland +the order was even more numerous, Christ Church, Dublin, +being one of their houses. Three houses of the Lateran canons +were established in England towards the close of the 19th +century. Most of the congregations of Augustinian canons had +convents of nuns, called canonesses; many such exist to this day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the works of Amort and Du Molinet, mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>. +Vol. ii. of Helyot’s <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792) is devoted to +canons regular of all kinds. The information is epitomized by +Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>, i. (1896), §§ 54-60, +where copious references to the literature of the subject are supplied. +See also Otto Zöckler, <i>Askese und Mönchtum</i>, ii. (1897), p. 422; +and Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.), art. “Canonici +Regulares” and “Canonissae.” For England see J.W. Clark, +<i>Observances in use at the Augustinian Priory at Barnwell</i> (1897); +and an article in <i>Journal of Theological Studies</i> (v.) by Scott +Holmes.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINIAN HERMITS,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Friars</span>, a religious order in +the Roman Catholic Church, sometimes called (but improperly) +Black Friars (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Friars</a></span>). In the first half of the 13th century +there were in central Italy various small congregations of hermits +living according to different rules. The need of co-ordinating +and organizing these hermits induced the popes towards 1250 +to unite into one body a number of these congregations, so as to +form a single religious order, living according to the Rule of St +Augustine, and called the Order of Augustinian Hermits, or +simply the Augustinian Order. Special constitutions were drawn +up for its government, on the same lines as the Dominicans and +other mendicants—a general elected by chapter, provincials to +rule in the different countries, with assistants, definitors and +visitors. For this reason, and because almost from the beginning +the term “hermits” became a misnomer (for they abandoned +the deserts and lived conventually in towns), they ranked +among the friars, and became the fourth of the mendicant orders. +The observance and manner of life was, relatively to those times, +mild, meat being allowed four days in the week. The habit is +black. The institute spread rapidly all over western Europe, +so that it eventually came to have forty provinces and 2000 +friaries with some 30,000 members. In England there were +not more than about 30 houses (see Tables in F.A. Gasquet’s +<i>English Monastic Life</i>). The reaction against the inevitable +tendencies towards mitigation and relaxation led to a number +of reforms that produced upwards of twenty different congregations +within the order, each governed by a vicar-general, who was +subject to the general of the order. Some of these congregations +went in the matter of austerity beyond the original idea of the +institute; and so in the 16th century there arose in Spain, +Italy and France, Discalced or Barefooted Hermits of St Augustine, +who provided in each province one house wherein a strictly +eremitical life might be led by such as desired it.</p> + +<p>About 1500 a great attempt at a reform of this kind was set +on foot among the Augustinian Hermits of northern Germany, +and they were formed into a separate congregation independent +of the general. It was from this congregation that Luther went +forth, and great numbers of the German Augustinian Hermits, +among them Wenceslaus Link the provincial, followed him +and embraced the Reformation, so that the congregation was +dissolved in 1526.</p> + +<p>The Reformation and later revolutions have destroyed most +of the houses of Augustinian Hermits, so that now only about a +hundred exist in various parts of Europe and America; in Ireland +they are relatively numerous, having survived the penal times. +The Augustinian school of theology (Noris, Berti) was formed +among the Hermits. There have been many convents of Augustinian +Hermitesses, chiefly in the Barefooted congregations; +such convents exist still in Europe and North America, devoted +to education and hospital work. There have also been numerous +congregations of Augustinian Tertiaries, both men and women, +connected with the order and engaged on charitable works of +every kind (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tertiaries</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792), iii.; Max Heimbucher, +<i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>, i. (1896), § 61-65; Wetzer und Welte, +<i>Kirchenlexicon</i> (2nd ed.), art. “Augustiner”; +Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed.), art. “Augustiner.” +The chief book on the subject is Th. Kolde, <i>Die deutschen +Augustiner-Kongregationen</i> (1879).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTINIANS,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> in the Roman Catholic Church, a generic +name for religious orders that follow the so-called “Rule of +St Augustine.” The chief of these orders are:—Augustinian +Canons (<i>q.v.</i>), Augustinian Hermits (<i>q.v.</i>) or Friars, Premonstratensians +(<i>q.v.</i>), Trinitarians (<i>q.v.</i>), Gilbertines (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilbert +of Sempringham, St</a></span>). The following orders, though not called +Augustinians, also have St Augustine’s Rule as the basis of their +life: Dominicans, Servites, Our Lady of Ransom, Hieronymites, +Assumptionsts and many others; also orders of women: +Brigittines, Ursulines, Visitation nuns and a vast number of +congregations of women, spread over the Old and New Worlds, +devoted to education and charitable works of all kinds.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Helyot, <i>Ordres religieux</i> (1792), vols. ii., iii., iv.; +Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i>, i. (1896), § 66-85; +Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexicon</i>, i., 1665-1667.</p> +</div> + +<p>St Augustine never wrote a Rule, properly so called; but +<i>Ep.</i> 211 (<i>al.</i> 109) is a long letter of practical advice to a +community of nuns, on their daily life; and <i>Serm.</i> 355, 356 describe +the common life he led along with his clerics in Hippo. When in +the second half of the 11th century the clergy of a great number +of collegiate churches were undertaking to live a substantially +monastic form of life (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon</a></span>), it was natural that they +should look back to this classical model for clerics living in +community. And so attention was directed to St Augustine’s +writings on community life; and out of them, and spurious +writings attributed to him, were compiled towards the close of +the 11th century three Rules, the “First” and “Second” +being mere fragments, but the “Third” a substantive rule of +life in 45 sections, often grouped in twelve chapters. This Third +Rule is the one known as “the Rule of St Augustine.” Being +confined to fundamental principles without entering into details, +it has proved itself admirably suited to form the foundation of +the religious life of the most varied orders and congregations, +and since the 12th century it has proved more prolific than the +Benedictine Rule. In an uncritical age it was attributed to St +Augustine himself, and Augustinians, especially the canons, put +forward fantastic claims to antiquity, asserting unbroken continuity, +not merely from St Augustine, but from Christ and the Apostles.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The three Rules are printed in Dugdale, <i>Monasticon</i> +(ed. 1846), vi. 42; and in Holsten-Brockie, <i>Codex +Regularum</i>, ii. 121. For the literature see Otto Zöckler, +<i>Askese und Mönchtum</i> (1897), pp. 347, 354.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTOWO,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a city of Russian Poland, in the government +of Suwalki, 20 m. S. of the town of that name, on a canal +(65 m.) connecting the Vistula with the Niemen. It was founded +in 1557 by Sigismund II. (Augustus), and is laid out in a very +regular manner, with a spacious market-place. It carries on a +large trade in cattle and horses, and manufactures linen and +huckaback. Pop. (1897) 12,746.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (a name<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> derived from Lat. <i>augeo</i>, increase, +<i>i.e.</i> venerable, majestic, Gr. <span class="grk" title="Sebastos">Σεβαστός</span>), the title given by the +Roman senate, on the 17th of January 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, to Gaius Julius +Caesar Octavianus (63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14), or as he was originally +designated, Gaius Octavius, in recognition of his eminent services +to the state (<i>Mon. Anc.</i> 34), and borne by him as the first of the +Roman emperors. The title was adopted by all the succeeding +Caesars or emperors of Rome long after they had ceased to be +connected by blood with the first Augustus.</p> + +<p>Gaius Octavius was born in Rome on the 23rd of September +63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the year of Cicero’s consulship and of Catiline’s conspiracy. +He came of a family of good standing, long settled at Velitrae +(Velletri), but his father was the first of the family to obtain a +curule magistracy at Rome and senatorial dignity. His mother, +however, was Atia, daughter of Julia, the wife of M. Atius +Balbus, and sister of Julius Caesar, and it was this connexion with +the great dictator which determined his career. In his fifth +year (58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) his father died; about a year later his mother +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span> +remarried, and the young Octavius passed under her care to that +of his stepfather, L. Marcius Philippus. At the age of twelve (51 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) he delivered the customary funeral panegyric on his grandmother +Julia, his first public appearance. On the 18th of October +48 (or ? 47) <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he assumed the “toga virilis” and was elected +into the pontifical college, an exceptional honour which he no +doubt owed to his great-uncle, now dictator and master of Rome. +In 46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he shared in the glory of Caesar’s African triumph, +and in 45 he was made a patrician by the senate, and designated +as one of Caesar’s “masters of the horse” for the next year. +In the autumn of 45, Caesar, who was planning his Parthian +campaign, sent his nephew to study quietly at the Greek colony of +Apollonia, in Illyria. Here the news of Caesar’s murder reached +him and he crossed to Italy. On landing he learnt that Caesar +had made him his heir and adopted him into the Julian gens, +whereby he acquired the designation of Gaius Julius Caesar +Octavianus. The inheritance was a perilous one; his mother +and others would have dissuaded him from accepting it, but he, +confident in his abilities, declared at once that he would undertake +its obligations, and discharge the sums bequeathed by the +dictator to the Roman people. Mark Antony had possessed +himself of Caesar’s papers and effects, and made light of his +young nephew’s pretensions. Brutus and Cassius paid him little +regard, and dispersed to their respective provinces. Cicero, +much charmed at the attitude of Antonius, hoped to make use of +him, and flattered him to the utmost, with the expectation, +however, of getting rid of him as soon as he had served his purpose. +Octavianus conducted himself with consummate adroitness, +making use of all competitors for power, but assisting none. +Considerable forces attached themselves to him. The senate, +when it armed the consuls against Antonius, called upon him for +assistance; and he took part in the campaign in which Antonius +was defeated at Mutina (43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The soldiers of Octavianus +demanded the consulship for him, and the senate, though now +much alarmed, could not prevent his election. He now effected +a coalition with Antonius and Lepidus, and on the 27th of November +43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the three were formally appointed a triumvirate +for the reconstitution of the commonwealth for five years. +They divided the western provinces among them, the east being +held for the republic by Brutus and Cassius. They drew up a +list of proscribed citizens, and caused the assassination of three +hundred senators and two thousand knights. They further +confiscated the territories of many cities throughout Italy, and +divided them among their soldiers. Cicero was murdered at +the demand of Antonius. The remnant of the republican party +took refuge either with Brutus and Cassius in the East, or with +Sextus Pompeius, who had made himself master of the seas.</p> + +<p>Octavianus and Antonius crossed the Adriatic in 42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to +reduce the last defenders of the republic. Brutus and Cassius +were defeated, and fell at the battle of Philippi. War soon broke +out between the victors, the chief incident of which was the +siege and capture by famine of Perusia, and the alleged sacrifice +of three hundred of its defenders by the young Caesar at the +altar of his uncle. But peace was again made between them +(40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Antonius married Octavia, his rival’s sister, and took +for himself the eastern half of the empire, leaving the west to +Caesar. Lepidus was reduced to the single province of Africa. +Meanwhile Sextus Pompeius made himself formidable by cutting +off the supplies of grain from Rome. The triumvirs were obliged +to concede to him the islands in the western Mediterranean. +But Octavianus could not allow the capital to be kept in alarm +for its daily sustenance. He picked a quarrel with Sextus, and +when his colleagues failed to support him, undertook to attack +him alone. Antonius, indeed, came at last to his aid, in return +for military assistance in the campaign he meditated in the East. +But Octavianus was well served by the commander of his fleet, +M. Vipsanius Agrippa. Sextus was completely routed, and +driven into Asia, where he perished soon afterwards (36 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Lepidus was an object of contempt to all parties, and Octavianus +and Antonius remained to fight for supreme power.</p> + +<p>The five years (36-31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) which preceded the decisive encounter +between the two rivals were wasted by Antony in fruitless +campaigns, and in a dalliance with Cleopatra which shocked +Roman sentiment. By Octavian they were employed in strengthening +his hold on the West, and his claim to be regarded as the +one possible saviour of Rome and Roman civilization. His +marriage with Livia (38 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) placed by his side a sagacious +counsellor and a loyal ally, whose services were probably as +great as even those of his trusted friend Marcus Agrippa. With +their help he set himself to win the confidence of a public still +inclined to distrust the author of the proscriptions of 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Brigandage was suppressed in Italy, and the safety of the Italian +frontiers secured against the raids of Alpine tribes on the north-west +and of Illyrians on the east, while Rome was purified and +beautified, largely with the help of Agrippa (aedile in 33 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Meanwhile, indignation at Antony’s un-Roman excesses, and +alarm at Cleopatra’s rumoured schemes of founding a Greco-Oriental +empire, were rapidly increasing. In 32 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Antony’s +repudiation of his wife Octavia, sister of Octavian, and the discovery +of his will, with its clear proofs of Cleopatra’s dangerous +ascendancy, brought matters to a climax, and war was declared, +not indeed against Antony, but against Cleopatra.</p> + +<p>The decisive battle was fought on the 2nd of September 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +at Actium on the Epirot coast, and resulted in the almost total +destruction of Antony’s fleet and the surrender of his land forces. +Not quite a year later (Aug. 1, 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) followed the capture +of Alexandria and the deaths by their own hands of Antony and +Cleopatra. On the 11th of January 29 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the restoration of +peace was marked by the closing of the temple of Janus for the +first time for 200 years. In the summer Octavian returned to +Italy, and in August celebrated a three days’ triumph. He was +welcomed, not as a successful combatant in a civil war, but as the +man who had vindicated the sovereignty of Rome against its +assailants, as the saviour of the republic and of his fellow-citizens, +above all as the restorer of peace.</p> + +<p>He was now, to quote his own words, “master of all things,” +and the Roman world looked to him for some permanent settlement +of the distracted empire. His first task was the re-establishment +of a regular and constitutional government, such as had +not existed since Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon twenty +years before. To this task he devoted the next eighteen months +(Aug. 29-Jan. 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), +his achievements are described in detail, and only a brief +summary need be given here. The “principate,” to give the +new form of government its most appropriate name, was a +compromise thoroughly characteristic of the combination of +tenacity of purpose with cautious respect for forms and conventions +which distinguished its author. The republic was restored; +senate, magistrates and assembly resumed their ancient functions; +and the public life of Rome began to run once more in +the familiar grooves. The triumvirate with its irregularities +and excesses was at an end. The controlling authority, which +Octavian himself wielded, could not indeed be safely dispensed +with. But henceforward he was to exercise it under constitutional +forms and limitations, and with the express sanction of +the senate and people. Octavian was legally invested for a +period of ten years with the government of the important +frontier provinces, with the sole command of the military and +naval forces of the state, and the exclusive control of its foreign +relations. At home it was understood that he would year by +year be elected consul, and enjoy the powers and pre-eminence +attached to the chief magistracy of the Roman state. Thus +the republic was restored under the presidency and patronage +of its “first citizen” (<i>princeps civitatis</i>).</p> + +<p>In acknowledgment of this happy settlement and of his +other services further honours were conferred upon Octavian. +On the 13th of January 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the birthday of the restored +republic, he was awarded the civic crown to be placed over the +door of his house, in token that he had saved his fellow-citizens +and restored the Republic. Four days later (Jan. 17) the senate +conferred upon him the cognomen of Augustus.</p> + +<p>But it was not only the machinery of government in Rome +that needed repair. Twenty years of civil war and confusion +had disorganized the empire, and the strong hand of Augustus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span> +as he must now be called, could alone restore confidence and +order. Towards the end of 27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he left Rome for Gaul, and +from that date until October 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was mainly occupied +with the reorganization of the provinces and of the provincial +administration, first of all in the West and then in the East. +It was during his stay in Asia (20 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that the Parthian king +Phraates voluntarily restored the Roman prisoners and standards +taken at Carrhae (53 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a welcome tribute to the respect +inspired by Augustus, and a happy augury for the future. In +October 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he returned to Rome, and the senate ordered +that the day of his return (Oct. 12) should thenceforward be +observed as a public holiday. The period of ten years for which +his <i>imperium</i> had been granted him was nearly ended, and +though much remained to be done, very much had been accomplished. +The pacification of northern Spain by the subjugation +of the Astures and Cantabri, the settlement of the wide territories +added to the empire by Julius Caesar in Gaul—the “New Gaul,” +or the “long-haired Gaul” (Gallia Comata) as it was called by +way of distinction from the old province of Gallia Narbonensis +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaul</a></span>)—and the re-establishment of Roman authority +over the kings and princes of the Near East, were achievements +which fully justified the acclamations of senate and people.</p> + +<p>In 18 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus’s <i>imperium</i> was renewed for five years, +and his tried friend Marcus Agrippa, now his son-in-law, was +associated with him as a colleague. From October of 19 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +till the middle of 16 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus’s main attention was given +to Rome and to domestic reform, and to this period belong +such measures as the Julian law “as to the marriage of the +orders.” In June of 17 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the opening of the new and better +age, which he had worked to bring about, was marked by the +celebration in Rome of the Secular games. The chief actors in +the ceremony were Augustus himself and his colleague Agrippa,—while, +as the extant record tells us, the processional hymn, +chanted by youths and maidens first before the new temple of +Apollo on the Palatine and then before the temple of Jupiter +on the Capitol, was composed by Horace. The hymn, the +well-known <i>Carmen Saeculare</i>, gives fervent expression to the +prevalent emotions of joy and gratitude.</p> + +<p>In the next year (16 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), however, Augustus was suddenly +called away from Rome to deal with a problem which engrossed +much of his attention for the next twenty-five years. The +defeat of Marcus Lollius, the legate commanding on the Rhine, +by a horde of German invaders, seems to have determined +Augustus to take in hand the whole question of the frontiers +of the empire towards the north, and the effective protection +of Gaul and Italy. The work was entrusted to Augustus’s +step-sons Tiberius and Drusus. The first step was the annexation +of Noricum and Raetia (16-15 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which brought under Roman +control the mountainous district through which the direct +routes lay from North Italy to the upper waters of the Rhine +and the Danube. East of Noricum Tiberius reduced to order +for the time the restless tribes of Pannonia, and probably +established a military post at Carnuntum on the Danube. To +Drusus fell the more ambitious task of advancing the Roman +frontier line from the Rhine to the Elbe, a work which occupied +him until his death in Germany in 9 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus +had returned to Rome; his return, and the conclusion of his +second period of rule, were commemorated by the erection of +one of the most beautiful monuments of the Augustan age, the +Ara Pacis Augustae (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Art</a></span>, Pl. II, III). His <i>imperium</i> +was renewed, again for five years, and in 12 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, on the death of +his former fellow-triumvir Lepidus, he was elected Pontifex +Maximus. But this third period of his imperium brought with it +losses which Augustus must have keenly felt. Only a few months +after his reappointment as Augustus’s colleague, Marcus Agrippa, +his trusted friend since boyhood, died. As was fully his due, +his funeral oration was pronounced by Augustus, and he was +buried in the mausoleum near the Tiber built by Augustus for +himself and his family. Three years later his brilliant step-son +Drusus died on his way back from a campaign in Germany, in +which he had reached the Elbe. Finally in 8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he lost the +comrade who next to Agrippa had been the most intimate +friend and counsellor of his early manhood, Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, +the patron of Virgil and Horace.</p> + +<p>For the moment Augustus turned, almost of necessity, to his +surviving step-son. Tiberius was associated with him as Agrippa +had been in the tribunician power, was married against his +will to Julia, and sent to complete his brother Drusus’s work in +Germany (7-6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). But Tiberius was only his step-son, and, +with all his great qualities, was never a very lovable man. +On the other hand, the two sons of Agrippa and Julia, Gaius +and Lucius, were of his own blood and evidently dear to him. +Both had been adopted by Augustus (178. c.). In 6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Tiberius, +who had just received the tribunician power, was transferred +from Germany to the East, where the situation in Armenia +demanded attention. His sudden withdrawal to Rhodes has +been variously explained, but, in part at least, it was probably +due to the plain indications which Augustus now gave of his +wish that the young Caesars should be regarded as his heirs. +The elder, Gaius, now fifteen years old (5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was formally +introduced to the people as consul-designate by Augustus +himself, who for this purpose resumed the consulship (12th) +which he had dropped since 23 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was authorized to take +part in the deliberations of the senate. Three years later +(2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Augustus, now consul for the 13th and last time, paid a +similar compliment to the younger brother Lucius. In 1 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Gaius was given proconsular imperium, and sent to re-establish +order in Armenia, and a few years afterwards (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 2) Lucius +was sent to Spain, apparently to take command of the legions +there. But the fates were unkind; Lucius fell sick and died +at Marseilles on his way out, and in the next year (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 3) Gaius, +wounded by an obscure hand in Armenia, started reluctantly +for home, only to die in Lycia. Tiberius alone was left, and +Augustus, at once accepting facts, formally and finally declared +him to be his colleague and destined successor (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 4) and +adopted him as his son.</p> + +<p>The interest of the last ten years of Augustus’s life centres +in the events occurring on the northern frontier. The difficult +task of bringing the German tribes between the Rhine and the +Elbe under Roman rule, commenced by Drusus in 13 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had +on his death been continued by Tiberius (9-6 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During +Tiberius’s retirement in Rhodes no decisive progress was made, +but in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 4 operations on a large scale were resumed. From +Velleius Paterculus, who himself served in the war, we learn +that in the first campaign Roman authority was restored over +the tribes between the Rhine and the Weser, and that the Roman +forces, instead of returning as usual to their headquarters on +the Rhine, went into winter-quarters near the source of the +Lippe. In the next year (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 5) the Elbe was reached by the +troops, while the fleet, after a hazardous voyage, arrived at +the mouth of the same river and sailed some way up it. Both +feats are deservedly commemorated by Augustus himself in the +Ancyran monument. To complete the conquest of Germany +and to connect the frontier with the line of the Danube, it +seemed that only one thing remained to be done, to break the +power of the Marcomanni and their king Maroboduus. In the +spring of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 6 preparations were made for this final achievement; +the territory of the Marcomanni (now Bohemia) was +to be invaded simultaneously by two columns. One, starting +apparently from the headquarters of the army of Upper Germany +at Mainz, was to advance by way of the Black Forest and attack +Maroboduus on the west; the other, led by Tiberius himself, +was to start from the new military base at Carnuntum on the +Danube and operate from the south-east.</p> + +<p>But the attack was never delivered, for at this moment, in +the rear of Tiberius, the whole of Pannonia and Dalmatia burst +into a blaze of insurrection. The crisis is pronounced by Suetonius +to have been more serious than any which had confronted Rome +since the Hannibalic war, for it was not merely the loss of a +province but the invasion of Italy that was threatened, and +Augustus openly declared in the senate that the insurgents +might be before Rome in ten days. He himself moved to +Ariminum to be nearer the seat of war, recruiting was vigorously +carried on in Rome and Italy, and legions were summoned from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span> +Moesia and even from Asia. In the end, and not including the +Thracian cavalry of King Rhoemetalces, a force of 15 legions +with an equal number of auxiliaries was employed. Even so +the task of putting down the insurrection was difficult enough, +and it was not until late in the summer of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 9, after three years +of fighting, that Germanicus, who had been sent to assist Tiberius, +ended the war by the capture of Andetrium in Dalmatia.</p> + +<p>Five days later the news reached Rome of the disaster to Varus +and his legions, in the heart of what was to have been the new +province of Germany beyond the Rhine. The disaster was +avowedly due entirely to Varus’s incapacity and vanity, and +might no doubt have been repaired by leaders of the calibre of +Tiberius and Germanicus. Augustus, however, was now seventy-two, +the Dalmatian outbreak had severely tried his nerve, and +now for the second time in three years the fates seemed to pronounce +clearly against a further prosecution of his long-cherished +scheme of a Roman Germany reaching to the Elbe.</p> + +<p>All that was immediately necessary was done. Recruiting +was pressed forward in Rome, and first Tiberius and then +Germanicus were despatched to the Rhine. But the German +leaders were too prudent to risk defeat, and the Roman generals +devoted their attention mainly to strengthening the line of the +Rhine.</p> + +<p>The defeat of Varus, and the tacit abandonment of the plans +of expansion begun twenty-five years before, are almost the last +events of importance in the long principate of Augustus. The +last five years of his life (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10-14) were untroubled by war +or disaster. Augustus was ageing fast, and was more and more +disinclined to appear personally in the senate or in public. Yet +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 13 he consented, reluctantly we are told, to yet one more +renewal of his <i>imperium</i> for ten years, stipulating, however, that +his step-son Tiberius, himself now over fifty, should be associated +with himself on equal terms in the administration of the empire. +Early in the same year (January 16, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 13) the last triumph +of his principate was celebrated. Tiberius was now in Rome, +the command on the Rhine having been given to Germanicus, +who went out to it immediately after his consulship (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 12), +and the time had come to celebrate the Dalmatian and Pannonian +triumph, which the defeat of Varus had postponed. Augustus +witnessed the triumphal procession, and Tiberius, as it turned +from the Forum to ascend the Capitol, halted, descended from +his triumphal car, and did reverence to his adopted father.</p> + +<p>One last public appearance Augustus made in Rome. During +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 13 he and Tiberius conducted a census of Roman citizens, +the third taken by his orders; the first having been in 28 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +at the very outset of his rule. The business of the census lasted +over into the next year, but on the 11th of May, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14, before +a great crowd in the Campus Martius, Augustus took part in the +solemn concluding ceremony of burying away out of sight the old +age and inaugurating the new. The ceremony had been full +of significance in 28 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and now more than forty years later +it was given a pathetic interest by Augustus himself. When the +tablets containing the vows to be offered for the welfare of the +state during the next lustrum were handed to him, he left the +duty of reciting them to Tiberius, saying that he would not take +vows which he was never destined to perform.</p> + +<p>It was apparently at the end of June or early in July that +Augustus left Rome on his last journey. Travelling by road +to Astura (Torre Astura) at the southern point of the little bay +of Antium, he sailed thence to Capri and to Naples. On his way +at Puteoli, the passengers and crew of a ship just come from +Alexandria cheered the old man by their spontaneous homage, +declaring, as they poured libations, that to him they owed life, +safe passage on the seas, freedom and fortune.</p> + +<p>At Naples, in spite of increasing disease, he bravely sat out +a gymnastic contest held in his honour, and then accompanied +Tiberius as far as Beneventum on his way to Brundusium and +Illyricum. On his return he was forced by illness to stop at +Nola, his father’s old home. Tiberius was hastily recalled and +had a last confidential talk on affairs of state. Thenceforward, +says Suetonius, he gave no more thought to such great affairs. +He bade farewell to his friends, inquired after the health of +Drusus’s daughter who was ill, and then quietly expired in the +arms of the wife who for more than fifty years had been his most +intimate and trusted guide and counsellor, and to whom his +last words were an exhortation to “live mindful of our wedded +life.” He died on the 19th of August, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14, in the same room +in which his father had died before him, and on the anniversary +of his entrance upon his first consulship fifty-seven years before +(43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The corpse was carried to Rome in slow procession +along the Appian Way. On the day of the funeral it was borne +to the Campus Martius on the shoulders of senators and there +burnt. The ashes were reverently collected by Livia, and placed +in the mausoleum by the Tiber which her husband had built +for himself and his family. The last act was the formal decree +of the senate by which Augustus, like his father Julius before +him, was added to the number of the gods recognized by the +Roman state.</p> + +<p>If we except writers like Voltaire who could see in Augustus +only the man who had destroyed the old republic and extinguished +political liberty, the verdict of posterity on Augustus +has varied just in proportion as his critics have fixed their +attention, mainly, on the means by which he rose to power, +or the use which he made of the power when acquired. The +lines of argument followed respectively by friendly and hostile +contemporaries immediately after his death (Tac. <i>Ann</i>. i. 9, 10) +have been followed by later writers with little change. But of +late years, our increasing mistrust of the current gossip about +him, and our increased knowledge of the magnitude of what +he actually accomplished, have conspicuously influenced the +judgments passed upon him. We allow the faults and crimes +of his early manhood, his cruelties and deceptions, his readiness +to sacrifice everything that came between him and the end +he had in view. On the other hand, a careful study of what +he achieved between the years 38 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when he married Livia, +and his death in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14, is now held to give him a claim to rank, +not merely as an astute and successful intriguer, or an accomplished +political actor, but as one of the world’s great men, a +statesman who conceived and carried through a scheme of +political reconstruction which kept the empire together, secured +peace and tranquillity, and preserved civilization for more than +two centuries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The most comprehensive work on Augustus and +his age is that of V. Gardthausen, <i>Augustus und seine Zeit</i> (2 vols., +Leipzig, 1891-1904), which deals with all aspects of Augustus’s life, +vol. ii. consisting of elaborate critical and bibliographical notes. +See also histories of Rome generally, and among special works:—E.S. +Shuckburgh, <i>Augustus</i> (London, 1903; reviewed by F.T. +Richards in <i>Class. Rev.</i> vol. xviii.), containing the text of the <i>Monumentum +Ancyranum</i> (see also Gardthausen, book xiii.); J.B. Firth, +<i>Augustus Caesar</i> (London, 1903), in “Heroes of the Nations” +series; O. Seeck, “Kaiser Augustus” (<i>Monographien zur Weltgeschichte</i>, +xvii., 1902), nine essays on special problems, <i>e.g.</i> the +campaigns of Mutina, Perusia and against Sextus Pompeius, “das +Augustische Zeitalter”; A. Duméril, “Auguste et la fondation de +l’empire romain,” in the <i>Annales de la Fac. des lett. de Bordeaux</i> +(1890); a suggestive monograph on the reforms of Augustus in +relation to the decrease of population is Jules Ferlet’s <i>L’Abaissement +de la natalité à Rome</i> (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. F. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the name see Neumann, in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie +f. cl. alterth.</i>, s.v. 2374.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS I.<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1526-1586), elector of Saxony, was the younger +son of Henry, duke of Saxony, and consequently belonged to the +Albertine branch of the Wettin family. Born at Freiberg on the +31st of July 1526, and brought up as a Lutheran, he received a +good education and studied at the university of Leipzig. When +Duke Henry died in 1541 he decreed that his lands should be +divided equally between his two sons, but as his bequest was +contrary to law, it was not carried out, and the dukedom passed +almost intact to his elder son, Maurice. Augustus, however, +remained on friendly terms with his brother, and to further his +policy spent some time at the court of the German king, Ferdinand +I., in Vienna. In 1544 Maurice secured the appointment of his +brother as administrator of the bishopric of Merseburg; but +Augustus was very extravagant and was soon compelled to return +to the Saxon court at Dresden. Augustus supported his brother +during the war of the league of Schmalkalden, and in the policy +which culminated in the transfer of the Saxon electorate from +John Frederick I., the head of the Ernestine branch of the Wettin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span> +family, to Maurice. On the 7th of October 1548 Augustus was +married at Torgau to Anna, daughter of Christian III., king of +Denmark, and took up his residence at Weissenfels. But he +soon desired a more imposing establishment. The result was +that Maurice made more generous provision for his brother, +who acted as regent of Saxony in 1552 during the absence of the +elector. Augustus was on a visit to Denmark when by Maurice’s +death in July 1553 he became elector of Saxony.</p> + +<p>The first care of the new elector was to come to terms with +John Frederick, and to strengthen his own hold upon the electoral +position. This object was secured by a treaty made at Naumburg +in February 1554, when, in return for the grant of Altenburg +and other lands, John Frederick recognized Augustus as elector +of Saxony. The elector, however, was continually haunted by +the fear that the Ernestines would attempt to deprive him of +the coveted dignity, and his policy both in Saxony and in Germany +was coloured by this fear. In imperial politics Augustus +acted upon two main principles: to cultivate the friendship of +the Habsburgs, and to maintain peace between the contending +religious parties. To this policy may be traced his share in +bringing about the religious peace of Augsburg in 1555, his +tortuous conduct at the diet of Augsburg eleven years later, +and his reluctance to break entirely with the Calvinists. On +one occasion only did he waver in his allegiance to the Habsburgs. +In 1568 a marriage was arranged between John Casimir, son of +the elector palatine, Frederick III., and Elizabeth, a daughter +of Augustus, and for a time it seemed possible that the Saxon +elector would support his son-in-law in his attempts to aid the +revolting inhabitants of the Netherlands. Augustus also entered +into communication with the Huguenots; but his aversion to +foreign complications prevailed, and the incipient friendship +with the elector palatine soon gave way to serious dislike. +Although a sturdy Lutheran the elector hoped at one time to +unite the Protestants, on whom he continually urged the necessity +of giving no cause of offence to their opponents, and he favoured +the movement to get rid of the clause in the peace of Augsburg +concerning ecclesiastical reservation, which was offensive to +many Protestants. His moderation, however, prevented him +from joining those who were prepared to take strong measures +to attain this end, and he refused to jeopardize the concessions +already won.</p> + +<p>The hostility between the Albertines and the Ernestines +gave serious trouble to Augustus. A preacher named Matthias +Flacius held an influential position in ducal Saxony, and taught +a form of Lutheranism different from that taught in electoral +Saxony. This breach was widened when Flacius began to make +personal attacks on Augustus, to prophesy his speedy downfall, +and to incite Duke John Frederick to make an effort to recover +his rightful position. Associated with Flacius was a knight, +William of Grumbach, who, not satisfied with words only, made +inroads into electoral Saxony and sought the aid of foreign +powers in his plan to depose Augustus. After some delay +Grumbach and his protector, John Frederick, were placed under +the imperial ban, and Augustus was entrusted with its execution. +His campaign in 1567 was short and successful. John Frederick +surrendered, and passed his time in prison until his death in +1595; Grumbach was taken and executed; and the position of +the elector was made quite secure.</p> + +<p>The form of Lutheranism taught in electoral Saxony was +that of Melanchthon, and many of its teachers and adherents, +who were afterwards called Crypto-Calvinists, were favoured by +the elector. When Augustus, freed from the fear of an attack +by the Ernestines, became gradually estranged from the elector +palatine and the Calvinists, he seemed to have looked with +suspicion upon the Crypto-Calvinists, who did not preach the +pure doctrines of Luther. Spurred on by his wife the matter +reached a climax in 1574, when letters were discovered, which, +while revealing a hope to bring over Augustus to Calvinism, +cast some aspersions upon the elector and his wife. Augustus +ordered the leaders of the Crypto-Calvinists to be seized, and they +were tortured and imprisoned. A strict form of Lutheranism +was declared binding upon all the inhabitants of Saxony, and +many persons were banished from the country. In 1576 he +made a serious but unsuccessful attempt to unite the Protestants +upon the basis of some articles drawn up at Tolgau, which inculcated +a strict form of Lutheranism. The change in Saxony, +however, made no difference to the attitude of Augustus on +imperial questions. In 1576 he opposed the proposal of the +Protestant princes to make a grant for the Turkish War conditional +upon the abolition of the clause concerning ecclesiastical +reservation, and he continued to support the Habsburgs.</p> + +<p>Much of the elector’s time was devoted to extending his +territories. In 1573 he became guardian to the two sons of John +William, duke of Saxe-Weimar, and in this capacity was able +to add part of the county of Henneberg to electoral Saxony. +His command of money enabled him to take advantage of the +poverty of his neighbours, and in this way he secured Vogtland +and the county of Mansfeld. In 1555 he had appointed one of +his nominees to the bishopric of Meissen, in 1561 he had secured +the election of his son Alexander as bishop of Merseburg, and +three years later as bishop of Naumburg; and when this prince +died in 1565 these bishoprics came under the direct rule of +Augustus.</p> + +<p>As a ruler of Saxony Augustus was economical and enlightened. +He favoured trade by encouraging Flemish emigrants to settle +in the country, by improving the roads, regulating the coinage +and establishing the first posts. He was specially interested in +benefiting agriculture, and added several fine buildings to the +city of Dresden. His laws were numerous and comprehensive. +The constitution of 1572 was his work, and by these laws the +church, the universities and the police were regulated, the +administration of justice was improved, and the raising of taxes +placed upon a better footing (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In October 1585 the electress Anna died, and a few weeks +later Augustus married Agnes Hedwig, a daughter of Joachim +Ernest, prince of Anhalt. His own death took place at Dresden +on the 21st of January 1586, and he was buried at Freiberg. +By his first wife he had fifteen children, but only four of these +survived him, among whom was his successor, the elector +Christian I. (1560-1591). Augustus was a covetous, cruel and +superstitious man, but these qualities were redeemed by his +political caution and his wise methods of government. He +wrote a small work on agriculture entitled <i>Künstlich Obstund +Gartenbüchlein</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, <i>Geschichte Sachsens</i>, Band ii. +(Gotha, 1870); M. Ritter, <i>Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenreformation</i>, +Band i. (Stuttgart, 1890); R. Calinich, <i>Kampf und +Untergang des Melanchthonismus in Kursachsen</i> (Leipzig, 1866); +J. Falke, <i>Geschichte des Kurfürsten August in volkswirtschaftlicher +Beziehung</i> (Leipzig, 1868); J. Janssen, <i>Geschichte des Deutschen +Volks seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters</i> (Freiburg, 1885-1894); +W. Wenck, <i>Kurfürst Moritz und Herzog August</i> (Leipzig, 1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS II.,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> king of Poland, and, as <span class="sc">Frederick Augustus +I</span>., elector of Saxony (1670-1733), second son of John George III., +elector of Saxony, was born at Dresden on the 12th of May 1670. +He was well educated, spent some years in travel and in fighting +against France, and on account of his immense strength was +known as “the Strong.” On the death of his brother, John +George IV., in 1694, he became elector of Saxony, and in 1695 +and 1696 led the imperial troops against the Turks, but without +very much success. When John Sobieski died in 1696, Augustus +was a candidate for the Polish throne, and in order to further +his chances became a Roman Catholic, a step which was strongly +resented in Saxony. By a lavish expenditure of money, and by +his promptness in entering the country, he secured his election +and coronation in September 1697, and his principal rival F.L. +de Bourbon, prince of Conti, abandoned the contest and returned +to France. Augustus continued the war against the Turks for +a time, and being anxious to extend his influence and to find a +pretext for retaining the Saxon troops in Poland, made an +alliance in 1699 with Russia and Denmark against Charles XII. +of Sweden. The Poles would not assist, and at the head of the +Saxons Augustus invaded Livonia, but for various causes the +campaign was not a success, and in July 1702 he was defeated +by Charles at Klissow. Augustus was then deposed in Poland, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span> +and after holding Warsaw for a short time he fled to Saxony. +The alliance with Russia was renewed and in reply Charles +invaded Saxony in 1706, and compelled the elector to sign the +treaty of Altranstädt in September of that year, to recognize +Stanislaus Leszczynski as his successor in Poland, and to abandon +the Russian alliance. During the War of the Spanish Succession, +Augustus fought with the imperialists in the Netherlands, but +after the defeat of Charles XII. at Poltawa in July 1709, he +turned his attention to the recovery of Poland. Declaring the +treaty of Altranstädt void and renewing his alliance with Russia +and Denmark, he quickly recovered the Polish crown. He then +attacked Swedish Pomerania. He was handicapped by the +mutual jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle +broke out in Poland which was only ended when the king promised +to limit the number of his army in that country to 18,000 +men. Peace was made with Sweden in December 1719 at +Stockholm after the death of Charles XII., and Augustus was +recognized as king of Poland. His remaining years were spent +in futile plans to make Poland a hereditary monarchy, to +weaken the power of the Saxon nobles, and to gain territory +for his sons in various parts of Europe. He was a man of extravagant +and luxurious tastes, and, although he greatly improved +the city of Dresden, he cannot be called a good ruler. He +sought to govern Saxony in an absolute fashion, and, in spite +of his declaration that his conversion to Roman Catholicism +was personal only, assisted the spread of the teachings of Rome. +His wife was Christine Eberhardine, a member of the Hohenzollern +family, who left him when he became a Roman Catholic, +and died in 1727. Augustus died at Warsaw on the 1st of +February 1733, leaving a son Frederick Augustus, who succeeded +him in Poland and Saxony, and many illegitimate children, +among whom was the famous general, Maurice of Saxony, +known as Marshal Saxe (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Otwikowski, <i>History of Poland under Augustus II.</i> (Cracow, +1849); F. Förster, <i>Die Hofe und Kabinette Europas im achtzehnten +Jahrhtmdert</i> (Potsdam, 1839); Jarochowski, <i>History of Augustus II.</i> +(Posen, 1856-1874); C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, <i>Geschichte des +Kurstaates und Königreichs Sachsen</i> (Gotha, 1867-1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUS III.,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> king of Poland, and, as <span class="sc">Frederick Augustus +II</span>., elector of Saxony (1696-1763), the only legitimate son of +Augustus II. (“the Strong”), was born at Dresden on the 17th +of October 1696. Educated as a Protestant, he followed his +father’s example by joining the Roman Catholic Church in 1712, +although his conversion was not made public until 1717. In +August 1719 he married Maria Josepha, daughter of the emperor +Joseph I., and seems to have taken very little part in public +affairs until he became elector of Saxony on his father’s death +in February 1733. He was then a candidate for the Polish +crown; and having purchased the support of the emperor +Charles VI. by assenting to the Pragmatic Sanction, and that +of the czarina Anne by recognizing the claim of Russia to Courland, +he was elected king of Poland in October 1733. Aided +by the Russians, his troops drove Stanislaus Leszczynski from +Poland; Augustus was crowned at Cracow in January 1734, +and was generally recognized as king at Warsaw in June 1736. +On the death of Charles VI. in October 1740, Augustus was +among the enemies of his daughter Maria Theresa, and, as a +son-in-law of the emperor Joseph I., claimed a portion of the +Habsburg territories. In 1742, however, he was induced to +transfer his support to Maria Theresa, and his troops took part +in the struggle against Frederick the Great during the Silesian +wars, and again when the Seven Years’ War began in 1756. +Saxony was in that year attacked by the Prussians, and with +so much success that not only was the Saxon army forced to +capitulate at Pirna in October, but the elector, who fled to +Warsaw, made no attempt to recover Saxony, which remained +under the dominion of Frederick. When the treaty of Hubertsburg +was concluded in February 1763, he returned to Saxony, +where he died on the 5th of October 1763. He left five sons, +the eldest of whom was his successor in Saxony, Frederick +Christian; and five daughters, one of whom was the wife of +Louis, the dauphin of France, and mother of Louis XVI. Another +daughter was the wife of Charles III., king of Spain, but she +predeceased her father. Augustus, who showed neither talent +nor inclination for government, was content to leave Poland +under the influence of Russia, and Saxony to the rule of his +ministers. He took great interest in music and painting, and +added to the collection of art treasures at Dresden.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.W. Böttiger and T. Flathe, <i>Geschichte des Kurstaates +und Königreichs Sachsen</i> (Gotha, 1867-1873); R. Röpell, <i>Polen um +die Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts</i> (Gotha, 1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUGUSTUSBAD,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom +of Saxony, 10 m. E. from Dresden, close to Radeberg, +in a pleasant valley. Pop. 900. It has five saline chalybeate +springs, used both for drinking and bathing, and specific in +feminine disorders, rheumatism, paralysis and neuralgia. The +spa is largely frequented in summer and has agreeable public +rooms and gardens.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUK,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a name commonly given to several species of sea-fowl. +A special interest attaches to the great auk (<i>Alca impennis</i>), +owing to its recent extinction and the value of its eggs to +collectors. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Garefowl</a></span>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guillemot</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Puffin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Razorbill</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AULARD, FRANÇOIS VICTOR ALPHONSE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1849-  ), +French historian, was born at Montbron in Charente in 1849. +Having obtained the degree of doctor of letters in 1877 with a +Latin thesis upon C. Asinius Pollion and a French one upon +Giacomo Leopardi (whose works he subsequently translated into +French), he made a study of parliamentary oratory during the +French Revolution, and published two volumes upon <i>Les +Orateurs de la constituante</i> (1882) and upon <i>Les Orateurs de la +legislative et de la convention</i> (1885). With these works, which +were reprinted in 1905, he entered a fresh field, where he soon +became an acknowledged master. Applying to the study of the +French Revolution the rules of historical criticism which had +produced such rich results in the study of ancient and medieval +history, he devoted himself to profound research in the archives, +and to the publication of numerous most important contributions +to the political, administrative and moral history of that +marvellous period. Appointed professor of the history of the +French Revolution at the Sorbonne, he formed the minds of +students who in their turn have done valuable work. To him +we owe the <i>Recueil des actes du comité de salut public</i> +(vol. i., 1889; vol. xvi., 1904); <i>La Société des Jacobins; +recueil de documents pour l’histoire du club des Jacobins de Paris</i> +(6 vols., 1889-1897); and <i>Paris pendant la reaction thermidorienne +et sous le directoire, recueil de documents pour l’histoire de +l’esprit public à Paris</i> (5 vols., 1898-1902), which was +followed by an analogous collection for Paris sous le consulat +(2 vols., 1903-1904). For the Société de l’Histoire de la Révolution +Française, which brought out under his supervision an important periodical publication +called <i>La Révolution française</i>, he produced the <i>Registre des +déliberations du consulat provisoire</i> (1894), and <i>L’État de la +France en l’an VIII et en l’an IX</i>, with the reports of the +prefects (1897), besides editing various works or memoirs written +by men of the Revolution, such as J.C. Bailleul, Chaumette, +Fournier (called the American), Hérault de Séchelles, and +Louvet de Couvrai. But these large collections of documents +are not his entire output. Besides a little pamphlet upon +Danton, he has written a <i>Histoire politique de la Révolution +française</i> (1901), and a number of articles which have been +collected in volumes under the title <i>Études et leçons sur la +Révolution française</i> (5 vols., 1893-1908). In a volume entitled +<i>Taine, historien de la Révolution française</i> (1908), +Aulard has submitted the method of the eminent philosopher to +a criticism, severe, perhaps even unjust, but certainly +well-informed. This is, as it were, the “manifesto” of +the new school of criticism applied to the +political and social history of the Revolution (see <i>Les Annales +Révolutionnaires</i>, June 1908).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Mathiez, “M. Aulard, historien et professeur,” in the <i>Revue +de la Révolution française</i> (July 1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AULIC COUNCIL<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (<i>Reichshofrat</i>), an organ of the Holy Roman +Empire, originally intended for executive work, but acting +chiefly as a judicature, which worked from 1497 to 1806. In the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span> +early middle ages the emperor had already his <i>consiliarii</i>; +but his council was a fluctuating body of personal advisers. +In the 14th century there first arose an official council, with +permanent and paid members, many of whom were legists. +Its business was largely executive, and it formed something of a +ministry; but it had also to deal with petitions addressed to the +king, and accordingly it acted as a supreme court of judicature. +It was thus parallel to the king’s council, or <i>concilium continuum</i>, +of medieval England; while by its side, during the 15th century, +stood the <i>Kammergericht</i>, composed of the legal members of the +council, in much the same way as the Star Chamber stood +beside the English council. But the real history of the Aulic +Council, as that term was understood in the later days of the +Empire, begins with Maximilian I. in 1497-1498. In these years +Maximilian created three organs (apparently following the +precedent set by his Burgundian ancestors in the Netherlands)—a +<i>Hofrat</i>, a <i>Hofkammer</i> for finance, and a <i>Hofkanzlei.</i> +Primarily intended for the hereditary dominions of Maximilian, these +bodies were also intended for the whole Empire; and the +<i>Hofrat</i> was to deal with “all and every business which may +flow in from the Empire, Christendom at large, or the king’s +hereditary principalities.” It was thus to be the supreme +executive and judicial organ, discharging all business except +that of finance and the drafting of documents; and it was +intended to serve Maximilian as a <i>point d’appui</i> for the monarchy +against the system of oligarchical committees, instituted by +Berthold, archbishop of Mainz. But it was difficult to work such +a body both for the Empire and for the hereditary principalities; +and under Ferdinand I. it became an organ for the Empire alone +(<i>circ.</i> 1558), the hereditary principalities being removed from its +cognizance. As such an imperial organ, its composition and +powers were fixed by the treaty of Westphalia of 1648. (1) It +consisted of about 20 members—a president, a vice-president, +the vice-chancellor of the Empire, and some 18 other members. +These came partly from the Empire at large, partly (and in +greater numbers) from the hereditary lands of the emperor. +There were two benches, one of the nobles, one of doctors of +civil law; six of the members must be Protestants. The council +followed the person of the emperor, and was therefore stationed +at Vienna; it was paid by the emperor, and he nominated its +members, whose office terminated with his life—an arrangement +which made the council more dependent than it should have been +on the emperor’s will. (2) Its powers were nominally both +executive and judicial. (<i>a</i>) Its executive powers were small: +it gradually lost everything except the formal business of investiture +with imperial fiefs and the confirmation of charters, +its other powers being taken over by the <i>Geheimräte.</i> These +<i>Geheimräte</i>, a narrow body of secret counsellors, had already +become a determinate <i>concilium</i> by 1527; and though at first +only concerned with foreign affairs, they acquired, from the +middle of the 16th century onwards, the power of dealing with +imperial affairs in lieu of the Aulic Council. (<i>b</i>) In its judicial +aspect, the Aulic Council, exercising the emperor’s judicial +powers on his behalf, and thus succeeding, as it were, to the old +<i>Kammergericht</i>, had exclusive cognizance of matters relating +to imperial fiefs, criminal charges against immediate vassals +of the Empire, imperial charters, Italian affairs, and cases +“reserved” for the emperor. In all other matters, the Aulic +Council was a competitor for judicial work with the Imperial +Chamber<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>, a tribunal dating from the +great diet of Worms of 1495: see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Imperial Chamber</a></span>). +It was determined in 1648 that the one of these two judicial +authorities which first dealt with a case should alone have competence +to pursue it. An appeal lay from the decision of the +council to the emperor, and judgment on appeal was given by +those members of the council who had not joined in the original +decision, though in important cases they might be afforced by +members of the diet. Neither the council nor the chamber could +deal with cases of outlawry, except to prepare such cases for the +decision of the diet. To-day the archives of the Aulic Council are +in Vienna, though parts of its records have been given to the +German states which they concern.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—R. Schröder, <i>Lehrbuch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte</i> +(Leipzig, 1904), gives the main facts; S. Adler, <i>Die +Organisation der Centralverwaltung unter Maximilian I.</i> (Leipzig, +1886), deals with Maximilian’s reorganization of the Council; and +J. St. Pütter, <i>Historische Entwickelung der heutigen Staatsverfassung +des Teutschen Reichs</i> (Göttingen, 1798-1799), may be consulted for its +development and later form.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Aulic Council is the private court of the emperor, +with its members nominated by him; the Imperial Chamber is the public +court of the Empire, with its members nominated by the estates of +the Empire.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AULIE-ATA,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a town and fort of Russian Turkestan, province +of Syr-darya, 152 m. N.E. of Tashkent, on the Talas river, at +the western end of the Alexander range, its altitude being 5700 ft. +The inhabitants are mostly Sarts and Tajiks, trading in cattle, +horses and hides. Pop. (1897) 12,006.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AULIS,<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> an ancient Boeotian town on the Euripus, situated +on a rocky peninsula between two bays, near the modern village +of Vathy, about 3 m. S. of Chalcis. Its fame was due to the +tradition that it was the starting-place of the Greek fleet before +the Trojan War, the scene of the sacrifice of Iphigenia. The +temple of Artemis was still to be seen in the time of Pausanias.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AULNOY<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Aunoy</span>), <b>MARIE CATHERINE LE JUMEL DE +BARNEVILLE DE LA MOTTE,</b> <span class="sc">Baronne D’</span> (<i>c.</i> 1650-1705), +French author, was born about 1650 at Barneville near +Bourg-Achard (Eure). She was the niece of Marie Bruneau des Loges, +the friend of Malherbe and of J.G. de Balzac, who was called +the “tenth Muse.” She married on the 8th of March 1666 +François de la Motte, a gentleman in the service of César, duc de +Vendôme, who became Baron d’Aulnoy in 1654. With her +mother, who by a second marriage had become marquise de +Gudaigne, she instigated a prosecution for high treason against +her husband. The conspiracy was exposed, and the two women +saved themselves by a hasty flight to England. Thence they +went (February 1679) to Spain, but were eventually allowed +to return to France in reward for secret services rendered to +the government. Mme. d’Aulnoy died in Paris on the 14th of +January 1705. She wrote fairy tales, <i>Contes nouvelles ou les +Fées a la mode</i> (3 vols., 1698), in the manner of Charles Perrault. +This collection (24 tales) included <i>L’Oiseau bleu, Finette Cendron, +La Chatte blanche</i> and others. The originals of most of her +admirable tales are to be found in the <i>Pentamerone</i> (1637) of +Giovanni Battista Basile. Other works are: <i>L’Histoire d’Hippolyte, +comte de Duglas</i> (1690), a romance in the style of Madame +de la Fayette, though much inferior to its model; <i>Mémoires +de la cour d’Espagne</i> (1679-1681); and a <i>Relation du voyage +d’Espagne</i> (1690 or 1691) in the form of letters, edited in 1874-1876 +as <i>La Cour et la ville de Madrid</i> by Mme. B. Carey; <i>Histoire de +Jean de Bourbon</i> (1692); <i>Mémoires sur la cour de France</i> (1692); +<i>Mémoires de la cour d’Angleterre</i> (1695). Her historical writings +are partly borrowed from existing records, to which she adds +much that must be regarded as fiction, and some vivid descriptions +of contemporary manners.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Diverting Works of the Countess d’Anois</i>, including some +extremely untrustworthy “Memoirs of her own life,” were printed +in London in 1707. <i>The Fairy Tales of Madame d’Aulnoy</i>, with an +introduction by Lady Thackeray Ritchie, appeared in 1892. For +biographical particulars see M. de Lescure’s introduction to the +<i>Contes des Fées</i> (1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AULOS<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="aulos">αὐλός</span>; Lat. <i>tibia</i>; Egyptian hieroglyphic, +<i>Ma-it</i>; medieval equivalents, <i>shalm, chalumeau, schalmei, +hautbois</i>), in Greek antiquities, a class of wood-wind instruments +with single or with double reed mouthpiece and either cylindrical +or conical bore, thus corresponding to both oboe and clarinet. +In its widest acceptation the <i>aulos</i> was a generic term for instruments +consisting of a tube in which the air column was set +in vibration either directly by the lips of the performer, or through +the medium of a mouthpiece containing a single or a double reed. +Even the pipes of the pan-pipes (<i>syrinx polycalamus</i>,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +<span class="grk" title="syrinx polykalamos">σῦριγξ πολυκάλαμος</span>) were sometimes called auloi (<span class="grk" title="auloi">αὐλοί</span>). The +aulos is also the earliest prototype of the organ, which, by gradual +assimilation of the principles of syrinx and bag-pipe, reached +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span> +the stage at which it became known as the <i>Tyrrhenian aulos</i> +(Pollux iv. 70) or the <i>hydraulos</i>, according to the method of +compressing the wind supply (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Organ</a></span>: <i>Early History</i>; and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syrinx</a></span>). The aulos in its earliest form, the reed pipe, during +the best classical period had a cylindrical bore (<span class="grk" title="koilia">κοιλία</span>) +like that of the modern clarinet, and therefore had the acoustic +properties of the stopped pipe, whether the air column was set in +vibration by means of a single or of a double reed, for the +mouthpiece does not affect the harmonic series.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> To the acoustic +properties of open or stopped pipes are due those essential +differences which underlie the classification of modern wind +instruments. A stopped pipe produces its fundamental tone +one octave lower than the tone of an open pipe of corresponding +length, and overblows the harmonics of the twelfth, and of the +third above the second octave of the fundamental tone, <i>i.e.</i> +the odd numbers of the series; whereas the open pipe gives the +whole series of harmonics, the octave, the twelfth, the double +octave, and the third above it, &c.</p> + +<p>To produce the diatonic scale throughout the octaves of its +compass, the stopped pipe requires eleven lateral holes in the +side of the pipe, at appropriate distances from each other, and +from the end of the pipe, whereas the open pipe requires but +six. The acoustic properties of the open pipe can only be secured +in combination with a reed mouthpiece by making the bore +conical. The late Romans (and therefore we may perhaps +assume the Greeks also, since the Romans acknowledge their +indebtedness to the Greeks in matters relating to musical +instruments, and more especially to the cithara and aulos) +understood the acoustic principle utilized to-day in making wind +instruments, that a hole of small diameter nearer the mouthpiece +may be substituted for one of greater diameter in the theoretically +correct position. This is demonstrated by the 4th-century +grammarian Macrobius, who says (<i>Comm. in Somn. Scip.</i> ii. 4, 5): +“Nec secus probamus in tibiis, de quarum foraminibus vicinis +inflantis ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et +termino proximis gravior; item acutior per patentiora foramina, +gravior per angusta” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bassoon</a></span>). Aristotle gives directions +for boring holes in the aulos, which would apply only to a pipe +of cylindrical bore (<i>Probl</i>. xix. 23). At first the aulos had but +three or four holes; to Diodorus of Thebes is due the credit of +having increased this number (Pollux iv. 80). Pronomus, the +musician, and teacher of Alcibiades (5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), further +improved the aulos by making it possible to play on one pair of +instruments the three musical scales in use at his time, the Dorian, +the Phrygian, and the Lydian, whereas previously a separate +pair of pipes had been used for each scale (Pausanias ix. 12. 5; +Athenaeus xiv. 31). These three modes would require a compass +of a tenth in order to produce the fundamental octave in each.</p> + +<p>There are two ways in which this increased compass might +have been obtained: (1) by increasing the number of holes +and covering up those not required, (2) by means of contrivances +for lowering the pitch of individual notes as required. We have +evidence that both means were known to the Greeks and Romans. +The simplest device for closing holes not in use was a band of +metal left free to slide round the pipe, and having a hole bored +through it corresponding in diameter with the hole in the pipe. +Each hole was provided with a band, which was in some cases +prevented from slipping down the pipe by narrow fixed rings +of metal. The line on fig. 1 between <i>r</i> and <i>s</i> is thought to +have been one of these rings.</p> + +<p>Some pipes had two holes pierced through the bands and the +bone, in such a manner that only one could be exposed at a +time. This is clearly shown in the diagram (fig. 1) of fragments +of an aulos from the museum at Candia, for which the writer is +greatly indebted to Professor John L. Myres, by whom measured +drawings were made from the instrument in 1893. These +highly interesting remains, judging from the closed end (5), +seem to belong to a side-blown reed-pipe similar to the Maenad +pipes in the Castellani collection at the British Museum, +illustrated below; they are constructed like modern flutes, but +played by means of a reed inserted into the lateral embouchure.</p> + +<p>In the Candia pipe, it seems likely that Nos. 1 and 2 represented +the bell end, slightly expanded, No. 3 joining the broken end of +No. 2 at <i>l</i>; there being a possible fit at the other end at s with a +in No. 4 (the drawings must in this case be imagined as reversed +for parts 3 and 4), and No. 5 joining on to No. 4 at <i>k</i>.</p> + +<p>According to Professor Myres there are fragments of a pair +of pipes in the Cyprus Museum of precisely the same construction +as the one in Candia. In the drawing, the shape and relative +position of the holes <i>on the circumference</i> is approximate only, +but their position lengthways is measured.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:509px; height:281px" src="images/img918.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">(From a drawing by Prof. John L. Myres.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Diagram of the Fragments of an <i>Aulos</i> (Candia Mus.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Triple wrapping of bronze as well as slide.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Slide with hole.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Slides with two holes not uncovered together.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Slides with two holes not uncovered together, one hole at back.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Slide.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Slide missing.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Slide missing, scars of slide holes.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Slide.</p> +<p><i>i</i> and <i>j</i>, Slide.</p> +<p><i>k</i>, Socket.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Male half of joint.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>m, n, o</i>, Slides, the top hole being in the slide only.</p> +<p><i>p</i> and <i>q</i>, Slides, with two holes; the small hole shown is in the + pipe, there being a corresponding hole in the slide at the back.</p> +<p><i>r</i>, Bronze covering (and slide?).</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Male joint.</p> +<p><i>t</i>, The wavy line shows the extreme length of fragment.</p> +<p><i>u</i>, 13 mm. inside diameter, 14 mm. outside diameter.</p> +<p><i>w</i>, Engraved lines and conical form of bronze covering.</p> +<p><i>x</i>, Wavy line shows extreme length of fragment.</p> +<p><i>y</i>, Stopped end of pipe with engraved lines.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><p>The line between <i>r</i> and <i>s</i> is either a turned ring or part of bronze + cover. The double lines to the right of t are engraved lines.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Bands of silver were found on the ivory pipes from Pompeii<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +(fig. 2), as well as on two pipes belonging to the Castellani +collection (fig. 4) and on one from Halicarnassus, in the British +Museum. In order to enable the performer to use these bands +conveniently, a contrivance such as a little ring, a horn or a +hook termed keras (<span class="grk" title="keras">κέρας</span>) was attached to the band.<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>Thirteen of the bands on the Pompeian pipes still have sockets +which probably originally contained <i>kerata</i>. Pollux (iv. 80) +mentions that Diodorus of Thebes, in order to increase the +range of the aulos, made lateral channels for the air (<span class="grk" title="plagiai +hodoi">πλάγιαι ὁδοί</span>). These consisted of tubes inserted into the holes in the +bands for the purpose of lengthening the column of air, and +lowering individual notes at will, the sound being then produced +at the extremity of the tube, instead of at the surface of the +pipe. It is possible that some of the double holes in the slides +of the Candia pipe were intended for the reception of these +tubes. These lateral tubes form the archetype of the modern +crook or piston.<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The mouthpiece of the aulos was called <i>zeugos</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span> +(<span class="grk" title="zeugos">ζεῦγος</span>),<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> the reed tongue <i>glossa</i><a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> or <i>glotta</i> (<span class="grk" title="glossa">γλῶσσα</span> +or <span class="grk" title="glotta">γλῶττα</span>), and the socket into which the reed was fixed +<i>glottis</i><a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="glottis">γλωττίς</span>).</p> + +<p>The double reed was probably used at first, being the simplest +form of mouthpiece; the word <i>zeugos</i>, moreover, signifies a +pair of like things. There is, however, no difficulty in accepting +the probability that a single beating reed or clarinet mouthpiece +was used by the Greeks, since the ancient Egyptians used it +with the as-it or arghoul (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:35px; height:573px" src="images/img919a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Drawn from a photo by Brogi.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Roman Ivory Aulos found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.), +showing slides and rings.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The beak-shaped mouthpiece of a pipe found at Pompeii +(fig. 3) has all the appearance of the beak of the clarinet, having, +on the side not shown, the lay on which to +fix a single or beating reed.<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> It may, however, +have been the cap of a covered reed, +or even a whistle mouthpiece in which the +lip does not show in the photograph. It is +difficult to form a conclusion without seeing +the real instrument. On a mosaic of Monnus +in Trèves<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> is represented an aulos which also +appears to have a beak-shaped mouthpiece.</p> + +<p>The upper part of the aulos, as in the +Pompeian pipes, frequently had the form of +a flaring cup supported on a pear-shaped +bulb, respectively identified as the <i>holmos</i> +(<span class="grk" title="holmos">ὄλμος</span>) and the <i>hypholmion</i> (<span class="grk" title="hypholmion">ὑφόλμιον</span>), the +support of the <i>holmos</i>. An explanation of +the original nature and construction of the +bulb and flaring cup, so familiar in the +various representations of the aulos, and in +the real instruments found in Pompeii, is +provided by an ancient Egyptian flute +belonging to the collection of G. Maspero, +illustrated and described by Victor Loret.<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> +Loret calls the double bulb the beak mouthpiece +of the instrument, and describes its +construction; it consists of a piece of reed +of larger diameter than that of the flute, +and eight centimetres long; this reed has +been forcibly compressed a little more than +half way down by means of a ligature of +twine, thus reducing the diameter from 6 mm. +to 4 mm. The end of the pipe, +covered by rows of waxed thread, fits into +the end of the smaller bulb, to which it was +also bound by waxed thread exactly as in +the Elgin pipe at the British Museum, +described below. There is no indication of +the manner in which the pipe was sounded, and Loret assumes +that there was once a whistle or flageolet mouthpiece. To the +present writer, however, it seems probable that the constricted +diameter between the two bulbs formed a socket into which +the double reed or straw was inserted, and that, in this case +at least, the reed was not taken into the mouth, but vibrated +in the upper bulb or air-chamber. This simple contrivance was +probably also employed in the earliest Greek pipes, and was +later copied and elaborated in wood, bone or metal, the upper +bulb being made shorter and developing into the flaring cup, +in order that the reeds might be taken directly into the mouth. +During the best period of Greek music the reeds were taken +directly into the mouth<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and not enclosed in an air-chamber. +The two pipes were kept in position while the fingers stopped +the holes and turned the bands by means of the <span class="grk" title="phorbeia">φορβεία</span> (Lat. +<i>capistrum</i>), a bandage encircling mouth and cheeks, and having +holes through which the reed-mouthpiece passed into the mouth +of the performer; the <i>phorbeia</i> also relieved the pressure of the +breath on the cheeks and lips,<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> which is felt more especially by +performers on oboe and bassoon at the present day.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:78px; height:376px" src="images/img919b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From a photo by Brogi.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.—Beak mouthpiece. Found at Pompeii (Naples Mus.).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the pair of wooden pipes belonging to +the Elgin collection at the British Museum, +one of the bulbs, partly broken, but preserved +in the same case as the pipes, was +fastened to the pipes by means of waxed +thread, the indented lines being still visible +on the rim of the bulb. The aulos was +kept in a case called <i>sybene</i><a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="sybaenae">συβήνη</span>) +or <i>aulotheke</i><a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> (<span class="grk" title="aulothaekae">αὐλοθήκη</span>), +and the little bag or case in which the delicate reeds were carried +was known by the name of <i>glottokomeion</i><a href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> +(<span class="grk" title="glottokomeion">γλωττοκομεῖον</span>).<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Two Egyptian flute +cases are extant, one in the Louvre,<a name="fa17n" id="fa17n" href="#ft17n"><span class="sp">17</span></a> and +the other in the museum at Leiden. The +latter case is of sycamore wood, cylindrical +in shape, with a stopper of the same wood; +there is no legend or design upon it. The +case contained seven pipes, five pieces of +reed without bore or holes, and three pieces +of straw suitable for making double-reed +mouthpieces.<a name="fa18n" id="fa18n" href="#ft18n"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p> + +<p>Aristoxenus gives the full compass of a single pipe or pair of +pipes as over three octaves:—“For doubtless we should find an +interval greater than the above mentioned three octaves between +the highest note of the soprano clarinet (aulos) and the lowest +note of the bass-clarinet (aulos); and again between the highest +note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker open, and +the lowest note of a clarinet player performing with the speaker +closed.”<a name="fa19n" id="fa19n" href="#ft19n"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p> + +<p>This, according to the tables of Alypius, would correspond to +the full range of the Greek scales, a little over three octaves +from <img style="width:59px; height:33px" src="images/img919c.jpg" alt="" /> +to <img style="width:62px; height:36px" src="images/img919d.jpg" alt="" /> +It is evident that the ancient +Greeks obtained this full compass on the aulos by means of +the harmonics. Proclus (<i>Comm. in Alcibiad.</i> chap. 68) states +that from each hole of the pipe at least three tones could be +produced. Moreover, classic writers maintain that if the performer +press the <i>zeugos</i> or the <i>glottai</i> of the pipes, a sharper +tone is produced.<a name="fa20n" id="fa20n" href="#ft20n"><span class="sp">20</span></a> This is exactly how a performer on a +modern clarinet or oboe produces the higher harmonics of the +instrument.<a name="fa21n" id="fa21n" href="#ft21n"><span class="sp">21</span></a> The small bore of the aulos in comparison to its +length facilitated the production of the harmonics (cf. Zamminer p. 218), +as does also the use of a small hole near the mouthpiece, +called in Greek <i>syrinx</i> (<span class="grk" title="syrinx">σῦριγξ</span>) and in the modern clarinet +the “speaker,” which when open enables the performer to overblow +with ease the first harmonic of the lowest fundamental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span> +tones. To Mr Albert A. Howard of Harvard University is due +the credit of having identified the <i>syrinx</i> of the aulos with the +speaker of the clarinet.<a name="fa22n" id="fa22n" href="#ft22n"><span class="sp">22</span></a> This assumption is doubtless +correct, and is supported by classical grammarians,<a name="fa23n" id="fa23n" href="#ft23n"><span class="sp">23</span></a> +who state that the <i>syrinx</i> was one of the holes of the aulos. +It renders quite clear certain passages in Aristoxenus, Aristotle and Plutarch, +and a scholion to Pindar’s 12th <i>Pythian</i>, which before were difficult +to understand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syrinx</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:143px" src="images/img920a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.—The Plagiaulos. Castellani Collection (Maenad Pipes), British Museum.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:121px; height:501px" src="images/img920b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—Ancient Greek Double Pipes. Elgin Collection, British Museum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The aulos or tibia existed in a great number of varieties +enumerated by Pollux (<i>Onomast.</i> iv. 74 et seq.) and Athenaeus +(iv. 76 et seq.). They fall into two distinct classes, the single and +the double pipes. There were three principal single pipes, the +<i>monaulos</i>, the <i>plagiaulos</i> and the <i>syrinx monocalamos</i>. The +double pipes were used by the great musicians of ancient Greece, +and notably at the musical contests at Delphi, and what has been +said above concerning the construction of the aulos refers +mainly to the double pipes. The <i>monaulos</i>, a single pipe of +Egyptian origin, which, by inference, we assume to have been +played from the end by means of a reed, +may have been the archetype of the oboe +or clarinet. The <i>plagiaulos photinx</i> or +<i>tibia obliqua</i>, invented by the Libyans (Pollux iv. 74), +or, according to Pliny (vii. 204), by Midas +of Phrygia, was held like the modern flute, +but was played by means of a mouthpiece +containing a reed. Three of the existing +pipes at the British Museum (the two in +the Castellani collection, and the pipe from +Halicarnassus) belong to this type. The +mouthpiece projects from the side of the +pipe and communicates with the main bore +by means of a slanting passage; the end +nearest the mouthpiece is stopped as in the +modern flute; in the latter, however, the +embouchure is not closed by the lips when +playing, and therefore the flute has the +acoustic properties of the open pipe, whereas +the <i>plagiaulos</i> having a reed mouthpiece gave +the harmonics of a closed pipe. The double +pipes existed in five sizes according to pitch, +in the days of Aristoxenus, who, in a treatise +on the construction of the auloi (<span class="grk" title="Peri aulon +traeseos">Περὶ αὐλῶν τρήσεως</span>), unfortunately not extant,<a name="fa24n" id="fa24n" href="#ft24n"><span class="sp">24</span></a> divides them thus:—</p> + +<p>(1) <i>Parthenioi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="parthenioi auloi">παρθένιοι αὐλοί</span>), the maiden’s +<i>auloi</i>, corresponding to the soprano compass.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>Paidikoi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="paidikoi auloi">παιδικοὶ αὐλοί</span>), the boy’s pipes or alto +<i>auloi</i>, used to accompany boys’ songs and also in double pairs at feasts.</p> + +<p>(3) <i>Kitharisterioi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="kitharistaerioi auloi">κιθαριστήριοι αὐλοί</span>), +used to accompany the cithara.</p> + +<p>(4) <i>Teleioi auloi</i>, the perfect aulos, or tenor’s pipes; also known +as the <i>pythic auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="pythikoi auloi">πυθικοὶ αὐλοί</span>); used for the paeans +and for solos at the Pythean games (without chorus). It was the <i>pythic +auloi</i> and the <i>kitharisterioi auloi</i> more especially which were +provided with the speaker (syrinx) in order to improve the harmonic notes +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syrinx</a></span>).</p> + +<p>(5) <i>Hyperteleioi auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="hyperteleioi auloi">ὑπερτέλειοι αὐλοί</span>) or <i>andreioi +auloi</i> (<span class="grk" title="andreioi ayloi">ἀνδρεῖοί αὐλοί</span>) (see Athenaeus iv. 79), the bass-auloi.</p> + +<p>The Phrygian pipes or <i>auloi Elymoi</i><a name="fa25n" id="fa25n" href="#ft25n"><span class="sp">25</span></a> were made of box-wood +and were tipped with horn; they were double pipes, but differed +from all others in that the two pipes were unequal in length and +in the diameter of their bores;<a name="fa26n" id="fa26n" href="#ft26n"><span class="sp">26</span></a> +sometimes one of the pipes was curved upwards and terminated in a horn bell;<a name="fa27n" id="fa27n" href="#ft27n"><span class="sp">27</span></a> +they seem to have had a conical bore, if representations on monuments are +to be trusted. We may conclude that the archetype of the oboe +with conical bore was not unknown to the Greeks; it was +frequently used by the Etruscans and Romans, and appears on +many has-reliefs, mural paintings and other monuments. For +illustrations see Wilhelm Froehner, <i>Les Musées de France</i>, pl. iii., +“Marsyas playing the double pipes.” There the bore is decidedly +conical in the ratio of at least 1 : 4 between the mouthpiece and +the end of the instrument; the vase is Roman, from the south +of France. See also <i>Bulletino della Commissione Archeologica +Comunale di Roma</i>, Rome, 1879, vol. vii., 2nd series, pl. vii. +and p. 119 et seq., “Le Nozze di Elena e Paride,” from a bas-relief +in the monastery of S. Antonio on the Esquiline; Wilhelm Zahn, +<i>Die schonsten Ornamente und die merkwurdigsten Gemälde aus +Pompeji, Herkulaneum und Stabiae</i> (German and French), vol. +iii., pl. 43 and 51 (Berlin, 1828-1859).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information on the aulos, consult Albert A. Howard, +“The Aulos or Tibia,” <i>Harvard Studies</i>, iv., 1893; François A. +Gevaert, <i>Histoire de la musique dans l’antiquité</i>, vol. ii. p. 273 et seq.; +Carl von Jan’s article “Flote” in August Baumeister’s <i>Denkmaler +des klassischen Altertums</i> (Munich, 1884-1888), vol. i.; Dr Hugo +Riemann, <i>Handbuch der Musikgeschichte</i>, Bd. I.T. 1, pp. 93-112 +(Leipzig, 1904); Caspar Bartholinus, <i>De Tibiis Veterum</i> (Amsterdam, +1779).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Pollux, <i>Onom.</i> iv. 69.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Friedrich Zamminer, <i>Die Musik und musikalischen Instrumente +in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik</i> (Giessen, 1855), p. 305.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> These pipes were discovered during the excavations in 1867, +and are now in the museum at Naples. Excellent reproductions and +descriptions of them are given in “The Aulos or Tibia,” by Albert +A. Howard, <i>Harvard Studies</i>, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893), pl. ii. and +pp. 48-55.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For illustrations of <i>auloi</i> provided with these contrivances, see +illustration (fig. 2) of an aulos from Pompeii; a relief in Vatican, +No. 535; Helbig’s <i>Wandgemãlde</i>, Nos. 56, 69, 730, 765, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For illustrations of <span class="grk" title="hodoi">ὁδοί</span> showing the holes at the ends of the +tubes, see <i>Description des marbres antiques du Musée Campana</i>, by +H. d’Escamps, pl. 25; Wilhelm Froehner’s <i>Catalogue of the Louvre</i>, +No. 378; Glyptothek Museum at Munich, No. 188; Albert A. +Howard, “The Aulos or Tibia,” <i>Harvard Studies</i>, iv. (Boston, 1893), +pl. 1, No. 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> For a description of the reed calamus from which pipe and +mouthpiece were made see Theophrastus, <i>Hist. Plant.</i> iv. 11.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Aeschines 86. 29; Aristotle, <i>H.A.</i> 6, 10, 9, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Lucian, <i>Harm.</i> 1.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mouthpiece</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See <i>Antike Denkmaler</i>, Deutsches archäol. Inst., +Berlin, 1891, vol. i. pi. 49.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See “Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,” <i>Journal asiatique</i>, +8th ser. vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 212-215.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> See Aristotle, <i>De Audib.</i> p. 802 b, 18, and p. 804a; +Festus, ed. Mueller, p. 116.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Albert A. Howard, op. cit. p. 29, and Dr Hugo Riemann, +<i>Gesch. d. Musik</i>, Bd. i. T. 1, p. 111 (Leipzig, 1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Pollux, <i>Onomasticon</i>, vii. 153.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Hesychius.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Pollux ii. 108, vii. 153, x. 153-154; A.A. Howard, op. cit. +pp. 26-27. An illustration of the little bag is given in <i>Denkmaler des +klassischen Altertums</i>, by August Baumeister, vol. i. p. 554, fig. 591.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17n" id="ft17n" href="#fa17n"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Two Egyptian pipes now in the Louvre were found in a case +ornamented with a painting of a female musician playing a double +pipe. See E. de Rougé, <i>Notice sommaire des monuments égyptiens +exposés dans les galeries du Louvre</i>, p. 87.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18n" id="ft18n" href="#fa18n"><span class="fn">18</span></a> See Victor Loret, “Les Flûtes égyptiennes antiques,” in <i>Journal +asiatique</i>, vol. xiv. (Paris, 1889), pp. 199, 200 and 201 (note), pp. 207, +211 and 217, and Conrad Leemans, <i>Description raisonnée des monuments +égyptiens du Musée d’Antiquités de Leyde</i>, p. 132, No. 489; +contents of case Nos. 474-488.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19n" id="ft19n" href="#fa19n"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Aristoxenus, <i>Harm.</i> bk. i. 20 and 21, H.S. Macran’s edition +with translation (Oxford, 1902), p. 179.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20n" id="ft20n" href="#fa20n"><span class="fn">20</span></a> Aristotle, <i>De audib.</i> p. 804a; +Porphyry, ed. Wallis, p. 249; <i>ibid.</i> p. 252.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21n" id="ft21n" href="#fa21n"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Zamminer, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 301.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22n" id="ft22n" href="#fa22n"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> p. 32-35.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23n" id="ft23n" href="#fa23n"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>Etymologicum magnum</i> (Augsburg. 1848), s.v. “Syrinx.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft24n" id="ft24n" href="#fa24n"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See Athenaeus xiv. 634, who quotes from Didymus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25n" id="ft25n" href="#fa25n"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Pollux iv. 74.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26n" id="ft26n" href="#fa26n"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Servius <i>ad Aen.</i> ix. 615.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27n" id="ft27n" href="#fa27n"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Tibullus ii. 85; Virg. <i>Aen.</i> xi. 735; +Ovid, <i>Met.</i> iii. 533, <i>Ex Ponto</i> i. 1. 39.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUMALE, HENRI EUGÈNE PHILIPPE LOUIS D’ORLÉANS,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc d’</span> (1822-1897), +French prince and statesman, fifth son +of Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, afterwards king of the French, +and of Marie Amélie, princess of the Two Sicilies, was born at +Paris on the 16th of January 1822. While still young he inherited +a large fortune from the prince de Condé. Brought up +by his parents with great simplicity, he was educated at the +college of Henri IV., on leaving which at the age of seventeen +he entered the army with the rank of a captain of infantry. +He distinguished himself during the conquest of Algeria, and +was appointed governor of that colony, in which capacity he +received the submission of the amir Abd-el-Kader. After the +revolution of 1848 he retired to England and busied himself with +historical and military studies, replying in 1861 by a <i>Letter upon +the History of France</i> to Prince Napoleon’s violent attacks upon +the house of Orleans. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian +War he volunteered for service in the French army, but his offer +was declined. Elected deputy for the Oise department, he +returned to France, and succeeded to the <i>fauteuil</i> of the comte +de Montalembert in the French Academy. In March 1872 he +resumed his place in the army as general of division; and in 1873 +he presided over the court-martial which condemned Marshal +Bazaine to death. About this period, being appointed commandant +of the VII. army corps at Besançon, he retired from +political life, and in 1879 became inspector-general of the army. +By the act of exception passed in 1883 all members of families +that had reigned in France serving in the army were deprived +of their military positions; consequently the duc d’Aumale +was placed on the unemployed supernumerary list. Subsequently, +in 1886, another law was promulgated which expelled +from French territory the heads of former reigning families, +and provided that henceforward all members of those families +should be disqualified for any public position or function, and +for election to any public body. The duc d’Aumale protested +energetically, and was himself expelled. By his will of the 3rd +of June 1884, however, he had bequeathed to the Institute of +France his Chantilly estate, with all the art-collection he had +gathered there. This generosity led the government to withdraw +the decree of exile, and the duke returned to France in 1889. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span> +He died at Zucco in Sicily on the 7th of May 1897. Of his +marriage, contracted in 1844 with his first cousin, Caroline de +Bourbon, daughter of the prince of Salerno, were born two sons: +the prince de Condé (d. 1866), and the due de Guise (d. 1872). +The due d’Aumale’s principal literary work was an <i>Histoire des +princes de Condé</i>, which he left unfinished.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Georges Picot, <i>M. le duc d’Aumale</i> (Paris, 1898); Ernest +Daudet, <i>Le duc d’Aumale</i> (Paris, 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUMALE,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of +Seine-Inférieure, on the left bank of the Bresle, 47 m. N.E. +of Rouen on the Northern railway. Pop. (1906) 1999. The +church is an interesting building of the 16th and 17th centuries, +and has a portal attributed to Jean Goujon. The town has glass +and steel works.</p> + +<p>The territory of Aumale (Albemarle, Aubemale, Aumerle; +Lat. <i>Alba Marla</i>) in Normandy, a dependency of the archbishopric +of Rouen, was granted to Odo of Champagne, brother-in-law +of William the Conqueror, who founded the first line of counts +of Aumale. Hawise (Hadwide, Havoise or Avoie), countess of +Aumale, after the death of her first husband William de Mandeville, +earl of Essex (d. 1189), married William des Forts (de Fors, +or de Fortz; Lat. de Fortibus), a military adventurer who had been +one of the commanders of the fleet under Richard I. during his +first crusade. He died in 1195, and his widow married Baldwin +de Betun, who became count of Aumale in her right. He died +in 1213, and in 1214 William de Fortibus, son of Hawise by her +second husband, was confirmed by King John in all his mother’s +lands. Meanwhile, however, the territory of Aumale shared +the fate of the rest of Normandy, and was annexed to the French +crown by King Philip Augustus; but the title of earl of Albemarle, +derived from it, continued to be borne in England by +William de Fortibus, and was passed on to his heirs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albemarle</a></span>). +Aumale itself was conferred by Philip Augustus as an +appanage on his son Philip. It was subsequently granted by +Louis VIII. to Simon, count of Dammartin, whose daughter, +Jeanne, countess of Dammartin, transferred it, together with +the countship of Ponthieu, to the house of Castile, by her +marriage with Ferdinand III., king of Castile, called the Saint +(1238). It then remained in the possession of a branch of her +descendants bearing the name of Ponthieu, until it passed to the +house of Harcourt on the marriage of Blanche of Ponthieu with +John, count of Harcourt (1340). Marie d’Harcourt (d. 1476), +heiress of Aumale, married Anthony of Lorraine, count of +Vaudémont, and Aumale was created a duchy in the peerage +of France for Claude and Francis of Lorraine in 1547. By the +marriage of Anne of Lorraine with the duke of Nemours in +1618 the duchy of Aumale passed to the house of Savoy-Nemours. +In 1686 Marie Jeanne Baptiste, duchess of Nemours and of +Aumale, and wife of Charles Emmanuel II., duke of Savoy, +sold Aumale to Louis XIV., who gave it to his natural son, the +duke of Maine. After the death of that prince, the dukedom +devolved upon his brother, the count of Toulouse, subsequently +passing to the latter’s son, the duke of Penthièvre, whose daughter +married the duke of Orleans. Since the reign of Louis Philippe, +king of the French, the title of duke of Aumale has been borne +by a son of the duke of Orleans.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUMONT,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> the name of a family which played an important +part in French history. The origin of the name is uncertain, +but it has usually been derived from Aumont, now a small +commune in the department of the Somme. The family was +of great antiquity, a Jean, sire d’Aumont, having accompanied +Louis IX. on crusade. It was already powerful in the 14th +century, and during the English wars of that period its members +fought in the armies of the kings of France. Towards the end +of the century, the family took the part of the dukes of Burgundy, +but returned to the side of France on the death of Charles the +Bold. Jean d’Aumont, lieutenant-general to the king of France +in the government of Burgundy, rendered important services +to Louis XII. and Francis I. Another Jean d’Aumont (d. 1595), +a marshal of France and knight of the order of the Holy Ghost +since its institution in 1578, fought against the Huguenots +under the last of the Valois kings; but he was among the first to +recognize Henry IV., and was appointed governor of Champagne +and of Brittany, where he had to fight against the League. His +grandson Antoine (1601-1669) was also a marshal of France +(1651), governor of Paris (1662), duke and peer (1665). Louis +Marie Augustin, duc d’Aumont (1709-1782), was a celebrated +collector of works of art. Louis Marie Celeste d’Aumont, due de +Piennes, afterwards duc d’Aumont (1762-1831), emigrated +during the Revolution and served in the army of the royalists, +as also in the Swedish army. During the Hundred Days he +effected a descent upon Normandy in the Bourbon interest, +and succeeded in capturing Bayeux and Caen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUNCEL<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (from the Anglo-Fr. <i>auncelle</i>, a confused derivation +from <i>l’auncelle</i>, Ital. <i>lancella</i>, a little balance), a balance formerly +used in England; now, in dialectical use, a term for the weighing +of meat by hand instead of by scales.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUNDH,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a native state of India, in the Deccan division of +Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara Jagirs. Its area is 447 +sq. m.; its population was 63,921 in 1901, showing a decrease +of 2% in the decade. Estimated revenue £9422. The chief, +whose title is Pant Pratinidhi, is a Brahman by caste. The +state has suffered severely from plague. The town of Aundh +is situated 26 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. about 3500.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUNGERVYLE, RICHARD<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1287-1345), commonly known as +<span class="sc">Richard de Bury</span>, English bibliophile, writer and bishop, was +born near Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, on the 24th of January +1287. He was the son of Sir Richard Aungervyle, who was +descended from one of William the Conqueror’s soldiers, settled +in Leicestershire, where the family came into possession of the +manor of Willoughby. His education was undertaken by his +uncle, John de Willoughby, and after leaving the grammar +school of his native place he was sent to Oxford, where he is +said to have distinguished himself in philosophy and theology. +John Pits<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> says, but apparently without authority, that he +became a Benedictine monk. He was made tutor to Prince +Edward of Windsor (afterwards Edward III.), and, according +to Dibdin, inspired him with some of his own love of books. +He was mixed up with the sordid intrigues which preceded +the deposition of Edward II., and supplied Queen Isabella and +Mortimer in Paris with money in 1325 from the revenues of +Guienne, of which province he was treasurer. For some time +he had to hide in Paris from the officers sent by Edward II. to +apprehend him. On the accession of Edward III. his services +were rewarded by rapid promotion. He was cofferer to the +king, treasurer of the wardrobe and afterwards clerk of the +privy seal. The king, moreover, repeatedly recommended him +to the pope, and twice sent him, in 1330 and 1333, as ambassador +to the papal court, then in exile at Avignon. On the first of +these visits he made the acquaintance of a fellow bibliophile in +Petrarch, who records his impression (<i>Epist. Famil.</i> lib. iii. +Ep. 1) of the Englishman as “not ignorant of literature and ... +from his youth up curious beyond belief of hidden things.” +He asked him for information about Thule, but Aungervyle, +who promised information when he should once more be at home +among his books, never sent any answer, in spite of repeated +enquiries. The pope, John XXII., made him his principal +chaplain, and presented him with a rochet in earnest of the +first vacant bishopric in England.</p> + +<p>During his absence from England he was made (1333) dean of +Wells. In September of the same year the see of Durham fell +vacant, and the king overruled the choice of the monks, who had +elected and actually installed their sub-prior, Robert de Graystanes, +in favour of Aungervyle. In February 1334 he was +made lord treasurer, an appointment he exchanged later in +the year for that of lord chancellor. This charge he resigned +in the next year, and, after making arrangements for the protection +of his northern diocese from an expected inroad of the +Scots, he proceeded in July 1336 to France to attempt a settlement +of the claims in dispute between Edward and Philip. In +the next year he served on three commissions for the defence +of the northern counties. In June 1338 he was once more sent +abroad to secure peace, but within a month of his appointment +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span> +Edward himself landed in Flanders to procure allies for his approaching +campaign. Aungervyle accompanied him to Coblenz +to his meeting with the emperor Louis IV., and in the +next year was sent to England to raise money. This seems +to have been his last visit to the continent. In 1340 and 1342 +he was again engaged in trying to negotiate peace with the +Scots, but from this time his life appears to have passed quietly +in the care of his diocese and in the accumulation of a library.</p> + +<p>He sent far and wide in search of manuscripts, rescuing many +treasures from the charge of ignorant and neglectful monks. +“No dearness of price,” he says, “ought to hinder a man from +the buying of books, if he has the money demanded for them, +unless it be to withstand the malice of the seller or to await a +more favourable opportunity of buying.” It is to be supposed +that Richard de Bury sometimes brought undue pressure to +bear on the owners, for it is recorded that an abbot of St Albans +bribed him to secure his influence for the house by four valuable +books, and that de Bury, who procured certain coveted privileges +for the monastery, bought from him thirty-two other books, +for fifty pieces of silver, far less than their normal price. The +record of his passion for books, his <i>Philobiblon</i>, was completed +on his fifty-eighth birthday, the 24th of January 1345, and he +died on the 14th of April (May, according to Adam Murimuth) +of that year. He gives an account (chapter viii.) of the +unwearied efforts made by himself and his agents to collect +books. In the eighteenth chapter he records his intention of +founding a hall at Oxford, and in connexion with it a library +of which his books were to form the nucleus. He even details the +rules to be observed for the lending and care of the books, and +he had already taken the preliminary steps for the foundation. +The bishop died, however, in great poverty, and it seems likely +that his collection was dispersed immediately after his death. +But the traditional account is that the books were sent to the +Durham Benedictines at Oxford, and that on the dissolution +of the foundation by Henry VIII. they were divided between +Duke Humphrey of Gloucester’s library, Balliol College and +Dr George Owen. Only two of the volumes are known to be +in existence; one is a copy of John of Salisbury’s works in the +British Museum, and the other some theological treatises by +Anselm and others in the Bodleian.</p> + +<p>The chief authority for the bishop’s life is William de Chambre +(printed in Wharton’s <i>Anglia Sacra</i>, 1691, and in <i>Historiae +Dunelmensis scriptores tres</i>, Surtees Soc. 1839), who describes +him as an amiable and excellent man, charitable in his diocese, +and the liberal patron of many learned men, among these being +Thomas Bradwardine, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, +Richard Fitzralph, afterwards archbishop of Armagh, the +enemy of the mendicant orders, Walter Burley, who translated +Aristotle, John Mauduit the astronomer, Robert Holkot and +Richard de Kilvington. John Bale<a name="fa2o" id="fa2o" href="#ft2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Pits<a name="fa3o" id="fa3o" href="#ft3o"><span class="sp">3</span></a> mention other +works of his, <i>Epistolae Familiares</i> and <i>Orationes ad Principes</i>. +The opening words of the <i>Philobiblon</i> and the <i>Epistolae</i> as given +by Bale represent those of the <i>Philobiblon</i> and its prologue, +so that he apparently made two books out of one treatise. It is +possible that the <i>Orationes</i> may represent a letter book of +Richard de Bury’s, entitled <i>Liber Epistolaris quondam domini +Ricardi de Bury, Episcopi Dunelmensis</i>, now in the possession +of Lord Harlech. This MS., the contents of which are fully +catalogued in the Fourth Report (1874) of the Historical MSS. +Commission (Appendix, pp. 379-397), contains numerous letters +from various popes, from the king, a correspondence dealing +with the affairs of the university of Oxford, another with the +province of Gascony, beside some harangues and letters evidently +kept as models to be used on various occasions.</p> + +<p>It has often been asserted that the <i>Philobiblon</i> itself was not +written by Richard de Bury at all, but by Robert Holkot. This +assertion is supported by the fact that in seven of the extant +MSS. of <i>Philobiblon</i> it is ascribed to Holkot in an introductory +note, in these or slightly varying terms: <i>Incipit prologus in +philobiblon ricardi dunelmensis episcopi quē librū composuit +Robertus holcote de ordine predicalorum sub nomine dicti episcopi</i>. +The Paris MS. has simply <i>Philobiblon olchoti anglici</i>, and does +not contain the usual concluding note of the date when the book +was completed by Richard. As a great part of the charm of +the book lies in the unconscious record of the collector’s own +character, the establishment of Holkot’s authorship would +materially alter its value. A notice of Richard de Bury by his +contemporary Adam Murimuth (<i>Continuatio Chronicarum</i>, Rolls +Series, 1889, p. 171) gives a less favourable account of him than +does William de Chambre, asserting that he was only moderately +learned, but desired to be regarded as a great scholar.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original Latin text was printed at Cologne (1473), Spires +(1483), Paris (1500), Oxford (1598 and 1599), &c. It was first translated +into English by J.B. Inglis in 1832, and into French by Hippolyte +Cocheris in 1856. The best translation is that by Mr E.C. +Thomas, accompanying the Latin text, with full biographical and +bibliographical introductions (1888). Other editions are in the +<i>King’s Classics</i> (1902) and for the Grolier Club (New York, 1889, +ed. A.W. West).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>De Ill. Angl. Script.</i> (1619, p. 467).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2o" id="ft2o" href="#fa2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Script. Ill. Maj. Brit.</i> cent. v. No. 69.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3o" id="ft3o" href="#fa3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>De Ill. Angl. Script.</i> (1619, p. 468).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUNT SALLY,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> the English name for a game popular at +fairs, race-courses and summer resorts. It consists in throwing +hard balls, of wood or leather-covered yarn, at puppets dressed +to represent different characters, originally a grotesque female +figure called “Aunt Sally,” with the object of smashing a clay +pipe which is inserted either in the mouth or forehead of the +puppet. In France the game is popular under the name <i>jeu de +massacre</i>. In a variation of the pastime the mark consists of a +living person’s head thrust through a hole in a sheet of canvas. In +case of a hit a second shy is allowed, or a small prize is given.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURA<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (from the Gr. for “breath” or “breeze”), a term used +in old days to denote a supposed ethereal emanation from a +volatile substance; applied later to the “electrical aura,” or +air-current caused by electrical discharge; in epilepsy (<i>q.v.</i>) +to one of its premonitory symptoms; and in spiritualism to +a mysterious light associated with the presence of spirit-forms. +See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aureola</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURANGABAD,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aurungabad</span>, a city of India, in the +dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad, north-west division, +situated 138 m. from Poona, 207 from Bombay via Poona, +and 270 from Hyderabad on the river Kaum. It gives its name +to a district. It was founded in 1610, under the name of Fatchnagar, +by Malik Ambar, an Abyssinian, who had risen from the +condition of a slave to great influence. Subsequently it became +the capital of the Mogul conquests in the south of India. Aurangzeb, +who erected here a mausoleum to his wife which has been +compared to the Taj at Agra, made the city the seat of his +government during his viceroyalty of the Deccan, and gave +it the name of Aurangabad. It thus grew into the principal +city of an extensive province of the same name, stretching +westward to the sea, and comprehending nearly the whole of +the territory now comprised within the northern division of the +presidency of Bombay. Aurangabad long continued to be the +capital of the succession of potentates bearing the modern title +of nizam, after those chiefs became independent of Delhi. They +abandoned it subsequently, and transferred their capital to +Hyderabad, when the town at once began to decline. Aurangabad +is a railway station on the Hyderabad-Godavari line, 435 m. from +Bombay. In 1901 the population, with military cantonments, +was 36,837, showing an increase of 8% in the decade. It has a +cotton mill.</p> + +<p>The district of Aurangabad has an area of 6172 sq. m. The +population in 1901 was 721,407. It contains the famous caves +of Ajanta, and also the battlefield of Assaye.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURANGZEB<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1618-1707), one of the greatest of the Mogul +emperors of Hindustan, was the third son of Shah Jahan, and +was born in November 1618. His original name, Mahommed, +was changed by his father, with whom he was a favourite, into +Aurangzeb, meaning ornament of the throne, and at a later +time he assumed the additional titles of Mohi-eddin, reviver of +religion, and Alam-gir, conqueror of the world. At a very early +age, and throughout his whole life, he manifested profound +religious feeling perhaps instilled into him in the course of his +education under some of the strictest Mahommedan doctors. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span> +He was employed, while very young, in some of his father’s +expeditions into the country beyond the Indus, gave promise +of considerable military talents, and was appointed to the +command of an army directed against the Uzbegs. In this +campaign he was not completely successful, and soon after was +transferred to the army engaged in the Deccan. Here he gained +several victories, and in conjunction with the famous general, +Mir Jumla, who had deserted from the king of Golconda, he +seized and plundered the town of Hyderabad, which belonged to +that monarch. His father’s express orders prevented Aurangzeb +from following up this success, and, not long after, the sudden +and alarming illness of Shah Jahan turned his thoughts in +another direction. Of Shah Jahan’s four sons, the eldest, Dara, +a brave and honourable prince, but disliked by the Mussulmans +on account of his liberality of thought, had a natural right to the +throne. Accordingly, on the illness of his father, he at once +seized the reins of government and established himself at Delhi. +The second son, Shuja, governor of Bengal, a dissolute and +sensual prince, was dissatisfied, and raised an army to dispute +the throne with Dara. The keen eye of Aurangzeb saw in this +conjuncture of events a favourable opportunity for realising his +own ambitious schemes. His religious exercises and temperate +habits gave him, in popular estimation, a great superiority +over his brothers, but he was too politic to put forward his claims +openly. He made overtures to his younger brother Murad, +governor of Gujarat, representing that neither of their elder +brothers was worthy of the kingdom, that he himself had no +temporal ambition, and desired only to place a fit monarch on +the throne, and then to devote himself to religious exercises and +make the pilgrimage to Mecca. He therefore proposed to unite +his forces to those of Murad, who would thus have no difficulty +in making himself master of the empire while the two elder +brothers were divided by their own strife. Murad was completely +deceived by these crafty representations, and at once accepted the +offer. Their united armies then moved northward. Meanwhile +Shah Jahan had recovered, and though Dara resigned the crown +he had seized, the other brothers professed not to believe in their +father’s recovery, and still pressed on. Shuja was defeated by +Dara’s son, but the imperial forces under Jaswant Singh were +completely routed by the united armies of Aurangzeb and +Murad. Dara in person took the field against his brothers, +but was defeated and compelled to fly. Aurangzeb then, by a +clever stroke of policy, seized the person of his father, and threw +him into confinement, in which he was kept for the remaining +eight years of his life. Murad was soon removed by assassination, +and the way being thus cleared, Aurangzeb, with affected reluctance, +ascended the throne in August 1658. He quickly freed +himself from all other competitors for the imperial power. Dara, +who again invaded Gujarat, was defeated and closely pursued, +and was given up by the native chief with whom he had taken +refuge. He was brought up to Delhi, exhibited to the people, +and assassinated. Shuja, who had been a second time defeated +near Allahabad, was attacked by the imperial forces under Mir +Jumla and Mahommed, Aurangzeb’s eldest son, who, however, +deserted and joined his uncle. Shuja was defeated and fled to +Arakan, where he perished; Mahommed was captured, thrown +into the fortress of Gwalior, and died after seven years’ confinement. +No similar contest disturbed Aurangzeb’s long +reign of forty-six years, which has been celebrated, though with +doubtful justice, as the most brilliant period of the history of +Hindustan. The empire certainly was wealthy and of enormous +extent, for there were successively added to it the rich kingdoms +of Bijapur and Golconda, but it was internally decaying and +ready to crumble away before the first vigorous assault. Two +causes principally had tended to weaken the Mogul power. +The one was the intense bigotry and intolerant policy of Aurangzeb, +which had alienated the Hindus and roused the fierce animosity +of the haughty Rajputs. The other was the rise and +rapid growth of the Mahratta power. Under their able leader, +Sivaji, these daring freebooters plundered in every direction, +nor could all Aurangzeb’s efforts avail to subdue them. For the +last twenty-six years of his life Aurangzeb was engaged in wars +in the Deccan, and never set foot in his own capital. At the +close of the long contest the Mogul power was weaker, the +Mahratta stronger than at first. Still the personal ability and +influence of the emperor were sufficient to keep his realms intact +during his own life. His last years were embittered by remorse, +by gloomy forebodings, and by constant suspicion, for he had +always been in the habit of employing a system of espionage, +and only then experienced its evil effects. He died on the 3rd +of March 1707 at Ahmadnagar, while engaged on an extensive +but unfortunate expedition against the Mahrattas.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lane-Poole, <i>Aurangzib</i>, “Rulers of India” series (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURAY,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> a town of France near the mouth of the Auray river, +in the department of Morbihan, 12 m. W. of Vannes on the +railway between that town and Lorient. Pop. (1906) 5241. +Its port, which is formed by the channel of the river and divides +the town into two parts, is frequented by coasting and fishing +vessels. The principal buildings are the church of St Esprit +(13th century) now secularized; the Renaissance church of +St Gildas; the town-hall (18th century); and, at a short distance +from the town, the Carthusian monastery, now a deaf and dumb +institute, on the site of the battle of 1364, at which Charles of +Blois was defeated by John of Montfort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brittany</a></span>: <i>History</i>). +Adjoining the Chartreuse is a small chapel in which are preserved +the bones of the Royalists captured by the Republicans in a battle +fought near the spot in 1795. In the neighbourhood is the church +of Sainte Anne d’Auray, one of the principal places of pilgrimage +in Brittany. Auray is one of the chief centres in France for +oyster-breeding, and carries on boat-building and sardine-fishing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURELIA, VIA,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> an ancient highroad of Italy, the date of +the construction of which is unknown. It ran from Rome to +Alsium, where it reached the sea, and thence along the south-west +coast of Italy, perhaps originally only as far as Cosa, and was +later extended to Vada Volaterrana, and in 109 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to Genua +and Dertona by means of the Via Aemilia, though a coast road +as far as Genua at least must have existed long before. The name +is applied in the Antonine Itinerary to these extensions, and even +to the prolongation to Aries. Its line is in the main closely +followed by the modern coast highroad; cf., however, for the +section between Cosa and Populonia, O. Cuntz in <i>Jahreshefte +des Öslerr. arch. Instituts</i>, vii. (1904), 54.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURELIAN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Lucius Domitius Aurelianus</span>], one of the greatest +of the Roman soldier emperors, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia +between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 212-214. He was of humble origin, but nothing +definite is known of his family. He had always shown great +enthusiasm for a military career, and so distinguished himself +in the campaigns in which he took part that on one occasion +he received a public vote of thanks. At the same time he was +proclaimed consul elect, and adopted by Ulpius Crinitus, military +governor of Illyria and Thrace. On the death of the emperor +Claudius II. Gothicus (270), Aurelian was proclaimed his successor +with the universal approval of the soldiers. His first task was +to continue the war which had been begun by Claudius against +the Goths. He drove them out of Moesia across the Danube, +where he left them in possession of Dacia, which he did not think +himself able to retain; the name was transferred to Moesia, +which was then called Dacia Aureliani. The chronology, however, +of Aurelian’s reign is very confused, and the abandonment +of Dacia is placed by some authorities towards its close. He +next entered upon campaigns against the Juthungi, Alamanni, +and other Germanic tribes, over whom, after a severe defeat +which was said to have imperilled the very existence of the empire, +he at length obtained a complete victory. Having thus secured +the Rhine and Danube frontiers, he turned his energies towards +the east, and in 271 set out on his expedition against Zenobia, +queen of Palmyra (<i>q.v.</i>). At the same time he crushed two +pretenders to the throne—Firmus and Tetricus. Firmus, +a wealthy merchant of Seleucia, had proclaimed himself emperor +of Egypt. Aurelian, who was at the time in Mesopotamia, +hastened thither, and ordered him to be seized and put to death. +Tetricus, who had been proclaimed emperor in the west after +the death of Gallienus, and left undisturbed by Claudius II., still +ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain. A decisive battle was fought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span> +near the modern Châlons, in which Tetricus was defeated. The +restoration of the unity of the empire was thus complete. In +274 a brilliant triumph, adorned by the persons of Zenobia and +Tetricus, was celebrated at Rome.</p> + +<p>Aurelian now turned his attention to the internal affairs of +the empire. He introduced sumptuary laws; relieved the poor +by distributions of bread and meat, proceeded with great severity +against informers and embezzlers; began the construction of +various public works and buildings; and proclaimed a general +amnesty for political crimes. The restoration and enlargement +of the walls of Rome, commenced by him, was not completed +till the reign of Probus. An attempt to restore the standard +of the coinage is said to have caused a revolt of the workmen +and officials connected with the mint, which was only put down +with the loss of 7000 soldiers. It has been suggested that this +was really an attempt at revolution incited by the senate and +praetorian guards, the opportunity being found in disturbances +resulting from opposition to the attempted reform, which by +themselves could hardly have assumed such serious proportions. +Aurelian’s restless spirit was not long able to endure a life of +inaction in the city. Towards the end of 274, he started on an +expedition against the Persians, halting in Thrace by the way. +While on the march between Heracleia and Byzantium, at the +beginning of the following year, he was assassinated through +the treachery of his secretary Eros, who, in order to escape the +discovery of his own irregularities, incited certain officers against +the emperor by showing them a forged list, on which their names +appeared as marked out for death.</p> + +<p>Aurelian well deserved the title of restorer of the empire, and +it must be remembered that he lived in an age when severity was +absolutely necessary. He was a great soldier and a rigid but +just disciplinarian. In more favourable circumstances he would +have been a great administrator. He displayed a fondness +for pomp and show on public occasions; he was the first Roman +emperor to wear the diadem, and assumed the title of Lord and +God on medals.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authority for the events of Aurelian’s reign is his life +by Vopiscus, one of the writers of the “Augustan History”; it is +founded on Greek memoirs and certain journals deposited in the +Ulpian library at Rome. See L. Homo, <i>Le Règne de l’empereur +Aurélien</i> (1904), and Groag’s art. in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, +v. 1347 foll.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURELIANUS, CAELIUS,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> a physician of Sicca in Numidia, +who probably flourished in the 5th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, although some +place him two or even three centuries earlier. In favour of the +later date is the nature of his Latin, which shows a strong +tendency to the Romance, and the similarity of his language +to that of Cassius Felix, also an African medical writer, who +about 450 wrote a short treatise, chiefly based on Galen. We +possess a translation by Aurelianus of two works of Soranus +of Ephesus (2nd century), the chief of the “methodist” school +of medicine, on chronic and acute maladies—<i>Tardae</i> or <i>Chronicae +Passiones</i>, in five, and <i>Celeres</i> or <i>Acutae Passiones</i> in three books. +The translation, which is especially valuable since the original +has been lost, shows that Soranus possessed considerable practical +skill in the diagnosis of ordinary and even of exceptional diseases. +It is also important as containing numerous references to the +methods of earlier medical authorities. We also possess considerable +fragments of his <i>Medicinales Responsiones</i>, also adapted +from Soranus, a general treatise on medicine in the form of +question and answer; it deals with rules of health (<i>salutaria +praecepta</i>) and the pathology of internal diseases (ed. Rose, +<i>Anecdota Graeca et Latina</i>, ii., 1870). Where it is possible to +compare Aurelianus’s translation with the original—as in a +fragment of his Gynaecia with Soranus’s <span class="grk" title="Peri gynaikeion Pathon">Περὶ γυναικείων</span>—it +is found that it is literal, but abridged. There is +apparently no MS. of the treatises in existence. (Editions: +Amman, 1709; Haller, 1774.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURELLE DE PALADINES, LOUIS JEAN BAPTISTE D’<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> +(1804-1877), French general, was born at Malzieu, Lozère, on +the 9th of January 1804. He was educated at St Cyr, and +entered the army as sub-lieutenant of foot in 1824. He served +with distinction in Algeria between 1841 and 1848, becoming +lieut.-colonel and an officer of the Legion of Honour; took part +in the Roman campaigns of 1848 and 1849, and was made colonel. +He served as general of brigade throughout the Crimean War of +1854-56, being promoted general of division and commander of +the Legion of Honour. During the campaign in Lombardy in +1859 he commanded at Marseilles, and superintended the despatch +of men and stores to the seat of war, and for his services he was +made a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Placed on the +reserve list in 1869, he was recalled to the Marseilles command +on the outbreak of the Franco-German War of 1870-71. After +the first capture of Orleans by the Germans, he was appointed +by the Government of National Defence, in November 1870, +to the command of the Army of the Loire. He was at first very +successful against von der Tann-Rathsamhausen, winning the +battle of Coulmiers and compelling the Germans to evacuate +Orleans, but the capitulation of Metz had set free additional +German troops to oppose him, and, after his defeat at Beaune la +Rolande and subsequent unsuccessful fighting near Orleans, +resulting in its recapture by the Germans in December, Aurelle +retreated into the Sologne and was superseded. After the armistice +he was elected to the National Assembly by the departments +both of Allier and Gironde. He sat for Allier and was one of +the fifteen officers chosen to assist in the peace negotiations. +He was decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, +and was given the command at Bordeaux, but retired in 1872. +Elected a life senator in 1875, he supported the monarchical +majority of 1876. He died at Versailles on the 17th of December +1877. He was the author of <i>La Première Armée de la Loire</i>, +published in 1872.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUREOLA,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> <span class="sc">Aureole</span> (diminutive of Lat. <i>aura</i>, air), the radiance +of luminous cloud which, in paintings of sacred personages, is +represented as surrounding the whole figure. In the earliest +periods of Christian art this splendour was confined to the figures +of the persons of the Godhead, but it was afterwards extended +to the Virgin Mary and to several of the saints. The aureola, +when enveloping the whole body, is generally oval or elliptical +in form, but is occasionally circular or quatrefoil. When it is +merely a luminous disk round the head, it is called specifically +a <i>nimbus</i>, while the combination of nimbus and aureole is called +a <i>glory</i>. The strict distinction between nimbus and aureole is +not commonly maintained, and the latter term is most frequently +used to denote the radiance round the heads of saints, angels +or persons of the Godhead. The <i>nimbus</i> in Christian art appeared +first in the 5th century, but practically the same device was +known still earlier, though its history is obscure, in non-Christian +art. Thus (though earlier Indian and Bactrian coins do not show +it) it is found with the gods on some of the coins of the Indian +kings Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva, 58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 41 +(Gardner’s <i>Cat. of Coins of Greek and Scythic Kings of Bactria +and India</i>, Brit. Mus. 1886, plates 26-29). And its use has been +traced through the Egyptians to the Greeks and Romans, +representations of Trajan (arch of Constantine) and Antoninus +Pius (reverse of a medal) being found with it. In the circular +form it constitutes a natural and even primitive use of the idea +of a crown, modified by an equally simple idea of the emanation +of light from the head of a superior being, or by the meteorological +phenomenon of a halo. The probability is that all later associations +with the symbol refer back to an early astrological origin (cf. +<span class="sc">Mithras</span>), the person so glorified being identified with the sun +and represented in the sun’s image; so the aureole is the <i>Hvareno</i> +of Mazdaism. From this early astrological use the form of +“glory” or “nimbus” has been adapted or inherited under +new beliefs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURICH,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of +Hanover, chief town of the district of East Friesland, on the +Ems-Jade canal, 18 m. N.W. from Emden by rail. Pop. (1900) +6013. It is built in the Dutch style, and lies in a sandy but +fertile plain, surrounded by pleasant promenades which have +taken the place of the old fortifications. It has a palace, formerly +the residence of the counts of East Friesland and now used as +government offices, a Roman Catholic and two Protestant +churches, a gymnasium, and four libraries. There are breweries +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span> +and small manufactories of paper and tobacco. Close by is the +<i>Upstallsboom</i>, the hill of oath and liberty, where every year at +Whitsuntide representatives of the seven Frisian coast lands +assembled to deliberate.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wiarda, <i>Bruchstücke zur Geschichte der Stadt Aurich</i> (Emden, +1835).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURICLE<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (from Lat. diminutive of <i>auris</i>, ear), the external ear +in animals, or an analogous part in plants, &c. From a supposed +resemblance to the ear of a dog, the term was applied to the +upper cavities of the heart. The adjective “auricular” is +more specially used in the phrase “auricular confession” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Confession</a></span>), <i>i.e.</i> private.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURICULA<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (<i>Primula auricula</i>), an Alpine plant, which has +been an inmate of British gardens for about three hundred +years, and is still prized by florists as a favourite spring flower. +It loves a cool soil and shady situation. The florists’ varieties +are grown in rich composts, for the preparation of which numberless +receipts have been given; but many of the old nostrums are +now exploded, and a more rational treatment has taken their +place. Thus Mr Douglas writes (<i>Hardy Florists’ Flowers</i>):—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“There is no mystery, as some suppose, about the potting, any +more than there is about the potting material. The compost should +consist of turfy loam four parts, leaf-mould one part, sharp river or +silver sand one part, and a few bits of broken charcoal mixed with it. +The pots to be used should be from 3 to 4½ in. in diameter, inside +measure; about 1 in. of potsherds should be placed in the bottom +of each pot, and over this some fibrous turf, from which the fine +particles of earth have been removed. The old soil should be shaken +from the roots of the plants to be potted; and before potting cut off, +if necessary, a portion of the main root. In potting press the soil +rather firmly around the roots.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Auriculas are best grown in a cold frame mounted on legs +about 2 ft. from the ground, and provided with hinged sashes. +A graduated stage formed of wood battens 6 in. broad, with a +rise of 2 in., should be fixed so as to take each one row of pots, +with the plants standing at about 15 in. from the glass; the +spaces between the shelves should be closed, while the top board +of the back and the front should be hinged so as to be let down +when desired for ventilation, the sashes, too, being movable for +the same purpose, and also to afford facilities for examining +and attending to the plants. This frame should face the north +from May to October, and south in winter. No protection +will be needed except in very severe frosts, when two or three +thicknesses of garden mats may be thrown over the glass, and +allowed to remain on until the soil is thawed, should it become +frozen.</p> + +<p>Auriculas may be propagated from seed, which is to be sown as +soon as ripe, in July or August, in boxes, kept under cover, and +exposed only to the rays of the morning sun. When seed has +been saved from the finer sorts, the operation is one of considerable +nicety, as it not unfrequently happens that the best seedlings +are at first exceedingly weak. They generally flower in the +second or third year, a few good sorts being all that can be +expected from a large sowing. The established varieties are +increased by taking off the offshoots, an operation performed at +the time of potting in July or the beginning of August. But +some varieties are very shy in producing offsets.</p> + +<p>The original of the auricula is a hardy perennial herb, of +dwarf habit, bearing dull yellowish blossoms. This and the +commoner forms raised from seed, as well as one or two double +forms, are interesting hardy border flowers. The choice florists’ +varieties are divided into five classes:—the <i>green-edged</i>, with the +margins of the flowers green; the <i>grey-edged</i>, with the green +margins powdered with meal so as to appear to be coloured grey; +the <i>white-edged</i>, with the mealy powder so dense as to cover the +green; the <i>selfs</i>, which have none of the green variegation of +margin seen in the foregoing, but are of some distinct colour, +as purple, maroon, &c., but have, like the preceding, a white +paste surrounding the eye; and the <i>alpines</i>, which resemble the +selfs in not having any green marginal variegation, but differ +in having a yellow centre more or less dense. The individual +flowers of the first three groups of florists’ auriculas show four +distinct circles:—first the eye or tube, which should have the +stamens lying in it, but sometimes has the pin-headed stigma +instead, which is a defect; second, the paste or circle of pure +white surrounding the eye; third, the body colour, a circle of +some dark tint, as maroon or violet, which feathers out more or +less towards the edge, but is the more perfect the less it is so +feathered, and is quite faulty if it breaks through to the outer +circle; fourth, the margin, which is green or grey or white. +These circles should be about equal in width and clearly defined, +and the nearer they are to this standard the more perfect is the +flower. In the group of selfs the conditions are the same, except +that there is no margin, and consequently the body colour, +which should be uniform in tone, extends to the edge. In the +alpines there should be no paste or white surrounding the eye, +but this space should be either golden-yellow or creamy-yellow, +which makes two subdivisions in this group; and the body +colour is more or less distinctly shaded, the edges being of a paler +hue. There is besides a group of laced alpines, in which a distinct +and regular border of colour surrounds each of the marginal +lobes.</p> + +<p>The following is a selection of the best varieties cultivated +in 1909:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Green-edged</i>.—Abbé Liszt, Abraham Barker, Shirley Hibberd, Prince Charming, Mrs Henwood.</p> + +<p><i>Grey-edged</i>.—Amy Robsart, George Lightbody, Marmion, Olympus, George Rudd, +Richard Headly.</p> + +<p><i>White-edged</i>.—Acme, Conservative, Heather Bell, Mrs Dodson, Rachel, +Smiling Beauty.</p> + +<p><i>Selfs</i>.—Andrew Miller, Gerald, Mikado, Mrs Phillips, Mrs Potts, Harrison +Weir.</p> + +<p><i>Alpines</i>.—Argus, Dean Hole, Duke of York, Firefly, Flora Mclvor, Mrs +Douglas, Mrs Markham, Perfection, Phyllis, Rosy Morn, The +Bride, Teviotdale.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURIFABER<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (the latinized form of Goldschmidt), a surname +borne by three prominent men of the Reformation period in +Germany.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Andreas</span> (1514-1559) was a physician of some repute, but +through his influence with Albert of Brandenburg, last grand-master +of the Teutonic order, and first Protestant duke of +Prussia, became an outstanding figure in the controversy +associated with Andreas Osiander (<i>q.v.</i>) whose daughter he had +married.</p> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Joannes</span> (Vratislaviensis; 1517-1568), the younger +brother of Andreas, was born at Breslau on the 30th of January +1517, and educated at Wittenberg, where he formed a close and +lasting friendship with Melanchthon. After graduating in 1538 +he spent twelve years as <i>docent</i> at the university, and having +then received his doctorate of divinity, was appointed professor +of divinity and pastor of the church of St Nicholas at Rostock. +He distinguished himself by his conciliatory disposition, earned +the special confidence of Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg, and +took a leading part in 1552 in drawing up the constitution of +the Mecklenburg church. He also settled some religious disputes +in the town of Lübeck. In 1553 Duke Albert of Prussia, anxious +to heal the differences in the Prussian church caused by the +discussion of Osiander’s doctrines, invited him to Königsberg, +and in the following year appointed him professor of divinity +and president of the Samland diocese. Joannes, however, +found it impossible to conciliate all parties, and in 1565 returned +to Breslau, where, in 1567, he became pastor in the church of +St Elizabeth and inspector of the Lutheran churches and schools. +He died on the 19th of October 1568.</p> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Joannes</span> (Vinariensis; 1519-1575), was born in the +county of Mansfeldt in 1519. He studied at Wittenberg where +he heard the lectures of Luther, and afterwards became tutor +to Count Mansfeldt. In the war of 1544-45 he accompanied the +army as field-preacher, and then lived with Luther as his <i>famulus</i> +or private secretary, being present at his death in 1546. In the +following year he spent six months in prison with John Frederick, +elector of Saxony, who had been captured by the emperor, +Charles V. He held for some years the office of court-preacher +at Weimar, but owing to theological disputes was compelled +to resign this office in 1561. In 1566 he was appointed to the +Lutheran church at Erfurt, and there remained till his death +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span> +in November 1575. Besides taking a share in the first collected +or Jena edition of Luther’s works (1556), Aurifaber sought out +and published at Eisleben in 1564-1565 several writings not +included in that edition. He also published Luther’s <i>Letters</i> +(1556, 1565), and <i>Table Talk</i> (1566). This popular work, which +has given him most of his fame, is unfortunately but a second +or third hand compilation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Kawerau’s art. in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyk. für prot. +Theologie</i>, and the literature there cited.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURIGA<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (the “charioteer” or “waggoner”), in astronomy, a +constellation of the northern hemisphere, found in the catalogues +of Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). It +was symbolized by the Greeks as an old man in a more or less +sitting posture, with a goat and her kids in his left hand, and +a bridle in his right. The ancient Greeks associated this constellation +with many myths. Some assume it to be Erichthonius, +son of Athena and Hephaestus, who was translated to the skies +by Zeus on account of his invention of chariots or coaches. +Others assume it to be Myrtilus, a son of Hermes and Clytic, +and charioteer to Oenomaus, who was placed in the heavens by +Hermes. Another myth has it to be Olenus, a son of Hephaestus, +and father of Aega and Helice, two nymphs who nursed Zeus. +Ptolemy catalogued fourteen stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-seven, +and Hevelius forty in this constellation. Interesting stars +are: α <i>Aurigae</i> or <i>Capella</i> (the goat), one of the brightest +stars in the heavens, determined by Newall and Campbell to be +a spectroscopic binary; β <i>Aurigae</i>, a star of the second magnitude +also a spectroscopic binary; ε <i>Aurigae</i>, an irregularly variable +star; and <i>Nova Aurigae</i>, a “new” star discovered by Anderson +in 1892, and afterwards found on a photographic plate exposed +at Harvard in December 1891. Several fine star clusters also +appear in this constellation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURILLAC,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of the department +of Cantal, 140 m. N.N.E. of Toulouse, on the Orléans railway +between Figeac and Murat. Pop. (1906) 14,097. Aurillac +stands on the right bank of the Jordanne, and is dominated +from the north-west by the Roc Castanet, crowned by the castle +of St Etienne, the keep of which dates from the 11th century. +Its streets are narrow and uninteresting, with the exception of +one which contains, among other old houses, that known as the +Maison des Consuls, a Gothic building of the 16th century, +decorated with sculptured stone-work. Aurillac owes its origin +to an abbey founded in the 9th century by St Géraud, and the +abbey-church, rebuilt in the 17th century in the Gothic style, +is the chief building in the town. The former college, which +dates from the 17th century, is now occupied by a museum and +a library. There is a statue of Pope Silvester II., born near +Aurillac in 930 and educated in the abbey, which soon afterwards +became one of the most famous schools of France. Aurillac +is the seat of a prefect, and its public institutions include tribunals +of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a +lycée, training-colleges and a branch of the Bank of France. +The chief manufactures are wooden shoes and umbrellas, and +there is trade in cheese and in the cattle and horses reared in +the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURISPA, GIOVANNI<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1370-1459), one of the learned +Italians of the 15th century, who did so much to promote the +revival of the study of Greek in Italy, was born at Noto in +Sicily. In 1418 he visited Constantinople, where he remained +for some years, perfecting his knowledge of Greek and searching +for ancient MSS. His efforts were rewarded by the acquisition +of some 250 MSS., with which he returned to Venice. Here he +is said to have been obliged to pawn his treasures for 50 gold +florins to provide for his immediate wants. Cosimo de’ Medici, +hearing of his embarrassment, redeemed the MSS. and summoned +the owner to Florence. In 1438, at the council of Basel, Aurispa +attracted the attention of Pope Eugenius IV., who made him his +secretary; he held a similar position under Nicholas V., who +presented him to two lucrative abbacies. He died at Ferrara. +Considering his long life and reputation Aurispa produced little: +Latin translations of the commentary of Hierocles on the golden +verses of Pythagoras (1474) and of <i>Philisci Consolatoria ad +Ciceronem</i> from Dio Cassius (not published till 1510); and, +according to Gesner, a translation of the works of Archimedes. +Aurispa’s reputation rests upon the extensive collection of MSS. +copied and distributed by him, and his persistent efforts to +revive and promote the study of ancient literature.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUROCHS<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>urus</i>, the wild ox, and “ox”) or <span class="sc">Urus</span>, +the name of the extinct wild ox of Europe (<i>Bos taurus +primigenius</i>), which after the disappearance of that animal became +transferred to the bison. According to the German Freiherr +von Herberstein (1486-1566), in his <i>Moscovia</i>, of which an Italian +translation was published at Venice in 1550, the aurochs survived +in Poland (and probably also in Hungary) during the latter +middle ages. In this work appear woodcuts—rude but characteristic +and unmistakable—of two distinct types of European +wild cattle; one the aurochs, or ur, and the other the bison. +As Herberstein had travelled in Poland, it is probable that he +had seen both species alive, and the drawings were most likely +executed under his own direction. It has indeed been suggested +that the figure of the aurochs was taken from a domesticated +ox, but this is a mistaken idea. Not the least important feature +of the work of Herberstein is the application of the name aurochs +to the wild ox, as distinct from the bison. The locality where +aurochs survived in Herberstein’s time was the forest of Jaktozowka, +situated about 55 kilometres west-south-west of Warsaw, +in the provinces of Bolemow and Sochaczew. From other +evidence it appears that the last aurochs was killed in this forest +in the year 1627. Herberstein describes the colour of the aurochs +as black, and this is confirmed by another old picture of the +animal. Gesner’s figure of the aurochs, or as he calls it “thur,” +given in the <i>Icones</i> to his <i>History of Animals</i>, was probably +adapted from Herberstein’s. It may be added that an ancient +gold goblet depicts the hunting and taming of the wild aurochs.</p> + +<p>As a wild animal, then, the aurochs appears to have ceased +to exist in the early part of the 17th century; but as a species +it survives, for the majority of the domesticated breeds of +European cattle are its descendants, all diminished in point of +size, and some departing more widely from the original type +than others. Aurochs’ calves were in all probability captured +by the early inhabitants of Britain and the continent and tamed; +and from these, with perhaps an occasional blending of wild +blood, are descended most European breeds of cattle.</p> + +<p>Much misconception, however, has prevailed as to which +breeds are the nearest to the ancestral wild stock. At one time +this position was supposed to be occupied by the white half-wild +cattle of Chillingham and other British parks. These white +breeds are, however, partial albinos; and such semi-albinos are +always the result of domestication and could not have arisen +in the wild state. Moreover, park-cattle display evidence of +their descent from dark-coloured breeds by the retention of red +or black ears and brown or black muzzles. In the Chillingham +cattle the ears are generally red, although sometimes black, +and the muzzle is brown; while in the breed at Cadzow Chase +Lanarkshire, both ears and muzzle are black, and there are +usually flecks of black on the head and forequarters. It is further +significant that, in the Chillingham herd, dark-coloured calves, +which are weeded out, make their appearance from time to +time.</p> + +<p>A very ancient British breed is the black Pembroke; and when +this breed tends to albinism, the ears and muzzle, and more rarely +the fetlocks, remain completely black, or very dark grey, although +the colour elsewhere is whitish, more or less flecked and blotched +with pale grey. In the shape and curvature of the horns, which +at first incline outwards and forwards, and then bend somewhat +upwards and inwards, this breed of cattle resembles the aurochs +and the (by comparison) dwarfed park-breeds. Moreover, in +both the Pembroke and the park-breeds the horns are light-coloured +with black tips.</p> + +<p>Evidence as to the affinity between these breeds is afforded by +the fact that a breed of cattle very similar to that at Chillingham +was found in Wales in the 10th century; these cattle being +white with red ears. Individuals of this race survived till at +least 1850 in Pembroke, where they were at one time kept +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span> +perfectly pure as a part of the regular farm-stock. Until a +period comparatively recent, they were relatively numerous, and +were driven in droves to the pasturages of the Severn and the +neighbouring markets. Their whole essential characters are the +same as those of the cattle at Chillingham. Their horns are +white, tipped with black, and extended and turned upwards in +the manner distinctive of the park-breed. The inside of the ears +and the muzzle are black, and the feet are black to the fetlock +joint. The skin is unctuous and of a deep-toned yellow colour. +Individuals of the race were sometimes born entirely black, and +then were not to be distinguished from the common Pembroke +cattle of the mountains.</p> + +<p>It is thus evident that park-cattle are an albino offshoot +from the ancient Pembroke black breed, which, from their soft +and well-oiled skins, are evidently natives of a humid climate, +such as that of the forests in which dwelt the wild aurochs. +This disposes of a theory that they are descendants of a white +sacrificial breed introduced into Britain by the ancient Romans.</p> + +<p>The Pembroke and park-cattle are, however, by no means the +sole descendants of the aurochs, the black Spanish fighting-bulls +claiming a similar descent. This breed shows a light-coloured +line along the spine, which was characteristic of the aurochs. +It has also been suggested that the Swiss Siemental cattle are +nearly related to the aurochs. The latter was a gigantic animal, +especially during the Pleistocene period; the skulls and limb-bones +discovered in the brick-earths and gravels of the Thames +valley and many other parts of England having belonged to +animals that probably stood six feet at the shoulder.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURORA<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (perhaps through a form <i>ausosa</i> from Sansk. <i>ush</i>, +to burn; the common idea of “brightness” suggests a connexion +with <i>aurum</i>, gold), the Roman goddess of the dawn, corresponding +to the Greek goddess Eos. According to Hesiod (<i>Theog</i>. 271) +she was the daughter of the Titan Hyperion and Thea (or +Euryphassa), and sister of Helios and Selene. By the Titan Astraeus, +she was the mother of the winds Zephyrus, Notus and Boreas, +of Hesperus and the stars. Homer represents her as rising +every morning from the couch of Tithonus (by whom she was +the mother of Emathion and Memnon), and drawn out of the +east in a chariot by the horses Lampus and Phaëthon to carry +light to gods and men (<i>Odyssey</i>, xxiii. 253); in Homer, she +abandons her course when the sun is fully risen (or at the latest at +mid-day, <i>Iliad</i>, ix. 66), but in later literature she accompanies +the sun all day and thus becomes the goddess of the daylight. +From the roseate shafts of light which herald the dawn, she +bears in Homer the epithet “rosy-fingered.” The conception of +a dawn-goddess is common in primitive religions, especially in +the Vedic mythology, where the deity Usás is closely parallel to +the Greco-Roman; see Paul Regnaud, <i>Le Rig-Véda</i> in <i>Annales +du musée Guimet</i>, vol. i. c. 6 (Paris, 1892). She is also represented +as the lover of the hunter Orion (<i>Odyssey</i>, v. 121), the +representative of the constellation that disappears at the flush of dawn, +and the youthful hunter Cephalus, by whom she was the mother +of Phaëthon (Apollodorus iii. 14. 3). In works of art, Eos is +represented as a young woman, fully clothed, walking fast +with a youth in her arms; or rising from the sea in a chariot +drawn by winged horses; sometimes, as the goddess who dispenses +the dews of the morning, she has a pitcher in each hand. +In the fresco-painting by Guido Reni in the Rospigliosi palace +at Rome, Aurora is represented strewing flowers before the +chariot of the sun. Metaphorically the word Aurora was used +(<i>e.g.</i> Virg. <i>Aen</i>. viii. 686, vii. 606) for the East generally.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURORA,<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> a city of Kane county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the +N.E. part of the state, on the Fox river, about 37 m. W. of +Chicago. Pop. (1890) 19,688; (1900) 24,147, of whom 5075 were +foreign-born; (1910) 29,807. Aurora is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, the Elgin, +Joliet & Eastern, and the Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota railways, +and is connected with Chicago by an electric line. The +city has a soldiers’ memorial hall, erected by popular +subscription, and a Carnegie library. Aurora is an important +manufacturing centre; among its manufactures are railway cars—the +shops of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway being +here—flour and cotton, carriages, hardware specialties, corsets, +suspenders, stoves and silver-plate. In 1905 the city’s factory +products were valued at $7,329,028, an increase of 30% in 5 years. +The municipality owns and operates the water-works and electric-lighting +plants. The first settlement in the vicinity of Aurora +was made in 1834. In 1845 the village of East Aurora was +incorporated, and West Aurora was incorporated nine years later. +In 1853 the two villages were united under a city charter, which +was superseded by a revised charter in 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURORA,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> a city of Lawrence county, Missouri, U.S.A., +275 m. S.W. of St Louis, on the St Louis & San Francisco, and +the St Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways. Pop.(1890) +3482; (1900) 6191; (1910) 4148. It is situated near a lead and +zinc mining region, where surface lead was discovered in 1873 +and systematic mining began in 1887; among the cities of the +state it is second to Joplin in mineral importance, and has large +iron-works and flour-mills; mining machinery also is manufactured. +Farming and fruit-growing are carried on in the +surrounding country, and Aurora is the place from which the +products are shipped. Aurora was platted in 1870 and was +chartered as a city in 1886.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURORA,<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> a village of Cayuga county, New York, U.S.A., on +Cayuga Lake, 16 m. S.W. of Auburn. Pop. (1905) 623; (1910) +493. It is served by the Lehigh Valley railway. Aurora is a beautiful +place and a popular summer resort, but it is best known as +the seat of Wells College, a non-sectarian college for women, +founded in 1868 by Henry Wells (1805-1878), of the Wells +Fargo Express Company, and liberally endowed by Edwin B. +Morgan (1806-1881), also connected with the same company, +and by others. At Aurora are also the Somes school (a preparatory +school for boys), founded in 1798 and until 1904 known as +the Cayuga Lake Academy, and the Wells school (a preparatory +school for girls). The village has a public library. Aurora was +settled in 1789 chiefly by residents of New England, and was +incorporated in 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURORA POLARIS<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (<i>Aurora Borealis</i> and <i>Australis</i>, Polar +Light, Northern Lights), a natural phenomenon which occurs +in many forms, some of great beauty.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Forms.</i>—Various schemes of classification have been +proposed, but none has met with universal acceptance; the +following are at least the principal types. (1) <i>Arcs.</i> These +most commonly resemble segments of circles, but are not infrequently +elliptical or irregular in outline. The ends of arcs +frequently extend to the horizon, but often one or both ends +stop short of this. Several arcs may be visible at the same +time. Usually the under or concave edge of the arc is the more +clearly defined, and adjacent to it the sky often seems darker +than elsewhere. It is rather a disputed point whether this dark +segment—through which starlight has been seen to pass—represents +a real atmospheric condition or is merely a contrast +effect. (2) <i>Bands.</i> These may be nearly straight and regular +in outline, as if broken portions of arcs; frequently they are +ribbon-like serpentine forms showing numerous sinuosities. +(3) <i>Rays.</i> Frequently an arc or band is visibly composed of +innumerable short rays separated by distinctly less luminous +intervals. These rays are more or less perpendicular to the arc +or band; sometimes they are very approximately parallel to +one another, on other occasions they converge towards a point. +Longer rays often show an independent existence. Not infrequently +rays extend from the upper edge of an arc towards +the zenith. Combinations of rays sometimes resemble a luminous +fan, or a series of fans, or part of a hollow luminous cylinder. +Rays often alter suddenly in length, seeming to stretch down +towards the horizon or mount towards the zenith. This accounts +for the description of aurora as “Merry Dancers.” (4) <i>Curtains +or Draperies.</i> This form is rare except in Arctic regions, where +it is sometimes fairly frequent. It is one of the most imposing +forms. As a rule the higher portion is visibly made up of rays, +the light tending to become more continuous towards the lower +edge; the combination suggests a connected whole, like a +curtain whose alternate portions are in light and shade. The +curtain often shows several conspicuous folds, and the lower +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span> +edge often resembles frilled drapery. At several stations in +Greenland auroral curtains have been observed when passing +right overhead to narrow to a thin luminous streak, exactly as +a vertical sheet of light would seem to do to one passing underneath +it. (5) <i>Corona</i>. A fully developed corona is perhaps the +finest form of aurora. As the name implies, there is a sort of +crown of light surrounding a comparatively or wholly dark +centre. Farther from the centre the ray structure is usually +prominent. The rays may lie very close together, or may +be widely separated from one another. (6) <i>Patches</i>. During +some displays, auroral light appears in irregular areas or patches, +which sometimes bear a very close resemblance to illuminated +detached clouds. (7) <i>Diffused Aurora</i>. Sometimes a large +part of the sky shows a diffuse illumination, which, though +brighter in some parts than others, possesses no definite outlines. +How far the different forms indicate real difference in the nature +of the phenomenon, and how far they are determined by the +position of the observer, it is difficult to say. Not infrequently +several different forms are visible at the same time.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:531px; height:685px" src="images/img928.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">2. <i>Isochasms</i>.—Aurora is seldom observed in low latitudes. +In the southern hemisphere there is comparatively little inhabited +land in high latitudes and observational data are few; +thus little is known as to how the frequency varies with latitude +and longitude. Even in the northern hemisphere there are large +areas in the Arctic about which little is known. H. Fritz (<b>2</b>) +has, however, drawn a series of curves which are believed to give +a good general idea of the relative frequency of aurora throughout +the northern hemisphere. Fritz’ curves, shown in the illustration, +are termed isochasms, from the Greek word employed by Aristotle +to denote aurora. Points on the same curve are supposed +to have the same average number of auroras in the year, and +this average number is shown adjacent to the curve. Starting +from the equator and travelling northwards we find in the +extreme south of Spain an average of only one aurora in ten +years. In the north of France the average rises to five a year; +in the north of Ireland to thirty a year; a little to the north of +the Shetlands to one hundred a year. Between the Shetlands +and Iceland we cross the curve of maximum frequency, and +farther north the frequency diminishes. The curve of maximum +frequency forms a slightly irregular oval, whose centre, the +auroral pole, is according to Fritz at about 81° N. lat., 70° W. +long. Isochasms reach a good deal farther south in America +than in Europe. In other words, auroras are much more +numerous in the southern parts of Canada and in the United +States than in the same latitudes of Europe.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Annual Variation</i>.—Table I. shows the annual variation +observed in the frequency of aurora. It has been compiled from +several authorities, especially Joseph Lovering (<b>4</b>) and Sophus +Tromholt (<b>5</b>). The monthly figures denote the percentages of the +total number seen in the year. The stations are arranged in +order of latitude. Individual places are first considered, then +a few large areas.</p> + +<p>The Godthaab data in Table I. are essentially those given by +Prof. A. Paulsen (<b>6</b>) as observed by Kleinschmidt in the winters +of 1865 to 1882, supplemented by Lovering’s data for summer. +Starting at the extreme north, we have a simple period with a +well-marked maximum at midwinter, and no auroras during +several months at midsummer. This applies to Hammerfest, +Jakobshavn, Godthaab and the most northern division of +Scandinavia. The next division of Scandinavia shows a transition +stage. To the south of this in Europe the single maximum +at mid-winter is replaced by two maxima, somewhere about the +equinoxes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>4. In considering what is the real significance of the great difference +apparent in Table I. between higher and middle latitudes, a +primary consideration is that aurora is seldom seen until the sun is +some degrees below the horizon. There is no reason to suppose that +the physical causes whose effects we see as aurora are in existence +only when aurora is visible. Until means are devised for detecting +aurora during bright sunshine, our knowledge as to the hour at +which these causes are most frequently or most powerfully in operation +must remain incomplete. But it can hardly be doubted that +the differences apparent in Table I. are largely due to the influence +of sunlight. In high latitudes for several months in summer it is +never dark, and consequently a total absence of visible aurora is +practically inevitable. Some idea of this influence can be derived +from figures obtained by the Swedish International Expedition of +1882-1883 at Cape Thorsden, Spitsbergen, lat. 78° 28′ N. (<b>7</b>). The +original gives the relative frequency of aurora for each degree of +depression of the sun below the horizon, assuming the effect of twilight +to be nil (<i>i.e.</i> the relative frequency to be 100) when the depression +is 18.5° or more. The following are a selection of the +figures:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Angle of depression</td> <td class="tcl">4.5°</td> <td class="tcl">7.5°</td> <td class="tcl">10.5°</td> <td class="tcl">12.5°</td> <td class="tcl">15.5°.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Relative frequency</td> <td class="tcl">0.3</td> <td class="tcl">9.3</td> <td class="tcl">44.9</td> <td class="tcl">74.5</td> <td class="tcl">95.9.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">These figures are not wholly free from uncertainties, arising from +true diurnal and annual variations in the frequency, but they give +a good general idea of the influence of twilight.</p> + +<p>If sunlight and twilight were the sole cause of the apparent annual +variation, the frequency would have a simple period, with a maximum +at midwinter and a minimum at midsummer. This is what +is actually shown by the most northern stations and districts in +Table I. When we come, however, below 65° lat. in Europe the +frequency near the equinoxes rises above that at midwinter, and +we have a distinct double period, with a principal minimum at midsummer +and a secondary minimum at midwinter. In southern +Europe—where, however, auroras are too few to give smooth results +in a limited number of years—in southern Canada, and in the +United States, the difference between the winter and summer +months is much reduced. Whether there is any real difference +between high and mean latitudes in the annual frequency of the +causes rendered visible by aurora, it is difficult to say. The +Scandinavian data, from the wealth of observations, are probably the +most representative, and even in the most northern district of +Scandinavia the smallness of the excess of the frequencies in December +and January over those in March and October suggests that +some influence tending to create maxima at the equinoxes has largely +counterbalanced the influence of sunlight and twilight in reducing +the frequency at these seasons.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Fourier Analysis</i>.—With a view to more minute examination, +the annual frequency can be expressed in Fourier series, whose terms +represent waves, whose periods are 12, 6, 4, 3, &c. months. This +has been done by Lovering (4) for thirty-five stations. The nature of +the results will best be explained by reference to the formula given +by Lovering as a mean from all the stations considered, viz.:—</p> + +<p class="center">8.33 + 3.03 sin(30t + 100°52′) + 2.53 sin(60t + 309° 5′) + + 0.16 sin(90t + 213°31′) + 0.56 sin(120t + 162°45′) + + 0.27 sin(150t + 32°38′).</p> + +<p class="noind">The total number of auroras in the year is taken as 100, and t denotes +the time, in months, that has elapsed since the middle of January. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span> +Putting t = 0, 1, &c., in succession, we get the percentages of the total +number of auroras which occur in January, February, and so on. +The first periodic term has a period of twelve, the second of six +months, and similarly for the others. The first periodic term is +largest when t × 30° + 100° 52′ = 450°. This makes t = 11.6 months +after the middle of January, otherwise the 3rd of January, +approximately. The 6-month term has the earliest of its two equal +maxima about the 26th of March. These two are much the most +important of the periodic terms. The angles 100° 52′, 309° 5′, &c., are +known as the phase angles of the respective periodic terms, while +3.03, 2.53, &c., are the corresponding amplitudes. Table II. gives +a selection of Lovering’s results. The stations are arranged according +to latitude.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:351px" src="images/img928a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1—TWO TYPES OF AURORAL ARCS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:470px; height:613px" src="images/img928b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2—TWO TYPES OF AURORAL RAYS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From the <i>Internationale Polarforschung</i>, 1882-1883, by permission of the +<i>Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften</i>, Vienna.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:603px; height:214px" src="images/img928c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3—AURORAL BANDS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:602px; height:355px" src="images/img928d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4—AURORAL CURTAIN BELOW AN ARC.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:600px; height:497px" src="images/img928e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—AURORAL CORONA.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> I.—<i>Annual Frequency</i> (<i>Relative</i>).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Place.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Latitude.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Jan.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Feb.</td> <td class="tcc allb">March.</td> <td class="tcc allb">April.</td> <td class="tcc allb">May.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June.</td> <td class="tcc allb">July.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Aug.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sep.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oct.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nov.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Dec.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hammerfest</td> <td class="tcc rb">70½</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">4.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jakobshavn</td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">18.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Godthaab</td> <td class="tcc rb">64</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Christiania</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0 </td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upsala</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stockholm</td> <td class="tcc rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Edinburgh</td> <td class="tcc rb">56</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc rb">52½</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">London</td> <td class="tcc rb">51½</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Quebec</td> <td class="tcc rb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Toronto</td> <td class="tcc rb">43½</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cambridge, Mass.</td> <td class="tcc rb">42½</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Haven, Conn.</td> <td class="tcc rb">41½</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Scandinavia</td> <td class="tcc rb">N. of 68½</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">68½ to 65</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">65 to 61½</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">61½ to 58</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.8</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">  ”</td> <td class="tcc rb">S. of 58</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.6</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.3</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">New York State</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">45 to 40½</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11.0</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">7.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">10.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">11.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">9.7</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6.2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5.4</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> II.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Station.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Annual Term.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">6-Month Term.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">4-Month Term.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Amp.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Phase.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Amp.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Phase.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Amp.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Phase.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jakobshavn</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">333</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Godthaab</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">111</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">316</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.64</td> <td class="tcr rb">335</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">309</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">208</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Christiania</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">317</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.76</td> <td class="tcr rb">189</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upsala</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.41</td> <td class="tcr rb">119</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">322</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.86</td> <td class="tcr rb">296</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Stockholm</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.80</td> <td class="tcr rb">303</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.31</td> <td class="tcr rb">180</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Makerstown (Scotland)</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.79</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.47</td> <td class="tcr rb">310</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.00</td> <td class="tcr rb">342</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.87</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.24</td> <td class="tcr rb">287</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">73</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Toronto</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.13</td> <td class="tcr rb">260</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.52</td> <td class="tcr rb">305</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cambridge, Mass.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.02</td> <td class="tcr rb">262</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.84</td> <td class="tcr rb">339</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.28</td> <td class="tcr rb">253</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">New Haven, Conn.</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.99</td> <td class="tcr rb">183</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.02</td> <td class="tcr rb">313</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.57</td> <td class="tcr rb">197</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">New York State</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1.34</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">264</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.29</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">325</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.54</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">157</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Speaking generally, the annual term diminishes in importance +as we travel south. North of 55° in Europe its phase angle seems +fairly constant, not differing very much from the value 110° in +Lovering’s general formula. The 6-month term is small, in the two +most northern stations, but south of 60° N. lat. it is on the whole +the most important term. Excluding Jakobshavn, the phase angles +in the 6-month term vary wonderfully little, and approach the value +309° in Lovering’s general formula. North of lat. 50° the 4-month +term is, as a rule, comparatively unimportant, but in the American +stations its relative importance is increased. The phase angle, +however, varies so much as to suggest that the term mainly represents +local causes or observational uncertainties. Lovering’s general +formula suggests that the 4-month term is really less important than +the 3-month term, but he gives no data for the latter at individual +stations.</p> + +<p>6. Sunlight is not the only disturbing cause in estimates of auroral +frequency. An idea of the disturbing influence of cloud may be +derived from some interesting results from the Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>) +observations. These show how the frequency of visible auroras +diminished as cloud increased from 0 (sky quite clear) to 10 (sky +wholly overcast).</p> + +<p>Grouping the results, we have:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Amount of cloud</td> <td class="tcc"> 0</td> <td class="tcc">1 to 3</td> <td class="tcc">4 to 6</td> <td class="tcc">7 to 9</td> <td class="tcc">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Relative frequency</td> <td class="tcc">100</td> <td class="tcc">82</td> <td class="tcc">57</td> <td class="tcc">46</td> <td class="tcc">8</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Out of a total of 1714 hours during which the sky was wholly overcast +the Swedish expedition saw auroras on 17, occurring on 14 separate +days, whereas 226 hours of aurora would have occurred out of an +equal number of hours with the sky quite clear. The figures being +based on only one season’s observations are somewhat irregular. +Smoothing them, Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives f = 100′ − 7.3c as the +most probable linear relation between c, the amount of cloud, and +f, the frequency, assuming the latter to be 100 when there is no +cloud.</p> +</div> + +<p>7. <i>Diurnal Variation.</i>—The apparent daily period at most +stations is largely determined by the influence of daylight on +the visibility. It is only during winter and in high latitudes that +we can hope to ascertain anything directly as to the real diurnal +variation of the causes whose influence is visible at night as +aurora. Table III. gives particulars of the number of occasions +when aurora was seen at each hour of +the twenty-four during three expeditions +in high latitudes when a special outlook +was kept.</p> + +<p>The data under A refer to Cape +Thorsden (78° 28′ N. lat., 15° 42′ E. +long.), those under B to Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>) +(71° 0′ N. lat., 8° 28′ W. long.), both for +the winter of 1882-1883. The data under +C are given by H. Arctowski (<b>9</b>) for the +“Belgica” Expedition in 1898. They may +be regarded as applying approximately +to the mean position of the “Belgica,” +or 70½° S. lat., 86½° W. long. The method +of counting frequencies was fairly alike, +at least in the case of A and B, but +in comparing the different stations the +data should be regarded as relative rather than absolute. +The Jan Mayen data refer really to Göttingen mean time, but +this was only twenty-three minutes late on local time. In +calculating the percentages of forenoon and afternoon occurrences +half the entries under noon and midnight were assigned +to each half of the day. Even at Cape Thorsden, the sun at midwinter +is only 11° below the horizon at noon, and its effect on the +visibility is thus not wholly negligible. The influence of daylight +is presumably the principal cause of the difference between the +phenomena during November, December and January at Cape +Thorsden and Jan Mayen, for in the equinoctial months the +results from these two stations are closely similar. Whilst daylight +is the principal cause of the diurnal inequality, it is not the +only cause, otherwise there would be as many auroras in the +morning (forenoon) as in the evening (afternoon). The number +seen in the evening is, however, according to Table III., +considerably in excess at all seasons. Taking the whole winter, the +percentage seen in the evening was the same for the “Belgica” +as for Jan Mayen, <i>i.e.</i> for practically the same latitudes South +and North. At Cape Thorsden from November to January +there seems a distinct double period, with minima near noon +and midnight. The other months at Cape Thorsden show a +single maximum and minimum, the former before midnight. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span> +The same phenomenon appears at Jan Mayen especially in +November, December and January, and it is the normal state +of matters in temperate latitudes, where the frequency is usually +greatest between 8 and 10 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> An excess of evening over +morning occurrences is also the rule, and it is not infrequently +more pronounced than in Table III. Thus at Tasiusak (65° 37′ +N. lat., 37° 33′ W. long.) the Danish Arctic Expedition (<b>10</b>) +of 1904 found seventy-five out of every hundred occurrences +to take place before midnight.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> III.—<i>Diurnal Variation.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Hour.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Dec.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Nov. and Jan.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Feb., March,<br />Sept. and Oct.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">Sept. to March (N. Lat.).<br />March to Sept. (S. Lat.).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">A</td> <td class="tcc allb">B</td> <td class="tcc allb">C</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">37</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Noon</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">36</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">21</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">38</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">31</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">62</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">29</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">18</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">33</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb">55</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Midnight</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl allb"> Totals</td> <td class="tcr allb">277</td> <td class="tcr allb">140</td> <td class="tcr allb">354</td> <td class="tcr allb">167</td> <td class="tcr allb">266</td> <td class="tcr allb">244</td> <td class="tcr allb">897</td> <td class="tcr allb">551</td> <td class="tcr allb">221</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Percentages—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Forenoon</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcr rb">42</td> <td class="tcr rb">25</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">41</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td> <td class="tcr rb">35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> Afternoon</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">72</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">58</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">75</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">61</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">54</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">59</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">65</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">65</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>8. The preceding remarks relate to auroras as a whole; the +different forms differ considerably in their diurnal variation. Arcs, +bands and, generally speaking, the more regular and persistent forms, +show their greatest frequencies earlier in the night than rays or +patches. Table IV. shows the percentages of e. (evening) and m. +(morning) occurrences of the principal forms as recorded by the +Arctic observers at Cape Thorsden, Jan Mayen and Tasiusak.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table</span> IV.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Arcs.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Bands.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Rays.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Patches.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td> <td class="tcc allb">e.</td> <td class="tcc allb">m.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cape Thorsden</td> <td class="tcc rb">76</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">52</td> <td class="tcc rb">48</td> <td class="tcc rb">51</td> <td class="tcc rb">49</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Jan Mayen</td> <td class="tcc rb">78</td> <td class="tcc rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">32</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Tasiusak</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">85</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">35</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">62</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">38</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>At Cape Thorsden diffused auroral light had percentages e. 65, +m. 35, practically identical with those for bands. At Tasiusak, +8 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> was the hour of most frequent occurrence for arcs and bands, +whereas patches had their maximum frequency at 11 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and rays +at midnight.</p> +</div> + +<p>9. <i>Lunar and other Periods.</i>—The action of moonlight +necessarily gives rise to a true lunar period in the +visibility of aurora. The extent to which it +renders aurora invisible depends, however, so +much on the natural brightness of the aurora—which +depends on the time and the place—and +on the sharpness of the outlook kept, that it is +difficult to gauge it. Ekholm and Arrhenius (<b>11</b>) +claim to have established the existence of a true tropical lunar +period of 27-32 days, and also of a 26-day period, or, as they make +it, a 25.929-day period. A 26-day period has also been derived +by J. Liznar (<b>12</b>), after an elaborate allowance for the disturbing +effects of moonlight from the observations in 1882-1883 at +Bossekop, Fort Rae and Jan Mayen. Neither of these periods +is universally conceded. The connexion between aurora and +earth magnetic disturbances renders it practically certain that +if a 26-day or similar period exists in the one phenomenon it +exists also in the other, and of the two terrestrial magnetism +(<i>q.v.</i>) is probably the element least affected by external complications, +such as the action of moonlight.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Sun-spot Connexion.</i>—The frequency of auroral displays +is much greater in some years than others. At most places the +variation in the frequency has +shown a general similarity to +that of sun-spots. Table V. +gives contemporaneous data for +the frequency of sun-spots and +of auroras seen in Scandinavia. +The sun-spot data prior to 1902 +are from A. Wolfer’s table in +the <i>Met. Zeitschrift</i> for 1902, +p. 195; the more recent data +are from his quarterly lists. All +are observed frequencies, derived +after Wolf’s method; maxima +and minima are in heavy type.</p> + +<p>The auroral data are from +Table E of Tromholt’s catalogue +(<b>5</b>), with certain modifications. +In Tromholt’s yearly data +the year commences with July. +This being inconvenient for comparison +with sun-spots, use was +made of his monthly values to +obtain corresponding data for +years commencing with January. +The Tromholt-Schroeter data +for Scandinavia as a whole commenced +with 1761; the figures +for earlier years were obtained +by multiplying the data for +Sweden by 1.356, the factor +being derived by comparing +the figures for Sweden alone and for the whole of Scandinavia +from July 1761 to June 1783.</p> + +<p>In a general way Table V. warrants the conclusion that years +of many sun-spots are years of many auroras, and years of few +sun-spots years of few auroras; but it does not disclose any +very definite relationship between the two frequencies. The +maxima and minima in the two phenomena in a good many +cases are not found in the same years. On the other hand, there +is absolute coincidence in a number of cases, some of them very +striking, as for instance the remarkably low minima of 1810 and +1823.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>11. During the period 1764 to 1872 there have been ten years of +maximum, and ten of minimum, in sun-spot frequency. Taking +the three years of greatest frequency at each maximum, and the +three years of least frequency at each minimum, we get thirty years +of many and thirty of few sun-spots. Also we can split the period +into an earlier half, 1764 to 1817, and a later half, 1818 to 1872, +containing respectively the earlier five and the later five of the above +groups of sun-spot maximum and minimum years. The annual +means derived from the whole group, and the two sub-groups, of +years of many and few sun-spots are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Years of</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1764-1872.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1764-1817.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">1818-1872.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Many sun-spots</td> <td class="tcr rb">93.4</td> <td class="tcr rb">99.9</td> <td class="tcr rb">86.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">70.7</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.1</td> <td class="tcr rb">129.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Few sun-spots</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.4</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">61.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">51.6</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">13.1</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">71.3</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">In each case the excess of auroras in the group of years of many +sun-spots is decided, but the results from the two sub-periods do +not harmonize closely. The mean sun-spot frequency for the group +of years of few sun-spots is almost exactly the same for the two sub-periods, +but the auroral frequency for the later group is nearly +40% in excess of that for the earlier, and even exceeds the auroral +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span> +frequency in the years of many sun-spots in the earlier sub-period. +This inconsistency, though startling at first sight, is probably more +apparent than real. It is almost certainly due in large measure to +a progressive change in one or both of the units of frequency. In +the case of sun-spots, A. Schuster (<b>13</b>) has compared J.R. Wolf and +A. Wolfer’s frequencies with data obtained by other observers for +areas of sun-spots, and his figures show unquestionably that the unit +in one or other set of data must have varied appreciably from time +to time. Wolf and Wolfer have, however, aimed persistently at +securing a definite standard, and there are several reasons for +believing that the change of unit has been in the auroral rather than +the sun-spot frequency. R. Rubenson (<b>14</b>), from whom Tromholt +derives his data for Sweden, seems to accept this view, assigning the +apparent increase in auroral frequency since 1860 to the institution +by the state of meteorological stations in 1859, and to the increased +interest taken in the subject since 1865 by the university of Upsala. +The figures themselves in Table V. certainly point to this conclusion, +unless we are prepared to believe that auroras have increased enormously +in number. If, for instance, we compare the first and the +last three 11-year cycles for which Table V. gives complete data, we +obtain as yearly means:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc">1749-1781</td> <td class="tcc">Sun-spots</td> <td class="tcr">56.4</td> <td class="tcc">Auroras</td> <td class="tcr">77.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1844-1876</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">55.8</td> <td class="tcc">”</td> <td class="tcr">112.2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The mean sun-spot frequencies in the two periods differ by only +1%, but the auroral frequency in the later period is 45% in excess +of that in the earlier.</p> + +<p>The above figures would be almost conclusive if it were not for +the conspicuous differences that exist between the mean sun-spot +frequencies for different 11-year periods. Schuster, who has considered +the matter very fully, has found evidence of the existence of +other periods—notably 8.4 and 4.8 years—in addition to the recognized +period of 11.125 years, and he regards the difference between +the maxima in successive 11-year periods as due at least partly +to an overlapping of maxima from the several periodic terms. This +cannot, however, account for all the fluctuations observed in sun-spot +frequencies, unless other considerably longer periods exist. There +has been at least one 33-year period during which the mean value of +sun-spot frequency has been exceptionally low, and, as we shall see, +there was a corresponding remarkable scarcity of auroras. The +period in question may be regarded as extending from 1794 to 1826 +inclusive. Comparing it with the two adjacent periods of thirty-three +years, we obtain the following for the mean annual frequencies:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">33-Year Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sun-spots.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Auroras.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1761-1793</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">76.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1794-1826</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1827-1859</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">56.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">84.4</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>12. The association of high auroral and sun-spot frequencies +shown in Table V. is not peculiar to Scandinavia. It is shown, for +instance, in Loomis’s auroral data, which are based on observations +at a variety of European and American stations (<i>Ency. Brit.</i> 9th ed. +art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Meteorology</a></span>, Table XXVIII.). It does not seem, however, to +apply universally. Thus at Godthaab we have, according to Adam +Paulsen (<b>15</b>), comparing 3-year periods of few and many sun-spots:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">3-Year Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Sun-spot<br />Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total Nights<br />of Aurora.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1865-1868</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 48</td> <td class="tcc rb">274</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1869-1872</td> <td class="tcc rb">339</td> <td class="tcc rb">138</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1876-1879</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 23</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">273</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The years start in the autumn, and 1865-1868 includes the three +winters of 1865 to ’66, ’66 to ’67, and ’67 to ’68. Paulsen also gives +data from two other stations in Greenland, viz. Ivigtut (1869 to +1879) and Jakobshavn (1873 to 1879), which show the same phenomenon +as at Godthaab in a prominent fashion. Greenland lies to +the north of Fritz’s curve of maximum auroral frequency, and the +suggestion has been made that the zone of maximum frequency +expands to the south as sun-spots increase, and contracts again as +they diminish, the number of auroras at a given station increasing +or diminishing as the zone of maximum frequency approaches to +or recedes from it. This theory, however, does not seem to fit all the +facts and stands in want of confirmation.</p> + + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Table V.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2" colspan="2">Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2" colspan="2">Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc tb bb rb2" colspan="2">Frequency.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb" rowspan="2">Year.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="2">Frequency.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">Auroral.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">Auroral.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">Auroral.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Sun-spot.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Auroral.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1749</td> <td class="tcr rb">80.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">103</td> <td class="tcc rb">1789</td> <td class="tcr rb">118.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1829</td> <td class="tcr rb">67.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">93</td> <td class="tcc rb">1869</td> <td class="tcr rb">73.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">160</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1750</td> <td class="tcr rb">83.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">134</td> <td class="tcc rb">1790</td> <td class="tcr rb">89.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">90</td> <td class="tcc rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">71.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">132</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">139.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">195</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1751</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">53</td> <td class="tcc rb">1791</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">1831</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1871</td> <td class="tcr rb">111.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">185</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1752</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">111</td> <td class="tcc rb">1792</td> <td class="tcr rb">60.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1832</td> <td class="tcr rb">27.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">54</td> <td class="tcc rb">1872</td> <td class="tcr rb">101.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1753</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">96</td> <td class="tcc rb">1793</td> <td class="tcr rb">46.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">1833</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">1873</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">189</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1754</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1794</td> <td class="tcr rb">41.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1834</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">1874</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">158</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1755</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1795</td> <td class="tcr rb">21.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1835</td> <td class="tcr rb">56.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1875</td> <td class="tcr rb">17.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">133</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1756</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1796</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1836</td> <td class="tcr rb">121.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">98</td> <td class="tcc rb">1876</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">137</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1757</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1797</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">61</td> <td class="tcc rb">1837</td> <td class="tcr rb">138.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">137</td> <td class="tcc rb">1877</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">126</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1758</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">80</td> <td class="tcc rb">1798</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">35</td> <td class="tcc rb">1838</td> <td class="tcr rb">103.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">159</td> <td class="tcc rb">1878</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1759</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">113</td> <td class="tcc rb">1799</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">1839</td> <td class="tcr rb">85.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">165</td> <td class="tcc rb">1879</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1760</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">86</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1840</td> <td class="tcr rb">63.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">82</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">32.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1761</td> <td class="tcr rb">85.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">124</td> <td class="tcc rb">1801</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">1841</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">75</td> <td class="tcc rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1762</td> <td class="tcr rb">61.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">114</td> <td class="tcc rb">1802</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1842</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">91</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcr rb">59.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1763</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcr rb">43.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">73</td> <td class="tcc rb">1843</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">66</td> <td class="tcc rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">63.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1764</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">107</td> <td class="tcc rb">1804</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">101</td> <td class="tcc rb">1844</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">63.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1765</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">76</td> <td class="tcc rb">1805</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">85</td> <td class="tcc rb">1845</td> <td class="tcr rb">40.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">52.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1766</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">51</td> <td class="tcc rb">1806</td> <td class="tcr rb">28.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1846</td> <td class="tcr rb">61.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">50</td> <td class="tcc rb">1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">25.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1767</td> <td class="tcr rb">37.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">68</td> <td class="tcc rb">1807</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">42</td> <td class="tcc rb">1847</td> <td class="tcr rb">98.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">63</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1768</td> <td class="tcr rb">69.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">80</td> <td class="tcc rb">1808</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">1848</td> <td class="tcr rb">124.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">107</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1769</td> <td class="tcr rb">106.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">89</td> <td class="tcc rb">1809</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">20</td> <td class="tcc rb">1849</td> <td class="tcr rb">95.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">131</td> <td class="tcc rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1770</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">95</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1771</td> <td class="tcr rb">81.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1811</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">1851</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1772</td> <td class="tcr rb">66.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">1812</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">1852</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">92</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">73.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1773</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1813</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">18</td> <td class="tcc rb">1853</td> <td class="tcr rb">39.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">65</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">84.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1774</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">98</td> <td class="tcc rb">1814</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">1854</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">78.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1775</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1815</td> <td class="tcr rb">35.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">1855</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">49</td> <td class="tcc rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">64.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1776</td> <td class="tcr rb">19.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">17</td> <td class="tcc rb">1816</td> <td class="tcr rb">45.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1856</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">46</td> <td class="tcc rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">41.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1777</td> <td class="tcr rb">92.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">64</td> <td class="tcc rb">1817</td> <td class="tcr rb">41.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1857</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">38</td> <td class="tcc rb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1778</td> <td class="tcr rb">154.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">59</td> <td class="tcc rb">1818</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">74</td> <td class="tcc rb">1858</td> <td class="tcr rb">54.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">88</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">26.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1779</td> <td class="tcr rb">125.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">60</td> <td class="tcc rb">1819</td> <td class="tcr rb">23.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1859</td> <td class="tcr rb">93.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">131</td> <td class="tcc rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1780</td> <td class="tcr rb">84.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">67</td> <td class="tcc rb">1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">15.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">95.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1781</td> <td class="tcr rb">68.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">103</td> <td class="tcc rb">1821</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861</td> <td class="tcr rb">77.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">127</td> <td class="tcc rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1782</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">67</td> <td class="tcc rb">1822</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862</td> <td class="tcr rb">59.1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">135</td> <td class="tcc rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1783</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">70</td> <td class="tcc rb">1823</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.8</td> <td class="tcr rb2">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">1863</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">135</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1784</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">78</td> <td class="tcc rb">1824</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">14</td> <td class="tcc rb">1864</td> <td class="tcr rb">47.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">124</td> <td class="tcc rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1785</td> <td class="tcr rb">24.1 </td> <td class="tcr rb2">83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1825</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.6</td> <td class="tcr rb2">40</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">119</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1786</td> <td class="tcr rb">82.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">136</td> <td class="tcc rb">1826</td> <td class="tcr rb">36.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">58</td> <td class="tcc rb">1866</td> <td class="tcr rb">16.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">130</td> <td class="tcc rb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb">53.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1787</td> <td class="tcr rb">132.0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">115</td> <td class="tcc rb">1827</td> <td class="tcr rb">49.7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">79</td> <td class="tcc rb">1867</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">127</td> <td class="tcc rb">1907</td> <td class="tcr rb">62.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1788</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">130.9</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">97</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1828</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">62.5</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">60</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1868</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">37.3</td> <td class="tcr rb2 bb">144</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">48.5</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>13. <i>Auroral Meridian.</i>—It is a common belief that the summit +of an auroral arc is to be looked for in the observer’s magnetic +meridian. On any theory it would be rather extraordinary if +this were invariably true. In temperate latitudes auroral arcs +are seldom near the zenith, and there is reason to believe them +at very great heights. In high latitudes the average height is +probably less, but the direction in which the magnetic needle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span> +points changes rapidly with change of latitude and longitude, +and has a large diurnal variation. Thus there must in general +be a difference between the observer’s magnetic meridian—answering +to the mean position of the magnetic needle at his +station—and the direction the needle would have at a given hour, +if undisturbed by the aurora, at any spot where the phenomena +which the observer sees as aurora exist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Very elaborate observations have been made during several +Arctic expeditions of the azimuths of the summits of auroral arcs. +At Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>) in 1882-1883 the mean azimuth derived from +371 arcs was 24° 12′ W., or 11° 27′ to the W. of the magnetic meridian. +As to the azimuths in individual cases, 130 differed from the mean by +less than 10°, 118 by from 10° to 20°, 82 by from 20° to 30°, 21 by +from 30° to 40°, 14 by from 40° to 50°; in six cases the departure +exceeded 50°, and in one case it exceeded 70°. Also, whilst the +mean azimuths deduced from the observations between 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and +noon, between noon and 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, and between 6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> and midnight, +were closely alike, their united mean being 22.4° W. of N. (or E. of S.), +the mean derived from the 113 arcs observed between midnight and +6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> was 47.8° W. At Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>) in 1882-1883 the mean +azimuth of the summit of the arcs was 28.8° W. of N., thus approaching +much more closely to the magnetic meridian 29.9° W. As to +individual azimuths, 113 lay within 10° of the mean, 37 differed by +from 10° to 20°, 18 by from 20° to 30°, 6 by from 30° to 40°, whilst +6 differed by over 40°. Azimuths were also measured at Jan Mayen +for 338 auroral bands, the mean being 22.0° W., or 7.9° to the east +of the magnetic meridian. Combining the results from arcs and +bands, Carlheim-Gyllensköld gives the “anomaly” of the auroral +meridian at Jan Mayen as 5.7° E. At the British Polar station of +1882, Fort Rae (62° 23′ N. lat., 115° 44′ W. long.), he makes it +15.7° W. At Godthaab in 1882-1883 the auroral anomaly was, +according to Paulsen, 15.5° E., the magnetic meridian lying 57.6° W. +of the astronomical.</p> +</div> + +<p>14. <i>Auroral Zenith</i>.—Another auroral direction having apparently +a close relation to terrestrial magnetism is the imaginary line +drawn to the eye of an observer from the centre of the corona—<i>i.e.</i> +the point to which the auroral rays converge. This seems in general +to be nearly coincident with the direction of the dipping needle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Thus at Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>) in 1882-1883 the mean of a considerable +number of observations made the angle between the two directions +only 1° 7′, the magnetic inclination being 80° 35′, whilst the coronal +centre had an altitude of 79° 55′ and lay somewhat to the west of the +magnetic meridian. Even smaller mean values have been found +for the angle between the auroral and magnetic “zeniths”—as the +two directions have been called—<i>e.g.</i> 0° 50′ at Bossekop (<b>16</b>) in +1838-1839, and 0° 7′ at Treurenberg (<b>17</b>) (79° 55′ N. lat., 16° 51′ E. +long.) in 1899-1900.</p> +</div> + +<p>15. <i>Relations to Magnetic Storms</i>.—That there is an intimate +connexion between aurora when visible in temperate latitudes +and terrestrial magnetism is hardly open to doubt. A bright +aurora visible over a large part of Europe seems always accompanied +by a magnetic storm and earth currents, and the largest +magnetic storms and the most conspicuous auroral displays +have occurred simultaneously. Noteworthy examples are afforded +by the auroras and magnetic storms of August 28-29 and September +1-2, 1859; February 4, 1872; February 13-14 and +August 12, 1892; September 9, 1898; and October 31, 1903. +On some of these occasions aurora was brilliant in both the +northern and southern hemispheres, whilst magnetic disturbances +were experienced the whole world over. In high latitudes, +however, where both auroras and magnetic storms are most +numerous, the connexion between them is much less uniform. +Arctic observers, both Danish and British, have repeatedly +reported displays of aurora unaccompanied by any special +magnetic disturbance. This has been more especially the case +when the auroral light has been of a diffused character, showing +only minor variability. When there has been much apparent +movement, and brilliant changes of colour in the aurora, magnetic +disturbance has nearly always accompanied it. In the Arctic, +auroral displays seem sometimes to be very local, and this +may be the explanation. On the other hand, Arctic observers +have reported an apparent connexion of a particularly definite +character. According to Paulsen (<b>18</b>), during the Ryder +expedition in 1891-1892, the following phenomenon was seen +at least twenty times by Lieut. Vedel at Scoresby Sound (70° 27′ +N. lat., 26° 10′ W. long.). An auroral curtain travelling with +considerable velocity would approach from the south, pass right +overhead and retire to the north. As the curtain approached, +the compass needle always deviated to the west, oscillated as +the curtain passed the zenith, and then deviated to the east. +The behaviour of the needle, as Paulsen points out, is exactly +what it should be if the space occupied by the auroral curtain +were traversed by electric currents directed upwards from the +ground. The Danish observers at Tasiusak (<b>10</b>) in 1898-1899 +observed this phenomenon occasionally in a slightly altered +form. At Tasiusak the auroral curtain after reaching the zenith +usually retired in the direction from which it had come. The +direction in which the compass needle deviated was west or east, +according as the curtain approached from the south or the +north; as the curtain retired the deviation eventually diminished.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Kr. Birkeland (<b>19</b>). who has made a special study of magnetic +disturbances in the Arctic, proceeding on the hypothesis that they arise +from electric currents in the atmosphere, and who has thence +attempted to deduce the position and intensity of these currents, +asserts that whilst in the case of many storms the data were +insufficient, when it was possible to fix the position of the mean line of +flow of the hypothetical current relatively to an auroral arc, he +invariably found the directions coincident or nearly so.</p> +</div> + +<p>16. In the northern hemisphere to the south of the zone of +greatest frequency, the part of the sky in which aurora most +generally appears is the magnetic north. In higher latitudes +auroras are most often seen in the south. The relative frequency +in the two positions seems to vary with the hour, the type of +aurora, probably with the season of the year, and possibly with +the position of the year in the sun-spot cycle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>At Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>) in 1882-1883, out of 177 arcs whose position was +accurately determined, 44 were seen in the north, their summits +averaging 38.5° above the northern horizon; 88 were seen in the +south, their average altitude above the southern horizon being 33.5°; +while 45 were in the zenith. At Tasiusak (<b>10</b>) in 1898-1899 the +magnetic directions of the principal types were noted separately. +The results are given in Table VI.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Table VI.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Direction.</td> <td class="tcc allb" colspan="5">Absolute Number for each Type.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Percentage<br />from all<br />Types.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Arcs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Bands.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Curtains.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Rays.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Patches.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">N.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcc rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">N.E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">26</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">S.E.</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">S.</td> <td class="tcr rb">45</td> <td class="tcr rb">43</td> <td class="tcc rb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb">24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">S.W.</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">W.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">N.W.</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">5</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Table VI. accounts for only 81% of the total displays; of the +remainder 15% appeared in the zenith, while 4% covered the +whole sky. Auroral displays generally cover a considerable +area, and are constantly changing, so the figures are necessarily +somewhat rough. But clearly, whilst the arcs and bands, and +to a lesser extent the patches, showed a marked preference for +the magnetic meridian, the rays showed no such preference.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>At Cape Thorsden (<b>7</b>) in 1882-1883 auroras as a whole were +divided into those seen in the north and those seen in the south. +The variation throughout the twenty-four hours in the percentage +seen in the south was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Hour.</td> <td class="tcc allb">0-3.</td> <td class="tcc allb">3-6.</td> <td class="tcc allb">6-9.</td> <td class="tcc allb">9-12.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="scs">A.M.</span></td> <td class="tcc rb">69</td> <td class="tcc rb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">35</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"><span class="scs">P.M.</span></td> <td class="tcc rb bb">55</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">70</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">65</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The mean from the whole twenty-four hours is sixty-three. +Between 3 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> and 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> the percentage of auroras seen in the +south thus appears decidedly below the mean.</p> + +<p>17. The following data for the apparent angular width of arcs +were obtained at Cape Thorsden, the arcs being grouped according +to the height of the lower edge above the horizon. Group I. +contained thirty arcs whose altitudes did not exceed 11° 45′; +Group II. thirty arcs whose altitudes lay between 12° and 35°; +and Group III, thirty arcs whose altitudes lay between 36° and 80°.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Group.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">II.</td> <td class="tcc allb">III.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greatest width.</td> <td class="tcl rb">11.5°</td> <td class="tcl rb">12.0°</td> <td class="tcl rb">21.0°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Least width.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 1.0°</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 0.75°</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 2.0°</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mean width.</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 3.45°</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 4.6°</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 6.9°</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">There is here a distinct tendency for the width to increase with the +altitude. At the same time, arcs near the horizon often appeared +wider than others near the zenith. Furthermore, Gyllensköld says +that when arcs mounted, as they not infrequently did, from the +horizon, their apparent width might go on increasing right up to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span> +zenith, or it might increase until an altitude of about 45° was reached +and then diminish, appearing much reduced when the zenith was +reached. Of course the phenomenon might be due to actual change +in the arc, but it is at least consistent with the view that arcs are of +two kinds, one form constituting a layer of no great vertical depth +but considerable real horizontal width, the other form having little +horizontal width but considerable vertical depth, and resembling +to some extent an auroral curtain.</p> + +<p>18. According to numerous observations made at Cape Thorsden, +the apparent angular velocity of arcs increases on the +average with their altitude. Dividing the whole number of arcs, +156, whose angular velocities were measured into three numerically +equal groups, according to their altitude, the following were the +results in minutes of arc per second of time (or degrees per minute +of time):—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Group.</td> <td class="tcc allb">I.</td> <td class="tcc allb">II.</td> <td class="tcc allb">III.</td> <td class="tcc allb">All.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mean altitude</td> <td class="tcl rb">10.5°</td> <td class="tcl rb">34.6°</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 72.3°</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Greatest velocity</td> <td class="tcl rb"> 4.81</td> <td class="tcl rb">15.12</td> <td class="tcl rb">109.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Mean velocity</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 0.48</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 2.42</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> 8.67</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.86</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Each group contained auroras which appeared stationary. The +intervals to which the velocities referred were usually from five to +ten minutes, but varied widely. The velocity 109.09 was much the +largest observed, the next being 52.38; both were from observations +lasting under half a minute.</p> + +<p>19. In 1882-1883 the direction of motion of arcs was from north +to south in 62% of the cases at Jan Mayen, and in 58% of the +cases at Cape Thorsden. This seems the more common direction +in the northern hemisphere, at least for stations to the south of the +zone of maximum frequency, but a considerable preponderance of +movements towards the north was observed in Franz Joseph Land +by the Austrian Expedition of 1872-1874. The apparent motion of +arcs is sometimes of a complicated character. One end only, for +example, may appear to move, as if rotating round the other; or +the two ends may move in opposite directions, as if the arc were +rotating about a vertical axis through its summit.</p> +</div> + +<p>20. <i>Height.</i>—If an auroral arc represented a definite +self-luminous portion of space of small transverse dimensions at a +uniform height above the ground, its height could be accurately +determined by observations made with theodolites at the two +ends of a measured base, provided the base were not too short +compared to the height. If a very long base is taken, it becomes +increasingly open to doubt whether the portions of space emitting +auroral light to the observers at the two ends are the same. +There is also difficulty in ensuring that the observations shall +be simultaneous, an important matter especially when the +apparent velocity is considerable. If the base is short, definite +results can hardly be hoped for unless the height is very moderate. +Amongst the best-known theodolite determinations of height are +those made at Bossekop in Norway by the French Expedition of +1838-1839 (<b>16</b>) and the Norwegian Expedition of 1882-1883, and +those made in the latter year by the Swedes at Cape Thorsden +and the Danes at Godthaab. At Bossekop and Cape Thorsden +there were a considerable proportion of negative or impossible +parallaxes. Much the most consistent results were those obtained +at Godthaab by Paulsen (<b>15</b>). The base was 5.8 km. (about +3½ miles) long, the ends being in the same magnetic meridian, +on opposite sides of a fiord, and observations were confined to +this meridian, strict simultaneity being secured by signals. +Heights were calculated only when the observed parallax +exceeded 1°, but this happened in three-fourths of the cases. +The calculated heights—all referring to the lowest border of the +aurora—varied from 0.6 to 67.8 km. (about 0.4 to 42 m.), +the average being about 20 km. (12 m.). Regular arcs were +selected in most cases, but the lowest height obtained was for +a collection of rays forming a curtain which was actually situated +between the two stations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1885 Messrs Garde and Eherlin made similar observations at +Nanortalik near Cape Farewell in Greenland, but using a base of only +1250 metres (about ¾ m.). Their results were very similar to +Paulsen’s. On one occasion twelve observations, extending over half an +hour, were made on a single arc, the calculated heights varying in a +fairly regular fashion from 1.6 to 12.9 km. (about 1 to 8 m.). The +calculated horizontal distances of this arc varied between 5 and +24 km. (about 3 and 15 m.), the motion being sometimes towards, +sometimes away from the observers, but not apparently exceeding +3 km. (nearly 2 m.) per minute. Heights of arcs have often been +calculated from the apparent altitudes at stations widely apart in +Europe or America. The heights calculated in this way for the under +surface of the arc, have usually exceeded 100 m.; some have been +much in excess of this figure. None of the results so obtained can +be accepted without reserve, but there are several reasons for believing +that the average height in Greenland is much below that in lower +latitudes. Heights have been calculated in various less direct ways, +by observing for instance the angular altitude of the summit of an arc +and the angular interval between its extremities, and then making +some assumption such as that the portion visible to an observer +may be treated as a circle whose centre lies over the so-called auroral +pole. The mean height calculated at Arctic stations, where careful +observations have been made, in this or analogous ways, has varied +from 58 km. (about 36 m.) at Cape Thorsden (Gyllensköld) to 227 km. +(about 141 m.) at Bossekop (Bravais). The height has also been +calculated on the hypothesis that auroral light has its source where +the atmospheric pressure is similar to that at which most brilliancy +is observed when electric discharges pass in vacuum tubes. Estimates +on this basis have suggested heights of the order of 50 km. +(about 31 m.). There are, of course, many uncertainties, as the conditions +of discharge in the free atmosphere may differ widely from +those in glass vessels. If the Godthaab observations can be trusted, +auroral discharges must often occur within a few miles of the earth’s +surface in Arctic regions. In confirmation of this view reference +may be made to a number of instances where observers—<i>e.g.</i> General +Sabine, Sir John Franklin, Prof. Selim Lemström, Dr David Walker +(at Fort Kennedy in 1858-1859), Captain Parry (Fort Bowen, 1825) +and others—have seen aurora below the clouds or between themselves +and mountains. One or two instances of this kind have even been +described in Scotland. Prof. Cleveland Abbe (<b>20</b>) has given a full +historical account of the subject to which reference may be made +for further details.</p> + +<p>21. <i>Brightness.</i>—In auroral displays the brightness often varies +greatly over the illuminated area and changes rapidly. Estimates +of the intensity of the light have been based on various arbitrary +scales, such for instance as the size of type which the observer can +read at a given distance. The estimate depends in the case of reading +type on the general illumination. In other cases scales have +been employed which make the result mainly depend on the brightest +part of the display. At Jan Mayen (<b>8</b>) in 1882-1883 a scale was +employed running from 1, taken as corresponding to the brightness +of the milky way, to 4, corresponding to full moonlight. The +following is an analysis of the results obtained, showing the number +of times the different grades were reached:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Scale of<br />Intensity.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1.</td> <td class="tccm allb">2.</td> <td class="tccm allb">3.</td> <td class="tccm allb">4.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mean<br />Intensity.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Arcs</td> <td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcr rb">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bands</td> <td class="tcr rb">46</td> <td class="tcr rb">83</td> <td class="tcr rb">49</td> <td class="tcr rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.24</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rays</td> <td class="tcr rb">30</td> <td class="tcr rb">116</td> <td class="tcr rb">138</td> <td class="tcr rb">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.21</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Corona</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">14</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.81</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">On one or two occasions at Jan Mayen auroral light is described as +making the full moon look like an ordinary gas jet in presence of +electric light, whilst rays could be seen crossing and brighter than +the moon’s disk. Such extremely bright auroras seem very rare, +however, even in the Arctic. There is a general tendency for both +bands and rays to appear brightest at their lowest parts; arcs +seldom appear as bright at their summits as nearer the horizon. It +is not unusual for arcs and bands to look as if pulses or waves of +light were travelling along them; also the direction in which these +pulses travel does not seem to be wholly arbitrary. Movements to +the east were twice as numerous at Jan Mayen and thrice as numerous +at Traurenberg as movements to the west. In some cases changes +of intensity take place round the auroral zenith, simulating the effect +that would be produced by a cyclonic rotation of luminous matter. +In the case of isolated patches the intensity often waxes and wanes +as if a search-light were being thrown on and turned off.</p> +</div> + +<p>22. <i>Colour.</i>—The ordinary colour of aurora is white, usually +with a distinct yellow tint in the brighter forms, but silvery white +when the light is faint. When the light is intense and changing +rapidly, red is not infrequently present, especially towards the +lower edge. Under these circumstances, green is also sometimes +visible, especially towards the zenith. Thus a bright auroral +ray may seem red towards the foot and green at its summit, +with yellow intervening. In some cases the green may be only +a contrast effect. Other colours, <i>e.g.</i> violet, have occasionally +been noticed but are unusual.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Spectrum.</i>—The spectrum of aurora consists of a number of +lines. Numerous measurements have been made of the wave-lengths +of the brightest. One line, in the yellow green, is so +dominant optically as often to be described as the auroral line. +Its wave-length is probably very near 5571 tenth-metres, and it +is very close to, if not absolutely coincident with, a prominent +line in the spectrum of krypton. This line is so characteristic +that its presence or absence is the usual criterion for deciding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span> +whether an atmospheric light is aurora. The Swedish Expedition +(<b>17</b>) of 1899-1902, engaged in measuring an arc of the +meridian in Spitsbergen, were unusually well provided +spectrographically, and succeeded in taking photographs of aurora in +conjunction with artificial lines—chiefly of hydrogen—which led +to results claiming exceptional accuracy. In the spectrograms +three auroral rays—including the principal one mentioned +above—were pre-eminent. For the two shorter wave-lengths, +for whose measurement he claims the highest precision, the +observer, J. Westman, gives the values 4276.4 and 3913.5. In +addition, he assigns wave-lengths for 156 other auroral lines +between wave-lengths 5205 and 3513. The following table gives +the wave-lengths of the photographically brightest of these, +retaining four significant figures in place of Westman’s five.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Table VII.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb tb">4830</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">4489</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">4329</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">3997</td> <td class="tcc rb tb">3861</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4709</td> <td class="tcc rb">4420</td> <td class="tcc rb">4242</td> <td class="tcc rb">3986</td> <td class="tcc rb">3804</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4699</td> <td class="tcc rb">4371</td> <td class="tcc rb">4230</td> <td class="tcc rb">3947</td> <td class="tcc rb">3793</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4661</td> <td class="tcc rb">4356</td> <td class="tcc rb">4225</td> <td class="tcc rb">3937</td> <td class="tcc rb">3704</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4560</td> <td class="tcc rb">4344</td> <td class="tcc rb">4078</td> <td class="tcc rb">3880</td> <td class="tcc rb">3607</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">4550</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4337</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4067</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3876</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3589</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>There are a number of optically bright lines of longer wave-length. +For the principal of these Angot (1) gives the following +wave-lengths (unit 1 µµ or 1 × 10<span class="sp">−9</span> metre):—630, 578, 566, +535, 523, 500.</p> + +<p>Out of a total of 146 auroral lines, with wave-lengths longer +than 3684 tenth-metres, Westman identifies 82 with oxygen or +nitrogen lines at the negative pole in vacuum discharges. Amongst +the lines thus identified are the two principal auroral lines having +wave-lengths 4276.4 and 3913.5. The interval considered by +Westman contains at least 300 oxygen and nitrogen lines, so +that approximate coincidence with a number of auroral lines +was almost inevitable, and an appreciable number of the coincidences +may be accidental. E.C.C. Baly (<b>21</b>), making use of the +observations of the Russian expedition in Spitsbergen in 1899, +accepts as the wave-lengths of the three principal auroral lines +5570, 4276 and 3912; and he identifies all three and ten other +auroral lines ranging between 5570 and 3707 with krypton lines +measured by himself. In addition to these, he mentions other +auroral lines as very probably krypton lines, but in their case +the wave-lengths which he quotes from Paulsen (<b>22</b>) are given to +only three significant figures, so that the identification is more +uncertain. The majority of the krypton lines which Baly identifies +with auroral lines require for their production a Leyden jar +and spark gap.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>If, as is now generally believed, aurora represents some form of +electrical discharge, it is only reasonable to suppose that the auroral +lines arise from atmospheric gases. The conditions, however, as +regards pressure and temperature under which the hypothetical +discharges take place must vary greatly in different auroras, or even +sometimes in different parts of the same aurora. Further, auroras +are often possessed of rapid motion, so that conceivably spectral lines +may receive small displacements in accordance with Doppler’s +principle. Thus the differences in the wave-lengths of presumably +the same lines as measured by different Arctic observers may be +only partly due to unfavourable observational conditions. Many +of the auroral lines seen in any single aurora are exceedingly faint, +so that even their relative positions are difficult to settle with high +precision.</p> + +<p>24. Whether or not auroral displays are ever accompanied by a +characteristic sound is a disputed question. If sound waves originate +at the seat of auroral displays they seem hardly likely to be audible +on the earth, unless the aurora comes very low and great stillness +prevails. It is thus to the Arctic one looks for evidence. According +to Captain H.P. Dawson (<b>26</b>), in charge of the British Polar Station +at Fort Rae in 1882-1883, “The Indians and <i>voyageurs</i> of the +Hudson Bay Company, who often pass their nights in the open, say +that it [sound] is not uncommon ... there can be no doubt that +distinct sound does occasionally accompany certain displays of +aurora.” On the one occasion when Captain Dawson says he heard it +himself, “the sound was like the swishing of a whip or the noise +produced by a sharp squall of wind in the upper rigging of a ship, +and as the aurora brightened and faded so did the sound which +accompanied it.” If under these conditions the sound was really +due to the aurora, the latter, as Captain Dawson himself remarks, +must have been pretty close.</p> + +<p>25. Usually the electric potential near the ground is positive +compared to the earth and increases with the height (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Atmospheric +Electricity</a></span>). Several Arctic observers, however, especially +Paulsen (<b>18</b>) have observed a diminution of positive potential, or +even a change to negative, for which they could suggest no explanation +except the presence of a bright aurora. Other Arctic observers +have failed to find any trace of this phenomenon. If it exists, it is +presumably confined to cases when the auroral discharge comes +unusually low.</p> + +<p>26. <i>Artificial Phenomena resembling Aurora.</i>—At Sodankylä, the +station occupied by the Finnish Arctic Expedition of 1882-1883, +Selim Lemström and Biese (<b>23</b>) described and gave drawings of +optical phenomena which they believed to be artificially produced +aurora. A number of metallic points, supported on insulators, were +connected by wires enclosing several hundred square metres on the +top of a hill. Sometimes a Holtz machine was employed, but even +without it illumination resembling aurora was seen on several +occasions, extending apparently to a considerable height. In the +laboratory, Kr. Birkeland (<b>19</b>) has produced phenomena bearing +a striking resemblance to several forms of aurora. His apparatus +consists of a vacuum vessel containing a magnetic sphere—intended +to represent the earth—and the phenomena are produced by sending +electric discharges through the vessel.</p> + +<p>27. <i>Theories.</i>—A great variety of theories have been advanced +to account for aurora. All or nearly all the most recent regard it +as some form of electrical discharge. Birkeland (<b>19</b>) supposes the +ultimate cause to be cathode rays emanating from the sun; +C. Nordmann (<b>24</b>) replaces the cathode rays by Hertzian waves; while +Svante Arrhenius (<b>25</b>) believes that negatively charged particles are +driven through the sun’s atmosphere by the Maxwell-Bartoli repulsion +of light and reach the earth’s atmosphere. For the size and +density of particles which he considers most likely, Arrhenius +calculates the time required to travel from the sun as forty-six hours. +By modifying the hypothesis as to the size and density, times +appreciably longer or shorter than the above would be obtained. +Cathode rays usually have a velocity about a tenth that of light, +but in exceptional cases it may approach a third of that of light. +Hertzian waves have the velocity of light itself. On either Birkeland’s +or Nordmann’s theory, the electric impulse from the sun acts +indirectly by creating secondary cathode rays in the earth’s atmosphere, +or ionizing it so that discharges due to natural differences +of potential are immensely facilitated. The ionized condition +must be supposed to last to a greater or less extent for a good many +hours to account for aurora being seen throughout the whole night. +The fact that at most places the morning shows a marked decay of +auroral frequency and intensity as compared to the evening, the +maximum preceding midnight by several hours, is certainly favourable +to theories which postulate ionization of the atmosphere by +some cause or other emanating from the sun.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The following works are numbered according to the references +in the text:—(<b>1</b>) A. Angot, <i>Les Aurores polaires</i> (Paris, 1895); +(<b>2</b>) H. Fritz, <i>Das Polarlicht</i> (Leipzig, 1881); +(<b>3</b>) Svante August Arrhenius, <i>Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik</i>; +(<b>4</b>) Joseph Lovering, “On the Periodicity of the Aurora Borealis,” <i>Mem. +American Acad.</i> vol. x. (1868); +(<b>5</b>) Sophus Tromholt, <i>Catalog der in Norwegen bis Juni 1878 beobachteten +Nordlichter</i>; +(<b>6</b>) <i>Observations internationales polaires</i> (1882-1883), +<i>Expédition Danoise</i>, tome i. “Aurores boréales”; +(<b>7</b>) Carlheim-Gyllensköld, “Aurores boréales” in <i>Observations faites au +Cap Thorsden Spitzberg par l’expédition suédoise</i>, tome ii. 1; +(<b>8</b>) “Die Österreichische Polar Station Jan Mayen” in <i>Die Internationale +Polarforschung</i>, 1882-1883, Bd. ii. Abth. 1; +(<b>9</b>) Henryk Arctowski, “Aurores australes” in <i>Expédition antarctique +belge ... Voyage du S. Y. “Belgica”</i>; +(<b>10</b>) G.C. Amdrup, <i>Observations ... faites par l’expédition danoise</i>; +H. Ravn, <i>Observations de l’aurore boréale de Tasiusak</i>; +(<b>11</b>) <i>K. Sven. Vet.-Akad. Hand</i>. Bd. 31, Nos. 2, 3, &c.; +(<b>12</b>) <i>Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss.</i> (Vienna), Math. Naturw. Classe, +Bd. xcvii. Abth. iia, 1888; +(<b>13</b>) <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1906, lxxvii. A, 141; +(<b>14</b>) <i>Kongl. Sven. Vet.-Akad. Hand.</i> Bd. 15, No. 5, Bd. 18, No. 1; +(<b>15</b>) <i>Bull. Acad. Roy. Danoise</i>, 1889, p. 67; +(<b>16</b>) <i>Voyages ... pendant les années 1838, 1839 et 1840 sur ... la Recherche</i>, +“Aurores boréales,” by MM. Lottin, Bravais, &c.; +(<b>17</b>) <i>Missions scientifiques ... au Spitzberg ... en 1899-1902, Mission +suédoise</i>, tome ii. VIII<span class="sp">e</span> Section, C. “Aurores boréales”; +(<b>18</b>) <i>Bull. Acad. R. des Sciences de Danemark</i>, 1894, p. 148; +(<b>19</b>) Kr. Birkeland, <i>Expédition norvégienne 1899-1900 pour l’étude des +aurores boréales</i> (Christiania, 1901); +(<b>20</b>) <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, vol. iii. (1898), pp. 5, 53, 149; +(<b>21</b>) <i>Astrophysical Journal</i>, 1904, xix. p. 187; +(<b>22</b>) <i>Rapports présentés au Congrès International de Physique réuni à Paris</i>, +1900, iii. 438; +(<b>23</b>) <i>Expédition polaire finlandaise</i> (1882-1884), tome iii.; +(<b>24</b>) Charles Nordmann, <i>Thèses présentées à la Faculté des Sciences +de Paris</i> (1903); +(<b>25</b>) <i>Terrestrial Magnetism</i>, vol. 10, 1905, p. 1; +(<b>26</b>) <i>Observations of the International Polar Expeditions 1882-1883 +Fort Rae</i> ... by Capt. H.P. Dawson, R.A.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AURUNCI,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> the name given by the Romans to a tribe which +in historical times occupied only a strip of coast on either side +of the Mons Massicus between the Volturnus and the Liris, +although it must at an earlier period have extended over a +considerably wider area. Their own name for themselves in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span> +the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was <i>Ausŏnes</i>, and in Greek writers we find +the name <i>Ausŏnia</i> applied to Latium and Campania (see Strabo +v. p. 247; Aristotle, <i>Pol.</i> iv. (vii.) 10; Dion. Hal. i. 72), while in +the Augustan poets (<i>e.g.</i> Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> vii. 795) it is used as one of +many synonyms for Italy. In history the tribe appears only +for a brief space, from 340 to 295 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Mommsen, <i>C.I.L.</i> x. +pp. 451, 463, 465), and their struggle with the Romans ended +in complete extermination; their territory was parcelled out +between the Latin colonies of Cales (Livy viii. 16) and Suessa +Aurunca (<i>id.</i> ix. 28) which took the place of an older town called +<i>Ausona</i> (<i>id.</i> ix. 25; viii. 15), and the maritime colonies Sinuessa +(the older <i>Vescia</i>) and Minturnae (both in 295 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Livy x. 21). +The coin formerly attributed to Suessa Aurunca on the strength +of its supposed legend <i>Aurunkud</i> has now been certainly referred +to Naples (see R.S. Conway, <i>Italic Dialects</i>, 145, and <i>Verner’s +law in Italy</i>, p. 78, where the change of <i>s</i> to <i>r</i> is explained as +probably due to the Latin conquest). Seeing that the tribe +was blotted out at the beginning of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, we can +scarcely wonder that no record of its speech survives; but its +geographical situation and the frequency of the <i>co</i>-suffix in that +strip of coast (besides <i>Aurunci</i> itself we have the names <i>Vescia</i>, +<i>Mons Massicus</i>, <i>Marica</i>, <i>Glanica</i> and <i>Caedicii</i>; see <i>Italic +Dialects</i>, pp. 283 f.) rank them beyond doubt with their neighbours +the Volsci (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSCULTATION<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>auscultare</i>, to listen), a term in +medicine, applied to the method employed by physicians for +determining, by the sense of hearing, the condition of certain +internal organs. The ancient physicians appear to have practised +a kind of auscultation, by which they were able to detect the +presence of air or fluids in the cavities of the chest and abdomen. +Still no general application of this method of investigation was +resorted to, or was indeed possible, till the advance of the study +of anatomy led to correct ideas regarding the locality, structure +and uses of the various organs of the body, and the alterations +produced in them by disease. In 1761 Leopold Auenbrugger +(1722-1809), a Viennese physician, published his <i>Inventum +Novum</i>, describing the art of percussion in reference more +especially to diseases of the chest. This consisted in tapping +with the fingers the surface of the body, so as to elicit sounds +by which the comparative resonance of the subjacent parts or +organs might be estimated. Auenbrugger’s method attracted +but little attention till the French physician J.N. Corvisart +(1755-1828) in 1808 demonstrated its great practical importance, +and then its employment in the diagnosis of affections of the +chest soon became general. Percussion was originally practised +in the manner above mentioned (<i>immediate percussion</i>), but +subsequently the method of <i>mediate percussion</i> was introduced +by P.A. Piorry (1794-1879). It is accomplished by placing +upon the spot to be examined some solid substance, upon which +the percussion strokes are made with the fingers. For this +purpose a thin oval piece of ivory (called a <i>pleximeter</i>, or stroke-measurer) +may be used, with a small hammer; but one or more +fingers of the left hand applied flat upon the part answer equally +well, and this is the method which most physicians adopt. +Percussion must be regarded as a necessary part of auscultation, +particularly in relation to the examination of the chest; for +the physician who has made himself acquainted with the normal +condition of that part of the body in reference to percussion is +thus able to recognize by the ear alterations of resonance produced +by disease. But percussion alone, however important +in diagnosis, could manifestly convey only limited and imperfect +information, for it could never indicate the nature or extent of +functional disturbance.</p> + +<p>In 1819 the distinguished French physician R.T.H. Laënnec +(1781-1826) published his <i>Traité de L’auscultation médiate</i>, +embodying the present methods of auscultatory examination, +and venturing definite conclusions based on years of his own +study. He also invented the stethoscope (<span class="grk" title="staethos">στῆθος</span>, the breast, +and <span class="grk" title="skopein">σκοπεῖν</span>, to examine). Since then many men have widened +the scope of auscultation, notably Skoda, Wintrich, A. Geigel, +Th. Weber and Gerhardt. According to Laënnec the essential +of a good stethoscope was its capability of intensifying the tone +vibrations. But since his time the opinion of experts on this +matter has somewhat changed, and there are now two definite +schools. The first and older condemns the resonating stethoscope, +maintaining that the tones are bound to be altered; the second +and younger school warmly advocates its use. In America, +more than elsewhere, there is a type of phonendoscope much used +by the younger men, which has the advantage that it can be +used when the older type of instrument fails, viz. when the +patient is recumbent and too ill to be moved. By slipping it +beneath the patient’s back a fairly accurate idea of the breathing +over the bases of the lungs behind can often be obtained.</p> + +<p>Stethoscopes have been made of many forms and materials. +They usually consist of a hollow stem of wood, hard rubber +or metal, with an enlarged tip slightly funnel-shaped at one end, +and an ear-plate with a hole in the middle, fastened perpendicularly +to the other end. To enable the instrument to be more +conveniently carried, the ear-plate can be unscrewed from the +tube. The length of the stem of the instrument is of minor +importance, but its bore should be as nearly as possible that of +the entrance of the external ear. A flexible stethoscope in +general use both in England and America transmits the sound +from a funnel through tubes to the ears of the observer. This +is the common form of a binaural resonating stethoscope. It is +convenient and gives a loud tone, but is condemned by the +older school, who say that the resonance is confusing, and that +the slightest movement in handling gives rise to perplexing +murmurs. Nevertheless, it is this form of instrument which +has by far the greatest vogue. It is probable, however, that the +most skilled physicians of all find a special use in each form, the +monaural non-resonating type being more sensitive to high-pitched +sounds, and of greater assistance in differentiating +the sounds and murmurs of the heart, the ordinary binaural +form being more useful in examining the lungs and other organs. +In using the stethoscope, it must be applied very carefully, so +that the edge of the funnel makes an air-tight connexion with +the skin, and in the monaural form the ear must be but lightly +applied to the ear-plate, not pressing heavily on the patient.</p> + +<p>The numerous diseases affecting the lungs can now be recognized +and discriminated from each other with a precision which, +but for auscultation and the stethoscope, would have been +altogether unattainable. The same holds good in the case of +the heart, whose varied and often complex forms of disease can, +by auscultation, be identified with striking accuracy. But in +addition to these its main uses, auscultation is found to render +great assistance in the investigation of many obscure internal +affections, such as aneurysms and certain diseases of the oesophagus +and stomach. To the accoucheur the stethoscope yields +valuable aid in the detection of some forms of uterine tumours, +and especially in the diagnosis of pregnancy—the only evidence +now accepted as absolutely diagnostic of that condition being +the hearing of the foetal heart sounds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 310-395), Roman poet +and rhetorician, was born at Burdigala [<i>Bordeaux</i>]. He received +an excellent education, especially in grammar and rhetoric, but +confesses that his progress in Greek was unsatisfactory. Having +completed his studies, he practised for some time as an advocate, +but his inclination lay in the direction of teaching. He set +up (in 334) a school of rhetoric in his native place, which was +largely attended, his most famous pupil being Paulinus, afterwards +bishop of Nola. After thirty years of this work, he was summoned +by Valentinian to the imperial court, to undertake the education +of Gratian, the heir-apparent. The prince always entertained +the greatest regard for his tutor, and after his accession bestowed +upon him the highest titles and honours, culminating in the consulship +(379). After the murder of Gratian (383), Ausonius retired +to his estates near Burdigala. He appears to have been a (not +very enthusiastic) convert to Christianity. He died about 395.</p> + +<p>His most important extant works are: in prose, <i>Gratiarum +Actio</i>, an address of thanks to Gratian for his elevation to the +consulship; <i>Periochae</i>, summaries of the books of the <i>Iliad</i> and +<i>Odyssey</i>; and one or two <i>epistolae</i>; in verse, <i>Epigrammata</i>, +including several free translations from the Greek Anthology; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span> +<i>Ephemeris</i>, the occupations of a day; <i>Parentalia</i> and +<i>Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium</i>, on deceased relatives and +literary friends; <i>Epitaphia</i>, chiefly on the Trojan heroes; +<i>Caesares</i>, memorial verses on the Roman emperors from Julius +Caesar to Elagabalus; <i>Ordo Nobilium Urbium</i>, short poems +on famous cities; <i>Ludus Septem Sapientum</i>, speeches delivered +by the Seven Sages of Greece; <i>Idyllia</i>, of which the best-known +are the <i>Mosella</i>, a descriptive poem on the Moselle, and the +infamous <i>Cento Nuptialis</i>. We may also mention <i>Cupido Cruciatus</i>, +Cupid on the cross; <i>Technopaegion</i>, a literary trifle consisting +of a collection of verses ending in monosyllables; <i>Eclogarum +Liber</i>, on astronomical and astrological subjects; <i>Epistolae</i>, +including letters to Paulinus and Symmachus; lastly, <i>Praefatiunculae</i>, +three poetical epistles, one to the emperor Theodosius. +Ausonius was rather a man of letters than a poet; his +wide reading supplied him with material for a great variety of +subjects, but his works exhibit no traces of a true poetic spirit; +even his versification, though ingenious, is frequently defective.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are no MSS. containing the whole of Ausonius’s works. +Editio princeps, 1472; editions by Scaliger 1575, Souchay 1730, +Schenkl 1883, Peiper 1886; cf. <i>Mosella</i>, Böcking 1845, de la Ville +de Mirmont (critical edition with translation) 1889, and <i>De Ausonii +Mosella</i>, 1892, Hosius 1894. See Deydou, <i>Un Poète bordelais</i> +(1868); Everat, <i>De Ausonii Operibus</i> (1885); Jullian, <i>Ausone et +Bordeaux</i> (1893); C. Verrier and R. de Courmont, <i>Les Épigrammes +d’Ausone</i> (translation with bibliography, 1905); R. Pichon, <i>Les +Derviers Écrivains profanes</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSSIG<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (Czech <i>Oustí nad Labem</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria, +68 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,255, mostly German. +It is situated in a mountainous district, at the confluence of the +Biela and the Elbe, and, besides being an active river port, is an +important junction of the northern Bohemian railways. Aussig +has important industries in chemicals, textiles, glass and boat-building, +and carries on an active trade in coal from the neighbouring +mines, stone and stoneware, corn, fruit and wood. It +was the birthplace of the painter, Raphael Mengs (1728-1779). +Aussig is mentioned as a trading centre as early as 993. It was +made a city by Ottokar II. in the latter part of the 13th century. +In 1423 it was pledged by King Sigismund to the elector +Frederick of Meissen, who occupied it with a Saxon garrison. +In 1426 it was besieged by the Hussites, who on the 16th of June, +though only 25,000 strong, defeated a German army of 70,000, +which had been sent to its relief, with great slaughter. The +town was stormed and sacked next day. After lying waste for +three years, it was rebuilt in 1429. It suffered much during the +Thirty Years’ and Seven Years’ Wars, and in 1830 it had only +1400 inhabitants. Not far from Aussig is the village of Kulm, +where, on the 29th and 30th of August 1813, a battle took place +between the French under Vandamme and an allied army of +Austrians, Prussians and Russians. The French were defeated, +and Vandamme surrendered with his army of 10,000 men.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTEN, JANE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1775-1817), English novelist, was born on +the 16th of December 1775 at the parsonage of Steventon, +in Hampshire, a village of which her father, the Rev. George +Austen, was rector. She was the youngest of seven children. +Her mother was Cassandra Leigh, niece of Theophilus Leigh, +a dry humorist, and for fifty years master of Balliol, Oxford. +The life of no woman of genius could have been more uneventful +than Miss Austen’s. She did not marry, and she never left home +except on short visits, chiefly to Bath. Her first sixteen years +were spent in the rectory at Steventon, where she began early +to trifle with her pen, always jestingly, for family entertainment. +In 1801 the Austens moved to Bath, where Mr Austen died in +1805, leaving only Mrs Austen, Jane and her sister Cassandra, +to whom she was always deeply attached, to keep up the home; +his sons were out in the world, the two in the navy, Francis +William and Charles, subsequently rising to admiral’s rank. +In 1805 the Austen ladies moved to Southampton, and in 1809 +to Chawton, near Alton, in Hampshire, and there Jane Austen +remained till 1817, the year of her death, which occurred at +Winchester, on July 18th, as a memorial window in the cathedral +testifies.</p> + +<p>During her placid life Miss Austen never allowed her literary +work to interfere with her domestic duties: sewing much and +admirably, keeping house, writing many letters and reading +aloud. Though, however, her days were quiet and her area +circumscribed, she saw enough of middle-class provincial society +to find a basis on which her dramatic and humorous faculties +might build, and such was her power of searching observation +and her sympathetic imagination that there are not in English +fiction more faithful representations of the life she knew than +we possess in her novels. She had no predecessors in this genre. +Miss Austen’s “little bit (two inches wide) of ivory” on which +she worked “with so fine a brush”—her own phrases—was her +own invention.</p> + +<p>Her best-known, if not her best work, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>, +was also her first. It was written between October 1796 and +August 1797, although, such was the blindness of publishers, +not issued until 1813, two years after <i>Sense and Sensibility</i>, +which was written, on an old scenario called “Eleanor and +Marianne,” in 1797 and 1798. Miss Austen’s inability to find +a publisher for these stories, and for <i>Northanger Abbey</i>, written +in 1798 (although it is true that she sold that MS. in 1803 for +£10 to a Bath bookseller, only, however, to see it locked away +in a safe for some years, to be gladly resold to her later), seems +to have damped her ardour; for there is no evidence that +between 1798 and 1809 she wrote anything but the fragment +called “The Watsons,” after which year she began to revise +her early work for the press. Her other three books belong +to a later date—<i>Mansfield Park</i>, <i>Emma</i> and <i>Persuasion</i> being +written between 1811 and 1816. The years of publication were +<i>Sense and Sensibility</i>, 1811; <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>, 1813; +<i>Mansfield Park</i>, 1814; and <i>Emma</i>, 1816—all in their author’s lifetime. +<i>Persuasion</i> and <i>Northanger Abbey</i> were published posthumously +in 1818. All were anonymous, agreeably to their author’s +retiring disposition.</p> + +<p>Although <i>Pride and Prejudice</i> is the novel which in the mind +of the public is most intimately associated with Miss Austen’s +name, both <i>Mansfield Park</i> and <i>Emma</i> are finer achievements—at +once riper and richer and more elaborate. But the fact that +<i>Pride and Prejudice</i> is more single-minded, that the love story +of Elizabeth Bennet and D’Arcy is not only <i>of</i> the book but <i>is</i> +the book (whereas the love story of Emma and Mr Knightley +and Fanny Price and Edmund Bertram have parallel streams), +has given <i>Pride and Prejudice</i> its popularity above the others +among readers who are more interested by the course of romance +than by the exposition of character. Entirely satisfactory as is +<i>Pride and Prejudice</i> so far as it goes, it is, however, thin beside +the niceness of analysis of motives in <i>Emma</i> and the wonderful +management of two housefuls of young lovers that is exhibited +in <i>Mansfield Park</i>.</p> + +<p>It has been generally agreed by the best critics that Miss +Austen has never been approached in her own domain. No one +indeed has attempted any close rivalry. No other novelist has +so concerned herself or himself with the trivial daily comedy of +small provincial family life, disdaining equally the assistance +offered by passion, crime and religion. Whatever Miss Austen +may have thought privately of these favourite ingredients of +fiction, she disregarded all alike when she took her pen in hand. +Her interest was in life’s little perplexities of emotion and +conduct; her gaze was steadily ironical. The most untoward +event in any of her books is Louisa’s fall from the Cobb at Lyme +Regis, in <i>Persuasion</i>; the most abandoned, Maria’s elopement +with Crawford, in <i>Mansfield Park</i>. In pure ironical humour +Miss Austen’s only peer among novelists is George Meredith, +and indeed <i>Emma</i> may be said to be her <i>Egoist</i>, or the <i>Egoist</i> his +<i>Emma</i>. But irony and fidelity to the fact alone would not have +carried her down the ages. To these gifts she allied a perfect +sense of dramatic progression and an admirably lucid and +flowing prose style which makes her stories the easiest reading.</p> + +<p>Recognition came to Miss Austen slowly. It was not until +quite recent times that to read her became a necessity of culture. +But she is now firmly established as an English classic, standing +far above Miss Burney (Madame d’Arblay) and Miss Edgeworth, +who in her day were the popular women novelists of real life, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span> +while Mrs Radcliffe and “Monk” Lewis, whose supernatural +fancies’ <i>Northanger Abbey</i> was written in part to ridicule, are no +longer anything but names. Although, however, she has become +only lately a household word, Miss Austen had always her panegyrists +among the best intellects—such as Coleridge, Tennyson, +Macaulay, Scott, Sydney Smith, Disraeli and Archbishop +Whately, the last of whom may be said to have been her +discoverer. Macaulay, whose adoration of Miss Austen’s genius +was almost idolatrous, considered <i>Mansfield Park</i> her greatest +feat; but many critics give the palm to <i>Emma</i>. Disraeli read +<i>Pride and Prejudice</i> seventeen times. Scott’s testimony is often +quoted: “That young lady had a talent for describing the +involvements, feelings and characters of ordinary life which +is to me the most wonderful I have ever met with. The big +bow-wow I can do myself like any one going; but the exquisite +touch which renders commonplace things and characters interesting +from the truth of the description and the sentiment is +denied to me.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many monographs on Miss Austen have been written, in addition +to the authorized <i>Life</i> by her nephew J.E. Austen Leigh in 1870, +and the collection of her <i>Letters</i> edited by Lord Brabourne in 1884. +The chief books on her and around her are +<i>Jane Austen</i>, by S.F. Malden (1889); +<i>Jane Austen</i>, by Goldwin Smith (1890); +<i>Jane Austen: Her Contemporaries and Herself</i>, by W.H. Pollock; +<i>Jane Austen: Her Homes and Her Friends</i>, by Constance Hill (1902); +<i>Jane Austen and Her Times</i>, by G.E. Mitton (1905); +<i>Jane Austen’s Sailor Brothers</i>, by J H. and E.C. Hubback (1906); +and the essay on her in Lady Richmond (Thackeray) Ritchie’s <i>Book of +Sibyls</i> (1883).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. V. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTERLITZ<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (Czech <i>Slavkov</i>), a town of Austria, in Moravia, +15 m. E.S.E. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 3145, mostly Czech. +It contains a magnificent palace belonging to the prince of +Kaunitz-Rietberg, and a beautiful church.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:511px; height:534px" src="images/img937.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The great battle in which the French under Napoleon I. +defeated the Austrians and Russians on the 2nd of December +1805, was fought in the country to the west of Austerlitz, the +position of Napoleon’s left wing being almost equi-distant from +Brünn and from Austerlitz. The wooded hills to the northward +throw out to the south and south-west long spurs, between +which are the low valleys of several rivers and brooks. The +scene of the most important fighting was the Pratzen plateau. +The famous “lakes” in the southern part of the field were +artificial ponds, which have long since been drained. On the +west or Brünn side of the Goldbach is another and lower ridge, +which formed in the battle the first position of the French right +and centre. On the other wing is the mass of hills from which +the spurs and streams descend: here the Olmütz-Brünn road +passes. The road from Brunn to Vienna, Napoleon’s presumed +line of retreat, runs in a southerly direction, and near the village +of Raigern (3 m. west of Monitz) is very close to the extreme +right of the French position, a fact which had a great influence +on the course of the battle. (The course of events which led +to the action is described under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.) +Napoleon, falling back before the advance of the allied Austrians +and Russians from Olmütz, bivouacked west of the Goldbach, +whilst the allies, holding, near Austerlitz, the junction of the +roads from Olmutz and from Hungary, formed up in the valleys +east of the Pratzen heights. The cavalry of both sides remained +inactive, Napoleon’s by express order, the enemy’s seemingly +from mere negligence, since they had 177 squadrons at their +disposal. Napoleon, having determined to fight, as usual called +up every available battalion; the splendid III. corps of Davout +only arrived upon the field after a heavy march, late on the night +of December 1st. The plan of the allies was to attack Napoleon’s +right, and to cut him off from Vienna, and their advanced guard +began, before dark on the 1st of December, to skirmish towards +Telnitz. At that moment Napoleon was in the midst of his +troops, thousands of whom had made their bivouac-straw into +torches in his honour. The glare of these seemed to the allies to +betoken the familiar device of lighting fires previous to a retreat, +and thus confirmed them in the impression which Napoleon’s +calculated timidity had given. Thus encouraged, those who +desired an immediate battle soon gained the upper hand in the +councils of the tsar and the emperor Francis. The attack orders +for the 2nd of December (drawn up by the Austrian general +Weyrother, and explained by him to a council of superior +officers, of whom some were hostile, the greater part indifferent, +and the chief Russian member, General Kutusov, asleep) gave the +five columns and the reserve, into which the Austro-Russian +army was organized, the following tasks: the first and second +(Russians) to move south-westward behind the Pratzen ridge +towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz; the third (Russian) to cross the +southern end of the plateau, and come into line on the right of +the first two; the fourth (Austrians and Russians under Kolowrat) +on the right of the third to advance towards Kobelnitz. +An Austrian advanced guard preceded the 1st and 2nd columns. +Farther still on the right the 5th column (cavalry under Prince +John of Liechtenstein) was to hold the northern part of the +plateau, south of the Brunn-Olmutz road; across the road itself +was the corps of Prince Bagration, and in rear of Liechtenstein’s +corps was the reserve (Russians under the grand-duke Constantine). +Thus, the farther the four main columns penetrated into +the French right wing, the wider would the gap become between +Bagration and Kolowrat, and Liechtenstein’s squadrons could +not form a serious obstacle to a heavy attack of Napoleon’s +centre. The whole plan was based upon defective information +and preconceived ideas; it has gone down to history as a classical +example of bad generalship, and its author Weyrother, who was +perhaps nothing worse than a pedant, as a charlatan.</p> + +<p>Napoleon, on the other hand, with the exact knowledge of the +powers of his men, which was the secret of his generalship, +entrusted nearly half of his line of battle to a division (Legrand’s) +of Soult’s corps, which was to be supported by Davout, some +of whose brigades had marched, from Vienna, 90 m. in forty-eight +hours. But the ground which this thin line was to hold against +three columns of the enemy was marshy and densely intersected +by obstacles, and the III. corps was the best in the <i>Grande +Armée</i>, while its leader was perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon’s +marshals. The rest of the army formed in the centre and left. +“Whilst they march to turn my right,” said Napoleon in the +inspiriting proclamation which he issued on the eve of the battle, +“they present me their flank,” and the great counterstroke +was to be delivered against the Pratzen heights by the French +centre. This was composed of Soult’s corps, with Bernadotte’s +in second line. On the left, around the hill called by the French +the Santon (which was fortified) was Lannes’ corps, supported +by the cavalry reserve under Murat. The general reserve +consisted of the Guard and Oudinot’s grenadiers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span></p> + +<p>The attack of the allies was begun by the first three columns, +which moved down from their bivouacs behind the Pratzen +plateau before dawn on the 2nd, towards Telnitz and Sokolnitz. +The Austrian advanced guard engaged at daybreak, and the +French in Telnitz made a vigorous defence; both parties were +reinforced, and Legrand drew upon himself, in fulfilling his +mission, the whole weight of the allied attack. The contest was +long and doubtful, but the Russians gradually drove back Legrand +and a part of Davout’s corps; numerous attacks both of infantry +and cavalry were made, and by the successive arrival of reinforcements +each side in turn received fresh impetus. Finally, at +about 10 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, the allies were in possession of the villages on the +Goldbach from Sokolnitz southwards, and Davout’s line of +battle had reformed more than a mile to rearward, still, however, +maintaining touch with the French centre on the Goldbach at +Kobelnitz. Between the two lines the fighting continued almost +to the close of the battle. With 12,500 men of all arms the +Marshal held in front of him over 40,000 of the enemy.</p> + +<p>In the centre, the defective arrangements of the allied staff had +delayed the 4th column (Kolowrat), the line of march of which +was crossed by Liechtenstein’s cavalry moving in the opposite +direction. The objective of this column was Kobelnitz, and the +two emperors and Kutusov accompanied it. The delay had, however, +opened a gap between Kolowrat and the 3rd column on his +left; and towards this gap, and the denuded Pratzen plateau, +Napoleon sent forward St Hilaire’s division of Soult’s corps for +the decisive attack. Kutusov was pursuing this march to the south-west +when he was surprised by the swift advance of Soult’s men +on the plateau itself. Napoleon had here double the force of the +allies; Kutusov, however, displayed great energy, changed front +to his right and called up his reserves. The French did not win +the plateau without a severe struggle. St Hilaire’s (the right +centre) division was fiercely engaged by Kolowrat’s column, +General Miloradovich opposed the left centre attack under +Vandamme, but the French leaders were two of the best fighting +generals in their army. The rearmost troops of the Russian 2nd +column, not yet committed to the fight on the Goldbach, made a +bold counter stroke against St Hilaire’s right flank, but were +repulsed, and Soult now turned to relieve the pressure on Davout +by attacking Sokolnitz. The Russians in Sokolnitz surrendered, +an opportune cavalry charge further discomfited the allied left, +and the Pratzen plateau was now in full possession of the French. +Even the Russian Guard failed to shake Vandamme’s hold. +In the meanwhile Lannes and Murat had been engaged in the +defence of the Santon. Here the allied leaders displayed the +greatest vigour, but they were unable to drive back the French. +The cavalry charges in this quarter are celebrated in the history +of the mounted arm; and Kellermann, the hero of Marengo, won +fresh laurels against the cavalry of Liechtenstein’s command. +The French not only held their ground, but steadily advanced and +eventually forced back the allies on Austerlitz, thereby barring +their retreat on Olmütz. The last serious attempt of the allies +in the centre led to some of the hardest fighting of the day; +the Russian Imperial Guard under the grand-duke Constantine +pressed closely upon St Hilaire and Vandamme on the plateau, +and only gave way when the French Guard and the Grenadiers +came into action. After the “Chevalier Guards” had been +routed by Marshal Bessières and the Guard cavalry, the allies +had no more hope of victory; orders had already been sent to +Buxhöwden, who commanded the three columns engaged against +Davout, to retreat on Austerlitz. No further attempt was made +on the plateau, which was held by the French from Pratzen to +the Olmütz road. The allied army was cut in two, and the last +confused struggle of the three Russian columns on the Goldbach +was one for liberty only. The fighting in Telnitz was perhaps +the hardest of the whole battle, but the inevitable retreat, +every part of which was now under the fire of the French on the +plateau, was terribly costly. Soult now barred the way to +Austerlitz, and the allies turned southward towards Satschan. +As they retreated, the ice of the Satschan pond was broken up +by the French artillery, and many of the fugitives were drowned. +In the twelve hours from 7 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> to nightfall, the 65,000 French +troops had lost 6800 men, or about 10%; the allies (82,500 +engaged) had 12,200 killed and wounded, and left in the enemy’s +hands 15,000 prisoners (many wounded) and 133 guns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, ALFRED<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1835-  ), English poet-laureate, was +born at Headingley, near Leeds, on the 30th of May 1835. His +father, Joseph Austin, was a merchant of the city of Leeds; +his mother, a sister of Joseph Locke, M.P. for Honiton. Mr +Austin was educated at Stonyhurst, Oscott, and London University, +where he graduated in 1853. He was called to the bar four +years later, and practised as a barrister for a short time; but in +1861, after two comparatively false starts in poetry and fiction, +he made his first noteworthy appearance as a writer with a +satire called <i>The Season</i>, which contained incisive lines, and +was marked by some promise both in wit and observation. +In 1870 he published a volume of criticism, <i>The Poetry of the +Period</i>, which was again conceived in a spirit of satirical invective, +and attacked Tennyson, Browning, Matthew Arnold and +Swinburne in no half-hearted fashion. The book aroused some +discussion at the time, but its judgments were extremely uncritical. +In 1881 Mr Austin returned to verse with a tragedy, +<i>Savonarola</i>, to which he added <i>Soliloquies</i> in 1882, <i>Prince +Lucifer</i> in 1887, <i>England’s Darling</i> in 1896, <i>The Conversion of +Winckelmann</i> in 1897, &c. A keen Conservative in politics, for +several years he edited <i>The National Review</i>, and wrote leading +articles for <i>The Standard</i>. On Tennyson’s death in 1892 it was +felt that none of the then living poets, except Swinburne or +William Morris, who were outside consideration on other +grounds, was of sufficient distinction to succeed to the laurel +crown, and for several years no new poet-laureate was nominated. +In the interval the claims of one writer and another were much +canvassed, but eventually, in 1896, Mr Austin was appointed. +As poet-laureate, his occasional verses did not escape adverse +criticism; his hasty poem in praise of the Jameson Raid in +1896 being a notable instance. The most effective characteristic +of Mr Austin’s poetry, as of the best of his prose, is a genuine +and intimate love of nature. His prose idylls, <i>The Garden that +I love</i> and <i>In Veronica’s Garden</i>, are full of a pleasant, open-air +flavour, which is also the outstanding feature of his <i>English +Lyrics</i>. His lyrical poems are wanting in spontaneity and +individuality, but many of them possess a simple, orderly +charm, as of an English country lane. He has, indeed, a true +love of England, sometimes not without a suspicion of insularity, +but always fresh and ingenuous. A drama by him, <i>Flodden +Field</i>, was acted at His Majesty’s theatre in 1903.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, JOHN<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1790-1859), English jurist, was born on the +3rd of March 1790. His father was the owner of flour mills at +Ipswich and in the neighbourhood, and was in good circumstances. +John was the eldest of five brothers. One of his brothers, +Charles (1799-1874), obtained great distinction at the bar. +John Austin entered the army at a very early age; he is said +to have been only sixteen. He served with his regiment under +Lord William Bentinck in Malta and Sicily. He seems to have +liked his profession, and to have joined in the amusements and +even in the follies of his brother officers. Yet it appears from a +journal kept by him at the time that he occupied himself with +studies of a far more serious kind than is common amongst +young officers in the army. He notes having read in the course +of one year Dugald Stewart’s <i>Philosophical Essays</i>, Drummond’s +<i>Academical Questions</i>, Enfield’s <i>History of Philosophy</i>, and +Mitford’s <i>History of Greece</i>, and upon all of these he makes +observations which disclose much thought and a capacity for +criticism which must have come from extensive reading elsewhere. +The prevailing note of this journal is one of bitter +self-depreciation. He says in it that the retrospect of the past +year (1811) “has hardly given rise to one single feeling of +satisfaction,” and farther on he says that “indolence, always +the prominent vice of my character,” has “assumed over me +an empire I almost despair of shaking off.” It is difficult to +believe that a man only just of age, whose serious reading +consisted of such books, and who (as appears from the same +journal) was in the habit of turning to the classics as an +alternative, could have deserved the reproach of indolence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span></p> + +<p>In 1812, he resigned his commission in the army, and returned +home. He then began to read law in the chambers of a barrister. +He was called to the bar in the year 1818, and joined the Norfolk +circuit, but he never obtained any large practice, and he finally +retired from the bar in 1825. In 1819 he married Sarah Taylor +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austin, Sarah</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Although Austin had failed to attain success at the bar it was +not long before he had an opportunity of exercising his abilities +and in a manner peculiarly suited to his particular turn of mind. +In 1826 a number of eminent men were engaged in the foundation +of University College, and it was determined to establish in it a +chair of jurisprudence. This chair was offered to Austin and he +agreed to accept it. As he was not called upon to begin his +lectures immediately, he resolved to proceed to Germany in +order to prepare himself for his duties by studying the method +of legal teaching pursued at German universities. He resided +first at Heidelberg, and afterwards at Bonn, where he lived +on terms of intimacy with such distinguished lawyers as Savigny +and K.J.A. Mittermaier; and such eminent men of letters as +Niebuhr, Brandis, Schlegel and A.W. Heffter. He began +lecturing in 1828, and at first was not without encouragement. +His class was a peculiarly brilliant one. It included a number +of men who afterwards became eminent in law, politics and +philosophy—Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Charles Buller, +Charles Villiers, Sir Samuel Romilly and his brother Lord +Romilly, Edward Strutt afterwards Lord Belper, Sir William +Erie and John Stuart Mill were all members of his class. +All of these have left on record expressions of the profound +admiration which the lectures excited in the minds of those who +heard them. But the members of his class, though exceptional +in quality, were few in number, and as there was no fixed salary +attached to the professorship, Austin could not afford to remain +in London, and in 1832 he resigned. In that year he published +his <i>Province of Jurisprudence determined</i>, being the first ten of +his delivered lectures compressed into six.</p> + +<p>There is ample testimony that Austin’s lectures were very +highly appreciated by those who heard them. Their one fault +was that they were over-elaborated. In his desire to avoid +ambiguity, he repeats his explanations and qualifications to an +extent which must have tired his hearers. Nevertheless the +lectures excited an admiration which almost amounted to +enthusiasm. Nor was Austin’s influence confined to his lectures. +Sir William Erle says in a letter written to him in 1844, “The +interchange of mind with you in the days of Lincoln’s Inn I +regard as a deeply important event in my life, and I ever +remember your friendship with thankfulness and affection.” +John Stuart Mill, whose views on political subjects were entirely +opposed to those of Austin, spoke of him after his death as the +man “to whom he (Mill) had been intellectually and morally +most indebted,” and he expressed the opinion “that few men +had contributed more by their individual influence, and their +conversation, to the formation and growth of the most active +minds of the generation.”</p> + +<p>In 1833 a royal commission was issued to draw up a digest of +criminal law and procedure. Of this commission Austin was a +member. The first report was signed by all the commissioners, +and was presented in June 1834. Nevertheless it appears from +some notes made at the time that Austin, though he thought it +his duty to sign the report, strongly objected to some passages +which it contained. It is pretty obvious from the nature of +these objections that nothing would have satisfied him short of +a complete recasting of the criminal law, whereas what the +commissioners were ordered to produce was not a code but a +digest. Probably Austin felt, as Mr Justice Wills felt some +years later, that the anomalies which a code would remove +would “choke a digest.”</p> + +<p>In 1834 the benchers of the Inner Temple appointed Austin +to give lectures on the “General Principles of Jurisprudence +and International Law.” He delivered a few lectures in the +spring of that year, but in June the course was by order of the +benchers suspended on account of the smallness of the attendance, +and it was never resumed. He then went to live with his +wife and only child Lucie (afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon) at +Boulogne. Here he remained for about a year and a half. He +then accepted an appointment offered him by Sir James Stephen +to go as royal commissioner to Malta in conjunction with Mr +(afterward Sir George) Cornewall Lewis, to inquire into the +nature and extent of the grievances of which the natives of that +island complained.</p> + +<p>The Austins remained in Malta until July 1838. After their +return they lived a good deal abroad, and in 1844 they settled +in Paris, where they remained until driven out of France by +the revolution of 1848. They then took a house at Weybridge, +and there Austin remained until his death in December 1859. +He was urged by his friends to publish a second edition of the +<i>Province of Jurisprudence</i>, which was then out of print, and he +went so far as to allow a prospectus to be issued by Mr Murray +of an extended work on “The Principles and Relations of +Jurisprudence and Ethics.” But nothing came of it.</p> + +<p>In 1842 Austin published in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> an attack +upon Friedrich List’s system of trade protection (<i>Das nationale +System der politischen Okonomie</i>). And in 1859 he published a +pamphlet entitled “A Plea for the Constitution.” This was +occasioned by the publication of Lord Grey’s essay on “Parliamentary +Government.” Its main object was to show that the +consequences to be anticipated from Parliamentary Reform +were all of them either impossible of realization or mischievous. +He thought any attempt on the part of the poorer classes to +improve their position was barred by the inexorable laws of +political economy; and that if they obtained power they would +only use it to plunder the rich; whilst, on the other hand, he seems +not to have had any suspicion that the “proprietary class” +were likely to disregard the interests of the poor. He thinks +that political power is safest in the hands of those possessed +of hereditary or acquired property; and that without property +even intelligence and knowledge afford no presumption of +political capacity. Undoubtedly Austin was a utilitarian in the +Benthamite sense, and remained so to the end of his life. It +must be remembered that Bentham’s sole and immutable test +of human action was the greatest happiness of the greatest +number. This is a principle which an aristocrat may adopt if +he chooses, no less than a democrat; an individualist no less +than a socialist; and there is nothing in the “Plea for the +Constitution” which contravenes this. But Austin thought, +and in this no doubt he differed from Bentham, that the mass +of the people did not know their own interests so well as “an +aristocracy of independent gentlemen” who might be trusted +to provide for the wants of all classes alike.</p> + +<p>Austin’s position as a jurist is much more difficult to estimate. +Twice his influence appeared likely to produce some impression +upon English law, but upon both occasions it lasted only a short +time, and never extended very far. The men whom he influenced +were very eminent, but in numbers they were few. As a rule, +students for the bar never at any time paid any attention to his +teaching. The first published lectures were almost forgotten +when Mr (afterwards Sir Henry) Maine was appointed to lecture +on jurisprudence at the Inner Temple. Both in his private and +public lectures Maine constantly urged upon his hearers the +importance of Austin’s analytical inquiries into the meaning of +legal terms. He used to say that it was Austin’s inquiries +which had made a philosophy of law possible. Undoubtedly +Maine’s influence revived for a short time the interest in Austin’s +teaching. Maine was lecturing about the time of Austin’s death, +and in 1861 Mrs Austin published a second edition of the <i>Province +of Jurisprudence</i>, and this was followed soon after by two +volumes which contained in addition in a fragmentary form the +remaining lectures delivered at University College and other +notes (<i>Lectures on Jurisprudence; or The Philosophy of Positive +Law</i>).</p> + +<p>It cannot be said that Austin’s views of jurisprudence have +had, as yet, any visible influence whatever on the study of +English law. But if we consider what it was that Austin endeavoured +to teach, it can hardly be said that the subject is one +which a lawyer can with impunity neglect. He proposes to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span> +distinguish law from morals; to explain the notions which +have been entertained of duty, right, liberty, injury, punishment +and redress; and their connexion with, and relations to, +sovereignty; to examine the distinction between rights <i>in rem</i> +and rights <i>in personam</i>, and between rights <i>ex contractu</i> and +rights <i>ex delicto</i>; and further to determine the meaning of +such terms as right, obligation, injury, sanction, person, thing, +act and forbearance. These are some of the terms, notions +and distinctions which Austin endeavoured to explain. They +are daily in the mouth of every practising lawyer. The only +portion of Austin’s work which has attracted much attention +of recent years is his conception of sovereignty, and his dictum +that all laws properly so called must be considered as sanctioned +expressly or tacitly by the sovereign. This has been indignantly +denied. It has been considered enough to justify this denial +to point out that there are in existence states where the seat +of sovereignty, and the ultimate source of law, cannot be accurately +indicated. But this criticism is entirely misplaced; +for as pointed out by Maine (<i>Early History of Institutions</i>, +Lecture xii.), in an elaborate discussion of Austin’s views, +which in the main he accepts, what Austin was engaged upon +was not an inquiry into the nature of sovereignty as it is found +to exist, but an inquiry into what was the connexion between +the various forms of political superiority. And this inquiry +was undertaken in order to enable him to distinguish the province +of jurisprudence properly so called from the province of morality; +an inquiry which was hopeless unless the connexion just stated +was clearly conceived. Austin’s views of sovereignty, therefore, +was an abstraction, useless it is true for some purposes, but by +no means useless for others. “There is,” as Maine says, “not +the smallest necessity for accepting all the conclusions of these +great writers (<i>i.e.</i> Bentham and Austin) with implicit deference, +but there is the strongest necessity for knowing what these conclusions +are. They are indispensable, if for no other object, +for the purpose of clearing the head.” These last words exactly +express the work which Austin set himself to do. It was to clear +his own head, and the heads of his hearers, that he laboured so +hard. As Austin once said of himself, his special vocation was +that of untying intellectual knots. The disentangling of classifications +and distinctions, the separation of real from accidental +distinctions, the analysis of ideas confusedly apprehended, these +(as has been truly said) were the characteristics of Austin’s +work which specially distinguished him. Austin thought that this +somewhat irksome task was a necessary preliminary both to the +study of law as a science, and to the production of a code. It +is a curious reflection that whilst the lectures in which these +inquiries were begun (though not completed) excited the admiration +of his contemporaries, hardly any one now thinks +such inquiries worth pursuing.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Lectures on Jurisprudence</i> were reviewed by J.S. Mill in the +<i>Edinburgh Review</i> of October 1863, and this review is republished +in Mill’s <i>Dissertations and Discussions</i>, vol. 3, p. 206. Professor +Jethro Brown has published (1906) an edition of Austin’s earlier +lectures, in which they are stated in an abbreviated form. There +is a sketch of his life by his widow in the preface to the <i>Lectures on +Jurisprudence</i>, which she published after his death.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Ma.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, SARAH<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1793-1867), English author, was born in +1793, the daughter of John Taylor (d. 1826), a wool-stapler and +a member of the well-known Taylor family of Norwich. Her great +grandfather, Dr John Taylor (1694-1761), had been pastor of the +Presbyterian church there, and wrote a once famous polemical +work on <i>The Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin</i> (1738), which +called forth celebrated treatises by Jonathan Edwards on <i>Original +Sin</i>. Her mother, Susannah Cook, was an exceedingly clever +woman who transmitted both her beauty and her talent to her +daughter. Their friends included Dr Alderson and his daughter +Mrs Opie, Henry Crabbe Robinson, the Gurneys and Sir James +Mackintosh. Sarah Taylor married in 1820 John Austin (<i>q.v.</i>). +They lived in Queen Square, Westminster, where Mrs. Austin, +whose tastes, unlike her husband’s, were extremely sociable, +gathered round her a large circle, Jeremy Bentham, James Mill +and the Grotes being especially intimate. She received many +Italian exiles, who found a real friend in her. In 1821 was born +her only child, Lucie, afterwards Lady Duff-Gordon. Mrs. +Austin never attempted any considerable original work, contenting +herself chiefly with translations, of which the most +important are the <i>History of the Reformation in Germany</i> and +the <i>History of the Popes</i> (1840), from the German of Leopold von +Ranke, <i>Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia</i> (1834) +from the French of V. Cousin, and F.W. Carove’s <i>The Story +without an End</i> (1864). After her husband’s death in 1859 she +edited his <i>Lectures on Jurisprudence</i>. She also edited the +<i>Memoirs of Sydney Smith</i> (1855) and Lady Duff-Gordon’s +<i>Letters from Egypt</i> (1865). She died at Weybridge on the 8th of +August 1867.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Three Generations of Englishwomen</i> (1888), by her grand-daughter, +Mrs Janet Ross.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1793-1836), American pioneer, +was born in Austinville, Wythe county, Virginia, on the 3rd of +November 1793. He was the son of Moses Austin (1767-1821), +a native of Durham, Connecticut, who in 1820 obtained from +Mexico a grant of land for an American colony in Texas, but died +before he could carry out his project. The son was educated +in New London, Connecticut, and at Transylvania University, +Lexington, Kentucky, and settled in Missouri, where he was a +member of the territorial legislature from 1813 to 1819. In +1819 he removed to Arkansas Territory, where he was appointed +a circuit judge. After his father’s death he obtained a confirmation +of the Texas grants from the newly established Mexican +government, and in 1821-1823 he established a colony of several +hundred American families on the Brazos river, the principal town +being named, in his honour, San Felipe de Austin. He was a +firm defender of the rights of the Americans in Texas, and in +1833 he was sent to the city of Mexico to present a petition from +a convention in Texas praying for the erection of a separate +state government. While there, despairing of success for his +petition, he wrote home recommending the organization of a +state without waiting for the consent of the Mexican congress. +This letter falling into the hands of the Mexican government, +Austin, while returning home, was arrested at Saltillo, carried +as a prisoner back to Mexico, and imprisoned for a year without +trial. Returning to Texas in 1835, he found the Texans in armed +revolt against Mexican rule, and was chosen commander-in-chief +of the revolutionary forces, but after failing to take San Antonio +he resigned the command, for which he had never considered +himself fitted, and in November 1835 went to the United States as +a commissioner to secure loans and supplies, and to learn the +position the United States authorities would be likely to take +in the event of a declaration of Texan independence. He succeeded +in raising large sums, and received assurances that satisfied +him that Americans would look with great favour on an independent +Texas. Returning to Texas in the summer of 1836, +he became a candidate, rather reluctantly, for the presidency +of the newly established republic of Texas, but was defeated by +Samuel Houston, under whom he was secretary of state until his +sudden death on the 7th of December 1836.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A Comprehensive History of Texas</i>, edited by D.G. Wooten +(2 vols., Dallas, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Mower county, +Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Red Cedar river and Turtle creek, +(by rail) 105 m. S. of Minneapolis and 100 m. from St Paul. +Pop. (1900) 5474; (1905, state census) 6489 (913 foreign-born); +(1910, U.S. census) 6960. It is served by the Chicago +Great Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. +Austin is the seat of the Southern Minnesota Normal College +and Austin School of Commerce (1896), and has a Carnegie +library, court house and city hall. It is a market for livestock, +and for dairy and farm products, and has slaughtering and +packing establishments, flour mills, creameries and cheese +factories, canning and preserving factories, carriage works, +a flax fibre mill and grain elevators. Brick, tile, sewer-pipe, +and hydraulic cement are manufactured, and there are railway +repair shops. A valuable water-power is utilized for manufacturing +purposes. Fresh-water pearls of considerable value +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span> +and beauty are found in the Red Cedar river. The city owns +and operates its own water-supply system and electric-lighting +plant. Austin was settled in 1855, was incorporated as a village +in 1868, and was chartered as a city in 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTIN,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> the capital of Texas, U.S.A., and the county-seat +of Travis county, on the N. bank of the Colorado river, near +the centre of the state and about 145 m. W.N.W. of Houston. +Pop. (1890) 14,575; (1900) 22,258, of whom 5822 were negroes; +(1910 census) 29,860. Austin is served by the Houston & +Texas Central, the International & Great Northern, and the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city is built on high +bluffs 40-120 ft. above the river, which is spanned here by a bridge, +built in 1874. The Texas State Capitol, a handsome building +of red Texas granite, with a dome 318 ft. high, cost more than +$3,500,000, and stands in a square in the centre of the city. +It was built (1881-1888) by Chicago capitalists in exchange for +a land grant of 3,000,000 acres. It is in the form of a Greek cross, +with an extreme length of 556.5 ft. and an extreme width of +288.8 ft. Next to the National Capitol at Washington, it is +the largest capitol building in the United States, and it is said +to be one of the ten largest buildings in the world. Austin +is the seat of the University of Texas (opened in 1883; co-educational); +the medical department of the state university +is at Galveston, and the departments in Austin are the college +of arts, department of education, department of engineering, +department of law, school of pharmacy, and school of nursing. +The government of the university is vested in a board of eight +regents nominated by the governor and appointed with the +advice and consent of the state senate. At Austin are also +state institutions and asylums for the insane, the blind, the +coloured deaf and blind; the state school for the deaf and dumb; +the state Confederate home; the Confederate woman’s home +(1907; for wives and widows of Confederate soldiers and sailors), +maintained by the Daughters of the Confederacy; St Mary’s +Academy (Roman Catholic, under the supervision of the +Sisters of the Holy Cross, founded 1875, chartered 1886); St +Edward’s College (Roman Catholic, chartered 1885); the Austin +Presbyterian Theological Seminary (Presbyterian Church, +South), opened in 1902 by the Synod of Texas, and after 1905 +partly controlled by the Synod of Arkansas; Tillotson College +(a negro school under Congregational control, founded by the +American Missionary Association, chartered in 1877, and opened +in 1881), and Samuel Huston College (for negroes; Methodist +Episcopal; opened in 1900 and named in honour of an Iowan +benefactor). The principal newspapers of Austin are the +<i>Statesman</i> (Democratic, established in 1871), a morning paper, +and the <i>Tribune</i> (Democratic, established in 1891), an evening +paper. The <i>Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society</i> is +published here. Austin is the principal trade and jobbing centre +for central and western Texas, is an important market for livestock, +cotton, grain and wool, and has extensive manufactories +of flour, cotton-seed oil, leather goods, lumber and wooden +ware; the value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,569,353, +being 105.2% more than in 1900. The city owns and operates +its water-supply system. In 1890-1893 one of the largest dams +in the world, an immense structure of granite masonry, 1200 ft. +long. 60-70 ft. high, and 18 to 66 ft. thick, was constructed +across the Colorado river 2 m. above the city for the purpose +of supplying water and power, creating a reservoir (Lake +M‘Donald) about 30 m. long. Freshets in the spring of 1900, +however, undermined the wall, and on the 7th of April the dam +broke with a resulting loss of several lives and about $1,000,000 +worth of property. The rebuilding of the dam was projected +in 1907. Austin was first settled in 1838 and was named Waterloo, +but in 1839, when it was chosen as the site of the capital of the +Republic of Texas, it was renamed in honour of Stephen F. +Austin, one of its founders. Under the influence of General Sam +Houston the capital was for a time in 1842-1845 removed from +Austin to Houston, but in 1845 an ordinance was passed making +Austin the capital, and it remained the state capital after Texas +entered the Union, although Huntsville and Tehuacana Springs +in 1850 and Houston in 1872 attempted in popular elections +to be chosen in its place. The first Anglo-American settlement +in Texas, established on the Brazos river in 1823 by members of +the Austin colony, was San Felipe de Austin now San Felipe. +In 1909 Austin adopted a commission form of government.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTRALASIA,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> a term used by English geographers in a +sense nearly synonymous with the Oceania of continental writers. +It thus comprises all the insular groups which extend almost continuously from the south-eastern extremity of Asia to more than +half-way across the Pacific. Its chief divisions are Malaysia +with the Philippines; Australia with Tasmania and New +Zealand; Melanesia, that is, New Guinea, New Britain, New +Ireland, Admiralty, the Solomons, New Hebrides, Santa Cruz, +Fiji, Loyalties and New Caledonia; Micronesia, that is, the +Ladrones, Pelew and Carolines, with the Marshall and Gilbert +groups; lastly, Polynesia, that is, Samoa, Tonga, Cook, Tahiti, +the Marquesas, Ellice, Hawaii and all intervening clusters. +The term is so far justified in that it harmonizes better than +Oceania did with the names of the other continents, and also +embodies the two essential facts that it is a south-eastern +extension of Asia, and that its central and most important +division is the great island-continent of Australia. In a more +restricted sense the term Australasia corresponds to the large +division including Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Australasia</i>, 2 vols. Stanford Compendium Series, new issue +(London, 1907-1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTRALIA,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> the only continent entirely in the southern +hemisphere. It lies between 10° 39′ and 39° 11½’ S., and between +113° 5′ and 153° 16′ E. Its greatest length is 2400 m. from +east to west, and the greatest breadth 1971 m. from north to +south. The area is, approximately, 2,946,691 sq. m., with a +coast line measuring about 8850 m. This is equal to 1 m. to +each 333 sq. m. of land, the smallest proportion of coast shown +by any of the continents.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Physical Geography</p> + +<p><i>Physiography</i>.—The salient features of the Australian +continent are its compact outline, the absence of navigable +rivers communicating with the interior, the absence of +active volcanoes or snow-capped mountains, its +<span class="sidenote">General character.</span> +isolation from other lands, and its antiquity. Some of +the most profound changes that have taken place on this globe +occurred in Mesozoic times, and a great portion of Australia +was already dry land when vast tracts of Europe and Asia +were submerged; in this sense, therefore, Australia has been +rightly referred to as one of the oldest existing land surfaces. +It has been described as at once the largest island and the +smallest continent on the globe. The general contours exemplify +the law of geographers in regard to continents, viz. as to their +having a high border around a depressed interior, and the highest +mountains on the side of the greatest ocean. On the N. +Australia is bounded by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and +Torres Strait; on the E. by the Pacific Ocean; on the S. by +Bass Strait and the Southern Ocean; and on the W. by the +Indian Ocean. It stands up from the ocean depths in three +fairly well-marked terraces. The basal plain of these terraces +is the bed of the ocean, which on the Pacific side has an average +depth of 15,000 ft. From this profound foundation rise +Australia, New Guinea and Melanesia, in varying slopes. The +first ledge rising from the ocean floor has a depth averaging +8000 ft. below sea-level. The outer edge of this ledge is roughly +parallel to the coast of Western Australia, and more than 150 m. +from the land. Round the Australian Bight it continues parallel +to the coast, until south of Spencer Gulf (the basal ledge still +averaging 8000 ft. in depth) it sweeps southwards to lat. 55°, +and forms a submarine promontory 1000 m. long. The edge of +the abysmal area comes close to the eastern coasts of Tasmania +and New South Wales, approaching to within 60 m. of Cape +Howe. The terrace closest to the land, known as the continental +shelf, has an average depth of 600 ft., and connects Australia, +New Guinea, and Tasmania in one unbroken sweep. Compared +with other continents, the Australian continental shelf is extremely +narrow, and there are points on the eastern coast where +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span> +the land plunges down to oceanic depths with an abruptness +rarely paralleled. Off the Queensland coast the shelf broadens, +its outer edge being lined by the seaward face of the Great +Barrier Reef. From Torres Strait to Dampier Land the shelf +spreads out, and connects Australia with New Guinea and the +Malay Archipelago. An elongation of the shelf to the south joins +Tasmania with the mainland. The vertical relief of the land +above the ocean is a very important factor in determining the +climate as well as the distribution of the fauna and flora of a +continent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The land mass of Australia rises to a mean height much less than +that of any other continent; and the chief mountain systems are +parallel to, and not far from, the coast-line. Thus, taking the continent +as a whole, it may be described as a plateau, fringed by a low-lying +well-watered coast, with a depressed, and for the most part +arid, interior. A great plain, covering quite 500,000 sq. m., occupies +a position a little to the east of a meridional line bisecting the continent, +and south of the 22nd degree, but portions of it stretch +upwards to the low-lying country south of the Gulf of Carpentaria. +The contour of the continent in latitude 30° 5′ is as follows:—a +short strip of coastal plain; then a sharp incline rising to a mountain +range 4000 ft. above sea-level, at a distance of 40 m. from the coast. +From this a gently-sloping plateau extends to almost due north of +Spencer Gulf, at which point its height has fallen almost to +sea-level. Then there is a gentle rise to the low steppes, 500 to 1000 ft. +above sea-level. A further gentle rise in the high steppes leads to +the mountains of the West Australian coast, and another strip of +low-lying coastal land to the sea.</p> + +<p>With a circumference of 8000 m. Australia presents a contour +wonderfully devoid of inlets from the sea except on its northern +shores, where the coast-line is largely indented. The Gulf of Carpentaria, +situated in the north, is enclosed on the east by the projection +of Cape York, and on the west by Arnheim Land, and forms +the principal bay on the whole coast, measuring about 6° of long. +by 6° of lat. Farther to the west, Van Diemen’s Gulf, though much +smaller, forms a better-protected bay, having Melville Island between +it and the ocean; while beyond this, Queen’s Channel and Cambridge +Gulf form inlets about 14° 50′ S. On the north-west of the continent +the coast-line is much broken, the chief indentations being Admiralty +Gulf, Collier Bay and King Sound, on the shores of Tasman Land. +Western Australia, again, is not favoured with many inlets, Exmouth +Gulf and Shark’s Bay being the only bays of any size. The same +remark may be made of the rest of the sea-board; for, with the +exception of Spencer Gulf, the Gulf of St Vincent and Port Phillip +on the south, and Moreton Bay, Hervey Bay and Broad Sound on +the east, the coast-line is singularly uniform. There are, however, +numerous spacious harbours, especially on the eastern coast, which +are referred to in the detailed articles dealing with the different +states. The Great Barrier Reef forms the prominent feature off +the north-east coast of Australia; its extent from north to south is +1200 m., and it is therefore the greatest of all coral reefs. The +channel between the reef and the coast is in places 70 m. wide and +400 ft. deep. There are a few clear openings in the outer rampart +which the reef presents to the ocean. These are opposite to the +large estuaries of the Queensland rivers, and might be thought to +have been caused by fresh water from the land. The breaks are, +however, some 30 to 90 m. away from land and more probably were +caused by subsidence; the old river-channels known to exist below +sea-level, as well as the former land connexion with New Guinea, seem +to point to the conditions assumed in Darwin’s well-known subsidence +theory, and any facts that appear to be inconsistent with the theory +of a steady and prolonged subsidence are explainable by the assumption +of a slight upheaval.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Tasmania there are no important islands +belonging geographically to Australia, for New Guinea, Timor and +other islands of the East Indian archipelago, though not removed +any great distance from the continent, do not belong to its system. +On the east coast there are a few small and unimportant islands. +In Bass Strait are Flinders Island, about 800 sq. m. in area, Clarke +Island, and a few other small islands. Kangaroo Island, at the +entrance of St Vincent Gulf, is one of the largest islands on the +Australian coast, measuring 80 m. from east to west with an average +width of 20 m. Numerous small islands lie off the western coast, +but none has any commercial importance. On the north coast are +Melville and Bathurst Islands; the former, which is 75 m. long and +38 m. broad, is fertile and well watered. These islands are opposite +Port Darwin, and to the westward of the large inlet known as +Van Diemen’s Gulf. In the Gulf of Carpentaria are numerous +islands, the largest bearing the Dutch name of Groote Eylandt.</p> + +<p>Along the full length of the eastern coast extends a succession +of mountain chains. The vast Cordillera of the Great Dividing +Range originates in the south-eastern corner of the continent, +and runs parallel with and close to the eastern +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +shore, through the states of Victoria and New South Wales, +right up to the far-distant York Peninsula in Queensland. In +Victoria the greatest elevation is reached in the peaks of Mount +Bogong (6508 ft.) and Mount Feathertop (6303 ft.), both of which +lie north of the Dividing Range; in the main range Mount Hotham +(6100 ft.) and Mount Cobberas (6025 ft.) are the highest summits. +In New South Wales, but close to the Victorian border, are found the +loftiest peaks of Australia, Mount Kosciusco and Mount Townsend, +rising to heights of 7328 and 7260 ft. respectively. The range is here +called the Muniong, but farther north it receives the name of Monaro +Range; the latter has a much reduced altitude, its average being +only about 2000 ft. As the tableland runs northward it decreases +both in height and width, until it narrows to a few miles only, with an +elevation of scarcely 1500 ft.; under the name of the Blue Mountains +the plateau widens again and increases in altitude, the chief peaks +being Mount Clarence (4000 ft.), Mount Victoria (3525 ft.), and Mount +Hay (3270 ft.). The Dividing Range decreases north of the Blue +Mountains, until as a mere ridge it divides the waters of the coastal +rivers from those flowing to the Darling. The mass widens out once +more in the Liverpool Range, where the highest peak, Mount Oxley, +reaches 4500 ft., and farther north, in the New England Range, +Ben Lomond reaches an elevation of 5000 ft. Near the Queensland +border, Mount Lindsay, in the Macpherson Range, rises to a height +of 5500 ft. In the latitude of Brisbane the chain swerves inland; +no other peak north of this reaches higher than Mount Bartle Frere +in the Bellenden Ker Range (5438 ft.). The Southern Ocean system +of the Victorian Dividing Range hardly attains to the dignity of +high mountains. An eastern system in South Australia touches at +a few points a height of 3000 ft.; and the Stirling Range, belonging +to the south-western system of South Australia, reaches to 2340 ft. +There are no mountains behind the Great Australian Bight. On +the west the Darling Range faces the Indian Ocean, and extends +from Point D’Entrecasteaux to the Murchison river. North of the +Murchison, Mount Augustus and Mount Bruce, with their connecting +highlands, cut off the coastal drainage from the interior; but no +point on the north-west coast reaches a greater altitude than 4000 ft. +Several minor ranges, the topography of which is little known, +extend from Cambridge Gulf, behind a very much broken coast-line, +to Limmen Bight on the Gulf of Carpentaria. Nothing is more +remarkable than the contrast between the aspect of the coastal +ranges on the north-east and on the south-east of the continent. The +higher Australian peaks in the south-east look just what they are, the +worn and denuded stumps of mountains, standing for untold ages +above the sea. Their shoulders are lifted high above the tree-line. +Their summits stand out gaunt and lonely in an unbroken solitude. +Having left the tree-line far behind him, nothing is visible to the +traveller for miles around but barren peaks and torn crags in indescribable +confusion. A verdure of herbage clothes the valleys +that have been scooped from the summits downwards. But there are +no perpetual snow-fields, no glaciers creep down these valleys, and +no alpine hamlets ever appear to break the monotony. The mountains +of the north-east, on the contrary, are clothed to their summits +with a rich and varied flora. Naked crags, when they do appear, lift +themselves from a sea of green, and a tropical vegetation, quite +Malaysian in character, covers everything.</p> + +<p>The absence of active volcanoes in Australia is a state of things, +in a geological sense, quite new to the continent. Some of the +volcanoes of the western districts of Victoria have been in eruption +probably subsequent to the advent of the black-fellow. In some +instances the cones are quite intact, and the beds of ash and scoriae +are as yet almost unaffected by denuding agencies. Late in the +Tertiary period vast sheets of lava poured from many points of the +Great Dividing Range of eastern Australia. But it is notable that +all recent volcanic action was confined to a wide belt parallel to +the coast. No evidences of recent lava flows can be found in the +interior over the great alluvial plain, the Lower, or the Higher +Steppes. Nor has the continent, as a whole, in recent times been +subjected to any violent earth tremors; though in 1873, to the +north of Lake Amadeus, in central Australia, Ernest Giles records +the occurrence of earthquake shocks violent enough to dislodge considerable +rock masses.</p> + +<p>Australia possesses one mountain which, though not a volcano, +is a “burning mountain.” This is Mount Wingen, situated in a spur +of the Liverpool Range and close to the town of Scone. Its fires +are not volcanic, but result from the combustion of coal some +distance underground, giving off much smoke and steam; geologists +estimate that the burning has been going on for at least 800 years.</p> + +<p>The coastal belt of Australia is everywhere well watered, with +the exception of the country around the Great Australian Bight +and Spencer Gulf. Flowing into the Pacific Ocean on the +east coast there are some fine rivers, but the majority have +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +short and rapid courses. In Queensland a succession of rivers falls +into the Pacific from Cape York to the southern boundary of the +state. The Burdekin is the finest of these, draining an area of +53,500 sq. m., and emptying into Upstart Bay; it receives numerous +tributaries in its course, and carries a large body of fresh water even +in the driest seasons. The Fitzroy river is the second in point of +size; it drains an area of 55,600 sq. m., and receives several tributary +streams during its course to Keppel Bay. The Brisbane river, +falling into Moreton Bay, is important chiefly from the fact that the +city of Brisbane is situated on its banks. In New South Wales there +are several important rivers, the largest of which is the Hunter, +draining 11,000 sq. m., and having a course of 200 m. Taking them +from north to south, the principal rivers are the Richmond, Clarence, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span> +Macleay, Hastings, Manning, Hunter, Hawkesbury and Shoalhaven. +The Snowy river has the greater part of its course in New South +Wales, but its mouth and the last 120 m. are in Victoria. The other +rivers worth mentioning are the Yarra, entering the sea at Port +Phillip, Hopkins and Glenelg. The Murray (<i>q.v.</i>), the greatest river +of Australia, debouches into Lake Alexandrina, and thence into the +sea at Encounter Bay in South Australia. There are no other rivers +of importance in South Australia, but the Torrens and the Gawler +may be mentioned. Westward of South Australia, on the shores of +the Australian Bight, there is a stretch of country 300 m. in length +unpierced by any streams, large or small, but west of the bight, +towards Cape Leeuwin, some small rivers enter the sea. The south-west +coast is watered by a few streams, but none of any size; +amongst these is the Swan, upon which Perth, the capital of Western +Australia, is built. Between the Swan and North-West Cape the +principal rivers are the Greenough, Murchison and Gascoyne; on +the north-west coast, the Ashburton, Fortescue and De Grey; and in +the Kimberley district, the Fitzroy, Panton, Prince Regent and the +Ord. In the Northern Territory are several fine rivers. The Victoria +river is navigable for large vessels for a distance of about 43 m. from +the sea, and small vessels may ascend for another 80 m. The Fitzmaurice, +discharging into the estuary of the Victoria, is also a large +stream. The Daly, which in its upper course is called the Katherine, +is navigable for a considerable distance, and small vessels are able +to ascend over 100 m. The Adelaide, discharging into Adam Bay, +has been navigated by large vessels for about 38 m., and small vessels +ascend still farther. The South Alligator river, flowing into Van +Diemen’s Gulf, is also a fine stream, navigable for over 30 m. by large +vessels; the East Alligator river, falling into the same gulf, has been +navigated for 40 m. Besides those mentioned, there are a number +of smaller rivers discharging on the north coast, and on the west +shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria the Roper river discharges itself +into Limmen Bight. The Roper is a magnificent stream, navigable +for about 75 or 80 m. by vessels of the largest tonnage, and light +draught vessels can ascend 20 m. farther. Along the portion of the +south shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria which belongs to Queensland +and the east coast, many large rivers discharge their waters, amongst +them the Norman, Flinders, Leichhardt, Albert and Gregory on the +southern shore, and the Batavia, Archer, Coleman, Mitchell, Staaten +and Gilbert on the eastern shore. The rivers flowing into the Gulf +of Carpentaria, as well as those in the Northern Territory, drain +country which is subject to regular monsoonal rains, and have the +general characteristics of sub-tropical rivers.</p> + +<p>The network of streams forming the tributaries of the Darling +and Murray system give an idea of a well-watered country. The +so-called rivers have a strong flow only after heavy rains, and some +of them do not ever reach the main drainage line. Flood waters +disappear often within a distance of a few miles, being absorbed by +porous soil, stretches of sand, and sometimes by the underlying +bed-rocks. In many cases the rivers as they approach the main +stream break up into numerous branches, or spread their waters over +vast flats. This is especially the case with the tributaries of the +Darling on its left bank, where in seasons of great rains these rivers +overspread their banks and flood the flat country for miles around +and thus reach the main stream. Lieutenant John Oxley went down +the Lachlan (1817) during one of these periods of flood, and the great +plains appeared to him to be the fringe of a vast inland sea. As a +matter of fact, they are an alluvial deposit spread out by the same +flood waters. The great rivers of Australia, draining inland, carve +out valleys, dissolve limestone, and spread out their deposit over +the plains when the waters become too sluggish to bear their burden +farther. From a geological standpoint, the Great Australian Plain +and the fertile valley of the Nile have had a similar origin. Taking +the Lachlan as one type of Australian river, we find it takes its rise +amongst the precipitous and almost unexplored valleys of the Great +Dividing Range. With the help of its tributaries it acts as a denuding +agent for 14,000 sq. m. of country, and carries its burden of +sediment westwards. A point is reached about 200 m. from the +Dividing Range, where the river ceases to act as a denuding agent, +and the area of deposition begins, at a level of 250 ft. above the sea, +but before the waters can reach the ocean they have still to travel +about 1000 m.</p> + +<p>The Darling is reckoned amongst the longest rivers in the world, +for it is navigable, part of the year, from Walgett to its confluence +with the Murray, 1758 m., and then to the sea, a further distance of +587 m.—making in all 2345 m. of navigable water. But this gives +no correct idea of the true character of the Darling, for it can hardly +be said to drain its own watershed. From the sources of its various +tributaries to the town of Bourke, the river may be described as +draining a watershed. But from Bourke to the sea, 550 m. in a direct +line, the river gives rather than receives water from the country it +flows through.</p> + +<p>The annual rainfall and the area of the catchment afford no +measure whatever as to the size of a river in the interior of Australia. +The discharge of the Darling river at Bourke does not amount to +more than 10% of the rainfall over the country which it drains. +It was this remarkable fact which first led to the idea that, as the +rainfall could not be accounted for either by evaporation or by the +river discharge, much of the 90% unaccounted for must sink into +the ground, and in part be absorbed by some underlying bed-rock. +All Australian rivers, except the Murray and the Murrumbidgee, +depend entirely and directly on the rainfall. They are flooded after +rain, and in seasons of drought many of them, especially the tributaries +of the Darling, become chains of ponds. Springs which would +equalize the discharge of rivers by continuing to pour water into +their beds after the rainy season has passed seem entirely absent +in the interior. Nor are there any snowfields to feed rivers, as in the +other continents. More remarkable still, over large tracts of country +the water seems disposed to flow away from, rather than to, the +river-beds. As the low-lying plains are altogether an alluvial deposit, +the coarser sediments accumulate in the regions where the river first +overflows its banks to spread out over the plains. The country +nearest the river receiving the heaviest deposit becomes in this way +the highest ground, and so continues until a “break-away” occurs, +when a new river-bed is formed, and the same process of deposition +and accumulation is repeated. As the general level of the country +is raised by successive alluvial deposits, the more ancient river-beds +become buried, but being still connected with the newer rivers at +some point or other, they continue to absorb water. This underground +network of old river-beds underlying the great alluvial plains +must be filled to repletion before flood waters will flow over the +surface. It is not surprising, therefore, that comparatively little of +the rainfall over the vast extent of the great central plain ever reaches +the sea by way of the river systems; indeed these systems as +usually shown on the maps leave a false impression as to the actual +condition of things.</p> + +<p>The great alluvial plain is one of Australia’s most notable inland +features; its extent is upwards of 500,000 sq. m., lying east of +135° W. and extending right across the continent from +the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Murray river. The interior +<span class="sidenote">Steppes.</span> +of the continent west of 135° and north of the Musgrave ranges is +usually termed by geographers the Australian Steppes. It is entirely +different in all essential features from the great alluvial plains. Its +prevailing aspect is characterized by flat and terraced hills, capped +by desert sandstone, with stone-covered flats stretching over +long distances. The country round Lake Eyre, where some of the +land is actually below sea-level, comes under this heading. The +higher steppes, as far as they are known, consist of Ordovician and +Cambrian rocks, with an average elevation of 1500 to 3000 ft. above +sea-level. Over this country water-courses are shown on maps. +These run in wet seasons, but in every instance for a short distance +only, and sooner or later they are lost in sand-hills, where their +waters disappear and a line of stunted gum-trees (<i>Eucalyptus rostrata</i>) +is all that is present to indicate that there may be even a soakage to +mark the abandoned course. The steppes cover a surface of 400,000 +sq. m., and from this vast expanse not a drop of the scanty rainfall +reaches the sea; there is no leading drainage system and there are +no rivers. Another notable feature of the interior is the so-called +lake area, a district stretching to the north of Spencer Gulf. These +<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span> +lakes are expanses of brackish waters that spread or +contract as the season is one of drought or rain. In +seasons of drought they are hardly more than swamps and mud flats, +which for a time may become a grassy plain, or desolate coast encrusted +with salt. The country around is the dreariest imaginable, +the surface is a dead level, there is no heavy timber and practically +no settlement. Lake Torrens, the largest of these depressions, sometimes +forms a sheet of water 100 m. in length. To the north again +stretches Lake Eyre, and to the west Lake Gairdner. Some of these +lake-beds are at or slightly below sea-level, so that a very slight +depression of the land to the south of them would connect much of +the interior with the Southern Ocean.</p> +<div class="author">(T. A. C.)</div> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The states of Australia are divided by natural boundaries, +which separate geographical areas having different characters, +owing, mainly, to their different geological structures. Hence the +general stratigraphical geology can be most conveniently summarized +for each state separately, dealing here with the geological history of +Australia as a whole. Australia is essentially the fragment of a great +plateau land of Archean rocks. It consists in the main of an Archean +block or “coign,” which still occupies nearly the whole of the western +half of the continent, outcrops in north-eastern Queensland, forms +the foundation of southern New South Wales and eastern Victoria, +and is exposed in western Victoria, in Tasmania, and in the western +flank of the Southern Alps of New Zealand. These areas of Archean +rocks were doubtless once continuous. But they have been separated +by the foundering of the Coral Sea and the Tasman Sea, which +divided the continent of Australia from the islands of the Australasian +festoon; and the foundering of the band across Australia, from the +Gulf of Carpentaria, through western Queensland and western New +South Wales, to the lower basin of the Murray, has separated the +Archean areas of eastern and western Australia. The breaking up +of the old Archean foundation block began in Cambrian and Ordovician +times. A narrow Cambrian sea must have extended across +central Australia from the Kimberley Goldfield in the north-west, +through Tempe Downs and the Macdonnell chain in central Australia, +to the South Australian highlands, central Victoria at Mansfield, +and northern Tasmania. Cambrian rocks occur in each of these +districts, and they are best developed in the South Australian highlands, +where they include a long belt of contemporary glacial deposits. +Marine Ordovician rocks were deposited along the same +general course. They are best developed in the Macdonnell chain in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span> +central Australia and in Victoria, where the fullest sequence is +known; while they also extended north-eastward from Victoria +into New South Wales, where, as yet, no Cambrian rocks have been +found. The Silurian system was marked by the retreat of the sea +from central Australia; but the sea still covered a band across +Victoria, from the coast to the Murray basin, passing to the east of +Melbourne. This Silurian sea was less extensive than the Ordovician +in Victoria; but it appears to have been wider in New South Wales +and in Queensland. The best Silurian sequence is in New South +Wales. Silurian rocks are well developed in western Tasmania, and +the Silurian sea must have washed the south-western corner of the +continent, if the rocks of the Stirling Range be rightly identified as +of this age.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:853px; height:749px" src="images/img944.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2">The Devonian system includes a complex series of deposits, which +are of most interest in eastern Australia. This period was marked +by intense earth movements, which affected the whole of the east +Australian highlands. The Lower Devonian beds are in the main +terrestrial, or coarse littoral deposits, and volcanic rocks. The +Middle Devonian was marked by the same great transgression as in +Europe and America; it produced inland seas, extending into +Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, in which were deposited +limestones with a rich coral fauna. The Upper Devonian was a +period of marine retreat; the crustal disturbances of the Lower +Devonian were renewed and great quartz-pebble beaches were +formed on the rising shore lines, producing the West Coast Range +conglomerates of Tasmania, and the similar rocks to the south-east +of Mansfield in Victoria. Intrusions of granitic <i>massifs</i> in the +Devonian period formed the primitive mountain axis of Victoria, +which extends east and west across the state and forms the nucleus +of the Victorian highlands. Similar granitic intrusions occurred in +New South Wales and Queensland, and built up a mountain chain, +which ran north and south across the continent; its worn-down +stumps now form the east Australian highlands.</p> + +<p>The Carboniferous period began with a marine transgression, +enabling limestones to form in Tasmania and New South Wales; +and at the same time the sea first got in along the western edge of +the western plateau, depositing the Carboniferous rocks of the +Gascoyne basin and the coastal plain of north-western Australia. +The Upper Carboniferous period was in the main terrestrial, and +during it were laid down the coal-seams of New South Wales; they +are best developed in the basin of the Hunter river, and they extend +southward, covered by Mesozoic deposits, beyond Sydney. The +Coal Measures become narrower in the south, until, owing to the +eastward projection of the highlands, the Lower Palaeozoic rocks +reach the coast. The coal-seams must have been formed in well-watered, +lowland forests, at the foot of a high mountain range, built +up by the Devonian earth movements. The mountains both in +Victoria and New South Wales were snow-capped, and glaciers +flowed down their flanks and laid down Carboniferous glacial deposits, +which are still preserved in basins that flank the mountain ranges, +such as the famous conglomerates of Bacchus Marsh, Heathcote +and the Loddon valley in Victoria, and of Branxton and other +localities in New South Wales. The age of the glacial deposits is +later than the <i>Glossopteris</i> flora and occurs early in the time of the +<i>Gangamopteris</i> flora. Kitson’s work in Tasmania shows that there +also the glacial beds may be correlated with the lower or Greta Coal +Measures of New South Wales.</p> + +<p>The Permian deposits are best developed in New South Wales +and Tasmania, where their characters show the continuation of the +Carboniferous conditions. The Mesozoic begins with a Triassic land +period in the mainland of Australia; while the islands of the +Australasian festoon contain the Triassic marine limestones, which fringe +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span> +the whole of the Pacific. The Triassic beds are best known in New +South Wales, where round Sydney they include a series of sandstones +and shales. They also occur in northern Tasmania.</p> + +<p>The Jurassic system is represented by two types. In Victoria, +Tasmania, northern New South Wales and Queensland, there are +Jurassic terrestrial deposits, containing the coal seams of Victoria, +of the Clarence basin of north-eastern New South Wales, and of the +Ipswich series in Queensland; the same beds range far inland on +the western slopes of the east Australian highlands in New South +Wales and Queensland and they occur, with coal-seams, at Leigh’s +Creek, at the northern foot of the South Australian highlands. They +are also preserved in basins on the western plateau, as shown by +brown coal deposits passed through in the Lake Phillipson bore. +The second and marine type of the Jurassics occurs in Western +Australia, on the coastal plain skirting the western foot of the western +plateau.</p> + +<p>The Cretaceous period was initiated by the subsidence of a large +area to the south of the Gulf of Carpentaria, whereby a Lower +Cretaceous sea spread southward, across western Queensland, +western New South Wales and the north-eastern districts of South +Australia. In this sea were laid down the shales of the Rolling +Downs formation. The sea does not appear to have extended completely +across Australia, breaking it into halves, for a projection +from the Archean plateau of Western Australia extended as far east +as the South Australian highlands, and thence probably continued +eastward, till it joined the Victorian highlands. The Cretaceous sea +gradually receded and the plains of the Rolling Downs formation +formed on its floor were covered by the sub-aerial and lacustrine +deposits of the Desert Sandstone.</p> + +<p>The Kainozoic period opened with fresh earth movements, the +most striking evidence of which are the volcanic outbreaks all round +the Australian coasts. These movements in the south-east formed +the Great Valley of Victoria, which traverses nearly the whole of +the state between the Victorian highlands to the north, and the +Jurassic sandstones of the Otway Ranges and the hills of south +Gippsland. In this valley were laid down, either in Eocene or Oligocene +times, a great series of lake beds and thick accumulations of +brown coal. Similar deposits, of approximately the same age, occur +in Tasmania and New Zealand; and at about the same time there +began the Kainozoic volcanic period of Australasia. The first +eruptions piled up huge domes of lavas rich in soda, including the +geburite-dacites and sölvsbergites of Mount Macedon in Victoria, +and the kenyte and tephrite domes of Dunedin, in New Zealand. +These rocks were followed by the outpouring of the extensive older +basalts in the Great Valley of Victoria and on the highlands of +eastern Victoria, and also in New South Wales and Queensland. +Then followed a marine transgression along most of the southern +coast of Australia. The sea encroached far on the land from the +Great Australian Bight and there formed the limestones of the +Nullarbor Plains. The sea extended up the Murray basin into the +western plains of New South Wales. Farther east the sea was +interrupted by the still existing land-connexion between Tasmania +and Victoria; but beyond it, the marine deposits are found again, +fringing the coasts of eastern Gippsland and Croajingolong. These +marine deposits are not found anywhere along the eastern coast of +Australia; but they occur, and reach about the same height above +sea-level, in New Guinea, and are widely developed in New Zealand. +No doubt eastern Australia then extended far out into the Tasman +Sea. The great monoclinal fold which formed the eastern face of the +east Australian highlands, west of Sydney, is of later age. After +this marine period was brought to a close the sea retreated. Tasmania +and Victoria were separated by the foundering of Bass +Strait, and at the same time the formation of the rift valley of +Spencer Gulf, and Lake Torrens, isolated the South Australian +highlands from the Eyre Peninsula and the Westralian plateau. +Earth movements are still taking place both along Bass Strait +and the Great Valley of South Australia, and apparently along the +whole length of the southern coast of Australia.</p> + +<p><i>The Flowing Wells of Central Australia</i>.—The clays of the Rolling +Downs formation overlie a series of sands and drifts, saturated with +water under high pressure, which discharges at the surface as a +flowing well, when a borehole pierces the impermeable cover. The +first of these wells was opened at Kallara in the west of New South +Wales in 1880. In 1882, Dr W.L. Jack concluded that western +Queensland might be a deep artesian basin. The Blackhall bore, put +down at his advice from 1885 to 1888, reached a water-bearing layer +at the depth of 1645 ft. and discharged 291,000 gallons a day. It was +the first of the deep artesian wells of the continent. As the plains on +the Rolling Downs formation are mostly waterless, the discovery +of this deep reservoir of water has been of great aid in the development +of central Australia. In Queensland to the 30th of June 1904, +973 wells had been sunk, of which 596 were flowing wells, and the +total flow was 62,635,722 cub. ft. a day. The deepest well is that +at Whitewood, 5046 ft. deep. In New South Wales by the 30th of +June 1903, the government had put down 101 bores producing 66 +flowing wells and 22 sub-artesian wells, with a total discharge of +54,000,000 gallons a day; and there were also 144 successful private +wells. In South Australia there are 38 deep bores, from 20 of which +there is a flow of 6,250,000 gallons a day.</p> + +<p>The wells were first called artesian in the belief that the ascent of +the water in them was due to the hydrostatic pressure of water at a +higher level in the Queensland hills. The well-water was supposed +to have percolated underground, through the Blythesdale Braystone, +which outcrops in patches on the eastern edge of the Rolling Downs +formation. But the Blythesdale Braystone is a small local formation, +unable to supply all the wells that have been sunk; and many of +the wells derive their water from the Jurassic shales and mudstones. +The difference in level between the outcrop of the assumed eastern +intake and of the wells is often so small, in comparison with their +distance apart, that the friction would completely sop up the whole +of the available hydrostatic head. Many of the well-waters contain +gases; thus the town of Roma is lighted by natural gas which +escapes from its well. The chemical characters of the well-waters, +the irregular distribution of the water-pressure, the distribution of +the underground thermal gradients, and the occurrence in some of +the wells of a tidal rise and fall of a varying period, are facts which +are not explained on the simple hydrostatic theory. J.W. Gregory +has maintained (<i>Dead Heart of Australia</i>, 1906, pp. 273-341) that +the ascent of water in these wells is due to the tension of the included +gases and the pressure of overlying sheets of rocks, and that some +of the water is of plutonic origin.<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. G.)</div> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The Australian continent, extending over 28° of +latitude, might be expected to show a considerable diversity of +climate. In reality, however, it experiences fewer climatic +variations than the other great continents, owing to its distance +(28°) from the Antarctic circle and (11°) from the equator. +There is, besides, a powerful determining cause in the uniform +character and undivided extent of its dry interior. The plains +and steppes already described lie either within or close to the +tropics. They present to the fierce play of the sun almost a +level surface, so that during the day that surface becomes +intensely heated and at night gives off its heat by radiation. +Ordinarily the alternate expansion and contraction of the +atmosphere which takes place under such circumstances would +draw in a supply of moisture from the ocean, but the heated +interior, covering some 900,000 sq. m., is so immense, that the +moist air from the ocean does not come in sufficient supply, nor +are there mountain chains to intercept the clouds which from +time to time are formed; so that two-fifths of Australia, comprising +a region stretching from the Australian Bight to 20° S. +and from 117° to 142° E., receives less than an average of 10 in. +of rain throughout the year, and a considerable portion of this +region has less than 5 in. No part of Victoria and very little of +Queensland and New South Wales lie within this area. The +rest of the continent may be considered as well watered. The +north-west coast, particularly the portions north of Cambridge +Gulf and the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, are favoured +with an annual visitation of the monsoon from December to +March, penetrating as far as 500 m. into the continent, and +sweeping sometimes across western and southern Queensland +to the northern interior of New South Wales. It is this tropical +downpour that fills and floods the rivers flowing into Lake Eyre +and those falling into the Darling on its right bank. The whole +of the east coast of the continent is well watered. From Cape +York almost to the tropic of Capricorn the rainfall exceeds 50 in. +and ranges to over 70 in. At Brisbane the fall is 50 in., and +portions of the New South Wales coast receive a like quantity, +but speaking generally the fall is from 30 in. to 40 in. The +southern shores of the continent receive much less rain. From +Cape Howe to Melbourne the fall may be taken at from 30 in. +to 40 in., Melbourne itself having an average of 25.6 in. West +of Port Phillip the fall is less, averaging 20 in. to 30 in., diminishing +greatly away from the coast. Along the shores of Encounter +Bay and St Vincent and Spencer Gulfs, the precipitation ranges +from 10 to 20 in., the yearly rainfall at Adelaide is a little less +than 21 in., while the head of Spencer Gulf is within the 5 to +10 in. district. The rest of the southern coast west as far as +124° E., with the exception of the southern projection of Eyre +Peninsula, which receives from 10 to 20 in., belongs to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span> +district with from 5 to 10 in. annual rainfall. The south-western +angle of the continent, bounded by a line drawn diagonally +from Jurien river to Cape Riche, has an average of from 30 to +40 in. annual rainfall, diminishing to about 20 to 30 in. in the +country along the diagonal line. The remainder of the south +and west coast from 124° E. to York Sound in the Kimberley +district for a distance of some 150 m. inland has a fall ranging +from 10 to 20 in. The 10 to 20 in. rainfall band circles across +the continent through the middle of the Northern Territory, +embraces the entire centre and south-west of Queensland, with +the exception of the extreme south-western angle of the state, +and includes the whole of the interior of New South Wales to a +line about 200 m. from the coast, as well as the western and +northern portions of Victoria and South Australia south of the +Murray.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The area of Australia subject to a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in. is +843,000 sq. m. On the seaward side of this area in the north and +east is the 20 to 30 in. annual rainfall area, and still nearer the sea +are the exceptionally well-watered districts. The following table +shows the area of the rainfall zones in square miles:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm">Rainfall.</td> <td class="tcc">Rainfall Area<br />in sq. m.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Under 10 inches</td> <td class="tcr cl">1,219,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">10 to 20  ”</td> <td class="tcr">843,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">20 to 30  ”</td> <td class="tcr cl">399,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">30 to 40  ”</td> <td class="tcr">225,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">40 to 50  ”</td> <td class="tcr cl">140,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">50 to 60  ”</td> <td class="tcr">47,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">60 to 70  ”</td> <td class="tcr cl">56,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Over 70  ”</td> <td class="tcr">14,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">2,946,700</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The tropic of Capricorn divides Australia into two parts. Of these +the northern or intertropical portion contains 1,145,000 sq. m., +comprising half of Queensland, the Northern Territory, and the +north-western divisions of Western Australia. The whole of New South +Wales, Victoria and South Australia proper, half of Queensland, and +more than half of Western Australia, comprising 1,801,700 sq. m., +are without the tropics. In a region so extensive very great varieties +of climate are naturally to be expected, but it may be stated as a +general law that the climate of Australia is milder than that of +corresponding lands in the northern hemisphere. During July, which +is the coldest month in southern latitudes, one-half of Australia has +a mean temperature ranging from 45° to 61°, and the other half from +62° to 80°. The following are the areas subject to the various average +temperatures during the month referred to:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Temperature<br />Fahr.</td> <td class="tcc">Area<br />in sq. m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">45°-50°</td> <td class="tcr cl">18,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">50°-55°</td> <td class="tcr">506,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">55°-60°</td> <td class="tcr cl">681,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">60°-65°</td> <td class="tcr">834,400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">65°-70°</td> <td class="tcr cl">515,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">70°-75°</td> <td class="tcr">275,900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">75°-80°</td> <td class="tcr cl">24,500</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The temperature in December ranges from 60° to above 95° Fahr., +half of Australia having a mean temperature below 84°. Dividing +the land into zones of average summer temperature, the following +are the areas which would fall to each:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Temperature<br />Fahr.</td> <td class="tcc">Area<br />in sq. m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">60°-65°</td> <td class="tcr cl">67,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">65°-70°</td> <td class="tcr">63,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">70°-75°</td> <td class="tcr cl">352,300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">75°-80°</td> <td class="tcr">439,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">80°-85°</td> <td class="tcr cl">733,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">85°-90°</td> <td class="tcr">570,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">90°-95°</td> <td class="tcr cl">584,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">95° and over</td> <td class="tcr">135,400</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Judging from the figures just given, it must be conceded that a +considerable area of the continent is not adapted for colonization by +European races. The region with a mean summer temperature in +excess of 95° Fahr. is the interior of the Northern Territory north +of the 20th parallel; and the whole of the country, excepting the +seaboard, lying between the meridians of 120° and 140°, and north +of the 25th parallel, has a mean temperature in excess of 90° Fahr.</p> + +<p>The area of Australia is so large that the characteristics of its +climate will not be understood without reference to the individual +states. About one-half of the colony of Queensland lies +in the tropics, the remaining area lying between the +<span class="sidenote">Queensland.</span> +tropic and 29° S. The temperature, however, has a daily +range less than that of other countries under the same isothermal +lines. This circumstance is due to the sea-breezes, which blow with +great regularity, and temper what would otherwise be an excessive +heat. The hot winds which prevail during the summer in some of +the other colonies are unknown in Queensland. Of course, in a +territory of such large extent there are many varieties of climate, +and the heat is greater along the coast than on the elevated lands of +the interior. In the northern parts of the colony the high +temperature is very trying to persons of European descent. The mean +temperature at Brisbane, during December, January and February, +is about 76°, while during the months of June, July and August it +averages about 60°. Brisbane, however, is situated near the extreme +southern end of the colony, and its average temperature is +considerably less than that of many of the towns farther north. Thus +the winter in Rockhampton averages nearly 65°, while the summer +heat rises almost to 85°; and at Townsville and Normanton the +average temperature is still higher. The average rainfall along the +coast is high, especially in the north, where it ranges from 60 to 70 in. +per annum, and along a strip of country south from Cape Melville to +Rockingham Bay the average rainfall exceeds 70 in. At Brisbane +the rainfall is about 50 in., taking an average of forty years. A large +area of the interior is watered to the extent of 20 to 30 in. per annum, +but in the west and south, more remote than from 250 to 300 m., +there is a rainfall of less than 20 in.</p> + +<p>Climatically, New South Wales is divided into three marked +divisions. The coastal region has an average summer temperature +ranging from 78° in the north to 67° in the south, with +a winter temperature of from 59° to 52°. Taking the +<span class="sidenote">New South Wales.</span> +district generally, the difference between the mean +summer and mean winter temperatures may be set down +as averaging not more than 20°, a range smaller than is found in +most other parts of the world. Sydney, situated in latitude 33° 51′ S., +has a mean temperature of 62.9° Fahr., which corresponds with that +of Barcelona in Spain and of Toulon in France, the former of these +being in latitude 41° 22′ N. and the latter in 43° 7′ N. At Sydney +the mean summer temperature is 70.8° Fahr., and that of winter +53.9°. The range is thus 16.9° Fahr. At Naples, where the mean +temperature for the year is about the same as at Sydney, the summer +temperature reaches a mean of 74.4°, and the mean of winter +is 47.6°, with a range 26.8°. The mean temperature of Sydney +for a long series of years was spring 62°, summer 71°, autumn 64°, +winter 54°.</p> + +<p>Passing from the coast to the tableland, a distinct climatic region +is entered. Cooma, with a mean summer temperature of 65.4°, and +a mean winter temperature of 41.4°, may be taken as illustrative +of the climate of the southern tableland, and Armidale of the +northern. The yearly average temperature of the latter is scarcely +65.5°, while the summer only reaches 67.7°, and the winter falls +to 44.4°.</p> + +<p>The climatic conditions of the western districts of the state are +entirely different from those of the other two regions. The summer +is hot, but on the whole the climate is very healthy. The town of +Bourke, lying on the upper Darling, may be taken as an example of +many of the interior districts, and illustrates peculiarly well the +defects as well as the excellencies of the climate of the whole region. +Bourke has exactly the same latitude as Cairo, yet its mean summer +temperature is 1.3° less, and its mean annual temperature 4° less +than that of the Egyptian city. New Orleans, also on the same +parallel, is 4° hotter in summer. As regards winter temperature +Bourke leaves little to be desired. The mean winter reading of +the thermometer is 54.7, and accompanied as this is by clear skies +and an absence of snow, the season is both pleasant and invigorating. +The rainfall of New South Wales ranges from an annual +average of 64 in. at various points on the northern coast, and at +Kiandra in the Monaro district, to 9 in. at Milparinka in the +trans-Darling district. The coastal districts average about 42 in. per +annum, the tablelands 32 in., and the western interior has an average +as low as 20 in. At Sydney, the average rainfall, since observations +were commenced, has been 50 in.</p> + +<p>The climate of Victoria does not differ greatly from that of New +South Wales. The heat, however, is generally less intense in summer, +and the cold greater in winter. Melbourne, which stands +in latitude 37° 50′ S., has a mean temperature of 57.3°, +<span class="sidenote">Victoria.</span> +and therefore corresponds with Washington in the United States, +Madrid, Lisbon and Messina. The difference between summer and +winter is, however, less at Melbourne than at any of the places +mentioned, the result of a long series of observations being spring 57°, +summer 65.3°, autumn 58.7°, and winter 49.2°. The highest recorded +temperature in the shade at Melbourne is 110.7°, and the lowest +27°, but it is rare for the summer heat to exceed 85°, or for the winter +temperature in the daytime to fall below 40°. Ballarat, the second +city of Victoria, lies above 100 m. west from Melbourne at a height +of 1400 ft. above sea-level. It has a minimum temperature of 29°, +and a maximum of 104.5°, the average yearly mean being 54.1°. +The rainfall of Melbourne averages 25.58 in., the mean number of +rainy days being 131.</p> + +<p>South Australia proper extends over 26 degrees of latitude, and +naturally presents considerable variations of climate. The coldest +months are June, July and August, during which the +temperature is very agreeable, averaging 53.6°, 51.7°, +<span class="sidenote">South Australia.</span> +and 54° in those months respectively. On the plains +slight frosts occur occasionally, and ice is sometimes seen on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span> +highlands. In summer the sun has great power, and the temperature +reaches 100° in the shade, with hot winds blowing from the interior. +The weather on the whole is remarkably dry. At Adelaide there are +on an average 120 rainy days per annum, with a mean rainfall of +20-88 in. The country is naturally very healthful, as evidence of +which may be mentioned that no great epidemic has ever visited +the state.</p> + +<p>Western Australia has practically only two seasons, the winter +or wet season, which commences in April and ends in October, and +the summer or dry season, which comprises the remainder +of the Year. During the wet season frequent and heavy +<span class="sidenote">Western Australia.</span> +rains fall, and thunderstorms, with sharp showers, occur +in the summer, especially on the north-west coast, which is sometimes +visited by hurricanes of great violence. In the southern and +early-settled parts of the state the mean temperature is about 64°, +but in the more northern portions the heat is excessive, though the +dryness of the atmosphere makes it preferable to moist tropical +climates. The average rainfall at Perth is 33 in. per annum.</p> + +<p>The climate of the Northern Territory is extremely not, except +on the elevated tablelands; altogether, the temperature of this part +of the continent is very similar to that of northern Queensland, and +the climate is not favourable to Europeans. The rainfall in the +extreme north, especially in January and February, is very heavy, +and the annual average along the coast is about 63 in. The whole +of the peninsula north of 15° S. has a rainfall considerably exceeding +40 in. This region is backed by a belt of about 100 m. wide, in +which the rainfall is from 30 to 40 in., from which inwards the +rainfall gradually declines until between Central Mount Stuart and +Macdonnell ranges it falls to between 5 and 10 in.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Fauna and Flora</i>.—The origin of the fauna and flora of +Australia has attracted considerable attention. Much accumulated +evidence, biological and geological, has pointed to a +southern extension of India, an eastern extension of South +Africa, and a western extension of Australia into the Indian +Ocean. The comparative richness of proteaceous plants in +Western Australia and South Africa first suggested a common +source for these primitive types. Dr H.O. Forbes drew attention +to a certain community amongst birds and other vertebrates, +invertebrates, and amongst plants, on all the lands stretching +towards the south pole. A theory was therefore propounded +that these known types were all derived from a continent which +has been named Antarctica. The supposed continent extended +across the south pole, practically joining Australia and South +America. Just as we have evidence of a former mild climate in +the arctic regions, so a similar mild climate has been postulated +for Antarctica. Modern naturalists consider that many of the +problems of Australia’s remarkable fauna and flora can be best +explained by the following hypothesis:—The region now covered +by the antarctic ice-cap was in early Tertiary times favoured +by a mild climate; here lay an antarctic continent or archipelago. +From an area corresponding to what is now South America +there entered a fauna and flora, which, after undergoing modification, +passed by way of Tasmania to Australia. These immigrants +then developed, with some exceptions, into the present Australian +flora and fauna. This theory has advanced from the position +of a disparaged heresy to acceptance by leading thinkers. The +discovery as fossil, in South America, of primitive or ancestral +forms of marsupials has given it much support. One of these, +<i>Prothylacinus</i>, is regarded as the forerunner of the marsupial +wolf of Tasmania. An interesting link between divergent +marsupial families, still living in Ecuador, the <i>Coenolestes</i>, is +another discovery of recent years. On the Australian side the +fact that Tasmania is richest in marsupial types indicates the +gate by which they entered. It is not to be supposed that this +antarctic element, to which Professor Tate has applied the name +<i>Euronotian</i>, entered a desert barren of all life. Previous to its +arrival Australia doubtless possessed considerable vegetation +and a scanty fauna, chiefly invertebrate. At a comparatively +recent date Australia received its third and newest constituent. +The islands of Torres Strait have been shown to be the denuded +remnant of a former extension of Cape York peninsula in North +Queensland. Previous to the existence of the strait, and across +its site, there poured into Australia a wealth of Papuan forms. +Along the Pacific slope of the Queensland Cordillera these +found in soil and climate a congenial home. Among the plants +the wild banana, pepper, orange and mangosteen, rhododendron, +epiphytic orchids and the palm; among mammals the bats and +rats; among birds the cassowary and rifle birds; and among +reptiles the crocodile and tree snakes, characterize this element. +The numerous facts, geological, geographical and biological, +which when linked together lend great support to this theory, +have been well worked out in Australia by Mr Charles Hedley +of the Australian Museum, Sydney.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The zoology of Australia and Tasmania presents a very conspicuous +point of difference from that of other regions of the globe, +in the prevalence of non-placental mammalia. The vast +majority of the mammalia are provided with an organ in +<span class="sidenote">Fauna.</span> +the uterus, by which, before the birth of their young, a vascular +connexion is maintained between the embryo and the parent animal. +There are two orders, the Marsupialia and the Monotremata, which +do not possess this organ; both these are found in Australia, to +which region indeed they are not absolutely confined.</p> + +<p>The geographical limits of the marsupials are very interesting. +The opossums of America are marsupials, though not showing +anomalies as great as kangaroos and bandicoots (in their feet), and +<i>Myrmecobius</i> (in the number of teeth). Except the opossums, no +single living marsupial is known outside the Australian zoological +region. The forms of life characteristic of India and the Malay +peninsula come down to the island of Bali. Bali is separated from +Lombok by a strait not more than 15 m. wide. Yet this narrow +belt of water is the boundary line between the Australasian and the +Indian regions. The zoological boundary passing through the Bali +Strait is called “Wallace’s line,” after the eminent naturalist who +was its discoverer. He showed that not only as regards beasts, but +also as regards birds, these regions are thus sharply limited. Australia, +he pointed out, has no woodpeckers and no pheasants, which +are widely-spread Indian birds. Instead of these it has mound-making +turkeys, honey-suckers, cockatoos and brush-tongued lories, +all of which are found nowhere else in the world.</p> + +<p>The marsupials constitute two-thirds of all the Australian species +of mammals. It is the well-known peculiarity of this order that the +female has a pouch or fold of skin upon her abdomen, in which she +can place the young for suckling within reach of her teats. The +opossum of America is the only species out of Australasia which is +thus provided. Australia is inhabited by at least 110 different species +of marsupials, which is about two-thirds of the known species; these +have been arranged in five tribes, according to the food they eat, +viz., the grass-eaters (kangaroos), the root-eaters (wombats), the +insect-eaters (bandicoots), the flesh-eaters (native cats and rats), +and the fruit-eaters (phalangers).</p> + +<p>The kangaroo (<i>Macropus</i>) lives in droves in the open grassy +plains. Several smaller forms of the same general appearance are +known as wallabies, and are common everywhere. The kangaroo +and most of its congeners show an extraordinary disproportion of +the hind limbs to the fore part of the body. The rock wallabies again +have short tarsi of the hind legs, with a long pliable tail for climbing, +like that of the tree kangaroo of New Guinea, or that of the jerboa. +Of the larger kangaroos, which attain a weight of 200 ℔ and more, +eight species are named, only one of which is found in Western +Australia. Fossil bones of extinct kangaroo species are met with; +these kangaroos must have been of enormous size, twice or thrice that +of any species now living.</p> + +<p>There are some twenty smaller species in Australia and Tasmania, +besides the rock wallabies and the hare kangaroos; these last are +wonderfully swift, making clear jumps 8 or 10 ft. high. Other +terrestrial marsupials are the wombat (<i>Phascolomys</i>), a large, clumsy, +burrowing animal, not unlike a pig, which attains a weight of from +60 to 100 ℔; the bandicoot (<i>Perameles</i>), a rat-like creature whose +depredations annoy the agriculturist; the native cat (<i>Dasyurus</i>), +noted robber of the poultry yard; the Tasmanian wolf (<i>Thylacinus</i>), +which preys on large game; and the recently discovered <i>Notoryctes</i>, +a small animal which burrows like a mole in the desert of the interior. +Arboreal species include the well-known opossums (<i>Phalanger</i>); the +extraordinary tree-kangaroo of the Queensland tropics; the flying +squirrel, which expands a membrane between the legs and arms, and +by its aid makes long sailing jumps from tree to tree; and the native +bear (<i>Phascolarctos</i>), an animal with no affinities to the bear, and +having a long soft fur and no tail.</p> + +<p>The <i>Myrmecobius</i> of Western Australia is a bushy-tailed ant-eater +about the size of a squirrel, and from its lineage and structure of +more than passing interest. It is, Mivart remarks, a survival of a +very ancient state of things. It had ancestors in a flourishing condition +during the Secondary epoch. Its congeners even then lived +in England, as is proved by the fact that their relics have been found +in the Stonesfield oolitic rocks, the deposition of which is separated +from that which gave rise to the Paris Tertiary strata by an abyss +of past time which we cannot venture to express even in thousands +of years.</p> + +<p>We pass on to the other curious order of non-placental mammals, +that of the Monotremata, so called from the structure of their organs +of evacuation with a single orifice, as in birds. Their abdominal +bones are like those of the marsupials; and they are furnished with +pouches for their young, but have no teats, the milk being distilled +into their pouches from the mammary glands. Australia and +Tasmania possess two animals of this order—the echidna, or spiny +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span> +ant-eater (hairy in Tasmania), and the <i>Platypus anatinus</i>, the duckbilled +water mole, otherwise named the <i>Ornithorhynchus paradoxus</i>. +This odd animal is provided with a bill or beak, which is not, like that +of a bird, affixed to the skeleton, but is merely attached to the skin +and muscles.</p> + +<p>Australia has no apes, monkeys or baboons, and no ruminant +beasts. The comparatively few indigenous placental mammals, +besides the dingo or wild dog—which, however, may have come from +the islands north of this continent—are of the bat tribe and of the +rodent or rat tribe. There are four species of large fruit-eating bats, +called flying foxes, twenty of insect-eating bats, above twenty of +land-rats, and five of water-rats. The sea produces three different +seals, which often ascend rivers from the coast, and can live in +lagoons of fresh water; many cetaceans, besides the “right whale” +and sperm whale; and the dugong, found on the northern shores, +which yields a valuable medicinal oil.</p> + +<p>The birds of Australia in their number and variety of species +may be deemed some compensation for its poverty of mammals; +yet it will not stand comparison in this respect with regions of Africa +and South America in the same latitudes. The black swan was +thought remarkable when discovered, as belying an old Latin +proverb. There is also a white eagle. The vulture is wanting. Sixty +species of parrots, some of them very handsome, are found in Australia. +The emu corresponds with the African and Arabian ostrich, +the rhea of South America, and the cassowary of the Moluccas and +New Guinea. In New Zealand this group is represented by the +apteryx, as it formerly was by the gigantic moa, the remains of which +have been found likewise in Queensland. The graceful <i>Menura +superba</i>, or lyre-bird, with its tail feathers spread in the shape of a +lyre, is a very characteristic form. The mound-raising megapodes, +the bower-building satin-birds, and several others, display peculiar +habits. The honey-eaters present a great diversity of plumage. +There are also many kinds of game birds, pigeons, ducks, geese, +plovers and quails. The ornithology of New South Wales and +Queensland is more varied and interesting than that of the other +provinces.</p> + +<p>As for reptiles, Australia has a few tortoises, all of one family, and +not of great size. The “leathery turtle,” which is herbivorous, and +yields abundance of oil, has been caught at sea off the Illawarra +coast so large as 9 ft. in length. The saurians or lizards are numerous, +chiefly on dry sandy or rocky ground in the tropical region. The +great crocodile of Queensland has been known to attain a length of +30 ft.; there is a smaller one about 6 ft. in length to be met with +in the shallow lagoons of the interior of the Northern Territory. +Lizards occur in great profusion and variety. The monitor, or fork-tongued +lizard, which burrows in the earth, climbs and swims, is said +to grow to a length of 8 to 9 ft. This species and many others do +not extend to Tasmania. The monitor is popularly known as the +goanna, a name derived from the iguana, an entirely different animal. +There are about twenty kinds of night-lizards, and many which +hibernate. One species can utter a cry when pained or alarmed, +and the tall-standing frilled lizard can lift its forelegs, and squat or +hop like a kangaroo. There is also the <i>Moloch horridus</i> of South +and Western Australia, covered with tubercles bearing large spines, +which give it a very strange aspect. This and some other lizards +have power to change their colour, not only from light to dark, but +over some portions of their bodies, from yellow to grey or red. +Frogs of many kinds are plentiful, the brilliant green frogs being +especially conspicuous and noisy. Australia is rich in snakes, and +has more than a hundred different kinds. Most of these are venomous, +but all are not equally dreaded. Five rather common species are +certainly deadly—the death adder, the brown, the black, the superb +and the tiger snakes. During the colder months these reptiles remain +in a torpid state. No certain cure has been or is likely to be discovered +for their poison, but in less serious cases strychnine has +been used with advantage. In tropical waters a sea snake is found, +which, though very poisonous, rarely bites. Among the inoffensive +species are counted the graceful green “tree snake,” which pursues +frogs, birds and lizards to the topmost branches of the forest; also +several species of pythons, the commonest of which is known as the +carpet snake. These great reptiles may attain a length of 10 ft.; +they feed on small animals which they crush to death in their +folds.</p> + +<p>The Australian seas are inhabited by many fishes of the same genera +as exist in the southern parts of Asia and Africa. Of those peculiar +to Australian waters may be mentioned the arripis, represented by +what is called among the colonists a salmon trout. A very fine freshwater +fish is the Murray cod, which sometimes weighs 100 ℔; and +the golden perch, found in the same river, has rare beauty of colour. +Among the sea fish, the schnapper is of great value as an article of +food, and its weight comes up to 50 ℔ This is the <i>Pagrus unicolor</i>, of +the family of <i>Sparidae</i>, which includes also the bream. Its colours are +beautiful, pink and red with a silvery gloss; but the male as it grows +old takes on a singular deformity of the head, with a swelling in the +shape of a monstrous human-like nose. These fish frequent rocky shoals +off the eastern coast and are caught in numbers outside Port Jackson +for the Sydney market. Two species of mackerel, differing somewhat +from the European species, are also caught on the coasts. The +so-called red garnet, a pretty fish, with hues of carmine and blue +stripes on its head, is much esteemed for the table. The <i>Trigla +polyommata</i>, or flying garnet, is a greater beauty, with its body of +crimson and silver, and its large pectoral fins, spread like wings, of +a rich green, bordered with purple, and relieved by a black and white +spot. Whiting, mullet, gar-fish, rock cod and many others known +by local names, are in the lists of edible fishes belonging to New South +Wales and Victoria. Oysters abound on the eastern coast, and on +the shelving banks of a vast extent of the northern coast the pearl +oyster is the source of a considerable industry.</p> + +<p>Two existing fishes may be mentioned as ranking in interest with +the <i>Myrmecobius</i> (ant-eater) in the eyes of the naturalist. These are +the <i>Ceratodus Forsteri</i> and the Port Jackson shark. The “mud-fish” +of Queensland (<i>Ceratodus Forsteri</i>) belongs to an ancient order +of fishes—the Dipnoi, only a few species of which have survived from +past geological periods. The Dipnoi show a distinct transition +between fishes and amphibia. So far the mud-fish has been found +only in the Mary and the Burnett rivers. Hardly of less scientific +interest is the Port Jackson shark (<i>Heterodontus</i>). It is a +harmless helmeted ground-shark, living on molluscs, and almost +the sole survivor of a genus abundant in the Secondary rocks of +Europe.</p> + +<p>The eastern parts of Australia are very much richer both in their +botany and in their zoology than any of the other parts. This is due +in part to the different physical conditions there prevailing +and in part to the invasion of the north-eastern +<span class="sidenote">Flora.</span> +portion of the continent by a number of plants characteristically +Melanesian. This element was introduced via Torres Strait, and +spread down the Queensland coast to portions of the New South +Wales littoral, and also round the Gulf of Carpentaria, but has +never been able to obtain a hold in the more arid interior. It has +so completely obliterated the original flora, that a Queensland coast +jungle is almost an exact replication of what may be seen on the +opposite shores of the straits, in New Guinea. This wealth of plant +life is confined to the littoral and the coastal valleys, but the central +valleys and the plateaux have, if not a varied flora, a considerable +wealth of timber trees in every way superior to the flora inland in the +same latitudes. In the interior there is little change in the general +aspect of the vegetation, from the Australian Bight to the region +of Carpentaria, where the exotic element begins. Behind the +luxuriant jungles of the sub-tropical coast, once over the main range, +we find the purely Australian flora with its apparent sameness and +sombre dulness. Physical surroundings rather than latitude determine +the character of the flora. The contour lines showing the +heights above sea-level are the directions along which species spread +to form zones. Putting aside the exotic vegetation of the north +and east coast-line, the Australian bush gains its peculiar character +from the prevalence of the so-called gum-trees (<i>Eucalyptus</i>) and the +acacias, of which last there are 300 species, but the eucalypts above +all are everywhere. Dwarfed eucalypts fringe the tree-limit on +Mount Kosciusco, and the soakages in the parched interior are indicated +by a line of the same trees, stunted and straggling. Over +the vast continent from Wilson’s Promontory to Cape York, north, +south, east and west—where anything can grow—there will be found +a gum-tree. The eucalypts are remarkable for the oil secreted in +their leaves, and the large quantity of astringent resin of their bark. +This resinous exudation (Kino) somewhat resembles gum, hence +the name “gum” tree. It will not dissolve in water as gums do, +but it is soluble in alcohol, as resin usually is. Many of the gum-trees +throw off their bark, so that it hangs in long dry strips from +the trunk and branches, a feature familiar in “bush” pictures. +The bark, resin and “oils” of the eucalyptus are well known as +commercial products. As early as 1866, tannic acid, gallic acid, +wood spirit, acetic acid, essential oil and eucalyptol were produced +from various species of eucalyptus, and researches made by Australian +chemists, notably by Messrs. Baker and Smith of the Sydney +Technical College, have brought to light many other valuable products +likely to prove of commercial value. The genus <i>Eucalyptus</i> +numbers more than 150 species, and provides some of the most +durable timbers known. The iron-bark of the eastern coast uplands +is well known (<i>Eucalyptus sideroxylon</i>), and is so called from the +hardness of the wood, the bark not being remarkable except for its +rugged and blackened aspect. Samples of this timber have been +studied after forty-three years’ immersion in sea-water. Portions +most liable to destruction, those parts between the tide marks, were +found perfectly sound, and showed no signs of the ravages of marine +organisms. Other valuable timber trees of the eastern portion of +the continent are the blackbutt, tallow-wood, spotted gum, red +gum, mahogany, and blue gum, eucalyptus; and the turpentine +(<i>Syncarpia laurifolia</i>), which has proved to be more resistant to the +attacks of teredo than any other timber and is largely used in wharf +construction in infested waters. There are also several extremely +valuable soft timbers, the principal being red cedar (<i>Cedrela Toona</i>), +silky oak (<i>Grevillea robusta</i>), beech and a variety of teak, with several +important species of pine. The red gum forests of the Murray +valley and the pine forests bordering the Great Plains are important +and valuable. In Western Australia there are extensive forests of +hardwood, principally jarrah (<i>Eucalyptus marginata</i>), a very durable +timber; 14,000 sq. m. of country are covered with this species. +Jarrah timber is nearly impervious to the attacks of the teredo, and +there is good evidence to show that, exposed to wear and weather, or +placed under the soil, or used as submarine piles, the wood remained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span> +intact after nearly fifty years’ trial. The following figures show the +high density of Australian timber:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc">Australian<br />timber.</td> <td class="tcc">Specific<br />gravity.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Jarrah</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Grey iron-bark</td> <td class="tcr">1.18 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Red iron-bark</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.22 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Forest oak</td> <td class="tcr">1.21 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Tallow wood</td> <td class="tcr cl">1.23 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mahogany</td> <td class="tcr">1.20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Grey gum</td> <td class="tcr cl">917</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Red gum</td> <td class="tcr">995</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt1">European<br /> timber.</td> <td class="tcc pt1">Specific<br />gravity.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ash</td> <td class="tcr cl">.753</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Beech</td> <td class="tcr">.690</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Chestnut</td> <td class="tcr cl">.535</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">British oak</td> <td class="tcr">.99 </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The resistance to breaking or rupture of Australian timber is very +high; grey iron-bark with a specific gravity of 1.18 has a modulus +of rupture of 17,900 ℔ per sq. in. compared with 11,800 ℔ for +British oak with a specific gravity of .69 to .99. No Australian +timber in the foregoing list has a less modulus than 13,100 ℔ per +sq. in.</p> + +<p>Various “scrubs” characterize the interior, differing very widely +from the coastal scrubs. “Mallee” scrub occupies large tracts of +South Australia and Victoria, covering probably an extent of +16,000 sq. m. The mallee is a species of eucalyptus growing 12 to +14 ft. high. The tree breaks into thin stems close to the ground, and +these branch again and again, the leaves being developed umbrella-fashion +on the outer branches. The mallee scrub appears like a forest +of dried osier, growing so close that it is not always easy to ride +through it. Hardly a leaf is visible to the height of one’s head; but +above, a crown of thick leather-like leaves shuts out the sunlight. +The ground below is perfectly bare, and there is no water. Nothing +could add to the sterility and the monotony of these mallee scrubs. +“Mulga” scrub is a somewhat similar thicket, covering large areas. +The tree in this instance is one of the acacias, a genus distributed +through all parts of the continent. Some species have rather elegant +blossoms, known to the settlers as “wattle.” They serve admirably +to break the sombre and monotonous aspect of the Australian vegetation. +Two species of acacia are remarkable for the delicate and +violet-like perfume of their wood—myall and yarran. The majority +of the species of <i>Acacia</i> are edible and serve as reserve fodder for +sheep and cattle. In the alluvial portions of the interior salsolaceous +plants—saltbush, bluebush, cottonbush—are invaluable to the +pastoralist, and to their presence the pre-eminence of Australia +as a wool-producing country is largely due.</p> + +<p>Grasses and herbage in great variety constitute the most valuable +element of Australian flora from the commercial point of view. The +herbage for the most part grows with marvellous rapidity after a +spring or autumn shower and forms a natural shelter for the more +stable growth of nutritious grasses.</p> + +<p>Under the system of grazing practised throughout Australia it is +customary to allow sheep, cattle and horses to run at large all the +year round within enormous enclosures and to depend entirely upon +the natural growth of grass for their subsistence. Proteaceous plants, +although not exclusively Australian, are exceedingly characteristic +of Australian scenery, and are counted amongst the oldest flowering +plants of the world. The order is easily distinguished by the hard, +dry, woody texture of the leaves and the dehiscent fruits. They +are found in New Zealand and also in New Caledonia, their greatest +developments being on the south-west of the Australian continent. +Proteaceae are found also in Tierra del Fuego and Chile. They are +also abundant in South Africa, where the order forms the most +conspicuous feature of vegetation. The range in species is very +limited, no one being common to eastern and western Australia. +The chief genera are banksia (<i>honeysuckle</i>), and hakea (<i>needle bush</i>).</p> + +<p>The Moreton Bay pine (<i>Araucaria Cunninghamii</i>) is reckoned +amongst the giants of the forest. The genus is associated with one +long extinct in Europe. Moreton Bay pine is chiefly known by the +utility of its wood. Another species, <i>A. Bidwillii</i>, or the bunya-bunya, +afforded food in its nut-like seeds to the aborigines. A most +remarkable form of vegetation in the north-west is the gouty-stemmed +tree (<i>Adansonia Gregorii</i>), one of the Malvaceae. It is related closely +to the famous baobab of tropical Africa. The “grass-tree” (<i>Xanthorrhoea</i>), +of the uplands and coast regions, is peculiarly Australian +in its aspect. It is seen as a clump of wire-like leaves, a few feet in +diameter, surrounding a stem, hardly thicker than a walking-stick, +rising to a height of 10 or 12 ft. This terminates in a long spike +thickly studded with white blossoms. The grass-tree gives as distinct +a character to an Australian picture as the agave and cactus do to +the Mexican landscape. With these might be associated the gigantic +lily of Queensland (<i>Nymphaea gigantea</i>), the leaves of which float +on water, and are quite 18 in. across. There is also a gigantic lily +(<i>Doryanthes excelsa</i>) which grows to a height of 15 feet. The “flame +tree” is a most conspicuous feature of an Illawarra landscape, +the largest racemes of crimson red suggesting the name. The +waratah or native tulip, the magnificent flowering head of which, +with the kangaroo, is symbolic of the country, is one of the Proteaceae. +The natives were accustomed to suck its tubular flowers +for the honey they contained. The “nardoo” seed, on which the +aborigines sometimes contrived to exist, is a creeping plant, growing +plentifully in swamps and shallow pools, and belongs to the natural +order of Marsileaceae. The spore-cases remain after the plant is +dried up and withered. These are collected by the natives, and are +known over most of the continent as nardoo.</p> + +<p>No speculation of hypothesis has been propounded to account +satisfactorily for the origin of the Australian flora. As a step +towards such hypothesis it has been noted that the Antarctic, +the South African, and the Australian floras have many types in +common. There is also to a limited extent a European element +present. One thing is certain, that there is in Australia a flora +that is a remnant of a vegetation once widely distributed. Heer +has described such Australian genera as Banksia, Eucalyptus, +<i>Grevillea</i> and <i>Hakea</i> from the Miocene of Switzerland. Another +point agreed upon is that the Australian flora is one of vast antiquity. +There are genera so far removed from every living genus that many +connecting links must have become extinct. The region extending +round the south-western extremity of the continent has a peculiarly +characteristic assemblage of typical Australian forms, notably a +great abundance of the Proteaceae. This flora, isolated by arid +country from the rest of the continent, has evidently derived its +plant life from an outside source, probably from lands no longer +existing.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Political and Economic Conditions</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a>—The Australian people are mainly of British +origin, only 3¼% of the population of European descent being +of non-British race. It is certain that the aborigines (see the +section on Aborigines below) are very much less numerous than +when the country was first colonized, but their present numbers +can be given for only a few of the states. At the census of 1901, +48,248 aborigines were enumerated, of whom 7434 were in New +South Wales, 652 in Victoria, 27,123 in South Australia, and +6212 in Western Australia. The assertion by the Queensland +authorities that there are 50,000 aborigines in that state is a +crude estimate, and may be far wide of the truth. In South +Australia and the Northern Territory a large number are outside +the bounds of settlement, and it is probable that they are as +numerous there as in Queensland. The census of Western +Australia included only those aborigines in the employment +of the colonists; and as a large part of this, the greatest of the +Australian states, is as yet unexplored, it may be presumed that +the aborigines enumerated were very far short of the whole +number of persons of that race in the state. Taking all things +into consideration, the aboriginal population of the continent +may be set down at something like 180,000. Chinese, numbering +about 30,000, are chiefly found in New South Wales, Queensland, +Victoria, and the Northern Territory. Of Japanese there were +3500, of Hindu and Sinhalese 4600, according to recent computation, +but the policy of the Commonwealth is adverse to +further immigration of other than whites. South Sea Islanders +and other coloured races, numbering probably about 15,000, +were in 1906 to be found principally in Queensland, but further +immigration of Pacific Islanders to Australia is now restricted, +and the majority of those in the country in 1906 were deported +by the middle of 1907.</p> + +<p>At the close of 1906 the population of Australia was approximately +4,120,000, exclusive of aborigines. The increase of +population since 1871 was as follows: 1871, 1,668,377; 1881, +2,252,617; 1891, 3,183,237; 1901, 3,773,248. The expansion +has been due mainly to the natural increase; that is, by reason +of excess of births over deaths. Immigration to Australia has +been very slight since 1891, owing originally to the stoppage of +progress consequent on the bank crisis of 1893, and, subsequently, +to the disinclination of several of the state governments +towards immigration and their failure to provide for the welfare +of immigrants on their arrival. During 1906 a more rational +view of the value of immigration was adopted by the various +state governments and by the federal government, and immigration +to Australia is now systematically encouraged. Australia’s +gain of population by immigration,—<i>i.e.</i> the excess of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span> +inward over the outward movement of a population—since the +discovery of gold in 1851, arranged in ten years periods, was</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">1852-1861</td> <td class="tcr cl">520,713</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1862-1871</td> <td class="tcr">188,158</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">1872-1881</td> <td class="tcr cl">223,326</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1882-1891</td> <td class="tcr">374,097</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">1892-1901</td> <td class="tcr cl">2,377</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">During the five years following the last year of the foregoing table, +there was practically no increase in population by immigration.</p> + +<p>The birth rate averages 26.28 per thousand of the population +and the death rate 12.28, showing a net increase of 14 per +thousand by reason of the excess of births over deaths. The +marriage rate varies as in other countries from year to year +according to the degree of prosperity prevailing. In the five +years 1881-1888 the rate was 8.08 marriages (16.1 persons) per +thousand of the population, declining to 6.51 in 1891-1895; in +recent years there has been a considerable improvement, and +the Australian marriage rate may be quoted as ranging between +6.75 and 7.25. The death rate of Australia is much below that +of European countries and is steadily declining. During the +twenty years preceding the census of 1901 there was a fall in the +death rate of 3.4 per thousand, of which, however, 1 per thousand +is attributable to the decline in the birth rate, the balance being +attributable to improved sanitary conditions.</p> + +<p><i>Territorial Divisions</i>.—Australia is politically divided into +five states, which with the island of Tasmania form the Commonwealth +of Australia. The area of the various states is as follows:</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Sq. m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">New South Wales</td> <td class="tcr cl">310,700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Victoria</td> <td class="tcr">87,884</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Queensland</td> <td class="tcr cl">668,497</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">South Australia</td> <td class="tcr">903,690</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Western Australia</td> <td class="tcr cl">975,920</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">2,946,691</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Tasmania</td> <td class="tcr cl">26,215</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">=======</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Commonwealth</td> <td class="tcr cl">2,972,906</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">To the area of the Commonwealth shown in the table might be +added that of New Guinea, 90,000 sq. m.; this would bring +the area of the territory controlled by the Commonwealth to +3,062,906 sq. m. The distribution of population at the close of +1906 (4,118,000) was New South Wales 1,530,000, Victoria +1,223,000, Queensland 534,000, South Australia 381,000, Western +Australia 270,000, Tasmania 180,000. The rate of increase since +the previous census was 1.5% per annum, varying from 0.31 in +Victoria to 2.06 in New South Wales and 6.9 in Western Australia.</p> + +<p>Australia contains four cities whose population exceeds +100,000, and fifteen with over 10,000. The principal cities and +towns are Sydney (pop. 530,000), Newcastle, Broken Hill, +Parramatta, Goulburn, Maitland, Bathurst, Orange, Lithgow, +Tamworth, Grafton, Wagga and Albury, in New South Wales; +Melbourne (pop. 511,900), Ballarat, Bendigo, Geelong, Eaglehawk, +Warrnambool, Castlemaine, and Stawell in Victoria; +Brisbane (pop. 128,000), Rockhampton, Maryborough, Townsville, +Gympie, Ipswich, and Toowoomba in Queensland; +Adelaide (pop. about 175,000), Port Adelaide and Port Pirie in +South Australia; Perth (pop. 56,000), Fremantle, and Kalgoorlie +in Western Australia; and Hobart (pop. 35,500) and +Launceston in Tasmania.</p> + +<p><i>Defence</i>.—Up to the end of the 19th century, little was +thought of any locally-raised or locally-provided defensive forces, +the mother-country being relied upon. But the Transvaal War +of 1899-1902, to which Australia sent 6310 volunteers (principally +mounted rifles), and the gradual increase of military sentiment, +brought the question more to the front, and more and more +attention was given to making Australian defence a matter of +local concern. Naval defence in any case remained primarily +a question for the Imperial navy, and by agreement (1903, for +ten years) between the British government and the governments +of the Commonwealth (contributing an annual subsidy of +£200,000) and of New Zealand (£40,000), an efficient fleet +patrolled the Australasian waters, Sydney, its headquarters, +being ranked as a first-class naval station. Under the agreement +a royal naval reserve was maintained, three of the Imperial +vessels provided being utilized as drill ships for crews recruited +from the Australian states. At the end of 1908 the strength of +the naval forces under the Commonwealth defence department +was: permanent, 217, naval militia, 1016; the estimated +expenditure for 1908-1909 being £63,531. In 1908-1909 a +movement began for the establishment by Australia of a local +flotilla of torpedo-boat destroyers, to be controlled by the +Commonwealth in peace time, but subject to the orders of the +British admiralty in war time, though not to be removed from the +Australian coast without the sanction of the Commonwealth; +and by 1909 three such vessels had been ordered in England +preparatory to building others in Australia. The military +establishment at the beginning of 1909 was represented by a +small permanent force of about 1400, a militia strength of about +17,000, and some 6000 volunteers, besides 50,000 members of +rifle clubs and 30,000 cadets; the expenditure being (estimate, +1908-1909) £623,946. But a reorganization of the military +forces, on the basis of obligatory national training, was already +contemplated, though the first Bill introduced for this purpose by +Mr Deakin’s government (Sept. 1908) was dropped, and in 1909 +the subject was still under discussion.</p> + +<p><i>Religion</i>.—There is no state church in Australia, nor is the +teaching of religion in any way subsidized by the state. The +Church of England claims as adherents 39% of the population, +and the Roman Catholic Church 22%; next in numerical +strength are the Wesleyans and other Methodists, numbering +12%, the various branches of the Presbyterians 11%, Congregationalists 2%, and Baptists 2%. These proportions +varied very little between 1881 and 1906, and may be taken +as accurately representing the present strength of the various +Christian denominations. Churches of all denominations are +liberally supported throughout the states, and the residents of +every settlement, however small, have their places of worship +erected and maintained by their own contributions.</p> + +<p><i>Instruction</i>.—Education is very widely distributed, and in +every state it is compulsory for children of school ages to attend +school. The statutory ages differ in the various states; in New +South Wales and Western Australia it is from 6 to 13 years +inclusive, in Victoria 6 to 12 years, in Queensland 6 to 11 years, +and in South Australia 7 to 12 years inclusive. Religious instruction +is not imparted by the state-paid teachers in any state, +though in certain states persons duly authorized by the religious +organizations are allowed to give religious instruction to children +of their own denomination where the parents’ consent has been +obtained. According to the returns for 1905 there were 7292 +state schools, with 15,628 teachers and 648,927 pupils, and the +average attendance of scholars was 446,000. Besides state +schools there were 2145 private schools, with 7825 teachers and +137,000 scholars, the average number of scholars in attendance +being 120,000. The census of 1901 showed that about 83% +of the whole population and more than 91% of the population +over five years of age could read and write. There was, therefore, +a residue of 9% of illiterates, most of whom were not born in +Australia. The marriage registers furnish another test of +education. In 1905 only ten persons in every thousand married +were unable to sign their names, thus proving that the number +of illiterate adults of Australian birth is very small.</p> + +<p>Instruction at state schools is either free or at merely nominal +cost, and high schools, technical colleges and agricultural colleges +are maintained by appropriations from the general revenues +of the states. There are also numerous grammar schools and +other private schools. Universities have been established at +Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Hobart, and are well equipped +and numerously attended; they are in part supported by grants +from the public funds and in part by private endowments +and the fees paid by students. The number of students attending +lectures is about 2500 and the annual income a little over +£100,000. The cost of public instruction in Australia averages +about 11s. 4d. per inhabitant, and the cost per scholar in average +attendance at state schools is £4 : 13 : 9.</p> + +<p><i>Pastoral and Agricultural Industries</i>.—The continent is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span> +essentially a pastoral one, and the products of the flocks and +herds constitute the chief element in the wealth of Australia. +Practically the whole of the territory between the 145° meridian +and the Great Dividing Range, as well as extensive tracts in +the south and west, are a natural sheep pasture with climatic +conditions and indigenous vegetation pre-eminently adapted +for the growth of wool of the highest quality. Numerically +the flocks of Australia represent one-sixth of the world’s sheep, +and in just over half a century (1851-1905) the exports of +Australian wool alone reached the value of £650,000,000. During +the same period, owing to the efforts of pastoralists to improve +their flocks, there was a gradual increase in the weight of wool +produced per sheep from 3¼ ℔ to an average of over 7 ℔ The +cattle and horse-breeding industries are of minor importance +as compared with wool-growing, but nevertheless represent a +great source of wealth, with vast possibilities of expansion in the +over-sea trade. The perfection of refrigeration in over-sea +carriage, which has done so much to extend the markets for +Australian beef and mutton, has also furthered the expansion +of dairying, there being an annual output of over 160 million ℔ +of butter, valued at £6,000,000; of this about 64 million ℔, +valued at £2,500,000, is exported annually to British markets.</p> + +<p>Next to the pastoral industry, agriculture is the principal +source of Australian wealth. At the close of 1905 the area +devoted to tillage was 9,365,000 acres, the area utilized for +the production of breadstuffs being 6,270,000 acres or over +two-thirds of the whole extent of cultivation. At first wheat +was cultivated solely in the coastal country, but experience +has shown that the staple cereal can be most successfully grown +over almost any portion of the arable lands within the 20 to 40 in. +rainfall areas. The value of Australian wheat and flour exported +in 1905 was £5,500,000.</p> + +<p>Other important crops grown are—maize, 324,000 acres; oats, +493,000 acres; other grains, 160,000 acres; hay, 1,367,000 +acres; potatoes, 119,000 acres; sugar-cane, 141,000 acres; +vines, 65,000 acres; and other crops, 422,000 acres. The chief +wheat lands are in Victoria, South Australia and New South +Wales; the yield averages about 9 bushels to the acre; this +low average is due to the endeavour of settlers on new lands +to cultivate larger areas than their resources can effectively +deal with; the introduction of scientific farming should almost +double the yield. Maize and sugar-cane are grown in New South +Wales and Queensland. The vine is cultivated in all the states, +but chiefly in South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales. +Australia produces abundant quantities and nearly all varieties +of fruits; but the kinds exported are chiefly oranges, pineapples, +bananas and apples. Tobacco thrives well in New South +Wales and Victoria, but kinds suitable for exportation are not +largely grown. Compared with the principal countries of the +world, Australia does not take a high position in regard to the +gross value of the produce of its tillage, the standard of cultivation +being for the most part low and without regard to maximum returns, +but in value per inhabitant it compares fairly well; indeed, +some of the states show averages which surpass those of many of +the leading agricultural countries. For 1905 the total value of +agricultural produce estimated at the place of production was +£18,750,000 sterling, or about £4 : 13 : 4 per inhabitant.</p> + +<p><i>Timber Industry</i>.—Although the timbers of commercial value +are confined practically to the eastern and a portion of the western +coastal belt and a few inland tracts of Australia, they constitute +an important national asset. The early settlement of heavily +timbered country was characterized by wanton destruction +of vast quantities of magnificent timber; but this waste is a +thing of the past, and under the pressure of a demand for sound +timber both for local use and for exportation, the various +governments are doing much to conserve the state forests. +In Western Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania and Queensland +there are many hundreds of well-equipped saw-mills affording +employment to about 5000 men. The export of timber is in +ordinary years valued at a million sterling and the total production +at £2,250,000.</p> + +<p><i>Fisheries</i>.—Excellent fish of many varieties abound in the +Australian seas and in many of the rivers. In several of the +states, fish have been introduced successfully from other +countries. Trout may now be taken in many of the mountain +streams. At one time whaling was an important industry on +the coasts of New South Wales and Tasmania, and afterwards +on the Western Australian coasts. The industry gravitated to +New Zealand, and finally died out, chiefly through the wasteful +practice of killing the calves to secure the capture of the mothers. +Of late years whaling has again attracted attention, and a small +number of vessels prosecute the industry during the season. +The only source of maritime wealth that is now being sufficiently +exploited to be regarded as an industry is the gathering of +pearl-oysters from the beds off the northern and north-western +coasts of the continent. In Queensland waters there are about +300 vessels, and on the Western Australian coast about 450 +licensed craft engaged in the industry, the annual value of +pearl-shell and pearls raised being nearly half a million sterling. +Owing to the depletion of some of the more accessible banks, +and to difficulties in connexion with the employment of coloured +crews, many of the vessels have now gone farther afield. As +the pearl-oyster is remarkably prolific, it is considered by experts +that within a few years of their abandonment by fishing fleets +the denuded banks will become as abundantly stocked as ever.</p> + +<p><i>Mineral Production</i>.—Australia is one of the great gold +producers of the world, and its yield in 1905 was about £16,000,000 +sterling, or one-fourth of the gold output of the world; +and the total value of its mineral production was +<span class="sidenote">Gold.</span> +approximately £25,000,000. Gold is found throughout Australia, +and the present prosperity of the states is largely due to the +discoveries of this metal, the development of other industries +being, in a country of varied resources, a natural sequence to +the acquisition of mineral treasure. From the date of its first +discovery, up to the close of 1905, gold to the value of +£460,000,000 sterling has been obtained in Australia. Victoria, +in a period of fifty-four years, contributed about £273,000,000 +to this total, and is still a large producer, its annual yield being +about 800,000 oz., 29,000 men being engaged in the search for +the precious metal. Queensland’s annual output is between +750,000 and 800,000 oz.; the number of men engaged in gold-mining +is 10,000. In New South Wales the greatest production +was in 1852, soon after the first discovery of the precious metal, +when the output was valued at £2,660,946; the production in +1905 was about 270,000 oz., valued at £1,150,000. For many +years Western Australia was considered to be destitute of mineral +deposits of any value, but it is now known that a rich belt of +mineral country extends from north to south. The first important +discovery was made in 1882, when gold was found in +the Kimberley district; but it was not until a few years later +that this rich and extensive area was developed. In 1887 gold +was found in Yilgarn, about 200 m. east of Perth. This was the +first of the many rich discoveries in the same district which have +made Western Australia the chief gold-producer of the Australian +group. In 1907 there were eighteen goldfields in the state, and +it was estimated that over 30,000 miners were actively engaged +in the search for gold. In 1905 the production amounted to +1,983,000 oz., valued at £8,300,000. Tasmania is a gold producer +to the extent of about 70,000 or 80,000 oz. a year, valued at +£300,000; South Australia produces about 30,000 oz.</p> + +<p>Gold is obtained chiefly from quartz reefs, but there are still +some important alluvial deposits being worked. The greatest +development of quartz reefing is found in Victoria, some of the +mines being of great depth. There are eight mines in the Bendigo +district over 3000 ft. deep, and fourteen over 2500 ft. deep. In +the Victoria mine a depth of 3750 ft. has been reached, and in +Lazarus mine 3424 ft. In the Ballarat district a depth of 2520 +ft. has been reached in the South Star mine. In Queensland +there is one mine 3156 ft. deep, and several others exceed 2000 ft. +in depth. A considerable number of men are engaged in the +various states on alluvial fields, in hydraulic sluicing, and +dredging is now adopted for the winning of gold in river deposits. +So far this form of winning is chiefly carried on in New South +Wales, where there are about fifty gold-dredging plants in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span> +successful operation. Over 70,000 men are employed in the +gold-mining industry, more than two-thirds of them being +engaged in quartz mining.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Silver has been discovered in all the states, either alone or in the +form of sulphides, antimonial and arsenical ores, chloride, bromide, +iodide and chloro-bromide of silver, and argentiferous +lead ores, the largest deposits of the metal being found +<span class="sidenote">Silver.</span> +in the last-mentioned form. The leading silver mines are in New +South Wales, the returns from the other states being comparatively +insignificant. The fields of New South Wales have proved to +be of immense value, the yield of silver and lead during 1905 being +£2,500,000, and the total output to the end of the year named over +£40,000,000. The Broken Hill field, which was discovered in 1883, +extends over 2500 sq. m. of country, and has developed into one of the +principal mining centres of the world. It is situated beyond the +river Darling, and close to the boundary between New South Wales +and South Australia. The lodes occur in Silurian metamorphic +micaceous schists, intruded by granite, porphyry and diorite, and +traversed by numerous quartz reefs, some of which are gold-bearing. +The Broken Hill lode is the largest yet discovered. It varies in +width from 10 ft. to 200 ft., and may be traced for several miles. +Although indications of silver abound in all the other states, no fields +of great importance have yet been discovered. Up to the end of +1904 Australia had produced silver to the value of £45,000,000. At +Broken Hill mines about 11,000 miners are employed.</p> + +<p>Copper is known to exist in all the states, and has been mined +extensively in South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and +Tasmania. The low quotations which ruled for a number +of years had a depressing effect upon the industry, and +<span class="sidenote">Copper.</span> +many mines once profitably worked were temporarily closed, but +in 1906 there was a general revival. The discovery of copper had +a marked effect on the fortunes of South Australia at a time when +the young colony was surrounded by difficulties. The first important +mine, the Kapunda, was opened up in 1842. It is estimated that at +one time 2000 tons were produced annually, but the mine was closed +in 1879. In 1845 the celebrated Burra Burra mine was discovered. +This mine proved to be very rich, and paid £800,000 in dividends to +the original owners. For a number of years, however, the mine has +been suffered to remain untouched, as the deposits originally worked +were found to be depicted. For many years the average output was +from 10,000 to 13,000 tons of ore, yielding from 22 to 23% of copper. +For the period of thirty years during which the mine was worked the +production of ore amounted to 234,648 tons, equal to 51,622 tons of +copper, valued at £4,749,924. The Wallaroo and Moonta mines, +discovered in 1860 and 1861, proved to be even more valuable than +the Burra Burra, the Moonta mines employing at one time upwards +of 1600 hands. The dividends paid by these mines amounted to +about £1,750,000 sterling. The satisfactory price obtained during +recent years has enabled renewed attention to be paid to copper +mining in South Australia, and the production of the metal in 1905 +was valued at £470,324. The principal deposits of copper in New +South Wales are found in the central part of the state between the +Macquarie, Darling and Bogan rivers. Deposits have also been +found in the New England and southern districts, as well as at Broken +Hill, showing that the mineral is widely distributed throughout the +state. The more important mines are those of Cobar, where the +Great Cobar mine produces annually nearly 4000 tons of refined +copper. In northern Queensland copper is found throughout the +Cloncurry district, in the upper basin of the Star river, and the +Herberton district. The returns from the copper fields in the state +are at present a little over half a million sterling per annum, and +would be still greater if it were not for the lack of suitable fuel for +smelting purposes, which renders the economical treatment of the ore +difficult; the development of the mines is also retarded by the want +of easy and cheaper communication with the coast. In Western +Australia copper deposits have been worked for some years. Very +rich lodes of the metal have been found in the Northampton, +Murchison and Champion Bay districts, and also in the country to +the south of these districts on the Irwin river. Tasmania is now the +largest copper-producing state of the Commonwealth; in 1905 the +output was over £672,010 and in earlier years even larger. The chief +mines belong to the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co., and are +situated on the west side of the island with an outlet by rail to +Strahan on the west coast. The total value of copper produced in +Australia up to the end of 1905 was £42,500,000 sterling, £24,500,000 +having been obtained in South Australia, £7,500,000 in New South +Wales, £6,400,000 in Tasmania and over £3,500,000 in Queensland.</p> + +<p>Tin was known to exist in Australia from the first years of colonization. +The wealth of Queensland and the Northern Territory +in this mineral, according to the reports of Dr Jack, late +Government geologist of the former state, and the late +<span class="sidenote">Tin.</span> +Rev. J.E. Tenison-Woods, appears to be very great. The most +important tin-mines in Queensland are in the Herberton district, +south-west of Cairns; at Cooktown, on the Annan and Bloomfield +rivers; and at Stanthorpe, on the border of New South Wales. +Herberton and Stanthorpe have produced more than three-fourths +of the total production of the state. Towards the close of the 19th +century the production greatly decreased in consequence of the low +price of the metal, but in 1899 a stimulus was given to the industry, +and since then the production has increased very considerably, the +output for 1905 being valued at £989,627. In New South Wales +lode tin occurs principally in the granite and stream tin under the +basaltic country in the extreme north of the state, at Tenterfield, +Emmaville, Tingha, and in other districts of New England. The +metal has also been discovered in the Barrier ranges, and many other +places. The value of the output in 1905 was £226,110. The yield +of tin in Victoria is very small, and until lately no fields of importance +have been discovered; but towards the latter end of 1899 +extensive deposits were reported to exist in the Gippsland district—at +Omeo and Tarwin. In South Australia tin-mining is unimportant. +In Western Australia the production from the tin-fields +at Greenbushes and elsewhere was valued at £87,000. Tasmania +during the last few years has attained the foremost position in the +production of tin, the annual output now being about £363,000. +The total value of tin produced in Australia is nearly a million +sterling per annum, and the total production to the end of 1905 was +£22,500,000, of which Tasmania produced about 40%, New South +Wales one-third, Queensland a little more than a fourth.</p> + +<p>Iron is distributed throughput Australia, but for want of capital +for developing the fields this industry has not progressed. In New +South Wales there are, together with coal and limestone +in unlimited supply, important deposits of rich iron ores +<span class="sidenote">Iron.</span> +suitable for smelting purposes; and for the manufacture of steel of +certain descriptions abundance of manganese, chrome and tungsten +ores are available. The most extensive fields are in the Mittagong, +Wallerawang and Rylstone districts, which are roughly estimated to +contain in the aggregate 12,944,000 tons of ore, containing 5,853,000 +tons of metallic iron. Extensive deposits, which are being developed +successfully, occur in Tasmania, it being estimated that there are, +within easy shipping facilities, 17,000,000 tons of ore. Magnetite, +or magnetic iron, the richest of all iron ores, is found in abundance +near Wallerawang in New South Wales. The proximity of coal-beds +now being worked should accelerate the development of the iron +deposits, which, on an average, contain 41% of metal. Magnetite +occurs in great abundance in Western Australia, together with +haematite, which would be of enormous value if cheap labour were +available. Goethite, limonite and haematite are found in New South +Wales, at the junction of the Hawkesbury sandstone formation and +the Wianamatta shale, near Nattai, and are enhanced in their value +by their proximity to coal-beds. Near Lithgow extensive deposits of +limonite, or clay-band ore, are interbedded with coal. Some samples +of ore, coal and limestone, obtained in the Mittagong district, with +pig-iron and castings manufactured therefrom, were exhibited at the +Mining Exhibition in London and obtained a first award.</p> + +<p>Antimony is widely diffused throughout Australia, and is sometimes +found associated with gold. In New South Wales the principal +centre of this industry is Hillgrove, near Armidale, where +the Eleanora Mine, one of the richest in the state, is +<span class="sidenote">Other Minerals.</span> +situated. The ore is also worked for gold. In Victoria the +production of antimony gave employment in 1890 to 238 miners, +but owing to the low price of the metal, production has almost +ceased. In Queensland the fields were all showing development in +1891, when the output exhibited a very large increase compared +with that of former years; but, as in the case of Victoria, the +production of the metal seems to have ceased. Good lodes of stibnite +(sulphide of antimony) have been found near Roebourne in Western +Australia, but no attempt has yet been made to work them.</p> + +<p>Bismuth is known to exist in all the Australian states, but up +to the present time it has been mined for only in three states, viz. +New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Tasmania. It +is usually found in association with tin and other minerals. The +principal mine in New South Wales is situated at Kingsgate, in +the New England district, where the mineral is generally associated +with molybdenum and gold.</p> + +<p>Manganese probably exists in all the states, deposits having been +found in New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Western +Australia, the richest specimens being found in New South Wales. +Little, however, has been done to utilize the deposits, the demands +of the colonial markets being extremely limited. The ore generally +occurs in the form of oxides, manganite and pyrolusite, and contains +a high percentage of sesquioxide of manganese.</p> + +<p>Platinum and the allied compound metal iridosmine have been +found in New South Wales, but so far in inconsiderable quantities. +Iridosmine occurs commonly with gold or tin in alluvial drifts.</p> + +<p>The rare element tellurium has been discovered in New South +Wales at Bingara and other parts of the northern districts, as well +as at Tarana, on the western line, though at present in such minute +quantities as would not repay the cost of working. At many of the +mines at Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, large quantities of ores of +telluride of gold have been found in the lode formations.</p> + +<p>Lead is found in all the Australian states, but is worked only +when associated with silver. In Western Australia the lead occurs +in the form of sulphides and carbonates of great richness, but the +quantity of silver mixed with it is very small. The lodes are most +frequently of great size, containing huge masses of galena, and so +little gangue that the ore can very easily be dressed to 83 or 84%. +The association of this metal with silver in the Broken Hill mines +of New South Wales adds very greatly to the value of the product.</p> + +<p>Mercury is found in New South Wales and Queensland. In New +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span> +South Wales, in the form of cinnabar, it has been discovered on the +Cudgegong river, near Rylstone, and it also occurs at Bingara, +Solferino, Yulgilbar and Cooma. In the last-named place the assays +of ore yielded 22% of mercury.</p> + +<p>Titanium, in the minerals known as octahedrite and brookite, is +found in alluvial deposits in New South Wales, in conjunction with +diamonds.</p> + +<p>Wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese) occurs in some of the +states, notably in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland. +Scheelite, another mineral of tungsten, is also found in Queensland. +Molybdenum, in the form of molybdenite (sulphide of molybdenum), +is found in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, +associated in the parent state with tin and bismuth in quartz reefs.</p> + +<p>Zinc ores, in the several varieties of carbonates, silicates, oxide, +sulphide and sulphate of zinc, have been found in several of the +Australian states but have attracted little attention except in New +South Wales, where special efforts are being made successfully to +produce a high-grade zinc concentrate from the sulphide ores. +Several companies are devoting all their energies to zinc extraction, +and the output is now equal to about 5% of the world’s production.</p> + +<p>Nickel, so abundant in the island of New Caledonia, has up to the +present been found in none of the Australian states except Queensland +and Tasmania. Few attempts, however, have been made to +prospect systematically for this valuable mineral.</p> + +<p>Cobalt occurs in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, +and efforts have been made in the former state to treat the ore, the +metal having a high commercial value; but the market is small, and +no attempt has been made up to 1907 to produce it on any large +scale. The manganese ores of the Bathurst district of New South +Wales often contain a small percentage of cobalt—sufficient, indeed, +to warrant further attempts to work them. In New South Wales +chromium is found in the northern portion of the state, in the +Clarence and Tamworth districts and also near Gundagai. It is +usually associated with serpentine. In the Gundagai district the +industry was rapidly becoming a valuable one, but the low price of +chrome has greatly restricted the output. Chromium has been +discovered in Tasmania also.</p> + +<p>Arsenic, in its well-known and beautiful forms, orpiment and +realgar, is found in New South Wales and Victoria. It usually occurs +in association with other minerals in veins.</p> + +<p>The Australian states have been bountifully supplied with mineral +fuel. Five distinct varieties of black coal, of well-characterized +types, may be distinguished, and these, with the two +extremes of brown coal or lignite and anthracite, form a +<span class="sidenote">Fuel.</span> +perfectly continuous series. Brown coal, or lignite, occurs principally +in Victoria. Attempts have frequently been made to use the +mineral for ordinary fuel purposes, but its inferior quality has +prevented its general use. Black coal forms one of the principal +resources of New South Wales; and in the other states the deposits +of this valuable mineral are being rapidly developed. Coal of a +very fair description was discovered in the basin of the Irwin river, +in Western Australia, as far back as the year 1846. It has been +ascertained from recent explorations that the area of carboniferous +formation in that state extends from the Irwin northwards to the +Gascoyne river, about 300 m., and probably all the way to the +Kimberley district. The most important discovery of coal in the +state, so far, is that made in the bed of the Collie river, near Bunbury, +to the south of Perth. The coal has been treated and found to be of +good quality, and there are grounds for supposing that there are +250,000,000 tons in the field. Dr Jack, late government geologist +of Queensland, considers the extent of the coal-fields of that state +to be practically unlimited, and is of opinion that the carboniferous +formations extend to a considerable distance under the Great +Western Plains. It is roughly estimated that the Coal Measures +at present practically explored extend over an area of about 24,000 +sq. m. Coal-mining is an established industry in Queensland, and +is progressing satisfactorily. The mines, however, are situated too +far from the coast to permit of serious competition with Newcastle +in an export trade, and the output is practically restricted to supplying +local requirements. The coal-fields of New South Wales are +situated in three distinct regions—the northern, southern and +western districts. The first of these comprises chiefly the mines +of the Hunter river districts; the second includes the Illawarra +district, and, generally, the coastal regions to the south of Sydney, +together with Berrima, on the tableland; and the third consists of +the mountainous regions on the Great Western railway and extends +as far as Dubbo. The total area of the Carboniferous strata of New +South Wales is estimated at 23,950 sq. m. The seams vary in thickness. +One of the richest has been found at Greta in the Hunter river +district; it contains an average thickness of 41 ft. of clean coal, +and the quantity underlying each acre of ground has been computed +to be 63,700 tons. The coal mines of New South Wales give employment +to 14,000 persons, and the annual production is over 6,600,000 +tons. Black coal has been discovered in Victoria, and about 250,000 +tons are now being raised. The principal collieries in the state are +the Outtrim Howitt, the Coal Creek Proprietary and the Jumbunna. +In South Australia, at Leigh’s Creek, north of Port Augusta, coal-beds +have been discovered. The quantity of coal extracted annually +in Australia had in 1906 reached 7,497,000 tons.</p> + +<p>Kerosene shale (torbanite) is found in several parts of New South +Wales. It is a species of cannel coal, somewhat similar to the Boghead +mineral of Scotland, but yielding a much larger percentage of +volatile hydro-carbon than the Scottish mineral. The richest quality +yields about 100 to 130 gallons of crude oil per ton, or 17,000 to +18,000 cub. ft. of gas, with an illuminating power of 35 to 40 sperm +candles, when gas only is extracted from the shale.</p> + +<p>Large deposits of alum occur close to the village of Bulladelah, +30 m. from Port Stephens, New South Wales. It is said to yield +well, and a quantity of the manufactured alum is sent to Sydney +for local consumption. Marble is found in many parts of New South +Wales and South Australia. Kaolin, fire-clays and brick-clays are +common to all the states. Except in the vicinity of cities and townships, +however, little use has been made of the abundant deposits of +clay. Kaolin, or porcelain clay, although capable of application to +commercial purposes, has not as yet been utilized to any extent, +although found in several places in New South Wales and in Western +Australia.</p> + +<p>Asbestos has been found in New South Wales in the Gundagai +Bathurst and Broken Hill districts—in the last-mentioned district +in considerable quantities. Several specimens of very fair quality +have also been met with in Western Australia.</p> + +<p>Many descriptions of gems and gem stones have been discovered +in various parts of the Australian states, but systematic search has +been made principally for the diamond and the noble opal. +Diamonds are found in all the states; but only in New +<span class="sidenote">Gems.</span> +South Wales have any attempts been made to work the diamond +drifts. The best of the New South Wales diamonds are harder and +much whiter than the South African diamonds, and are classified as +on a par with the best Brazilian gems, but no large specimens have +yet been found. The finest opal known is obtained in the Upper +Cretaceous formation at White Cliffs, near Wilcannia, New South +Wales, and at these mines about 700 men find constant employment. +Other precious stones, including the sapphire, emerald, oriental +emerald, ruby, opal, amethyst, garnet, chrysolite, topaz, cairngorm, +onyx, zircon, &c., have been found in the gold and tin bearing drifts +and river gravels in numerous localities throughout the states. The +sapphire is found in all the states, principally in the neighbourhood +of Beechworth, Victoria. The oriental topaz has been found in New +South Wales. Oriental amethysts also have been found in that +state, and the ruby has been found in Queensland, as well as in +New South Wales. Turquoises have been found near Wangaratta, +in Victoria, and mining operations are being carried on in that state. +Chrysoberyls have been found in New South Wales; spinel rubies +in New South Wales and Victoria; and white topaz in all the states. +Chalcedony, carnelian, onyx and cat’s eyes are found in New South +Wales; and it is probable that they are also to be met with in the +other states, particularly in Queensland. Zircon, tourmaline, garnet +and other precious stones of little commercial value are found +throughout Australia.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Commerce</i>.—The number of vessels engaged in the over-sea +trade of Australia in 1905 was 2112, viz. 1050 steamers, with a +tonnage of 2,629,000, and 1062 sailers, tonnage 1,090,000; the +total of both classes was 3,719,000 tons. The nationality of the +tonnage was, British 2,771,000, including Australian 288,000, +and foreign 948,000. The destination of the shipping was, to +British ports 2,360,000 tons, and to foreign ports 1,350,000 tons. +The value of the external trade was £95,188,000, viz. £38,347,000 +imports, and £56,841,000 exports. The imports represent +£9:11:6 per inhabitant and the exports £14 : 4 : 2, with a +total trade of £23 : 15 : 8. The import trade is divided between +the United Kingdom and possessions and foreign countries as +follows:—United Kingdom £23,074,000, British possessions +£5,384,000, and foreign states £9,889,000, while the destination +of the exports is, United Kingdom £26,703,000, British possessions +£12,519,000, and foreign countries £17,619,000. The United +Kingdom in 1905 sent 60% of the imports taken by Australia, +compared with 26% from foreign countries, and 14% from +British possessions; of Australian imports the United Kingdom +takes 47%, foreign countries 31% and British possessions 22%. +In normal years (that is to say, when there is no large movement +of capital) the exports of Australia exceed the imports by some +£15,300,000. This sum represents the interest payable on +government loans placed outside Australia, mainly in England, +and the income from British and other capital invested in the +country; the former may be estimated at £7,300,000 and the +latter £8,000,000 per annum. The principal items of export +are wool, skins, tallow, frozen mutton, chilled beef, preserved +meats, butter and other articles of pastoral produce, timber, +wheat, flour and fruits, gold, silver, lead, copper, tin and other +metals. In 1905 the value of the wool export regained the +£20,000,000 level, and with the rapid recovery of the numerical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span> +strength of the flocks, great improvements in the quality and +weight of fleeces, this item is likely to show permanent advancement. +The exports of breadstuffs—chiefly to the United +Kingdom—exceed six millions per annum, butter two and a +half millions, and minerals of all kinds, except gold, six millions. +Gold is exported in large quantities from Australia. The total +gold production of the country is from £14,500,000 to £16,000,000, +and as not more than three-quarters of a million are required +to strengthen existing local stocks, the balance is usually available +for export, and the average export of the precious metal during +the ten years, 1896-1905, was £12,500,000 per annum. The +chief articles of import are apparel and textiles, machinery and +hardware, stimulants, narcotics, explosives, bags and sacks, +books and paper, oils and tea.</p> + +<p>Lines of steamers connect Australia with London and other +British ports, with Germany, Belgium, France, Italy, Japan, +China, India, San Francisco, Vancouver, New York and Montevideo, +several important lines being subsidized by the countries +to which they belong, notably Germany, France and Japan.</p> + +<p><i>Railways</i>.—Almost the whole of the railway lines in Australia +are the property of the state governments, and have been +constructed and equipped wholly by borrowed capital. There +were on the 30th of June 1905, 15,000 m. open for traffic, upon +which nearly £135,000,000 had been expended.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The railways are of different gauges, the standard narrow gauge +of 4 ft. 8½ in. prevailing only in New South Wales; in Victoria the +gauge is 5 ft. 3 in., in South Australia 5 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 6 in., and +in the other states 3 ft. 6 in. Taking the year 1905, the gross earnings +amounted to £11,892,262; the working expenses, exclusive of interest, +£7,443,546; and the net earnings £4,448,716; the latter figure represents +3.31% upon the capital expended upon construction and +equipment; in the subsequent year still better results were obtained. +In several of the states, New South Wales and South Australia +proper, the railways yield more than the interest paid by the government +on the money borrowed for their construction. The earnings +per train-mile vary greatly; but for all the lines the average is +7s. 1d., and the working expenses about 4s. 5d., making the net +earnings 2s. 8d. per train-mile. The ratio of receipts from coaching +traffic to total receipts is about 41%, which is somewhat less than in +the United Kingdom; but the proportion varies greatly amongst +the states themselves, the more densely populated states approaching +most nearly to the British standard. The tonnage of goods +carried amounts to about 16,000,000 tons, or 4 tons per inhabitant, +which must be considered fairly large, especially as no great proportion +of the tonnage consists of minerals on which there is usually +a low freightage. Excluding coal lines and other lines not open to +general traffic, the length of railways in private hands is only 382 m. +or about 2½% of the total mileage open. Of this length, 277 m. are +in Western Australia. The divergence of policy of that state from +that pursued by the other states was caused by the inability of the +government to construct lines, when the extension of the railway +system was urgently needed in the interests of settlement. Private +enterprise was, therefore, encouraged by liberal grants of land to +undertake the work of construction; but the changed conditions of +the state have now altered the state policy, and the government have +already acquired one of the two trunk lines constructed by private +enterprise, and it is not likely that any further concessions in regard +to railway construction will be granted to private persons.</p> + +<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs</i>.—The postal and telegraphic facilities offered +by the various states are very considerable. There are some 6686 +post-offices throughout the Commonwealth, or about one office to +every 600 persons. The letters carried amount to about 80 per head, +the newspapers to 32 per head and the packets to 15 per head. +The length of telegraph lines in use is 46,300 m., and the length of +wire nearly three times that distance. In 1905 there were about +11,000,000 telegraphic messages sent, which gives an average of +2.7 messages per inhabitant. The postal services and the telegraphs +are administered by the federal government.</p> + +<p><i>Banking</i>.—Depositors in savings banks represent about twenty-nine +in every hundred persons, and in 1906 the sum deposited +amounted to £37,205,000 in the names of 1,152,000 persons. In +ordinary banks the deposits amounted to £106,625,000, so that the +total deposits stood at £143,830,000, equivalent to the very large +sum of £34, 18s. per inhabitant. The coin and bullion held by the +banks varies between 20 and 24 millions sterling and the note circulation +is almost stationary at about 3¼ millions.</p> + +<p><i>Public Finance</i>.—Australian public finance requires to be treated +under the separate headings of Commonwealth and states finance. +Under the Constitution Act the Commonwealth is given the control +of the postal and telegraph departments, public defence and several +other services, as well as the power of levying customs and excise +duties; its powers of taxation are unrestricted, but so far no taxes +have been imposed other than those just mentioned. The Commonwealth +is empowered to retain one-fourth of the net revenue from +customs and excise, the balance must be handed back to the states. +This arrangement was to last until 1910. Including the total receipts +derived from the customs, the Commonwealth revenue, during the +year 1906, was made up as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Customs and excise</td> <td class="tcr">£8,999,485</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Posts, telegraphs, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">2,824,182</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Other revenue</td> <td class="tcr">55,676</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">£11,879,343</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The return made to the states was £7,385,731, so that the actual +revenue disposed of by the Commonwealth was less by that amount, +or £4,493,612. The expenditure was distributed as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Customs collection</td> <td class="tcr">£261,864</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Posts, telegraphs, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">2,774,804</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Defence</td> <td class="tcr">949,286</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Other expenditure</td> <td class="tcr">508,887</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">£4,494,841</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The states have the same powers of taxation as the Commonwealth +except in regard to customs and excise, over which the Commonwealth +has exclusive power, but the states are the owners of the +crown lands, and the revenues derived from this source form an important +part of their income. The states have a total revenue, from +sources apart from the Commonwealth, of £23,820,439, and if to +this be added the return of customs duties made by the federal +government, the total revenue is £31,206,170. Although the financial +operations of the Commonwealth and the states are quite distinct, a +statement of the total revenue of the Australian Commonwealth +and states is not without interest as showing the weight of taxation +and the different sources from which revenue is obtained. For 1906 +the respective revenues were:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Commonwealth</td> <td class="tcr">£11,879,343</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">States</td> <td class="tcr">23,820,439</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">£35,699,782</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">=======</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Direct taxation</td> <td class="tcr">£3,200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Indirect taxation; customs and excise</td> <td class="tcr">8,999,485</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Land revenue</td> <td class="tcr">3,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Post-office and telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr">2,824,182</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Railways, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">13,650,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Other service</td> <td class="tcr">3,526,115</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The revenue from direct taxation is equal to 15s. 10d. per inhabitant, +from indirect taxation £2 : 4 : 6, and the total revenue from all +sources £35,699,782, equal to £8 : 16 : 2 per inhabitant. The federal +government has no public debt, but each of the six states has contracted +debts which aggregate £237,000,000, equal to about £58, 8s. +per inhabitant. The bulk of this indebtedness has been contracted +for the purpose of constructing railways, tramways, water-supplies, +and other revenue-producing works and services, and it is estimated +that only 8% of the total indebtedness can be set down for unproductive +services.</p> + +<p>Information regarding Australian state finance will be found under +the heading of each state.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. A. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Aborigines</p> + +<p>The origin of the natives of Australia presents a difficult +problem. The chief difficulty in deciding their ethnical relations +is their remarkable physical difference from the neighbouring +peoples. And if one turns from physical criteria to their manners +and customs it is only to find fresh evidence of their isolation. +While their neighbours, the Malays, Papuans and Polynesians, +all cultivate the soil, and build substantial huts and houses, +the Australian natives do neither. Pottery, common to Malays +and Papuans, the bows and arrows of the latter, and the elaborate +canoes of all three races, are unknown to the Australians. They +then must be considered as representing an extremely primitive +type of mankind, and it is necessary to look far afield for their +prehistoric home.</p> + +<p>Wherever they came from, there is abundant evidence that +their first occupation of the Australian continent must have +been at a time so remote as to permit of no traditions. +No record, no folk tales, as in the case of the Maoris +<span class="sidenote">Origin.</span> +of New Zealand, of their migration, are preserved by the +Australians. True, there are legends and tales of tribal migrations +and early tribal history, but nothing, as A.W. Howitt +points out, which can be twisted into referring even indirectly +to their first arrival. It is almost incredible there should be +none, if the date of their arrival is to be reckoned as only dating +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span> +back some centuries. Again, while they differ physically from +neighbouring races, while there is practically nothing in common +between them and the Malays, the Polynesians, or the Papuan +Melanesians, they agree in type so closely among themselves +that they must be regarded as forming one race. Yet it is noteworthy +that the languages of their several tribes are different. +The occurrence of a large number of common roots proves them +to be derived from one source, but the great variety of dialects—sometimes +unintelligible between tribes separated by only a few +miles—cannot be explained except by supposing a vast period +to have elapsed since their first settlement. There is evidence +in the languages, too, which supports the physical separation +from their New Zealand neighbours and, therefore, from the +Polynesian family of races. The numerals in use were limited. +In some tribes there were only three in use, in most four. For +the number “five” a word meaning “many” was employed. +This linguistic poverty proves that the Australian tongue has +no affinity to the Polynesian group of languages, where denary +enumeration prevails: the nearest Polynesians, the Maoris, +counting in thousands. Further evidence of the antiquity of +Australian man is to be found in the strict observance of tribal +boundaries, which would seem to show that the tribes must +have been settled a long time in one place.</p> + +<p>A further difficulty is created by a consideration of the Tasmanian +people, extinct since 1876. For the Tasmanians in +many ways closely approximated to the Papuan type. They +had coarse, short, woolly hair and Papuan features. They +clearly had no racial affinities with the Australians. They did +not possess the boomerang or woomerah, and they had no boats. +When they were discovered, a mere raft of reeds in which they +could scarcely venture a mile from shore was their only means of +navigation. Yet while the Tasmanians are so distinctly separated +in physique and customs from the Australians, the fauna and +flora of Tasmania and Australia prove that at one time the two +formed one continent, and it would take an enormous time for +the formation of Bass Strait. How did the Tasmanians with +their Papuan affinities get so far south on a continent inhabited +by a race so differing from Papuans? Did they get to Tasmania +before or after its separation from the main continent? If +before, why were they only found in the south? It would have +been reasonable to expect to find them sporadically all over +Australia. If after, how did they get there at all? For it is +impossible to accept the theory of one writer that they sailed or +rowed round the continent—a journey requiring enormous +maritime skill, which, according to the theory, they must have +promptly lost.</p> + +<p>Four points are clear: (1) the Australians represent a distinct +race; (2) they have no kinsfolk among the neighbouring races; +(3) they have occupied the continent for a very long period; +(4) it would seem that the Tasmanians must represent a still +earlier occupation of Australia, perhaps before the Bass Strait +existed.</p> + +<p>Several theories have been propounded by ethnologists. An +attempt has been made to show that the Australians have close +affinities with the African negro peoples, and certain resemblances +in language and in customs have been relied on. Sorcery, +the scars raised on the body, the knocking out of teeth, circumcision +and rules as to marriage have been quoted; but many +such customs are found among savage peoples far distant from +each other and entirely unrelated. The alleged language +similarities have broken down on close examination. A.R. +Wallace is of the opinion that the Australians “are really of +Caucasian type and are more nearly allied to ourselves than +to the civilized Japanese or the brave and intelligent Zulus.” +He finds near kinsmen for them in the Ainus of Japan, the +Khmers and Chams of Cambodia and among some of the Micronesian +islanders who, in spite of much crossing, still exhibit +marked Caucasic types. He regards the Australians as representing +the lowest and most primitive examples of this primitive +Caucasic type, and he urges that they must have arrived in +Australia at a time when their ancestors had no pottery, knew +no agriculture, domesticated no animals, had no houses and +used no bows and arrows. This theory has been supported by +the investigations of Dr Klaatsch, of the university of Heidelberg, +who would, however, date Australian ancestry still farther back, +for his studies on the spot have convinced him that the Australians +are “a generalized, not a specialized, type of humanity—that +is to say, they are a very primitive people, with more of the +common undeveloped characteristics of man, and less of the +qualities of the specialized races of civilization.” Dr Klaatsch’s +view is that they are survivals of a primitive race which inhabited +a vast Antarctic continent of which South America, South +Africa and Australia once formed a part, as evidenced by the +identity of many species of birds and fish. He urges that the +similarities of some of the primitive races of India and Africa +to the aborigines of Australia are indications that they were +peopled from one common stock. This theory, plausible and +attractive as it is, and fitting in, as it does, with the acknowledged +primitive character of the Australian blackfellow, overlooks, +nevertheless, the Tasmanian difficulty. Why should a Papuan +type be found in what was certainly once a portion of the +Australian continent? The theory which meets this difficulty +is that which has in its favour the greatest weight of evidence, +viz. that the continent was first inhabited by a Papuan type of +man who made his way thither from Flores and Timor, New +Guinea and the Coral Sea. That in days so remote as to be +undateable, a Dravidian people driven from their primitive home +in the hills of the Indian Deccan made their way south via +Ceylon (where they may to-day be regarded as represented by +the Veddahs) and eventually sailed and drifted in their bark +boats to the western and north-western shores of Australia. +It is difficult to believe that they at first arrived in such numbers +as at once to overwhelm the Papuan population. There were +probably several migrations. What seems certain, if this theory +is adopted, is that they did at last accumulate to an extent +which permitted of their mastering the former occupiers of the +soil, who were probably in very scattered and defenceless +communities.</p> + +<p>In the slow process of time they drove them into the most +southerly corner of Australia, just as the Saxons drove the +Celts into Cornwall and the Welsh hills. Even if this Dravidian +invasion is put subsequent to the Bass Strait forming, even if +one allows the probability of much crossing between the two +races at first, in time the hostilities would be renewed. With +their earliest settlements on the north-north-west coasts, the +Dravidians would probably tend to spread out north, north-east +and east, and a southerly line of retreat would be the most +natural one for the Papuans.<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> When at last they were driven +to the Strait they would drift over on rafts or in clumsy shallops; +being thereafter left in peace to concentrate their race, then +possibly only in an approximately pure state, in the island to +which the Dravidians would not take the trouble to follow them, +and where they would have centuries in which once more to fix +their racial type and emphasize over again those differences, +perhaps temporarily marred by crossing, which were found to +exist on the arrival of the Whites.</p> + +<p>This Indo-Aryan origin for the Australian blackfellows is +borne out by their physique. In spite of their savagery they +are admitted by those who have studied them to be far removed +from the low or Simian type of man. Dr Charles Pickering +(1805-1878), who studied the Australians on the spot, writes: +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span> +“Strange as it may appear, I would refer to an Australian as +the finest model of the human proportions I have ever met; in +muscular development combining perfect symmetry, activity and +strength, while his head might have compared with the antique +bust of a philosopher.” Huxley concluded, from descriptions, +that “the Deccan tribes are indistinguishable from the Australian +races.” Sir W.W. Hunter states that the Dravidian tribes were +driven southwards in Hindustan, and that the grammatical +relations of their dialects are “expressed by suffixes,” which is +true as to the Australian languages. He states that Bishop Caldwell,<a name="fa4p" id="fa4p" href="#ft4p"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +whom he calls “the great missionary scholar of the +Dravidian tongue,” showed that the south and western +Australian tribes use almost the same words for “I, thou, he, we, +you, as the Dravidian fishermen on the Madras coast.” When +in addition to all this it is found that physically the Dravidians +resemble the Australians; that the boomerang is known among +the wild tribes of the Deccan alone (with the doubtful exception +of ancient Egypt) of all parts of the world except Australia, +and that the Australian canoes are like those of the Dravidian +coast tribes, it seems reasonable enough to assume that the +Australian natives are Dravidians, exiled in remote times from +Hindustan, though when their migration took place and how +they traversed the Indian Ocean must remain questions to which, +by their very nature, there can be no satisfactory answer.</p> + +<p>The low stage of culture of the Australians when they reached +their new home is thus accounted for, but their stagnation is +remarkable, because they must have been frequently in contact +with more civilized peoples. In the north of Australia there +are traces of Malay and Papuan blood. That a far more advanced +race had at one time a settlement on the north-west coast is +indicated by the cave-paintings and sculptures discovered by +Sir George Grey. In caves of the valley of the Glenelg river, +north-west Australia, about 60 m. inland and 20 m. south of +Prince Regent’s river, are representations of human heads and +bodies, apparently of females clothed to the armpits, but all +the faces are without any indication of mouths. The heads +are surrounded with a kind of head-dress or halo and one wears +a necklace. They are drawn in red, blue and yellow. The figures +are almost life-size. Rough sculptures, too, were found, and two +large square mounds formed of loose stones, and yet perfect +parallelograms in outline, placed due east and west. In the same +district Sir George Grey noticed among the blackfellows people +he describes as “almost white.” On the Gascoyne river, too, +were seen natives of an olive colour, quite good-looking; and +in the neighbourhood of Sydney rock-carvings have been also +found. All this points to a temporary occupation by a race at +a far higher stage of culture than any known Australians, who +were certainly never capable of executing even the crude works +of art described.</p> + +<p>Physically the typical Australian is the equal of the average +European in height, but is inferior in muscular development, +the legs and arms being of a leanness which is often +emphasized by an abnormal corpulence. The bones +<span class="sidenote">Physique.</span> +are delicately formed, and there is the lack of calf usual in black +races. The skull is abnormally thick and the cerebral capacity +small. The head is long and somewhat narrow, the forehead +broad and receding, with overhanging brows, the eyes sunken, +large and black, the nose thick and very broad at the nostrils. +The mouth is large and the lips thick but not protuberant. +The teeth are large, white and strong. In old age they appear +much ground down; particularly is this the case with women, +who chew the different kinds of fibres, of which they make nets +and bags. The lower jaw is heavy; the cheekbones somewhat +high, and the chin small and receding. The neck is thicker and +shorter than that of most Europeans. The colour of the skin +is a deep copper or chocolate, never sooty black. When born, +the Australian baby is of a much lighter colour than its parents +and remains so for about a week. The hair is long, black or very +dark auburn, wavy and sometimes curly, but never woolly, +and the men have luxuriant beards and whiskers, often of an +auburn tint, while the whole body inclines to hairiness. On +the Balonne river, Queensland, Baron Mikluho Maclay found +a group of hairless natives. The head hair is usually matted +with grease and dirt, but when clean is fine and glossy. The +skin gives out an objectionable odour, owing to the habit of +anointing the body with fish-oils, but the true fetor of the negro +is lacking in the Australian. The voices of the blackfellows are +musical. Their mental faculties, though inferior to those of the +Polynesian race, are not contemptible. They have much acuteness +of perception for the relations of individual objects, but little +power of generalization. No word exists in their language for +such general terms as tree, bird or fish; yet they have invented +a name for every species of vegetable and animal they know. +The grammatical structure of some north Australian languages +has a considerable degree of refinement. The verb presents a +variety of conjugations, expressing nearly all the moods and +tenses of the Greek. There is a dual, as well as a plural form +in the declension of verbs, nouns, pronouns and adjectives. +The distinction of genders is not marked, except in proper names +of men and women. All parts of speech, except adverbs, are +declined by terminational inflections. There are words for the +elementary numbers, one, two, three; but “four” is usually +expressed by “two-two.” They have no idea of decimals. The +number and diversity of separate languages is bewildering.</p> + +<p>In disposition the Australians are a bright, laughter-loving +folk, but they are treacherous, untruthful and hold human life +cheaply. They have no great physical courage. They +are mentally in the condition of children. None of +<span class="sidenote">Character.</span> +them has an idea of what the West calls morality, except the +simple one of right or wrong arising out of property. A wife +will be beaten without mercy for unfaithfulness to her husband, +but the same wife will have had to submit to the first-night +promiscuity, a widespread revel which Roth shows is a regular +custom in north-west-central Queensland. A husband claims +his wife as his absolute property, but he has no scruple in handing +her over for a time to another man. There is, however, no +proof that anything like community of women or unlimited +promiscuity exists anywhere. It would be wrong, however, to +conclude that moral considerations have led up to this state of +things. Of sexual morality, in the everyday sense of the word, +there is none. In his treatment of women the aboriginal may +be ranked lower than even the Fuegians. Yet the Australian +is capable of strong affections, and the blind (of whom there +have always been a great number) are cared for, and are often +the best fed in a tribe.</p> + +<p>The Australians when first discovered were found to be +living in almost a prehistoric simplicity. Their food was the +meat they killed in the chase, or seeds and roots, +grubs or reptiles. They never, in any situation, +<span class="sidenote">Manners.</span> +cultivated the soil for any kind of food-crop. They never +reared any kind of cattle, or kept any domesticated animal +except the dog, which probably came over with them in their +canoes. They nowhere built permanent dwellings, but contented +themselves with mere hovels for temporary shelter. They +neither manufactured nor possessed any chattels beyond such +articles of clothing, weapons, ornaments and utensils as they +might carry on their persons, or in the family store-bag for +daily use. In most districts both sexes are entirely nude. +Sometimes in the south during the cold season they wear a cloak +of skin or matting, fastened with a skewer, but open on the +right-hand side.</p> + +<p>When going through the bush they sometimes wear an apron +of skins, for protection merely. No headgear is worn, except +sometimes a net to confine the hair, a bunch of feathers, or the +tails of small animals. The breast or back, of both sexes, is +usually tattooed, or rather, scored with rows of hideous raised +scars, produced by deep gashes made at puberty. Their dwellings +for the most part are either bowers, formed of the branches of +trees, or hovels of piled logs, loosely covered with grass or bark, +which they can erect in an hour, wherever they encamp. But +some huts of a more substantial form were seen by Captain +Matthew Flinders on the south-east coast in 1799, and by +Captain King and Sir T. Mitchell on the north-east, where they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span> +no longer appear. The ingenuity of the race is mostly exhibited +in the manufacture of their weapons of warfare and the chase. +While the use of the bow and arrow does not seem to have +occurred to them, the spear and axe are in general use, commonly +made of hard-wood; the hatchets of stone, and the javelins +pointed with stone or bone. The characteristic weapon of the +Australian is the boomerang (<i>q.v.</i>). Their nets, made by women, +either of the tendons of animals or the fibres of plants, will +catch and hold the kangaroo or the emu, or the very large fish +of Australian rivers. Canoes of bent bark, for the inland waters, +are hastily prepared at need; but the inlets and straits of the +north-eastern sea-coast are navigated by larger canoes and +rafts of a better construction. As to food, they are omnivorous. +In central Queensland and elsewhere, snakes, both venomous +and harmless, are eaten, the head being first carefully smashed +to pulp with a stone.</p> + +<p>The tribal organization of the Australians was based on that +of the family. There were no hereditary or formally elected +chiefs, nor was there any vestige of monarchy. The +affairs of a tribe were ruled by a council of men past +<span class="sidenote">Tribal organization.</span> +middle age. Each tribe occupied a recognized territory, +averaging perhaps a dozen square miles, and used a +common dialect. This district was subdivided between the +chief heads of families. Each family, or family group, had a +dual organization which has been termed (1) the Social, (2) the +Local. The first was matriarchal, inheritance being reckoned +through the mother. No territorial association was needed. +All belonged to the same totem or totemic class, and might be +scattered throughout the tribe, though subject to the same +marriage laws. The second was patriarchal and of a strictly +territorial nature. A family or group of families had the same +hunting-ground, which was seldom changed, and descended +through the males. Thus, the sons inherited their fathers’ +hunting-ground, but bore their mothers’ name and therewith +the right to certain women for wives. The Social or matriarchal +took precedence of the Local or patriarchal organization. In +many cases it arranged the assemblies and ceremonial of the +tribe; it regulated marriage, descent and relationship; it +ordered blood feuds, it prescribed the rites of hospitality and so +on. Nevertheless the Local side of tribal life in time tended +to overwhelm the Social and to organize the tribe irrespective +of matriarchy, and inclined towards hereditary chieftainship.</p> + +<p>The most intricate and stringent rules existed as to marriage +within and without the totemic inter-marrying classes. There +is said to be but one exception to the rule that marriage must +be contracted outside the totem name. This exception was +discovered by Messrs Spencer and Gillen among the Arunta of +central Australia, some allied septs, and their nearest neighbours +to the north, the Kaitish. This tribe may legally marry within +the totem, but always avoids such unions. Even in casual +amours these class laws were invariably observed, and the +young man or woman who defied them was punished, he with +death, she with spearing or beating. At the death of a man, +his widows passed to his brother of the same totem class. Such +a system gave to the elder men of a tribe a predominant position, +and generally respect was shown to the aged. Laws and penalties +in protection of property were enforced by the tribe. Thus, +among some tribes of Western Australia the penalty for abducting +another’s wife was to stand with leg extended while each male +of the tribe stuck his spear into it. Laws, however, did not +protect the women, who were the mere chattels of their lords. +Stringent rules, too, governed the food of women and the youth +of both sexes, and it was only after initiation that boys were +allowed to eat of all the game the forest provided. In every +case of death from disease or unknown causes sorcery was +suspected and an inquest held, at which the corpse was asked +by each relative in succession the name of the murderer. This +formality having been gone through, the flight of the first bird +which passed over the body was watched, the direction being +regarded as that in which the sorcerer must be sought. Sometimes +the nearest relative sleeps with his head on the corpse, +in the belief that he will dream of the murderer. The most +sacred duty an Australian had to perform was the avenging of +the death of a kinsman, and he was the object of constant +taunts and insults till he had done so. Cannibalism was almost +universal, either in the case of enemies killed in battle or when +animal food was scarce. In the Luritcha tribe it was customary +when a child was in weak health to kill a younger and healthy +one and feed the weakling on its flesh. Cannibalism seems +also to have sometimes been in the nature of a funeral observance, +in honour of the deceased, of whom the relatives reverently +ate portions.</p> + +<p>They had no special forms of religious worship, and no idols. +The evidence on the question of whether they believed in a +Supreme Being is very contradictory. Messrs Spencer +and Gillen appear to think that such rudimentary idea +<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span> +of an All-Father as has, it is thought, been detected among the +blackfellows is an exotic growth fostered by contact with missionaries. +A.W. Howitt and Dr Roth appear to have satisfied +themselves of a belief, common to most tribes, in a mythic being +(he has different names in different tribes) having some of the +attributes of a Supreme Deity. But Mr Howitt finds in this +being “no trace of a divine nature, though under favourable +conditions the beliefs might have developed into an actual +religion.” Other authorities suggest that it is going much too +far to deny the existence of religion altogether, and instance as +proof of the divinity of the supra-normal anthropomorphic +beings of the Baiame class, the fact that the Yuin and cognate +tribes dance around the image of Daramulun (their equivalent of +Baiame) and the medicine men “invocate his name.” A good +deal perhaps depends on each observer’s view of what religion +really is. The Australians believed in spirits, generally of an +evil nature, and had vague notions of an after-life. The only +idea of a god known to be entertained by them seems to be that of +the Euahlayi and Kamilaori tribe, Baiame, a gigantic old man +lying asleep for ages, with his head resting on his arm, which is +deep in the sand. He is expected one day to awake and eat up +the world. Researches go to show that Baiame has his counterpart +in other tribes, the myth varying greatly in detail. But the +Australians are distinguished by possessing elaborate initiatory +ceremonies. Circumcision of one or two kinds was usual in the +north and south, but not in Western Australia or on the Murray +river. In South Australia boys had to undergo three stages of +initiation in a place which women were forbidden to approach. +At about ten they were covered with blood from head to foot, +several elder men bleeding themselves for the purpose. At about +twelve or fourteen circumcision took place and (or sometimes +as an alternative on the east coast) a front tooth was knocked +out, to the accompaniment of the booming of the bullroarer +(<i>q.v.</i>). At the age of puberty the lad was tattooed or scarred +with gashes cut in back, shoulders, arms and chest, and the +septum of the nose was pierced. The gashes varied in patterns +for the different tribes. Girls, too, were scarred at puberty and +had teeth knocked out, &c. The ceremonies—known to the +Whites under the native generic term for initiatory rites, <i>Bora</i>,—were +much the same throughout Australia. Polygamy was +rare, due possibly to the scarcity of women.<a name="fa5p" id="fa5p" href="#ft5p"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Infanticide was +universally recognized. The mode of disposing of the dead +varied. Among some tribes a circular grave was dug and the +body placed in it with its face towards the east, and a high +mound covered with bark or thatch raised over it. In New +South Wales the body is often burned and the ashes buried. +On the Lower Murray the body is placed on a platform of sticks +and left to decay. Young children are often not buried for +months, but are carried about by their mothers. At the funeral +of men there is much mourning, the female relatives cutting or +tearing their hair off and plastering their faces with clay, but for +women no public ceremonies took place.</p> + +<p>The numbers of the native Australians are steadily diminishing. +It was estimated that when first visited by Europeans the native +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span> +population did not much exceed 200,000. A remnant of the race +exists in each of the provinces, while a few tribes still wander +over the interior.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Dr A.W. Howitt, <i>The Native Tribes of South-east +Australia</i> (1904) and <i>On the Organization of Australian Tribes</i> (1889); +G.T. Bettany, <i>The Red, Brown and Black Men of Australia</i> (1890); +B. Spencer and F.J. Gillen, <i>Native Tribes of Central Australia</i> (1899); +<i>The Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i> (London, 1904); E.M. Curr, +<i>The Australian Race</i> (3 vols., 1886-1887); G.W. Rusden, <i>History of +Australia</i> (1897); <i>Australasia</i>, British Empire Series (Kegan Paul +& Co., 1900); A.R. Wallace, <i>Australasia</i> (1880, new ed., 2 vols., +1893-1895); Rev. Lorimer Fison and Dr A.W. Howitt, <i>Kamilaroi +and Kurnai, Group Marriage and Relationship</i> (Melbourne, 1880); +H. Ling Roth, <i>Queensland Aborigines</i> (Brisbane, 1897); Carl Lumholtz, +<i>Among Cannibals</i> (1889); Walter E. Roth, <i>Ethnological +Studies among the North-west-central Queensland Aborigines</i> (London, +1897); Mrs K. Langloh Parker, <i>Euahlayi Tribes</i> (1905); F.J. Gillen, +<i>Notes on Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Macdonnell +Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe</i>; J.E. Frazer, “The Beginnings +of Religion and Totemism among the Australian Aborigines,” +<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, July 1905; N.W. Thomas, <i>Native Tribes of +Australia</i> (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Ar.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">1. <i>The Discovery of Australia</i>.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to say who were the first discoverers of +Australia, although there is evidence that the Chinese had some +knowledge of the continent so far back as the 13th century. +The Malays, also, would seem to have been acquainted with the +northern coast; while Marco Polo, who visited the East at the +close of the 13th century, makes reference to the reputed existence +of a great southern continent. There is in existence a map, +dedicated to Henry VIII. of England, on which a large southern +land is shown, and the tradition of a Terra Australis appears to +have been current for a long period before it enters into authentic +history.</p> + +<p>In 1503 a French navigator named Binot Paulmyer, sieur de +Gonneville, was blown out of his course, and landed on a large +island, which was claimed to be the great southern land of tradition, +although Flinders and other authorities are inclined to +think that it must have been Madagascar. Some French +authorities confidently put forward a claim that Guillaume le +Testu, of Provence, sighted the continent in 1531. The Portuguese +also advance claims to be the first discoverers of Australia, +but so far the evidence cannot be said to establish their pretensions. +As early as 1597 the Dutch historian, Wytfliet, describes +the Australis Terra as the most southern of all lands, and proceeds +to give some circumstantial particulars respecting its geographical +relation to New Guinea, venturing the opinion that, were it +thoroughly explored, it would be regarded as a fifth part of the +world.</p> + +<p>Early in the 17th century Philip III. of Spain sent out an +expedition from Callao, in Peru, for the purpose of searching for +a southern continent. The little fleet comprised three +vessels, with the Portuguese pilot, De Quiros, as +<span class="sidenote">De Torres.</span> +navigator, and De Torres as admiral or military commander. +They left Callao on the 21st of December 1605, and in the +following year discovered the island now known as Espiritu +Santo, one of the New Hebrides group, which De Quiros, under +the impression that it was indeed the land of which he was in +search, named <i>La Austrialia del Espiritu Santo</i>. Sickness and +discontent led to a mutiny on De Quiros’ vessel, and the crew, +overpowering their officers during the night, forced the captain +to navigate his ship to Mexico. Thus, abandoned by his consort, +De Torres, compelled to bear up for the Philippines to refit, +discovered and sailed through the strait that bears his name, +and may even have caught a glimpse of the northern coast of the +Australian continent. His discovery was not, however, made +known until 1792, when Dalrymple rescued his name from +oblivion, bestowing it upon the passage which separates New +Guinea from Australia. De Quiros returned to Spain to re-engage +in the work of petitioning the king to despatch an expedition +for the purpose of prosecuting the discovery of the Terra +Australis. He was finally successful in his petitions, but died +before accomplishing his work, and was buried in an unknown +grave in Panama, never being privileged to set his foot upon the +continent the discovery of which was the inspiration of his life.</p> + +<p>During the same year in which De Torres sailed through the +strait destined to make him famous, a little Dutch vessel called +the “Duyfken,” or “Dove,” set sail from Bantam, +in Java, on a voyage of discovery. This ship entered +<span class="sidenote">Dutch discoverers.</span> +the Gulf of Carpentaria, and sailed south as far as Cape +Keerweer, or Turn-again. Here some of the crew landed, but, +being attacked by natives, made no attempt to explore the +country. In 1616 Dirk Hartog discovered the island bearing +his name. In 1622 the “Leeuwin,” or “Lioness,” made some +discoveries on the south-west coast; and during the following +year the yachts “Pera” and “Arnheim” explored the shores +of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Arnheim Land, a portion of the +Northern Territory, still appears on many maps as a memento +of this voyage. Among other early Dutch discoverers were +Edel; Pool, in 1629, in the Gulf of Carpentaria; Nuyts, +in the “Guide Zeepaard,” along the southern coast, which he +called, after himself, Nuyts Land; De Witt; and Pelsaert, +in the “Batavia.” Pelsaert was wrecked on Houtman’s +Abrolhos; his crew mutinied, and he and his party suffered +greatly from want of water. The record of his voyage is interesting +from the fact that he was the first to carry back to Europe +an authentic account of the western coast of Australia, which +he described in any but favourable terms. It is to Dutch +navigators in the early portion of the 17th century that we owe +the first really authentic accounts of the western coast and +adjacent islands, and in many instances the names given by these +mariners to prominent physical features are still retained. By +1665 the Dutch possessed rough charts of almost the whole +of the western littoral, while to the mainland itself they had +given the name of New Holland. Of the Dutch discoverers, +Pelsaert was the only one who made any detailed observations +of the character of the country inland, and it may here be remarked +that his journal contains the first notice and description +of the kangaroo that has come down to us.</p> + +<p>In 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman sailed on a voyage of discovery +from Batavia, the headquarters of the governor and council +of the Dutch East Indies, under whose auspices the expedition +was undertaken. He was furnished with a yacht, the “Heemskirk,” +and a fly-boat, the “Zeehaen” (or “Sea Hen”), under +the command of Captain Jerrit Jansen. He left Batavia on +what has been designated by Dutch historians the “Happy +Voyage,” on the 14th of August 1642. After a visit to the +Mauritius, then a Dutch possession, Tasman bore away to the +south-east, and on the 24th of November sighted the western +coast of the land which he named Van Diemen’s Land, in honour +of the governor under whose directions he was acting. The +honour was later transferred to the discoverer himself, and the +island is now known as Tasmania. Tasman doubled the southern +extremity of Van Diemen’s Land and explored the east coast +for some distance. The ceremony of hoisting a flag and taking +possession of the country in the name of the government of the +Netherlands was actually performed, but the description of the +wildness of the country, and of the fabulous giants by which +Tasman’s sailors believed it to be inhabited, deterred the Dutch +from occupying the island, and by the international principle +of “non-user” it passed from their hands. Resuming his voyage +in an easterly direction, Tasman sighted the west coast of +the South Island of New Zealand on the 13th of December of the +same year, and describes the coast-line as consisting of “high +mountainous country.”</p> + +<p>The first English navigator to sight the Australian continent +was William Dampier, who made a visit to these shores in 1688, +as supercargo of the “Cygnet,” a trader whose crew +had turned buccaneers. On his return to England he +<span class="sidenote">Dampier.</span> +published an account of his voyage, which resulted in his being +sent out in the “Roebuck” in 1699 to prosecute his discoveries +further. To him we owe the exploration of the coast for about +900 m.—from Shark’s Bay to Dampier’s Archipelago, and +thence to Roebuck Bay. He appears to have landed in several +places in search of water. His account of the country was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span> +quite as unfavourable as Pelsaert’s. He described it as barren +and sterile, and almost devoid of animals, the only one of any +importance somewhat resembling a raccoon—a strange creature, +which advanced by great bounds or leaps instead of walking, +using only its hind legs, and covering 12 or 15 ft. at a time. The +reference is, of course, to the kangaroo, which Pelsaert had also +remarked and quaintly described some sixty years previously.</p> + +<p>During the interval elapsing between Dampier’s two voyages, +an accident led to the closer examination of the coasts of Western +Australia by the Dutch. In 1684 a vessel had sailed from +Holland for the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, and after +rounding the Cape of Good Hope, she was never again heard of. +Some twelve years afterwards the East India Company fitted +out an expedition under the leadership of Commander William +de Vlamingh, with the object of searching for any traces of the +lost vessel on the western shores of New Holland. Towards the +close of the year 1696 this expedition reached the island of +Rottnest, which was thoroughly explored, and early the following +year a landing party discovered and named the Swan river. +The vessels then proceeded northward without finding any traces +of the object of their search, but, at the same time, making fairly +accurate charts of the coast-line.</p> + +<p>The great voyage of Captain James Cook, in 1769-1770, was +primarily undertaken for the purposes of observing the transit +of Venus, but he was also expressly commissioned +to ascertain “whether the unexplored part of the +<span class="sidenote">Cook.</span> +southern hemisphere be only an immense mass of water, or +contain another continent.” H.M.S. “Endeavour,” the vessel +fitted out for the voyage, was a small craft of 370 tons, carrying +twenty-two guns, and built originally for a collier, with a view +rather to strength than to speed. Chosen by Cook himself, +she was renamed the “Endeavour,” in allusion to the great work +which her commander was setting out to achieve. Mr Charles +Green was commissioned to conduct the astronomical observations, +and Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander were appointed +botanists to the expedition. After successfully observing the +transit from the island of Tahiti, or Otaheite, as Cook wrote it, +the “Endeavour’s” head was turned south, and then north-west, +beating about the Pacific in search of the eastern coast of the +great continent whose western shores had been so long known +to the Dutch. On the 6th of October 1769 the coast of New +Zealand was sighted, and two days later Cook cast anchor in +Poverty Bay, so named from the inhospitality and hostility +of the natives.</p> + +<p>After voyaging westward for nearly three weeks, Cook, on the +19th of April 1770, sighted the eastern coast of Australia at a +point which he named after his lieutenant, who discovered it, +Point Hicks, and which modern geographers identify with +Cape Everard.</p> + +<p>The “Endeavour” then coasted northward, and after passing +and naming Mount Dromedary, the Pigeon House, Point Upright, +Cape St George and Red Point, Botany Bay was discovered +on the 28th of April 1770, and as it appeared to offer a suitable +anchorage, the “Endeavour” entered the bay and dropped +anchor. The ship brought-to opposite a group of natives, +who were cooking over a fire. The great navigator and his crew, +unacquainted with the character of the Australian aborigines, +were not a little astonished that these natives took no notice +of them or their proceedings. Even the splash of the anchor in +the water, and the noise of the cable running out through the +hawse-hole, in no way disturbed them at their occupation, or +caused them to evince the slightest curiosity. But as the captain +of the “Endeavour” ordered out the pinnace and prepared to +land, the natives threw off their nonchalance; for on the boat +approaching the shore, two men, each armed with a bundle of +spears, presented themselves on a projecting rock and made +threatening signs to the strangers. It is interesting to note that +the ingenious <i>wommera</i>, or throw-stick, which is peculiar to +Australia, was first observed on this occasion. As the men were +evidently determined to oppose any attempt at landing, a +musket was discharged between them, in the hope that they +would be frightened by the noise, but it produced no effect +beyond causing one of them to drop his bundle of spears, of +which, however, he immediately repossessed himself, and with his +comrade resumed the same menacing attitude. At last one cast +a stone towards the boat, which earned him a charge of small +shot in the leg. Nothing daunted, the two ran back into the bush, +and presently returned furnished with shields made of bark, +with which to protect themselves from the firearms of the crew. +Such intrepidity is certainly worthy of passing notice. Unlike +the American Indians, who supposed Columbus and his crew +to be supernatural beings, and their ships in some way endowed +with life, and were thrown into convulsions of terror by the first +discharge of firearms which they witnessed, these Australians +were neither excited to wonder by the ship nor overawed by +the superior number and unknown weapons of the strangers. +Cook examined the bay in the pinnace, and landed several times; +but by no endeavour could he induce the natives to hold any +friendly communication with him. The well-known circumstance +of the great variety of new plants here obtained, from which +Botany Bay derives its name, should not be passed over. Before +quitting the bay the ceremony was performed of hoisting the +Union Jack, first on the south shore, and then near the north +head, formal possession of the territory being thus taken for the +British crown. During the sojourn in Botany Bay the crew had +to perform the painful duty of burying a comrade—a seaman +named Forby Sutherland, who was in all probability the first +British subject whose body was committed to Australian soil.</p> + +<p>After leaving Botany Bay, Cook sailed northward. He saw +and named Port Jackson, but forbore to enter the finest natural +harbour in Australia. Broken Bay and other inlets, and several +headlands, were also seen and named, but the vessel did not +come to an anchor till Moreton Bay was reached, although the +wind prevented Cook from entering this harbour. Still sailing +northward, taking notes as he proceeded for a rough chart of the +coast, and landing at Bustard and Keppel Bays and the Bay of +Inlets, Cook passed over 1300 m. without the occurrence of any +event worthy of being chronicled, till suddenly one night at ten +o’clock the water was found to shoal, without any sign of +breakers or land. While Cook was speculating on the cause of +this phenomenon, and was in the act of ordering out the boats +to take soundings, the “Endeavour” struck heavily, and fell +over so much that the guns, spare cables, and other heavy gear +had at once to be thrown overboard to lighten the ship. As +day broke, attempts were made to float the vessel off with the +morning tide; but these were unsuccessful. The water was +rising so rapidly in the hold that with four pumps constantly +going the crew could hardly keep it in check. At length one of +the midshipmen suggested the device of “fothering,” which he +had seen practised in the West Indies. This consists of passing +a sail, attached to cords, and charged with oakum, wool, and +other materials, under the vessel’s keel, in such a manner that +the suction of the leak may draw the canvas into the aperture, +and thus partially stop the vent. This was performed with great +success, and the vessel was floated off with the evening tide. +The land was soon after made near the mouth of a small stream, +which Cook called, after the ship, the Endeavour river. A +headland close by he named Cape Tribulation. The ship was +steered into the river, and there careened and thoroughly +repaired. Cook having completed the survey of the east coast, +to which he gave the name of New South Wales, sighted and +named Cape York, the northernmost point of Australia, and +took final possession of his discoveries northward from 38° S. +to 10½° S., on a spot which he named Possession Island, thence +returning to England by way of Torres Straits and the Indian +Ocean.</p> + +<p>The great navigator’s second voyage, undertaken in 1772, +with the “Resolution” and the “Adventure,” is of less importance. +The vessels became separated, and both at different +times visited New Zealand. Captain Tobias Furneaux, in the +“Adventure,” also found his way to Storm Bay in Tasmania. +In 1777, while on his way to search for a north-east passage +between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Cook again touched +at the coast of Tasmania and New Zealand.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span></p> + +<p>On his first voyage, in 1770, Cook had some grounds for the +belief that Van Diemen’s Land, as Tasmania was then called, +was a separate island. The observations of Captain Furneaux, +however, did not strengthen this belief, and when making his +final voyage, the great navigator appears to have definitely +concluded that it was part of the mainland of Australia. This +continued to be the opinion of geographers until 1798, when +Bass discovered the strait which bears his name. The next +recorded expedition is a memorable one in the annals of Australian +history—the despatch of a British colony to the shores of +Botany Bay. The fleet sailed in May 1787, and arrived off the +Australian coast early in the following January.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">2. <i>Inland Exploration.</i></p> + +<p>For a period of twenty-five years after the first establishment +of a British settlement in Australia, the colonists were only +acquainted with the country along the coast extending northwards +about 70 m. from Sydney and about a like distance to the +south and shut in to the west by the Blue Mountain range, +forming a narrow strip not more than 50 m. wide at its broadest +part.</p> + +<p>The Blue Mountains attain a height of between 3000 and +4000 ft. only, but they are intersected with precipitous ravines +1500 ft. deep, which baffled every effort to reach the interior +until in 1813, when a summer of severe drought had made it of +vital importance to find new pastures, three of the colonists, +Messrs Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth, more fortunate than +their predecessors in exploration, after crossing the Nepean +river at Emu Plains and ascending the Dividing Range, were +able to reach a position enabling them to obtain a view of the +grassy valley of the Fish river, which lies on the farther side +of the Dividing Range. The western descent of the mountains +appeared to the explorers comparatively easy, and they returned +to report their discovery. A line of road was constructed +across the mountains as far as the Macquarie river by the +surveyor, Mr Evans, and the town of Bathurst laid out. This +marks the beginning of the occupation of the interior of the +continent. Some small expeditions were made from Bathurst, +resulting in the discovery of the Lachlan, and in 1816 the first +of the great exploration expeditions of Australia was fitted out +<span class="sidenote">Oxley.</span> +under Lieutenant Oxley, R.N. Oxley was accompanied +by Mr Evans and Mr Allan Cunningham the botanist, +and the object of his expedition was to trace the course of the +Lachlan in a westerly direction. Oxley traced the river until +it lost itself in the swamps east of 147° E., then crossing the +river he traversed the country between the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee +as far as 34° S. and 144° 30′ E. On his return journey +Oxley again crossed the Lachlan about 160 m., measured along +the river, below the point where he left it on his journey south. +Continuing in a north-easterly direction Oxley struck the +Macquarie river at a place he called Wellington, and from this +place in the following year he organized a second expedition in +hopes of discovering an inland sea. He was, however, disappointed +in this, as after descending the course of the Macquarie +below Mount Harris, he found that the river ended in an immense +swamp overgrown with reeds. Oxley now turned aside—led by +Mr Evans’s report of the country eastward—crossed the Arbuthnot +range, and traversing the Liverpool Plains, and ascending +the Peel and Cockburn rivers to the Blue Mountains, gained +sight of the open sea, which he reached at Port Macquarie. A +valuable extension of geographical knowledge had been gained +by this circuitous journey of more than 800 m. Yet its result +was a disappointment to those who had looked for means of +inland navigation by the Macquarie river, and by its supposed +issue in a mediterranean sea.</p> + +<p>During the next two or three years public attention was +occupied with Captain King’s maritime explorations of the +north-west coast in three successive voyages, and by explorations +of Western Australia in 1821. These steps were followed by the +foundation of a settlement on Melville Island, in the extreme +north, which, however, was soon abandoned. In 1823 Lieutenant +Oxley proceeded to Moreton Bay and Port Curtis, the first place +500 m., the other 690 m. north of Sydney, to choose the site of a +new penal establishment. From a shipwrecked English sailor +he met with, who had lived with the savages, he heard of the +river Brisbane. About the same time, in the opposite direction, +south-west of Sydney, a large extent of the interior was revealed. +Messrs Hamilton Hume and Hovell set out from Lake George, +crossed the Murrumbidgee, and, after following the river for a +short distance, struck south, skirting the foothills of what are +now known as the Australian Alps until they reached a fine +river, which was called the Hume after the leader’s father. +Crossing the Murray at Albury, the explorers, bearing to the +south-west, skirted the western shore of Port Philip and reached +the sea-coast near where the town of Geelong now stands. In +1827 and the two following years, Cunningham prosecuted +instructive explorations on both sides of the Liverpool range, +between the upper waters of the Hunter and those of the Peel +and other tributaries of the Brisbane north of New South Wales. +Some of his discoveries, including those of Pandora’s Pass and +the Darling Downs, were of great practical utility.</p> + +<p>By this time much had thus been done to obtain an acquaintance +with the eastern parts of the Australian continent, although +the problem of what could become of the large rivers +flowing north-west and south-west into the interior +<span class="sidenote">Darling.</span> +was still unsolved. With a view to determine this question, +Governor Sir Ralph Darling, in the year 1828, sent out the expedition +under Captain Charles Sturt, who, proceeding first to +the marshes at the end of the Macquarie river, found his progress +checked by the dense mass of reeds in that quarter. He therefore +turned westward, and struck a large river, with many affluents, +to which he gave the name of the Darling. This river, flowing +from north-east to south-west, drains the marshes in which the +Macquarie and other streams from the south appeared to be lost. +The course of the Murrumbidgee, a deep and rapid river, was +followed by the same eminent explorer in his second expedition +in 1831 with a more satisfactory result. He travelled on this +occasion nearly 2000 m., and discovered that both the Murrumbidgee, +carrying with it the waters of the Lachlan morass, and +likewise the Darling, from a more northerly region, finally joined +another and larger river. This stream, the Murray, in the upper +part of its course runs in a north-westerly direction, but afterwards +turning southwards, almost at a right angle, expands into +Lake Alexandrina on the south coast, about 60 m. south-east of +the town of Adelaide, and finally enters the sea at Encounter Bay +in E. long. 139°.</p> + +<p>After gaining a practical solution of the problem of the destination +of the westward-flowing rivers, Sir Thomas Mitchell, in 1833, +led an expedition northward to the upper branches +of the Darling; the party met with a sad disaster in +<span class="sidenote">Mitchell.</span> +the death of Richard Cunningham, brother of the eminent +botanist, who was murdered by the blacks near the Bogan river. +The expedition reached the Darling on the 25th of May 1833, +and after establishing a depot at Fort Bourke, Mitchell traced +the Darling southwards for 300 m. until he was certain the river +was identical with that reported by Sturt as joining the Murray +about 142° E.</p> + +<p>Meantime, from the new colony of Adelaide, South Australia, +on the shores of Gulf St Vincent, a series of adventurous journeys +to the north and to the west was begun by Mr Eyre, +who explored a country very difficult of access. In +<span class="sidenote">Eyre.</span> +1840 he performed a feat of extraordinary personal daring, +travelling all the way along the barren sea-coast of the Great +Australian Bight, from Spencer Gulf to King George Sound. +Eyre also explored the interior north of the head of Spencer +Gulf, where he was misled, however, by appearances to form an +erroneous theory about the water-surfaces named Lake Torrens. +It was left to the veteran explorer, Sturt, to achieve the arduous +enterprise of penetrating from the Darling northward to the very +centre of the continent. This was in 1845, the route lying for the +most part over a stony desert, where the heat (reaching 131° +Fahr.), with scorching winds, caused much suffering to the party. +The most northerly point reached by Sturt on this occasion was +about S. lat. 24° 25′.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:662px; height:962px" src="images/img960a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:656px; height:962px" src="images/img960c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img960b.jpg">(Click to enlarge left section.)</a><br /> +<a href="images/img960d.jpg">(Click to enlarge right section.)</a></p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page961" id="page961"></a>961</span></p> + +<p>A military station having been fixed by the British government +at Port Victoria, on the coast of Arnheim Land, for the +protection of shipwrecked mariners on the north coast, +it was thought desirable to find an overland route +<span class="sidenote">Leichhardt.</span> +between this settlement and Moreton Bay, in what +then was the northern portion of New South Wales, now called +Queensland. This was the object of Dr Leichhardt’s expedition +in 1844, which proceeded first along the banks of the Dawson +and the Mackenzie, tributaries of the Fitzroy river, in Queensland. +It thence passed farther north to the Burdekin, ascending to +the source of that river, and turned westward across a table-land, +from which there was an easy descent to the Gulf of Carpentaria. +Skirting the low shores of this gulf, all the way round its upper +half to the Roper, Leichhardt crossed Arnheim Land to the +Alligator river, which he descended to the western shore of the +peninsula, and arrived at Port Victoria, otherwise Port Essington, +after a journey of 3000 m., performed within a year and three +months. In 1847 Leichhardt undertook a much more formidable +task, that of crossing the entire continent from east to west. +His starting-point was on the Fitzroy Downs, north of the river +Condamine, in Queensland, between the 26th and 27th degrees +of S. latitude. But this eminent explorer had not proceeded +far into the interior before he met his death, his last despatch +dating from the Cogoon, 3rd of April 1848. In the same region, +from 1845 to 1847, Sir Thomas Mitchell and Mr E.B. Kennedy +explored the northern tributaries of the Darling, and a river +in S. lat. 24°, named the Barcoo or Victoria, which flows to +the south-west. This river was more thoroughly examined by +Mr A.C. Gregory in 1858. Mr Kennedy lost his life in 1848, +being killed by the natives while attempting to explore the +peninsula of Cape York, from Rockingham Bay to Weymouth +Bay.</p> + +<p>Among the performances of less renown, but of much practical +utility in surveying and opening new paths through the country, +we may mention that of Captain Banister, showing the way +across the southern part of Western Australia, from Swan river +to King George Sound, and that of Messrs Robinson and G.H. +Haydon in 1844, making good the route from Port Phillip to +Gipps’ Land with loaded drays, through a dense tangled scrub, +which had been described by Strzelecki as his worst obstacle. +Again, in Western Australia there were the explorations of the +Arrowsmith, the Murchison, the Gascoyne, and the Ashburton +rivers, by Captain Grey, Mr Roe, Governor Fitzgerald, Mr R. +Austin, and the brothers Gregory, whose discoveries have great +importance from a geographical point of view.</p> + +<p>These local researches, and the more comprehensive attempts +of Leichhardt and Mitchell to solve the chief problems of +Australian geography, must yield in importance to the +grand achievement of Mr Stuart in 1862. The first +<span class="sidenote">Stuart.</span> +of his tours independently performed, in 1858 and 1859, were +around the South Australian lakes, namely, Lake Torrens, Lake +Eyre and Lake Gairdner. These waters had been erroneously +taken for parts of one vast horse-shoe or sickle shaped lake, only +some 20 m. broad, believed to encircle a large portion of the +inland country, with drainage at one end by a marsh into +Spencer Gulf. The mistake, shown in all the old maps of +Australia, had originated in a curious optical illusion. When Mr +Eyre viewed the country from Mount Deception in 1840, looking +between Lake Torrens and the lake which now bears his own +name, the refraction of light from the glittering crust of salt +that covers a large space of stony or sandy ground produced an +appearance of water. The error was discovered, after eighteen +years, by the explorations of Mr Babbage and Major Warburton +in 1858, while Mr Stuart, about the same time, gained a more +complete knowledge of the same district.</p> + +<p>A reward of £10,000 having been offered by the legislature +of South Australia to the first man who should traverse the +whole continent from south to north, starting from the city of +Adelaide, Mr Stuart resolved to make the attempt. He started +in March 1860, passing Lake Torrens and Lake Eyre, beyond +which he found a pleasant, fertile country till he crossed the +Macdonnell range of mountains, just under the line of the tropic +of Capricorn. On the 23rd of April he reached a mountain in +S. lat. nearly 22°, and E. long. nearly 134°, which is the most +central marked point of the Australian continent, and has been +named Central Mount Stuart. Mr Stuart did not finish his task +on this occasion, on account of indisposition and other causes. +But the 18th degree of latitude had been reached, where the +watershed divided the rivers of the Gulf of Carpentaria from +the Victoria river, flowing towards the north-west coast. He +had also proved that the interior of Australia was not a stony +desert, like the region visited by Sturt in 1845. On the first day +of the next year, 1861, Mr Stuart again started for a second +attempt to cross the continent, which occupied him eight months. +He failed, however, to advance farther than one geographical +degree north of the point reached in 1860, his progress being +arrested by dense scrubs and the want of water.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in the province of Victoria, by means of a fund +subscribed among the colonists and a grant by the legislature, +the ill-fated expedition of Messrs Burke and Wills +was started. It made for the Barcoo (Cooper’s Creek), +<span class="sidenote">Burke and Wills.</span> +with a view to reach the Gulf of Carpentaria by a +northerly course midway between Sturt’s track to the west and +Leichhardt’s to the east. The leading men of the party were Mr +Robert O’Hara Burke, an officer of police, and Mr William John +Wills, of the Melbourne observatory. Leaving the main body +of his party at Menindie on the Darling under a man named +Wright, Burke, with seven men, five horses and sixteen camels, +pushed on for Cooper’s Creek, the understanding being that +Wright should follow him in easy stages to the depot proposed +to be there established. Wright frittered away his time in the +district beyond the Darling and did not attempt to follow the +party to Cooper’s Creek, and Burke, tired of waiting, determined +to push on. Accordingly, dividing his party, leaving at the +depot four men and taking with him Wills and two men, King +and Gray, with a horse and six camels, he left Cooper’s Creek +on the 16th of December and crossed the desert traversed by +Sturt fifteen years before. They got on in spite of great difficulties, +past the McKinlay range of mountains, S. lat. 21° and +22°, and then reached the Flinders river, which flows into the +head of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Here, without actually standing +on the sea-beach of the northern shore, they met the tidal waters +of the sea. On the 23rd of February 1861 they commenced the +return journey, having in effect accomplished the feat of crossing +the Australian continent. Gray, who had fallen ill, died on the +16th of April. Five days later, Burke, Wills and King had +repassed the desert to the place on Cooper’s Creek (the Barcoo, +S. lat. 27° 40′, E. long. 140° 30′), where they had left the depot, +with the rest of the expedition. Here they experienced a cruel +disappointment. The depot was abandoned; the men in charge +had quitted the place the same day, believing that Burke and +those with him were lost. The men who had thus abandoned +the depot rejoined the main body of the expedition under Wright, +who at length moved to Cooper’s Creek, and, incredible to relate, +neglected to search for the missing explorers. Burke, Wills and +King, when they found themselves so fearfully left alone and +unprovided in the wilderness, wandered about in that district +till near the end of June. They subsisted miserably on the bounty +of some natives, and partly by feeding on the seeds of a plant +called nardoo. At last both Wills and Burke died of starvation. +King, the sole survivor, was saved by meeting the friendly blacks, +and was found alive in September by Mr A.W. Howitt’s party, +sent on purpose to find and relieve that of Burke.</p> + +<p>Four other parties, besides Howitt’s, were sent out that year +from different Australian provinces. Three of them, respectively +commanded by Mr Walker, Mr Landsborough, and Mr Norman, +sailed to the north, where the latter two landed on the shores +of the Gulf of Carpentaria, while Mr Walker marched inland +from Rockhampton. The fourth party, under Mr J. McKinlay, +from Adelaide, made for the Barcoo by way of Lake Torrens. +By these means, the unknown region of Mid Australia was +simultaneously entered from the north, south, east and west, +and important additions were made to geographical knowledge +Landsborough crossed the entire continent from north to south. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page962" id="page962"></a>962</span> +between February and June 1862; and McKinlay, from south to +north, before the end of August in that year. The interior of +New South Wales and Queensland, all that lies east of the 140th +degree of longitude, was examined. The Barcoo or Cooper’s +Creek and its tributary streams were traced from the Queensland +mountains, holding a south-westerly course to Lake Eyre in +South Australia; the Flinders, the Gilbert, the Gregory, and +other northern rivers watering the country towards the Gulf of +Carpentaria were also explored. These valuable additions to +Australian geography were gained through humane efforts to +relieve the lost explorers. The bodies of Burke and Wills were +recovered and brought to Melbourne for a solemn public funeral, +and a noble monument has been erected to their honour.</p> + +<p>Mr Stuart, in 1862, made his third and final attempt to +traverse the continent from Adelaide along a central line, which, +inclining a little westward, reaches the north coast of Arnheim +Land, opposite Melville Island. He started in January, and on +the 7th of April reached the farthest northern point, near S. lat. +17°, where he had turned back in May of the preceding year. +He then pushed on, through a very thick forest, with scarcely +any water, till he came to the streams which supply the Roper, +a river flowing into the western part of the Gulf of Carpentaria. +Having crossed a table-land of sandstone which divides these +streams from those running to the western shores of Arnheim +Land, Mr Stuart, in the month of July, passed down what is +called the Adelaide river of north Australia. Thus he came at +length to stand on the verge of the Indian Ocean; “gazing +upon it,” a writer has said, “with as much delight as Balboa, +when he crossed the Isthmus of Darien from the Atlantic to +the Pacific.” The line crossing Australia which was thus +explored has since been occupied by the electric telegraph +connecting Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and other Australian +cities with London.</p> + +<p>A third part, at least, of the interior of the whole continent, +between the central line of Stuart and the known parts of +Western Australia, from about 120° to 134° E. long., +an extent of half a million square miles, still remained +<span class="sidenote">Gosse.</span> +a blank in the map. But the two expeditions of 1873, conducted by +William Christie Gosse (1842-1881), afterwards deputy surveyor-general +for South Australia, and Colonel (then Major) Egerton +Warburton, made a beginning in the exploration of this <i>terra +incognita</i> west of the central telegraph route. That line of more +than 1800 m., having its southern extremity at the head of +Spencer Gulf, its northern at Port Darwin, in Arnheim Land, +passes Central Mount Stuart, in the middle of the continent, +S. lat. 22°, E. long. 134°. Mr Gosse, with men and horses provided +by the South Australian government, started on the 21st +of April from the telegraph station 50 m. south of Central Mount +Stuart, to strike into Western Australia. He passed the Reynolds +range and Lake Amadeus in that direction, but was compelled +to turn south, where he found a tract of well-watered grassy +land. A singular rock of conglomerate, 2 m. long, 1 m. wide, +and 1100 ft. high, with a spring of water in its centre, struck his +attention. The country was mostly poor and barren, sandy +hillocks, with scanty growth of spinifex. Mr Gosse, having +travelled above 600 m., and getting to 26° 32′ S. and 127° E., +two degrees within the Western Australian boundary, was forced +to return. Meantime a more successful attempt to reach the +<span class="sidenote">Warburton.</span> +western coast from the centre of Australia was made by +Major Warburton, with thirty camels, provided by Mr +(afterwards Sir) T. Elder, of South Australia. Leaving +the telegraph line at Alice Springs (23° 40′ S., 133° 14′ E.), +1120 m. north of Adelaide city, Warburton succeeded in making +his way to the De Grey river, Western Australia. Overland +routes had now been found possible, though scarcely convenient +for traffic, between all the widely separated Australian provinces. +In northern Queensland, also, there were several explorations +about this period, with results of some interest. That performed +by Mr W. Hann, with Messrs Warner, Tate and Taylor, in 1873, +related to the country north of the Kirchner range, watered by +the Lynd, the Mitchell, the Walsh and the Palmer rivers, on +the east side of the Gulf of Carpentaria. The coasting expedition +of Mr G. Elphinstone Dalrymple, with Messrs Hill and Johnstone, +finishing in December 1873, effected a valuable survey of the +inlets and navigable rivers in the Cape York Peninsula.</p> + +<p>Of the several attempts to cross Western Australia, even +Major Warburton’s expedition, the most successful, had failed +in the important particular of determining the nature of the +country through which it passed. Major Warburton had +virtually raced across from the Macdonnell range in South +Australia to the headwaters of the Oakover river on the north-west +coast, without allowing himself sufficient time to note the +characteristics of the country. The next important expedition +<span class="sidenote">Forrest.</span> +was differently conducted. John (afterwards Sir John) +Forrest was despatched by the Perth government +with general instructions to obtain information regarding the +immense tract of country out of which flow the rivers falling +into the sea on the northern and western shores of Western +Australia. Leaving Yewin, a small settlement about lat. 28° S., +long. 116° E., Forrest travelled north-east to the Murchison +river, and followed the course of that river to the Robinson +ranges; thence his course lay generally eastward along the +26th parallel. Forrest and his party safely crossed the entire +extent of Western Australia, and entering South Australia +struck the overland telegraph line at Peake station, and, after +resting, journeyed south to Adelaide. Forrest traversed seventeen +degrees of desert in five months, a very wonderful achievement, +more especially as he was able to give a full report of the country +through which he passed. His report destroyed all hope that +pastoral settlement would extend to the spinifex region; and +the main object of subsequent explorers was to determine the +extent of the desert in the direction of north and south. Ernest +<span class="sidenote">Giles.</span> +Giles made several attempts to cross the Central +Australian Desert, but it was not until his third +attempt that he was successful. His journey ranks almost with +Forrest’s in the importance of its results and the success with +which the appalling difficulties of the journey were overcome. +Through the generosity of Sir Thomas Elder, of Adelaide, Giles’s +expedition was equipped with camels. It started on the 23rd +of May 1875 from Port Augusta. Working westerly along the +line of the 30th parallel, Giles reached Perth in about five months. +After resting in Perth for a short time, he commenced the return +journey, which was made for the most part between the 24th +and 25th parallels, and again successfully traversed the desert, +reaching the overland telegraph line in about seven months. +Giles’s journeys added greatly to our knowledge of the characteristics +of Western and South Australia, and he was able to bear +out the common opinion that the interior of Australia west of +132° E. long, is a sandy and waterless waste, entirely unfit for +settlement.</p> + +<p>The list of explorers since 1875 is a long one; but after +Forrest’s and Giles’s expeditions the main object ceased to be +the discovery of pastoral country: a new zest had +been added to the cause of exploration, and most of +<span class="sidenote">Recent explorers.</span> +the smaller expeditions concerned themselves with the +search for gold. Amongst the more important explorations +may be ranked those of Tietkins in 1889, of Lindsay in 1891, +of Wells in 1896, of Hübbe in 1896, and of the Hon. David +Carnegie in 1896-97. Lindsay’s expedition, which was fitted +out by Sir Thomas Elder, the generous patron of Australian +exploration, entered Western Australia about the 26th parallel +south lat., on the line of route taken by Forrest in 1874. From +this point the explorer worked in a south-westerly direction to +Queen Victoria Springs, where he struck the track of Giles’s +expedition of 1875. From the Springs the expedition went +north-west and made a useful examination of the country lying +between 119° and 115° meridians and between 26° and 28° S. lat. +Wells’s expedition started from a base about 122° 20′ E. and +25° 54′ S., and worked northward to the Joanna Springs, situated +on the tropic of Capricorn and near the 124th meridian. From +the springs the journey was continued along the same meridian +to the Fitzroy river. The country passed through was mostly +of a forbidding character, except where the Kimberley district +was entered, and the expedition suffered even more than the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page963" id="page963"></a>963</span> +usual hardships. The establishment of the gold-fields, with +their large population, caused great interest to be taken in the +discovery of practicable stock routes, especially from South +Australia in the east, and from Kimberley district in the north. +Alive to the importance of the trade, the South Australian +government despatched Hübbe from Oodnadatta to Coolgardie. +He successfully accomplished his journey, but had to report +that there was no practicable route for cattle between the two +districts.</p> + +<p>One of the most successful expeditions which traversed +Western Australia was that led and equipped by the Hon. +David Carnegie, which started in July 1896, and travelled +north-easterly until it reached Alexander Spring; then turning +northward, it traversed the country between Wells’s track of +1896 and the South Australian border. The expedition encountered +very many hardships, but successfully reached Hall +Creek in the Kimberley district. After a few months’ rest it +started on the return journey, following Sturt Creek until its +termination in Gregory’s Salt Sea, and then keeping parallel +with the South Australian border as far as Lake Macdonald. +Rounding that lake the expedition moved south-west and +reached the settled districts in August 1897. The distance +travelled was 5000 m., and the actual time employed was eight +months. This expedition put an end to the hope, so long +entertained, that it was possible to obtain a direct and practicable +route for stock between Kimberley and Coolgardie gold-fields; and +it also proved that, with the possible exception of small isolated +patches, the desert traversed contained no auriferous country.</p> + +<p>It may be said that exploration on a large scale is now at an +end; there remain only the spaces, nowhere very extensive, +between the tracks of the old explorers yet to be examined, and +these are chiefly in the Northern Territory and in Western +Australia north of the tropic of Capricorn. The search for gold +and the quest for unoccupied pasturage daily diminish the +extent of these areas.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center">3. <i>Political History</i>.</p> + +<p>Of the six Australian states, New South Wales is the oldest. +It was in 1788, eighteen years after Captain Cook explored +the east coast, that Port Jackson was founded as +a penal station for criminals from England; and +<span class="sidenote">Early colonization.</span> +the settlement retained that character, more or less, +during the subsequent fifty years, transportation being +virtually suspended in 1839. The colony, however, from 1821 +had made a fair start in free industrial progress. By this time, +too, several of the other provinces had come into existence. +Van Diemen’s Land, now called Tasmania, had been occupied +as early as 1803. It was an auxiliary penal station under New +South Wales till in 1825 it became a separate government. +From this island, ten years later, parties crossed Bass Strait +to Port Phillip, where a new settlement was shortly established, +forming till 1851 a part of New South Wales, but now the state of +Victoria. In 1827 and 1829, an English company endeavoured +to plant a settlement at the Swan river, and this, added to a small +military station established in 1825 at King George Sound, +constituted Western Australia. On the shores of the Gulf St +Vincent, again, from 1835 to 1837, South Australia was created +by another joint-stock company, as an experiment in the Wakefield +scheme of colonization. Such were the political component +parts of British Australia up to 1839. The early history, therefore, +of New South Wales is peculiar to itself. Unlike the other +mainland provinces, it was at first held and used chiefly for the +reception of British convicts. When that system was abolished, +the social conditions of New South Wales, Victoria, and South +Australia became more equal. Previous to the gold discoveries +of 1851 they may be included, from 1839, in a general summary +view.</p> + +<p>The first British governors at Sydney, from 1788, ruled with +despotic power. They were naval or military officers in command +of the garrison, the convicts and the few free settlers. The +duty was performed by such men as Captain Arthur Phillip, +Captain Hunter, and others. In the twelve years’ rule of General +Macquarie, closing with 1821, the colony made a substantial +advance. By means of bond labour roads and bridges were +<span class="sidenote">Rise of New South Wales.</span> +constructed, and a route opened into the interior beyond +the Blue Mountains. A population of 30,000, three-fourths +of them convicts, formed the infant commonwealth, +whose attention was soon directed to the profitable +trade of rearing fine wool sheep, first commenced by Captain +John McArthur in 1803. During the next ten years, 1821-1831, +Sir Thomas Brisbane and Sir Ralph Darling, two generals of the +army, being successively governors, the colony increased, and +eventually succeeded in obtaining the advantages of a representative +institution, by means of a legislative council. Then +came General Sir Richard Bourke, whose wise and liberal +administration proved most beneficial. New South Wales +became prosperous and attractive to emigrants with capital. +Its enterprising ambition was encouraged by taking fresh +country north and south. In the latter direction, explored by +Mitchell in 1834 and 1836, lay Australia Felix, now Victoria, +including the well-watered, thickly-wooded country of Gipps’ +Land.</p> + +<p>This district, then called Port Phillip, in the time of Governor +Sir George Gipps, 1838-1846, was growing fast into a position +claiming independence. Melbourne, which began with +a few huts on the banks of the Yarra-Yarra in 1835, +<span class="sidenote">Growth of Victoria.</span> +was in 1840 a busy town of 6000 inhabitants, the +population of the whole district, with the towns of Geelong +and Portland, reaching 12,850; while its import trade amounted +to £204,000, and its exports to £138,000. Such was the growth +of infant Victoria in five years; that of Adelaide or South +Australia, in the same period, was nearly equal to it. At Melbourne +there was a deputy governor, Mr Latrobe, under Sir +George-Gipps at Sydney. Adelaide had its own governors, first +Captain Hindmarsh, next Colonel Gawler, and then Captain +George Grey. Western Australia progressed but slowly, with +less than 4000 inhabitants altogether, under Governors Stirling +and Hutt.</p> + +<p>The general advancement of Australia, to the era of the gold-mining, +had been satisfactory, in spite of a severe commercial +crisis, from 1841 to 1843, caused by extravagant land +speculations and inflated prices. Victoria produced +<span class="sidenote">Discovery of gold.</span> +already more wool than New South Wales, the aggregate +produce of Australia in 1852 being 45,000,000 ℔; and South +Australia, between 1842 and this date, had opened most valuable +mines of copper. The population of New South Wales in 1851 +was 190,000; that of Victoria, 77,000; and that of South +Australia about the same. At Summerhill Creek, 20 m. north +of Bathurst, in the Macquarie plains, gold was discovered, in +February 1851, by Mr E. Hargraves, a gold-miner from California. +The intelligence was made known in April or May; and then +began a rush of thousands,—men leaving their former employments +in the bush or in the towns to search for the ore so greatly +coveted in all ages. In August it was found at Andersen’s +Creek, near Melbourne; a few weeks later the great Ballarat +gold-field, 80 m. west of that city, was opened; and after that, +Bendigo to the north. Not only in these lucky provinces, New +South Wales and Victoria, where the auriferous deposits were +revealed, but in every British colony of Australasia, all ordinary +industry was left for the one exciting pursuit. The copper mines +of South Australia were for the time deserted, while Tasmania +and New Zealand lost many inhabitants, who emigrated to the +more promising country. The disturbance of social, industrial +and commercial affairs, during the first two or three years of +the gold era, was very great. Immigrants from Europe, and to +some extent from North America and China, poured into Melbourne, +where the arrivals in 1852 averaged 2000 persons in a +week. The population of Victoria was doubled in the first twelvemonth +of the gold fever, and the value of imports and exports +was multiplied tenfold between 1851 and 1853. The colony +of Victoria was constituted a separate province in July 1851, +Mr Latrobe being appointed governor, followed by Sir Charles +Hotham and Sir Henry Barkly in succession.</p> + +<p>The separation of the northern part of eastern Australia, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page964" id="page964"></a>964</span> +under the name of Queensland, from the original province of +New South Wales, took place in 1859. At that time the district +contained about 25,000 inhabitants; and in the first six years +<span class="sidenote">Responsible government.</span> +its population was quadrupled and its trade trebled. +At the beginning of 1860, when the excitement of the +gold discoveries was wearing off, five of the states +had received from the home government the boon +of responsible government, and were in a position to work out +the problem of their position without external interference; it +was not, however, until 1890 that Western Australia was placed +in a similar position. After the establishment of responsible +government the main questions at issue were the secular as +opposed to the religious system of public instruction, protection +as opposed to a revenue tariff, vote by ballot, adult suffrage, +abolition of transportation and assignment of convicts, and +free selection of lands before survey; these, and indeed all +the great questions upon which the country was divided, were +settled within twenty years of the granting of self-government.<a name="fa6p" id="fa6p" href="#ft6p"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +With the disposal of these important problems, politics in +Australia became a struggle for office between men whose +political principles were very much alike, and the tenure of power +enjoyed by the various governments did not depend upon the +principles of administration so much as upon the personal +fitness of the head of the ministry, and the acceptability of his +ministry to the members of the more popular branch of the +legislature.</p> + +<p>The two most striking political events in the modern history +of Australia, as a whole, apart from the readiness it has shown +to remain a part of the British empire (<i>q.v.</i>), and to +develop along Imperial lines, are the advent of the +<span class="sidenote">General Australian problems.</span> +Labour party and the establishment of federation. +As regards the last mentioned it may be said that it +was accomplished from within, there being no real external +necessity for the union of the states. Leading politicians have in +all the states felt the cramping effects of mere domestic legislation, +albeit on the proper direction of such legislation depends the well-being +of the people; and to this sense of the limitations of local +politics was due, as much as to anything else, the movement +towards federation.</p> + +<p>Before coming, however, to the history of federation, and the +evolution of the Labour party, we must refer briefly to some +other questions which have been of general interest +in Australia. Taking the states as a whole, agrarian +<span class="sidenote">Agrarian legislation.</span> +legislation has been the most important subject that +has engrossed the attention of their parliaments, and +every state has been more or less engaged in tinkering with its +land laws. The main object of all such legislation is to secure +the residence of the owners on the land. The object of settlers, +however, in a great many, perhaps in the majority of instances, +is to dispose of their holdings as soon as possible after the requirements +of the law have been complied with, and to avoid permanent +settlement. This has greatly facilitated the formation +of large estates devoted chiefly to grazing purposes, contrary to +the policy of the legislature, which has everywhere sought to encourage +tillage, or tillage joined to stock-rearing, and to discourage +large holdings. The importance of the land question is so great +that it is hardly an exaggeration to say that it is usual for every +parliament of Australia to have before it a proposal to alter or +amend its land laws. Since 1870 there have been five radical +changes made in New South Wales. In Victoria the law has been +altered five times, and in Queensland and South Australia seven +times.</p> + +<p>The prevention or regulation of the immigration of coloured +races has also claimed a great share of parliamentary attention. +The agitation against the influx of Chinese commenced +very soon after the gold discoveries, the European +<span class="sidenote">Immigration question.</span> +miners objecting strongly to the presence of these +aliens upon the diggings. The allegations made concerning +the Chinese really amounted to a charge of undue +industry. The Chinese were hard-working and had the usual +fortune attending those who work hard. They spent little on +drink or with the storekeepers, and were, therefore, by no means +popular. As early as 1860 there had been disturbances of a +serious character, and the Chinese were chased off the goldfields +of New South Wales, serious riots occurring at Lambing Flat, +on the Burrangong goldfield. The Chinese difficulty, so far as +the mining population was concerned, was solved by the exhaustion +of the extensive alluvial deposits; the miners’ prejudice +against the race, however, still exists, though they are no longer +serious competitors, and the laws of some of the states forbid +any Chinese to engage in mining without the express authority +in writing of the minister of mines. The nearness of China to +Australia has always appeared to the Australian democracy as a +menace to the integrity of the white settlements; and at the +many conferences of representatives from the various states, +called to discuss matters of general concern, the Chinese question +has always held a prominent place, but the absence of any federal +authority had made common action difficult. In 1888 the last +important conference on the Chinese question was held in +Sydney and attended by delegates from all the states. Previously +to the meeting of the conference there had been a great deal +of discussion in regard to the influx of Chinese, and such influx +was on all sides agreed to be a growing danger. The conference, +therefore, merely expressed the public sentiment when it resolved +that, although it was not advisable to prohibit altogether this +class of immigration, it was necessary in the public interests +that the number of Chinese privileged to land should be so +limited as to prevent the people of that race from ever becoming +an important element in the community. In conformity with +this determination the various state legislatures enacted new +laws or amended the existing laws to cope with the difficulty; +these remained until they were in effect superseded by Commonwealth +legislation. The objection to admitting immigrants was +not only to the Chinese, but extended to all Asiatics; but as a +large proportion of the persons whose entrance into the colonies +it was desired to stop were British subjects, and the Imperial +government refused to sanction any measure directly prohibiting +in plain terms the movement of British subjects from one part +of the empire to another, resort was made to indirect legislation; +this was the more advisable, as the rise of the Japanese power +in the East and the alliance of that country with Great Britain +rendered it necessary to pay attention to the susceptibilities of a +powerful nation whose subjects might be affected by restrictive +laws. Eventually the difficulty was overcome by the device of an +educational test based on the provisions of an act in operation in +Natal. It was provided that a person was to be prohibited from +landing in Australia who failed to write in any prescribed +language fifty words dictated to him by the commonwealth +officer supervising immigration. The efficacy of this legislation +is in its administration, the language in which coloured aliens +are usually tested being European. The agitation against the +Chinese covered a space of over fifty years, a long period in +the history of a young country, and was promoted and kept +alive almost entirely by the trades unions, and the restriction +acts were the first legislative triumph of the Labour party, +albeit that party was not at the time directly represented in +parliament.</p> + +<p>One of the most notable events in the modern history of +Australia occurred shortly after the great strike of 1890. This +was what is ordinarily termed the bank crisis of 1893. +Although this crisis followed on the great strike, the crisis of +<span class="sidenote">Bank crisis of 1893.</span> +two things had no real connexion, the crisis being the +natural result of events long anterior to 1890. The +effects of the crisis were mainly felt in the three eastern states, +Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, Tasmania and South +Australia being affected chiefly by reason of the fact of their +intimate financial connexion with the eastern states. The +approach of the crisis was heralded by many signs. Deposits +were shifted from bank to bank, there were small runs on several +of the savings banks guaranteed by the government, mortgagees +required additional security from their debtors, bankruptcies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page965" id="page965"></a>965</span> +became frequent, and some of the banks began to accumulate +gold against the evil day. The building societies and financial +institutions in receipt of deposits, or so many of them as were on +an unsound footing, failed at an early period of the depression, +so also did the weaker banks. There was distrust in the minds +of the depositors, especially those whose holdings were small, +and most of the banks were, at a very early period, subjected to +the strain of repaying a large proportion of their deposits as +they fell due. For a time the money so withdrawn was hoarded, +but after a while it found its way back again into the banks. +The crisis was by no means a sudden crash, and even when the +failures began to take place they were spread over a period of +sixteen weeks.</p> + +<p>The first noticeable effect of the crisis was a great scarcity of +employment. Much capital was locked up in the failed banks, +and was therefore not available for distribution amongst wage-earners. +Wages fell precipitately, as also did rents. There was +an almost entire cessation of building, and a large number of +houses in the chief cities remained untenanted, the occupants +moving to lodgings and more than one family living in a single +house. Credit became greatly restricted, and all descriptions +of speculative enterprise came to an end. The consuming +power of the population was greatly diminished, and in the +year following the crisis the imports into Australia from abroad +diminished by four and three-quarter millions. In fact, everywhere +the demand for goods, especially of those for domestic +consumption, fell away; and there was a reduction in the +average number of persons employed in the manufacturing +industries to the extent of more than 20%. The lack of +employment in factories naturally affected the coal mining +industry, and indeed every industry in the states, except those +connected with the export trade, was severely affected. During +the crisis banks having a paid-up capital and reserves of +£5,000,000 and deposits of £53,000,000 closed their doors. Most +of these, however, reopened for business before many weeks. +The crisis was felt in the large cities more keenly than in the +country districts, and in Melbourne more severely than in any +other capital. The change of fortune proved disastrous to +many families, previously to all appearances in opulent circumstances, +but by all classes alike their reverses were borne with +the greatest bravery. In its ultimate effects the crisis was by +no means evil. Its true meaning was not lost upon a business +community that had had twenty years of almost unchecked +prosperity. It required the chastening of adversity to teach it +a salutary lesson, and a few years after, when the first effects +of the crisis had passed away, business was on a much sounder +footing than had been the case for very many years. One of +the first results was to put trade on a sound basis and to abolish +most of the abuses of the credit system, but the most striking +effect of the crisis was the attention which was almost immediately +directed to productive pursuits. Agriculture everywhere +expanded, the mining industry revived, and, if it had not +been for the low prices of staple products, the visible effects +of the crisis would have passed away within a very few +years.</p> + +<p>Another matter which deserves attention was the great +drought which culminated in the year 1902. For some years +previously the pastoral industry had been declining +and the number of sheep and cattle in Australia had +<span class="sidenote">Drought of 1902.</span> +greatly diminished, but the year 1902 was one of +veritable drought. The failure of the crops was almost universal +and large numbers of sheep and cattle perished for want of food. +The truth is, pastoralists for the most part carried on their +industry trusting very greatly to luck, not making any special +provisions against the vicissitudes of the seasons. Enormous +quantities of natural hay were allowed every year to rot or be +destroyed by bush fires, and the bountiful provision made by +nature to carry them over the seasons of dry weather absolutely +neglected; so that when the destructive season of 1902 fell upon +them, over a large area of territory there was no food for the +stock. The year 1903 proved most bountiful, and in a few years +all trace of the disastrous drought of 1902 passed away. But +beyond this the pastoralist learnt most effectually the lesson +that, in a country like Australia, provision must be made for the +occasional season when the rainfall is entirely inadequate to the +wants of the farmer and the pastoralist.</p> + +<p>The question of federation was not lost sight of by the framers +of the original constitution which was bestowed upon New South +Wales. In the report of the committee of the legislative +council appointed in 1852 to prepare a constitution +<span class="sidenote">Federation.</span> +for that colony, the following passage occurs:—“One +of the most prominent legislative measures required by the +colony, and the colonies of the Australian group generally, is +the establishment at once of a general assembly, to make laws +in relation to those intercolonial questions that have arisen or +may hereafter arise among them. The questions which would +claim the exercise of such a jurisdiction appear to be (1) intercolonial +tariffs and the coasting trade; (2) railways, roads, +canals, and other such works running through any two of the +colonies; (3) beacons and lighthouses on the coast; (4) intercolonial +gold regulations; (5) postage between the said colonies; +(6) a general court of appeal from the courts of such colonies; +(7) a power to legislate on all other subjects which may be +submitted to them by addresses from the legislative councils +and assemblies of the colonies, and to appropriate to any of +the above-mentioned objects the necessary sums of money, to +be raised by a percentage on the revenues of all the colonies +interested.” This wise recommendation received very scant +attention, and it was not until the necessities of the colonies +forced them to it that an attempt was made to do what the +framers of the original constitution suggested. Federation at +no time actually dropped out of sight, but it was not until thirty-five +years later that any practical steps were taken towards its +accomplishment. Meanwhile a sort of makeshift was devised, +and the Imperial parliament passed a measure permitting the +formation of a federal council, to which any colony that felt +inclined to join could send delegates. Of the seven colonies +New South Wales and New Zealand stood aloof from the council, +and from the beginning it was therefore shorn of a large share of +the prestige that would have attached to a body speaking and +acting on behalf of a united Australia. The council had also +a fatal defect in its constitution. It was merely a deliberative +body, having no executive functions and possessing no control +of funds or other means to put its legislation in force. Its +existence was well-nigh forgotten by the people of Australia +until the occurrence of its biennial meetings, and even then but +slight interest was taken in its proceedings. The council held +eight meetings, at which many matters of intercolonial interest +were discussed. The last occasion of its being called together +was in 1899, when the council met in Melbourne. In 1889 an +important step towards federation was taken by Sir Henry +Parkes. The occasion was the report of Major-General Edwards +on the defences of Australia, and Sir Henry addressed the other +premiers on the desirability of a federal union for purposes of +defence. The immediate result was a conference at Parliament +House, Melbourne, of representatives from each of the seven +colonies. This conference adopted an address to the queen +expressing its loyalty and attachment, and submitting certain +resolutions which affirmed the desirability of an early union, +under the crown, of the Australasian colonies, on principles +just to all, and provided that the remoter Australasian colonies +should be entitled to admission upon terms to be afterwards +agreed upon, and that steps should be taken for the appointment +of delegates to a national Australasian convention, to consider +and report upon an adequate scheme for a federal convention. +In accordance with the understanding arrived at, the various +Australasian parliaments appointed delegates to attend a national +convention to be held in Sydney, and on the 2nd March 1891 +the convention held its first meeting. Sir Henry Parkes was +elected president, and he moved a series of resolutions embodying +the principles necessary to establish, on an enduring foundation, +the structure of a federal government. These resolutions were +slightly altered by the conference, and were adopted in the +following form:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page966" id="page966"></a>966</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. The powers and rights of existing colonies to remain intact, +except as regards such powers as it may be necessary to hand over +to the Federal government.</p> + +<p>2. No alteration to be made in states without the consent of the +legislatures of such states, as well as of the federal parliament.</p> + +<p>3. Trade between the federated colonies to be absolutely free.</p> + +<p>4. Power to impose customs and excise duties to be in the Federal +government and parliament.</p> + +<p>5. Military and naval defence forces to be under one command.</p> + +<p>6. The federal constitution to make provision to enable each +state to make amendments in the constitution if necessary for the +purposes of federation.</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">Other formal resolutions were also agreed to, and on the 31st of +March Sir Samuel Griffith, as chairman of the committee on +constitutional machinery, brought up a draft Constitution Bill, +which was carefully considered by the convention in committee +of the whole and adopted on the 9th of April, when the convention +was formally dissolved. The bill, however, fell absolutely +dead, not because it was not a good bill, but because the +movement out of which it arose had not popular initiative, and +therefore failed to reach the popular imagination.</p> + +<p>Although the bill drawn up by the convention of 1891 was not +received by the people with any show of interest, the federation +movement did not die out; on the contrary, it had many enthusiastic +advocates, especially in the colony of Victoria. In +1894 an unofficial convention was held at Corowa, at which the +cause of federation was strenuously advocated, but it was not +until 1895 that the movement obtained new life, by reason of the +proposals adopted at a meeting of premiers convened by Mr +G.H. Reid of New South Wales. At this meeting all the colonies +except New Zealand were represented, and it was agreed that +the parliament of each colony should be asked to pass a bill +enabling the people to choose ten persons to represent the colony +on a federal convention; the work of such convention being the +framing of a federal constitution to be submitted to the people +for approval by means of the referendum. During the year 1896 +Enabling Acts were passed by New South Wales, Victoria, +Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia, and delegates +were elected by popular vote in all the colonies named except +Western Australia, where the delegates were chosen by parliament. +The convention met in Adelaide on the 22nd of March +1897, and, after drafting a bill for the consideration of the +various parliaments, adjourned until the 2nd of September. +On that date the delegates reassembled in Sydney, and debated +the bill in the light of the suggestions made by the legislatures +of the federating colonies. In the course of the proceedings it +was announced that Queensland desired to come within the +proposed union; and in view of this development, and in order +to give further opportunity for the consideration of the bill, +the convention again adjourned. The third and final session +was opened in Melbourne on the 20th of January 1898, but +Queensland was still unrepresented; and, after further consideration, +the draft bill was finally adopted on the 16th of March +and remitted to the various colonies for submission to the people.</p> + +<p>The constitution was accepted by Victoria, South Australia +and Tasmania by popular acclamation, but in New South Wales +very great opposition was shown, the main points of objection +being the financial provisions, equal representation in the Senate, +and the difficulty in the way of the larger states securing an +amendment of the constitution in the event of a conflict with +the smaller states. As far as the other colonies were concerned, it +was evident that the bill was safe, and public attention throughout +Australia was fixed on New South Wales, where a fierce political +contest was raging, which it was recognized would decide the +fate of the measure for the time being. The fear was as to whether +the statutory number of 80,000 votes necessary for the acceptance +of the bill would be reached. This fear proved to be well founded, +for the result of the referendum in New South Wales showed +71,595 votes in favour of the bill and 66,228 against it, and +it was accordingly lost. In Victoria, Tasmania and South +Australia, on the other hand, the bill was accepted by triumphant +majorities. Western Australia did not put it to the vote, as the +Enabling Act of that colony only provided for joining a federation +of which New South Wales should form a part. The existence +of such a strong opposition to the bill in the mother colony +convinced even its most zealous advocates that some changes +would have to be made in the constitution before it could be +accepted by the people; consequently, although the general +election in New South Wales, held six or seven weeks later, +was fought on the federal issue, yet the opposing parties seemed +to occupy somewhat the same ground, and the question narrowed +itself down to one as to which party should be entrusted with +the negotiations to be conducted on behalf of the colony, with a +view to securing a modification of the objectionable features of +the bill. The new parliament decided to adopt the procedure +of again sending the premier, Mr Reid, into conference, armed +with a series of resolutions affirming its desire to bring about the +completion of federal union, but asking the other colonies to +agree to the reconsideration of the provisions which were most +generally objected to in New South Wales. The other colonies +interested were anxious to bring the matter to a speedy termination, +and readily agreed to this course of procedure. Accordingly +a premiers’ conference was held in Melbourne at the end +of January 1899, at which Queensland was for the first time +represented. At this conference a compromise was effected, +something was conceded to the claims of New South Wales, +but the main principles of the bill remained intact. The bill as +amended was submitted to the electors of each colony and +again triumphantly carried in Victoria, South Australia and +Tasmania. In New South Wales and Queensland there were still +a large number of persons opposed to the measure, which was +nevertheless carried in both colonies. New South Wales having +decided in favour of federation, the way was clear for a decision +on the part of Western Australia. The Enabling Bill passed the +various stages in the parliament of that colony, and the question +was then adopted by referendum.</p> + +<p>In accordance with this general verdict of all the states, the +colonial draft bill was submitted to the imperial government for +legislation as an imperial act; and six delegates were sent to +England to explain the measure and to pilot it through the cabinet +and parliament. A bill was presented to the British parliament +which embodied and established, with such variations as had +been accepted on behalf of Australia by the delegates, the +constitution agreed to at the premiers’ conference of 1899 and +speedily became law. Under this act, which was dated the 9th +of July 1900, a proclamation was issued on the 17th of September +of the same year, declaring that, on and after the 1st of January +1901, the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, +Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia should be united +in a federal commonwealth under the name of the Commonwealth +of Australia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The six colonies entering the Commonwealth were denominated +original states, and new states might be admitted, or might be +formed by separation from or union of two or more states +or parts of states; and territories (as distinguished from +<span class="sidenote">Provisions of the Act of 1900.</span> +states) might be taken over and governed under the legislative +power of the Commonwealth. The legislative +power is vested in a federal parliament, consisting of the sovereign, +a senate, and a house of representatives, the sovereign being +represented by a governor-general. The Senate was to consist of the +same number of members (not less than six) for each state, the +term of service being six years, but subject to an arrangement that +half the number would retire every three years. The House of +Representatives was to consist of members chosen in the different +states in numbers proportioned to their population, but never fewer +than five. The first House of Representatives was to contain +seventy-five members. For elections to the Senate the governors of +states, and for general elections of the House of Representatives the +governor-general, would cause writs to be issued. The Senate would +choose its own president, and the House of Representatives its +speaker; each house would make its own rules of procedure; in +each, one-third of the number of members would form a quorum; +the members of each must take oath, or make affirmation of allegiance; +and all alike would receive an allowance of £400 a year. The +legislative powers of the parliament have a wide range, many +matters being transferred to it from the colonial parliaments. The +more important subjects with which it deals are trade, shipping +and railways; taxation, bounties, the borrowing of money on the +credit of the Commonwealth; the postal and telegraphic services; +defence, census and statistics; currency, coinage, banking, bankruptcy; +weights and measures; copyright, patents and trade +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page967" id="page967"></a>967</span> +marks; marriage and divorce; immigration and emigration; conciliation +and arbitration in industrial disputes. Bills imposing +taxation or appropriating revenue must not originate in the Senate, +and neither taxation bills nor bills appropriating revenue for the +annual service of the government may be amended in the Senate, +but the Senate may return such bills to the House of Representatives +with a request for their amendment. Appropriation laws must not +deal with other matters. Taxation laws must deal with only one +subject of taxation; but customs and excise duties may, respectively, +be dealt with together. Votes for the appropriation of the revenue +shall not pass unless recommended by the governor-general. +The constitution provides means for the settlement of disputes +between the houses, and requires the assent of the sovereign to all +laws. The executive power is vested in the governor-general, assisted +by an executive council appointed by himself. He has command of +the army and navy, and appoints federal ministers and judges. +The ministers are members of the executive council, and must be, +or within three months of their appointment must become, members +of the parliament. The judicial powers are vested in a high court +and other federal courts, and the federal judges hold office for life +or during good behaviour. The High Court has appellate jurisdiction +in cases from other federal courts and from the supreme courts of the +states, and it has original jurisdiction in matters arising under laws +made by the federal parliament, in disputes between states, or +residents in different states, and in matters affecting the representatives +of foreign powers. Special provisions were made respecting +appeals from the High Court to the sovereign in council. The constitution +set forth elaborate arrangements for the administration of +finance and trade during the transition period following the transference +of departments to the Commonwealth. Within two years +uniform customs duties were to be imposed; thereafter the parliament +of the Commonwealth had exclusive power to impose customs +and excise duties, or to grant bounties; and trade within the +Commonwealth was to be absolutely free. Exceptions were made +permitting the states to grant bounties on mining and (with the +consent of the parliament) on exports of produce or manufactures—Western +Australia being for a time partially exempted from the +prohibition to impose import duties.</p> + +<p>The constitution, parliament and laws of each state, subject to +the federal constitution, retained their authority; state rights were +carefully safeguarded, and an inter-state commission was given +powers of adjudication and of administration of the laws relating +to trade, transport and other matters. Provision was made for +necessary alteration of the constitution of the Commonwealth, but +so that no alteration could be effected unless the question had been +directly submitted to, and the change accepted by the electorate in +the states. The seat of government was to be within New South +Wales, not less than 100 m. distant from Sydney, and of an area +not less than 100 sq. m. Until other provision was made, the +governor-general was to have a salary of £10,000, paid by the +Commonwealth. Respecting the salaries of the governors of states, +the constitution made no provision.</p> +</div> + +<p>The choice of governor-general of the new Commonwealth +fell upon Lord Hopetoun (afterwards Lord Linlithgow), who +had won golden opinions as governor of Victoria a few years +before; Mr (afterwards Sir Edmund) Barton, who had taken +the lead among the Australian delegates, became first prime +minister; and the Commonwealth was inaugurated at the opening +of 1901. The first parliament under the constitution was +elected on the 29th and 30th of March 1901, and was opened by +the prince of Wales on the 9th of May following. In October +1908 the Yass-Canberra district, near the town of Yass, N.S.W., +was at length selected by both federal houses to contain the +future federal capital.</p> + +<p>The Labour movement in Australia may be traced back to +the early days when transportation was in vogue, and the free +immigrant and the time-expired convict objected +to the competition of the bond labourer. The great +<span class="sidenote">Labour movement.</span> +object of these early struggles being attained, Labour +directed its attention mainly to securing shorter hours. It +was aided very materially by the dearth of workers consequent +on the gold discoveries, when every man could command his +own price. When the excitement consequent on the gold finds +had subsided, there was a considerable reaction against the claims +of Labour, and this was greatly helped by the congested state +of the labour market; but the principle of an eight-hours day +made progress, and was conceded in several trades. In the early +years of the ’seventies the colonies entered upon an era of well-being, +and for about twelve years every man, willing to work +and capable of exerting himself, readily found employment. +The Labour unions were able to secure in these years many +concessions both as to hours and wages. In 1873 there was an +important rise in wages, in the following year there was a further +advance, and another in 1876; but in 1877 wages fell back a +little, though not below the rate of 1874. In 1882 there was +a very important advance in wages; carpenters received 11s. a +day, bricklayers 12s. 6d., stone-masons 11s. 6d., plasterers 12s., +painters 11s., blacksmiths 10s., and navvies and general labourers +8s., and work was very plentiful. For five years these high +wages ruled; but in 1886 there was a sharp fall, though wages +still remained very good. In 1888 there was an advance, +and again in 1889. In 1890 matters were on the eve of a great +change and wages fell, in most cases to a point 20% below the +rates of 1885. During the whole period from 1873 onwards, +prices, other than of labour, were steadily tending downwards, +so that the cost of living in 1890 was much below that of 1873. +Taking everything into consideration the reduction was, perhaps, +not less than 20%, so that, though the nominal or money wages +in 1873 and 1890 were the same, the actual wages were much +higher in the latter year. Much of the improvement in the lot +of the wage-earners has been due to the Labour organizations, +yet so late as 1881 these organizations were of so little account, +politically, that when the law relating to trades unions was +passed in New South Wales, the English law was followed, and +it was simply enacted that the purposes of any trades union +shall not be deemed unlawful (so as to render a member liable +to criminal prosecution for conspiracy or otherwise) merely +by reason that they are in restraint of trade. After the year +1884 Labour troubles became very frequent, the New South +Wales coal miners in particular being at war with the colliery +owners during the greater part of the six years intervening +between then and what is called the Great Strike. The strong +downward tendency of prices made a reduction of wages imperative; +but the labouring classes failed to recognize any such +necessity, and strongly resented any reductions proposed by +employers. It was hard indeed for a carter drawing coal to a +gasworks to recognize the necessity which compelled a reduction +in his wages because wool had fallen 20%. Nor were other +labourers, more nearly connected with the producing interests, +satisfied with a reduction of wages because produce had fallen +in price all round. Up to 1889 wages held their ground, although +work had become more difficult to obtain, and some industries +<span class="sidenote">The Great Strike of 1890.</span> +were being carried on without any profit. It was +at such an inopportune time that the most extensive +combination of Labour yet brought into action against +capital formulated its demands. It is possible that the +London dockers’ strike was not without its influence on the minds +of the Australian Labour leaders. That strike had been liberally +helped by the Australian unions, and it was confidently predicted +that, as the Australian workers were more effectively organized +than the English unions, a corresponding success would result +from their course of action. A strike of the Newcastle miners, +after lasting twenty-nine weeks, came to an end in January 1890, +and throughout the rest of the year there was great unrest in +Labour circles. On the 6th of September the silver mines closed +down, and a week later a conference of employers issued a +manifesto which was met next day by a counter-manifesto of +the Intercolonial Labour Conference, and almost immediately +afterwards by the calling out of 40,000 men. The time chosen +for the strike was the height of the wool season, when a cessation +of work would be attended with the maximum of inconvenience. +Sydney was the centre of the disturbance, and the city was in +a state of industrial siege, feeling running to dangerous extremes. +Riotous scenes occurred both in Sydney and on the coal-fields, +and a large number of special constables were sworn in by the +government. Towards the end of October 20,000 shearers were +called out, and many other trades, principally concerned with +the handling or shipping of wool, joined the ranks of the strikers, +with the result that the maritime and pastoral industries throughout +the whole of Australia were most injuriously disturbed. +The Great Strike terminated early in November 1890, the +employers gaining a decisive victory. The colonies were, however, +to have other and bitter experiences of strikes before +Labour recognized that of all means for settling industrial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page968" id="page968"></a>968</span> +disputes strikes are, on the whole, the most disastrous that +it can adopt. The strikes of the years 1890 and 1892 are just as +important on account of their political consequences as from +the direct gains or losses involved.</p> + +<p>As one result of the strike of 1890 a movement was set afoot +by a number of enthusiasts, more visionary than practical, that +has resulted in a measure of more or less disaster. +This was the planting of a colony of communistic +<span class="sidenote">Political consequences.</span> +Australians in South America. After much negotiation +the leader, Mr William Lane, a Brisbane journalist, +decided on Paraguay, and he tramped across the continent, +preaching a new crusade, and gathering in funds and recruits in +his progress. On the 16th of July 1893 the first little army of +“New Australians” left Sydney in the “Royal Tar,” which +arrived at Montevideo on the 31st of August. Other consignments +of intending settlers in “New Australia” followed; but +though the settlement is still in existence it has completely failed +to realize the impracticable ideals of its original members. The +Queensland government assisted some of the disillusioned to +escape from the paradise which proved a prison; some managed +to get away on their own account; and those that have remained +have split into as many settlements almost as there are settlers. +Another effect of the Great Strike was in a more practical direction. +New South Wales was the first country which endeavoured +to settle its labour grievances through the ballot-box and to send +a great party to parliament as the direct representation of +Labour, pledged to obtain through legislation what it was +unable to obtain by strikes and physical force. The principle +of one-man one-vote had been persistently advocated without +arousing any special parliamentary or public enthusiasm until +the meeting of the Federal Convention in 1891. The convention +was attended by Sir George Grey, who was publicly welcomed +to the colony by New Zealanders resident in Sydney, and by +other admirers, and his reception was an absolute ovation. +He eloquently and persistently advocated the principle of one-man +one-vote as the bed-rock of all democratic reform. This +subsequently formed the first plank of the Labour platform. +Several attempts had been made by individuals belonging to the +Labour party to enter the New South Wales parliament, but +it was not until 1891 that the occurrence of a general election +gave the party the looked-for opportunity for concerted action. +The results of the election came as a complete surprise to the +majority of the community. The Labour party captured 35 +seats out of a House of 125 members; and as the old parties +almost equally divided the remaining seats, and a fusion was +impossible, the Labour representatives dominated the situation. +It was not long, however, before the party itself became divided +on the fiscal question; and a Protectionist government coming into +power, about half the Labour members gave it consistent support +and enabled it to maintain office for about three years, the party +as a political unit being thus destroyed. The events of these +three years taught the Labour leaders that a parliamentary party +was of little practical influence unless it was able to cast on all +important occasions a solid vote, and to meet the case a new +method was devised. The party therefore determined that +they would refuse to support any person standing in the Labour +interests who refused to pledge himself to vote on all occasions +in such way as the majority of the party might decide to be +expedient. This was called the “solidarity pledge,” and, united +under its sanction, what was left of the Labour party contested +the general election of 1894. The result was a defeat, their +numbers being reduced from 35 to 19; but a signal triumph +was won for solidarity. Very few of the members who refused +to take the pledge were returned and the adherents of the united +party were able to accomplish more with their reduced number +than under the old conditions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The two features of the Labour party in New South Wales are +its detachment from other parties and the control of the caucus. The +caucus, which is the natural corollary of the detachment, determines +by majority the vote of the whole of the members of the party, +independence of action being allowed on minor questions only. +So far the party has refrained from formal alliance with the other +great parties of the state. It supports the government as the power +alone capable of promoting legislation, but its support is given only +so long as the measures of the government are consistent with the +Labour policy. This position the Labour party has been able to +maintain with great success, owing to the circumstance that the other +parties have been almost equally balanced.</p> +</div> + +<p>The movement towards forming a parliamentary Labour +party was not confined to New South Wales; on the contrary, +it was common to all the states, having its origin in +the failure of the Great Strike of 1890. The experience +<span class="sidenote">Parliamentary Labour party.</span> +of the party was also much the same as in New South +Wales, but its greatest triumphs were achieved in +South Australia. The Labour party has been in power in +Queensland, Western Australia and South Australia, and has, +on many occasions, decided the fate of the government on a +critical division in all the states except Tasmania and Victoria. +Different ideals dominate the party in the different states. The +one ideal which has just been described represents the Labour +party from the New South Wales standpoint. The only qualification +worth mentioning is the signing of the pledge of solidarity. +The other ideal, typified by the South Australian party, differs +from this in one important respect. To the Labour party in +that state are admitted only persons who have worked for their +living at manual labour, and this qualification of being an actual +worker is one that was strongly insisted upon at the formation +of the party and strictly adhered to, although the temptation to +break away from it and accept as candidates persons of superior +education and position has been very great. On the formation +of the Commonwealth a Labour party was established in the +federal houses. It comprises one-third of the representation in +the House of Representatives, and perhaps a still larger proportion +in the Senate. The party is, however, formed on a broader +basis than the state parties, the solidarity pledge extends only +to votes upon which the fate of a government depends. Naturally, +however, as the ideals of the members of the party are the +same, the members of the Labour party will be generally found +voting together on all important divisions, the chief exception +being with regard to free trade or protection. The Labour party +held power in the Commonwealth for a short period, and has +had the balance of power in its hands ever since the formation of +the Commonwealth.</p> +<div class="author">(T. A. C.)</div> + +<p>Australian legislation in the closing years of the 19th century +and the first decade of the 20th bore the most evident traces +of the Labour party’s influence. In all the colonies a +complete departure from principles laid down by the +<span class="sidenote">Recent legislation.</span> +leading political economists of the 19th century was +made when acts were passed subjecting every branch of +domestic industry to the control of specially constituted tribunals, +which were empowered among other important functions to +fix the minimum rate of wages to be paid to all grades of workmen. +(See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arbitration and Conciliation</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trade Unions</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Labour Legislation</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Victoria was the pioneer in factory legislation, the first Victorian +act of that character dating from 1873. In 1884 a royal commission, +appointed two years earlier to inquire into the conditions +of employment in the colony and certain allegations of +<span class="sidenote">Victoria.</span> +“sweating” that had then recently been made, reported that:—“The +most effective mode of bringing about industrial co-operation +and mutual sympathy between employers and employed, and thus +obviating labour conflicts in the future, is by the establishment of +courts of conciliation in Victoria, whose procedure and awards shall +have the sanction and authority of law.” This report led to the +passing of a number of acts which, proving ineffectual, were followed +by the Factories and Shops Act of 1896, passed by the ministry of +Mr (afterwards Sir Alexander) Peacock. This measure, together +with several subsequent amending acts, of which the most important +became law in 1903, 1905 and 1907, forms a complete industrial code +in which the principle of state regulation of wages is recognized +and established. Its central enactment was to bring into existence +(1) “Special Boards,” consisting of an equal number of representatives +of employers and workmen respectively in any trade, under +the presidency of an independent chairman, and (2) a Court of +Industrial Appeals. A special board may be formed at the request +of any union of employers or of workmen, or on the initiative of +the Labour department. After hearing evidence, which may be +given on oath, the special board issues a “determination,” fixing +the minimum rate of wages to be paid to various classes of workers +of both sexes and different ages in the trade covered by the determination, +including apprentices; and specifying the number of hours +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page969" id="page969"></a>969</span> +per week for which such wages are payable, with the rates for overtime +when those hours are exceeded. The determination is then +gazetted, and it becomes operative over a specified area, which varies +in different cases, on a date fixed by the board. Either party, or the +minister for Labour, may refer a determination to the court of +industrial appeals, and the court, in the event of a special board +failing to make a determination, may itself be called upon to frame +one. The general administration of the Factories and Shops Acts, +to which the special boards owe their being, is vested in a chief +inspector of factories, subject to the control of the minister of Labour +in matters of policy. Before the end of 1906 fifty-two separate +trades in Victoria had obtained special boards, by whose determinations +their operations were controlled.</p> + +<p>A similar system was introduced into South Australia +<span class="sidenote">South Australia.<br />Queensland.</span> +by an act passed in 1900 amending the Factory Act of +1894, which was the first legislation of the sort passed in +that state.</p> + +<p>In Queensland, where the earliest factory legislation dates from +1896, keen parliamentary conflict raged round the proposal +in 1907 to introduce the special boards system for +fixing wages. More than one change of government +occurred before the bill became law in April 1908.</p> + +<p>In New South Wales, whose example was followed by Western +Australia, the machinery adopted for fixing the statutory rate of +wages was of a somewhat different type. The model +followed in these two states was not Victoria but New +Zealand, where an Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration +<span class="sidenote">New South Wales.</span> +Act was passed in 1894. A similar measure, under the guidance of +the attorney-general, the Hon. B.R. Wise, was carried after much +opposition in New South Wales in 1901, to remain in force till the +30th of June 1908. By it an arbitration court was instituted, consisting +of a president and assessors representing the employers’ +unions and the workers’ unions respectively; in any trade in which +a dispute occurs, any union of workmen or employers registered +under the act was given the right to bring the matter before the +arbitration court, and if the court makes an award, an application +may be made to it to make the award a “common rule,” which thereupon +becomes binding over the trade affected, wherever the act +applies. The award of the court is thus the equivalent of the determination +of a special board in Victoria, and deals with the same +questions, the most important of which are the minimum rates of +wages and the number of working hours per week. The act contained +stringent provisions forbidding strikes; but in this respect it failed +to effect its purpose, several strikes occurring in the years following +its enactment, in which there were direct refusals to obey awards.</p> + +<p>In the years 1900 and 1902 acts were passed in Western Australia +still more closely modelled on the New Zealand act than was the +above-mentioned statute in New South Wales. Unlike +the latter, they reproduced the institution of district +<span class="sidenote">Western Australia.</span> +conciliation boards in addition to the arbitration court; +but these boards were a failure here as they were in New Zealand, and +after 1903 they fell into disuse. In Western Australia, too, the act +failed to prevent strikes taking place. In 1907 a serious strike +occurred in the timber trade, attended by all the usual accompaniments, +except actual disorder, of an industrial conflict.</p> + +<p>In all this legislation one of the most hotly contested points was +whether the arbitration court should be given power to lay it down +that workers who were members of a trade union should +be employed in preference to non-unionists. This power +<span class="sidenote">Federal Arbitration Act of 1904.</span> +was given to the tribunal in New South Wales, but was +withheld in Western Australia. It was the same question +that formed the chief subject of debate over the Federal +Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which, after causing the defeat of +more than one ministry, passed through the Commonwealth parliament +in 1904. It was eventually compromised by giving the power, +but only with safeguarding conditions, to the Federal arbitration +court. This tribunal differs from similar courts in the states inasmuch +as it consists of a single member, called the “president,” an officer +appointed by the governor-general from among the justices of the +High Court of Australia. The president has the power to appoint +assessors to advise him on technical points; and considerable powers +of devolution of authority for the purpose of inquiry and report are +conferred upon the court, the main object of which is to secure +settlement by conciliatory methods. The distinctive object of the +Federal Act, as defined in the measure itself, is to provide machinery +for dealing with industrial disputes extending beyond any one state, +examples of which were furnished by the first two important cases +submitted to the court—the one concerning the merchant marine +of Australia, and the other the sheep shearers, both of which were +heard in 1907. An additional duty was thrown on the Federal +arbitration court by the Customs and Excise Tariff Acts of 1906, +in which were embodied the principles known as the “New Protection.” +By the Customs Act the duty was raised on imported +agricultural implements, while as a safeguard to the consumer the +maximum prices for the retail of the goods were fixed. In order to +provide a similar protection for the artisans employed in the protected +industries, an excise duty was imposed on the home-produced articles, +which was to be remitted in favour of manufacturers who could +show that they paid “fair and reasonable” wages, and complied +with certain other conditions for the benefit of their workmen. The +chief authority for determining whether these conditions are satisfied +or not is the Federal arbitration court.</p> + +<p>The same period that saw this legislation adopted was also marked +by the establishment of old age pensions in the three eastern states, +and also in the Commonwealth. By the Federal Act, +passed in the session of 1908, a pension of ten shillings +<span class="sidenote">Old age pensions.</span> +a week was granted to persons of either sex over sixty-five +years of age, or to persons over sixty who are incapacitated from +earning a living. The Commonwealth legislation thus made provision +for the aged poor in the three states which up to 1908 had +not accepted the principle of old age pensions, and also for those +who, owing to their having resided in more than one state, were +debarred from receiving pension in any.</p> +</div> + +<p>An important work of the Commonwealth parliament was the +passing of a uniform tariff to supersede the six separate tariffs +in force at the establishment of the Commonwealth, +but many other important measures were considered +<span class="sidenote">Tariff.</span> +and some passed into law. During the first six years of federation +there were five ministries; the tenure of office under the three-yearly +system was naturally uncertain, and this uncertainty was +reflected in the proposals of whatever ministry was in office. +The great task of adjusting the financial business of the Commonwealth +on a permanent basis was one of very great difficulty, +as the apparent interests of the states and of the Commonwealth +were opposed. Up till 1908 it had been generally assumed that +the constitution required the treasurer of the Commonwealth +to hand over to the states month by month whatever surplus +funds remained in his hands. But in July 1908 a Surplus +Revenue Act was passed which was based on a different interpretation +of the constitution. Under this act the appropriation +of these surplus funds to certain trust purposes in the Federal +treasury is held to be equivalent to payment to the states. The +money thus obtained was appropriated in part to naval defence +and harbours, and in part to the provision of old age pensions +under the Federal Old Age Pension Act of 1908. The act was +strongly opposed by the government of Queensland, and the +question was raised as to whether it was based on a true interpretation +of the constitution. The chief external interest, however, +of the new financial policy of the Commonwealth lay in +its relation towards the empire as a whole. At the Imperial +Conference in London in 1907 Mr Deakin, the Commonwealth +premier, was the leading advocate of colonial preference with a view +to imperial commercial union; and though no reciprocal arrangement +was favoured by the Liberal cabinet, who temporarily +spoke for the United Kingdom, the colonial representatives +were all agreed in urging such a policy, and found the Opposition +(the Unionist party) in England prepared to adopt it as part of +Mr Chamberlain’s tariff reform movement. In spite of the +official rebuff received from the mother-country, the Australian +ministry, in drawing up the new Federal tariff, gave a substantial +preference to British imports, and thus showed their willingness +to go farther. (See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">British Empire</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">General Bibliography</span>.—For Physical Geography: Barton, +<i>Australian Physiography</i> (Brisbane, 1895); Wall, <i>Physical Geography +of Australia</i> (Melbourne, 1883); Taylor, <i>Geography of New South +Wales</i> (Sydney, 1898); Saville Kent, <i>The Great Barrier Reef of +Australia</i> (London, 1893); A. Agassiz, <i>Visit to the Barrier Reef</i> (Cambridge, +Mass., 1899); J.P. Thomson, <i>The Physical Geography of +Australia</i> (Smithsonian Report, Washington, 1898); J.W. Gregory, +<i>The Dead Heart of Australia</i>. For Flora: Maiden, <i>Useful Native +Plants of Australia</i> (Sydney, 1889); Bentham and Mueller, <i>Flora +Australiensis</i> (London, 1863-1878); Fitzgerald, <i>Australian Orchids</i> +(Sydney, 1870-1890); Mueller, <i>Census of Australian Plants</i> (Melbourne, +1889). For Fauna: Forbes, “The Chatham Islands; their +Relation to a former Southern Continent,” <i>Geographical Journal</i>, +vol. ii. (1893); Hedley, “Surviving Refugees in Austral Lands of +Ancient Antarctic Life,” <i>Royal Society N.S. Wales</i>, 1895; “The +Relation of the Fauna and Flora of Australia to those of New +Zealand,” <i>Nat. Science</i> (1893); Tenison-Woods, <i>The Fish and +Fisheries of New South Wales</i> (Sydney, 1883); Ogilvy, <i>Catalogue of +Australian Mammals</i> (Sydney, 1892); Aflalo, <i>Natural History of +Australia</i> (London, 1896); Flower and Lydekker, <i>Mammals, Living +and Extinct</i> (London, 1891); J. Douglas Ogilby, <i>Catalogue of the +Fishes of New South Wales</i>, 4to (Sydney, 1886). For Statistics +and Miscellanea: T.A. Coghlan, <i>A Statistical Account of the Seven +Colonies of Australasia</i>, 8vo (Sydney, 1904); G. Collingridge, <i>The +Discovery of Australia</i> (Sydney, 1895); W. Epps, <i>The Land Systems +of Australia</i>, 8vo (London, 1894); Ernest Favenc, <i>The History of +Australasian Exploration</i>, royal 8vo (Sydney, 1885); R.R. Garraa, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page970" id="page970"></a>970</span> +<i>The Coming Commonwealth: a Handbook of Federal Government</i> +(Sydney, 1897); George William Rusden, <i>History of Australia</i>, +3 vols. 8vo (London, 1883); K. Schmeisser, <i>The Goldfields of Australasia</i>, +2 vols. (London, 1899); G.F. Scott, <i>The Romance of Australian +Exploring</i> (London, 1899); H. de R. Walker, <i>Australasian Democracy</i> +(London, 1897); William Westgarth, <i>Half a Century of Australian +Progress</i> (London, 1899); T.A. Coghlan and T.T. Ewing, <i>Progress +of Australia in the 19th Century</i>; G.P. Tregarthen, <i>Commonwealth +of Australia</i>; Ida Lee, <i>Early Days of Australia</i>; W.P. Reeves, +<i>State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand</i>; A. Metin, <i>La +Socialisme sans doctrine</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The literature of the geology of Australia is enumerated, to +1884, in the bibliography by Etheridge and Jack. A general summary +of the stratigraphical geology was given by R. Tate, <i>Rep. +Austral. Assoc. Adv. Sci.</i> vol. v. (1893), pp. 1-69. References to the +chief sources of information regarding the states is given under each +of them. A geological map of the whole continent, on the scale of +50 m. to the inch, was compiled by A. Everett, and issued in 1887 in +six sheets, by the Geological Survey of Victoria.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The statistical portion of this article includes Tasmania, which +is a member of the Australian Commonwealth.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In his <i>Discoveries in Central Australia</i>, E.T. Eyre has ingeniously +attempted to reconstruct the routes taken by the Australians in +their advance across the continent. He has relied, however, in his +efforts to link the tribes together, too much on the prevalence or +absence of such customs as circumcision—always very treacherous +evidences—to allow of his hypothetical distribution being regarded +very seriously. The migrations must have always been dependent +upon physical difficulties, such as waterless tracts or mountain +barriers. They were probably not definite massed movements, such +as would permit of the survival of distinctive lines of custom between +tribe and tribe; but rather spasmodic movements, sometimes of +tribes or of groups, sometimes only of families or even couples, the +first caused by tribal wars, the second to escape punishment for +some offence against tribal law, such as the defiance of the rules as +to clan-marriages.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4p" id="ft4p" href="#fa4p"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>The Languages of India</i> (1875).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5p" id="ft5p" href="#fa5p"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The existence of “Group Marriage” is a much-controverted +point. This custom, which has been defined as the invasion of +actual marriage by allotting permanent paramours, is confined to +a special set of tribes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6p" id="ft6p" href="#fa6p"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Australia, it may be noted, has woman’s suffrage in all the +states (Victoria, the last, adopting it in November 1908), and for +the federal assembly.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTRASIA<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span>. The word <i>Austria</i> signifies the realm of the +east (Ger. <i>Ost Reich</i>). In Gregory of Tours this word is still +used vaguely, but the sense of it is gradually defined, and +finally the name of <i>Austria</i> or <i>Austrasia</i> was given to the easternmost +part of the Frankish kingdom. It usually had Metz for its +capital, and the inhabitants of the kingdom were known as the +<i>Austrasii</i>. Retrospectively, later historians have given this +name to the kingdom of Theuderich I. (511-534), of his son +Theudebert (534-548), and of his grandson Theudebald (548-555); +then, after the death of Clotaire I., to the kingdom of +Sigebert (561-575), and of his son Childebert (575-597). They +have even tried to interpret the long struggle between Fredegond +and Brunhilda as a rivalry between the two kings of Neustria +and Austrasia. When these two words are at last found in the +texts in their precise signification, Austrasia is applied to that +part of the Frankish kingdom which Clotaire II. entrusted to his +son Dagobert, subject to the guardianship of Pippin and Arnulf +(623-629), and which Dagobert in his turn handed on to his son +Sigebert (634-639), under the guardianship of Cunibert, bishop +of Cologne, and Ansegisel, mayor of the palace. After the death +of Dagobert, Austrasia and Neustria almost always had separate +kings, with their own mayors of the palace, and then there arose +a real rivalry between these two provinces, which ended in the +triumph of Austrasia. The Austrasian mayors of the palace +succeeded in enforcing their authority in the western as well +as in the eastern part, and in re-establishing to their own advantage +the unity of the Frankish kingdom. The mayor Pippin +the Short was even powerful enough to take the title of king over +the whole.</p> + +<p>At the time of Charlemagne, the word Austrasia underwent +a change of meaning and became synonymous with <i>Francia +orientalis</i>, and was applied to the Frankish dominions beyond +the Rhine (Franconia). This Franconia was in 843 included +in the kingdom of Louis the German, and was then increased +by the addition of the territories of Mainz, Spires and Worms, +on the right bank of the river.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Huguenin, <i>Histoire du royaume mérovingien d’Austrasie</i> +(Paris, 1857); Aug. Digot, <i>Histoire du royaume d’Austrasie</i>, 4 vols. +(Nancy, 1863); L. Drapeyron, <i>Essai sur l’origine, le développement +et les résultats de la lutte entre la Neustrie et l’Austrasie</i> (Paris, 1867); +Auguste Longnon, <i>Atlas historique</i>, 1st and 2nd parts.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AUSTRIA<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span>. (Ger. <i>Österreich</i>), a country of central Europe, +bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Hungary, the Adriatic +Sea and Italy, W. by Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the German +empire (Bavaria), and N. by the German empire (Saxony and +Prussia) and Russia. It has an area of 115,533 sq. m., or about +twice the size of England and Wales together. Austria is one +of the states which constitute the Austro-Hungarian (Habsburg) +monarchy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and is also called +Cisleithania, from the fact that it contains the portion of that +monarchy which lies to the west of the river Leitha. Austria +does not form a geographical unity, and the constituent parts +of this empire belong to different geographical regions. Thus, +Tirol, Styria and Carinthia belong, like Switzerland, to the +system of the Alps, but these provinces together with those +lying in the basin of the Danube form, nevertheless, a compact +stretch of country. On the other hand Galicia, extending on +the eastern side of the Carpathians, belongs to the great plain +of Russia; Bohemia stretches far into the body of Germany; +while Dalmatia, which is quite separated from the other provinces, +belongs to the Balkan Peninsula.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Coasts.</i>—Austria has amongst all the great European countries +the most continental character, in so far as its frontiers are mostly +land-frontiers, only about one-tenth of them being coast-land. +The Adriatic coast, which stretches for a distance of about 1000 m., +is greatly indented. The Gulf of Trieste on the west, and the Gulf +of Fiume or Quarnero on the east, include between them the peninsula +of Istria, which has many sheltered bays. In the Gulf of +Quarnero are the Quarnero islands, of which the most important +are Cherso, Veglia and Lussin. The coast west of the mouth of the +Isonzo is fringed by lagoons, and has the same character as the +Venetian coast, while the Gulf of Trieste and the Istrian peninsula +have a steep coast with many bays and safe harbours. The principal +ports are Trieste, Capodistria, Pirano, Parenzo, Rovigno and Pola, +the great naval harbour and arsenal of Austria. The coast of Dalmatia +also possesses many safe bays, the principal being those of +Zara, Cattaro and Ragusa, but in some places it is very steep and +inaccessible. On the other hand a string of islands extends along +this coast, which offer many safe and easily accessible places of +anchorage to ships during the fierce winter gales which rage in the +Adriatic. The principal are Pago, Pasman, Isola Lunga and Isola +Incoronata, Brazza, Lesina, Curzola and Meleda.</p> + +<p>The political divisions of Austria correspond, for the most part, +so closely to natural physical divisions that the detailed account +of the physical features, natural resources and the movement of the +population has been given under those separate headings. In this +general article the geography of Austria—physical, economical and +political—has been treated in its broad aspects, and those points +insisted upon which give an adequate idea of the country as a whole.</p> + +<p><i>Mountains.</i>—Austria is the most mountainous country of Europe +after Switzerland, and about four-fifths of its entire area is more +than 600 ft. above the level of the sea. The mountains of Austria +belong to three different mountain systems, namely, the Alps (<i>q.v.</i>), +the Carpathians (<i>q.v.</i>), and the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains. +The Danube, which is the principal river of Austria, divides the +Alpine region, which occupies the whole country lying at its south, +from the Bohemian-Moravian Mountains and their offshoots lying +at its north; while the valleys of the March and the Oder separate +the last-named mountains from the Carpathians. Of the three +principal divisions of the Alps—the western, the central and the +eastern Alps—Austria is traversed by several groups of the central +Alps, while the eastern Alps lie entirely within its territory. The +eastern Alps are continued by the Karst mountains, which in their +turn are continued by the Dinaric Alps, which stretch through +Croatia and Dalmatia. The second great mountain-system of +Austria, the Carpathians, occupy its eastern and north-eastern +portions, and stretch in the form of an arch through Moravia, Silesia, +Galicia and Bukovina, forming the frontier towards Hungary, within +which territory they principally extend. Finally, the Bohemian-Moravian +Mountains, which enclose Bohemia and Moravia, and form +the so-called quadrilateral of Bohemia, constitute the link of the +Austrian mountain-system with the hilly region (the <i>Mittelgebirge</i>) +of central Europe. Only a little over 25% of the area of Austria is +occupied by plains. The largest is the plain of Galicia, which is part +of the extensive Sarmatic plain; while in the south, along the +Isonzo, Austria comprises a small part of the Lombardo-Venetian +plain. Several smaller plains are found along the Danube, as the +Tulner Becken in Lower Austria, and the Wiener Becken, the plain +on which the capital is situated; to the north of the Danube this +plain is called the Marchfeld, and is continued under the name of +the Marchebene into Moravia as far north as Olmütz. Along the +other principal rivers there are also plains of more or less magnitude, +some of them possessing tracts of very fertile soil.</p> + +<p><i>Rivers.</i>—Austria possesses a fairly great number of rivers, pretty +equally distributed amongst its crown lands, with the exception of +Istria and the Karst region, where there is a great scarcity of even +the smallest rivers. The principal rivers are: the Danube, the +Dniester, the Vistula, the Oder, the Elbe, the Rhine and the Adige +or Etsch. As the highlands of Austria form part of the great +watershed of Europe, which divides the waters flowing northward +into the North Sea or the Baltic from those flowing southward or +eastward into the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, its rivers flow +in three different directions—northward, southward and eastward. +With the exception of the small streams belonging to it which fall +into the Adriatic, all its rivers have their mouths in other countries, +and its principal river, the Danube, has also its source in another +country. When it enters Austria at the gorge of Passau, where it +receives the Inn, a river which has as large a body of water as itself, +the Danube is already navigable. Till it leaves the country at +Hainburg, just before Pressburg, its banks are pretty closely hemmed +by the Alps, and the river passes through a succession of narrow +defiles. But the finest part of its whole course, as regards the picturesqueness +of the scenery on its banks, is between Linz and Vienna. +Where it enters Austria the Danube is 898 ft. above the level of +the sea, and where it leaves it is only 400 ft.; it has thus a fall within +the country of 498 ft., and is at first a very rapid stream, becoming +latterly much slower. The Danube has in Austria a course of 234 m., +and it drains an area of 50,377 sq. m. Its principal affluents in Austria, +besides the Inn, are the Traun, the Enns and the March. The +Dniester, which, like the Danube, flows into the Black Sea, has its +source in the Carpathians in Eastern Galicia, and pursues a very +winding course towards the south-east, passing into Russia. It has +in Austria a course of 370 m. of which 300 are navigable, and drains +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page971" id="page971"></a>971</span> +an area of 12,000 sq. m. The Vistula and the Oder both fall into +the Baltic. The former rises in Moravia, flows first north through +Austrian Silesia, then takes an easterly direction along the borders +of Prussian Silesia, and afterwards a north-easterly, separating +Galicia from Russian Poland, and leaving Austria not far from +Sandomir. Its course in Austria is 240 m., draining an area of 15,500 +sq. m. It is navigable for nearly 200 m., and its principal affluents +are the Dunajec, the San and the Bug. The Oder has also its source +in Moravia, flows first east and then north-east through Austrian +Silesia into Prussia. Its length within the Austrian territory is only +about 55 m., no part of which is navigable. The only river of this +country which flows into the North Sea is the Elbe. It has its source +in the Riesengebirge, not far from the Schneekoppe, flows first south, +then west, and afterwards north-west through Bohemia, and then +enters Saxony. Its principal affluents are the Adler, Iser and Eger, +and, most important of all, the Moldau. The Elbe has a course +within the Austrian dominions of 185 m., for about 65 of which it is +navigable. It drains an area of upwards of 21,000 sq. m. The Rhine, +though scarcely to be reckoned a river of the country, flows for about +25 m. of its course between it and Switzerland. The principal river +of Austria which falls into the Adriatic is the Adige or Etsch. +It rises in the mountains of Tirol, flows south, then east, and +afterwards south, into the plains of Lombardy. It has in Austria a +course of 138 m., and drains an area of 4266 sq. m. Its principal +affluent is the Eisak. Of the streams which have their course entirely +within the country, and fall into the Adriatic, the principal is the +Isonzo, 75 m. in length, but navigable only for a short distance from +its mouth.</p> + +<p><i>Lakes</i>.—Austria does not possess any great lakes; but has numerous +small mountain lakes situated in the Alpine region, the most +renowned for the beauty of their situation being found in Salzburg, +Salzkammergut, Tirol and Carinthia. There should also be mentioned +the periodical lakes situated in the Karst region, the largest +of them being the Lake of Zirknitz. The numerous and large +marshes, found now mostly in Galicia and Dalmatia, have been +greatly reduced in the other provinces through the canalization of +the rivers, and other works of sanitation.</p> + +<p><i>Mineral Springs</i>.—No other European country equals Austria +in the number and value of its mineral springs. They are mostly +to be found in Bohemia, and are amongst the most frequented +watering-places in the world. The most important are, the alkaline +springs of Carlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad and Bilin; the alkaline +acidulated waters of Giesshubel, largely used as table waters; the +iron springs of Marienbad, Franzensbad and of Pyrawarth in Lower +Austria; the bitter waters of Pullna, Saidschitz and Sedlitz; the +saline waters of Ischl and of Aussee in Styria; the iodine waters +of Hall in Upper Austria; the different waters of Gastein; and +lastly the thermal waters of Teplitz-Schönau, Johannisbad, and of +Römerbad in Styria. Altogether there are reckoned to exist over +1500 mineral springs, of which many are not used.</p> +<div class="author">(O. Br.)</div> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy is traversed by the +great belt of folded beds which constitutes the Alps and the Carpathians; +a secondary branch proceeding from the main belt runs +along the Adriatic coast and forms the Julian and Dinaric Alps. In +the space which is thus enclosed, lies the Tertiary basin of the Hungarian +plain; and outside the belt, on the northern side, is a region +which, geologically, is composite, but has uniformly resisted the +Carpathian folding. In the neighbourhood of Vienna a gap in the +folded belt—the gap between the Alps and the Carpathians—has +formed a connexion between these two regions since the early part +of the Miocene period. On its outer or convex side the folded belt +is clearly defined by a depression which is generally filled by modern +deposits. Beyond this, in Russia and Galicia, lies an extensive +plateau, much of which is covered by flat-lying Miocene and Pliocene +beds; but in the deep valleys of the Dniester and its tributaries the +ancient rocks which form the foundation of the plateau are laid +bare. Archaean granite is thus exposed at Yampol and other places +in Russia, and this is followed towards the west by Silurian and +Devonian beds in regular succession—the Devonian being of the Old +Red Sandstone type characteristic of the British Isles and of Northern +Russia. Throughout, the dip is very low and the beds are unaffected +by the Carpathian folds, the strike being nearly from north to south. +After Devonian times the region seems to have been dry land until +the commencement of the Upper Cretaceous period, when it was +overspread by the Cenomanian sea, and the deposits of that sea +lie flat upon the older sediments.</p> + +<p>Some 25 or 30 m. of undulating country separate the Dniester +from the margin of the Carpathian chain, and in this space the +Palaeozoic floor sinks far beneath the surface, so that not even the +deep-cut valley of the Pruth exposes any beds of older date than +Miocene. Towards the north-west, also, the Palaeozoic foundation +falls beneath an increasing thickness of Cretaceous beds and lies +buried far below the surface. At Lemberg a boring 1650 ft. in depth +did not reach the base of the Senonian. West of Cracow the Cretaceous +beds are underlaid by Jurassic and Triassic deposits, the general +dip being eastward. It is not till Silesia that the Palaeozoic formations +again rise to the surface. Here is the margin, often concealed +by very modern deposits, of the great mass of Archaean and Palaeozoic +rocks which forms nearly the whole of Bohemia and Moravia. +The Palaeozoic beds no longer lie flat and undisturbed, as in the +Polish plain. They are faulted and folded. But the folds are altogether +independent of those of the Carpathians; they are of much +earlier date, and are commonly different in direction. The principal +biding took place towards the close of the Carboniferous period, +and the <i>massif</i> is a fragment of an ancient mountain chain, the +<i>Variscische Gebirge</i> of E. Suess, which in Permian and Triassic times +stretched across the European area from west to east.</p> + +<p>In Bohemia and Moravia the whole of the beds from the Cambrian +to the Lower Carboniferous are of marine origin; but after the +Carboniferous period the area appears to have been dry land until the +beginning of the Upper Cretaceous period, when the sea again spread +over it. The deposits of this sea are now visible in the large basin +of Upper Cretaceous beds which stretches from Dresden southeastward +through Bohemia. Since the close of the Cretaceous period +the Bohemian <i>massif</i> has remained above the sea; but the depression +which lies immediately outside the Carpathian chain has at times +been covered by an arm of the sea and at other times has been +occupied by a chain of salt lakes, to which the salt deposits of +Wieliczka and numerous brine springs owe their origin.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:414px" src="images/img971.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Geological Map of Austria-Hungary.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The large area which is enclosed within the curve of the Carpathians +is for the most part covered by loess, alluvium and other +modern deposits, but Miocene and Pliocene beds appear around its +borders. In the hilly region of western Transylvania a large mass of +more ancient rocks is exposed; the Carboniferous system and all +the Mesozoic systems have been recognized here, and granite and +volcanic rocks occur. In the middle of Hungary a line of hills rises +above the plain, striking from the Platten See towards the north-east, +where it merges into the inner girdle of the Carpathian chain. +These hills are largely formed of volcanic rocks of late Tertiary age; +but near the Platten See Triassic beds of Alpine type are well developed. +The Tertiary eruptions were not confined to this line of hills. +They were most extensive along the inner border of the Carpathians, +and they occurred also in the north of Bohemia. Most of the eruptions +took place during the Miocene and Pliocene periods.</p> + +<p>The mineral wealth of Austria is very great. The older rocks are +in many places peculiarly rich in metalliferous ores of all kinds. +Amongst them may be mentioned the silver-bearing lead ores of +Erzgebirge and of Přibram in Bohemia; the iron ores of Styria +and Bukovina; and the iron, copper, cobalt and nickel of the districts +of Zips and Gomor. The famous cinnabar and mercury mines +of Idria in Carniola are in Triassic beds; and the gold and silver of +northern Hungary and of Transylvania are associated with the +Tertiary volcanic rocks. The Carboniferous coal-fields of Silesia +and Bohemia are of the greatest importance; while Jurassic +coal is worked at Steyerdorf and Funfkirchen in Hungary, and +lignite at many places in the Tertiary beds. The great salt mines +of Galicia are in Miocene deposits; but salt is also worked largely in +the Trias of the Alps. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alps</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carpathians</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tirol</a></span>.)</p> +<div class="author">(P. La.)</div> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate of Austria, in consequence of its great +extent, and the great differences in the elevation of its surface, is +very various. It is usual to divide it into three distinct zones. The +most southern extends to 46° N. lat., and includes Dalmatia and the +country along the coast, together with the southern portions of Tirol +and Carinthia. Here the seasons are mild and equable, the winters +are short (snow seldom falling), and the summers last for five months. +The vine and maize are everywhere cultivated, as well as olives and +other southern products. In the south of Dalmatia tropical plants +flourish in the open air. The central zone lies between 46° and 49° +N. lat., and includes Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, +Carinthia, Carniola, Central and Northern Tirol, Southern Moravia +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page972" id="page972"></a>972</span> +and a part of Bohemia. The seasons are more marked here than in +the preceding. The winters are longer and more severe, and the +summers are hotter. The vine and maize are cultivated in +favourable situations, and wheat and other kinds of grain are generally +grown. The northern zone embraces the territory lying north +of 49° N. lat., comprising Bohemia, Northern +Moravia, Silesia and Galicia. The winters are +here long and cold; the vine and maize are no +longer cultivated, the principal crops being wheat, +barley, oats, rye, hemp and flax. The mean +annual temperature ranges from about 59° in the +south to 48° in the north. In some parts of the +country, however, it is as low as 46° 40′ and even +36°. In Vienna the average annual temperature +is 50°, the highest temperature being 94°, the +lowest 2° Fahr. In general the eastern part of +the country receives less rain than the western. +In the south the rains prevail chiefly in spring +and autumn, and in the north and central parts +during summer. Storms are frequent in the +region of the south Alps and along the coast. +In some parts in the vicinity of the Alps the +rainfall is excessive, sometimes exceeding 60 in. +It is less among the Carpathians, where it usually +varies from 30 to 40 in. In other parts the rainfall +usually averages from 20 to 24 in.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—From the varied character of its +climate and soil the vegetable productions of +Austria are very diverse. It has floras of +the plains, the hills and the mountains; an alpine flora, and an +arctic flora; a flora of marshes, and a flora of steppes; floras peculiar +to the clay, the chalk, the sandstone and the slate formations. The +number of different species is estimated at 12,000, of which one-third +are phanerogamous, or flowering plants, and two-thirds cryptogamous, +or flowerless. The crown land of Lower Austria far surpasses in this +respect the other divisions of the country, having about four-ninths +of the whole, and not less than 1700 species of flowering plants. As +stated above, Austria is a very mountainous country and the mountains +are frequently covered with vegetation to a great elevation. +At the base are found vines and maize; on the lower slopes are green +pastures, or wheat, barley and other kinds of corn; above are often +forests of oak, ash, elm, &c.; and still higher the yew and the fir may +be seen braving the climatic conditions. Corn grows to between +3400 and 4500 ft. above the level of the sea, the forests extend to +5600 or 6400 ft., and the line of perpetual snow is from 7800 to 8200 ft.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—The animal kingdom embraces, besides the usual +domestic animals (as horses, cattle, sheep, swine, goats, asses, &c.), +wild boars, deer, wild goats, hares, &c.; also bears, wolves, lynxes, +foxes, wild cats, jackals, otters, beavers, polecats, martens, weasels +and the like. Eagles and hawks are common, and many kinds of +singing birds. The rivers and lakes abound in different kinds of fish, +which are also plentiful on the sea-coast. Among the insects the bee +and the silkworm are the most useful. The leech forms an article +of trade. In all there are 90 different species of mammals, 248 +species of birds, 377 of fishes and more than 13,000 of insects.</p> + +<p><i>Divisions</i>.—Austria is composed of seventeen “lands,” called +also “crown lands.” Of these, three—namely, Bohemia, Galicia +and Lodomeria, and Dalmatia—are kingdoms; two—Lower and +Upper Austria—archduchies; six—Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, +Carniola, Silesia and Bukovina—duchies; two—Görz-Gradisca and +Tirol—countships of princely rank (<i>gefurstete Grafschaften</i>); two—Moravia +and Istria—margraviates (march counties). Vorarlberg +bears the title simply of “land.” Trieste, with its district, is a town +treated as a special crown land. For administrative purposes Trieste, +with Görz-Gradisca and Istria, constituting the Küstenland (the +Coast land) and Tirol and Vorarlberg, are each comprehended as +one administrative territory. The remaining lands constitute each +an administrative territory by itself.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—Austria had in 1900 a population of 26,107,304 +inhabitants,<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which is equivalent to 226 inhabitants per sq. m. +As seen from the table below, the density of the population is +unequal in the various crown lands. The most thickly populated +province is Lower Austria; the Alpine provinces are sparsely +populated, while Salzburg is the most thinly populated crown land +of Austria. As regards sex, for every 1000 men there were +1035 women, the female element being the most numerous in +every crown land, except the Küstenland, Bukovina and Dalmatia. +Compared with the census returns of 1890, the population shows +an increase of 2,211,891, or 9.3% of the total population. The +increase between the preceding census returns of 1880 and 1890 +was of 1,750,093 inhabitants, or 7.9% of the total population. +A very important factor in the movement of the population +is the large over-sea emigration, mostly to the United States of +America, which has grown very much during the last quarter +of the 19th century, and which shows a tendency to become still +larger. Between 1891 and 1900 the number of over-sea emigrants +was 387,770 persons. The movement of the population shown +in the other vital statistics—births, marriages, deaths—are +mostly satisfactory, and show a steady and normal progress. +The annual rate per thousand of population in 1900 was: births, +37.0; still-births, 1.1; deaths, 25.2; marriages, 8.2. The only +unsatisfactory points are the great number of illegitimate births, +and the high infant mortality. Of the total population of +Austria 14,009,233 were scattered in 26,321 rural communities +with less than 2000 inhabitants; while the remainder was +distributed in 1742 communities with a population of 2000-5000; +in 260 communities with a population of 5000-10,000; in 96 +towns with a population of 10,000-20,000; in 41 towns with +a population of 20,000-50,000; in 6 towns with a population +of 50,000-100,000; and in 6 towns with a population +of over 100,000 inhabitants. The principal towns of Austria +are Vienna (1,662,269), Prague (460,849), Trieste (132,879), +Lemberg (159,618), Graz (138,370), Brünn (108,944), Cracow +(91,310), Czernowitz (67,622), Pilsen (68,292) and Linz (58,778).</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Administrative Territories</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Areas in<br />Square<br />Miles.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Density of<br />Population<br />per sq. m.<br />in 1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">1890.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb sc">Austria—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Lower Austria</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,654</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,661,799</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,100,493</td> <td class="tcr rb">405</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Upper Austria</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,617</td> <td class="tcr rb">785,831</td> <td class="tcr rb">809,918</td> <td class="tcr rb">175</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Salzburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">173,510</td> <td class="tcr rb">193,247</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Styria</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,642</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,282,708</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,350,058</td> <td class="tcr rb">156</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Carinthia</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,992</td> <td class="tcr rb">361,008</td> <td class="tcr rb">367,344</td> <td class="tcr rb">91</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Carniola</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,844</td> <td class="tcr rb">498,958</td> <td class="tcr rb">508,348</td> <td class="tcr rb">132</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Küstenland</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,074</td> <td class="tcr rb">695,384</td> <td class="tcr rb">755,183</td> <td class="tcr rb">245</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Tirol and Vorarlberg</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,287</td> <td class="tcr rb">928,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">979,878</td> <td class="tcr rb">86</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Bohemia</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,997</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,843,094</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,318,280</td> <td class="tcr rb">315</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Moravia</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,555</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,276,870</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,435,081</td> <td class="tcr rb">284</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Silesia</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,981</td> <td class="tcr rb">605,649</td> <td class="tcr rb">680,529</td> <td class="tcr rb">342</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Galicia</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,212</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,607,816</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,295,538</td> <td class="tcr rb">241</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Bukovina</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,022</td> <td class="tcr rb">646,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">729,921</td> <td class="tcr rb">181</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Dalmatia</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,923</td> <td class="tcr rb">527,426</td> <td class="tcr rb">591,597</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">115,533</td> <td class="tcr allb">23,895,413</td> <td class="tcr allb">26,107,304</td> <td class="tcr allb">226</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:524px; height:401px" src="images/img972.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Races</i>.—From an ethnographical point of view Austria +contains a diversity of races; in fact no other European state +contains within its borders so many nationalities as the Austrian +empire. The three principal races of Europe—the Latin, the +Teutonic and the Slavonic—are all represented in Austria. +The Slavonic race, numbering 15,690,000, is numerically the +principal race in Austria, but as it is divided into a number +of peoples, differing from one another in language, religion, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page973" id="page973"></a>973</span> +culture, customs and historical traditions, it does not possess +a national unity. Besides, these various nationalities are +geographically separated from one another by other races, and +are divided into two groups. The northern group includes the +Czechs, the Moravians, the Slovaks, the Ruthenians and the +Poles; while the southern group contains the Slovenes, the +Servians and the Croats. Just as their historical traditions are +different, so are also the aspirations of these various peoples of +the Slavonic race different, and the rivalries between them, +as for instance between the Poles and the Ruthenians, have +prevented them from enjoying the full political advantage due +to their number. The Germans, numbering 9,171,614, constitute +the most numerous nationality in Austria, and have played +and still play the principal role in the political life of the country. +The Germans are in a relative majority over the other peoples +in the empire, their language is the vehicle of communication +between all the other peoples both in official life and in the press; +they are in a relatively more advanced state of culture, and they +are spread over every part of the empire. Historically they have +contributed most to the foundation and to the development +of the Austrian monarchy, and think that for all the above-mentioned +reasons they are entitled to the principal position +amongst the various nationalities of Austria. The Latin race +is represented by the Italians, Ladini and Rumanians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table gives the numbers of different nationalities, as +determined by the languages spoken by them in 1900:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 60%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Germans</td> <td class="tcr cl">9,171,614</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Czechs and Slovaks</td> <td class="tcr">5,955,397</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Poles</td> <td class="tcr cl">4,252,483</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ruthenians</td> <td class="tcr">3,381,570</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Slovenes</td> <td class="tcr cl">1,192,780</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Italians and Ladini</td> <td class="tcr">727,102</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Servians and Croats</td> <td class="tcr cl">711,380</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rumanians</td> <td class="tcr">230,963</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Magyars</td> <td class="tcr cl">9,516</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The Germans occupy exclusively Upper Austria, Salzburg, +Vorarlberg, and, to a large extent, Lower Austria; then the north +and central part of Styria, the north and western part of Carinthia, +and the north and central part of Tirol. In Bohemia they are +concentrated round the borders, in the vicinity of the mountains, +and they form nearly half the population of Silesia; besides they +are found in every part of the monarchy. The Czechs occupy the +central and eastern parts of Bohemia, the greatest part of Moravia +and a part of Silesia. The Poles are concentrated in western Galicia, +and in a part of Silesia; the Ruthenians in eastern Galicia and a +part of Bukovina; the Slovenes in Carniola, Görz and Gradisca, +Istria, the south of Styria, and the Trieste territory. The Servians +and Croats are found in Istria and Dalmatia; the Italians and Ladini +in southern Tirol, Görz and Gradisca, Trieste, the coast of Istria, +and in the towns of Dalmatia; while the Rumanians live mostly in +Bukovina.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Notwithstanding the great industrial progress made +by Austria during the last quarter of the 19th century, agriculture +still forms the most important source of revenue of its inhabitants. +In 1900 over 50% of the total population of Austria derived their +income from agricultural pursuits. The soil is generally fertile, +although there is a great difference in the productivity of the various +crown-lands owing to their geographical situation. The productive +land of Austria covers 69,519,953 acres, or 93.8% of the total area, +which is 74,102,001 acres; to this must be added 0.4 of lakes and fishponds, +making a total of 94.2% of productive area. The remainder +is unproductive, or used for other, not agricultural purposes. The +area of the productive land has been steadily increasing—it was +estimated to cover about 89% in 1875,—and great improvements in +the agricultural methods have also been introduced. Of the whole +productive area of Austria, 37.6% is laid out in arable land; 34.6% +in woods; 25.2% in pastures and meadows; 1.3% in gardens, +0.9% in vineyards; and 0.4% in lakes, marshes and ponds. The +provinces having the largest proportion of arable land are Bohemia, +Galicia, Moravia and Lower Austria. The principal products are +wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, potatoes, sugar beet, and cattle +turnip. The produce of the ploughed land does not, on the whole, +suffice for the home requirements. Large quantities in particular of +wheat and maize are imported from Hungary for home consumption. +Only barley and oats are usually reaped in quantity for export. +The provinces which have the lowest proportion of arable land are +Tirol and Salzburg. Besides these principal crops, other crops of +considerable magnitude are: buckwheat in Styria, Galicia, Carniola +and Carinthia; rape and rape-seed in Bohemia and Galicia, poppy in +Moravia and Silesia; flax in Bohemia, Moravia, Styria and Galicia; +hemp in Galicia, chicory in Bohemia; tobacco, which is a state +monopoly, in Galicia, Bukovina, Dalmatia and Tirol; fuller’s +thistle in Upper Austria and Styria; hops in Bohemia, including +the celebrated hops round Saaz, in Galicia and Moravia; rice in the +Küstenland; and cabbage in Bohemia, Galicia, Lower Austria and +Styria. The principal garden products are kitchen vegetables and +fruit, of which large quantities are exported. The best fruit districts +are in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper Austria and Styria. Certain +districts are distinguished for particular kinds of fruit, as Tirol for +apples, Bohemia for plums, Dalmatia for figs, pomegranates and +olives. The chestnut, olive and mulberry trees are common in the +south—chiefly in Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Tirol; while in the +south of Dalmatia the palm grows in the open air, but bears no fruit.</p> + +<p>The vineyards of Austria covered in 1901 an area of 626,044 acres, +the provinces with the largest proportion of vineyards being Dalmatia, +the Küstenland, Lower Austria, Styria and Moravia. The +wines of Dalmatia are mostly sweet wines, and not suitable to be +kept for long periods, while those of the other provinces are not so +sweet, but improve with age.</p> + +<p><i>Forests.</i>—The forests occupy just a little over one-third of the +whole productive area of Austria, and cover 24,157,709 acres. In +the forests tall timber predominates to the extent of 85%, and +consists of conifers much more than of green or leaved trees, in the +proportion of seventy against fifteen out of the 85% of the total +forests laid out in tall timber. Exceptions are the forest lands of +the Karst region, where medium-sized trees and underwood occupy +80%, and of Dalmatia, where underwood occupies 92.6% of the +whole forest land. The Alpine region is well wooded, and amongst +the other provinces Bukovina is the most densely wooded, having +43.2% of its area under forests, while Galicia with 25.9% is the +most thinly-wooded crown-land of Austria. The forests are chiefly +composed of oak, pine, beech, ash, elm, and the like, and constitute +one of the great sources of wealth of the country. Forestry is +carried on in a thoroughly scientific manner. Large works of +afforestation have been undertaken in Carinthia, Carniola and Tirol +with a view of checking the periodical inundations, while similar +works have been successfully carried out in the Karst region.</p> + +<p><i>Landed Property.</i>—Of the whole territory of the state, 74,102,001 +acres, about 29%, is appropriated to large landed estates; 71% is +disposed of in medium and smaller properties. Large landed property +is most strongly represented in Bukovina, where it absorbs 46% of +the whole territory, and in Salzburg, Galicia, Silesia and Bohemia. +To the state belongs 4½% of the total territory. The Church, the +communities, and the corporations are also in possession of large +areas of land; 4% (speaking roundly) of the territory of Austria +is held on the tenure of <i>fidei-commissum</i>. Of the entire property in +large landed estates, 59% is laid out in woods; of the property in +<i>fidei-commissum</i>, 66% is woodland; of the entire forest land, about +10% is the property of the state; 14.5% is communal property; +and 3.8% is the property of the Church. The whole of the territory +in large landed estates includes 52% of the entire forest land. The +forest land held under <i>fidei-commissum</i> amounts to over 9% of the +entire forest land.</p> + +<p><i>Live Stock.</i>—Although richly endowed by nature, Austria cannot +be said to be remarkable as a cattle-rearing country. Indeed, except +in certain districts of the Alpine region, where this branch of human +activity is carried on under excellent conditions, there is much room +for improvement. The amount of live stock is registered every ten +years along with the census of the population.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1880.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Horses</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,463,282</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,548,197</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,711,077</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mules and asses</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,618</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,952</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,638</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cattle</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,584,077</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,643,936</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,506,626</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Goats</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,006,675</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,035,832</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,015,682</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sheep</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,841,340</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,186,787</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,621,026</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pigs</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,721,541</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,549,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,682,734</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Beehives</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">926,312</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">920,640</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">996,139</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Austria is distinguished for the number and superiority of its +horses, for the improvements of which numerous studs exist all over +the country. All kinds of horses are represented from the heaviest +to the lightest, from the largest to the smallest. The most beautiful +horses are found in Bukovina, the largest and strongest in Salzburg; +those of Styria, Carinthia, Northern Tirol and Upper Austria are +also famous. In Dalmatia, the Küstenland and Southern Tirol, +horses are less numerous, and mules and asses in a great measure +take their place. The finest cattle are to be found in the Alpine +region; of the Austrian provinces, Salzburg and Upper Austria +contain the largest proportion of cattle. The number of sheep has +greatly diminished, but much has been done in the way of improving +the breeds, more particularly in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and +Upper and Lower Austria. The main object has been the improvement +of the wool, and with this object the merino and other fine-woolled +breeds have been introduced. Goats abound mostly in +Dalmatia, Bohemia and Tirol. The rearing of pigs is carried on +most largely in Styria, Bohemia, Galicia and Upper and Lower +Austria. Bees are extensively kept in Carinthia, Carniola, Lower +Austria and Galicia. The silk-worm is reared more particularly in +Southern Tirol and in the Küstenland, and the average annual yield +is 5,000,000 ℔ of cocoons. In the Alpine region dairy-farming has +attained a great degree of development, and large quantities of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page974" id="page974"></a>974</span> +butter and cheese are annually produced. Altogether, the rearing of +cattle, with all its actual shortcomings, constitutes a great source of +revenue, and yields a certain amount for export.</p> + +<p><i>Fisheries</i>.—The fisheries of Austria are very extensive, and are +divided into river, lake and sea fisheries. The numerous rivers of +Austria swarm with a great variety of fishes. The lake fisheries are +mostly pursued in Bohemia, where pisciculture is an art of old standing, +and largely developed. The sea fisheries on the coast of Dalmatia +and of the Küstenland constitute an important source of +wealth to the inhabitants of these provinces. About 4000 vessels, +with a number of over 16,000 fishermen are employed, and the +average annual catch realizes £240,000.</p> + +<p>In the mountainous regions of Austria game is plentiful, and +constitutes a large source of income.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals</i>.—In the extent and variety of its mineral resources +Austria ranks among the first countries of Europe. With the exception +of platinum, it possesses every useful metal; thus, besides +the noble metals, gold and silver, it abounds in ores of more or less +richness in iron, copper, lead and tin. Rich deposits of coal, both +pit coal and brown coal are to be found, as well as extensive basins +of petroleum, and large deposits of salt. In smaller quantities are +found zinc, antimony, arsenic, cobalt, nickel, manganese, bismuth, +chromium, uranium, tellurium, sulphur, graphite and asphalt. +There are also marble, roofing-slate, gypsum, porcelain-earth, +potter’s clay, and precious stones. It is therefore natural that +mining operations should have been carried out in Austria from the +earliest times, as, for instance, the salt mines of Hallstatt in Upper +Austria, which had already been worked during the Celtic and +Romanic period. Famous through the middle ages were also the +works, especially for the extraction of gold and silver, carried out +in Bohemia and Moravia, whose early mining regulations, for instance +those of Iglau, were adopted in other countries. But the great +industrial development of the 19th century, with its growing necessity +for fuel, has brought about the exploitation of the rich coal-fields +of the country, and to-day the coal mines yield the heaviest output +of any mineral products. To instance the rapid growth in the extraction +of coal, it is worth mentioning that in 1825 its output was +about 150,000 tons; in 1875, or only after half a century, the output +has become 100 times greater, namely, over 15,000,000 tons; while +in 1900 it was 32,500,000 tons. Coal is found in nearly every province +of Austria, with the exception of Salzburg and Bukovina, but the +richest coal-fields are in Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia and +Carniola in the order named. Iron ores are found more or less in +all the crown-lands except Upper Austria, the Küstenland and +Dalmatia, but it is most plentiful in Styria, Carinthia, Bohemia +and Moravia. Gold and silver ores are found in Bohemia, Salzburg +and Tirol. Quicksilver is found at Idria in Carniola, which after +Almaden in Spain is the richest mine in Europe. Lead is extracted +in Carinthia and Bohemia, while the only mines for tin in the whole +of Austria are in Bohemia. Zinc is mostly found in Galicia, Tirol +and Bohemia, and copper is extracted in Tirol, Moravia and Salzburg. +Petroleum is found in Galicia, where ozocerite is also raised. Rock-salt +is extracted in Galicia, while brine-salt is produced in Salzburg, +Salzkammergut and Tirol. Graphite is extracted in Bohemia, +Moravia, Styria and Lower Austria. Uranium, bismuth and antimony +are dug out in Bohemia, while procelain earth is found in +Bohemia and Moravia. White, red, black and variously-coloured +marbles exist in the Alps, particularly in Tirol and Salzburg; quartz, +felspar, heavy spar, rock-crystal, and asbestos are found in various +parts; and among precious stones may be specially mentioned the +Bohemian garnets. The total value of the mines and foundry +products throughout Austria in 1875 was £5,000,000. The number +of persons employed in the mines and in the smelting and casting +works in the same year was 94,019. The total value of the mining +products throughout Austria in 1902 was £10,500,000, and the value +of the product of the foundries was £3,795,000. Of this amount +£3,150,000 represents the value of the iron: raw steel and pig iron. +The increase in the value of the mining products during the period +1892-1902 was 40%; and the increase in the product of the furnaces +in the same period was 35%. The number of persons employed in +1902 in mining was 140,890; in smelting works 7148; and in the +extraction of salt, 7963. The value of the chief mining products of +Austria in 1903 was: Brown coal (21,808,583 tons), £4,182,516; +coal (12,145,000 tons), £4,059,807; iron ores (1,688,960 tons), +£615,273; lead ores, £135,965; silver ores, £119,637; quicksilver +ores, £92,049; graphite, £78,437; tin ores, £78,275; copper ores, +£22,119; manganese ores, £5368; gold ores, £4407; asphalt, £2250; +alum and vitriol slate, £992. The production of petroleum was +660,000 tons, and of salt 340,000 tons. The value of the principal +products of the smelting furnaces in 1903 was: Iron (955,543 tons), +£2,970,866; coke, £862,137; zinc (metallic), £174,344; silver, +£141,594; copper, £57,542; sulphuric acid, £8488; copper vitriol, +£5710; mineral colours, £5565; lead, £5067; tin, £4566; gold, +£878; iron vitriol, £603; litharge, £384; quicksilver, £218; coal +briquettes, £92,000.</p> + +<p><i>Industry</i>.—The manufactures of Austria were much developed +during the last quarter of the 19th century, although Austria as a +whole cannot be said to be an industrial country. Austria possesses +many favourable conditions for a great industrial activity. It +possesses an abundance of raw materials, of fuel—both mineral and +wood,—of metals and minerals, in fact all the necessaries for a great +and nourishing industry; and the rivers can easily be utilized as +producers of motive power. It is besides densely populated, and +has an adequate supply of cheap labour, while the undeveloped +industries of the Balkan states also offer a ready market for its products. +The glass manufacture in Bohemia is very old, and has kept +up its leading position in the markets of the world up to the present +day. Industrial activity is greatly developed in Bohemia, Lower +Austria, Silesia, Moravia and Vorarlberg, while in Dalmatia and +Bukovina it is almost non-existent. The principal branches of +manufactures are, the textile industry, the metallurgic industries; +brewing and distilling; leather, paper and sugar; glass, porcelain +and earthenware; chemicals; and scientific and musical instruments.</p> + +<p>The textile industry in all its branches—cotton, woollen, linen, +silk, flax and hemp—is mostly concentrated in Bohemia, Moravia, +Silesia and Lower Austria. It is an old industry, and one which +has made great progress since 1875. Thus the number of mechanical +looms increased more than threefold during this period, and numbered +in 1902 about 120,000. In the same year the number of spindles at +work was about 3,100,000. Austria had in 1902, 21,837 textile +factories with 337,514 workmen. The principal seat of the manufacture +of cotton goods is in northern Bohemia, from the Eger to +Reichenberg, which can be considered as the Lancashire of Austria, +Lower Austria between the Wiener Wald and the Leitha, and in +Vorarlberg. Woollen goods are manufactured in the above places, +and besides in Moravia, at Brünn and at Iglau; in Silesia; and at +Biala in Galicia. Vienna is also distinguished for its manufacture +of shawls. The coarser kind of woollen goods are manufactured +all over the country, principally in the people’s houses as a home +industry. The most important places for the linen industry are in +Bohemia at Trautenau; in Moravia and Silesia, while the commoner +kinds of linen are mostly produced as a home industry by the +peasants in the above-mentioned crown-lands. The manufacture of +ribbons, embroidery and lace, the two latter being carried on principally +as a house industry in Vorarlberg and in the Bohemian Erzgebirge, +also thrives. The industry in stitched stuffs is especially +developed in northern Bohemia. Ready-made men’s clothes and +oriental caps (fezes) are produced on a large scale in Bohemia and +Moravia. The manufacture of silk goods is mainly carried on in +Vienna, while the spinning of silk has its principal seat in southern +Tirol, and to a smaller extent in the Küstenland.</p> + +<p>The metallurgic industry forms one of the most important branches +of industry, because iron ore of excellent quality is extracted annually +in great quantities. The principal seats of the iron and steel manufactures +are in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Upper and Lower Austria, +Styria and Carinthia, which contain extensive iron-works. The +most important manufactured products are cutlery, firearms, files, +wire, nails, tin-plates, scythes, sickles, steel pens, needles, rails, iron +furniture, drains, and kitchen utensils. A famous place for its iron +manufacture is Steyr in Upper Austria. The manufacture of +machinery, for industrial and agricultural purposes, and of railway +engines is mainly concentrated in Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, Prague, +Brünn and Trieste; while the production of rolling stock for railways +is carried on in Vienna, Prague and Graz. Ship-building yards for +sea-vessels are at Trieste and Pola; while for river-vessels the largest +yards are at Linz. Among other metal manufactures, the principal +are copper works at Brixlegg and other places in Tirol, and in +Galicia, tin and lead in Bohemia, and metallic alloys, especially +<i>Packfong</i> or German silver, an alloy of nickel and copper, at Berndorf +in Lower Austria. The precious metals, gold and silver, are principally +worked in the larger towns, particularly at Vienna and Prague. +Vienna is also the principal seat for scientific and surgical instruments. +In the manufacture of musical instruments Austria takes a leading +part amongst European states, the principal places of production +being Vienna, Prague, Königgrätz, Graslitz and Schönbach.</p> + +<p>The glass manufacture is one of the oldest industries in Austria, +and is mainly concentrated in Bohemia. Its products are of the +best quality, and rule the markets of the world. In the manufacture +of earthenwares Austria plays also a leading part, and the porcelain +industry round Carlsbad and in the Eger district in Bohemia has a +world-wide reputation. The leather industry is widely extended, +and is principally carried on in Lower Austria, Bohemia and Moravia. +Vienna and Prague are great centres for the boot and shoe trade, +and the gloves manufactured in these towns enjoy a great reputation. +The manufacture of wooden articles is widespread over the country, +and is very varied. In Vienna and other large towns the production +of ornamental furniture has attained a great development. The +industry in paper has also assumed great proportions, its principal +seats being in Bohemia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria. Of +food-stuffs, besides milling, and other flour products, the principal +industry is the manufacture of sugar from beet-root. The sugar industry +is almost exclusively carried on in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia +and Galicia. It has attained such large proportions that large +districts in those provinces have been converted from wheat-growing +districts into fields for the cultivation of beet-root. Brewing is extensively +carried on, and the beer produced is of a good quality. +The largest brewing establishment is at Schwechat near Vienna, +and large breweries are also found at Pilsen and Budweiss in Bohemia, +whose products enjoy a great reputation abroad. There were in +Austria 1341 breweries, which produced 422,993,120 gallons of beer. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page975" id="page975"></a>975</span> +in 1902-1903. Distilling is carried on on a large scale in Galicia, +Bukovina, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria; the number of +distilleries being 1257, which produced 30,435,812 gallons of spirit. +Rosoglio, maraschino, and other liqueurs are made in Dalmatia and +Moravia. The manufacture as well as the growth of tobacco is a +government monopoly, which has 30 tobacco factories with over +40,000 work-people, the largest establishment being at Hainburg in +Lower Austria. Other important branches of industry are the +manufacture of chemicals, in Vienna and in Bohemia; petroleum +refineries in Galicia, and the extraction of various petroleum products; +the manufacture of buttons; printing, lithographing, engraving, and +map-making, especially in Vienna, &c.</p> + +<p>In 1900 the various manufacturing industries employed in Austria +3,138,800 persons, of whom 2,264,871 were workmen and 103,854 +were labourers. Including families and domestic servants, a little +over 7,000,000 were dependent on industry for their livelihood.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce</i>.—Austria forms together with Hungary one customs +and commercial territory, and the statistics for the foreign trade are +given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>. Owing to its situation, the bulk +of the Austrian trade is carried on the railways and on the inland +navigable rivers. Only a small portion is sea-borne trade, while the +commercial interchange between the provinces lying on the Adriatic +coast is very small.</p> + +<p><i>Commercial Navy</i>.—The commercial sea navy of Austria, excluding +small coasting vessels and fishing-boats, consisted in 1900 of 154 +vessels, with a tonnage of 198,322 tons, of which 123 vessels with a +tonnage of 183,949 were steamers. The greatest navigation company +is the Austrian Lloyd in Trieste, which in 1900 employed 70 steamers +of 165,430 tons. During 1900 the total tonnage of vessels engaged +in the foreign trade, which entered all the Austrian ports, was +1,448,764 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and 888,707 under +foreign flags; the total tonnage of vessels cleared during the same +period was 1,503,532 tons under the Austro-Hungarian flag, and +866,591 under foreign flags.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government</i>.—Austria is a parliamentary or constitutional +(limited) monarchy, its monarch bearing the title of emperor. +The succession to the throne is hereditary, in the order of primogeniture, +in the male line of the house of Habsburg-Lothringen; +and failing this, in the female line. The monarch must be a +member of the Roman Catholic Church. The emperor of Austria +is also king of Hungary, but except for having the same monarch +and a few common affairs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span>), the two +states are quite independent of one another. The emperor +has the supreme command over the armed forces of the country, +has the right to confer degrees of nobility, and has the prerogatives +of pardon for criminals. He is the head of the executive +power, and shares the legislative power with the Reichsrat; +and justice is administered in his name. The constitution of +Austria is based upon the following statutes:—(1) the Pragmatic +Sanction of the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the +19th of April 1713, which regulated the succession to the throne; +(2) the Pragmatic Patent of the emperor Francis II. of the +1st of August 1804, by which he took the title of Emperor of +Austria; (3) the Diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. +of the 20th of October 1860, by which the constitutional form +of government was introduced; (4) the Diploma of the emperor +Francis Joseph I. of the 26th of February 1861, by which the +provincial diets were created; (5) the six fundamental laws +of the 21st of December 1867, which contain the exposition +and guarantee of the civil and political rights of the citizen, the +organization of justice, the organization and method of election +for the Reichsrat, &c.</p> + +<p>The executive power is vested in the council of ministers, +at whose head is the minister-president. There are eight +ministries, namely, the ministry of the interior, of national defence, +of worship and instruction, of finance, of commerce, of agriculture, +of justice, and of railways. There are, further, two ministries, +without portfolio, for Galicia and Bohemia. The civil administration +in the different provinces is carried out by governors or +stadtholders (<i>Statthalter</i>), to whom are subordinate the heads +of the 347 districts in which Austria was divided in 1900, and +of the 33 towns with special statute, <i>i.e</i>. of the towns which have +also the management of the civil administration. Local self-government +of the provinces, districts and communities is +also granted, and is exercised by various elective bodies. Thus, +the autonomous provincial administration is discharged by the +provincial committees elected by the local diets; and the affairs of +the communities are discharged by an elected communal council.</p> + +<p>The legislative power for all the kingdoms and lands which +constitute Austria is vested in the Reichsrat. It consists of +two Houses: an Upper House (the <i>Herrenhaus</i>), and a Lower +House (the <i>Abgeordnetenhaus</i>). The Upper House is composed +of (1) princes of the imperial house, who are of age (14 in 1907); +(2) of the members of the large landed nobility, to which the +emperor had conferred this right, and which is hereditary in +their family (78 in 1907); (3) of 9 archbishops and 8 prince-bishops; +and (4) of life members nominated by the emperor for +distinguished services (170 in 1907). The Lower House has +undergone considerable changes since its creation in 1861, by +the various modifications of the electoral laws passed in 1867, +1873, 1892, 1896 and 1907. The general spirit of those modifications +was to broaden the electoral basis, and to extend the +franchise to a larger number of citizens. The law of the 26th of +January 1907 granted universal franchise to Austrian male citizens +over twenty-four years of age, who have resided for a year in the +place of election. The Lower House consists of 516 members, +elected for a period of six years. The members receive payment +for their services, as well as an indemnity for travelling expenses. +A bill to become law must pass through both Houses, and must +receive the sanction of the emperor. The emperor is bound to +summon the Reichsrat annually.</p> + +<p>According to the imperial Diploma of the 26th February +1861, local diets have been created for the legislation of matters +of local interest. These provincial parliaments are 17 in number, +and their membership varies from 22 members, which compose +the diet of Görz and Gradisca to the 242 members which constitute +that of Bohemia. They assemble annually and are composed +of members elected for a period of six years, and of members +<i>ex-officio</i>, namely, the archbishops and bishops of the respective +provinces, and the rector of the local university.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Religion</i>.—Religious toleration was secured throughout the +Habsburg dominions by the patent of the 13th of October 1781, but +Protestants were not given full civil rights until the issue of the +<i>Protestantenpatent</i> of the 8th of April 1861, after the promulgation of +the imperial constitution of the 26th of February. The principle +underlying this and all subsequent acts is the guarantee to all +religious bodies <i>recognized by law</i> of freedom of worship, the management +of their own affairs, and the undisturbed possession and disposal +of their property. Though all the churches are, in a sense, “established,” +the Roman Catholic Church, to which the sovereign must +belong, is the state religion. The reigning house, however, though +strongly attached to the Roman faith, has always resisted the +extreme claims of the papacy, an attitude which in Joseph II.’s time +resulted, under the influence of Febronianism (<i>q.v</i>.), in what was +practically a national schism. Thus the emperor retains the right +to tax church property, to nominate bishops, and to prohibit the +circulation of papal bulls without his permission. By the concordat +of August 18, 1855, this traditional attitude was to some extent +reversed; but this agreement soon became a dead letter and was +formally denounced by the Austrian government after the promulgation +of the dogma of papal infallibility.</p> + +<p>Of the population of Austria in 1900, 23,796,814 (91%) were +Roman Catholics, including 3,134,439 uniate Greeks and 2096 uniate +Armenians. There were 12,937 Old Catholics, in scattered communities, +606,764 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church, mainly +in Bukovina and Dalmatia, and 698 Armenians, also mainly in +Bukovina. The Protestants, who in the 16th century comprised +90% of the population, are now only 1.9%. In 1900, 365,505 of them +were returned as belonging to the Augsburg Confession (Lutheran), +128,557 to the Helvetic (Reformed). Other Christian Confessions +in Austria are Herrnhuters (Moravian Brethren) in Bohemia, +Mennonites in Galicia, Lippovanians (akin to the Russian Skoptsi) +in Bukovina, and Anglicans. The Jews compose 4.7% of the +population, and are strongest in Galicia, Lower Austria, Bohemia, +Moravia and Bukovina. The Roman Catholic Church is divided +into eight provinces, seven of the Latin rite—Vienna, Prague, +Lemberg, Salzburg, Olmütz, Görz and Zara—with 23 bishoprics, and +one of the Greek rite (Lemberg), with two bishoprics. The Armenian +bishopric of Lemberg and the Austrian part of the archdiocese of +Breslau are under the immediate jurisdiction of the Holy See. The +Greek Orthodox Church has one archbishopric (at Czernowitz) and +two bishoprics. There are 559 communities of the Jewish religion +(253 in Galicia, and 255 in Bohemia). In 1900 there were, belonging +to the Roman Catholic Church, 541 monasteries with 7775 monks, +and 877 convents with 19,194 nuns; while the Greek Orthodox +Church had 14 monasteries with 85 members. The Evangelical +Church, according to the constitution granted by imperial decree +on the 9th of April 1861 (modified by those of January 6, 1866 +and December 9, 1891) is organized on a territorial basis, being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page976" id="page976"></a>976</span> +administered by 10 superintendents, who are, in their turn, subject +to the Supreme Church Council (<i>K.K. Oberkirchenrat</i>) at Vienna, +the emperor as sovereign being technically head of the Church. +The small Anglican community at Trieste is under the jurisdiction +of the Evangelical superintendent of Vienna.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—The system of elementary schools dates from the time +of Maria Theresa; the present organization was introduced by the +education law of May 14, 1869 (amended in 1883). By this law +the control of the schools, hitherto in the hands of the Church, was +assumed by the state, every local community being bound to erect +and maintain public elementary schools. These are divided into +<i>Volksschulen</i> (national or primary schools) and <i>Bürgerschulen</i> (higher +elementary schools). Attendance is obligatory on all from the age of +six to fourteen (in some provinces six to twelve). Religious instruction +is given by the parish priest, but in large schools a special grant +is made or a teacher <i>ad hoc</i> appointed in the higher classes (law of +June 17, 1888). Private schools are also allowed which, if fulfilling +the legal requirements, may be accorded the validity of public +primary schools. The language of instruction is that of the nationality +prevalent in the district. In about 40% of the schools the +instruction is given in German; in 26% in Czech; in 28% in other +Slavonic languages, and in the remainder in Italian, Rumanian or +Magyar. In 1903 there were in Austria 20,268 elementary schools +with 78,025 teachers, frequented by 3,618,837 pupils, which compares +favourably with the figures of the year 1875, when there were +14,257 elementary schools with 27,677 teachers, frequented by +2,050,808 pupils. About 88% of the children who are of school age +actually attend school, but in some provinces like Upper Austria and +Salzburg nearly the full 100 attend, while in the eastern parts of the +monarchy the percentage is much lower. In 1900 62% of the total +population of Austria could read and write, and 2.9% could only +read. In the number of illiterates are included children under seven +years of age. For the training of teachers of elementary schools +there were in 1900 54 institutions for masters and 38 for mistresses. +In these training colleges, as also in the secondary or “middle” +schools (<i>Mittelschulen</i>), religious instruction is also in the hands of +the Roman Catholic Church; but, by the law of June 20, 1870, +the state must provide for such teaching in the event of the Protestant +pupils numbering 20 or upwards (the school authorities usually +refuse to take more than 19 Protestants in consequence).</p> + +<p>Besides the elementary schools three other groups of educational +establishments exist in Austria: “middle” schools (<i>Mittelschulen</i>); +“high” schools (<i>Hochschulen</i>); professional and technical schools +(<i>Fachlehranstalten</i> and <i>Gewerbeschulen</i>). The “middle” schools +include the classical schools (<i>Gymnasien</i>), “modern” schools with +some Latin teaching (<i>Realgymnasien</i>), and modern schools simply +(Realschulen)—In 1903 there were 202 <i>Gymnasien</i>, 19 <i>Realgymnasien</i> +and 117 <i>Realschulen</i>, with 7121 teachers and 111,012 scholars. The +“high” schools include the universities and the technical high +schools (<i>Technische Hochschulen</i>). Of state universities there +are eight:—Vienna, Gratz, Innsbruck, Prague (German), and +Czernowitz, in which German is the language of instruction; Prague +(Bohemian) with Czech; and Cracow and Lemberg with Polish as +the language of instruction. Each university has four faculties—theology, +law and political science, medicine, and philosophy. In +Czernowitz, however, the faculty of medicine is wanting. Since +1905 an Italian faculty of law has been added to the university of +Innsbruck. The theological faculties are all Roman Catholic, except +Czernowitz, where the theological faculty is Orthodox Eastern. +All the universities are maintained by the state. The number +of professors and lecturers was about 1596 in 1903; while the +number of students was 17,498.</p> + +<p><i>Justice</i>.—The judicial authorities in Austria are:—(1) the county +courts, 963 in number; (2) the provincial and district courts, +74 in number, to which are attached the jury courts,—both these +courts are courts of first instance; (3) the higher provincial +courts, 9 in number, namely, at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbruck, +Zara, Prague, Brünn Cracow and Lemberg; these are the cours +of appeal from the lower courts, and have the supervision of the +criminal courts in their jurisdiction; (4) the supreme court of +justice and court of cassation in Vienna. The judicial organization +is independent of the executive power. There are also special courts +for commercial, industrial, shipping, military and other matters. +There is also the court of the Empire at Vienna, which has the power +to decide in case of conflict between different authorities.</p> + +<p><i>Finance</i>.—The growth of the Austrian budget, is shown by the +following figures:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1885</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Expenditure</td> <td class="tcc rb">£44,121,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">£55,396,916</td> <td class="tcc rb">£66,003,494</td> <td class="tcc rb">£74,013,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Revenue</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£43,714,666</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£57,446,091</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£66,020,475</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">£74,079,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The chief sources of revenue are direct taxes, indirect taxes, +customs duties, post and telegraph and post-office savings banks +receipts, railway receipts, and profits or royalties on forests, domains +and mining. The direct taxes are divided into two groups, real and +personal; the former include the land tax and house-rent tax, and +the latter the personal income tax, tax on salaries, tax on commercial +and industrial establishments, tax on all business with properly +audited accounts (like the limited liability companies), and tax on +investments. The principal indirect taxes are the tobacco monopoly, +stamps and fees, excise duties on sugar, alcohol and beer, the salt +monopoly, excise duty on mineral oil, and excise duty on meat and +cattle for slaughtering.</p> + +<p>The national debt of Austria is divided into two groups, a general +national debt, incurred jointly by the two halves of the Austro-Hungarian +monarchy for common affairs, and is therefore jointly +borne by both parts, and a separate debt owed only by Austria alone. +The following table shows the growth of the Austrian debt in millions +sterling:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">1885</td> <td class="tcc allb">1890</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895</td> <td class="tcc allb">1900</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">45.</td> <td class="tcc allb">88.23</td> <td class="tcc allb">119.60</td> <td class="tcc allb">140.68</td> <td class="tcc allb">167.91</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>At the close of 1903 the debt of Austria was £156,724,000, an +increase since 1900 of £16,044,000. This large increase is due to the +great expenditure on public works, as railways, navigable canals, +harbour works, &c., started by the Austrian government since 1900.</p> + +<p><i>Railways</i>.—As regards internal communications, Austria is +provided with an extensive network of railways, the industrial +provinces being specially favoured. This has been accomplished in +spite of the engineering difficulties owing to the mountainous nature +of the country and of the great financial expenses resulting therefrom. +The construction of the Semmering railway, opened in 1854, +for instance, was the first mountain railway built in the European +continent, and marked an epoch in railway engineering. The first +railway laid down in Austria was in 1824 between Budweis and +Kerschbaum, over a distance of 40 m., and was at first used for horse +tramway. The first steam railway was opened in 1837 over a distance +of about 10 m. between Floridsdorf (near Vienna) and Wagram. +From the first, the policy of the Austrian government was to construct +and to work the railways itself; and in granting concessions +to private companies it stipulated among its conditions the reversionary +right of the state, whereby the line becomes the property of +the state without compensation after the lapse of the period of +concession. With various modifications, according to its financial +means, it vigorously pursued its policy, by both building railways +itself, and encouraging private companies to build. In 1905 the +total length of railways in Austria was 13,590 m., of which 5017 m. +belonged to and were worked by the state, and 3359 m. belonged to +private companies, but were worked by the state.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—F. Umlauft, <i>Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns in +Wort und Bild</i> (15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), <i>Die österreichisch-ungarische +Monarchic</i> (3rd ed., Vienna, 1896), <i>Die österreichische +Monarchic in Wort und Bild</i> (24 vols., Vienna, 1888-1902), and <i>Die +Volker Österreich-Ungarns</i> (12 vols., Teschen, 1881-1885); A. Supan, +“Österreich-Ungarn” (Vienna, 1889, in Kirchhoff’s <i>Länderkunde +von Europa</i>, vol. ii.); Auerbach, <i>Les Races et les nationalitiés en +Autriche-Hongrie</i> (Paris, 1897); Mayerhofer, <i>Österreich-ungarisches +Ortslexikon</i> (Vienna, 1896). For geology see C. Diener, &c., <i>Ban und +Bild Österreichs</i> (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903); F. von Hauer, <i>Die +Geologie</i> (Vienna). The official statistical publications of the central +statistical department, of the ministry of agriculture, and of the +ministry of commerce, appearing annually.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The census returns of 1857, and of 1869, which were the first +systematic censuses taken, gave the population of Austria as +18,224,500 and 20,394,980 respectively. It must be noticed that +between these two dates Austria lost its Lombardo-Venetian territories, +with a population of about 5,000,000 inhabitants.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOLUME 2 SL 8 *** + +***** This file should be named 34312-h.htm or 34312-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/3/1/34312/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/34312-h/images/img855.jpg b/34312-h/images/img855.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ccf5de --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img855.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img863.jpg b/34312-h/images/img863.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e9d13a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img863.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img871.jpg b/34312-h/images/img871.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f59e0e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img871.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img871a.jpg b/34312-h/images/img871a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2a642a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img871a.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img901.jpg b/34312-h/images/img901.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7b567ec --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img901.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img918.jpg b/34312-h/images/img918.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..839578a --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img918.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img919a.jpg b/34312-h/images/img919a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cf1b6c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img919a.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img919b.jpg b/34312-h/images/img919b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..84144f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img919b.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img919c.jpg b/34312-h/images/img919c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6c17c44 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img919c.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img919d.jpg b/34312-h/images/img919d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f2cf2c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img919d.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img920a.jpg b/34312-h/images/img920a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1034c75 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img920a.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img920b.jpg b/34312-h/images/img920b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b8fcb73 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img920b.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img928.jpg b/34312-h/images/img928.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7e5640d --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img928.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img928a.jpg b/34312-h/images/img928a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5d8f8d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img928a.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img928b.jpg b/34312-h/images/img928b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a186819 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img928b.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img928c.jpg b/34312-h/images/img928c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d0bc8d --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img928c.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img928d.jpg b/34312-h/images/img928d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8965b76 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img928d.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img928e.jpg b/34312-h/images/img928e.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ab191e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img928e.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img937.jpg b/34312-h/images/img937.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..19e0650 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img937.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img944.jpg b/34312-h/images/img944.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f5e60db --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img944.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img960a.jpg b/34312-h/images/img960a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d3c3c5 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img960a.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img960b.jpg b/34312-h/images/img960b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e48a871 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img960b.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img960c.jpg b/34312-h/images/img960c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b4b9fe --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img960c.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img960d.jpg b/34312-h/images/img960d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f292f75 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img960d.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img971.jpg b/34312-h/images/img971.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c30c981 --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img971.jpg diff --git a/34312-h/images/img972.jpg b/34312-h/images/img972.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ff8e33d --- /dev/null +++ b/34312-h/images/img972.jpg |
